“AMERICAN NATURAL ee ILLUSTRATED MAGAZINE > = NattUrRay History es ae EDITED BY oe = EDWARD D. COPE AND s Copyright, 1887, by E. D. Core. t SN SCOT s IF s at Va IS TEREOTYPERSANDPRINTERS| A yi JAE LOONA O] CONTENTS: er Bacteria and their Relation to nag Se wee Theobald Smith . ... 1 Popul rd to r Errors in regar the Eskimos. . Fohn Murdoch .... 9 ke Senie. of Sex. [Ilustrated.] ek Ree es Julius Nelson . 16, 138, 219 oe ion of a New Species of Dipodomys, with e Account of its Habits. [Tllustrated.] . sh Sphens ET 42 History of Garden Vegetables 275 i Ar ee Te, £. Lewis Sturtevant 49, 125, 321, 433, 520, 701, $26, 993; 975 More about the Sw Honen o e ae a S. Lockwoo The Taconic Question Restated sil E a T. Sterry ini 114, 238, aie Toe Bast Greeslanders (i woes jacks ao ecw a Fohn Mur 133 The Massasauga and its Habits. ........., Q; P; H she Nien Vey 211 Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coas G F. Writ (os es: 250 Notes on the Life-History of fr Fase ss pap the est. Indian Seal... [IHnstrated. h i oni bbe Ward gaiso T ` On Oviposition and Nursin ng in the Batrachian Genus Dendrobates. FINushniea f: a Ea wee ats Herbert H. Smith . . . 307 Metschnikoff on Germ-Layers. [Illustrated.] . . . Æ. V. Wilson... 334419 The Origin of a Small Race of Turke Res erne ss Fohn Dean Caton å Sonnets: Cactus—-Parnassia . <. e 4 + ee e la Emily Shaw Forman. . 354 The Present Condition of the Natural Sciences in CE e ey ane Fe ah WS ag ele ray oe Filop Trybom: y a as 409 aa aSa a P latipes) vie eae! sie S F. McNair Wright. . . 415 The Mesozoic and pages! Realms of the Interior Me ett ADEA r ooa ey ie ee s Edward D. Cope. . . . 445 Araujia albens a Moth Trap. FS sic tae ak a . Stearns . . 501 Biological sorbate hey. in Univers rer et ante lar end Charles pe Whitman . 507 Review of the fin ae of North mialas Palæon- toloey or he Ye IS. n. o n aea hua heen rig Marcou . 532 The Dipnoan aa [Illustrated. Fg ee a 544 Se ae ee a ween eh Pua fee The Mikve Sigrit ia ak Cmte ig e os Joseph F. Fames. . . . 605 Methods of Instruction in General Geology . - -010 The Range -18 bn tion of h Human Shoulder- ? Blade. [Illustrated]. . o eei a e e Thomas Dwight . . . . 627 Incised tid Boulders i in the Upper Minnesota Valley. [Il- MN a a NS Leons: oe 639 Notes on the Ethnology of the Congo. oo a. Walter Tough sig ee a A 689 Notes o n Classification and Nomenclature for the 1 Geological See ; Gaon We eC ee N. H. Winchell . . . . 693 Conventional i in Ancient American Art. [IHus- PEOL S Sg a T aa Y S. Kingsley. . + 13 Comparative e Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants. 3 Me Lo : ae Ae =e St ee ee ae Helen C. ` De S. Abbett 19, B00 cau ess Romina _Littustrated.) liao Ey R.C.A - 730, 885, 1076 Scientife F Fact and Scientific Inference... .. M. W. so Pa oie Instructi in Geological Investigation. [Mustrated.] William Morris Davis . ‘810 a The Stoay ofa ‘and Isol ated Community in the a) e he ee AID a Oe T. Wesley Mills : . . . 875 iv 3 Contents. Remarks on Classification OF Vertebrata > a, Burt G. Wilder ies K Sand Boulders in the Drift, or Subaqueous O of the Drift, in Central Missouri. Ecce 1: TIP. Dn Materials of the Appalachians. _ [Illus ted jon Si W. Claypole . -955 154 The Progress of Arachnology in Prais heap ete Lucien M. Underwood . 963 The Perissodactyla. [Illustrated] ........ E: D COPE. ee a 1060 How the Great Northern Sea-Cow (Rytina) became maceropnated = o irs i. cop Geek Pe ss Leonhard Stejneger . . 1047 mace Hg an Biological Instruction, 59; The American Naturalist, 163; Verte- brass Palæontology of the U. S. Geol. Survey, 164; Use of English Names for Fungi, 264; Importation of Rabbits nie day au 265; Odium Antitheologi- A Universal La i i cum, 356 Universal L RECS t, 463; Unnatural Hi tory, 549; The International Congress oe Geol ts, ; Summer Schools and hme aha 747; The Eers can Association at New York, 833 3 The American Comm of the International Sy ess of Goloni: 835; The Death of Pro-, d — Baird, 836; Ea and Duty, 922; The Relations An Mind, to Matter, 007 ; Whitman’s Journal of Morphelogy, 1 008. RECENT LITERATURE. Ridgway’s Nomenclature of Colors, 166; Vine’s Physiology of Plants, 266; Strasburger and Hillhouse’s Practical Botany, 357; Wortman’s Teeth or Verte- olar an he U. S. i cal Memoirs of the National pE Soi of Science, Vol. IL; 555; Broceetinee of the American ees of Lobe ce 645; Fourth aes of 7. peau of Eth- nology, 646; Beal’s Grasses of Nort eki 647; Dr. Rink’s Paper on the East Greenlanders, 748; Wolle’s Fresh-Water Algæ of the United States, 923; Origin of the North American Flora, 1009; Ri idgway’s Manual of Ornithology, 2; atio am Sixth Annual Sep of the U. S. Geological Survey, 1099; Packard’s Fossil Arthropods; 1100; Thomas on Mammalian Drai. TIOE; Jordan’s Science Sketches, 1103; Pesas Americanæ, I 104. GENERAL NOTES. ee See — Boe! Beye 61; = — of the Mississippi, 61 ; Moeis 62; asus, tralia, 62; Formosa, 62; Borneo, 63; Last German | Ce Expedition, Ka $ Aira Notes, ee ; The Me Glacier, 360; The Germ ait African Association, 361 ; Shania zs Journe ; African Ssa 362; The Britain Group, 364; New Eh 365; neth of ian 558; South American Exploration, 558; Congo Explorations, 559; African Not , 560; Mantchuria ~ and Mongolia, 561; Nias, 561; Afghanistan, 561; Asiatic 1 Notes, 562; Spain, 562; Length of Rivers, 650; Alaskan Mountains and Gla rs, 650; The Makua River, 651; The Saraswati River, 652; Prejevalsky’s Esplorado, 652; Mr. Carey's Journey in Asia, 653; — Rivers, America, Africa, Asia, 650. Geology and Paleontology. ee EN Forms of Cephalopods, 64; New Jersey Cretaceous, 66; Geo Rar News, 68; Notes ng Warping of the Earth’s Crust and m Li à ge the Niagara River, den eect Palseonts ogical Observation ons on the Taconic Limestones H ‘of Columbia i Cos N. Y., 270; xt Porn Boulders of Decomposition in Mis- __ souri, 366; The Dinosaurian Genus Ccelurus, 367 ; Geological News, 369; Ameri- can Trisksic Rhyncocephalia, 468; New Tzniodonta of the Puerco, 469; Hill on Contents. Vv the Cretaceous of Texas, 469; The Se en ee of a Fox Hill Pba e 5035 she Marsupial Genus Chirox ilustrat d], 566; Geological News, 567; he Geology wri eog logy o kuperia Tileswareety 654; Pavlow on athe he Address of Vice-President G. K. Gilbert before Sectio gust 10, 1887, 841; On the ‘Homologies of rages i aos "seit ther Osborn on hite River Mammalia, 924; Marsh on New mil Mammalia, 926; Eas on Creodonta, 927; Zittel’s Manual of Paleontology [Iustated) rot; A jee E Tooth Tiger from the Loup Fork Beds, rorg; Note on the Genus Ath The Sonora Earthquake of May 3, I 188 os 104 ; Crinoid Beds at apika a md Todan, 1106; The Carboniferous Genus Stereosternum, 1109. ian ertia low in Iowa, re On the Morphology and Origin of the Ichthyopterygia, 8373 ; WEA AL ASS: Mineralogy and Petrography.— vag ene News, 70; Mineralogical News, 71; Meteorites, 72; Crystallographic News, 74 TS Massige Gesteine, Fi pe ae Volcanic Bombs, 271; Petrographi ical New: 274, 371; Mineralogical News, 275, 373; C rystallographic News, 374 ý Miscellaasca: 375; Petrographical News, 471; Fulgurites, 472; Mineralogical "News, 472; Chemical Integration, e SS Publications, 571; Petrographical News, 660; Crysta llographic News, 663; Re- lations of Diamonds, 664; Pe etrographical News, 761; Mineralogical News, 763; Crystallographic News, 765; Miscellan » 7665 Petrographical News “ Mineralogical News, 850; Crystallogra hia News, 8523 Miscellaneous, 853; ew Minerals, 1021; Recent Investigations pf American Minerals, 1021 ; O- phical News, 1109; Mineralogical News, 1112. Botany.—Pollen-Tubes of Lobelia Be ag crit 7S; ear Trunk ee its Branches, 76; Article “ Schizomycetes” of Encyclopedia Brit vo y Be cal — 79; Growing Parts of Pinus strobus yralinstcata dj, 178; Simard of Plant Diseases, 276; Vegetable Pathology, rhe Botanical Taki 277; Botanical Manuals for Sidans, 376; Centuries of North American Fungi, 379; omata- Ret, 380; Botanical News, 381; Smut in Oats, pry ipri as Collectors, 476; The Ento- alant as 4773 Laboratory 25 s, 477; Botanical News, 479; A a Soups of Bo- nical s, 572; The Origin of the To sons Bee trated], § ; Experiments an ; The E Bo 769; The Eastward Extension of Pinus pon a, 928; The Westward Extension of the Black Walnut, 929; The Iron-wood ai in the Black Hills, 929; Still another egg Paes 293 Potahy | in the America peer a eit 930; Botanical News, 930; The Genus Geaster [Illustrated], 1026; Character of the Tnjuries produced by Parasitic fingi upon their prea! ah 1114. Entomology.—Preliminary Descriptions of Ten New N. A. Myriapods, 81; Mim- : icry in a Caterpillar, 82; Critical pig on the Literature of the Organ of Smell in Arthropods, 182; Hauser on the Organ of Smell in Insects [illustrated], 279; The Joint-Worm in New oe 381; Relati tions a Borer and Aphids, 382, 579; _ Dipterous Larvz in A Sarre a purpurea, 382; Bacteriological Studies in Arthro- ` pods, 383) Ants id Ultra, Violet Rays, 383; Light Perception Ls Myriapods, 384; The Hessian Fly in England, 384; Function of the Palpi in ap aig and Spiders, _ 384; 34; Necrology, 385; ; a News, 385, 484, 580; On the renga ; a Caddis Fly from the Water, 480; Destruction of the odilia Moth by Arseni- cal | S, 480; Tite Wistar of a Dipterows Parasite of the Silkworm, 482; gree Insects, 579; Exposition of Insects, 580; Singular Adaptati an = Piiiuatraed', 770; 3 New Form of Vial for Alcoh Specim: i + 771; Synopsis of th ee ee apap ca North of u Í for Preserving Larvæ, 772; Observati pope go atc sd), 353; Homologies of re Wing-Veins of Insects, u aoon vane Ameri Pe I Sa Observations vi Contents, ` l ? cause Diseases in Se and Animals, 1029; Lack of Parallelism powers the ee cters of Larve and Adults, 1030; The Colorado Potato-Be etle in Europe, 1030; Recent Publications, 1031; Phengodini, 1118; Senses of aa 1a} 9. Zoology.—The Cave Fauna of North America, with Remarks on the Anat tomy and Origin of Blind Forms, 82; Notes on the Distribution of Shells, 83; The Characteristics and Relations of the Ribbon-Fishes, 86; The Hyoid St ctu er 585, 673, 861, 1034; Birds, 93, 291, 394, 487, 585, 861, Kerk 1034; Mam oe Mimicry in Amphipods 7; Turn nal of Invertebrates, 388 ; Migrations = Frogs, 388 ; Brazilian Reptile 388, Relative Weight of the Brain of Regulus an d Spizella compared to that of Man, 389; Arti- cial Parthenogenesis, 484; Se e gans of Sponges, 485 ; Organ of Smell in ; oo Crepidula, 486; rval Galeodes, 486; Fauna of Liverpool Bay, 581 ; System ic Position of the S 81; Parasitic Sea-Anemones, 582; onotus 583; Anatom scorpions, 583; Description of w Species o - Pig 583; Haeckel’s Rad 668 ; Ctenodrilus , 669; Balanoglossus ; ; the Foot of Nudibranch Molluscs, 670; TWwoOo: Fresh-Water c ; Tropi s clark rn Louisiana, 672; at Lake George, N. Y., 672; Turning ydra inside out,—a Correction, 773; A Re- markable Case of Phosphorescence in an Earth-Worm, 773; Dwi ight” on the Tele- ol o : pe ripa ie to Easten Nebraska Twenty-five 1122; Missouri River Crow- Roosts, 1123; A Mink gnaws Iron Wire, 1124; g ak of Beaufort, N. C., 1125; The Pug-Dog ee Dog, 1125. mbryology. ; Gesta- tion of Armadillos, o 95; Two Forais of Cestoid Embryos rites 195; Development of Scorpions, 201; Polar Globules in rustacea, 203; Haddon’s Embryol of Contents. vii 862; Inversion of the Biene Layers in Hesperomys goer) 863; e genei i in Mammalia, 946; Development of Cæœcilians, 1035; Vestiges a Zonary Decidua in pea Noak 1037; The Rudimentary Pineal Eye in Che- “weg 1126. Anthropology. Py Jade in America, 96 ; Ornaments on Pottery, 97; Head ov gy 98; Love and igre tr Pi = Choo, 99; Quatrefage’s me Men,. 204; Deities of the Nav mei Dr. Boas’s oes 206; Cl ii and Origin of Folk-Lore it rd ong the Navajos, 7843 55 oe Serpent-Mound, 786; Ruine cd Of tc an, 787; Discovery of a ent Tomb near the Holy Seeiso, Terisiiaik, 865. Physiology.—Experiments in Pig Feeding, 396. Psy ro a ee of Space by Disparate Senses, ye Meee Seat < — sciousness, 295; orange ox phe cee of a Rat, 295; Ants and a wers, 296; Sex i a t 399; 1 rtality of the Personal Cons scio pgs Evolution ead Idealism, 594; fathtigence of Echinoderms, 683; Scientific’ Theism, 948 ; On Duration of Memory i seb agape 1038 ; The Theology of Evolution, 1127; An Expression of Animal Sympathy, 1129. Microscopy.—Orienting Objects in Paraffin Saep tarna pe Di gpees = Small Objects for Section-Cutting, 102; Practical Study „207; pg et EEE 297; Ryde r's as ga ‘ert cori e, tuted, 298; Eyes rthropods, 401; O. Schul pore Sirise „Amphibian Tem 5955 : Bas ket for Imbedding [illustrated], cei Felt Tablet for Mounti ting Pete Preparations, 866; The mPa of Chromic Solutions in Animal Tissues by Reoxidation with H,O. ; The Naples - Water-Bath [Illustrated], 951; Microtechnical Notes by Dr. aa Mayer [Illus- ed], 1040; A Method of Photographing Serial Sections, 1 ScieNTIFIC NEWS, 105, 208, 302, 404, 492, 600, 684, 788, 869, 953, 1043, 1132. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES Indiana Academy of Taere, 107, G: Boston Society of Natural History, , 209, 305, n 495, 602, 1138; New York ienas n Sciences, ie 210, 5, 406, 688; Biological Socie ety of Washin "poa, 109, 210, 305, 406, 603, 688, 1138; Appalac chian Mountain Club, 110, 305; Middlesex lie 210, 495, 688; Buffalo Society of Natural Science, 208; Jo ohns s Hopkins University, 209; Kent Scientific Institute of Mii gan, 305; Sedalia Natural History Society, 305; Essex. Institute, 407, f can Committee of the ical ; i ı 407; British p pak reg or the aig rage of Science, 4925 American Associa- ion cem cience, 492, 602, m tion of Staten Island, 603, a, 1137; Sins Sacisky of Natural History THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VOL. ZIT JANUARY, 1887. Mo; T: * PARASITIC BACTERIA AND THEIR RELATION TO SAPROPHYTES.': BY THEOBALD SMITH, pee Basie. whether they be animal or vegetable, have cer- tain characters in common which are due to their relation to their host rather than to their own intrinsic organization. I shall endeavor to point out a few of those which may be ob- served among bacteria parasitic on animals. Since they usually give rise to well-defined diseases, they are also called pathogenic bacteria, or more popularly, disease-germs. Almost all patho- genic forms may be considered true parasites, at the same time all truly parasitic forms have been found pathogenic. There are certain external regions of the animal body quite uniformly the seat of specific bacteria. They are the skin and alimentary canal. Observations have shown that in the different Sections of the digestive tract different bacteria are found. To some of these a digestive function has been attributed, the power of peptonizing albumens, and thus facilitating their absorption. The bacteria inhabiting the mouth are numerous, and some are found quite constantly, such as the well-known Leptothrix buccalis. A microcobe has also been found which some years ago was €rroneously regarded as identical with the cholera bacillus. The mistake was pointed out by demonstrating its inability to grow upon gelatine, which the cholera germ readily does. I have re- peatedly found in my own saliva the same liquefying coccus- oo ae C., December 11, 1886. e R E A 2 Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes. [Jan. greatly preponderating over other species, although months elapsed between consecutive examinations. Such bacteria cannot be considered strictly parasitic. It is true that they have adapted themselves to conditions which are now necessary to the continued existence of many of them, yet, if we draw the line at which saprophytic phenomena end and parasitic begin, they are not true parasites. For they do not in- vade the living tissues to meet the resistance which the living cells interpose, but live upon dead organic matter present upon the skin, in the mouth, and the digestive tract in general. This adaptation to certain media is common to many micro- orggnisms. The juice of the grape becomes the habitat of a saccharomyces (Cerevis@) which converts the glucose into alcohol and carbonic dioxide. When this fermentation has ceased the bacterium aceti oxidizes the alcohol into acetic acid. When the medium is too acid the bacterium aceti cannot exercise its fer- menting power, and another saccharomyces (Mycoderma) first reduces the acidity of the liquid by oxidation. Examples may be multiplied in illustration of this fact that bacteria as well as fungi select certain media as most favorable to their growth. It now and then occurs that bacteria not strictly parasitic may prove pathogenic in setting up fermentations and decompositions in the alimentary canal. The substances thereby produced are absorbed, and act as chemical poisons. It seems very probable that our information of digestive derangements will be made more precise and better methods of relief applied when more attention has been bestowed upon the bacteriology of the di- gestive tract. Under certain conditions the Leptothrix buccalis, the most common microbe in the mouth, may become in a sense parasitic. When the enamel of the teeth has been removed by acids formed in the mouth during the fermentation of food, this microbe causes the slow disintegration known as caries by in- vading the dentinal tubules and the pulp-cavity. Now and then bacteria which carry on a harmless existence in one place may become very virulent in others. A few years ago Dr. Sternberg found that rabbits died within a few days after the injection be- neath the skin of some of his saliva. This virulence may last for years. For it is extremely difficult to dislodge a microbe ` from a place which it finds conducive to its vital activity. Harm- less in the human mouth, it is able to multiply in the body of one 1887] Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes, 3 of the higher mammals, to act as a true parasite and destroy life. This may explain the occasionally poisonous bites of animals. The sputum in pneumonia has been found equally fatal to rabbits. But here we are confronted with the important but still unsettled question whether the pathogenic microbe in the sputum is not the cause of the pneumonia. Whether we shall ever find bacteria within the organs, in the blood and lymph-channels of the animal body, as permanent parasites which do no appreciable injury, is very improbable. ‘Many experiments which have been made lead to the conclusion that the animal organism in health is free from bacteria. This is an almost daily experience in the laboratory. Even the excre- tions, such as urine and milk, are free from bacterial life. More- over, if there were harmless parasitic forms present, why should we always obtain the same microbe alone from organs affected with the same disease? That bacteria do occasionally penetrate into the closed cavities from the mucous surfaces need not be disputed, but they are quickly destroyed. Large numbers in- jected directly into the blood have been found greatly reduced in a few hours, and entirely absent after twenty-four hours. To impress this fact more firmly we may picture to ourselves our skin‘ and the entire alimentary canal in contact with myriads of these organisms. A delicate mucous membrane is all that sepa- rates them from the vital organs. Yet not a single individual is capable of gaining a permanent foothold within this membrane. This applies only to non-parasitic species, however. In contrast with this lasting enmity between bacteria and the healthy tissues is the more friendly relation between animal parasites and the latter. Trichinz and tape-worm cysts enjoy an undisputed repose in the muscular tissue of their host. Some entozoa live in the connective tissue, others infest the blood; they have even been found within the blood-corpuscles of fishes and turtles of apparently normal vitality. A survey of the various biological properties of those bacteria which have been more carefully studied up to the present does not reveal to us two extreme classes,—those that are capable of a parasitic existence only on the one hand, and those that can only live upon dead organic matter. We actually find bacteria possessing the vicarious power of living, now a parasitic, now a saprophytic existence. The microbes which occasion such dis- 4 Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes. (Jan. eases as anthrax, typhoid, glanders, cholera, etc., multiply readily in organic infusions in milk, even in drinking-water, for a variable period of time. They grow luxuriantly upon the cut surface of a boiled potato, which is a purely vegetable product. Bacteria of this kind are without doubt closely related to the numberless forms living in the soil and water, and drifted about, in a dried state, with currents of air. Yet they differ in some physiological function, some chemical power, which enables one group to destroy animal life, while the other is itself destroyed as soon as it enters the animal body. There are other parasitic bacteria which are much more fastidious in their choice of a su sistence outside of the body, which shun the boiled potato and require conditions approximating those found in the animal organism. The bacillus of tuberculosis flourishes only on blood- ' serum at the temperature of the body, and the gonococcus, according to Bumm, seems to prefer human blood to that of the lower animals. Finally, there are parasitic forms only known to us from a microscopic examination of the tissues which they infest, such as the microbe of leprosy, and perhaps of syphilis. Cultivation upon nutrient substances has not yet succeeded. We must there- fore infer that these forms have become so thoroughly adapted to a life in the tissues of the living body that the conditions there prevailing cannot be realized sufficiently in artificial culture to induce multiplication. These facts explain why many pathogenic bacteria can be cul- tivated,— grown at will in tubes containing appropriate media; ‘we simply make use of their capacity for living and multiplying upon dead matter, a capacity ancestral in its origin, and suggest- ing that all: pathogenic bacteria were derived by a process of _ natural selection from the innumerable harmless species every- where peopling the air, the soil, and the water. How the para- sitic nature of these bodies was acquired gives ample scope for speculation, as nothing definite is known. To me it seems most reasonable to suppose that many of the bacteria now known to’ cause disease acquired: certain physiological properties in their natural habitat, preii 5 in warm doantes — ow ac- cidentally Me be ge was added to the ras ritance c 1887] Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes. 5 site being subject to all the contingencies which affect other forms of life in nature, it may ingraft itself more and more upon the system, or it may die out in the course of time. While assuming, without any infringement of known biological laws, that all parasitic bacteria were derived from saprophytic forms, the difference between them is so sharply defined as to ‘make us stand in awe at the tremendous power of the one class when contrasted with the other. Millions of saprophytic bacteria may be introduced under the skin or into the blood-vessels of animals without any marked disturbance. A single pathogenic microbe, by rapid multiplication within the body, may destroy life ina day. The power thus acquired by these minutest and simplest of living organisms is one of fearful effect upon the most highly organized class of animals. It is awar of pigmies against giants, which ends with the destruction of either or both opponents. If the giant be only a rabbit, it is at least a billion times larger than each microbian opponent. If we take the larger animals or man, the relation in size between the microbe and its victim dif- fers but little from that of the earth and the meteorite falling upon its surface. The derivation of pathogenic from harmless saprophytes is well suggested by three organisms,—those causing Asiatic cholera and typhoid in man and so-called cholera among swine. These or- -ganisms thrive very well upon various media, indicating that they are not necessarily limited to the living body as a habitat. But ‘the remarkable feature which they have in common is their power of spontaneous movement in liquids. During their parasitic life this function does not appear to be of any service whatever. The bacteria of cholera are restricted to the small intestine, where they ‘multiply with enormous rapidity. Those of the other diseases ‘Mentioned are not limited to the intestines, but may be found -growing in the blood-vessels of various organs in the form of dense colonies or plugs. The motility must be regarded as a feature of their saprophytic life which they would lose if a strictly parasitic habit were finally adopted. An illustration of a some- what different nature is furnished by the Anthrax bacillus, the first disease-germ thoroughly studied, which produces such a rapidly fatal malady in many of the domesticated animals and in man. According to Koch, it is an inhabitant of certain low, marshy regions, where it goes through its cycle of growth without enter- s 6 Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes. [Jan. ing the animal body. In fact, it cannot complete this cycle within the body, for that most important stage—spore formation —only takes place on exposure to the air, so that bacilli within the dead body, if immediately buried, do not form spores. These facts illustrate clearly the preponderance of a saprophytic life in this very virulent organism. To indicate graphically the probable phylogenesis of parasitic bacteria, Hüppe has constructed the following table, according to De Bary: True Saprophytes. ——————_—_______, f I. Ferment bacteria. 2. Pigment bacteria. 3- Parasitic bacteria. ————_—Aerobiotic. | Facultative parasites. —— Agents of | oxidization fermentations. Facultative anaerobiotic. Facultative saprophytes. Obligatory eae Oleo ce. The term facultative parasites signifies that the bacteria in- cluded in the class are capable of living as parasites or of pass- ing through certain stages of their development as parasites. Facultative saprophytes are such parasites which may live as saprophytes either during the whole or a part of their life- cycle. $ If for a moment we look more carefully at the parasitic life of bacteria, a number of interesting facts and problems appear. First of all each microbe produces definitely characterized symp- toms and lesions which are grouped together as a specific disease, According to the abode which the microbes choose in the animal body, these symptoms and lesions will vary within wide limits. Some species multiply within the capillary system of the various organs, some are confined to the lymphatics, while others pro- duce suppuration in the connective tissue by attracting an army of leucocytes to oppose them. A few are constantly found with- in leucocytes themselves. Some bacterial diseases are limited to Special organs or tissues. It may be the lungs or the spleen, the skin or the mucous membrane of the intestine which becomes the seat of attack, and to which the disease remains restricted. In the various situations minor modifications in disposition and ‘grouping give rise to diseases of quite different character. Bacteria growing in dense plugs in the capillaries produce in- 1887] Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes. 7 juries and changes different from those which arise when they are loosely scattered. It is a curious fact that those bacteria which are strictly parasitic and which have not yet been cultivated in nutritive media, or only with considerable difficulty, cause diseases which are very slow in their progress, often lasting for years and fre- quently checked and cured. Tuberculosis, syphilis, and leprosy are illustrations of this fact. On the other hand, the diseases which are produced by bacteria that thrive in artificial media ` are usually quite rapid in their course. The conflict in the latter case is much fiercer and more quickly decided. In other words, the bacteria are more virulent. The better adapted the parasite becomes, the more compatible will it be with the host and the less capable of carrying on an, independent existence. It is for the interest of the more strictly parasitic forms that their host live as long as possible. This is not necessarily so with those species whose life in nature may continue more or less inde- pendent of a parasitic existence. The more perfect parasitic bacteria, manifesting their presence in very slowly progressive maladies, usually reside within the protoplasm of the cells, where the feeble irritation leads to a hypertrophy and then to a gradual destruction of the cell itself. The bacteria are probably taken up in the same way in which the amceba takes in solid particles. The cell endeavors to destroy them in this way, but their persistence within the cell-protoplasm indicates that the struggle has resulted in the victory of the parasite, which even finds the battle-ground a convenient place of abode. There are one or two rapid diseases, such as mouse septiczemia, in which this intra-cellular habitat of the microbes is always observed. Another interesting feature which they share with entozoa is their limitation to certain species of animals. Some are peculiar to one species, others may thrive upon several. This suscepti- bility of certain animals to definite pathogenic germs is so con- stant a phenomenon that it has now become an indispensable means in the diagnosis and differentiation of bacteria, and in conducting investigations upon obscure points in the life-history which are of direct practical value. In other words, the smaller animals are to the pathologist what chemical reagents are to the chemist. 8 Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Saprophytes, [Jan. I have already stated that there are many entozoa, inhabiting the tissues of their host, which do but little harm, and which may measure their parasitic existence by years, while a few, such as Trichina spiralis, are now and then fatal. Corresponding with _ these gradations in destructive effect there are similar gradations of virulence among bacteria. Some produce only local disturb- ances ; they are speedily destroyed and eliminated. Among these are the microbes causing suppuration. Others destroy organs and tissues very gradually, and are indirectly fatal by exhausting the vital energies or breaking down some organ necessary func- tionally to the processes of life. Among these may be mentioned more particularly the tubercle bacillus. Still others may cause death from within a few hours to weeks after their invasion. These include the microbes of septiczemia, cholera, typhoid fever. In general, however, the tendency of bacterial parasites is emi- nently destructive. The chemical poisons formed during their growth irritate and finally destroy the animal cell. If we pass from a consideration of the biology of these micro-organisms to the diseases of which they are the cause, a broad field of inter- esting facts lies before us, as instructive and suggestive ‘to the biologist and the student of nature as to the pathologist and the practical physician. I can, however, merely glean a few facts which may serve to illustrate the relation of epidemics_to the life- history of bacteria. There is a certain group of diseases called miasmatic, because the poison seems to come from the air and the soil. With the light shed upon this subject in recent years, the micro-organisms, presumably the cause, live in the soil as their natural habitat. This class would include all strictly endemic diseases, since they cannot be carried at will to localities free from them. The cause, residing in the soil, must have certain conditions necessary to its life, and unless these are found in new localities the disease will not take root. Though malaria is reaching out into new terri- tory, we have never yet heard of a quarantine against its progress. Another group includes maladies only transmitted from one subject to another. They are strictly contagious diseases, corre- sponding to the strictly parasitic bacteria, which cannot multiply outside of the animal body. A third group, intermediate between these extremes, possesses, i coe in a = bed characteristics of both. The micro-organisms may 1887] On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. . 9 live both as parasites and saprophytes; and being capable of multiplying wherever the proper pabulum exists, the possibility of rapid diffusion, and hence of great epidemics, is readily con- ceivable, It is believed by some that for most of such germs a sojourn in the soil is a necessary preparation for the parasitic Stage. Pettenkofer regards cholera and typhoid not contagious, but insists that the germs must first undergo some unknown changes in the soil before they again become capable of inducing disease. Hence the spread of epidemics depends as much upon certain external conditions as upon the presence of the agents themselves. This is controverted ground, however, and most authorities to-day are inclined to consider the air, the soil, and water as simple vehicles for the spread of disease. ; There still remain many obscure problems concerning the ` movement of epidemics, but their solution does not seem so far away, as a very firm foundation has been laid for future observa- tions. This has been constructed from the life-history of micro- organisms. The application of the principles and fundamental facts of biology to the elucidation of the causes of disease and its prevention is once more brilliantly vindicated. Disease is no longer the mysterious, personified entity of the past. It has been brought within the domain of laws which govern all life upon the earth. ON SOME POPULAR ERRORS IN REGARD TO THE ESKIMOS. BY JOHN MURDOCH. - (Re is often surprised, on taking up a popular treatise on anthropology, to find the number of erroneous beliefs con- cerning a race of people about whom so much has been written as about the Eskimos, which have been quoted by author after author without question, until they have come to be accepted by the world of readers as matters of established fact. Most of ese errors are due to the fact that many of the earlier authors, even when themselves explorers who correctly recorded the facts they observed, hastily accepted the conclusion that isolated peculiarities were chardcteristic of the race as a whole, as if, for I0 On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. [Jan. instance, the race of Englishmen should be described from the study of the inhabitants of a single county. Then the compilers, who had no means of ascertaining the correctness of the state- ments they had to work with, have perpetuated the beliefs. Even so acute an observer as Sir John Richardson has fallen into the error, in his “ Polar Regions,” of supposing that the peculiarities of manners and customs, correctly observed by him in certain limited areas, were universally practised throughout the whole extent of country inhabited by the Eskimos. Certain authors of the present day, however, are not less to be blamed for this habit of hasty generalization. In a manual of anthropology of the most recent date, which might be supposed to contain the latest results of anthropological research, since one of the authors is a professor and the other an assistant professor in the “ Ecole d’Anthropologie” at Paris, in the midst of a concise characterization of the Eskimo race, remarkably correct, on the whole, for a compilation, is the state- ment, “polyandry is practised,”—‘“on pratique la polyandrie” (p. 537). The natural inference from this is that such a practice -is general, or, at least, not uncommon, among the Eskimos. Now, if one takes the pains to search through the original sources of information in regard to the Eskimos, as the writer has of late had the opportunity of doing to a great extent, it will be found that while sexual morality is everywhere, as a rule, at a low ebb among them, and polygamy is frequently mentioned, cases of polyandry, where a woman has two or more regular husbands, are very rarely referred to. In fact, the statement above quoted is probably based on the cases mentioned by Ban- croft in his “ Native Races of the Pacific States.” Bancroft states that in former times in the island of Kadiak, two husbands, a principal and a secondary one, or sort of c7czsbeo, “were allowed to one woman, but quotes no authority for this statement (vol. i. p. 82). Again, he refers to Seemann (“ Voyage of the ‘ Herald,’ vol. ii. p. 66), who says, speaking of the west- ern Eskimos, “Two men sometimes marry the same woman.” Seemann’s acquaintance with the Eskimos, however, was only such as could be obtained in visits to Kotzebue Sound, in three os eS ee ee board thé ship "Pais d Anthropologie, par Abel Hovelasque ct Georgos Hervé, Paris, 1887. 1887] On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. II as she lay at anchor, and the people from the vessel occasionally visited the shore. I know from experience the difficulty of ob- taining accurate information under such circumstances. The statement, therefore, is not free from suspicion, especially as Seemann follows it up with another at variance with the ex- perience of later explorers in the same region, and, indeed, of those who have been brought in contact with the Eskimos in most other places,—namely, that “after the marriage ceremony has been performed infidelity is very rare” (zrd.). These instances stand almost alone. The only other case where anything of the kind is to be found is: in Graah’s “ Narrative of an Expedition to the East Coast of Greenland,” where he says, “report [among the West Greenlanders] said that the inhabitants of the East Coast were accustomed, when visited by scarcity, to destroy their women, so that the sex was usually at a premium among them, every woman having two or three husbands” (p. 78). He, however, makes no mention of finding any such cases among the East Greenlanders when he visited them, but, on the contrary, speaks of one man with two and another with three wives, which indicates anything but a scarcity of women. On the same page of Hovelacque and Hervé’s book it is stated, “ Les Eskimaux habitent, selon la saison, des tentes de peaux ou des trous creusés en terre.” “ Holes dug in the earth” seems, to say the least, an exaggeration to one who has ever entered one of the comfortable and neatly-built wooden houses of the northwestern Eskimos, though these are covered by a mound of turf, or one of the extensive structures described by Captain Graah, who gives the most detailed description of the Greenlander’s house (“ Narrative,” etc., pp. 45 and 46), sometimes sixty feet long, accommodating seven or eight families, with “regular walls, from six to eight feet high, built of earth and stones,” roofed with beams covered with sticks and turf. In fact, as far as I can discover from consulting a very large number of original authorities, the Eskimo winter-house is never more than partially underground, and in some cases even some- what elevated above the surface of the earth, while throughout the great middle region, from Hudson’s Bay northward am the archipelagos, the winter-house is generally of snow, built up, on the frozen ground. It is indeed surprising that anything so r2 On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. [Jan. well known as these snow-houses should be passed by unmen- tioned by the authors of the “ Précis d’ Anthropologie.” In spite of all authorities, however, the belief appears to be very wide-spread that. the Eskimo passes the long cold winter night—the darkness of which, by the way, is very much exag- gerated in regard to most of the region inhabited by the Eskimos, considering that the extreme northern point of the American continent extends but little beyond latitude 71°—in a sort of hibernation in underground dens, living in enforced idleness and supporting life by stores of meat laid up in less inclement seasons. - As Bancroft puts it,“ About the middle of October commences the long night of winter . . . and humanity huddles in subterra- nean dens; . . . in March the dozing Eskimo rubs his eyes and crawls forth” (“ Native Races,” i. pp. 43, 44); and again, “In midwinter, while the land is enveloped in darkness, the Eskimo -dozes torpidly in his den” (p. 55). But in reality the experience of all explorers shows that the Eskimo does nothing of the kind. If he did, he would soon perish from starvation, for improvidence is one of his greatest characteristics, and very little is done in the way of storing up supplies for the winter. To be sure, they do not live the same out-door life as in the continuous daylight of summer, but their winter-life is as far removed as poses from idleness or hiber- nation, A sketch of the winter avocations of the Eskimos of Point Barrow, who came under my personal observation for two win- ters, will serve to illustrate the truth of this statement. Point Barrow lies in latitude 71° 16’ north, and consequently there are seventy-two days—from the middle of November to the latter part of January—when the sun does not appear above the horizon, though there is sufficient twilight from ten o’clock in the morn- ing to three in the afternoon to enable one to work out-doors. The sea is frozen over and the land covered with snow, but the seals have made their breathing-holes in the new ice, and are to be caught with the spear, while nets may be set surrounding cracks where they resort for air. Every fine day, and even some stormy ones, large numbers of men are scouring the ice in search : S : = of seals and bears, while others are busy at home with carpenter- | | Se ae Bree Oe ~ s 1887] On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. 13 The village by no means presents an appearance of torpidity. The children are playing out-doors, or going out with the dog- sleds along the beach for a load of fire-wood; parties are travel- ling back and forth between the adjacent villages, and even the old men who can no longer lounge round the assembly-house, . because it is not heated, except on great occasions, are out in groups gossiping on the knolls, wrapped in their cloaks. At this season, too, visitors come from distant villages, and the great dances and semi-dramatic festivals are held. With the “dark of the moon,” late in December, comes the season for catching seals in the nets set along the rifts in the ice- field. Now the men stay out all night, night after night, in the coldest weather, and reap the great seal harvest of the year, a single man sometimes capturing as many as thirty in one night. After the great seal-netting is over seals are still to be netted in small numbers, and hardly a day passes that the men who have stayed in the village are not out in greater or less numbers tend- ing their nets, while all the women and children are busy catch- ing little fish through holes in the ice. Meanwhile, the richer or more energetic families have started off with the first gleam of the returning sun for the hunting-grounds, three or four days inland, where they remain camped in snow-huts, hunting rein- deer and catching white-fish through the ice of the rivers, till the approach of spring warns them to return for the whale-fish- ing. Thus the winter, in spite of the extreme inclemency of the climate, is passed in one continued round of activity. Hovelacque and Hervé, however, are much more correct in re- gard to a point concerning which popular belief is most persist- ently at fault. If there is one article of popular faith regarding the Eskimos that passes unquestioned, it is that they are very small, if not actually dwarfish in stature. Our authors state that the pure-blooded Eskimos are of medium or small stature, accord- - ing to the classification of Topinard, medium stature being 1.65 m. (about 5 feet 4 inches), and small stature, 1.60 m. (about 5 feet 114 inches) and less. They believe that 1.62 m. (about 5 feet 3 inches) is the average for male Eskimos unmixed with Danish or Indian blood. (It is probable, however, that there exist few, if any, Eskimos whose blood is mixed with that of the Indians, since, till within a few years, Indians and Eskimos, where they came in contact, have been on terms of the deadliest hatred.) 14 On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. [Jan. Let us compare with this statement the measurements given by those who have actually observed the Eskimos, who have written about the western Eskimos agree that they are, if anything, above the middle height (see the author- ities quoted by Bancroft). And this has been insisted upon as a point of difference between them and those of the east. This difference, however, does not hold good. Oldmixon’s figures (“ Report U. S. International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow,” p. 50) show that the average height of males at Point Barrow (5 feet 3 inches) falls a little short of Topinard’s “ taille moyenne,” while Parry gives 5 feet 514 inches for the average of males at Igloolik (“Second Voyage,” p. 492), and Schwatka states that the Eskimos of King William’s Land are above the Caucasian race in stature, speaking of individuals 6 feet, or even 6 feet 6 inches, in height (Science, iv. p. 543). Parry, again, speaks of the men of Baffin Land, whom he met on his first voyage, as from 5 feet 414 inches to 5 feet 6 inches in height; and another early explorer, Lieutenant Chappell, speaking of the natives of the north shore of Hudson’s Strait, says, “ The males are, generally speaking, between five feet five inches and five feet eight inches high” (“ Voyage to Hudson’s Bay, 1817,” p. 59). According to Petitot (“ Monographie des Esquimaux Tchigtit,” p. xii.), “ Les grands Esquimaux des bouches du Mackenzie et de l’Anderson sont d’une taille plutôt au-dessus qu’au-dessous de la moyenne. Il est parmi eux des hommes fort grands.” I can find but one series of measurements that at all corrob- orate the popular opinion of the small size of the Eskimos, and these are those taken by Dr. Sutherland at Cumberland Gulf. Here the average height of twenty-three adult males was found to be 5 feet 2.4 inches (“ Journal Ethnological Society,” iv. p. 213). Even this is above Topinard’s standard of “ petite taille.” Hovelacque and Hervé believe that the greater heights re- ported are due to admixtures of foreign blood, but it is worthy of notice that Schwatka’s “giants” were found among a people | who are far distant from any Indians, and have had little or no _ intercourse with the whites, and that most of the taller men at Point Barrow are of an age that precludes the possibility of Ge their being the descendants of white men. Petitot expressly _ states (in the work referred to above), ‘On ne trouve chez eux eee oe ee On the other hand, the 1887] On Some Popular Errors in Regard to the Eskimos. 15 small race measured by Sutherland come from a region where they have been long in contact with the whites. The evidence, therefore, seems strongly to contradict the pop- ular belief. It is not unlikely that the popular idea arose from the fact that the earlier explorers compared the Eskimos with some of the tallest of the European race. I am strongly inclined to believe that the very name by which we know these people owes its origin to a similar case of hasty generalization. “Eskimo,” according to the best authorities, means “eater of raw flesh,” and most people believe that all Eskimos habitually eat their food raw, devouring enormous quantities of reeking flesh and blubber. Undoubtedly flesh is sometimes eaten raw, especially in a frozen state, and in certain limited regions where fuel is very scarce, raw-flesh eating appears from necessity to have become a habit, as, for instance, at Cumberland Gulf (teste Kumlien, “ Bulle- tin U. S. National Museum,” No. 15, p. 20). Nevertheless, most observations indicate that this habit is excep- tional, and the writings of all the original observers, from the time of Egede and Crantz, are full of accounts of the cooking of food, even when the oil-lamps furnished the only fire for this purpose. Captain Parry explicitly states that the people of Igloolik pre- ferred to boil their food when they could obtain fuel (“ Second Voyage,” p. 505), and we, also, found that food was habitually cooked at Point Barrow, though certain articles, like the “ black skin” of the whale, were usually eaten raw. The enormous consumption of fat, supposed to be a physio- logical necessity to enable them to withstand the excessive cold, is probably the exception rather than the rule, to judge from the accounts of actual observers. It seems quite probable that the amount consumed in most cases is little, if any, greater than that eaten by civilized nations, when we consider that the people who eat the fat of the seal with the flesh and use oil for a sauce _to their dried salmon, have no butter, cream, fat bacon, olive oil, or lard. We found, indeed, at Point Barrow, that comparatively little actual blubber either of the seal or whale was eaten, though the fat of birds and the reindeer was freely partaken of. Seal or whale blubber was too valuable,—for burning in the lamps, oiling — leather, and many other purposes, especially for trade. 16 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. Neither does the general belief that they drink train-oil appear to be supported by reliable evidence, and some authors in various localities especially deny it. I trust that I have presented sufficient evidence to show that the popular picture of the dwarfish Eskimo, dozing in an under- ground den, keeping up his internal heat by enormous meals of raw blubber washed down with draughts of lamp-oil, is based on exaggeration, to say the least, rather than on actual facts. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SEX. BY JULIUS NELSON, EXPLANATION OF PLATES I—IV. The figures have been selected to show as great a variety as possible, that the unity which can be discovered may be a generalization of value. For the sake of clear- ness they have a drawn with as little elaborateness as possible, and to that extent are diagramm The F abbreviations have been used: Z. w. Z.—Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie. M. J.—Morphologisches Jahrbuch. _ Carnoy.—La Biologie Cellulaire, 1884. Biitschli.—“ Protozoa,” i in Bronn’s Classen und eee vie des Thierreichs. A. B.—Archives de Biologie—Beneden and Bam A. m. A.—Archiv fiir mikroskopische nese A. Z. E. G.— Archives de Zoologie expérimentale et générale. ‘Kent.—Manual of Infusoria, 1881. M. 2. S. N _—Mittheilung aus der BR wee TER zu Neapel. A. A. P.—Archiv für Anatomie und Physiol Flemming.—Zellsubstanz, Kern, und Zalltheileng, ree Q. J. M. S.—Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Scien A. z.z. I. W.—Arbeiten aus der zoologisch-zootomisch Taa zu Würzburg. A. z. I. U. W.—Arbeiten aus zoologischen Institut, Universitat, Wien. Haeckel. —“ Sretne 1862. Pe a oe P79: Ét MUCS ‘Stein. Srey der Inkssionethiesehen; 1867, "1882. i : Petare I. Fic. 1. par ichornit—Gruber,* Z. w. Z., xxxviii—The protoplasm is in the form of a net-work with omnes nodes, many of which bear nuclei in various stages of karyokinesis. _ Fic. 2, Calcarina spengleri—Biitschli, na xi—A nucleus surrounded by re-. ic ( protoplasm is shown. It contains large and several small nucleoli, all wi z te pf thor of he pipen fo which the ? y refer to the discoverer of the species. PLATE I. a a Sv ees AS sae O7 G 1887] The Significance of Sex. 17 having wesc the same reticulate structure. Some of the nucleoli are dividing by simple constriction. Fic. 3. Piette BREE cell of an insect—Carnoy, p. 190.—The reticulate nucleus is slung by a net-work, whose radial trabeculz are the more pronounced ; they branch sues ee eriphery of the cell Fic. 4. Jntestinal epithelium from an insect A p- 195.—The granules in the cytoplasm have been indicated in`some sectors, and the reticulum in others. The heavy nuclear reticulum, containing the chromatin, has contracted under the action of the chrom-aceto-osmic mixture of Flemming, and reveals a fine reticulum of achromatic protoplasm otherwise obscured by the presence of the chromatic reticulum (or filament, as the case may be). Fic. 5. Giant-cell from marrow of rabbit—Carnoy, p: 262. Fic. 6. oe Vorticella—Carnoy, p. 261.—In å the nucleus has divided into four. ns 7- Nucleus of Stentor polymorphus—Carnoy, p. 260. G. 8. Nucleus of Monas vivipara—Biitschli.—Microsomata of various sizes are ate by processes so as to form a regular net-work. Fic. ucleus of Ceratium tripos—Biitschli.—One of the nucleoli has an in- ternal ror i other is ot having only a surface reticulum. Fic. 1 s of Ceratium tripos—Biitschli.—No nucleoli present: a is an _ section borers the side, Fi is a view of the ventral igen The microšomata are trung in a row on each of the dorso-ventral filamen Fic. r1. Tentacle of Noctiluca dese eki. Fic. 12. Diagram illustrating the structure of striped muscle—Melland, Q. J, M. S., See met 93, d—Van Beneden, A. B., iv.—Contraction and amceboid movement accompanied, ie caused, by mutual attraction of the microsomata. Fic. 13. Nuclein filament from a gland-cell of an insect—Carnoy, p. 233.—The i arranged in a anise imbetided in the surface of the G. 14, a. A nucleus of Ameba proteus—Gruber, Z. w. Z., xlii—The chromatin granules are largest peripherally. In 6 (Z. w. Z., xl.) theta is a differentiation of a large central nucleolus with fine granules from a surface membrane of large, closely united microsomata, At times the microsomata are reduced to so fine granules that only a diffuse staining results. Fic. 14, c. Chenia teres Gruber, Z. w. Z., xl.—The chromatin granules have grown from invisible poi Fic. 15. Tracker lapses ‘erus—Gruber, Z. w. Z., xl.—Like Fig. 14, this” cell (rhizopod) is multinucleate. In æ nucleoli appear in each nucleus; in å the ram have ius ae to the state of free microsomata that divide up finer and Fie. 16. Haliomma erinaceus—Biitschli, after Hertwig.—The central capsule only is shown, with its large central nucleus and peripheral smaller nuclei budded from the central one, which has itself peripheral “ nucleoli” that resemble the sl “awer” o Fic. ees Central capsule of Acanthamera. a, = after eea oe ‘Fic. 18. Central « se PRG OON ee r Tee oes ie ENT ON hg be E Deg e saturn Hertwig, et VOL. XXI.—NO. I. a a = 18 The Significance of Sex. [ Jan. the nucleoli are getting clothed with a gree bounded plasma. In 4 these new cells or s have become elongate and arranged in a reticulum like that of H eles later they become free and are expelled as flagellate monads, as at d is a young capsule dividing; the nucleus consists of a group of nucleoli or udding. Fic. 19, a-b. Central capsule of Thalassicolla pelagica—Biitschli, after Haeckel. é shows the nucleus budding; it now has its chromatin in a filament which here and there preserves its reticulate arrangement seen i G. 19, c-e. Capsule of Zz. pathate- thinks fous Hertwig, etc.—In ¢ the chromatin is in a surface layer of microsomata and a central granular mass. In d the microsomata are in the form of beaded filaments. In ethe capsule contains ny small nuclei — and outside are similar grouse that have probably migrated from the c Fic. 20, a. Nuc ‘Nis ka Ameba lucida (multinucleate)—Gruber, Z.. w. Z. x The “ membrane” bounding the nucleoplasm is at a distance outside of that in a the chromatin bodies lie. These have irregular processes in a, indicating the pres- ence of a reticulum. In e the nucleus is dividing; the two daughters are los: con- nected by a bridge of hyaloplasm like that which is seen in Figs. 41, 42, € Fic. z a-c. Nucleus of 4. prima—Gruber, Z. w. Z., xli. Fic. 22, a-d. Nucleus of Engh pha alveolata—Gruber, Z. w. Z., xl.—a shows a central tes eolus, 6 many p es. Inct = are massed near the centre; in d * they have ng ot eN so as to fill the ke and e h has taken on itself a structure similar to æ. This reminds us of the “ germinal balis” of Stein and others Fic. 23. Nucleus a Ceratium pak ea filled with germs that are wit free to reproduce the mother Fic. 24. Tirini C orii, A. m. A., iii, (see Lankester, “ Protozoa,” Encyc. Brit.).—The plasma in which the simple aeea bodies live, move, and divide is in the act of digesting a'conferva filam Fic. 25. A section near the surface of piston saen after Haeckel.—A layer of “ yellow cells” raene "a on the surface. The body is formed of spherical vacuoles, “ needles,” and a “ syncytium” of nucleated plasma masses, united by processes with one another. ean Fig. 1, also volvox, a reticu- lum of nerve-cells, and Figs.-8-10, etc. The physiological reason for this structure is probably alike in these ges ce 6 shows : — oe the a el its reticulum appear as iding are oft Fic. 26, a-h. A oi ae = Sinica villosa—Greeff, A. m. A., x.—a one nucleotus. In ¢ there are several, one central, and a peripheral set. In d'each has . split up into a group of granules or small microsomata; in ¢ these have again united, and in each nucleolus repeats the structure of a, and is set free as g. isa “ refringent corpuscle,’’ formed from g by Glseppeaninee of the nucleolus, 5 PLATE II. ; Fic. 27, ae. Nucleus of Kiotiaocopiana Schneider, A. Z. E. G ad eke s ‘budding off smaller nucleoli, which in ¢ whisnetely Ieee come nucleolated; d shows nuclei dividing ; e shows a cyst wher e the remains of ie. 2 PLATE II. : — 265 HM EEE a 5 E ) ow A 1887] The Significance of Sex. 19 29, a-b. Nucleus s Carchesium PEATS soe Kent, Plate 50).— Fig Tank does not appear constricted between the microsomata as in Fi ig. 31, etc. Each microsoma es tae like a nucleus pe gets áielecil. which them- selves become cells like the ee of the “ germ-balls.” Sexual conjugation is ported as having preceded this sta pi . 30. a-ġ, Nucleus of PERE radians—Entz, M. z. S. N., vol. V.—a, **germ-ball’’ state; 4, stentor state. Fic. 31, a—c. Stentor polymorphus ee ae (Kent, Plate 50).—The fork in @ caused by branched budding of one of the microsomata. In å and c the chro- wees has contracted to form itself into he sg asians state of germ 2. Portion of nucleus of > —Claparède and Lachmann fere i — nie scouleate of the part segmente of ee the nucleus of a ne Fic. 33. Nucleus of Urostyla gronds- Dachi (Kent).—“ Cerin bait” state. Fic. 34. Nucleus of Acineta jolii—Maupas, A. Z. E. G., ser. 1, vol. ix. (Kent). Fic. 35. Nucleus of Plagiotoma hewbvire Stel (Kent). Fic. 36. eee of ee E = w. Z., ze FIG. 37. eus of Chilodon , A. m. A. V., vol. v. (Ken —The A E in saleak and a “ paranucleus” resembling this Gia rests against the nucleus. Fic. 38. Nucleus of Acineta fetida—Maupas, A. Z. E. G., ser. 1, ix. (Kent). IG. 39. Nucleus of Vorticella—Gruber, Z. w. Z., xli.—Notice a paranucleus on vat concave side of the “horse-shoe” nucleu: G. 40. Nucleus of Reese ae anal Mee Plate 29. ere are seen two par: Fic. 41. Nucleus of Ticigastnis meleagris—Biitschli (Kent), Microsomata in act of dividing and so forming the beaded filament. Fic. 42. Nucleus of Loxodes rostrum—Wrzesniowski, Z. w. Z., xx. (Kent). — Paranuclei Sram e of the sub-nuclei. Fic, 43. Cell from pli ganglion of Arion—Carnoy, p. 212.—The nucleus is in — the form of a beaded filament in an “ open” knot or tangle (“ Knāuel”). Fic. 44. Nucleus of epidermis cell of an Orchid—Carnoy, p. 215.—The nucleus contains ste PRE nucleoli and a chromatic filament in a “close” tangle. The chromatin is in disks, and the intervening hyaloplasm is not constricted, hence the filament is not beaded. Fic. 45. Nucleus of epidermis cell of Salamander—Carnoy, p. 219.—In a, a coarse reticulum is formed by fusion of the EEG IPEE at ee TANT of a close tangle. In 4 the connections have formed, which, by shortening, eine an opin” tangle, and the phases of karyo- kinesis follow. The chromatin is diffused throughout the filament. In ¢ we see the chromatin withdrawing from the processes of the meshes and gathering in a definite path to form the beaded filament seen constructed to segments in g, Fic. 46. Longitudinal optic sections of various chromatic Jilaments—Camoy, p- 232.—To show the disposition of the chromatin. In all the chromatin is super- — ficial, forming a thick wall in a, thin in 4, thick with coord temas and in _ palpi Gaii gal: ay be allel on Wa tik pa from spiral duets of x p Fragment of a branching Acinetan—Bolton (Kent, Plate 47).—The nu- : - 20 The Significance of Sex. [ Jan. cleus runs like an axis naa all the stems and branches, and is segmented off into all the buds and Fic. 49, a—A. ibihiblan pancreas cell—Ogata, A. A. P. (Phys. Abth.) 1883.—The tissue hardened in warm corrosive sublimate is cut into thin sections and stained suc- cessively with hematoxylin, nigrosin, eosin, and safranin. Gaule, the author of this method, claims that there are two substances in the cy¢op/asm, one eosinophilous, the other nigrosinophil ous. There are also two substances in ager cleoplasm, one stain- ing best with Aematoxylin (ordinary chromatin), and the other EUa with safranin. The Sai is represented dead-black or heavily saai the safraninophil is outlined only; nei eosinophil is marked with parallel lines, the migrostnophi/ by crossed lines and A. The roar ie imbedded in cytohyaloplasm Sinerat well marked on one side. On t e other are the zymogen granules (eosinophi A sparse reticu- lum, several si ad and mostly peripheral nucleoli canbe: in one large nu- cleolus, the “ plasmosoma” (safraninophil), occupy the nucleus. In å the plasmo- soma is migrating from the nucleus muah ae now atrophies. In ¢ the plasmosoma, now in the cytoplasm, begins to develop the two constituents of cytoplasm in its in- terior. It grows rapidly (ď) to the size of the old nucleus, alongside which it lies. In e it has become still larger, and most of it has become transformed into en granules and cytoplasm. In the centre of the remainder, f, a chromatin nucleus appears, which, later, differentiates in its interior, the plasmosoma and other nucleoli, £ a eae so we are back to stage @ again. . 50. Nucleus of egg of Colymbetes fuscus (Will, Z. w. Z., xliii.), durin soe and yelk formation.—a, reticulated; 4, nucleo eyed ¢, the ae growing and enlarging one or more of the nucleoli until all i It then buds off large and small cells; the former become siih “aud Sack: the latter become follicle-cells. Then sheet after sheet of the nucleus dissolves off es, and microsomata of a beaded filament in a reticulum enclosing several nucleoli (ih, y , and finally the karyokinetic spindle of the polar globule is formed. FIG. 51. aiee of pA of Ascaris megalocephala—b, c, Van Beneden, A. B., iv. ; one large sera oars? (the « prothyalosome a, a sereal Rema ranger 505 the prothyalosome alone takes part in forming the ulates with the male pronucleus ; ¢ is the nucleolus of the prothyalsomie hidhi ik tap- nified, seen to consist in this stage of two disks, each of four-beaded filaments es the and nucleoli. In 6 the reticulum is broken upinto nucleoli. In c these have fused tot Fic. by. Nucleus of egg of Nephthys scolopendroides—Carnoy, p. 237. 54, 2-6. Nucleus of egg of Fie/d-Mouse—Rauber. M. J., viii. Fic. 35s a—b. Nucleus of egg of Perch—Rauber. M. J., viii—In æ the micro- somata are e superficial and their processes s a reticulum ; å is an optic section. oat: oo Prate III. | Fic. 56, a-f. Nucleus of f Arion duri i i a yak formation, Pin- ede ws E we see a nucleolus and 1 microsomata and a ve SS E E PET PERE ENRE a sparse reticulum, but the cros 1 nucleolus, while the old nucle- PLATE III. AS? ge ) GOGO a G TOS © TO O? * a @ © 28o@@ È OO 200000208" | "83.66 ee @ Ege a pee nal J Os 1887] The Significance of Sex. 21 olus is left outside as a paranucleolus. In ¢ the nucleolus is homogeneous. In d it has microsomata, which fuse to one “ nucleolus-nucleus” in e. Finally, in f the nu- cleolus has all the structure of the old nucleus of stage a nucleus now dissolves in the re PTY the eT as a “yelk nucleus.” G. 57. Nucleus of egg of Toxopneustes—Flem Fie 58, a7. Nucleus of egg ag Stee Reet aW, Z., a paranucleus appears, whose changes are as complex as those of pA nucleolus. Malus in 7 we have only a vesicle left. Fic. 59, a-f. Nucleus of egg of larva of Libe/ula—Valette St. George, A. m. A., ii te structure of the large nucleolus in ¢ reminds us of the entire nucleus of e ae ő. a-f. Nucleus of egg of Asteracanthion—Van Beneden, Q. J. M. S., xvi. E 2 stage of f is reported finally to disappear. Fic. 61, a-f. Nucleus of egg of Rabbit. Fic. 62, a-. Nucleus of Gonothyraca loveni—Bergh, M. J., v.—Multiplication of nucleoli Me division 1G. 63, : acess of egg of Bat—Beneden and ee A- B. Fic. 6 Nais of egg of Anodon—Flemming, A. m. A., x.—A paranucleus is he a a-b. Nuclei of sexual cells (* primitive ova”) of Rana—Nussbaum, A. m. A. xviii.—a of male, 4 of female. Budding of the nucleus in ovigenesis nak ` spermatogenesis at this stage is often reported. Fics. 66-93 illustrate the formation of the spermatozoon from the nucleus of the “ spermatid,” and points in its structure. Fic. 66. Antherozoids of Hymenophylium—Carnoy, p. 226.—a shows the lar; reticulate nucleus of the daughter-cell of an antheridium. In 4 the nuclei is elon- gating, curved, and at its smaller end the net-work of chromatin is changing to the diffuse state. In ď the pointed end protrudes from the cell and bears the locomotive cilia. This is homologous with the head end of a SS The cytoplasm is gradually utilized as pabulum by the antherozoid, the residue remaining stuck to its hinder end e (which is finished last), to be eos talk eave or thrown off as at f. Fig. 67. Spermatozoid of Anodonta ce Oy, p. 225. Fic. 68. Early stage of spermatozoid of Slamándik Fhentiiag e Fic. 69, a-b. Human spermatozoa, not yet freed from their matrix—Wiedersperg, A. m. Å., xxv. Fic. 70. Spermatozoid of Zlephant—Weidersperg, A. m. A., xxv.—The head and tail project from the cell, the “ neck” or “ middle” piece is still growing. In the cyt - paranucleus i. 71, a-e. ppermatoprai of Rat— Brown, Q. J. - = » July, 1085. ees nucleus difin ce er here also is a Aead- -corpuscle. At the opposite end is a tat/-corpuscle. In the cyto- plasm lies a paranucleus. 4 shows the fine axis of the neck and tail proceeding from near the ¢atl-eorpuscle. In c the whole nucleus has become homogeneous, elongated d curved, and mostly protruded from the cytoplasm. d shows the sperm. nearly apla a relic of cytoplasm remains sticking where the head and neck join, and another where the tail and neck join. The latter contains the remains of the para- nucleus (“seminal granules”). æ is the completed sperm. The neck shows 2 ucture. Fi. 72, a-f. Sperm. of Bull—Kölliker, Z. w. Z., vii.; EA, Brunn, ek: 228 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. xii. and xxiii—The multiplication of the nucleus of the spermatogonium when the division of the cytoplasm is partially or wholly suppressed, cause$ several spermatids (and hence spermatozoa) to be united to or in a single cell, and so forming sperma- ‘togemmes. a-d illustrate this point, which with: Tee is not the concentration of chromatin in one side of the nucleus near a head-corpuscle, the formation of a cap in connection ns this kapai is illustrated in g-#. The other anew is either the paranucleus or tail-corpuscle. In & the membrane cover-. ing the middle and hinder part of the head is lost or not separated away like the cap. Thes collar” about the neck is the membrane of the old cell. Fic. 73, a-f. Sperm. of Xaédé7¢—Brunn, A. m. A., xii.—a, after Platner, A. m. A., xxv., shows the pig the cap and badae m chromatic head envel- oping the forward end of the neck-piece or its axis. s the nucleus in two parts, the posterior aeae grows smaller, the comin is Danai 3 in the anterior part of the anterior portion, which forms the head. e is from Schweigger- Seidel, A. m. A.,i., to show the finished SERR Fic. 74. Sperm. of Mouse—Brunn, A. m, A., xxiii.—Corpuscles arrange them- selves about the axis of the middle piece and build it up, so that in the finished specimen the neck is annulated. Fic. 75, a—c. Sperm. of Sparrow—Brunn, A. m. A., xxiiii.—Here the cytoplasm spins a filament that inde spirally about ihe: axis, but remains separate from it. er, <5 Wil. . 77. Sperm. of 7riton—Schweigger-Seidel, A. m. A., ii—The sinuous fila- ment represents the thickened edge of a delicate membrane, which slings it to the tail like a mesentery. See Gibbes, Q. J. M. S., xix., for same structure in salaman- der, and Fig. 78, c—e, for the frog. Fic. 78, a—-e. Sperm. of Bomébinator—Valette St. George, A. m. A., xxv.—¢ is the skeleton left after macerating away the sarc , Fic. 79, a-e. Sperm, of Raja clavata—Jensen, A. B., iv. PLATE IV. Fic. 80, a—e. Sperm. of A a A. z. z. I. W., vii.—In @ we have a large nucleus, to which is fastened a fai/-corpuscle; we have also a small para- nucleus, but thjs grows, fais Fik to the nucleus at the end opposite the aż% corpuscle, and proceeds to spin a spirallated piece like the middle piece of Figs. 71, > ete, = it here has the place of a head-cap, though its functions are DERNE nchan a 81, a-f. Sperm. of Ae/ix—Platner, A. m. A., xxv.—Here the nucleus buds a ucleus, then concentrates, becomes homogeneous, an axis appears, over its end the nucleus invaginates itself, while the cytoplasm containing the paranucleus spins three spiral filaments; two of these closely invest the axis, the third remains free. Fic. 82, a~. Sperm. of Cassiopeia —Mereschkowski, A. Z E. G., x.—In ¢ the dotted line is a portion of th + ee SN = the “ blastophore,” the protoplasmic which d by their heads over its surface. os 83, a-e.. EDN of Cucumaria frondosa—Jensen, A. B., iv.—Head- and tail- “corpuscles are seen. _Inea middle piece in connection with the ee is on is still unfinished. vivipara—* hair form” Sepe =: two “oe amen "e t periph PLATE IV. bk = go ù E F. PJE 1887] The Significance of Sex. 23 Fic. 85, a-f. Sperm. of Paludina vivipara—vermiform (not func ctional), a-c, Carnoy, p. 228.—The nucleus je plays no direct part in the formation, but acts like a paranucleus, d~/, Brun . m. A., xxiii. The nucleus is here represented as directly concerned. Sheer fand 84, g. F rm. of Locusta viridissimi—a, b, and h, Valette St. George, A. m. A., x.; ¢c-y, Brunn, A. m. A., xxiii.—Here, as iti in 73, the head (f) divides into two parts, the anterior of which contains the chromat Fic. 87, a, 6. Sperm. of Forficula auri rcdaria Valet, A. m. Fic. 88, a-d. Gusta of Stenobothrus—Vale ie iddle piece (at least its periaxial portion) is formed directly from tie ern 9, &-g. Sperm. of Blatta germanica—Valet . m. A, pr .—The para- nucleus is reported as formed from a granular mass, ia it centenkdy i is built into the “middle piece.” In eand g globules of cytoplasma are seen sticking te the flagellum ie [middle piece] and tail). Fic. 90, a, 6. Sperm. of Agrion—Biitschli, Z. w. Z., xxi., pp. 402 and 536. c Hydrophilus. (Clausilia, Acridia, Clythra, etc., agree closely with Figs. 87, 88, 89, go. Fic, 91, a-f. Sperm. of Astacus—a-g, Grobben, A. z. I. U. W., i.; f, 4,7, Nuss- baum, A. m. A., xxiii. 7 is view from a FIG. 92, a-e. Sperm. of Zupagure. ‘elite, A EUW vag: 93, rene eae: ae Ascaris adesioni Beneden, A. B., iv.—a, Sper- The two nuclei are united by the spindle. In å spermatids have formed, held together i in a spermatogemme by a “ cytophoral” portion (in which is a “ refringent body” connected with each spermatid, homolo- gous with paranucleus). ¢, the mature sperm. e nucleus is situated in the head, ` which is left uncovered by the thin membrane that covers the remainder. The “ re- fringent body” is large, and fills up nearly the entire body. æ. Here the refringent body is small, the protoplasm about the nucleus in the head, amceboid. The micro-. somata of the cytohyaloplasm, seen in rows, mark the nodes of a regular reticulum. FIGs. 1-13, 25, 66-68, 71, 81, 93, ‘linetsate 1 the structure of protoplasm. Fics. 1, 2, 6, 16-18, 22-34, 49, 59, 66, etc., illustrate the “individuality” of the nucleus or of its subordinate parts. Fics. 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 28-51, illustrate the different forms of nucli Figs. 8-10, 13-15, 19, 20, 26, 28, 43-47, 49-61, illustrate the Mieri conditions and morphological structure the nuclein may assume aside from the changes of karyokinesis. Still other examples will appear when 4aryokinesis is considered. the tail has in each case been r nted, to economize space. Fics. 36-40, 42, (44 las. (49!), (50?), = ee 64, m na 78, > 81, (83?), 34, 86- 93, indicate the presence of a paranucleus be given under £aryo- kinesis and fertilization. 24 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. I.—Introduction. í HAT is the significance of sex ?” is a special inquiry in the more general field of research included under the head of Reproduction ; but nearly all the problems of the larger subject must be investigated if we wish to elucidate the more special one. The question presents both morphological and physiological aspects. Thus, we need to know the intimate structure of the sexual cells in the different plants and animals and the modi- fications this structure undergoes from the time the cells are generated until fertilization is effected. We can in this way compare the ovum and the spermatozoon and perhaps learn whether their functions are alike or different, and in what they differ. But we must also know how they compare with other cells, and are therefore at once compelled to treat the general subject of Cytology. This may conveniently be done in the fol- lowing order: (1) Cell-structure in general. (2) The structure of sexual cells; the ovum (practically the germinal vesicle) and the spermatozoon. (3) The phenomena of karyokinesis. (4) The phenomena of fertilization. Then in the next place it is necessary to make a comparative study of the methods of reproduction in the groups of living beings, following the phyla of evolution. In unicellular organ- isms we shall be mainly interested in the various ways in which reproduction is effected and the relation of these to the action of environing circumstances. Here we may see the origin of sex and henceforth trace its evolution. Then as we see how the multicellular individual arose from the unicellular one, and as - we trace the evolution of more and more complex forms, differ- entiating into more and more numerous groups, the relations of the sexual method to other methods of reproduction will gain in interest and be best considered under the heads of Alternation of Generations and of Parthenogenesis. We shall also be specially interested in following the genesis of the sexual cells during the life-history of each individual, and so be involved in the mazes of ovigenesis and A OESE Incidentally hermaphroditism should be and finally the morphological side of the -~ question must as wih a discussion of the —— _ the polar E and allied points. 1887] The Significance of Sex. 25 Then on the physiological side, there is a vast and fruitful field both of accumulated facts and promising experiments for future research. The numerical relations of the sexes under fluctuating conditions so comprehensively discussed by Diising in his memoir ‘on the “ Regulation of the Sexual Ratio,” first invite our con- sideration. Next we cannot escape a discussion of the problem of Heredity, because this is the very soul and centre of all these other problems; and finally we must necessarily conclude by discussing the doctrine of the Genesis of Species. We thus see that this inquiry is one of vast proportions, and can understand why it is still unsettled, in spite of the flood of speculations that all ages have poured upon it because of its ab- sorbing interest and importance. But all except a very few of these attempts at a solution of the problem of sex are of no - scientific and only of slight historic value. We shall only attempt a summary of our present knowledge of the subject as a founda- tion for future progress. The stimulus this kind of research received through the labors of Darwin has not been effected in as great a degree among English-speaking savants as with the Germans. It is desirable that more interest in this subject be awakened among American naturalists, not alone for the sake of national pride, but also be- cause the obscure recesses of this great problem can be illumi- ‘nated only by the combined labors of many minds. The earliest thinkers, acquainted only with the highest forms of life, naturally supposed that the interaction of the two sexes was necessary to produce a new being. Some, as Hippocrates and Galen, supposed that the two parents contributed equally and in a complementary manner to this achievement ; others, as Aristotle, Fabricius, Harvey, thought that one parent was sub- — ordinate in his influence, being a mere stimulus to development: The discovery of the ovum and spermatozoon gave more definite- ness to these theories, and so arose the schools of the ovulists, who saw in the spermatozoon a fertilizing element of the ovum, and the spermatists, who thought the ovum or the uterus to be a nidus where the spermatozoon was nourished and developed to the new being. Advancing knowledge dispelled the latter views and modified the former, but now arose the controversy of evolu- ‘ftom vs. epigenesis, and so for a season attention was diverted from _ the main problem of the significance of sex. 26 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. Spontaneous generation once accounted for the presence of the swarms of minuter forms of life, but scientific study, aided by the microscope, showed that these lower forms of life multiplied by methods obtaining with the higher forms, and the doctrine of spontaneous generation was, by Tyndall’s beautiful experiments, finally banished from the realm of the minutest infusorial life— to which, as a last resort, it had been restricted. But, with the establishment of the law that all living beings are derived from pre-existing forms of life, we also learned that another method of reproduction, the asexual (agamogenesis), was more widely used by nature than the sexual one, and increases in importance as we descend the organic phyla,—is, in fact, the foundation on which the latter rests, and out of which it has been evolved as a rare and expensive, but useful, link in generation. It is now a half-century since biology received its organon in the formulation of the ce//-doctrine. From this doctrine we must start in every biologic inquiry. Stated briefly and in the light of the present, it stands thus: The body of any of the larger plants or animals is a mass of minute units, called ce//s, that are organized in a complex way into different orders of higher units, or parts, known as żissues and organs. The unity or individuality of the organism is secured by the harmonious working together of its organs, like the parts of a mechanism, towards simple results for the good of the whole. All living beings, compared as to struc- ture (morphology), naturally fall into groups that are related like the branches of a tree (phylogenetic classification). At the roots we place the unicellular beings, then, as we reach the lowest and least subdivided branches, we find organisms represented by simple aggregations of cells like those which lower down live as independent beings ; and, as we rise along the phyla, such aggre- gates become more and more complex in organization. In the development (ontogeny) of an individual its organization ‘is es- tablished in the following manner. We start with a single cell, which produces an aggregation by continued self-division, and then the units differentiate into the tissues and organs, becoming successively more and more complex, so that the embryologic history—leaving out of consideration secondary or cenogenetic a modifications—is a repetition of the stages seen as we ascend its | phylum in the natural system. Such relations as these could | have beds established wir by the actual evolution of living a 1887] The Significance of Sex. 27 beings along these lines, in the past history of the earth; and this is confirmed by the paleontologic record. We are thus con- vinced that organic beings are genetically related, and, therefore, the phenomena of reproduction and the question of sex must be considered in relation to the problem of the genesis of species. The laws of organization of biologic beings find their analogues in civil and social organizations. Hence we often speak of the animal as the ce//-State. As civilization progresses and Society is evolved, the unit, here the human mind, becomes more and more specialized in its activities, and the individual more and more de- pendent for his existence and welfare upon the fact that he is part of an organism,—the State,—which is complexly organized of many interworking and subordinate parts. How wonderful are the life manifestations of a State! and yet nothing is done except by the activities of the faculties present in each mind. The division of labor causes each function to be more efficiently exercised ; but, what is more important, it is the form in which this is or- ganized that impresses us and that makes the zzdividual. Ina similar way, a man may be said, philosophically speaking, to be only a developed amceba, even as a State is a man ona larger scale. We are thus enabled to understand what is meant by the Judt- vidual. This term is purely relative, for in an organism where the subordinate units still retain a large measure of independence, the individuality of the lesser units detracts from that of the larger ; indeed, the latter is not thoroughly established until the former is sacrificed, when the lesser units are so mutually de- pendent as to be mere farts. When this stage is reached the existence of the lesser units depends on the existence of the greater unit. Thus, when the organic relations or functions in a man’s body are disturbed, not only does the man die (cease to exist) as an individual, but the cells also dissolve into the less highly organized substances of “ non-living” matter. Life may then mean one or both of two things: 1, the activities of the organism (this is of course a mere summation of the activities of the cells); 2, the form of organization of these activities; this is a relation, an abstraction, but is necessary for the existence of life in the former sense,—i.c., it makes the individual. The contro- versies so often arising about these terms can only be due to a misunderstanding of the cell-doctrine. i » . oe 28 | The Significance of Sex, [Jan. There is, however, this difference between the dzo/ogic and the social individual,—the latter can be formed by association of units at first independent, while in the former the cells are always ge- netically related. The metazoa arose from the protozoa by a modification in the mode of reproduction by self-division, which caused the daughter-cells to remain united. Now, let all the other phenomena and forces remain as before, these daughters will soon divide again, they will not separate but will go on for a considerable period until an aggregate of cells results, then by the operation of the principles that produce alternation of generations in separated forms and polymorphism in colonies, there will follow what we term the differentiation of tissues, and lo, a metazoon. In |! asimilar way, among the Metazoa a multisegmented form must have arisen from one unisegmented by modified budding or strobilation. Natural selection will account for the preservation of forms, but the cause and origin of new forms lies in the above laws of or- ganization. We are now prepared for the next step in this argu- ment. As self-division is the only form of reproduction that could give rise to the Metazoa, we understand why this is the mode which alone operates during ontogeny. It is also the usual mode of reproduction among the Protozoa. Once in a while _ under hard conditions of nutrition, etc. (perhaps so only as to its origin—Weissmann), the protozoan individual, too feeble to fight the battle of life alone, fuses (conjugation with a neighbor (sometimes more than one ?), and thus reinvigorated goes on in its former way again. Possibly conjugation is only one, though the most useful, of several methods by which reyuvenescence can be effected; at any rate we can see that by “sexual reproduc- tion” we do not mean a new mode of reproduction contrasted with the asexual mode, but simply a particular mode of a sexual repro- duction preceded by a particular method of rejuvenescence (conju- gation, fertilization’). Now when the Metazoa were formed by the non-separation of cells produced by binary division, those cells that required rejuvenescence were set free that they might * Van Beneden, Archives de Biologie, iv. p. 616. 1887] The Significance of Sex. 29 tissues for the good of the whole. Even some of the generative cells had to serve their more fortunate brethren by giving origin to the accessory parts of the generative tissues that a few cells might be successfully prepared to perpetuate the species. All the tissues, including the generative, are based on a stroma of undifferentiated, “ embryonic” cells, capable of dividing as they have in the past, and differentiating into their proper tissue when they have the chance, as in regeneration of lost parts. These cells are all the descendants of the original egg, and homodynamous with it and each other as if they were separate amcebe. But after a certain number of divisions they lose the power of di- viding further without fertilization and then they differentiate. Only the cells differentiated in the direction fitting them for fecundation ever get a chance to be fertilized. ae Possibly this want of fertilization, more and more increasingly felt by the embryonic cells as they continue their final divisions, may explain senescence ; but so long as we do not understand the | nature of senescence in the Protozoa we cannot understand it in ~ the Metazoa. Growth is due in the Metazoa to the double process of cell- multiplication and cell-growth. May we not say that cell-growth is also partly a result of a reproductive process, and that the cell is a living unit by virtue of being organized? There can now no longer be a doubt of this. We can no longer speak of animals as “evolved from a homogeneous bit of jelly.” Cells and the Protozoa and Protophyta in general, may be considered as illus- trating as wide a diversity of differentiation and gradation of organization as we see exemplified in the larger units or in the social units (societies and states). We cannot conceive of life without organization. The homogeneous cannot be called living. The cell-wall at first was thought of importance, but soon it was seen that this was a secreted product, and so its gelatinous contents, called protoplasm, next became the definition of a cell. But most cells had one or more “nuclei” in them, and this was conceived as a differentiated product of the protoplasm. Con- tinued study of the zucleus raised its importance more and more, until at present some eminent cytologists are ready to make it the essential part, and the surrounding plasma almost as secondary as the cell-wall itself. Believing this to be the true view, we are ready to consider,— 30 The Significance of Sex. [ Jan. II.—The Significance of the Cell-Nucleus to the Problem of Sex. (a) CELL-STRUCTURE IN GENERAL. Microscopic examination of cells in the living state, or treated by the simple hardening, staining, and section-cutting methods of a few years ago, can give us only a superficial knowledge of cell- structure. With such methods the first step taken was to distin- guish the protoplasm as differentiated into the outer membrane or cell-wall, the more fluid and granular contents, and the gener- ally spherical and central zwcleus. The last body often carries a nucleolus; and nucleus and nucleolus may sometimes be in- , creased in number, or, again, they may apparently dissolve to be later reconstituted. Our next step under this technique was to distinguish a primary and a secondary plasma,—the former the protoplasm proper, the latter the dewtoplasm (paraplasm, meta- plasm, etc.), formed by processes of absorption, assimilation, and degradation of the protoplasm. The former is active, 4/e-sud- stance, the latter passive, food-substance. The protoplasm is more firm and hyaline, abundant near the wall and the nucleus, and forms coarse trabecule, traversing and bathed by the deutoplasm. The latter substance is mainly “ cell-sap,” in which float granules, oil-drops, yolk-spheres, etc. The difference in the size of cells is due mainly to difference in the amount of deutoplasm they con- tain. We are not surprised, therefore, to learn that the yolk of a hen’s egg is homologous with a microscopic cell, but we cannot say that it contains no more pure protoplasm than the latter. The third step was taken as a result of studies of the phe- nomena ‘of fertilization. The nucleus of the egg, the germinal vesicle, often shows a structure quite comparable to that of a “ typical” cell, and the fact that it was seen to conjugate with the spermatozoon certainly pointed to its autonomous nature; but at first the true import of this conclusion was obscured by theories as to the multicellular nature of the ovum. Our knowledge of the cell has, owing to improved technique, - been wonderfully advanced during the last decade by the labors of cytologists, led by Strasburger and Flemming ; and at present the work of Carnoy and of Gaule promises a new era in which the science of the cell shall rise to the dignity of a grand division of biology. We shall treat of Cytology only so far as a knowledge . 1887] The Significance of Sex. 31 of it prepares us to understand the import of fertilization as a morphological problem. No one cell described in detail could be taken as “typical.” It would be as absurd as to describe a horse as a typical animal. But the horse has tissues which are similar to those of widely dif- ferent animals. So with protoplasm; it has a typical structure generally obtaining,—viz., zé zs reticulated. The reticulum is easily seen in “ multipolar” nerve-cells, but almost any cell, when properly treated, will reveal it. (See Figs. 1-13.) A coarse re- ticulum has its trabecule themselves more finely reticulated. The reason for this structure is obvious. The thin threads of protoplasm are bathed by the cell-sap (the exchylema), and so the processes of nutrition and of respiration take place with rapidity. In the protoplasmic reticulum two elements are distinguished,— the clear kyaloplasm, which serves as a matrix for granular bodies of various sizes,—the microsomata. The microsomata are formed by the growth or the fusion of exceedingly minute grains, to which the term granules may be restricted. Then in the nucleus, when the microsomata grow or fuse to a few larger bodies, they readily come to be designated xucleolit. So these terms simply refer to size and not to definite substances, for one and the same sub- stance occurs in all these forms, and there is every reason to believe that several different kinds of protoplasm occur in the form of these microsomata. Another distinction is also made in that the protoplasm outside the nucleus is called cytoplasm, and that forming the nucleus is the aryoplasm (nucleoplasm). From this we get the terms cyto- hyaloplasm, cytomicrosomata, cyto-cachylema, p siden soca and, correspondingly, karyo-hyalopl ), karyoso- mata, karenchyma. Chemically, the haryosomata contain “ nu- clein,” which is generally termed “ chromatin” because of its great affinity for “ stains.” Gaule believes that he can differentiate two constituents of the karyosomata and two of the cytoplasm. He restricts the term chromatin to a substance having most affinity for hematoxylin, and gives the term plasmosomata to those nucleoli that especially fix safranin. The microsomata of the deutoplasm are said to especially stain by eosin, while migrosin has a special affinity for ordinary protoplasm (cytaloplasm or cytosomata, he does not distinguish which). ae Figs. 49 a-h.) t t is due to the al- TE da ui E SRG at åm aa UULA E 7 32 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. ternate contraction with thickening, and stretching of the fibres of the reticulum. The nodes of the reticulum come closer together in some one direction, and get farther apart in the direction at right angles to this; at the same time the microsomata at the nodes ab- sorb the intervening microsomata. This looks as though the mat- ter of the microsomata was subject to mutual attractions and repul- sions, and then we could say that muscular movement is a special manifestation of those varied phenomena of division and fusion, attraction and separation of microsomata seen in karyokinesis.* However, this generalization cannot be made so long as we are uncertain whether the hyaloplasm or the microsomata are the primary thing, or whether they are independent but mutually reciprocal. If the microsomata (granules) are primary, then we must assume that the hyaloplasm is an aggregation of a special sort of these granules in a definite way to serve a definite func- tion. From the optical properties of the hyaloplasm this struc- ture must be regular and uniform. Others of these granules differentiate in various directions to serve various functions, and form, by various degrees of aggregation, the different sorts and sizes of microsomata. The primary granules from which all these other forms of protoplasm in the cell are derived must be en- dowed with the power of growth, of reproduction by simple di- vision, and of differentiation or variation. They would be affected by stimuli and vibrations travelling in the hyaloplasm in which they live. They should be designated gemmudes, because of all these properties. The cell, on this hypothesis, ts a gemmule state; it is a complex organism, with parts structured and differentiated for special ends for the good of the whole. The membranes for protection and osmosis, the reticulum for movement and trans- mission of sensations, the gemmule for assimilation and repro- duction. Degraded gemmules like differentiated and degraded cells form the various kinds of microsomata in the deutoplasm, and build up other parts of the cell. We shall see that the facts of cell-structure, of karyokinesis, and especially of fertilization, lend great weight in favor of this hypothesis. The gemmules are the idioplasm. They build up the cell in its peculiar characters and maintain it there. Under the above hypothesis the theory of Nageli as to the structure of idioplasm will apply to the struc- a See Figs. 12 and 93, d, and consult Van Beneden, Arch. Biol., iv. P- 343, and ~ Melland, Quar. pe Mic. Sc., xxv., July, 1885. 1887] The Significance of Sex: 33 ture of the gemmule, and not to the reticulum primarily as Nageli intended. But the discussion of this point belongs under the subject of heredity. It may be asked, what is gained by putting back the problems of life—of assimilation, of reproduction, and of heredity—one step; are they not as inscrutable as before? Undoubtedly they are, but we gain greatly by such a view as this. We can better understand the cell. Just as we simplified the problem of 4% as applied to the. higher animals, by the cell-doctrine, so we sim- plify by as great a step this protean problem by means of the gemmule hypothesis. We must accurately determine what are the real labors of the gemmule out of which, by organization, the more wonderful phenomena of cell-life grow, and then we shall see that we have spanned by a large fraction the chasm between non-living matter and living matter. The albumen molecule is a very minute thing when compared with the gemmule, and there is plenty of room for one or two stadia of organization between, that would, when known, simplify the problem com- pletely. On this hypothesis, also, cells must have a life-history in which they pass through stages of development and stop in various degrees of complexity as mature cells. The more highly organized cells must pass through the stages in which the less highly organized remain; and there is room here also for a phy- logeny and for cenogenetic modification. Finally, the simplest cells we know, must be to some extent modified from the condition in which the original cell was. This must be taken into account in trying to derive “living” protoplasm from “non-living” mat- - ter. The first gemmule could arise only by organization of a lower order of life, and the first cell must have been an aggre- gate of like gemmules produced by binary division of a mother gemmule. Reproduction in this hypothetical first cell we may reasonably suppose to have been effected in two ways,—either by a division of the gemmule colony into two smaller colonies, or by a dissolution of its members when each gemmule was set free to become the progenitor of its own cell-state. When dif- ferentiation came in, the primitive mode of reproduction became motie as ceg A few only of the gemmules were kept | tiated for purposes of reproduction. The others had to serve grat helping them to get better chance of food by carrying the colony about by amceboid or ciliary motion; others VOL. XXI.—NO. I, 3 : 34 The Significance of Sex. [ Jan. to give protection; others, to furnish a special breeding-place for the gemmules differentiated into the nucleus; and so on. When the gemmule was set free, it more and more had to be protected by special envelopes, and so arose spores. When all the gemmules free for reproductive purposes went into the spores, the protoplasm remaining after the spores were set free could no longer grow, and hence live, and thus in reproduction by spores, as in gregarines, the mother-cell was left as a corpse when this sort of reproduction was exercised. (Fig. 27, e.) But reproduction by binary division still continued, modified first as budding, where some of the reproductive gemmules were pinched off with a share of the cytoptasm. Here we must call attention to the fact that the zadtviduality of the cell does not de- pend on the number of idioplasm gemmutes in it, for all these, being undifferentiated, are, as it were, embryonic or alike and mutually autonomous.” They continually grow and divide, and two, result- ing from one, do not produce a different kind of effect, but only more work than one. Indeed, the effect produced is not seen until they differentiate, and so present the characteristics of the cell. This principle is extremely important for understanding the facts of Fertilization. It makes no difference whether the reproductive element set free contains ove or a million gemmules, except that in the former case it sakes longer to make as large a cell as the mother; in precisely the same way as it takes longer to raise a hydra from the unicellular egg than it does from the multicellular bud. The reproductive gemmules being now confined to the ` nucleus, binary division resulted in nuclear division; so far as it was advantageous that a large: plasmodium-like cell should be produced, the new nuclei remained and nourished the common cell; and so far as the spreading of the cell over the habitat was of advantage, each daughter-nucleus took its half of the cyto- plasm, thus producing cell division. This subject will be con- tinued under the head of Karyokinesis. Continued binary division of the nucleus and the development of the products while the mother-cell remains undivided results in free cell formation (at least one variety of this). These cells often play the role of spores, ad what icol ipportange yhes this is the tai, the size of the re is reduçed in their number,—ż.e., to the number ~ of divisions. . In a somier of the monads these spani. are so “ Tapi meho Arch. f. Mic. Anat., xxvi. i 1887] The Significance of Sex. 35 minute as to be visible, only as a cloud of refringent points, under a magnifying power of four thousand diameters.. (See Roy. Micr. Journ., April, 1886.) Dallinger saw these points grow until they attained the size of nuclei, then there was differentiated a narrow zone, which increased in width around the nucleus and formed the cell. At the time this zone first appeared the hither- to homogeneous nucleus differentiated microsomata within it. (See Fig. 98, a—e.) As the flagellates seem to be the lowest of the forms of life in which all other groups converge, we should ex- pect here the most primitive methods of reproduction. This mode of spore formation follows conjugation: the nucleus spreads by a sort of dissolution through the plasma as in the case of the _ cyst forms. When the latter is broken, these spores imbedded in a plasma fill it’ Have we not here a direct reduction to the gemmule condition, each gemmule being given a chance to start a new cell, z.e. a gemmule colony ? ©- From the simple modes indicated above, we can easily derive the methods of reproduction obtaining among the Protozoa. If the whole or a part of the nucleus segments into spores which remain in a “brood pouch” in the cell-body, and are liberated as motile young, we get the “ germ balls” of Stein. Compare Figs. 22, d, 23, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34. The structures here indicated are similar, but in many cases these nucleated bodies simply rep- resent a stage of development or of kinesis of the nucleus, and are not liberated as spores. Bütschli is inclined to disbelieve in this mode of reproduction, but it hardly seems as if his objections sufficiently disprove the evidence we have of its existence. ` If the chromatin, instead of remaining uniformly distributed in the nucleus, gathers into a particular body, which sustains the relation of a nucleus to the old nucleus, we get a nucleolus. This is a structure very generally found, especially in highly developed cells. The nucleolus is to be conceived as the primary body and the nucleus as secondary. Before the nucleus can divide the nucleolus must divide; but here we may get multi- nucleolated nuclei by the multiplication of the latter, while the former remains undivided. . The general law of cell-life seems to to conserve in the centre of protoplasmic bodies a supply of undifferentiated or primary substance (the zdiop/asm), and to sur- round this by concentric structures that protect it, and serve as organs of relation to the external world. The external envelopes "e 36 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. are derived by differentiation of this inmost substance. This idioplasm is continually throwing off centrifugally these sec- ondary substances, and the continued life of the cell depends on its integrity. Reproduction always means that a portion of this substance has been separated from the remainder, and so acts from a new centre. The secondary plasmas are mechanisms for effecting such separations, as well as organs for other purposes. Alt the biological mantfestations of cell-life are due to the activity of these organs. All the idioplasm does is to grow, by the growth and continual division of its gemmules, and to diferentiate, by organizing in various relations for the different organs, perhaps accompanied by the chemical degradation of the units. What the chemical processes are that take place in the idioplasm unit, by which it grows and reproduces, must be referred for discus- sion to the subject of Heredity. The above is not an explanation, but simply a statément of the facts of heredity, as we conceive them, in this connection. The forces active in the gemmule are, of course, the primary cause, and the reason for and explanation of the activities of the secondary plasmas, which activities are, as was said above, the phenomena studied in biology. We can understand, in this light, how we always have struc- tures and processes that obtain in one stadium of organization repeated in the higher, compound, or derived stadia. For this reason the nucleus is, when far enough developed, reticulated like the cell, and the nucleolus itself often repeats the structure. (See Figs. 2-13.) In the same way as we get three concentric structures simultaneously existing (Figs. 9, 13-15, 19-22, 26, 32, 42, 44, 49, 50-64), we may have a quadruple condition (pre- senting one or more nucleoli in the nucleolus), seen in Figs. 13, 26, J; 27, 33, 51, 53, 56, 58, 64; and possibly Fig. 56 is evidence _ of a quintuple state. The central body is always capable of generating the whole cell by a differentiation of its chromatin (see Fig. 49), and the central body of this new cell has like powers, and so on indefini We often have the TIG or the nucleolus dividing into parts that are of unequal value, thus giving chief and accessory nuclei =~ or nucleoli, as the case may be. (See Figs. 44, 49, 51, etc.) In ~ thiscase the chief body only retains the reproductive function, ao and ee ae? seniasabe differentiated "e 1887] The Significance of Sex. 37 bodies. In this way Carnoy and Gaule have shown that such stains as hematoxylin and carmine are not tests for chromatin in a restricted sense, but that we must use safranin and methyl green. It is indeed a remarkable property of the idioplasm that it has a special affinity for aniline dyes. In connection with the segmentation of the chromatin comes up the question of individuality. Is a multinucleated cella single cell? If we understand that the chromatin is composed of many small units, like the soldiers in an army, we see that it can divide into bodies of various sizes, and these bodies can fuse again, just as the different divisions of an army may combine for any opera- tion and separate once more for other duties. Such phenomena of the multiplication of centres of chromatin activity are illus- trated in Figs. 1, 24, 25, 31, 42, and 48, or bya colony of flagel- ° lates, of hydroids, or by a tree. Are all the bodies we see, such as nucleoli and geinales i ina nucleus, the result of d:mary divisions or of simultaneous seg- mentation of a single nucleolus, or are they produced by a sort of general dissolution? Conversely, what are the laws by which the different orders of bodies from granules to nucleoli are built up? This question is to a large extent obscure as yet. The phenomena to be explained in this connection are illustrated by Figs. 14, 15, 19, 26, 50-63. Even nuclei fuse (as see Figs. 94 and 97, ¢), and the sexual nuclei. In some low forms of cells and in higher cells degraded by parasitism, such as yeasts and moulds, the nucleus may never take on the form of a compact body, but be present in the proto- plasm in a diffused or granular condition. (See Figs. 14 and 15.) In karyokinesis and in maturation or development of nuclei, there . seem to be phases in which this condition is represented. Finally, we consider those forms of nuclei and of nucleoli where the spherical or elliptical shape is departed from to a large extent. Such are the fi/amentous nuclei. These are usually mo- niliform, being due to incomplete segmentation and to growth in one direction. (See Figs. 7, 19, d, 20, 3, c, 28, 30, 6, 31, 41, and 42.) In the higher tissue-cells, the chief nucleolus is present in this form, often being exceedingly long, and wound about in a way so as to give a reticulated appearance to the chromatin. It has been termed the 4nduel by the Germans, which term means a tangle, usually termed a “skein” in English works on pulang a 3 38 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. esis. (See Figs. 13, 19, 6, 43, 44, 45, 46, a—d, 47, etc.) In Figs. 13 and 47 we see the chromatin present in these filamentous nucle- oli has been complexly arranged in a reticulum and in a spiral respectively. A cross-section of one of these filaments (mitom of Flemming) cannot be distinguished from a section ofa spheri- cal nucleolus of like structure. [Notre.—After the above article left my hands an meus een ba Altmann (“ Studien über die Zelle,” Leipzig, 1886) came to my noti By means of fuchsin staining, followed by a wash of picric acid, a new element, ‘i “ pie is brought to notice in the cytenchyma. These granules have hitherto been included with the cytenchyma in the general term deutoplasm, but Altmann believes they should be ele- vated to the dignity of an element in the protoplas To them Altmann ascribes the function of initiating and sustaining the teabele, or vegetative activities of the cell, while the reticulum mediates the motile functions. Morphologically, oad are seen to grow and to multi tiply by fission or budding, s ie t he has formulated the law “ omnis granula e granulo?’ He conceives re ucleus and nucleoli to abe aggre- Botanische Zeitung, 1880 and 1883.) All this falls into line with the gemmule hypothesis, but the function of these granules cannot be so primary as he believes, if we are to credit the evidence obtained from experiments on enucleating cells. (See Nussbaum, A. m. A., xxvi.) Nussbaum found that if he cut an Ofalina to pieces, the pieces deprived of nuclei continued to manifest movement, but did not grow. On the other hand, those pieces that had nuclei ng STON their lost parts. It is worthy of note that if a new formation was once in process of development, this was completed, even eee the Pe was enucleated during the process. This can be understood if we suppose that gemmules destined to repair the tissues had already migrated from pi nucleus, though, = course, we are not confined to this explanation. } (2) STRUCTURE OF THE SEXUAL CELLS. _ In speaking of the sexual cells without distinguishing the ovum from the spermatozoon, it is useful to use the word gamete, from which we readily coin another useful word, gametogenesis, as in- cluding ovigenesis and spermatogenesis. In the present section we are concerned only with the changes which the nucleus of the gamete suffers after its final division in gametogenesis. It is well known that in the earliest stages of gametogenesis there is little, if any, distinction between male and female cells; that in many cases the cell boundari not distinct, but we hare a homogeneous albumen containing scattered nuclei, recalling a syncytium ; that these nuclei have sometimes been seen to mul- tiply by budding eed te paee that the nuclei, aio ` grow, lose their 10n og ty ‘ en in- their r ate 1887] The Significance of Sex. 39 plasm, thin at first, grows out as an envelope about them, much as in Dallinger’s monad. (See F. R. M. S., July, 1886, and Fig. 98.) When the cells are completed, they multiply by indirect” division (karyokinesis), but not to a very great extent, if destined to become ova. In this case a period of growth, of storage of nutriment for the future embryo, ensues, and when this work is completed, the ovum shows its homodynamous nature with the spermatozoon by completing its delayed divisions by the formation of the polar globules. Why these divisions are thus delayed will be discussed in its proper place. If the ovum has its special work to do, division of labor has also given the spermatozoon its special work. For the large and stationary ovum must be sought out and penetrated, and so the enveloping cytoplasm is built up into the proper locomotor or- gans, which gives the male cell its characteristic and varied forms. We see that the characters which distinguish the male from the female gamete, or vice versa, are purely secondary and acquired characters, and, in the absence of these, we would be unable to distinguish sex. We shall endeavor to show that she chromatin is not sexed, but probably differs in the two cells by an infinitesimal variation. So far as our idea of sex implies the differentiation of MALE from FEMALE, the chromatin ts not sexed, but so far as it implies DESIRE FOR CONJUGATION with other chro- matin differing from it by a slight variation, and likewise filled with ‘a longing for conjugation, it (the chromatin) is sexed, but to this idea of sex the thought of male and female is foreign. Male and female are ideas that have arisen in contemplating the different secondary mechanisms that have been evolved for the purpose of effecting conjugation; and these characters are the result of the operation of the same principles that have differentiated a gland-cell from an epithelium-cell. But, let us see how these secondary or sexual mechanisms differ, and how the nucleus is related to them. We first consider the changes that are suffered by the nucleus of : THE OVUM. Most of the observations on the germinal vesicle (nucleus of the ovum) relate to its behavior in relation to the polar globules, which does not now concern us; for we now know that this is simply the nucleus dividing by karyokinesis so as to become 40 The Significance of Sex. [Jan. sexually mature, and that, as in ordinary karyokinesis, the succes- sive halves of the nucleus left in the yelk are the homologues of those extruded in the globules. We shall show that they are all equivalents, and there is not a separation of “male protoplasm” from “ female protoplasm” in a once “ hermaphrodite” cell. en the few observations we have of the germinal vesicle during the period of growth are compared, we are struck by the apparent variety in the different cases. But this variety is prob- ably due in part toa real variety in nature, and in part to the limited and partial knowledge we have acquired. From a com- parison of Figs. 50-64, we may gather the following general features : 1. There is a richness of chromatin development resulting in great increase in size of the nucleus. 2. There is a considerable number of nucleoli developed. 3. A large portion of the chromatin is broken down and trans- formed into yelk. (See Fig. 50.) 4. The boundaries of the nucleus are often broken down or obscured; if not, they remain extremely distinct, enclosing a: large cavity comparatively free from chromatin, and hence ` the name germinal vesicle. But with either change we find that one of the nucleoli has taken on functions that are probably nuclear in nature, and this has given countenance to the notion that the germinal vesicle may not be a nucleus, but is a cell. Such an assumption of the nuclear functions by a chief nucleolus is repeated over and over again in gland-cells, as in Fig. 49. We thus have a chief nucleolus or germinal dot and one or more paranucleoli. The latter simply break down, while the former furnishes the chromatin that divides in the polar globules, and at last conjugates with the male pronucleus; so that we always have a mass of the proto-substance conserved to carry on the exist- ence of the gemmule colony, however much of the chromatin may be used for other purposes, and this reproductive sub- stance is always conserved in the centre of the mechanism, sur- rounded and protected by at least two envelopes. If the nucleus buds, it produces paranuclet. Perhaps this is only a peculiar method of giving off nutritive substances to the cytoplasm. We _ must here observe that paaonejei, wherever found, are not neces- sarily if more than one be found in a the same cell or still less where we deal with Phafogmeucally 1887] i The Significance of Sex. 41 widely separated cells. When the germinal dot enters upon its activities as anucleus it passes through the stages of differen- tiating a reticulum and nucleoli of different kinds in itself, as we shall see under haryokinesis. (c) THE SPERMATOZOON. When the last division of the spermatocytes has taken place, the nucleus is practically ready for conjugation; hence, that its chromatin may meet the chromatin of the ovum, the secondary or achromatic structures of the nucleus transform themselves to- gether with the cytoplasm (which seems to play a more passive part), into the suitable mechanism for effecting the transfer. In most cases the resulting form is filamentous, and has a spiral structure in some part. (See Figs. 66-93.) In such highly com- plex spermatozoa we may distinguish the following parts: An outer membrane, which is perhaps the relic of the cell-mem- . brane. A head-cap, posterior to which lies the chromatin. An axial filament, which may be taken as a sort of skeleton. (See Fig. 78, e.) Finally, there isa medullary sheath, best, sometimes only, developed in the “eck” or middle piece of the spermatozoon. This sheath is often composed of two or three bands that have been spirally twisted in opposite directions around the axial fila- ment. Often one of the three is free and hung by a delicate - mesentery, and thus may propel the spermatozoon like a screw. In the development of these parts, we first see the nucleus change its shape and become homogeneous, then the axial filament is seen stretching away from the nucleus and pushing the cytoplasm before it posteriorly as the nucleus does at the anterior end. The achromatic part of the nucleus is usually present as a paranucleus (see karyokinesis, Fig. 123, also Fig. 81), which in some cases is directly converted into the medullary sheath. Paranuclei (or granules) of a different sort are often present, and may have some- thing to do in building the axial filament. All growth takes place in the neck just behind the head; and from this point the tail end is gradually pushed out as a completed structure. These accessory parts having accomplished their work of transferring the chromatin, which is to form the male pronucleus, are lost or dissolved in various ways. The chromatin is the essential sub- stance, as we shall learn under “ Fertilization? The d t t in the special cases may be E E 42 Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. [Jan. learned by a study of the figures (Plate IV.) with the accompany- ing explanations. We could now pass on to the subject of fertili- zation did we not have connected with this phenomena another series of phenomena that can be understood only by reference to the facts of “cell division,” to which we next direct our attention. (To be continued.) DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF DIPOD- OMYS, WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF ITS HABITS. BY F. STEPHENS. Dipodomys deserti STEPHENS, n. s. Desert Pocket-Rat. ARGEST known species of the genus. Length, head and body, 5.2 inches; tail vertebræ, 7.7 inches; hind foot, in- cluding claw, 1.9 inches. Color above pale yellowish brown, fur plumbeous at base, showing through the tips enough to give an ashy tinge. Below, white. Fore legs from elbow, and hind legs, in front, from knee, white. Tail, at base, on sides, below, and the tip, white; above, pale brown, becoming plumbeous towards the white tip. Indistinct white spot over the eye, another behind the ear, which extends across the shoulder to the white under- ` parts. Indistinct white band across the hips. Indistinct darker spot at base of whiskers. Soles of hind feet nearly white. Type No. 314. Female, June 29, 1886. Mojave River, Cal. Deposited in the National Museum. Habitat, Mojave and Colorado Desert regions of Southeastern California. COMPARISON OF THE SPECIES. . Dipodomys deserti. Dipodomys phillipsi. Size large. Size small. Color pale, markings comparatively in- Color dark, markings distinct. distinct Eyes TEES ely large. Eyes very lar Soles of hind feet white in the young, Soles of feet dark brown (same color as indistinctly brownish in the adults, per- upper surface of tail). haps due to soiling. Spot at base of saree merely darker Spot at base of whiskers nearly black. than surrounding Masti region coro nate. Mastoid regi paratively moderately i Aitaa PLATE V. Dipodomys deserti Stephens. Desert Pocket Rat. Three-fourths natural size. From photograph from life. Fic. 1.—Skull of Dipodomys Fic. 2.—Skull of Dipodomys deserti. hillipsi. Natural size. 1887] Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. 43 The proportions of the two species are much the same. There are other points of difference in the skull, but this is sufficient to show their specific distinctness. D. phillipsi ordi, being a slightly larger, rufous-tinged variety of D. phillipsi, may be considered as being classed with the latter in the above comparison. The type specimen may be below the average size. I havea male that measured (fresh) 5.8 inches head and body, 8.2 inches tail vertebræ. Total number of specimens examined is nine. The photographs of skulls are natural size; of the animal, three- fourths natural size. The last three days of June, 1886, I camped near the Mojave River on my way home from a collecting trip along the desert side of the San Bernardino Mountains. The first morning there (June 29) I found two peculiar Dipodomys in traps I had set the previous evening. They seemed to be a pale variety of D. phillipsi, such as I knew to be liable to occur there, it being the rule that most birds and mammals inhabiting the Mojave and Colorado Deserts are paler in color than others of the same species found in the moister coast region. In another trap was an ungrown D, philips: of nearly normal color, but I laid its darker color to its evident immature condition. At sunset I again put out my traps, and, as there were more inhabited burrows than I had traps for, I put out poisoned wheat also, which proved a most unwise act. This poisoned wheat is widely used in California to destroy ground-squirrels, pocket-rats, and similar pests. When it is used, some of the poisoned animals come to the surface to die, and I expected to obtain some ad- ditional specimens by its use. The next morning I had one D. phillipsi and two of the pale variety in my traps, and I found one of each phase of coloration poisoned, and, later in the day, when the hot sun had spoiled it, I found another pale one. Nearly all the poisoned wheat had been taken. These additional specimens convinced me that the pale animals were a good species. I had intended driving on in the afternoon, but I concluded to stop another night to try for more. The poisoned wheat had done its work only too well, for my traps contained no pocket- rats the next morning, and but few burrows showed signs of occupancy. I was unable to revisit the region until the next November, when I followed the Mojave River for twenty-five 44 Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. [Jan. miles from where it leaves the mountains, but succeeded in finding no more colonies, though several miners whom I met knew the animal, and thought they were not rare. From the colony found in June I obtained three D. phillipsi and three more of the new species, which I have named Dipodomys deserti. As the river was now dry in this part of its course, I was able to spend but two nights at the place. The colony appeared to be nearly deserted, but I do not think I obtained them all. I brought two animals of each species home alive, and still have them in captivity. On my way home I camped one night in the Cajon Pass, at an altitude of about three thousand five hundred feet. The night was very cold for this region, ice forming in my canteen and coffee-pot. The D. deserti suffered badly. I had not expected so severe a night, and had given them no protec- tion more than to turn the open side of the box (which was cov- ered with wire netting) to another box. At sunrise I noticed that one of the D. deserti seemed uneasy, and a closer inspec- tion showed that its tail was frozen as stiffasastick. In turning about in its narrow quarters it had broken off about two inches of the tail, the piece lying on the floor. The other D. deserti had not suffered so much, but it ultimately lost most of the ter- minal white tuft. The D. phillipsi seemed none the worse for the frost, and probably are a hardier race, which may account for their wider distribution. The following notes on habits are based mainly on observa- tions of my captives. The D. deserti especially have become _very interesting pets, and allow handling freely. I often turn em loose in a room of my house, usually but one at a time, as they are somewhat quarrelsome, especially the one with the frosted tail, the accident having made it somewhat bad-tempered. It is quite pugnacious, driving the others about so that they often return to their cages. The D. phillipsi do not pay much attention to the peaceable D. deserti, but when the other comes near they promptly leap away. When the two species were first turned loose together they had an all-round fight, but the riot did not last long, the heavier D. deserti being easily victorious. The actions of both species in fighting are much alike. When both are disposed to stand their ground they stand nearly erect, facing one another, and apparently cuff and scratch with the fore feet, the motions being too quick to follow accurately with è 1887] Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. 45 the eye. A few passes and one or the other loses its balance and leaps away, followed a short distance by the other. I have been unable to detect any use of the teeth in such face-to-face encounters. Sometimes the larger D. deserti will happen near one of the others and slowly and slyly work closer, and suddenly pounce on the other, when I have.heard a squeak of pain as if the teeth had been used. The bite cannot be severe, for the mouth is not capable of opening widely, and the upper incisors slope inward so much that they can get but a shallow hold. I have not handled the D. phillipsi much, but they have never bitten me. I handle the D. deserti often; one has never bitten me, the other but once, when I attempted to hold it against its wishes. It bit the inside of my forefinger where the skin was thick, and though the teeth met, but a drop or two of blood flowed. The punctures made by the upper and under incisors were but five-thirty-seconds of an inch apart, and I believe it was about as hard a bite as the beast was able to inflict on so comparatively flat a surface. Of course they are capable of cutting a twig or similar hard sub- stance of small size. They have not so far attempted to bite the tail of another, which is the favorite mode of attack of their rela- tives, the tuft-tailed pocket-mice (Perognathus penicillatus). Loco- motion is similar with both species, but D. phillipsi is more agile, leaping farther and quicker. This species can reach to about eighteen inches from the floor in trying to escape from the room, the leap taking place from near the foot of the wall. I think the usual horizontal leap when running rapidly is three feet or more, which is considerably more than that of D. deserti. The gait might be termed a hop, the work being mostly done with the hinder limbs. When moving about slowly, the first movement seems to be a tap on the ground with the fore feet to raise the fore part of the body to a leaping position, when the powerful hinder limbs give a spring resulting in a leap of a few inches. When they are running rapidly one cannot see just how it is done, but I often thought that the fore limbs take little or no part in the action, which seems to be aided by the long tail, both in guiding and balancing. It certainly looks as if the animal would be in danger of running its nose in the ground and “ end- ing over” if it depended on its very short fore legs to raise its body into leaping position after each quick leap, for D. phillipsi at least can get over the ground at a pace that would put a cat 46 Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. [ Jan. to nearly its best speed to overtake it. I once saw a D. phillipst run some forty or fifty yards in broad daylight, and have often seen them skurry away from camp in the moonlight when I happened to alarm them by some movement. ‘In places where much camping is done, such as by springs on the principal roads from one mining camp to another, the pocket- rats are in the habit of coming about the wagons at night to pick up the grain scattered by the horses, etc., becoming com- paratively tame, as no one harms them. I never knew a dog to catch one, for they can get under way very quickly, and in such places they have many holes, perhaps for such emergencies, and they immediately vanish in the nearest. In feeding they often rise to a more or less erect posture, apparently to get a better view of their surroundings. In the house I have seen them stand erect on the tail and the toes of the hind feet, thus forming a secure tripod; at such times they walk about several steps, sidewise as well as forward, with as much ease as a man. D. phillipsi is the shyest ; they dislike to be handled, and do not often come near me when out in the room. D. desert does not seem to dislike handling, but they will not yet come to me when called, though when running about the room they pay no atten- tion to me, running across my feet, etc. Sometimes when I come in the room they will presently come quite close to me, ap- parently from a mild curiosity to see what I am doing. They appear to be almost devoid of fear of other animals. The first time I put the cat in the room they came to the front, putting their noses against the wire netting to look at the cat, which was greatly vexed that she could not get at them. In this instance the D. phillipsi remained at the back of their cages. So far none of my captives will drink water. They will eat of vegetables, such as sweet potatoes, the leaves of beets and cabbages. It is probable that they obtain sufficient moisture from such sources. The principal food seems to be seed and ` = They consume but little more than a heaping table- each of wheat or barley in twenty-four hours, and one or two square inches of beet or cabbage leaves, so they are not heavy eaters. For the first two or three days I had them they -~ probably ate double this amount, but as they had been on short allowance for some weeks they were more than usually hungry. _ ‘The seeds on which they depend in a state of nature had been 1887] Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. 47 ripe some months and naturally were pretty well gathered in, but this colony had depended considerably on the waste of the travellers who usually camped in the immediate vicinity. The travel had ceased in July when the stream dried up, and thus compelled the use of a longer route until the winter rains should start the stream running again. This hunger may have caused them to tame quicker. I heard the trap-door fall when the first one was caught, and immediately took it out and put it in a cage and gave it grain. It was amusing to see the eagerness with which it immediately went to filling its pockets. It stuffed them so full that it must have been positively painful, and then it would not stop to eat, but hunted about for some exit; not finding one, it ejected the contents of its pockets in a corner out of the firelight and went back for more. This time it ate a little, but soon gathered the remainder and deposited it with the first. After eating a little more, it refilled its pockets and hunted about for a better place to make a cache, seeming to think its first choice insecure. These actions plainly show that they are in the habit of storing away their surplus. In grain-fields infested by D. phillipsi, the plough will often turn up a deposit of a pint or so when the field is ploughed for re-seeding. The loss to farmers is thus quite considerable at times. Having watched them repeatedly, I can say positively that the pockets are filled with the fore feet used as hands. When placed at a pile of grain, when hungry, they fill the pockets very quickly, both pockets being filled alike. The two pockets of D. deserti will hold a heaping tablespoonful of grain, and are, therefore, capable of carrying nearly a full day’s supplies. The filling is done so rapidly that, where a hard grain like wheat is used, a continuous rattling sound is made. The ejecting of the grain from the pockets is aided by a forward, squeezing motion of the fore feet, each foot making two or three quick forward passes - occupying scarcely a second of time. For the first few days all grain put in the cages was immediately pocketed, but since then they rarely fill their pockets, seeming to have found its use- lessness. ; The position at rest is a curious one. At first the animal stands on all four feet, with the entire sole of the hind feet rest- ing on the ground, some of the weight coming on the fore feet; presently the hind feet will hitch forward until the centre of the 48 Description of a New Species of Dipodomys. [Jan. hind feet comes under the centre of gravity, thus taking all the weight; then, often, the fore part of the body will be slightly raised and the fore feet drawn up against the body. If disposed to sleep, the bright eyes will slowly close, the fore feet droop until touching the ground, the nose slowly comes down and backward until resting between the toes of the hind feet, and the now sleeping animal is nearly as round as a ball. This appears to be the common sleeping posture. If there be room, the tail will be extended back nearly in'a straight line, but in cramped quarters it will be curved to one side or even alongside the body ; but in either case the basal part will be curved back enough to give some support. These animals make much use of the tail, and its loss would be a great inconvenience. When one of my D. deserti lost the use of its tail temporarily through its being frozen, I saw it fall over several times, lacking its accustomed support. I do not see them make much use of the power of scent, but the long whiskers are very sensitive, and must be of much use in their nocturnal rambles. The sight is good in daylight, though they do not like a strong light. If compelled to rest in a light place, they face away from the light if possible. Both species of Dipodomys seldom emerge from their burrows until the even- ing light gets dim. The hearing does not seem to be unusually acute, but I have made no experiments yet to positively deter- mine the fact. r ; : Phillips’s pocket-rat does not seem to live in companies, though the holes of different individuals may be but a few yards apart. From such information as I can gather, and from what I have seen myself, I think that the desert pocket-rat lives in colonies often if not usually. The only place where I have taken D. deserti has a colony of several groups of holes, each group being from two to eight entrances to a set of intercommunicating galleries, from six to thirty inches below the surface, and being within a space of two to three yards square. None that I opened proved to be inhabited. In each several galleries terminated one to two feet from the surface in a slight enlargement, which gen- erally contained the hulls of barley, etc., as if they were used as places of storage. Two contained a little dry grass, as if they _ had been used as nests. I put paper and cotton in the cages, but the D. deserti made but little: use of it. The D. phu 1887] History of Garden Vegetables, — 49 however, made a rude nest of theirs. After I had the animals a few days I gave them a little dry earth. The D, deserti, espe- cially, were pleased with it, rolling in it, pushing along on their bellies, and enjoying a good dust-bath. They looked much better for it, the pelage, which had been rough, becoming smooth and glossy. I think they must sometimes eat insects, as I saw one, when hopping about the floor, come across a cricket, which it appeared to leap upon, and, as I could find nothing more of the cricket, I think the pocket-rat must have eaten it. None of the females that I obtained contained embryos, but I have a skin of a D. deserti some four or five weeks old, killed with a whip by a teamster near Seven Palms, on the Colorado Desert, April 1, 1886. A friend has two young D. phillipsi in alcohol, taken in October, which were some five or six weeks old when taken. I think D. deserti will prove to be commonly distributed over most of the Mojave and Colorado Deserts west of the Colorado River, and possibly they may occur in Arizona and Mexico, HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES. BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D." x HIS series of articles, which should be rather entitled notes L on than history of cultivated vegetables, is intended as a pọr- tion of a study into the extent of variation that has been produced in plants through cultivation. The author has had the great ad- vantage of opportunity of studying the growing specimens in nearly all the species named, and in nearly all the varieties now knọwn to our seed trade; and this study has given him confi- dence in the establishing of synonymy, as oftentimes the varia- bles within types have furnished clues of importance. The treat- ment, as a matter of convenience, is arranged alphabetically, and includes the species recognized by Vilmorin-Andrieux in their standard work “ Les Plantes Potagères,” 1883, and the English edition “ The Vegetable Garden,” 1885, with the exception of the z Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva. VOL. XXI.—NO. I. 4 50 History of Garden Vegetables. [Jan. Pineapple and Strawberry, species which by American gardeners are included among fruits. In the matter of references the cita- tions are all taken directly from the sources indicated, quoted references being in all cases so acknowledged in the notes. In a work of this character, where the conclusions can oftentimes seem questionable, it is important that facilities for corroboration should be freely offered, hence I have made my apm to editions and pages. AFRICAN VALERIAN. Valeriana cornucopie L. The African valerian is a recent introduction to gardens, and furnishes in its leaves salad of excellent quality. The plant is native to the Mediterranean region, in grain-fields in waste places. C. Bauhin,? in 1596, speaks of it as if of recent introduction to botanical gardens in his time, and Clusius, in 1601, J. Bauhin, in 1651, and Ray,* in 1686, all describe it. It is not spoken of as under cultivation in Miller’s Diction- ary, 1807, nor does Don in his “ Gardeners’ Dictionary,” 1834, speak of any use, although he is usually very ready with such information. In 1841 the “ Bon Jardinier” in France refers to it as being a good salad plant. As neither Noisette,5 1830, nor Petit, 1826, nor Pirolle,? 1824, mention it, we may assume that it had not entered the vegetable garden at these dates. In 1863, Burr® describes it among American garden vegetables, as does Vilmorin?’ in France in 1883, and in England in 188 No varieties are described, although a purple- and a white- - flowered form are mentioned by Bauhin as occurring in the wild plant. The one sort now described has pink- or rose-colored flowers. The vernacular names, as given by Vilmorin, are: English, African Valerian; French, Valériane ad’ Alger, Corne d'abondance; German, Algerischer Baldrian; Flemish, Speenkrutd ; Dutch, Speerkruid. * Bauhin, Phytopin., 1596, 293; Pin., 1623, 164; Prod., 1671, 87. 2 Clusius, Hist., 1601, 2, 54. 3 J. Bauhin, Hist., 1651, iii. ae 2, 212. 4 Ray, Hist., 1686, a E Barr, Field and Gard, Veg., 1863, 401. 9 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 562; The Veg. Gard., 1885, 593. 1887 | History of Garden Vegetables. . $I The synonymy is as below: Valeriana peregrina purpurea. Bauh., a. 1596, 293. Valeriana indica. Clus., Hist., 1601, 2, 54, cum ic. Valeriana peregrina purpurea pean Bauh., Pin., 1623, 164; Prod., 1671, 87, cum tc. Valetiana peregrina, seu Indica. J. Bauh., Hist., 1651, iii. pt. 2, 212, cum ic. Valeriana mexicana. Ray, Hist., 1686, i. 394. Valerianella cornucopioides, flore galeato, Tourn., Inst., 1719, 33- Valeriana cornucopie. Linn., Sp., 1762, 44. Fedia cornucopiæ. Gaertn., Fruct., 1788, ii. 37. ALEXANDERS. Smyrnium olusatrum L., The name said to be a corruption of Olusatrum (Webster’s Dict.), but Ray (“ Hist. Plant.,” 437) says called so either because it came from the Egyptian city of that name, or it was so believed. The Italian name sacerone is believed by Ray to have been cor- ruptly derived from Macedonia, but a more probable origin is from maceria, the Italian for wall, as Columella (lib. xi. c. 3) says, “ Pastinato loco semine debet conseri maxime juxta maceriam.” English, Alexanders, Alisanders, Allisanders, Horse parsley, Macedonicum, Parsley macedonian, Arabic, Seniruion. Belgian Petersilie van Alexandria, P. van Macedonien, Groot decd. French, Alexandre, Ache large, Grand ache, Maceron. German, Alexandrinum, Brust-wurzel, Engel-wurzel, Herda alexandriana, Gross Epffich, Peterlin, Liebstockel. Greece, Agrioselinon, Mauro- selinon, Skuloselinon. Greek, Hipposelinon, Smyrnion. Italian, lessandrion, Herba Alexandrina, Macerone, Smirnio. Latin, Fiipposelinon, Olisatum, Olusatrum, Smyrnion. Portuguese, Cardo do coalho. Spanish, Apio macedonica, Perextl macedonico. In this Umbhellifer, as Dé Candolle remarks, we can follow the plant from the beginning to the end of its culture. Theo- phrastus, who flourished about 322 B.c., speaks of it as an offi- cinal plant, under the name of Hipposelinon. Dioscorides, who lived in the first century after Christ, speaks of the edible prop- erties of the roots and leaves, while Columella and Pliny, authors of the same century, speak of its cultivation; Galen, in the second century, classes it among edibles, and Arsene in the third cen- tury, gives a receipt for its preparation for the table. aaale- 52 _ History of Garden Vegetables. [ Jan. magne, who died A.D. 814, included this vegetable among those ordered to be planted on his estates. Ruellius’s edition of Dios- corides, 1529, does not speak of its culture, nor does Leonicenus, 1529 (not necessitated by the text); but Fuchsius, 1542, says planted in gardens. Tragus, 1552, received seed from a friend, so it was apparently not generally grown in his part of Germany at this date. Matthiolus, in his “Commentaries,” 1558, refers to its edible qualities. Pena and ress 1570, say in England it occurs abundantly in gardens,—“in hortis copiosissimum, ubi radix illi crassior, magis succosa, vesca et tenerior, quam suapte sponte nato,” and the cultivated form far better than in the wild plant. Camerarius, “ Epitome,” 1586, says, “in hortis seritur.” Gerarde, in 1597, does not speak of its culture, but says, “ groweth in most places of England,” but in his edition of 1630 says, “the root hereof is also in our age served to the table raw fora sallade herbe.” Dodonzus, 1616, refers to its culture in the gardens of Belgium, and Bodzus a Stapel, in his edition of “ Theophrastus,” 1644, says is much approved in salads, and is cultivated as a vege- table,—‘ Contra maceronis esui idonea, palato non ingrata; quo nomine a Gallis, Anglio, Germanis avidissime in acetariis ex- petitur ac ab olitoribus sedulo colitur;” yet, in 1612, “Le Jar- dinier Solitaire” mentions the culture of celery, but not of Alex- anders, in French gardens. Quintyne, in the English edition of his “ Complete Gard’ner,” 1704, says “ it is one of the furnitures of our winter-sallads, which must be whitened like our wild En- dive or Succory.” In 1726, Townsend, in his “ Complete Seeds- man,” refers to the manner of use, but adds, “’tis but in few gardens.” Mawe’s “Gardener,” 1778, refers to this vegetable, but it is apparently in minor use at this time; yet Varlo, in his ` “Husbandry,” 1785, gives directions for continuous sowing of the seed in order to secure a more continuous supply. McMahon, -in his “ American Gardeners’ Kalendar,” 1806, includes this vegetable in his descriptions, but not in his general list of kitchen- garden esculents, and it is likewise enumerated by later American writers, and is included by Burr, 1863, among garden vegetables, —a survival of mention apparently not indicating use; and Vil- morin, in his “ Les Plantes Potagéres,” 1883, gives a hania and a few lines to maceron, but I do not now find its seed advertised in our catalogues, and I never. remember to have seen FE | ee 1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 53 Smyrnium perfoliatum L. ‘This species is perhaps confounded with S. olusatrum in some of the references already given. Loudon says it was formerly cultivated, and McIntosh says it is thought by many superior to S. olusatrum,—a remark which Burr (“ Field and Garden Vege- tables”) includes in his description. Although the species is separated by a number of the older botanists, yet Ruellius, 1529, is the only one I find who refers to its edible qualities. This plant, which De Candolle says has been under common culture for fifteen centuries (“a été une des plus communes dans les jardins pendant environ quinze siècles,” “ Orig. des Pl. Cult.,” 72), has shown, so far as my researches indicate, no change of type under culture. The figures which occur in so many of the herbals all show the same type of plant, irrespective of the source from which the illustration may have been taken, unless perhaps the root is drawn rather more enlarged in some cases than in others. ALKEKENGI. Physalis sp. The alkekengi, usually known in our seed catalogues by the name of Strawberry Tomato, is classed with the Tomatoes, and it is worthy of note that Hernandez, in his work on Mexican plants, published in 1651, did the same. There are a number of species which occur under the general name, and the plant is frequently found in gardens, as some people are fond of the fruit, whether raw or preserved. The plant most often, however, occu- pies waste places, springing up spontaneously after being once introduced, and its products are of very minor importance among vegetables. : Among the species that have been identified from the seeds of „the “Strawberry Tomato,” obtained from commercial sources, are the following: ; 1. Physalis angulata L. This species is found widely dispersed over tropical regions, extending to the southern portion of the United States and to Japan. It is first described by Camerarius, in 1588, as a plant hitherto unknown, and an excellent figure is given. It was seen in a garden by C. Bauhin? before 1596, and is figured in the * Camerarius, Hort. Med., 1588, 70, Fig. 17. 2 Bauhin, Phytopin., 1596, 297. 54 History of Garden Vegetables. [Jan. “Hortus Eystettensis,’* 1613. J. Bauhin? speaks of its pres- ence in certain gardens in Europe. Linnzus makes a variety with entire leaves, and both his species and variety are figured by Dillenius, who obtained the variety from Holland in 1732. When it first appeared in our vegetable gardens I do not find recorded. £ Its synonymy seems to be as below : Halicacabum sive Solanum Indicum. Cam., Hort., 1588, 70 cum tc: Solanum vesicarium Indicum. Bauh., Phytopin., 1596, 297; Pin., 1623, 166; Ray, Hist., 1686, 681. Halicacabum seu Solanum Indicum. Camer., Hort. Eyst., 1613, - Aim ie. Solanum sive Halicabum Indicum. J. Bauh., 1651, iii. 609, cum ic. Alkekengi Indicum majus. Tourn. Inst., 1719, 151. Pops. Hughes, Barb., 1750, 161. Physalis angulata.L. Gray, Syn. Fl., ii. pt. i. p. 234. 2. Physalis barbadensis Jacq. This species is said by Vilmorin to be sometimes cultivated in France. According to Maycock ¢ it is the Fop vni of Hughes.5 I have not seen it growing. 3. Physalis lanceolata Michx. This species was among the “‘ Strawberry Tomatoes” grown in 1886, and occurred in two varieties, —4, the ordinary sort, and 6, with broader leaves and more robust growth.» Its habitat is given by Gray as from Lake Winnipeg to Florida and Texas, Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico. 4. Physalis peruviana L. This South American species seems to have become fairly well distributed through cultivation. Birdwood® records it as cultivated widely in India, and gives native names in the various ; 2 Hortus iit, 1613 be 1713). ist. ord., 13, fol. 2. 2 Bauhin, Hist., 1651, iii. 609. bes saaa Hock Riet 12, t. 12; p. 12, f. 11, t. 115 . 4 Maycock, Fl. Barb., 98. ; _ 8 Hughes, Barb., 161. , ; : l Rirawood, Vig Prod. of sali 173- 1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 55 dialects, and Speede* mentions it also. In France it is classed among garden vegetables by Vilmorin? Descourtliz gives a Carib name, “ sousourou-scurou.’ Drummond, who introduced the plant into Australia, after ten years reports it as completely naturalized in his region. This species differs but slightly from P. pubescenss Gray, in 1878, says it was introduced into culti- -vation several years ago, but has now mainly disappeared. In English called Cape Gooseberry® or Cherry Tomato; in Carib, “ sousourou-scurou; in Tagalo, “potocan,” in India, Winter Cherry, TurParee;7 in Bengali, Tapureca, Tapeeriya, and Lophlee; in Mindustiii, Macao; in Telinga, Budda-busara, Pambudda.? i 5. Physalis philadelphica Lam. Although the habitat of this species is given by Gray? as in fertile soil, Pennsylvania to Illinois and Texas, yet it seems to be the Miltomatl figured by Hernandez™ in his Mexican history, published in 1651. It is described by Burr™ under the name Purple Ground Cherry, Purple Strawberry Tomato, Purple Winter Cherry. The “petite tomate du Mexique, as received from Vil- morin, in 1883, can be assigned to this species, as can also a “ Strawberry Tomato” grown in 1885. A 6. Physalis pubescens L. This species has a wide range, extending from New York to Iowa, Florida, and westward, from Texas to the borders of Cali- fornia, and southward to tropical America. It is described by Marcgrav” and Piso *3 in Brazil about the middle of the seventeenth century, and Feuille,“ 1725, mentions it as cultivated and wild in t Speede, Ind. Handb. of Gard., 1842, 233. 2 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 4. 3 Drummond, Hook. Jour. of Bot., 1840, ii.-347. 4 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 4. s Gray, Syn. Flora of N. Am., ii. pt. 1, p. 233. 6 Pickering, Ch. Hist. of Pl., 755. 7 Speede, l. c. 8 Birdwood, l. c. 9 Gray, Syn. FL, 1. c. x Hernandez, Nova Hist. Mex., 1651, 295. ™ Burr, Field and Gar. tid 1863, 593- 12 Marcgravius in Piso, Brazil, 1648, 12. 13 Piso, de Ind., 1658, 22 14 Feuille, Obs., si, 4s 5, ph ¥. bee’, 56 History of Garden Vegetables. [Jan. Peru. It has been introduced into many regions. Loureiro" records it in Cochinchina, Bojer,’ as cultivated in the Mauritius and in all the tropical countries, and it also occurs in the descrip- tions of garden vegetables in France and America. It was culti- vated by Miller in England in 1739,3 but was described by Park- inson in 1640. It had not reached the kitchen garden in 1807, but had before 1863. Its synonymy seems as below given : ‘Camaru. Marcg., 1648, 12; Piso, 1658, 223. Halicacabum sive Alkakengi Virginense. Ray, 1686, 681. ~ Alkekengi Virginianum, fructu luteo. Tourn., 1719, 151. Alkekengi Virginianum, fructu luteo, vulgo Capuli. Feuille, 1725, ili. 5. Alkekengt Barbadense nanum, Alliaria Jolio, Dill. Elth., p. 10, E 9, £ 9; 1774 Physalis pubescens. Lin., Sp., 1762, 262. 7. Physalis virginiana Mill. This species has also been grown from the seedsmen’s “ Straw- berry Tomato.” It is low spreading. Its habitat is given by Gray as Upper Canada to Florida and Texas. The number of species which are included in the common name Strawberry Tomato is indicative of the wide source of seed-supply tributary to our seed-houses, as well as to the little importance of the plant for the vegetable garden. It is quite evident that in nature many of these species are quite variable, furnishing numerous botanical varieties. Whether any varieties have originated under culture it is scarcely worth the while to consider, as the common nomenclature is so obscuring, and as there is no indication of the plants receiving enough considera- ` tion to justify us in supposing attempts for improving through seietan or careful cultivation. AmeRrICAaAN Cress. Barbarea precox R. Br. The vernacular name is a misnomer, as this species, although introduced into Anor is not native, but an inhabitant of the ere Fl. Cochinch., 1790, 133... ? Bojer, Hort. Maurit., 1837, 237. 3 Miller’s Dict. 1807.. $ 1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 57 Old World. The first mention we find is that of Ray, who notices it in his description of the similar species Barbarea vul- garis. It is cultivated in the Mauritius, in gardens of England 3 as a cress in 1855, and stated by Don,* in 1831, to be generally liked as a winter cress in Germany and England. In France it is included among garden vegetables by Vilmorin 5 in 1883, but not by Noisette® in 1829. It is recorded for American gardens by Burr? in 1863, and Gray, in 1880, says it is cultivated from Pennsylvania southward as a winter cress, It is known in the Southern States under the name of Zarly Winter Cress, or Scurvy-grass? in English generally Winter Cress, American Winter Cress, and Belle Isle Cress, or American Cress ; "° in France ™ as Cresson de terre, Cresson de jardin, Cresson vivace, Cresson des vignes, Cressonette de jardin, Roquetie, and Sisym- brium; in German, Amerikanische Winterkresse; in Flanders, Wilde kers ; in Denmark, Winter karse. Ancewica. Angelica archangelica L. This species is occasionally cultivated among aromatic or medicinal herbs. Its young, tender stalk in May, cut into small pieces, makes an admirable sweetmeat, and in the north of Europe the Laplanders consume its green shoots as a salad. The medicinal properties of the root were highly prized in the Middle Ages. In Pomet? we read that the seed is much used to make angelica comfits, as well as the root for medicine. Bryant’ deems it the best aromatic that Europe produces. This plant must be a native of Northern Europe, for I find no references to it in the ancient authors of Greece and Rome, nor is it mentioned by Albertus Magnus in the thirteenth century. By Fuchsius, 1542, and succeeding authors it receives proper attention, and is recorded as cultivated in gardens. 1 Ray, Hist., 1686, i. 809, sub spec., 8. 2 Bojer, Hort. Maur., 1837, 10. 3 McIntosh, Book of the Gard., 1855, ii. 170. ™ Pomet, Hist. of Didi sheds 1748, 42. 13 Bryant, Fl. Diet., 1783, 53- 58 History of Garden Vegetables. [Jan. The German name Heilige Geist Wurz implies the estimation in which it was held, and offers clue to the origin of the word Angelica, or angel plant, which occurs in so many languages, as in English, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, becoming Angelique and Archangelique in Frénch, and Angelickwurz in German. Other names, of like import, are the modern Engelwurz in Ger- many, Lngelkruid in Flanders, and Engelzvortel in Holland. The various figures given by herbalists show the same type of plant, the principal differences to be noted being in the size of the root. Pena and Lobel, in 1570, note a smaller variety as culti- vated in England, Belgium, and France, and Gesner is quoted by Camerarius? as having seen roots of three pounds’ weight. Bauhin,? 1623, says the roots vary, the Swiss-grown being thick, those of Bohemia smaller and blacker. Anise. Pimpinella Anisum L. Anison was known to the ancient Greeks, and Dioscorides says the best came from Crete, the next best from Egypt; and it is mentioned by Theophrastus.* Pliny,5 in the first century, says “ anesum, green or dry, is desirable in all seasonings or sauces,” and the seeds are even sprinkled in the under crust of bread, and used for flavoring wine. He quotes Pythagoras as praising it whether raw or cooked. Palladius,° in the beginning of the third century, gives directions for its sowing. - Charlemagne,” in the ninth century (A.D. 812), commanded that anise should be sown on the imperial farms in Germany. It is mentioned also by Albertus Magnus® in the thirteenth century. It seems to have been grown in England as a pot-herb prior to 1542, as Boorde,? in his “ Dyetary of Helth,” printed in that year, says of it and fennel, - “These herbes be seldom used, but theyr seedes be greatly occu- pyde.” Ruellius® records it in France in 1536, and gives the t Pena and Lobel, Adversaria, 1570, 311.. 2 Camerarius, Hort., 1588, 16. 3 Bauhin, Pin., 1623, 155. 4 Bodæus a Stapel, Theop., 1644, 744- co Eb. xx. ¢. 72. é Palladius, lib. iii. c. 24; lib. iv. c. ve 7 Quoted in Pharmacographia, p. 3 i _ § Albertus Magnus, De Veg., esen Pp 1867, 476. 9 Quoted in mana D opad 1887] : Editors’ Table. 59 common name as Roman fennel, the same as Albertus Magnus used in the thirteenth century. It is classed among culinary herbs by Laurembergius’ in 1632,and in America by McMahon? in 1806 In the seventeenth century Quintyne? records the use of the leaves in salads. e seeds now serve to flavor various liqueurs ; in Italy they appear in diverse pastries; in Germany they are put into bread; in England, in special bread, in rye bread, and even in cheese. In Malta, localities in Spain, France, Southern Italy, Germany, and Russia the plant is grown on a large scale for the seed, which enters commerce for use in flavoring medicines, etc. It is also grown in Northern India and Chili. The plant is indigenous to Asia Minor, the Greek islands, and Egypt, but is nowhere to be met with undoubtedly growing wild; and I have found no indication of- its having formed varieties under cultivation, except that Bauhin records one sort having rounder and smaller seeds than the common. (To be continued.) EDITORS’ TABLE. EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. In all of our four hundred colleges and universities, with a dozen conspicuous exceptions, the instruction in the biological sciences is but little more than a farce. College presidents and trustees seem to think that while some special knowledge is necessary for teaching the classics and mathematics, any one is competent to give instruction in botany and zoology. Indeed, it would even appear that they regard eminence as an investigator in either of these branches as an undesirable feature in an in- structor. The teachers of biology are mostly men without biological training, men whose ideas and methods are those of a generation ago, and who have no more idea of modern - science and modern scientific thought than have the poorest of the pupils who are unfortunate enough to come under them. Their whole idea of botany is “ analysis,’ while zoology is but ® Laurembergius, Hort., 1632, 193. 2 McMahon, Am. Gard. Kal., 1806. ~ Quintyne, Complete Gard., 1693. 4 Joigneaux, Traité des Graines, 146. 60 Editors’ Table. [Jan. cut-and-dried classification. This is true not only of most West- ern institutions, but of many in the East as well. It was in one of the latter that the students of zoology were treated to three solid months of worms, while, for aught the professor said, they were left in absolute ignorance of the existence of the groups of protozoa and vertebrates. Too frequently ministers and lawyers are installed as professors of natural history. Neither have had the training necessary to fit them for the posi- tion, but they are graduates of the college, and must be taken care of. Those in authority do not seem to realize that the pro- fessional studies of a clergyman, instead of fitting one for a stu- dent of nature, are a positive hindrance. The whole theological training lies in the lines of faith and revererce for authority, while science demands of its devotees, if not a sceptical spirit, one of complete independence. One cannot rely upon any statement solely on the grounds that it is advanced by a Cuvier or an Agassiz. Science has no infallible gospel wherewith to settle all disputes except that presented by the book of nature, and how difficult this is of interpretation only the original in- vestigator knows. The lawyer or the clergyman, when he enters the field of science, brings his traditions and his old methods of thought with him. He looks for the written accounts as he formerly turned to his Bible or his “ Blackstone,” and when he finds any statement in print, he pins his faith to it as unquestion- _ ably as he did to the other authorities in the days of yore. Were this selection of incompetent instructors a matter of necessity it would not speak well for American science; but it is not. We have in our country an abundance of able students, but, strange to say, it is the exception, rather than the rule, to find our best workers occupying professors’ chairs. This results not from any disinclination for teaching on the part of these stu- dents, but from the stupidity of our college officers, who, if ered the choice between excellence and mediocrity, almost invariably choose the latter. When the Society of American Naturalists was formed, one of the objects proposed was a reform in this respect; but so far nothing has been accomplished in this direction. How to pro- ceed in changing this state of affairs may be a question, but it is to be hoped that in the early future some steps may be taken oe. SS er ee and in- 1887] Geography and Travels. 61 struction. A list of eligible persons, with accounts of their work, etc., might be prepared and placed in the hands of a committee, so that those in search of a professor might know from whom to select, while a few protests sent to college trustees, on making an eminently unfit nomination, might bear some good fruit. GENERAL NOTES. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. America. ALasKA.—On his way to Mount St. Elias, Lieu- tenant Schwatka’ crossed an unknown river, which, at eight miles twenty miles wide was seen by the explorers. It extended fifty miles along the base of the St. Elias Alps, and was named the Agassiz Glacier. Another to the west was called the Guyot Glacier, while a third was named in honor of Professor Tyndall. hey then ascended Mount St. Elias to a height of seven thou- sand two hundred feet above the snow-line. Glaciers were seen rising, sometimes perpendicularly, to heights varying from three hundred t three thousand feet, and enormous crevasses were frequent. Three peaks, varying from eight thousand to twelve thousand feet, were seen, and named Cleveland, Whitney, and Nicholls. : THE Source oF THE Muississippi1.—The controversy concern- ing Lake Glazier has been a long one. Science (August 13) prints a letter by Russell Hinman, giving copies of Schoolcraft’s map; and those of Nicollet, 1843; the Land Office, 1879; and Glazier, 1881. He also gives, in parallel columns, the language used by Schoolcraft (1832) and that of Glazier (1881). Nicollet’s ’ Nicollet’s map have nothing to do with the source of the river, and that those surveyed, mapped, and named by the Land Office were mere lakelets, and not identical with Lake Glazier. oy ain Glazier’s claim to discovery seems, however, to be ‘completely disposed of by the letter of H. D. Harrower in Scvence (October 8). Mr. Harrower gives a map reduced from fac-simile 1 Edited by W. N. LocKINGTON, Philadelphia. 62 General Notes. [Jan. tracings of maps of the surveys made in October, 1878. This shows “ Elk Lake” in exactly the position of Lake Glazier. Into it runs a small stream, and another stream, of about equal length, flows into the western arm of Lake Itasca. The last stream heads in a tiny lakelet. Neither stream much exceeds two miles in length. Elk Lake has, of course, precedence of “Lake Glazier.” The great Lake Mistassini, regarding which exaggerated re- ports were afloat some time ago, has been proved to be an expan- sion of Rupert River, about one hundred miles in length and twelve in breadth. Depths of three hundred and seventy-four and two hundred and séventy-nine feet have been found. Above this is Little Mistassini, a widening of the river to a width of six miles. Europe. Moresnet.—Sczence, in its Paris letter, reports a bit of political geography not generally known. It is that there is between Belgium and Germany a small and quite independent state that is smaller than Monaco, San Marino, or Anderra,— that of Moresnet. The delegates who fixed the frontier between Belgium and Germany in 1815 disagreed at this point, each wanting the mineral riches of the little spot of six square kilo- metres. Finally they left it independent. It had then about fifty sae a now it is a flourishing town of more than eight hundred ou ee Caucasus is now within reach of English summer tour- ists, and Messrs. Dent and Donkin spent the summer of 1886 in exploring the peaks and glaciers encircling Kashtantall (17,096 feet). They ascended Tau Tetmuld (16,500 feet), and made other glacier rg eras which will necessitate corrections in the maps of the distri Asia and A ALIA.—The Kimberley gold- fields of Western peores lie in a fertile tract of country between King Sound and Cambridge Gulf in the tropical portion of the colony. The new town and port of Derby, on King Sound, has arisen in connection with these diggings. The entrance to the Sound, by arn Strait, is remarkable for the eiecmiss of the tide. Cambri idge Gulf, at the head of which the new settlement of Wyndham is situated, is pronounced by Mr. Forrest to be one of the finest harbors of Australia, is protected from all weathers, -has numerous bays, and good deep water. The “proclaimed” gold-field is two hundred and twenty miles from Wyndham the nearest route. The gold is found in good-sized lumps, on or - near the surface, near e head-waters of the Ord River, which who are sup- 1887] Geography and Travels. 63 posed to be the true aboriginal inhabitants, without admixture with Chinese. Little is known of them, as they hold aloof from other tribes. They inhabit the mountain ranges to the northwest of the Tipuns, and are a fierce and intractable race, addicted to cannibalism. There is also said to be a tribe of red-haired savages living among the central mountains. The Pepo-huans seem to and Chinese. The inhabitants of Formosa are intelligent, and the Chinese have a proverb to the effect that when the savages take to wearing trousers there is no room for a Chinaman. BornEo.—Mr. Pryer states that the natives of North Borneo are of mixed aboriginal and Chinese ancestry. On the east coast there is little of the native type left. This race, the Dusuns, is settling down under the North Borneo Company, and is thriving and increasing. In the long-course of Chinese trade with the island, a slow and steady infiltration of Chinese blood took place. Africa. THE Last GERMAN Conco Expepition,—tThe last Ger- man Congo Expedition, 1884-86, made extensive land journeys. Dr. Buttner proceeded from San Salvador, the residence of the king of the Ba-Congo, to the Quango, passing through the country of the Sombo into that of the Mayakke. The Sombo are great ivory-traders. At the capital of the Muene Putu Ka- songa (Kiamoo), which has about one thousand houses in its stockade, our traveller was compelled to turn northwards. Pass- ing the Kingunshi rapids of the Kuango, he crossed the country of the Warumba. At Ngatuka a Queen Geu (Goy) is in power, and her brother rules over the Bansinik at a town which has an audience-hall that will hold one thousand people. Thence he proceeded to the Congo, which he reached above Leopoldville. h Dr. Wolff’s Lomanie to be this river.) Farther eastward pacific relations were established with King Gakoko, ruler of the Basengo and of their smaller neighbors, the Bikalli. With the Bikalli, and with the Bavumbo beyond them, several contests occurred, re- sulting in the former case in the loss of two men killed and seven wounded, and in the latter in the wounding of Lieutenant Kund ¢ by Alpheus Hyatt. 64 General Notes. [Jan. himself, who was struck with three arrows, which his companion (Lieutenant Tappenbeck) cut out with a razor. The land journey was then abandoned, and the river descended in boats to the Congo. The German accounts of this expedition call attention to the fact that in many of the names of tribes, etc., those mentioned by the Portuguese missionaries may be recognized; also to the similarity between the names of tribes in this region and those of others dwelling on the Cunene or Zambezi (z.¢., Adima, Pende, Bayeye, Balula, Basaka, Bangola). This points either to similarity of lan- guage, or to an extensive migration of tribes. ArFrican Notes.—Mr. H. H. Johnston made a journey up the Cameroons River in June last. A few miles beyond the village of Ngale Nyamsi, he obtained, from a height of five hundred feet above the river, a view of a chain of fantastically peaked moun- tains lying fifty to sixty miles from the river and probably ten thousand feet or more in height. . M. J. de Brazza, brother of the governor of the French Congo, reached the Sekoli (the Punga of Grenfell) by an overland journey from the Ogowé through a fertile and well-populated region, the abode of the Mbete and Ossete tribes. On the Sekoli dwell the Ikata, a commercial but warlike people. The river was descended in canoes to where it receives the Amboli and. assumes larger proportions. fallen a prey to the Tukaleurs. M. Davoust placed all the tribes on the left bank under French protectorate. Those on the right a river known as the Lomami which falls into the Sunkuru from rtheast, but does not believe it identical with the river of that name which flows into the Congo just below Stanley Falls, which he himself ascended as far as 1° 33’ S. lat. in January, 1885; and which at that point was a stream of thirty-five thou- sand feet per second, at an altitude of thirteen hundred and fifty A GEOLOGY AND PAL ONTOLOGY. Hyatt on Primitive Forms of Cephalopods.'—The succes- sion of forms in any genetic series of Nautiloids is from a straight through a curved cyrtoceran form to a loose-coiled gyroce- i before the National Academy of Science, Boston meeting, 1887] Geology and Paleontology. 65 ran, and finally to a close-coiled nautilian shell. Among Ammo- noids the same series occurs only on one occasion, at the begin- ning of the group, during Silurian and Devonian time, in a series which may be said to include Bactrites, a straight orthoceratitic shell, Mimoceras, a true gyroceran form, and Anarcestes, which is close-coiled. The discovery of a proto-conch upon the apex of Bactrites by Beyrich and Branco leaves no doubt that it is, as heretofore supposed by the writer, a transitional form from Or- thoceras to Ammonoidea. These forms are primitive or transi- tional radicals and have cylindrical whorls, except in Anarcestes. In this genus a depressed semilunar whorl is for the first time introduced. This form of whorl is not at once and generally adopted in the young. On the contrary, these are usually tubular and often straight like Bactrites, or loosely coiled like the adults of Mimoceras. Others, again, after passing through a stage with tubular whorls, may become suddenly close-coiled and have at once a depressed form of whorl. Such fluctuations in embryonic characters are common even in different varieties of the same species until we reach the Trias. In this formation, or possibly earlier in the Dyas, the larve are all close-coiled, and the whorls at an early stage invariably have the depressed semi- lunar form like the adults of Anarcestes. Throughout the Trias also there occur in great abundance smooth shells, Arcestes, in which the full-grown adults are smooth and have the similar anarcestian peculiarities. Thus from the Silurian to the Trias, inclusive, the semilunar or depressed smooth whorled forms are which we have designated as primary radicals, confining the use of the words primitive radicals to the transitional genera Bactrites, Mimoceras, and the like. Compressed forms differing but slightly from the depressed species occur in Anarcestes and in Arcestes, etc. In the Trias - and Lias these compressed, smooth shells which we have called secondary radicals become much more important. In Psiloceras planorbe we strike upon a species of this character to which we can trace all the Arietidz of the lower Lias and many forms of higher Jura and Cretaceous. The great trunk of radical species has, of course, many lateral branches, which strike off from it during the course of its chrono- logical migrations through the Palzozoic and Trias, but of these we have taken no account, because they were purely lateral off- shoots which did not arise from fission or the modification of the main stock of radical generators. In the Jura, however, this main stock itself splits into branches, and the pri and — secondary radical forms are replaced by more complicated radi- cals. There is a side branch, which arose in the early Trias, aid i in which they are still, in a measure, preserved and continued, but VOL. XXI.—NO. I. 5 ` 66 General Notes. [Jan, the main trunk line is replaced by irregular branches beginning with species which we have styled tertiary radicals. ese have either the depressed or compressed form of whorl, are discoidal, and, therefore, resemble the primary and secondary radical throughout life. But, on the other hand, they are often highly ornamented with spines and ribs, and have more complicated sutures, ‘ _ The tertiary radicals give rise to series of species, which may become excessively involute and otherwise modified in the to continue the direct lines of descent from the Trias, so far as progressive forms are concerned. But when we turn our attention to retrogressive forms, the story is different. Series of degraded or distorted forms occur in the Jura and Cretaceous, and several families afford good ex- amples. In these series we can usually trace an origin in some close-coiled, discoidal, ornamented shell, which belongs to the tertiary radicals, or is not far removed from them in its aspect. We have frequently pointed out the nature of these degrada- tions. They are similar to the senile degenerations observed in the individuals of the tertiary radicals and other species of the progressive series of the Ammonoids. These geratologous transformations, whether occurring in the senile degenerations of a shell or in a series of species, tend to produce similar results, namely, the decrease in size and uncoiling of the whorl, destruc- tion of ribs and spines, reduction of sutures to more primitive proportions, The final result, as we have often said, is a straight almost smooth ‘shell, Baculites. We now wish to assert that Baculites is a polyphyletic group derived from many tertiary radicals, and separable into a considerable number of distinct genetic groups.—A/pheus Hyatt. é New Jersey Cretaceous.—The different beds of the New Jersey Cretaceous consist of layers of sedimentation, almost always conformable, which have been distinguished by the State Geological Survey as Plastic Clays, Camden Clays, Lower Marls, Middle Marls, Upper Marls, with which series in this paper the Eocene Marls have been united. Beds of sand separate these beds, and the fossils are limited to the green marls and clays. The clay-beds in their lower part have yielded five species of fossils, shells which are entirely estuarine in character, the genera recognized being Astarte, Corbicula, Gnathodon, and a new SS Dania This last genus resembles the Jurassic u _ At the upper limit of the clay-beds in the clay marls are found = ironstone nodules containing casts of fossils identical with ee Won me ee ee the Clay Marie aE Crols i 1887] Geology and Paleontology. 67 wicks and Haddonfield. Their position may be in the Lower Marl-beds or in the clays proper. More study and investigation is necessary to determine this point. Lower down in the clay fossil plants occur cretaceous in character (Newberry). The Lower Green Marls hold most of the cretaceous fossils, and this fact, together with a showing of the comparative rich- ness in fossils of the entire series discussed, is made evident by the following tables : Summary of Lamellibranchiata. Formations. amilies. Genera. Species. Plastic Clays 4 4 5 Camden Clays I 12 ower Marls 27 76 155 Middle Marls 8 II Base of Upper Marls 12 13 16 Eocene Upper Marls 12 t7 23 Total 31 89 222 j Summary of Gastropods. rmations. Families. Genera. Species. Plastic Clays ‘us kis 1? den Clays bèr sis ae Lower Marls 25 60 125 Middle Marls 5 6 y Base of Upper Marls 7 8 8 Eocene Upper Marls 2I 29 52 Total 31 80 190 Summary of Cephalopods. Species. Lower Marls wO Middle Marls ; I Eocene Marls 2 General Summary of Species. retaceous. Eocene. Brachi opods 5 2 Lamellibranchiata 199 s4 138 52 = nade Ae A 12 2 Total 354 79 The fossils are usually restricted to single beds, at most only four molluscan forms, arate from one bed to another. The of this age, only Be species bein ngr seat, all Terebratulide. Of the brachiopods, Terebratula harlani and T. lachryma occur in South Carolina, and T. foridana in Alabama. 68 General Notes. [Jan. Of Lamellibranchiates of the Lower Marl-beds of New Jersey,— = species ; are known from Alabama. essee. 3 i S s Mississippi. 6 T . Texas 20 ` - North Carolina. 4 3 $ Dakota. 3 z x Europe. Of the Middle Marl-bed species, — Alabama has 3 species. Tennessee “ exas a i ms “ec Dakota Fee? Of the Eocene species, Crassatella alta is the only species known from any other State. f the Gastropods, which have been less studied in the Southern States,— North Carolina has I species. 2 “ Alabama one E Tex Of the Gepleslbpots. 1 most have been recognized in Alabama and Texas. Of the Eocene Gastropods, ten occur in Alabama. Of the two hundred and twenty-two species of Lamellibranchi- ates, seventy-four of them are new species; and of one hundred and ninety species of Gastropods, one hundred and seven are new. Comparison permits the conclusion arrived at before by others on less extensive determinations, that the New Jersey Cretaceous Marls are the equivalent of No. 4 or of Nos. 4 and 5 of the Upper Missouri Section. The work done on the Cretaceous is yet fragmentary, as many specimens are too imperfect for use, and the middle and base of the upper marls have not been systematically examined.—R. P. Whitfield. Geological ace: GENERAL.—A catalogue of the Blastoidea in the Geological Department of the British Museum of Natural History is the joint work of Mr. R. Etheridge and Mr. P. H. Car- penter. The Blastoids are given a position as a group equivalent in rank to the brachiate Crinoids. The term Pelmatozoa, or palmed animals, includes the crinoids and cystids, and the class Blastoidea have the following peculiar characters among others: A subambulacral a which is pierced by a canal that a nee the water-vessel, the absence of under-basal plates, the e of five interradials, the constant but peculiar metry of the base, a a character previously ob: ipsa dom 1887 ] Geology and Paleontology. 69 only in one cystid and possibly in one crinoid, and the very sym- metrical grouping of the hydrospires, which are limited to the radial and interradial plates, and have their slits parallel to the ambulacra. The Blastoids are the most regular of Echinoderms. ` All have thirteen plates except Pleacrinus, in which one is divided. SILURIAN.—E. O. Ulrich has published descriptions of new Silurian and Devonian fossils, chiefly Polyzoa, and describes as new genera Busiopora and Lichenotrypa. PaL#ozoic.—Rohon and Zittel have recently studied the his- tological structure of the conodonts. s a result, they declare that they differ entirely from true teeth or the so-called teeth of lampreys and of Mollusca, and do not resemble any part of the hard parts of Crustacea, but they agree closely with the teeth of Annelid and Gephyrean worms. TERTIARY.—The second number of the Annals of the New Natural History Museum at Vienna contains an important paper upon the Miocene pteropods of Austro-Hungary, by Ernst Kittl. Illustrations of most of the species are given, and ten new species described. š Priocene.—The flora of the Cromer Forest-bed (England) has been investigated by Mr. Clement Reid, who found in various , , samples of dark peaty sandy clays, the seeds or fruits of forty species of dicotyledons, eighteen of monocotyledons, five of gymnosperms, and three cryptograms, besides some mosses and Characez. With a few exceptions, the same plants still exist in the locality. QUATERNARY.—Professor Lindstrom believes, from the con- figuration and structure of the rock-terraces in Gottland, Sweden, that the island received its present form by denudation, previous to the Glacial period, and that various changes of level have taken place since that time. Raised beaches are traced in Gottland at various elevations up to two hundred and fifty-nine feet above sea-level, the highest point on the island. Erratic bowlders are traced from the Aland Isles, possibly from the southwest of Fin- land, and from the bed of the Baltic. Dr. Nathorst gives his adhesion to the belief that pebbles with distinctly faceted surfaces are due to the action of wind-driven sand. Mr. Travers, in 1869, first called attention to such pebbles, and thus explained their origin. Similar pebbles have been dis- covered in the Eophyton sandstone at Lugnas, Sweden. 70 General Notes. [Jan. MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.* Petrographical News.—Mr. G. A. J. Cole? has recently at- tempted to explain the occurrenct in rocks of “ hollow spheru- lites” like the lithophysen of Von Richthofen. The principal theories proposed to account for these bodies are discussed, and . that one is accepted which regards them as the result of the alteration of spherulites, in preference to the one in which a vesicular origin is assigned them. The present writer thinks that a study of the phenomena attending the alteration of spheru- lites will explain satisfactorily the occurrence of the hollow spherulites. In many of these there is often found a little patch of felsitic material with a radial structure, and from this Mr. Cole argues that the whole body was once of the same nature, and that the greater part of the original filling has been removed by decomposing agents, probably through the channels afforded by perlitic cracks. He then examines? many of the spherulitic rocks of Great Britain and some from localities in Europe and America, and finds that his views are on the whole confirmed. P fessor Milne, in a recent number of the Transactions of the Seis- mological Society of Japan,‘ states that the lavas of the Japanese volcanoes (one hundred in all, of which forty-eight are still active) are chiefly andesites, the hornblende varieties of which frequently contain quartz. Those containing olivine approximate to basalts, though true basalt is rare. A critical study of these rocks is A Kroustshoff® has succeeded in isolating from it small colorless isotropic crystals with glassy inclusions. These crystals possess a specific gravity greater than 3, a refractive index equal to that of garnet or spinel, and show, before the spectroscope, the lines of iron, calcium, magnesium, and aluminium. The author calls attention to the similarity between these crystals and those which he obtained in a like manner from the phonolite’ of Olbriick, and ' 2 Edited by Dr. W. S. BAYLEY, Madison, Wisconsin. `a Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., xli., No. 162, May, 1885, p. 162. minéral accessoire de la roche de Beucha (près de Leipzig). de Minéralogie, ix., No. 4, 1886; also Neues Jahrb. fiir Min., ee 7 Ib., ix No $- A 1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 71 which he believes are members of the spinel group. A mineral very like those above mentioned also occurs in the tonalite from Adamelio. The same author, in another paper, describes a peridotite * from Goose Bay, in the Straits of Magellan. It con- sists essentially of olivine and enstatite, with picotite and apatite magnetite as secondary constituents. The olivine contains gas, liquid and glass inclusions. The fibres of the bastite seem to ave been curved by some mechanical agency (pressure). An analysis of a comparatively fresh specimen yielded, — SiO, Al,O, Fe,0, CrO, Fe(Mn)O MgO CaO H,O 43-39 2.26 0.35 10.47 39:89 2.33 1.54 ——Basalts, E a hornblende-pyroxene-andesites, hornblende-mica-andesites, and dacites, very like similar rocks occurring in the western portion of our own country, are de- scribed by Messrs. Hague and Iddings* from the Republic of Salvador, Central Ameri Certain “Pliocene sandstones” sist of pumiceous dust cemented by calcite or clayey material. An analysis of one of these from Little Sage Creek, Montana, yielded Mr. Whitfield, — SiO, et Paes CaO MgO NaO KEO T loss by ignition 65.56 258 o: 2.08 ` 6.50 Mineralo oa News.—The lithia micas of Matic and the i iron- thorough chemical examination by Mr. F. W. Clarke and the gentlemen associated with him in the chemical department of the U. S. Geological Survey. The various types of these min- erals, from different localities in the States named, have been analyzed, and the results of these analyses are given in a paper in the American Fournal of Science By supposing fluorine to replace the hydroxyl (HO) group in ortho-silicic acid, a seri of fluo-silicic acids may be obtained as a nucleus upon which to build the formule representing the composition of the various lithia micas. For example, if we represent muscovite by F4 SO R. Al x SiO,= Al, then lepidolite might be represented by S0,=- Al ; Al aoe ee N SIFO, Wa Al, and cryophyllite by Al = Spee R Al ‘a SiO, —R S SiFO, = Rz t Note sur un-nouveau minéral accessoire de la roche de Beucha (près de Leipzig). Bull. de la Soc. Franç i Ae Minbralogie, eix; No. r; —— es. Jahrb. sapi ore ra » ete, 1986, ii. p. 180. Ib., Sept. 1886, p. 199. Amer. Jour. oe, xxxii; Taly, 1886, p. 26. 4 a arni 1886, Pp- 353- 42 General Notes. [ Jan. s. Penfield and Harper’ have carefully sgh pure aleio eon Greenland, and have eee > to contai Mg a H,O total 4.46 4.27 0.12 0.63 ~ 24: ve eee 18. 73 91.70 Upon calculation it was found that the amount of fluorine ob- tained in the analysis was not sufficient to unite with all the metals; hence these authors assume that the metals which are in excess of the fluorine combine with hydroxyl. If this be true, the ahve n of ralstonite as calculated from the analysis is as Seg K OH 2 e aay 0.12 O07 24.25 39:91 -16.27 10.12 = 99.36, and the mineral may be regarded as an isomorphous mixture of (MgNa,)AI,F,,.2H,O and (MgNa,)Al, (OH). The min- eral which best illustrates the power of fluorine to replace hydroxyl in a chemical compound is /erderite, which has re- cently been shown? by these same investigators to consist of an isomorphous mixture of CaBeFPo, and. CaBe(OH)Po,. Lucasite, a new variety of vermiculite; from Corundum Hill, Macon County, N. C., is described by Mr. T. F. Chatard3 as a foliated mineral of a yellow-brown color, with eminent basal cleavage and a submetallic, greasy lustre. It dissolves in hydro- chloric acid and exfoliates when heated, swelling at the same time to twice its original volume. It is biaxial and negative, with a small apn angle. he well-known garnet pseudomorphs - fromt e Superior region have been examined by Messrs. Penfield and Sperry.* According to these gentlemen the altera- tion of the garnet consists in a slight oxidation of its iron, a de- crease of its silica,an almost total disappearance of its manganese and calcium, and an increase in its magnesium, alkalies, and water. The resulting mineral is a ferrous chlorite5 with a composition approaching that of prochlorite. An examination of a decom- posed garnet from Salida, Colorado, yielded the same result. Some very fine pseudomorphs of limonite after pyrite are figured by T. G. Meem® in the October number of the American Fournal of Science, in which the striations due to the oscillation of the octahedron and icositetrahedron are well preserved. rites.—During the past summer quite a number of short articles descriptive of meteorites have appeared in the American Fournal of Science. In the June number Mr, W. E. Hidden? de- two masses, neither of which was seen to fall. One is a meteoric iron, found in Independence County, Ark. It weighs ninety-four pounds. A curious feature in connection with it * Amer. Jour. Sci., Nov. 1886, p. 380 Emory and Harper, Amer. Jour, ” Sci., xxxii., Aug. 1886, p. 107. "3 Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxii., Nov. 1886, p. 375- Oct. 1886, p. 307. a a Ancaster Naturalist, Feb. 1886, p. 161. - © Amer, Jour. Sci, xxzii., p: 274... o + Ib., xxxi., N No. 186, p. 460. .4 1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 73 is existence through it of a hole measuring five-eighths of n di ter at its narrowest part. Its composition is ae P—o0.16; Co and Ni= 8.62; thus belonging to the class holosiderite of Brezina. The second mass is Tom Laurens Coun Its composition, as determined by J-B. Mackintosh, is as follows: Fe= 85.33; Ni = 13.34; Co See $e ie O. 16. The Widmanstattian lines indicate a regu- lar crystallization. The presence of occluded hydrogen and little masses of ferrous chloride (lawrenceite) in its mass render this meteorite exceedingly interesting. In the October number the same author’ describes a meteor found at Fort Duncan, Maverick County, Texas. It weighs ninety-seven and a quarter pounds, and contains 94.90 per cent. Fe; P=0.23; Ni and Co=4.87. Sp. gr. = 7.522. Its peculiarity is the development in it of two series of very fine lines crossing each other at an angle of 70°. Since the publication of the article? on the three masses of meteoric iron Mr. ae sg Ea the seventh piece aa this Poa yielded, — Cu Zn Cr&M C S Si 88. 376 9.86 der 0.03 0.03 aces 0.41 oi 0.01 0.04 The crystalline structure of meteoric irons has been well worked out by O. W. Huntington,*: who examined the collection of these bodies belonging to Harvard College. By a very careful investigation of the appearance of the Widmanstattian figures on cleavage faces of the different ppano and by comparison of similar appearances in the case of many minerals, which, during as crystallization, extruded various impurities (as, for instance, micas comatung magnetite), Mr. Huntington is led to le to the principal planes of symm etry in the isometric system; (II.) that the Widmanstattian figures and Neumann lines are sections of planes of crystalline growth parallel to the three planes men- tioned; and (III.) that the features of the Widmanstattian figures are due to the elimination of incompatible material during the process of crystallization. The results of the investigation strengthen the belief that meteoric irons were thrown off from the sun or one of the fixed stars, and that they have cooled very slowly, while revolving in a zone of intense heat———A meteoric gd found in Utah, between Salt Lake City and Echo, accord- ing to Messrs. E. S. ‘Dana and S. L. Penfield,5 appears under the microscope to consist of spherules of olivine, some of which have a distinct coarsely fibrous structure in consequence of the inclu- : a F oo Sci., Oct. 1886, p. 304. G. F zib. TIL. xxx. Aa 235; of. American Naturalist, Dec. 1885, p. 1214. 3 Ib., . 1886, 4 Ib., IIL., xxxii., One 1886, p. 284. 5 piga or, Sci., ek bet. 1886, p. 226. 74 General Notes. [Jan. sion of dark-colored glass, bronzite in broken fragments and also in spherules with a fine fibrous structure, broken plagioclase, rich in black inclusions lying parallel to the twining planes and, finally, patches of an isotropic mineral, probably maskelyn- ite. It contains the following constituents: nickeliferous iron, 17.16 per cent.; mineral portion, 82.84 per cent. The iron yielded upon analysis, Pes o1.42 per cent. ; Nee Sod: Co 0.60; Cu=o.04. The mineral portion was divided e two parts, one soluble in hydrochloric acid yielded, FeS = 6.08; NiS = 0.62; and 48.85 per cent. silicates; the other, pusetuble in | this acid, gave, chromite 0.75, and 43.22 per cent. silicates. A second meteorite, from Cape Girardeau, Missouri, proved, upon examination, to belong to the same general class as the one last mentioned. catalogue of the meteoric stones in the col- lection of Yale College, one hundred and forty-seven in number, is published as an appendix in the same number of this journal. Perhaps the most important paper on meteorites which _has appeared during the year is that of Reusch.* In this are de- scribed four Scandinavian meteorites, each of which presents in- _ teresting features. The most noteworthy of these is the occurrence of olivine in forms imitative of organic structures, and also, to- gether with bronzite, forming spherulitic bodies in a ground-mass composed of crystals of bronzite, augite, and iron in a glassy base. he most instructive fact in this connection is the discovery of a brecciated structure in two of the meteors described. The rounder grains which occur in the crystalline ground-mass surrounding them are of the same nature as this ground-mass, and are in turn composed of other smaller grains of similar mineralogical com- position. A gradual transition from the large fragmental parti- cles to the “ chondra” was traced, and from this fact, in connection | with the others above mentioned, the author draws certain gen- eral conclusions in regard to the origin of meteoric bodies, which, although exceedingly interesting, it would be oe to in- corporate in these notes in any logical sequenc Crystallographic News.—Quite a number a new measure- ments of crystals have recently been made by Mr. E. S. Dana. Gop? from the White Bull Mine in Oregon possesses the form 303. The crystals are distorted so as to assume a rhombo- hedral symmetry. Crystals of oe e California showed a persistence of the hexakisoctahedro ; Tue Brooxites? from Magnet oe are divided for the sake of convenience into those of prismatic habit and those in which ep A teenee is the predominating form, Twenty-five oe cal crystals are pictured. 1 Neues TATE E E aha at 2 Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxii., Aug. 1886, p. 1 "Tb at, Oct BOM ant . 1887] Botany. 75 COLUMBITE."—A number of new ¢rystals of this mineral from Standish, Maine, have been measured, and from the data thus obtained a recalculation of the axial ratio has been made. Ac- cording to the new measurements, a: b: c==.40234: I: .35798 (Schrauf’s position) and .8285: 1: .88976 (Dana’s position). The species is without doubt orthorhombic. Differences in com- position appear to have little effect on the value of interfacial angles. DiasporeE.*—The two new planes På and P2 were discovered on a fine crystal of diaspore from Chester, Mass. SuULPHUR.'!—4}P and ¿P7 are described as new forms on sulphur from Rabbit Hollow, Nev. mong some remarkably fine crystals of hiddenite, xeno- time, monazite, and guartz from North Carolina, Mr. Hi mentions having found on the latter a well-developed basal plane which yielded to Professor Des Cloizeaux, OP A R= 128°, the calculated angle being 128° 13’. On black ‘ourmailine from Sharpe’s township, Alexander County, the new form was detected. On xenotime from the same county 3P was found, and on herderite from Stoneham, Maine, the new plane Ps. twinned crystal of molyédenite from Renfrew, Canada, suggests that this mineral may crystallize in the hexagonal system with its planes hemimorphically developed. BOTANY.: Pollen-Tubes of Lobelia.—In the AMERICAN NATURALIST, vol. xx. page 644, the pollen-tubes of Lodelia syphilitica were shown in the tissue of the style with enlarged or club-shaped tips. The tip. The three lower and right-hand grains are drawn as seen after the nucleus has taken the dye. * Amer. Jour. Sci., xxxii., Nov. 1886, p. 386. ?Ib., xxxii., Sept. 1886, p. 204. 3 Edited by Prof. CHARLES E. Bessey, Lincoln, Nebraska. : 76 General Notes. [Jan. It remains to be seen what the shapes of the pollen-tubes are in the L. nig seine sap growing free from the tissue of the style. of L. cardinalis were examined before the corolla fan Ssi and in none were the pollen-grains germi- nating. A careful examination of the styles, ovaries, and ovules of flowers çontaining germinating pollen in the anther-tube but not yet having the stigmatic surface protruding beyond the an- thers, and therefore unexposed, did not show any signs of fertili- zation. The pollen-tubes were often extending over the surface of the style, but they were not found penetrating its tissue. Pollen-tubes of Zodela cardinalis. pe aii Less than half an inch of rain has fallen in this locality during the past eight weeks, and, therefore, these plants are passing through an unusual drought. There is a lack of vitálity in these plants as a whole, and the flowers are apparently unable to fully perform their functions. The rosette of hairs on the style just below the stigma fails to carry up the pollen, partly because the hairs are feebly developed, and also because the stigma is. not protruded to its usual length. The lobelia flower is admirably adapted for cross-fertilization, and we should not expect to find here a case of the closest kind impregnation, and yet there is sufficient suspicion to warrant further careful watching.—JZ. D. Halsted, Botanical Lab. Agricul. Coll., Ames, Towa. The Tree-Trunk and its Branches.—In order to determine iota ea the general relations between the tree-trunk and its branches, the hide Lond in the past few years made three hun- ade 1 the white-oak, cottonwood, and other de- ciduous treos of the Northern States, and one han dred observa- se. In each of these four — 1887 ] Botany. 77 hundred cases the circumference of the trunk! was carefully measured a few inches below the point of branching, and also the circumferences of the branches a few inches above the same int. € measurements were made a little above and below the crotch in order to avoid the extra swelling usually occurring at that point. In each instance the area of the trunk circumfer- ence was compared with the sum of the areas of the limb cir- cumferences. In this way it was found that the limbs just above point of branching on the average contain eleven per cent. more wood than does the trunk just below the same point. This gen- eral fact may be somewhat interesting, but it is not very signifi- cant. In the economy of the tree, constantly strained and bent by the wind, strength is far more important than mere bulk. In order to determine the relative strength of the tree-stem and its branches, the cubes of the trunk circumferences were compared with the respective sums of the cubes of the corresponding limb circumferences.* This comparison showed that in ninety-five per cent. of the four hundred observed cases the trunk just below the crotch was stronger than all the limbs just above the same point. And on the average the trunk was found to be thirteen per cent. stronger than the sum of all its branches coming from ` one point. Now practically just above the crotch the branches have to support the same burden as does the trunk just below that point, then why is the trunk made stronger than its limbs ? Well, even if a branch or several branches are broken by the wind, the tree can still grow and reproduce its kind, but if the trunk be broken the tree receives a much greater injury. Thus in general although the limbs of a tree are more bulky than the main stem, yet at practically the same elevations the trunk, by the constant action of the wind, is kept decidedly stronger than all its branches.—B. F. Hoyt, Manchester, Towa. The Article “ Schizomycetes” in the Encyclopedia Brit- Bacteria only, evidently agreeing with many modern writers in considering the Yeast Fungi (Saccharomycetes) as having strong cteria. In a short historical introduction; it is stated that “ Leeuwenhoek figured Bacteria as far back as the seventeenth century, and O. F. Müller knew several important forms in 1773, while Ehrenberg in 1830 had advanced to the commencement of a scientific separation t Any relatively large part of the tree having branches was considered as a trunk, and several observations were frequently made among the larger limbs of the same tree. ; 2 According to an established principle of mechanics, the strength of solid bodies of same form and substance is in proportion to the cubes of their like dimensions. _ 78 General Notes. - Han, and grouping of them, and in 1838 had proposed at least sixteen species, distributing them into four genera.” Cohn’s work (1853- 1872) gave us the first really accurate knowledge of these organ- isms. He assumed the practical constancy of the forms ‘met with, and accordingly described them as species and genera, taking form for his principal character. Later students of the Bacteria have shown that Cohn’s species and genera often occur as phases in the life-history of a particular bacterium. What the specific limits are in many cases has not yet been determined. Zopf showed several years ago that “minute spherical cocci, short rodlets (‘Bacteria’), longer rodlets (‘ Bacilli’), and fila- mentous forms $ Leptothrix’), as well as curved and spiral threads (‘ Vibrio,’ ‘ Spirilum,’ etc.), occur as vegetative stages in one and the same schizomycete. With these facts before us, it is at once evident that Cohn’s classification breaks down entirely. No stable arrangement can be hoped for in the present state of our knowledge. Accord- ingly, a good deal of attention is now directed to the study of the various vegetative and reproductive states, including also the details as to their parasitic and saprophytic habits, and their deportment noder cultivation. The chief vegetative forms are the followin Cocet, a or spheroidal cells: Rods or rodlets, slightly, or more considerably elongated cells. sia ener elongated cylindrical cells, united end to end in long thre Soe or ae al forms, rods or filaments more or less curved. To these should be added the so-called zooglcea, or resting stage, in which the cell-walls swell up and form a gelatinous matrix. Spores are known to occur in most Bacteria, and these have been observed to germinate in several forms, Two principal types of spore formation are distinguished, viz.: 1, by the break- ng up (fission) of the filament into its ultimate segments or joints (arthrospores); 2, by the formation of spores within the cell or filament (endospores). The provisional outline of a classification of Bacteria given is a modification of De Bary’s, as follows, Group A. ASPOREZ. No spores distinct from the vegetative cells. `. I. Coccace#, including the genera, 1, Micrococcus ; 2, Sarcina ; 3, Ascococcus. Group B. ARTHROSPOREZ. res uced by segmentation. er be inom ie aee 4, Bacterium; 5, Leu- 1887] Botany. 79 . III. Leprorricue#, including, 7, Crenothrix; 8, Beggiattoa ; 9, Phragmidiothrix(?); 10, Leptothrix. IV. CLADoTRICcHEA, including, 11, Cladothrix. Group C. ENDOSPOREÆ. Spores produced within the cells or filaments, including, 12, Bacillus ; 13, Vibrio (?); 14, Spirillum. In their relations to diseases the writer of the article unequivo- cally accepts the view that they are the cause, not the accompani- those of the parasitic invader; and it is now generally admitted that the mere admission of a Schizomycete into an animal does not necessarily cause disease. Were it otherwise, it would be difficult to see how the higher organisms would escape at all.” Botanical Journals.—The writer of this note has had during the past seventeen years, the period covered by his botanical teaching, many inquiries from beginners in botany as to what botanical journals it would be best for them to read. The re- plies have varied according to what appeared to be the individual needs of the inquirers. Recent inquiries from young botanists in widely-separated localities suggest the need of a short paper by way of guidance to those who would, if they could, read one or more botanical journals. Nowadays, in any line of work, one who wishes to be pro- gressive must read the proper journals. The young teacher who expects to keep up with the discoveries in his specialty without reading some of the journals devoted to that specialty will find himself in a few years hopelessly behind his reading fellow- workers. He must read,and he must read the best. He cannot afford to read anything less than the best. What shall he read ? In answer to this it may be said that it is the duty of every teacher to so far hold his “specialty” in check that he shall be first and foremost a dofanist, one who has knowledge of, and an interest in, all portions of the great science of plants. Let him be primarily a botanist, and then, if he has the inclination, sec- ondarily a phanerogamist, a caricologist, a pteridologist, a bryolo- gist, a lichenologist, a mycologist, an algologist,a phytotomist, or a vegetable physiologist, etc. The teacher may, and probab should be, a specialist, but he must be a botanist in the broadest sense first. His duty to his pupils is to instruct them in botany, — 80 General Notes. [Jan. the science of plants,—not in some narrow department of it. He must lay the foundation for ay specialty, not for a particular one. Some of his pupils will become phanerogamists, some caricologists, some graminologists, some pteridologists, and so on, and he must be ready to guide them intelligently in their work. He must keep himself well informed in every department of the science. There are three journals in the United States devoted entirely to botany. They occupy somewhat different fields, and accord- ingly have different values for different people. The Botanical Gazette, now eleven years old, is “ devoted to all subjects which relate to botanical science.” From the beginning the structural ' and physiological side of botany has been emphasized as mucl as possible, but the systematic botany of all the grand divisions of the vegetable kingdom has received due attention. From this journal the young botanist will obtain a very good idea of modern botany in all its departments. The Bulletin of the Lorrey Botanical Club is the oldest of our botanical journals. For many years it was, as its name indicates, devoted mainly to local botany, being the organ of a botanical club in the city of ew York. Systematic botany has always predominated in this journal, and its pages contain the descriptions of many new spe- cies. Since 1880 it has been given a wider range, and now in- ` cludes papers on all botanical subjects, and is well adapted to help the young botanist. These are the best botanical journals for the teacher, with which the present writer is familiar in any country. There is nothing abroad which comes near to them in general helpfulness. The Yournal of Botany (London) is practi- many papers on systematic botany. Of special journals,—z.c., those devoted to particular branches of the science,—we have one in the United States, viz., The Four- nal of Mycology, now two years old. As its name indicates, it is _ devoted exclusively to the botany of the fungi. Thus far special attention has been given to the description of new species and Synopses of various families, with descriptions of the species. It is indispensable to the student of the fungi. The English jour- nal, Grevillea, takes a wider range, aiming to be a “record of cryptogamic botany and its literature.” Its articles aré for the most part systematic, relatively few of them being structural or - physiological. Hedwigia (Dresden) is much like Grevillea in _ plan and execution. A most valuable special periodieal, of an ti liege tS 1887] Entomology. 81 ENTOMOLOGY. Prelimina inary Descriptions of Ten New (ines American 1. Lithobius howei n. sp.—Brown; antennz 20 jointed ; ocelli 25-7; prosternal teeth 6; coxal pores 5, 5, 6, 5; spines of the first pair of feet 2, 3, 2; penultimate lost ; last I, 3 3, I; length 15mm. Hab. Fort Snelling, Minn. (W. 2. Lithobius pullus n. sp.—Brown; antennæ 20 5 jointed: ocelli 12-5; prosternal teeth 4; coxal pores gas 3; 3~2,.2, Z 2° P S of the igs pair of feet I, 3, 2-1, 2, I: penultimate L 3, 3, 2- sast L 3; h it 3, 3,0; claw of the female genitalia Ekaa length mm. ab. Bloomington, Ind. + Lithobius Saas sp.—Brown; antennz 20 jointed ; ocelli 13-6; prosternal teeth 4; coxal pores 4, 5, 5, 4; spines of the first pair of feet 1, 3, 2; penultimate 1, 3, 3, 1; last 1, 3, 2,1; claw of the female genitalia tripartite ; length 16mm. Hab. Fort Snelling, Minn. . D. Howe.) 4. Lithobius trilobus n. sp—Brown ; antenne 20 jointed; ocelli 22-8; prosternal teeth 4; coxal pores 3, 4, 4, 3-3, 45 4, 43 qa of the first pair of feet 1, 3, 1; penultimate 1 sd» % i-i, 3, last 1, 3, I, O; claw of the female genitalia ‘tripartite : length 10-11 mm. Hab. Bloomington, Ind. . Lithobius proridens n. sp—Yellow-brown; antennze ey 35. jointed; ocelli 15-6 ; prosternal teeth 10-12; ‘coxal pores 4, 6, 5; 5-3, 4, 4 3; pes of the are e og of feet %3” 2a il penultimate I, 3, 3, 2-1, 3, 3, 1; last 1, 3, 3, 2-1, 3, 3, I; claw of the female genitalia whole; kiA 10-12 mm. Had. 6. Blooming- ton, Ind. 6. Lithobius cardinalis n. sp.— Brown; antennz 20-31 e ocelli 10-6; prosternal teeth 4; coxal pores 2, 4, 3, 2-2; 2,3,2 spines of the first t pair of feet 2, 3, 2; penultimate $53, 3, 1: L3, Si 2-1, 3, 3, 1; claw of the female genitalia tripartite ; length Hab. Bloomington, Ind. 7. Sein ruber n. sp.—Bright red; attenuated anteriorly and posteriorly ; sternum cordiform ; frontal plate present; pre- basal plate concealed ; ventral plates with a large, median foveola; pairs of feet in the male 67-69, female 71-73; length 53 mm. nd. ` 8. Tulus elli ipticus n. Carman I. impressus. Vertex with VOL. XXI.—NO. I. 82 General Notes. [Jan. a median sulcus; eyes nearly elliptical; ocelli about 55, in 8 series ; segments 46; first segment semicircular, not striate; anal spine stout, projecting beyond the valves; length 25 mm. Hab. Fort Snelling, Minn. (W. D. Howe.) 9. Tulus burkei n. sp—Rather stout; brown, with a series of dark dots on each aac: vertex with a median sulcus; eyes tri- angular; ocelli 17, indistinct, in 4 series; segments 45-47 ; first segment produced forward to the eyes, not striate; last seg- ment rounded; anal valves marginate; length 14 mm. Aad. Ukiah, Cal. (j. K. Burke. 10. Fontaria virginiensis brunnea n. var. —This new variety can be easily distinguished from wirginiensis by its color and form of last segment. Chestnut-brown, lateral plates and under parts yellow, a black, median dorsal line; last segment very blunt, sparsely pilose, —Charles H. Bollman, Indiana University, Nov. 27r Mimicry in a Caterpillar.—S. E. Peal, writing from Assam to Nature, notices a singular case of mimicry on the part of a caterpillar, which, when suddenly surprised, erects its head in an attitude that caused the writer to mistake it for a shrew, probably the very animal that preys upon it. The resemblance is cause by two lateral prolongations and a pointed tip to the head; these when lifted in the peculiar attitude assumed simulate ears and a long muzzle, while the mouth parts in profile look like the mouth of a vertebrate. The same writer states that the tiger causes the Sambur deer to run to it by uttering a whistle which only an expert can tell from that of the deer. The eye and nose lumps of a crocodile are so like lumps of foam that Mr. Peal confesses he has been deceived until he saw the supposed foam sink. He believes this simulation useful to the crocodile in obtaining its food. emale chimpanzee in the Bidel menagerie, now at Paris, has been seen to weep as the climax of her grief when deprived of a child playmate. | ZOOLOGY. A. S. Packard on the Cave Fauna of North America, with Remarks on the Anatomy and Origin of Blind Forms.'—The author briefly describes some of the larger caves, with notes on their hydrography, temperature, origin, and geological age, the food-supply of the inhabitants, the means of entering or colo- nizing the cavern, and lists of each cave fauna. These notes are followed by a systematic description of the animals and their geographical distribution. - A comparative list of American and ; cave animals shows that in America there are about sixty-two species to about one hundred and seventy-five in ; Se a tt ae eee . 1887] Zoology. 83 poda, the following changes in the eyes, optic ganglia, and optic nerves occur in forms living in total darkness: (1) Total atrophy of the optic ganglia and optic nerves, with or without the er- Persistence of the optic lobes and optic nerves, but total atrophy of the rods and cones, retina and facets (Orconectes pellucidus kansas, commencing with Carroll and extending from there along the western line of the State, Benton and Washington being north of the mountains, Crawford south of them but on the north side of the Arkansas River, and Sebastian on the south side of it. Hot Springs is in Garland County, Hot Springs County south of it, and Jackson County north of Little Rock, on the Iron Mountain Railroad. The following list gives the result of a large amount of searching, though the total time given to it in Carroll . County was many times that in any of the other counties. 84 General Notes. [Jan. Mesodon. In Carroll County I have gathered six species of this sub-genus, but not more than two in any of the other counties. Of albolabris I got many in Carroll County, most of them of a large size, though on the higher grounds a small variety was found, and also a variety named aleni by Professor Wetherby. In Garland County I got a couple of shells of somewhat smaller size than the largest from Carroll County, and darker color. Of exoleta I found a small size in Carroll County. For some time after the lip is fully formed the shell is thin, and has no parietal tooth, but it seeenards Ors and a rather heavy tooth ap- pears. In Washington nty found a single specimen, which was only 19-15 mm. P SS Of thyroides, the same statement in regard to thickness and parietal teeth as in the last is true. This species was originally described as of 22-1914 mm. diame- ters, but I have it from Indiana 28-23 mm., and from Ohio and Missouri nearly as large. From Carroll County the shells were 22-19 mm., and these have been identified as bucculentus, though this is the ‘typical size of ¢hyroides. Two shells from Sebastian ounty were of the same size, and, though apparently mature, they had no parietal tooth. From Jackson County they were larger, being 24-20 mm., and from Benton County were the smallest I have yet seen,—18-15 mm,—one having a parietal tooth, and three Franklin and Garland Counties they were nearly as large, while from Benton they were only 15-13 mm. I found elevatus in Carroll and Jackson Counties, and c/ausus in Carroll only. Patula perspectiva Say. In abundance in Carroll County; a single one found in Benton Count Patula alternata Say. In Carroll County it does not differ much from the northern specimens, but in Washington and Gar- land Counties it is much heavier ribbed, and has darker spots. Stenotrema leati Ward. In Carroll, Benton, and Washington ties. Stenotrema labrosa Bld. In considerable abundance in Carroll County ; also found in Washington, Crawford, and Garland Triodopsis inflecta S In Carroll County, ‘of light color and II-10 mm. diameter. - Similar but darker colored ones from Benton, Washington, ‘and Franklin Counties. In Garland and Hot Springs Counties each I found one, 12-10 mm. diameters, but looking much larger on account of their height. From others from the same place are of the ordinary shape and o ates mm. diameters.. Triodopsis appressa Say. From the bluffs of the White River, in Carroll moore these shells are thin and of a very light horn color, with A E E OR Te petila eren oil e 1887] +) Boology. a basal side, and with strize very fine, so that the shell is somewhat glabrous. Largest, 214-18 mm., and of nearly six whorls. On Polygyra leporina Gld. In Sebastian County, where I found three specimens of this and of two other species of Poly. gyra. Bulimulus dealbatus Say. . In Carroll and Crawford Counties, . Zonites. Of arboreus I got specimens in Carroll, Garland, and Hot Springs Counties; of ivdentatus, in Carroll and Benton Counties; of /riadilis, in Carroll and Garland Counties; of de- missus, in Garland County; of gularis, in Hot Springs County ; and of digera, in Jackson County. ; Pupa. I found fallax, armifera, and contracta in Carroll, and the latter in Benton County. In addition to the foregoing, the following land shells occur in Carroll County: Patula solitaria Say; Triodopsis fallax Say, variety minor ; Strobila labyrinthica Say; Macrocyclis concava Say; Succinea ovalis Gld.; S. verrilli Bld. (?); Helicina orbiculata Say ; Pomatiopsis lapidaria Say; Tebenophorus carolinensis Bosc; and Limax campestris Binn. Of fresh-water shells, I found an abundance of some species, especially in Carroll County. Mr. C. F. Ancey, of France, has described Physa albofilata from Eureka Springs. I gathered the same species in Washington County. Physa heterostropha and P. gyrina were found in Carroll, and the latter in Benton, Wash- ington, and Hot Springs Counties. Limnea humilis was found in Carroll County and LZ. columella in Washington and Hot 86 General Notes. [Jan, Springs Counties; Planorbis trivolvis in Carroll and Washington Counties; and P. dicarinatus in Carroll and Hot Springs Counties; Ancylus tardus in Carroll, Benton, and Washington Counties ; Campolema ponderosa Say, in Jackson County, coarctata Lea, in _ Carroll and Hot Springs Counties; Spherium transversum and Pisidium (?) in Carroll County. Pleurocera subulare Lea. In White River and King’s River, in Carroll County, the latter being much the larger. Two or three species from Ouchita River, Hot Springs County, not yet identified Gontobasis, Specimens of what have been identified as pal- idula were very plenty in White and King’s River, in Carroll County, and what have been identified as saffordi in Washington and Hot Springs Counties. I have some Unionide from three counties, but will fot at- tempt now to make a list of what may be found in the State.— F. A. Sampson, Sedalia, Mo. The Characteristics and Relations of the Ribbon-Fishes.— order seems well merited. I doubt very much whether the Stylephoride belongs anywhere near the group; it is a pity the genus cannot be re-examined. Another point has occurred to me. I am half inclined to think that the Heterosomatous =~ fishes may have branched off from the original stock, or progeni- Bee Of the Taæniosomous fhet T slialt investigate the subject oro 1887] Zoology. 87 The Hyoid Structure in the Amblystomid Salamanders My attention was recently called by my friend Dr. Eleanor Galt to the fact that the figures of the hyoid apparatus of Amblystoma punctatum given by Drs. Parker and Wiedersheim are not cor- rect. The latter (“Das Kopfskellet der Drodein. ” pl. v. f. 75) rep- resents the hypohyal tha as forming the posterior parts of a cartilaginous circle, from which two recurved processes on each. side extend, the anterior spfitouchin g the ceratohyal, the pos- terior returning towards the basibranchial. Parker omits the annulus altogether. Now, as Dr. Galt points out, there is a car- tilaginous ring which supports the circumference of the tongue in this genus in a manner different from anything known in any other genus of Batrachia. But it is not connected in any way with the hypohyals, but issues from each side of the basi- branchial, posterior to them; and supports the tongue above the basibranchial level. It sends out one lateral process on each side (Fig. 1) which does not connect with the ceratohyals. On examining other species of Amblystomidæ, Dr. Galt found the same character present in A. talpoideum, A. opacum, A. tigri- num, and A. macrodactylum. In A. tenebrosum she found a very dif- i 3 Fig. 1, Amblystoma punctatum X 2, thiir below. Fig. 2, iaidó tenebrosus 1, from below. Fig. 3, Linguelapsus annulatus, X 2, 2, from above CH, Cerato- hyal ; HH, hyphohyal; OH; otohyal; BB1, first basi- branchial ; BB2, second basi- branchial; CBr, first cerato-branchial ; CB2, second cerato-branchial ; EB, epi- branchial. ferent seudan, There is no annulus, but its basal part remains in, the form of a plate on each side of the middle line, the external angle of which represents the external process of the ri ng of Am- blystoma punctatum. To the straight anterior border of this cartil- age is attached a sheet of fibrous tissue, the fibres being distinctly — antero-posterior in direction, and forming the basement tissue of the tongue. The cartilage, handle-like in this species, and ring-like in the A. punctatum, is not homologous with any of those which have received names, so I propose to call it the otoglossal cartilage. These observations of Dr. Galt induced me to examine some of the other species referred to serena bei aise: I report the fol- 88 General Notes. [Jan, lowing results. - The following species have the otoglossal carti- lage essentially like that of A. tenebrosum: A. aterrimum, A. paro- ticum, A. decorticatum, and A. microstomum. As the type is so entirely different from that of Amblystoma proper, I propose to separate these species under the distinct generic name Chondro- tus, with C. ¢enebrosus as the type. Examination of the species recently described as A. annulatum and A. lepturum,: shows that they represent a third genus quite distinct from either of the pre- ceding. Here the otoglossal cartilage (Fig. 3) has somewhat the form of the basal part of that of Chondrotus, but it is entirely free from the basibranchial bone, sliding on it in obedience to the contractions of the pubohyal and genioglossal muscles. This genus I propose to call Linguelapsus. I know but two species of it, According to the figures given by Wiedersheim (/. c.), Hyno- bius and Ranidens do not possess an: 6toglossal cartilage, agree- ing in this respect with the Plethodontide. Wiedersheim also Color of the Eyes as a Sexual Characteristic in Cistudo _carolina.—Naturalists interested in our native land-tortoise must often have noticed the bright-red eyes in some individuals. I have seen them so vivid in color as to attract the attention before let” twice, perhaps very bright red would be more correct, though I will leave the characters as originally noted. Staten Island, July, 1885. Full-grown specimen, male, eyes bright red. e ga “ee e ga és * scarlet 6 : a T n “ female, eyes reddish brown. ee se oe ee és é “ brown. g E “ One-fourth grown specimen, female (?), eyes brown. “ss Aug., “ — . Full-grown specimen, female, eyes reddish brown. - New Jersey, a a a ; is “ male- |“ ; ‘ os u Y, I 6. "E se female, é dark ; Staten Island, elt ang “ ‘e uoa o k EN Re Otao x «male, “scarlet. have a particular fondness for certain Lk on | I believe these tortoises nd I know of two places where they 1887] ; Zoology. 89 on the hill-top, subject them to a needless torture. If water is given them, they will quickly stick their heads into it, and then hold them upright as birds do when drinking. In autumn they do not always dig under the soil to pass the winter in this locality, but will hibernate in a hollow or any place where a thick mass of leaves has collected. I found one on the 8th of February, 1885, in such a location, with but few leaves for a covering.— William T. Davis. On the Morphogeny of the Carapace of the Testudinata.— Preliminary to a more extended paper on the group Athece of the Testudinata, allow me to give the following results, which seem to be of considerable interest: The Dermatochelyde (Sphagididz) are characterized by the development of independent superficial dermal bones. In Der- matochelys coriacea and the allied extinct forms we find a pave- ment of small osseous plates extending over the whole shield, jointed to each other by more or less fine sutures. The number of these plates is very much larger than that of the other Testu- dinata, which never have more than seven In all other Testudinata we find the carapace connected with the internal skeleton. That the carapace of the Dermatochelyde is homologous to the carapace, without internal skeleton, of the rest of the Testudinata, there is no doubt; that the carapace of the “Thecophora” (Dollo) has developed from the carapace of the “ Athecæ” is proved by a specimen of Eretmochelys imbricata. In this specimen I find small polygonal plates of the same shape as those of Dermatochelys suturally connected with the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth costal plates. A form between the Dermatochelyde and “Thecophora” (Dollo) is represented by the oldest known turtle Psephoderma alpinum Hi. v. Meyer, from the Triassic of the Bavarian moun- tains, preserved in Munich. In this highly-interesting specimen, never mentioned in monographs on the Testudinata, we have certainly not less than one hundred and ninety-three plates suturally united*—Dr. G. Baur, Yale College Museum, New Haven, Conn., October 6, 1886. * It is important to mention that Dermatochelys has the nuchal plate developed besides the mosaic-like carapace. According to Gervais, this plate is covered by go General Notes. [ Jan. Collections of Humming-Birds.—Hans von Berlepsch has some critical remarks on the humming-bird literature in the “ Festschrift of the Cassel Vereins fiir Naturkunde,” 1886. Ac- cording to this, the largest collection of hinoeelnntteds was that of the late John Gould, which is now in the possession of the British Museum. It contained 5378 specimens, representing about 400 species. For second and third places there is a rivalry between Godman and Salvin, of London, on the one hand, and D. G. Elliot, of New Brighton, N: Y.: The latter had, in 1878, 380 of the 426 known species, including many of the types of Bourcier, and many of which but a single specimen is known. Salvin and Godman’s esi will shortly pass into the pos- session of the British Museum. Berlepsch himself has the fourth collection in size (about 2009 specimens and 350 species), and close to this is that of George N. Lawrence, of New Yo rk, which is especially rich in types. The Nesting of Collyrio ludovicianus (Baird)—On the roth of May, 1883, I found, in Williamstown, Mass., a nest of the Loggerhead Shrike, Collyrio ludovicianus (Baird). The nest was situated in a sheep-pasture, in a wild-thorn tree, at a distance of seven or eight feet from the ground, and was made from weeds, twigs, and wool, lined with hair and wool. The eggs, six in number, are a greenish-white tint, thickly marked and dotted with light brown and buff-purple spots, which on some of the eggs nearly cover the larger end. A few days later, perhaps a quarter of a mile from the first nest, a second was found, that had evidently been deserted. It contained two eggs similar to those of the former nest, and the construction and materials of the two nests were alike. Mr. H. A. Purdie, hearing of the cir- cumstances, wrote on the 17th of May, 1883, that it was the first known instance of this bird breeding in Massachusetts. So far as I know, nothing was seen of this species in this vicinity until this spring, when I discovered a nest in an elm, perhaps ten feet from the ground, among the branches fringing the huge trunk; the nest was built of materials similar to those composing the nests found in 1883, and the bird was identified. As the last nest was within one hundred and fifty feet of the first, and all return from year to year. At any rate, as the first recorded instance of the nesting of this species in Massachusetts, it may be of interest to ornithologists.—Sanborn Gove Tenney, Wil- Baman, Mass., Nov. 27, 1886. , News.-Ecumonnens, —Hijalmar Theel, in his re- port upon the Holothuroidea. ot the ‘ ' Challenger” Expediti on, not is correct, we ee the nuchal te as a glen question: is, What is the nature of this ele- t contains the ribs: of se last cervical vertebra, with 1887] Zoology. QI only describes the new species of the groups Apoda and Pedata, but adds a series of short accounts of all the forms known. Up to scarcely any from beyond two hundred fathoms. Now we know number met with at five hundred fathoms, and some that are abyssal. Thus Cucumaria abyssorum occurs from fifteen hun- dred to two thousand two hundred and twenty-three fathoms, Synapta abyssorum at two thousand three hundred and fifty fathoms, Pseudostichopus villosus from thirteen hundred and seven- ty-five to two thousand two hundred, while Holothuria thomsoni has been dredged from depths ranging from eighteen hundred and seventy-five to two thousand nine hundred fathoms. Some species have a wide bathymetrical eager individuals resid- ing at depths of from five hundred to sev n hundred fathoms presenting no notable differences from e living near the shore. M. H. Koehler maintains that in the Ophiuridæ the madreporic gland communicates by a cana with the lower or vascular peri- buccal ring, much as in the Echini. The internal epithelium of the intestine of the Ophiuridæ is very thic M. Gauthier maintains that the plates of the apical region of -echinids cannot be depended upon as characters for the delimita- tion of genera and species. He gives numerous figures of the variations in the apical plates of Hemiaster, from his own obser- vations with the microscope, to prove this. The disposition of these plates, notably that of the madreporic plate, often exhibit the variations relied on to establish species and genera. Vermes.—fecampia erythrocephala is a parasite in several Dec- apoda, and has been studied by M. Giard. arcinas m@nas is most commonly infested with it when young. It lives in the body cavity, and is often bent into a U form. Some crabs have several parasites. Sometimes it is hidden in the liver. If is 15 mm. long, with a red head, and white, slightly rose-tinted cylindrical body. When sexually mature it leaves its host, crawls on the rocks, usually on its side, and soon builds a cocoon from threads secreted by the cutaneous glands. The cocoon is most dense upon the inside, becomes brittle by contact with the sea- water, and communicates by a narrow opening with the sur- rounding medium. ithin the posterior part of the cocoon the site deposits its rose-tinted eggs enveloped in a gelati- nous substance. The Fecampia itself has lost much of its bulk, and the snowy tint has disappeared. This transformation takes par at the end of August, at which period the females of C. nas lay their eggs. ea —The “ Challenger” Expedition collected one hun- dred and two species or well-marked varieties of Compound Ascidians. These are described by Professor W. A. Herdman in 92 General Notes. [Jan. FisHes.—M. Yves Delage maintains, contrary to the opinion of Gunther, that the Leptocephala are normal larvæ, capable of transformation. So far from suffering through their distance from the coast, he believes that they finally reach it after having passed through their transformation. The pollack feeds upon these larve. . of Mexico. _ The English quarterly journal of Ornithology entitled The Tis, contains in its last issue a valuable article upon the wings of birds, by C. J. Sundeval, with a synopsis of the number of arm-remiges to be found in various species; some notes upon the genus Empidonax, by Mr. R. Ridgway, describing a new species and defining eighteen known species ; two papers by Mr. R. B. Sharpe on birds from Fao, in the Persian Gulf, and others from Bushire, on the same gulf; and a list of the birds obtained by Mr. H. Whitely in British Guiana, as well as some shorter Papers. The total number’ of birds on the Guiana list is six hundred and twenty-five, of which thirty-six are migratory or — cos -sea-birds. About sixty and one-half per cent. of the — 1887] e Embryology. 93 five hundred and eighty-nine forms occur in the Amazons valley, twenty-seven and one-half per cent. in Venezuela, thirty-three per cent. in Columbia, thirty-six and one-half per cent. in Ecua- dor, forty-seven and one-half per cent. in Peru, thirty-three per cent. in Southeast and Central Brazil. The West Indies have but four per cent. of the birds of Guiana, or no more than are pos- sessed by the Argentine Republic. EMBRYOLOGY.: The Formation of the Eggs and Development of Rotifers.? —G. Tessin has made a very important contribution to the life- history of the wheel-animalcules, which he has traced in Brachi- onus urceolaris, Euchlanis dilatata, Salpina mucronata, and Rotifer vulgaris, having succeeded in obtaining satisfactory sections of the embryos in a number of stages. The large simple sac opening into the cloaca, which has hith- erto beén regarded as the ovarium, is, according to Tessin, not an ovary at all, but the eggs are developed on the outside of this organ from a heap of cells lying on its right side and near its anterior end. As a rule, the number of nuclei in the ovarian mass is constant, eight nuclei being the usual number; only in the fixed Tubicolariz, Philodine, and Pterodina could a larger or smaller number of ovarian nuclei be made out. In the process of maturation the nucleus of the egg gradually passes to the periphery, where it breaks up; but before it does so a nuclear spindle is developed. This process Tessin regards as an indication that polar cells are extruded, although he did not actually succeed in finding them. None of the accounts hitherto given of the manner of segmenta- tion are correct, according to this author. The egg is first divided transversely into two unequal cells, the cleavage plane being also slightly oblique, and the larger cell anterior, the smaller t Edited by Dr. JoHN A. RYDER, Philadelphia. Ueber Eibildung und Entwickelung der Rotatorien, Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zoologie, xliv., 1886, pp. 272-302, pls. xix., xx. 94 ` General Notes. \ : [Jan. posterior. The larger cell is next divided transversely, a smaller h ; mass being segmented from it behind. Then follows the division in twain of the smaller of the two primary tells. The four re- sulting blastomeres then assume a symmetrical disposition with respect to the future median axis. The three posterior smaller cells mark the future dorsal aspect of the body; the larger cell marks the position of the future anterior end. From this point onward the segmentation is essentially mero- laterally by a process of epiboly. Meanwhile, the posterior acu- minate end of the large anterior cell becomes segmented into a number of cells, which fake a share in the formation of the ecto- derm, together with the smaller dorsal cells already spoken of. While the formation of the entoderm is thus accomplished, the most anterior row of the dorsal group are destined, as shown by later events, to form the mesoderm. By this time the larger anterior cell has been further subdivided, and its component blas- tomeres fo the number of five, which form the rudiment of the endoderm, are included by the growth forward and downward of the advancing ectoderm. The mesodermic cells, which at first formed a transverse row at the edge of the dorsal group of ecto- dermic cells, are pushed farther forward and downward, and are finally thrust inward between the ectoderm and mesoderm along the anterior, or what may finally be regarded as the dorsal, border of the blastopore or prostoma. Since the mesoderm is developed in almost all bilateral forms from the entoderm, the development of it from the ectoderm in Rotifers, as here described, is probably characteristic and of taxonomic importance. A solid gastrula APETO pee aa) is thus formed, and the prostoma (blastopore) mes an anterior ventral position and marks the place where he permanent mouth is developed. The genesis of the meso- derm in Rotifers is contrasted with the mode of its origin in Astacus, according to Reichenbach, at the anterior margin of the blastopore. It is thought probable that the musculature and sexual organs are developed from the mesoderm The blastopore assumes a quadrate she and the ectoderm bounding it is divided into four well-mar lobes,—a right and left, an anterior and a posterior lobe. From on the invaginated por- tion of the ectoderm, lying within the blastopore, the cesophagus (which lies in front of the mastax) and the wheel-organ or trochal disk are developed. The posterior lobe of the ectoderm becomes divided off posteriorly from the blastopore by a transverse fissure Tone metamorphosis of the entode Didana mas mass ot cats A 1887] Embryology, 7 95 mentioned is very remarkable. The entodermic cells form a solid globular mass, filling up for a time the hinder three-fifths of the still nearly solid gastrula. This mass is next subdivided into a Sharply circumscribed anterior portion, in which the mastax is developed, and a posterior portion, from which the rest of the alimentary tract is formed. As a result of these elaborate and apparently very successful studies, Tessin concludes that the Rotifers are not affiliated very closely with the higher Annelids, but, on the one hand, with the Turbellaria, and on the other with the Crustacea; with the former on account of the well-marked lobes around the blastopore and the mode of origin of the mesoderm, and with the latter on ac- count of the mode of invagination of the mesoderm at the anterior margin of the blastopore, the -development of a post- abdomen with a forked tip, the position and fate of the blastopore, and the somewhat similar position of the anus in some aberrant forms of Crustacea (Cetochilus) In summing up he concludes that the Rotifers form a special group, which should be placed somewhere between lower worms and Crustacea. i The Gestation of Armadilloes.—A very remarkable mode The reviewer gives a synopsis of Von Jhering’s arrangement of the types or principal modes of reproduction. Two great subdivisions are recognized : $ i ; * Biolog. Centralbl., vi. pp. 532-539 (No. 17, 1886). 2 It is significant in this AE a that when Mai twins are enveloped in a common chorion they are always of the same sex. 96 General Notes. [Jan. 1. Hologeny. From the fertilized egg but one individual takes its rise, with or without metamorphosis. Hypogenesis (Haeckel). 2. Mero ogeny. From the fertilized egg two or more indi- viduals are developed, whic A. Revert aiee to =x form and manner of reproduction of the parent. Tem B. Develop jais sadividoals which become different, or a series of generations, varying in their mode of development (alternation of genera rations, metagenesis). a. Calycogenesis (Salpa, Medusz). somewhat caer conclusion that the mother may become the grandmother of her own child, in virtue of the segmentation of the ovule into a number of distinct germs, which lead to the development of as many distinct individuals of the same sex. The same thing apparently occurs when in the human subject twins are invested by a common chorion. The subject, however, needs further investigation, especially since the researches of Dareste, Fol, Klein nenberg, and especially of Rauber, have so greatly extended the views of Lereboullet in respect to the mode of origin of double monsters among vertebrates or pleuro- gastric types. That the production of double monsters occurs among hypogastric types in essentially the same way as in the vertebrates seems to be pretty conclusively established by Mr. Ryder’s observations upon double monstrosities among lobster embryos. ANTHROPOLOGY. Chinese e in America.—In the “ Proceedings of the Amer- ican Antiquarian Society,” vol. iv. p. 62, Mr. Frederick W. Put- nam makes a report of jade objects which have a double interest, Twelve specimens are reported from Nicaragua and Costa Rica, ten of which were ornaments made by cutting celts into halves, quarters, or thirds, a portion of the cutting edge of the celt re- es on each piece. The method of sawing the objects is indicated. The first query, therefore, is, For what reason should a celt of such hard material be cut up and perforated? Let us suppose that the original blade belonged to the outfit or accou- ` trement of a celebrated warrior, hunter, or artist. The pieces of that blade would become powerful medicine or influential fetishes and highly prized. — Greater Sron is excited when we read the report of _Mr. O. W. Huntington upon the nature and source of the ma- terial in these ornaments. It is as follows: “The eia 1887] Anthropology. 7 97 which you left with me are unquestionably Chinese Jade, having all the characters of that mineral, although the largest specimen from Costa Rica is rather unusual in its color, and would not be taken for jadeite at sight.” No. 33,395, Costa Rica, H.=7. Sp. gr. on 166 prms, 3.281. A small fragment before the blow-pipe fused readily below 3 to a glassy bead. No. 33,391, Costa Rica, H. a little under 7. Sp. gr. on 54% grms., 3.341. Fused quietly below 3 to transparent glass, not acted on by acid. No. 32,794, Costa Rica, H. a little under 7. Sp. gr. on 13 grms., 3.326. Fused quietly below 3 toa transparent glass, not acted on by acid. he day has gone by for hasty conclusions, and Professor Putnam would be one of the last to jump at one. The NATURAL- ist will shortly give account of evidences of connection of Costa Rica with Polynesia by means of a witness in another kingdom of nature. It will now be in order to collate during the next ten years the evidence for and against contact between the Orient and the western shores of America which will speak for itself. * Ornaments on Pottery.—It is thought by some that orna- mental patterns on pottery are handed down by savages from one generation to another. This is not true of our Indian, who, after making a pot, ornaments it with improvised designs. He has no pattern-books to guide him. Indians of New Mexico accustomed to pottery-making have, _ since their contact with whites, given attention to more elaborate ornamentation ; just as those of Mexico meet a demand and find their way into public and private collections. The most notice- able change in technique is the use of animal and human forms, which, though not unknown on older pieces, are rare. oy forms of pottery and those animal and human designs which met the readiest sale have been most improved by a kind of natural selection. The thirst for antiquities has also stimulated the native artists to imitate them. In the city of Mexico an Italian made a good the credit of manufacturing clever imitations of ancient pottery. e noble custom of exciting in children the love of the beautiful through toys and dolls was not neglected by the an- cient Mexicans. Even at our day a striking example is the manufacture of toys in great profusion at Guadalajara, which are sold not only throughout the republic but outside. VOL, XXI,—NO. I. 7 98 General Notes. [Jan. They are taken on the backs of men and animals, packed in baskets andcrates. These toys are very truthful representations of the manners and customs of the people. For the rude appa- ratus employed they are truly remarkable. The most interesting fact about this ware is the way in which the artist holds on to ancient forms, and in the decoration yields himself absolutely to the whims and demands of the market. He even borrows from the Spaniard the art of silvering and gilding. This almost total hiding of the old thing which they are un- willing to give up, with paint and forms to which their old art was a stranger, is also seen in their gourd vessels. The pitchers from Toluca, once simple unnozzled vessels, are lost in the large spouts, altered handles, polished surface, elab- orate decoration, glazing, and stamping. Still one may visit regions in Mexico where the old art still survives. The Pames, near the Valle del Maiz, and the Huaste- cas, the Indians of Sierra Nola and of Savanito, away from the influence of innovations, make their esse as of old, simple in orm and decoration.—Edward Palmer Head-flattening.— Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A., contributes to the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology a paper on the skull of a Navajo child. The most interesting feature of this skull is the marked parieto-occipital flattening. The plane is somewhat ob- lique, and there is not only a flattening but a gentle depression over the entire area involved. The bones flexed are the two pa- rietals from a little in front of the obelion, and almost the whole of the supra-squamous portion of the occipital. Dr. Shufeldt has not seen a Navajo skull lacking this feature. Navajo women carry their children about strapped on a stiff cradle-board, with only a small, narrow pad beneath the occiput. However, it is ` only the infants of a few months of age that have their heads bound down closely to the backboard of their portable cradles. Just as soon as they are able to support their heads and have acquired sufficient strength to control the movements of this part of the body, they are at once allowed considerable more latitude in this particular. Indeed, in the case of children who range from six months, or at the most eight months, of age, and up- wards, I have never observed that the Navajo mothers strap paid children’s heads at all. If the ‘strapping of the head during thes first few montls of infant life is sufficient to produce this poe deformity, then the problem is surely solved once for all. Love and Anthropology.—Professor Paolo Mantegazza has penne in Milan two volumes on love among the different which have been eonan in several foreign maga- ar o zines. Following his example, Dr. D. G. Brinton has laid the n upon the dissecting-table, and given to the world o : : = result of I of his work ina — read before sie, Toe Philo- » 1887] Anthropology. 99 sophical Society on the 5th November, based upon one of Carl Abel’s “ Linguistic Essays” (London, 1882). The key-note of Dr. Brinton’s study is in his second para- graph, in which he says, “ I shall give more particular attention to the history and derivation of terms of affection as furnishing illustrations of the origin and ‘growth of those altruistic senti- ments which are revealed in their strongest expression in the emotions of friendship and love. “Upon these sentiments are based those acts which unite man to man in amicable fellowship, which bind parent to child and child to parent, which find expression in loyalty and patriotism; which, exhibited between the sexes, direct the greater part of the activity of each individual life, mould the form of social relations, and control the perpetuation of the species; and which have suggested to the purest and clearest intellects both the most ex- ‘alted intellectual condition of man, and the most sublime defini- tion of divinity.” In the Old World and in the New, Dr. Brinton finds the prin- cipal words expressing love in one of two ruling ideas, the one intimating similarity between those loving, the other a wish or desire. The former conveys the notion that the feeling is mutual, the latter that it is stronger on one side than on the other. A third class of words of later growth combines the two senti- ments into the loftiest terms of affection. The existence of these forms of expression is traced through the Algonquin, Nahuatl, Maya, Qquichua, and Tupi-Guarani stocks with the following general results: 1. The original expression of love as revealed in the languages of those people was as follows: 1. Inarticulate cries of emotion (Cree, Maya, Qquichua). 2. Assertions of sameness or similarity (Cree, Nahuatl, Tupi, Arawack). 3. Assertions of conjunction or union (Cree, Nahuatl, Maya). 4. Assertions of a wish, desire, or longing (Cree, Cakchiquil, Qquichua, Tupi). Loochoo, sometimes written Liuchiu, and called by the Japan- - ese Riukiu, is the chief island of a group lying in the North Pa- cific Ocean between the 24th and 2gth parallels of latitude, and forming a chain extending from Formosa to the southernmost extremity of Japan. The Chinese accounts state that the island of Loochoo was discovered by an exploring expedition sent out — by the Emperor Yang Kwang, of the Sui dynasty (a.p. 608), which brought back to China one of the inhabitants. It was subsequently visited more than once by the Chinese, and early in the fourteenth century one of the emperors of the Ming dynasty sent some thirty Chinese families to Loochoo to civilize the natives, and teach them the arts and customs of China. Each 100 : General Notes. [ Jan. king of Loochoo, upon his accession to the throne, sent special envoys to announce the fact to the emperor, and to ask that com- missioners be sent to confer investiture upon the new king. This was always acceded to, and the reports of some of the com- missioners have been published in China and Japan, which are exceedingly well written and illustrated. The king of Loochoo always used as his seal of state one conferred upon him by the Chinese emperor. He also sent envoys at stated times to bear tribute and congratulations to the emperor, who generously allowed them to bring with them a certain number of the sons of the Loochooan nobles to be educated, at the emperor’s expense, in the Kwo tsi Kien, or National College, at Peking. This state of things continued until after the change in the Japanese govern- ment, in 1868, when it was put to an end by the Japanese. The Japanese first became acquainted with the Loochooans A.D. 1451, when certain Loochooans brought a present of one thousand strings of cash (or Chinese copper coins) to the ruling Shogun, and from this time the Loochooans traded frequently to Hiogo and Kagoshima. Their relations to Japan were always of a most friendly character, and their vessels came very frequently bearing presents. But, A.D. 1609, Iyehisa, prince of Satsuma, fitted out an expedition to sate, captured the king, and brought him prisoner to Kagoshima. He was released at the end of three years, although the Japanese could not succeed in inducing him to abjure his allegiance to the emperor of China, yet compelling him to pay an annual tribute to the prince of ember as the Japanese histories say, and forbidding him to he Chinese of the fact. From this time until 1868, the oaio continued to pay tribute both to China and Japan. When Commodore Perry wished to insert some provisions re- lating to Loochoo in his treaty with the Shogun (“ tycoon”), the latter was unable to accede to Perry’s wish, as the Shogun had no jurisdiction, Loochoo being considered by the Japanese as a dependency of the prince of Satsuma, and Commodore Perry (and after him the Hollanders) concluded a separate convention with the king or regent of Loochoo. After the surrender, in 1871, by the oe "= F oes to the Mikado of their territorial powers possessions, the Imperial government, diaaa Eodéhvò ae asa arene dagcaaenoy of the Prince of Sat- suma, commenced to introduce more and more Japanese laws and regulations pet Loochoo; and finally, in 1879, notwithstand- ing the earnest remonstrances ‘of the Loochooan king’s envoys, who appealed is aid to the Chinese minister in Tokio, as well as to our own minister, the Hon. John A. Bingham, the Japan- oe ese dethroned the king of Loochoo, and brought him with his Tokit, where he now is abies a pension from the erni nent, who have s suppla native Ooan "and the TIST code, pee = aa E S ia ae: A EN Mana a aaa eel ae tae a, 1887] Microscopy. IOI and have prohibited the Loochooans from paying tribute to China or from holding commercial intercourse with that country. The course pursued by Japan was deeply resented by China, and war between the two countries seemed for a while highly proba- ble. Prince Kung and the viceroy Li Hung Chang requested cordiality between the governments of China and Japan.—D. Bethune McCartee, MD. MICROSCOPY.: Orienting Objects in Paraffine.—In the Zool Anz., No. 199, Selenka has described a method of keeping paraffine melted while the contained small objects are being arranged under the microscope in any desired position, and then of rapidly cooling e paraffine without disturbing the position of the objects. Finding it difficult to make tubes such as he describes, which should be of such shape as to admit of removing the hard- | | ened paraffine readily, and at the same jects 1 mm. long and much larger, while giving a block of paraffine of very regu- lar shape and with rectangular sides. ” A common flat medicine-bottle is fitted with a cork through which two tubes may be fastened into a hole drilled into the bottle. One of these tubes (A) is connected with hot and cold water; the _ other (B) is a discharge-pipe for the water entering the bottle by (A), and raising or lowering its temperature as warm or cold water is allowed to flow in. On the smooth flat side of the bottle four pieces of glass rods or strips are cemented fast so as to enclose a rectan- gular space (C) which forms a receptacle for the melted paraffine. As long as the warm water circulates through the bottle the pa e remains fluid, and objects in it may be ar-- ranged under the microscope by light from above or below, and * Edited by Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Milwaukee. 4 102 General Notes. [Jan. can be oriented with reference to the sides of the paraffine-recep- tacle or with reference to lines drawn upon the surface of the bottle. When the cold water is allowed to enter in place of the warm, the paraffine congeals rapidly and may be easily removed as one piece. The discharge-pipe should open near the upper surface of the bottle, to draw off any air which may accumulate there.— E. A. Andrews. Orientation of Small Objects for Section-Cutting.—It i frequently a very difficult matter to properly orient small objects, especially spherical eggs, so that sections may pass through any desired plane. In my work on the embryology of the common shrimp I have found the following process very con- venient. Impregnation with paraffine is accomplished in the usual way, and then the eggs (in numbers) in melted paraffine . are placed in a shallow watch-crystal. They immediately sink to the bottom, and then the whole is allowed to cool. The crystal, glass upwards, is now placed on the stage of the microscope and the eggs examined under a lens. In this way one can readily see exactly how any egg lies, and then with a knife it may be cut out with the surrounding paraffine, and in such a way that it can readily be fastened to the block in any desired position. After all which have dropped in a suitable position are thus cut out, the paraffine is again melted, and after Stirring the eggs the cutting out is continued as before. —/. S. King. PSYCHOLOGY. The Perception of Space by Disparate Senses.—The follow- ing is an abstract of an interesting paper by Mr. Joseph Jastrow on the nature of space conceptions, contributed to Mind, vol. xi. p- 539. It records the result of experiments made on different persons at the viscid ga Reta Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, Ba In order to IONE the problem by experimental methods it will be necessary to define accurately such terms as sight, touch, motion. The following classification, though provisional and im- perfect, will perhaps be found convenient. We can obtain the notion of extension: = By the stimulation of a definite portion of a sensitive sur- (z) Of the retina mae the distance of the rupee. object {A Byr ie application of a pair of —_ leaving the inter- foe tim (a) it by the E 1887] Psychology. 103 (6) By the motion of a point along the skin (see Mind, 40 pp. 557 ff.); [(@) and (4) may be contrasted as simultaneous and suc- cessive. II. By the perception of distance between two movable parts of the body, e.g. between thumb and forefinger ; III. By the free motion of a limb, eg., the arm. The operations to be known as reproducing judgments by the eye, the hand, and the arm are respectively,—judging lengths by fixing the eyes upon them without motion of the eyeball, a form |; judging distances between thumb and forefinger, a form of Il; and judging distances by guiding a pencil over them with a free arm movement, a form of Ill. The problem was to compare the judgments of linear extension made by these three senses, and to determine their relative accu- racy. The method consisted in presenting a definite length to one of these senses of the subject, who was then required to adjust a second length equal to the first by the use of the same or of another sense. The judgments were confined to lengths between 5 and 120mm. The lower limit is set by the incon- venience of seeing, drawing, and measuring such small lines; the upper by the greatest “span” between thumb and forefinger, as well as by the longest line distinctly visible without motion of the eyeball. More direct methods of testing the relative fitness -of these senses and of their memory for absolute lengths were also employed. In several of the operations the two sides of the body were involved, and it became necessary to study the effect of this circumstance. RESULTS. In judging that a length perceived only by the eye is equal to another length perceived either by the eye, hand, or arm, there will be an error. The problem consists in tracing the nature and extent of this error. I. When the receiving and expressing senses are the same. (1) If the eye is both receiving and expressing sense, small lengths will be underestimated, and large lengths exaggerated, the point at which no error is made being at about 38 mm. ; (2) If the hand is both receiving and expressing sense, small lengths will be exaggerated, and large lengths underestimated, the indifference point being at about 50 mm. ; : (3) If the arm is both receiving and expressing sense, all lengths (within the limits of the experiments) will be exagger- ated. The conclusions above discussed may be summarized thus : When the same acts as the receiving and the expressing sense, the error is small (and the process easy). In operations involv- ing the use of both sides of the body, an interchange of the function of the two sides reverses the results; when one hand A | 104 General Notes. [Jan. preferred arm in motion, the left. The error of the eye is less than that of the hand; the error of the hand slightly less than that of the arm II. When the receiving and expressing senses are different. (1) If the eye is the expressing sense, and (a) the hand the receiving sense, lengths are greatly underestimated, the error decreasing as the length increases, ‘ If the eye is the expressing sense, and (4) the arm the receiving sense All lengths are greatly naderestimated, the error decreasing as the length increases. By combining the two conclusions we see that,— If the eye is the expressing sense, all lengths are greatly un- BREI the error decreasing as the length increases. 2 he hand is the expressing sense, and (a) the eye the oe sense All lengths are Poan exaggerated, the error decreasing as the length increase If the hand is the expressing sense, and (4) the arm the re-. ceiving sense All lengths are greatly exaggerated, the error daaag as the length increases. If the hand is the expressing sense, all lengths are greatly exaggerated, the error decreasing as the length increas 3) If the arm is the expressing sense, and (a) the ı Pa the re- ceiving sense, All lengths are erally exaggerated, the error decreasing as the length increase If the arm is the expressing sense, and (4) the hand the re- ceiving sen All lengths are greatly underestimated, the error decreasing as the length increases. A. The error decreases as the length (to be reproduced) in- creases. This means that pope the limits of f the ae caprinientod ane) a larger lengt aller i If reproducing one sense by another results in an exag- geration (or underestimation), then reproducing the second sense by the first will share in an underestimation (or exaggeration) to far the same E A third ee ‘asunies law remains to be noticed. The _ processe involved. in the soare aaa we experiments can be ee ented thus length presente Ai EH anc OE _ les a oertain impression omy bain Ue the problem, 1887] Scientific News. ` 105 then, is to reproduce the objective stimulation, which shall give me an equivalent sensation. The two operations being simulta- sensations, involving one brain-centre; the operation is easy and the error small. When the expressing sense differs from the ` receiving sense, heterogeneous sensations must be compared, involving two brain-centres,—a difficult operation with a large error. The large error seems to be due to a looseness of asso- ciation between heterogeneous space-centres ; it is a path of high resistance. Why this error is in the direction in which it is, and not in the opposite direction, depends on some fundamental rela- tion of the senses involved, still to be discovered. For the pres- ent the fact that the same objective spacial stimulation has a different value for the several space-senses is to be emphasized. Our conclusions, then, are (1) that the memory for absolute measurements is not quite accurate, the order of accuracy being sight, span, motion; (2) that the operation probably consists in matching the reproduction with the homogeneous mental recol- lection ; (3) that the visual inch is too short, the span- and motion- inch too long. These conclusions evidently favor the point of view of law C. D. Finally, a comparison of the error in reproducing by the same and by a different sense leads to the very important conclu- sion that the former operation is an accurate and easy one, the latter an inaccurate and difficult one. The difficulty manifests itself as a feeling of discomforting uncertainty and lack of confi- dence in one’s judgments, and a great susceptibility of fatigue. The connection between senses seems to be a loose one. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. Engelmann, of Leipzig, announces a continuation of the well- known Bibliotheca Zoologica of Carus and Engelmann, bring- ing the work down to 1880. The former work contained a cata- ation of the Bibliotheca fills in othe gap between the Anz and the Bibliotheca of Carus and Engelmann, and thus prs in e hands of zoologists a complete list of works on zoology. This continuation will be edited by Dr. Taschenberg, of Halle, 106 Scientific News. [Jan. and will make about twelve parts of three hundred and twenty pages each, and is issued at a price of seven marks per part. — Gustav Haller, a student of the mites, died May 1, 1886, at Berne. — George Busk, a well-known English zoologist, whose writings on the Polyzoa and Hydrozoa are standards, died in London, August 10, 1886, in his seventy-eighth year. — Students of the Coleoptera will miss Maurice Girard, a French entomologist, who died in August, 1886, aged sixty-four ; and even more Baron Edgar von Harold, who, with Gemminger, compiled a most valuable catalogue of the Coleoptera of the world. He died in Munich, August 1, 1886. r. A. C. Oudemans, of Utrecht, has been made director of the 2 Tabora Gardens at the Hague. His place as Conor eee of the Zoological Museum of Utrecht has been filled by C. H van Herwerden. — Karl Plötz, a student of the Lepidoptera, died at Greifswald, August 12, 1886, aged seventy-three — H. C. Weinkauf, a ¢onchologist, died at Kreuznach, August 14, 1886. — Professor A. Hyatt’s “ Larval Theory of the Origin of Tis- sues” has been translated into Pelletan’s Journal de Micrographie. — Dr. Alois von Alth, the mineralogist and paleontologist of Cracow, died November 5, 1886. He was professor of miner- alogy in the University of Ceao. — Professor L. Dieulafait, professor of geology at Marseilles, died recently. Dr. ek ‘of Lyons, has received a call to fill e chair thus left vacan — Mr. Edward J. Sn the eminent student of Crustacea, has been forced by continued ill health to resign his position as as- sistant in the British Museum — To the French desire for conquest and colonization is to be attributed the death of the celebrated physiologist Paul Bert. He was born at Auxerre, France, October 17, 1833. In 1867 he gran ze o sand dollars. In 1878 he became president of the Biological Society of France, and in 1882 was made a member of the Acad- emy of Sciences. ‘He held various political offices, and exhibited _ such administrative ability that he was appoin inted governor of _ the newly-conquered province of Tonkin. He died at Hanoi, _ November 11, 1886. ~ —A new Centralblatt für Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde i is annot rpe Tio eo ouse of Gustav Fischer, Jena. 1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 107 It is to be issued in weekly numbers at an annual cost of twenty- eight marks, and is to concern itself with the phenomena of veg- etable and animal parasitism in the widest sense. Dr. Oscar Uhlworm, Cassel, is the editor, Professor Leuckart and Dr. Loeffler being associated with him. Professor R. Ramsay Wright, Toronto, has undertaken to furnish a report to the new journal of papers published on this continent referring to animal parasites, and will be obliged to authors for extras of such papers. — At the last meeting of the Regents of the Smithsonian In- stitution a number of changes were introduced into its organiza- ion. Professor Samuel Langley, of Alleghany, Pa., was elected assistant secretary, and Mr. G. Brown Goode was made second assistant secretary. These appointments open upa long future of prosperity to the institution, other things being equal. — It is not generally known that it is to the late General John A. Logan that the United States owes its Geological Survey. He introduced and had passed the first bill for this object, and Dr. F. V. Hayden was sent, under its provisions, to Nebraska, the field of its first operations. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Indiana Academy of Science.—The second annual meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science was held in the court-house at Indianapolis, December 29 and 30, 1886. The sessions were pre- sided over by the president, Professor D. S. Jordan. Twenty-five new members were elected after their applications had passed through the hands of the nominating committee. The Academy was called to order at ten o’clock A.M., December 29, and opened with prayer by Rev. A, R. Benton. J. C. Branner, S. Coulter, and P by J. M. Coulter; “The Mildews of Indiana,” by J. N. Rose; “The Chlorophyll Bands of Spirogyra,” by S. Coulter; “ Out- line of a Course in Science Study based on Evolution,” by Lillie J. Martin; “ The Moss Leaf,” by C. R. Barnes; “ Additions to the Flora of Jefferson County, Ind.,” by George C. Hubbard ; “Our Blind Mice,” by E. R. Quick; “Notes on the House- Building: Habits of the Muskrat,’ by Amos W. Butler; “A Curious Habit of the Red-headed Woodpecker,” by O. P. Hay; “ Notes on Indiana Ornithology,” by A. W. Butler; “ The Work of the A. O. U. Committee on Bird Migration,” by B. W. Ever- 108 Proceedings of Scientific Societies, [Jan mann; “The Higher Classification of the Amphibia,” by O. P. Hay; “Some Reptiles and Amphibians that appear to be Rare in Indiana,” by O. P. Hay; “ Some Reptiles and Amphibians that are to be looked for in Indiana,” by O. P. Hay; “ Notes on the Winter The following papers were on the programme for the after- noon: “ Notes on Birds observed in Carroll County, Ind.,” by B. W. Evermann; “Review of Diplodus and Lagodon,” by C. H. Eigenmann and Elizabeth G. Hughes ; “ Review of the American Ç: “The Fishes of the Wabash and some of its Tributaries,” by O. P. Jenkins; “ The Relation of Latitude to the Number of Ver- tebre in Fishes,’ by D. S. Jordan; “ Elagatis pinnulatis at the East End of Long Island Sound,” by S. E. Meek ; “ Ospradium in Crepidula, by H. L. Osborn; “Notes on the Acrididæ of Bloomington, Ind., with Descriptions of Four New Species,” by H. Bollman; “A Remarkable Case of Longevity in the Longicorn Beetle, Eburia quadrigeminata Say,’ by Jerome McNeill; “ Some Biological Studies of Lixus macer Say, an E concavus > by F- M. Webster; s Descriptions of Four New Species of Worinpodi from the United States,” by Jerome McNeil; “ New North American Myriapods, chiefly from Bloom- ington, Ind.,” by C. H: Bollman; “ The Teaching of Entomology in the High Schools,” ie: Jerome McNeill; “ The Geodetic Sur- vey in Indiana,” by J. L. Campbell ; “ Recent Progress in Seismol- C: Branner. At night President Jordan delivered his address on “ The Dispersion of Fresh-Water Fishes.” Thursday the following papers were presented: “ On the Oxi- dation of Para-xylene Sulphamide by Potassium Ferricyanide,” by W. A. Noyes and Charles Walker; “ The Scientific Study of Psychic Phenomena,” by H. W. Wiley ; ; “Causes of the Varia- tion of Sucrose in Sorghum,” by H. W. Wiley; ‘ Preliminary Drift in Kentucky and Indiana,” py 4.6 Branner ; “The Deep Well at Bloomington, Ind.,” by J. C. Branner; “ Town Geology -—What it is and What it Might be,” by V. Ç. Alderson; “ On the Thysanura,” by R. F. Hight; “ Natural Gas and Petroleum,” A. J. Phinney; “ The Geology of vago County, Ind.,” by J. T Scovell; “ The Niagara River,” by J. T. Scovell; “ The Zone of Minor Planets,” by Daniel Kirkwood; “ The Bearing of the” Lebanon eds on ring ag by W. Dennis; Ks The Surface ria rugosa,” by A. L eT, “ The Physical Geography of Decatur County, Ind., during the Niagara Period,” by Shannon; “ Estimation of the Carbonic Acid in the joe : a Van Noa a and KE, eines “ The New Alkaloid, Co- 1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 109 caine,” by P. S. Baker ; * ‘The Nation—the Subject Matter of Political Science,” by A. oodford ; “The Manner of ips Deposit of the Glacial Drift, and the Formation of Lakes . P. Hay. The following officers were elected for the ies year: Presi- dent, John M. Coulter; Vice-Presidents, J. P ohn, Branner, f #5 semini Secretary, Amos W. Bus. Treas- urer, O. P. Jenkin The Academy will hold its spring meeting May Ig and 20, at a place to be selected by the Executive Board. C. R. Barnes and B. W. Evermann were selected to arrange the programmes for the meetings of 18 Boston Society of Natural History, 1886.—December 1.— Mr. S. R. Bartlett reviewed Ranvier’s anatomical studies of some Mammalian Salivary Glands, and Professor W. T. Sedgwick spoke of the Contractile Vacuoles of Para meoecium, etc. Mr. W. L Harris exhibited some rare (living) Amblystomas, and an aber- rant form of the Newt. December 15.—Dr. Edward G. Gardiner reviewed recent re- searches on a Third (rudimentary) Eye in Lizards, and Professor W. M. Davis discussed the Mechanical Origin of the Triassic Monoclinal in the Connecticut Valley. The Section of Ento- mology met on Wednesday evening, December 22 New York Academy of Sciences.— Monday evening, Decem- ber 6, 1886.—Mr. Seth E. Meek presented a paper entitled “ The Fishes of Cayuga Lake. December 13.—A series of a hundred lantern views, illus- trative of the paper lately read before the Academy upon the subject of Earthquakes, were exhibited by. Dr. J. S. Newberry. Biological Society of Washington.—Saturday evening, Oc- tober 16, 1886.—The following communications were read : F. H. Knowlton, “ Fascination in Ranunculus and Rudbeckia ;” F.W November 27.—The following communications were made : Mr. William H. Seaman, “ Notes on Marsilia quadrifolia (illus- trated).” Mr. P. L. Jouy,“ Observations made during a Journey through Corea.” Mr. Lester F. Ward, “ Autumnal Hues of the Columbian Flora” Dr. C. Hart Merriam, “Contributions to Te American Mammalogy. Description of a New Species of Bat.’ December 11.—The following communications were made: Dr. Theobald See a Parasitic Bacteria and their Relation to Sa- prophytes. r. F. A. Lucas,“ On the Osteology of the Spotted Tinamou, Sikes maculosa.” Mr. C. D .Walcott, “ Tracks found on Strata of Upper Cambrian (Potsdam) Age.” Dr. Frank IIO Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [Jan. 1887 Baker, “The Foramen of Magendie.” Dr. C. Hart Merriam, “Contributions to North American nie ee cs Description of a New Sub-species of Pocket-Gophe Appalachian Mountain Club. —Special meeting, Thursday evening, December 16, 1886.—A semi-social meeting was held from 7.30 to 10.30. Photographs were on the tables for exami- nation. During the evening a paper entitled “A Trip to Nor- way and the North Cape” was presented by Miss Marion Talbot. Lantern views of Norwegian scenery were shown. Rev. John Worcester showed lantern views of scenery on the Presidential Range, north of EOE THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VOL. XXI. FEBRUARY, 1887. No. 2. MORE ABOUT THE SEA-HORSE. BY SAMUEL LOCKWOOD. HE July number of the American NATURALIST for 1867 contains my article, “The Sea-Horse and its Young.” Although the result of a long study of living specimens of this eccentric fish, yet some questions remained unanswered. At the time mentioned I was living at Keyport, on Raritan Bay. Early in 1870 my residence was changed to Freehold, fourteen miles inland, hence it has happened that specimens sent me have suc- cumbed before reaching my home. A happy exception occurred November 1, 1884, in the arrival from Shark River of a fine large female Hippocampus heptagonus Rafin. As the subject of my article in 1867 was a male, I prized my new pet highly. With an aquarium devoted entirely to this specimen, I set about studying her peculiarities. She had the same habit of converting her tail into a prehensile organ, and so would coil the tip around a tuft of sea-lettuce, and with the pretty dorsal fin in movement like an undulating ribbon, would sway to and fro, keeping the body erect. The sight of the sea-horse alive in the water is always pretty, although quite grotesque, for its ac- tion differs so greatly from that of other fishes, which are prone, and usually move in a line parallel to the bed of the water, while, as a child would express it, the sea-horse swims standing up on its tail. The crested head is erect,—the action though stiff is graceful, not unlike the knightly steeds on the chess-board, very quaint yet comely. ; VOL. XXI.—NO. 2. 8 112 More about the Sea-Horse, [ Feb. I had through all those years desired to see the giving of the spawn by the female and the taking of it by the male; for, as shown in that article of 1867, the male Hippo is not only father but nurse to the young. In his front, just a little higher than the vent, is a sac, into which he receives the eggs of the female, and in which he hatches them. My desire was to see the method of taking the eggs into this pouch. Did he put them in or did she? Despairing now of ever seeing them in apposition, I must de- scribe the act as I think it does take place. I cannot believe that the twain are without emotion, since it is true of some of the higher fishes that the love-season calls out their intelligence to its highest manifestation. Suppose in our latitude it is July. A pair of these Hippocampi meet. They curl their prehensile tails about each other and assume an erect position, face to face. , The female emits her eggs in a slow stream immediately over the pouch, which opens and closes at the top. The motion of the mouth of this sac is that of suc- tion, thus the eggs are actually drawn into it. There they are patiently hatched and also nourished, as shown in the paper referred to. This apposition of the sexes, to be sure, is hypoth- esis, yet I think it will prove to be true. At any rate it is the outcome of long and patient thought, and is perfectly consistent with observation of habit. When the young are ready for eviction, the pouch, which on - receiving the eggs was fat and thick, has become flaccid and thin. Its adipose lining has been absorbed by the young fishes. So badly wasted is the pouch that muscular action sufficient to expel the brood is impossible. The father-fish evicts his charge in the following way. Hè gets himself in an erect position along- side of some object, a stick, stone, shell, or plant, either hook- ing the end of his tail under it, or in some way getting hold by its prehensile tip. Then stiffening the whole body and keeping it erect, he leans upon the object and brings himself down against it with a jerky movement; this rubs up the pouch, push- ing out some of its occupants. Bids: ising eeacatediy until the whole brood is forced into the water. : _ Now, it is observable that an anal fin would be greatly in t 1887] ; More about the Sea-Horse. 113 is not in the way. In fact, it may be that she utilizes it at the time of emitting her spawn, as she could produce a gentle eddy of the water in the direction of the male’s pouch. I found by the microscope that diatoms were-being generated in the tank, and I fancied that my pet was feeding on them, for in all my devices I did not succeed in feeding her myself. She would show a movement in her tubular snout which looked like sucking something in. Sometimes she would stretch herself on the bottom of the tank and apply the tip of her nozzle in a way thàt seemed to me like selecting by sight. And what a cunning look! as with sacerdotal steadfastness of purpose one eye was turned towards heaven and the other kept upon the earth. Cer- tainly her food was microscopic, and in the hunt her optical application was binocular or monocular at will. I noticed with some concern that the peculiar scales which covered its body, and looked not. unlike plate armor, were be- coming green. It proved that a growth of micrococci had set in, and was rapidly spreading over her. I was quite solicitous about it; for it would hardly do for me to clean it, so tender is the little creature. Its tank had become badly infested with these unicelled alge. For the purpose of keeping up a supply of microscopic life for its food, besides the little two-gallon aquarium, I kept two specie jars going, and would transfer it to them, so that it could have freshness of food. Deciding to clean up the aquarium, I put it in one of the jars. It quite en- joyed the change, and to my surprise performed a series of move- ments on the clean sand, which turned out to be successful efforts to scour off the green parasitical slime. It needed patience, but that, with perseverance, did the work. She was in a few days put back into her aquarium. The . little handling necessary always begat a discernible clucking as of terror. It was really a species of snapping of the lips of the tubular snout. I heard it often, and under different circumstances, and thought I could detect three intonings,—one which was ex- cited by terror, one denoting a pleasurable emotion, as when in play, and a third when quite still, perhaps faintly like the purring of another pet. But perhaps my intense sympathy with the e creature may give color to these interpretations, Alas, there was now too much ground for sympathy,—a ter- _ rible malady had begun to take hold of the poor thing, The face ” 114 The Taconic Question Restated. 4 [Feb. took on a comical aspect. On each side rose a swelling as if she had the mumps. With a hand-lens I found that these were blisters, white vesicles, and so buoyant as to annoy her by pro- ducing eccentric movements. I contrived to pierce them with a needle, and so to let out the confined gas. This gave immediate relief. But they came again, and by and by my surgery did not avail. They increased, and the buoyancy would raise it to the surface, and the little sufferer despite all help would float. And - so it was on the last day of February at an early hour I found poor Hippie afloat on her beam ends and dead. I had her alive just four months, and the above is but a tithe of what might be told of her pretty ways. THE TACONIC QUESTION RESTATED. BY T. STERRY HUNT. § 1. So much obscurity and misconception still exist in the minds of most geologists regarding what have been called the Ta- conic rocks, that it seems desirable to set forth clearly, and more concisely than has yet been done, the principal facts in the history of the two wholly distinct and very unlike groups of strata which - have hitherto been included under this title, and which occupy very important places in American stratigraphy as well as in economic mineralogy. For a clear understanding of these strata, which, as originally described, lie between the crystalline schists. of western New England and the continuous area of rocks be- longing to the Ordovician (Chazy-Loraine) period, found along the Hudson and Champlain valleys, we must go back to the writings of Amos Eaton, in which we find, as early as 1832,a concise but complete exposition of the great stratigraphical prob- lems presented by the region in question. The gneisses, with hornblendic and micaceous schists, of the Atlantic belt were then by Eaton as the slaty or argillaceous member, consti- tuting the lowest division, of his triple series of Primitive rocks; r a ad were decbered by him to be there followed by the second or cious, and the third or calcareous member of the same series. ies DOS Granular. Quartz-rock and the Granular Lime- 1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 115 rock, by which names he designated the quartzite and the crys- talline limestone of the Taconic (or Taghkonic) Hills in western New England. § 2. Above the Primitive, Eaton placed the Transition series, in- cluding, like the last, three divisions: First, at the base, a schistose or so-called argillaceous member, named by him the Transition Argillite, and representing in this second series the gneisses and crystalline schists of the Primitive. Second, a silicious member, consisting of a great group chiefly of sandstones and conglomer- ates, comprehensively described by him as millstone-grit, rubble, and graywacke-slate, the whole representing in the Transition series the Quartz-rock of the Primitive, and called the First Graywacke or Transition Graywacke, a term borrowed from German geologists. Third, a limestone named by him the Sparry Lime-rock, and representing in this series the Granular Lime- rock of the Primitive. Eaton insisted upon the existence of a ' stratigraphical break, and a discordance, between the Transition Argillite and the overlying Transition Graywacke, the distribu- tion of which latter was described in detail. It was said to be “seen resting on the Argillite in Rensselaer County, where its subdivisions form a ridge which extends from Canada through the State of Vermont, and Washington, Rensselaer, and Columbia Counties in New York.” The conglomerates of this Transition Graywacke were further said to make “the highest ridges between the Massachusetts line and the Hudson.” § 3. To the west of Lake Champlain, along the base of the Ma- comb Mountains (since called the Adirondacks), and resting upon the Primitive gneiss, Eaton found what he called the Calciferous Sand-rock (a magnesian limestone, sometimes holding gypsum), which he declared to be the equivalent, in this region, of the Sparry Lime-rock, and to constitute, with its overlying Metalliferous Lime-rock (a term borrowed from Bakewell), the third or cal- careous division of the Transition series. The sandstone since known as the Potsdam, which is often wanting at the base of the fossiliferous limestones in this region, was apparently unknown to | him. It is here to be noted that Eaton, unlike many of his suc- cessors, did not confound these limestones, nor their stratigraphi- cal equivalent to the east of the Hudson—the Sparry Lime-rock —with the crystalline limestone of. Western Massachusetts, but recognized the fact that this, the Primitive Lime-rock, together 116 = The Taconic Question Restated. [Feb. with the Primitive Quartz-rock and the Transition Argillite, and the great Transition Graywacke, were all alike wanting in the Adirondack region between the gneisses, constituting the lowest member of the Primitive, and the fossiliferous limestones, the highest member of the Transition series. § 4. Above this last he recognized a third, or Lower Secondary series, having, like the others, for its inferior member an Argillite or Graywacke-slate, and for its second or silicious member a sandstone and conglomerate. These two members were by Eaton united under the name of the Second Graywacke, which he declared to be lithologically very much like the First or Transition Graywacke, but distinguishable therefrom by the fact that it is above instead of below the Transition limestones, and is, moreover, overlaid, in its turn, by the Lower Secondary lime- stones. These comprised the Geodiferous Lime-rock and the Corniferous or Cherty Lime-rock, with its included layers of what he called “stratified horn-rock,’ in which two subdivisions we at once recognize the Niagara and Upper Helderberg limestones of James Hall. In each of these triple series Eaton recognized, in ascending order, an argillaceous or schistose, a silicious, and a calcareous member. All of the above details of his classification may be gathered from Eaton’s “ Geological and Agricultural Survey of the Erie Canal” (1824), and in the second edition of his “ Geological Text- book” (1832). They were set forth by the present writer, in 1878, in his volume on Azoic Rocks (“ Report E of Second Geo- logical Survey of Pennsylvania”); and more fully, with a tabular view, in an essay on “The Taconic Question,” in the first and second volumes of the “Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada,” in 1883 and 1884, which is reprinted, with considerable additions, in his “ Mineral Physiology and Physiography” (pages _ ` §17-686) in 1886. The student who follows the painful history of the half-century of controversy which has been required to bring order out of the confusion in which his immediate suc- - cessors involved this great problem of American geognosy, can _. only regard with reverence the wonderful insight by which Amos 3 sche was enabled, at this early period, to comprehend the com- _ plex stratigraphy of the Hudson and Champlain valleys and the : = T When, sre later, in 1837, a systematic geological 1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 117 survey of the State of New York was begun, W. W. Mather was charged with the Southern district, including the region east of the Hudson, while to Ebenezer Emmons, a pupil of Eaton, was given the Northern district, to the west of Lake Champlain; Conrad, and after him Lardner Vanuxem, having the Central or intermediate district, including the counties of Oswego, Oneida, Herkimer, and Montgomery, and extending southeastward along the valley of the Mohawk to the Southern district. Along the base of the Adirondacks, Emmons now found, in some parts, between the Transition Lime-rock of Eaton and the underlying Primitive crystalline schists, a granular or compact quartzite, which he called the Potsdam sandstone. For the rest, he did no more than confirm the determinations of his master, retaining the Birdseye or Encrinal Lime-rock of the latter as a subdivision of the Metalliferous Lime-rock, to the upper and lower portions of which he gave the names of Trenton and Chazy ; while in the succeeding Second Graywacke he recognized as subdivisions, the Utica slate, the Loraine shale, the Gray or Oneida, and the Red or Medina sandstone, all of which, with the inclusion of the Potsdam sandstone, he called the Champlain _ division of the New York system. The last two members of this were, however, subsequently joined to what was called the Ontario division of the same system. §6. The metamorphic hypothesis was then in fashion with some American geologists, and had already been applied by Nuttall, as early as 1822, to the rocks of Southeastern New York, the gneisses and crystalline limestones of which he supposed to have been formed by a subsequent alteration of portions of the adja- cent graywacke and fossiliferous limestones. Mather, in exten- sion of this notion, conjectured that the Primitive Quartz-rock, the Primitive Lime-rock, and the Transition Argillite of Eaton might, in like manner, be the results of an alteration of the mem- bers of the Champlain division of Emmons, excluding the upper sandstones ; and in his final Report in 1843, on the Geology of the Southern district of New York, further maintained that not only the divisions of Eaton just mentioned, but the crystalline rocks in that State lying to the south and east of the Highland range, comprising Westchester and New York Counties, and embracing Manhattan Island, like the similar rocks of western New Eng- land, were “nothing more than the rocks of the Champlain. d di- 118 The Taconic Question Restated. [ Feb, vision, modified greatly by metamorphic agencies and by the intrusion of granitic and trappean aggregates.” The passage ~ between the unaltered and the altered rocks was supposed to offer a gradual transition, and it was asserted that “no well- marked line of distinction can be drawn, as they blend into each other by insensible degrees of difference,’ or what have since been called-successive “ grades of metamorphism.” These same - notions were soon afterwards adopted by Logan for the crystal- line rocks of the Atlantic belt in Canada, and for a time were extended by H. D. and W. B. Rogers to the gneisses and crystal- line schists of the White Mountains, § 7. A similar view was also adopted for Pennsylvania by H. D. Rogers, then engaged in a geological survey of that State, who maintained with Mather that the Primitive Quartz-rock, the Primitive Lime-rock, and the Transition Argillite of Eaton, which are prolonged into Pennsylvania, were but the altered representa- tives of the Potsdam sandstone with the succeeding limestones and the Utica slate and Loraine shale of the Adirondack region. These silicious, calcareous, and argillaceous groups were named by him respectively the Primal, Auroral, and Matinal divisions of the palzozoic series, and were also called Nos. I., IL, and III. in his notation. ‘hese he supposed to appear in a more or less ` metamorphosed and crystalline condition in the southeastern part of Pennsylvania; while farther westward in the State they occur in their unchanged fossiliferous condition, as in the Adiron- dack region, and are there conformably overlaid by the Oneida and Medina sandstones, which constitute together the Levant division, or No. IV. in the nomenclature of H. D. Rogers. § 8. The First Graywacke of Eaton, which in Eastern New = York overlies the Transition Argillite, regarded by Mather as the altered representative of the Utica slate, was supposed by him to be the succeeding Loraine, Oneida, and Medina subdivisions. — He thus denied the distinctness of the great belt which Eaton had traced from Canada, through Vermont,-along the line be- tween Massachusetts and New York, and confounded it with the lithologically similar Second Graywacke. The areas of this First Graywacke, which in the southeastern part of Pennsylvania occur above the so-called “altered Auroral ae but below the horizon of the typical Levant or by H. D. Rogers to be a part 1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 11g of the Matinal, and were thus virtually made a part of the Second Graywacke. It is not too much to say that this denial by Mather of the existence of the First or Transition Graywacke, and the confounding of the great belt of this (which stretches from the lower St. Lawrence to the Susquehanna, and beyond) with the Second Graywacke, was a great and fatal error in the stratig- raphy of the whole region, from the consequences of which American geology has not yet escaped. It was, however, a legiti- ` mate consequence of the hypothesis of regional metamorphism applied by Mather to the great underlying series consisting, in descending order, of the Transition Argillite, the Primitive Lime- rock, and the Primitive Quartz-rock of Eaton, and of his attempt to identify these with the members of the Champlain division. $9. Rocks belonging to the Second Graywacke are indeed found upon the banks of the Hudson River, and Mather had already, in his fourth annual report, given the name of Hudson slates to what he rightly regarded as the equivalent of those named Loraine shale by Emmons, and Pulaski shales by Vanuxem, in their respective districts. The latter, however, noticed in the Central district of New York besides these shales (which, in its northwest portion, are directly overlaid by the Gray or Oneida sandstone) an underlying series of greenish argillites and sand- stones, including some graptolitic shales, but destitute of the fauna of the upper division. The lower, named by him the Frankfort division, appear in the southeast part of the district without the overlying Pulaski or Loraine division, the two being, according to Vanuxem, “ not co-extensive with each other,” and so distinct that he insisted on treating them separately, inclining to the opinion that they ought not to be put together in local geology. He further declared that they are separate in Pennsyl- vania, the characteristic Pulaski shales appearing in the Nippe- nose valley west of the Susquehanna, while the Frankfort slates — and sandstones are seen to the east of the North Mountain in the Kittatinny or Appalachian valley, and include the roofing- slates of the Delaware. These rocks in the latter region are, in fact, the Transition Argillite and the First Graywacke, which latter is there seen, in some localities, resting upon the roofing- slates, though in many others, in the absence of this First Gray- wacke, the same Argillite is directly overlaid by the Levant sandstone of the Second Graywacke. ` 120 The Taconic Question Restated. [ Feb. Vanuxem, having in view the contradiction between the opinions of Eaton and Emmons on the one hand and those of Mather on the other, suggested that to the lower or Frankfort division might belong the thick masses of strata “ of controverted age” along the Hudson valley. Notwithstanding the evidence put forward by him as to the distinctness of these two divisions, Vanuxem, apparently for the purpose of avoiding controversy, included both the Frankfort and the Pulaski divisions under the collective name of the “ Hudson River group.” That these two divisions were, moreover, supposed by him to be associated with a still older series lithologically resembling them appears from his language when he wrote of “the difficulty of separating or distinguishing the slaty and schistose members of the Hudson River group from those of greater age with which, along their eastern border, the two [divisions] are more or less, really or ‘apparently, blended.” In fact, as appears from the observations of Vanuxem in Pennsylvania, and as will be further shown else- where, the Hudson River group of Vanuxem included alike the Transition Argillite, the First Graywacke, and portions of the Second Graywacke. The subsequent palzontological studies of James Hall in New York for many years, however, had chiefly to do with the uppermost division of this heterogeneous assem- blage, and hence the name of Hudson River group has come to be very generally regarded as synonymous with Loraine shales. § 10. Meanwhile, Emmons came forward as the champion of the views of Eaton, and while his field of official labor did not extend to the regions occupied by the rocks now in question, de- clared in his final Report on the Geology of the Northern District of New York, that some account of them was necessary to a correct understanding of the relations of the Champlain division. A curious contradiction is, however, apparent in the volume in | tion, in certain parts of which the views of Mather are set forth, while in others Emmons remains faithful to the teachings of his master, which he ever afterwards followed. As regards the great belt called by Eaton the First Graywacke, we find, in the account of the Champlain division, described as belonging to ae 3 _ the Pulaski or Loraine horizon, the belt of red and purple slates ~ with red sandstones extending “through the higher parts of | Columbia, Rensselaer, and Washington Counties” in New York, = onward Mo Vermont into Canada.” Aan we are 1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 121 told that portions of this same belt belong to the Loraine sub- division and the succeeding Gray sandstone, and that these last rocks are represented by the sandstones of Burlington and Col- chester, Vermont, and also by those used in the fortifications of the city of Quebec. This whole Graywacke belt, as traced out by Eaton, is thus here referred, in accordance with the view of Mather, to the horizon of the Second Graywacke. In another place in this same volume we find a discussion of the relations of the Transition or Sparry Lime-rock of Eaton to the Primitive Lime-rock, which in some sections apparently over- lies it to the eastward, in which it is suggested that the latter may be younger rather than older than the Sparry Lime-rock.* This argument has lately been cited by J. D. Dana against the views maintained by Emmons in other chapters of the same volume, in which are set forth the teachings of Eaton that the Primitive Quartz-rock, the Primitive Lime-rock, and the Tran- sition Argillite are, contrary to the hypothesis of Mather, inferior not only to the Trenton limestone, but to the whole New York _ palzozoic system, and are, moreover, directly overlaid by the Graywacke series in question, which is in turn succeeded by the Sparry Lime-rock. The whole of these, from the base of the Primitive Quartz-rock, are described in detail by Emmons in his volume of 1842, in chapters vii., viii., and ix., as belonging to a distinct system, for which the name of the Taconic system was then proposed. This Report of Emmons can thus be quoted against himself, as has been done by his opponents, for the pas- sages already cited, which are introduced in other parts of the same volume, set forth the wholly opposed views of Mather as to the rocks in question. The secret history of these curious contradictions in this officially published Report on the Geology of the Northern District of New York, and of the persistent war waged alike against Ebenezer Emmons and his views and those of Amos Eaton, has yet to be written. § 11. These perplexing discrepancies and contradictions in the . volume of 1842 were mentioned by the present writer in 1878 (“ Azoic Rocks,” p. 57) as probably due to want of method and to a change of views in the preparation of the work. In 1885 the dis- «See for the preceding references the “ Geology of the Northern or Second Dis- trict of New York,” by E. Emmons, 1842, pp. 121, 124, 125, 280-282, and further, P. 147. 122 The Taconic Question Restated. : [Feb. cordances were again noticed,’ when it was said of the volume, that Emmons therein “showed a divided opinion as to the horizon of the First Graywacke.” This might be supposed to indicate the acceptance, for a time, of the views of Mather before finally adopt- ing those of his old master, Eaton. It will, however, be noted that the passages, four or five pages in all, found intercalated in different parts of his account of the New York System, incul- cating the doctrines of Mather, are in complete opposition alike to the whole teaching in the three chapters—vii., viii., and ix. (pp. 135-164)—given to the Taconic System, and to his extended monograph thereon, published in 1844, so that one is led as an „explanation of this strange contradiction to suppose that the passages in question may be interpolations by another hand. There is a painful resemblance in many respects between the story of Emmons and his opponents; and that of the warfare waged against Sedgwick by Murchison and his allies in the famous Cambrian and Silurian controversy, as set forth by the present writer in 1874 in his “ Chemical and Geological Seo = m 365). . The Taconic system, in the chapters just mentioned of pe e of 1842, was said to include, in ascending order, the “ Granular quartz” (or Primitive Quartz-rock), the “ Stockbridge limestone” (or Primitive Lime-rock), and the “ Magnesian slate.” This latter, the Transition Argillite, comprehended, besides the characteristic roofing-slate, a great mass of soft and more or less schistose rocks, which, from the prevalence in them of hydrous micas (and occasionally of chlorites), have an unctuous character, _ 1 Mineral Physiology and Physiography, = 522, 583, 584, 587. 2Loc. cit., pp. 121, 124, 125, 147, 279, 2 3In a letter from Emmons to ae eae Raleigh, N. C., December 29, 1860, he writes, “I made and published with my Report a modified map of the State, which showed the extent of the Taconic rocks in New York. The three thou- . sand copies were stolen or destroyed by ns unknown, so that they were never issued with the proper volume. The rocks illustrating the Taconic system in the State Cabinet were all taken out, by order . My existence as one of the gists was ignored at the last meeting “of the American Association for the Aei ment of Science in Albany [1851]. In fine, the persecution I suffered for opinion has rarely been equalled. . . . The editor of the American Journal of Science re- ` courteous in the extreme. I claimed that ae __ faxed to publish my remarks upon Logan’s report when he [Logan] announced his _ 1887] o The Taconic Question Restated. 123 ‘supposed to indicate the presence of magnesian silicates. Be- sides the three above named, there were, according to Emmons, two other divisions, the “ Sparry limestone,” by which he desig- » nated the Sparry Lime-rock of Eaton, and the “ Taconic slate.” This latter, which he“declared to be quite distinct from the Mag- nesian slate, had, according to Emmons, been traced one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles, and included another band of roof- ing-slates, It is said to be more or less interstratified with lime- stones, and “ often becomes a coarse graywacke.” This Taconic slate, thus defined by Emmons in 1842 as the uppermost mem- ber of his “Taconic system,” is, as will be seen, the First or Transition Graywacke series of Eaton. Emmons, moreover, at this time calls attention to the fact that the Primitive Lime-rock, or Stockbridge limestone, “ being often sparry, and of fine texture, is mistaken for the true Sparry limestone.” He further remarks that as the succession of these disturbed strata is “ unsettled, or at least not so clearly established as desirable,” he follows their geographical order in describing them, but proceeds to tell us that the “ Taconic slate” group lies between the so-called Hudson River or Loraine rocks on the west and the Sparry limestone on the east, and, moreover, that “it is undoubtedly overlapped by the former rocks, and passes beneath the latter with a dip of 30°-35°.” The whole Taconic system was further described by him at this time as “the rocks lying between the upper members of the Champlain group and the Hoosic Mountains,” and was, moreover, regarded “as inferior to the Potsdam sandstone, or as having been deposited at an earlier date than the lowest member of the New York Transition system.”* The precise relations of this Transition system to the Silurian and Cambrian systems of the British geologists, and indeed the limits of these in England, were not at that date clearly understood; but Emmons, in 1842, supposed that the Taconic rocks in part might “be equivalent to the Lower Cambrian of Sedgwick,” “ the upper portion being the lower part of the Silurian system,” to which the Middle and Upper Cambrian were then, on the authority of Murchison; very generally referred. That he accepted the extreme views of Barrande, and the pretensions of Murchison as to the downward extension of the limits of the Si- lurian, is shown by the language of Emmons, quoted farther on. 1 Loc. cit., ppe 140, 144, 163. 124 The Taconic Question Restated. [ Feb. § 13. Meanwhile, Emmons continued his studies, and in 1844 published his monograph on the Taconic system, which was in 1846 ` republished in his “ Agriculture of New York,” where it forms Chapter V. (pp. 45-112). Therein, while giving a more detailed account of the Taconic system, he made one important and sig- nificant change. In 1842, while maintaining that the upper por- tion of this is “the lower part of the Silurian system,” he had - nevertheless supposed that the whole succession was deposited before the time of the lithologically dissimilar Champlain division, which, although the base of the New York system, was not by him regarded as the base of the Silurian. In this he was at variance with the teachings of Eaton, who already, as early as- 1832, had declared the Transition or Sparry Lime-rock—which _ he placed at the summit of the Transition Graywacke or Taconic slate group—to be the stratigraphical equivalent of the Calcif- erous Sand-rock of the New York Transition system. Emmons had, previous to 1846, concluded that the formation of limestones of this sparry type “occurred at intervals during the whole period of the deposition of the Taconic slate,” and, acquiescing in the judgment of Eaton, now declared that the upper portion of the Taconic system,—namely, the great belt of slates with limestones, sandstones, and conglomerates,—designated by him in 1842 as the Taconic slate, and including both the Transition -Graywacke and the Sparry Lime-rock of Eaton, was the strati- - graphical equivalent of the lower part of the Champlain division, and in fact a thickened and modified form of the Calciferous Sand-rock, which was now said to be, in its eastern extension, “ protean” in its character, and to include a great variety of rocks. § 14. For the better identification of this Taconic slate group it is important to note that Emmons, who had already, in 1842, clearly _ defined its eastern and western limits in New York, and declared -that it had been traced north and south a distance of one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles, repeats with detail, in 1844, the facts of its distribution. It is described as occupying geographi- cally the interval between the overlying Loraine shales,—the _ upper part of the Champlain division,—on the west, and “the great mass of the Sparry limestone,” which forms its eastern border, and itself lies at the western base of the Taconic Hills; which are made up of the three lower members of the Taconic em. He now sdas that “the Taconic slate, with its subor- 1887] History of Garden Vegetables, 125 dinate beds, occupies almost the whole of Columbia, Rensselaer, and Washington Counties, and is of immense thickness.” He describes it “ from Lansingburgh to the Sparry limestone on the east” as having a breadth of at least twenty miles, and, while signalizing repetitions in the section, still supposes that its vol- ume “exceeds that of all the members of the New York system put together,” adding that, “without doubt, this immense rock admits of subdivision.” He declares that in the breadth of fifteen or twenty miles across this belt “the observer will pass several times over the same beds, which are brought to the sur- face by successive uplifts.” The nature of the uplifts by which these subdivisions of the Taconic slate group are thus repeated is further shown by an ideal section, afterwards published in his “ American Geology,” ii. 48. The real order of succession, as then defined, was, at the base, greenish, chloritic-looking sandstones, followed, upwards, by a great variety of different colored slates, sandstones, and con- glomerates, including, moreover, what is designated as sparry limestone, black shaly limestone, and, at the summit, fine black slates. (To be continued.) HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES. BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, A.M., M.D." (Continued from page 59.) ARACACHA. Aracacha esculenta De C. L Sheers South American plant is yet included among garden i vegetables by Vilmorin. It was introduced to notice in Europe in 1829 and again in 1846, but trials in England, F rance; and Switzerland were unsuccessful? in obtaining eatable roots.3 It was grown near New York in 1825,4 and at Baltimore in 1828 or 1829,5 but was found to be worthless. Lately introduced to _ India, it is now fairly established there, and Mr. Morris*® considers it a most valuable plant-food, becoming more palatable and de- * Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva. 2 Heuze, Les Pl. Alim., ii. 509. 3 Decaisne & Naudin, Man., iv. 137. 4N. Eng. Farmer, July 22, 1825. 5 Farmers’ Library, 1847, 94. € Gard. Chron., July 10, 1886, 50. \ 126 History of Garden Vegetables. ” PR eb, sirable the longer it is used. It is generally cultivated* in Ven- ezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador, and in the temperate regions of these countries it is preferred to the potato. The first account which reached Europe concerning this plant was published in the “Annals of Botany,” vol. i., about 1805. It was, however, mentioned in a few words by Alcedo in his “ Diccionario Geo- graphico de las Indias Occidentales 6 America,” 1789.” The synonymy has been given as below: Aracacha xanthoriza. Banc. Koen. Ann., i. 400. Conium aracacha. Hook, Exot. Fl. Bot., 152. Aracacha esculenta. De C., Prod., iv. 244. ARTICHOKE. Cynara scolymus Lin. The artichoke, Cynara scolymus L., is supposed by authors to have originated from the cardoon, Cynara cardunculus L., and the cardoon is indigenous at Madeira, the Canaries, Morocco, the Iberian Peninsula, the south of France, Italy, Greece, and the islands of the Mediterranean. It has become naturalized on a vast scale in Buenos Ayres and Chili It is now grown ona large scale in France and other portions of Europe for the flower-heads, the scales and buttons of which make a very pala- table vegetable, and’in America in private gardens. The number of varieties of artichoke is extremely large, as through the cross-fertilization of the flowers the plants do not come true from seed, and hence desirable selections are propa- gated by dividing the stools, or from suckers. Vilmorin + de- scribes thirteen varieties as sufficiently prominent for notice. Whether the artichoke was cultivated by the ancients is in dispute among commentators, and Targioni-Tozzetti,> a most competent authority, says it was only known to the Romans in the shape of the cardoon, and that the first record of the arti- choke cultivated for the sake of the receptacle of the flowers was at Naples in the beginning or the middle of the fifteenth century ; it was thence carried to Florence in 1466, and at Vienna, Ermo- lao Barbaro, who died as late as 1493, only knew of a single plant grown as a novelty in a private garden, although it soon + De Candolle, Orig. des Pl. Cult., 32. * Don, Gard. Dict., iii. 378. 3 De Candolle, Orig. des Pl. Cult., 73- -4 Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 14; The Veg. Gard., 1885, 3. -$ Targioni-Tozzetti, Hort. Trans., 1854, 143- - 1887] History of Garden Vegetables, 127 after became a staple article of food over a great part of the peninsula. It seems quite certain that no descriptions I can find in Dioscorides and Theophrastus among the Greeks, nor in Col- umella, Palladius, and Pliny among the Romans, but that can with better grace be referred to the cardoon than to the artichoke. To the writers of the sixteenth century the artichoke and its uses were wellknown. “Le Jardinier Solitaire,” an anonymous work published in 1612, recommends three varieties for the garden. The most prominent distinction between the plants, as grown in the garden, is the presence or absence of spines. Although J. Bauhin, in 1651, says that seed from the same plant may pro- duce both sorts, and I have verified the observation, yet I can- not but believe that this comes from the cross-fertilization be- tween the kinds, and that this absence or presence of spines is a true distinction. Tragus describes both forms in 1552, as do the majority of succeeding writers. The form of the heads form a second division, the conical- headed and the globe. I. The Conical-headed. Of the varieties sufficiently described by Vilmorin, four belong to this class, and they are all spiny. This form seems to constitute the French artichoke of English writers. The following synonymy seems justifiable : Scolymus. Trag., 1552, 866, cum tc Carduus, vulgo Carciofi. 1. Matth., 1 58, 322. Carduus aculeatus. Cam. Epit., 1586, 438, cum tc.; Matth., ed. of 1598, 496, cum ic. Thistle, or Prickly Artichoke. Lyte’s Dod., 1586, 603. Cinara sylvestris. Ger., 1597, 291, fig. - — sive Scolymus sativus, spinosus. J. Bauhin, 1651, iii. 48, cum ic. Saar Violet. Quintyne, 1693, 187; 1704, 178. Contcal-headed Green French. Mawe, 1778. French Artichoke. Mill. Dict., 1807; Am. Gard. Books, 1806, 1819, 1828, 1832, etc. Vert de Provence. Vilm., 1883, 16. De Roscoff. Vilm., L c. De Saint Laud oblong. Vilm., 1. c. Sucre de Genes. Vilm., 1. c. Etc. z J. Bauhin, Hist., 1651, iii. 48. VOL. XXI.—NO, 2. 9 * ~ 128 History of Garden Vegetables. [ Feb, II. The Globular-headed. To this form belong two of Vil- morin’s varieties, and various other varieties as described by other parties. The synonymy which seems to apply is: Scolymus. Fuch., 1542, 792, cum ic. Cardut alterum genus. Tragus, 1552, 866. Carduus, vulgo Cariciofi. II. Matth., 1558, 322. Carduus non aculeatus. Cam. Epit., 1586, 437, cum ic.; Matth., 1598, 497, cum tc. Right Artichoke. Lyte’s Dod., 1586, 603. Cinara maxima ex Anglia delata. Lob. ic., 1591, ii. 3. Cinara maxima alba. Gerarde, 1597, 991, fig. Cinara maxima anglica. Gerarde, l. c. Green or White. Quintyne, 1593, 187; 1704, 178. Red. Quintyne, l. c. Globular-headed Red Dutch. Mawe, 1778. Globe Artichoke. Mill. Dict., 1807; Am. Gard. Books, 1806, 1819, 1828, etc. Gros vert de Laon. Vilm. 1883. Violet de Provence. Vilm., 1. c. tc. In growing five of Vilmorin’s varieties from seed, variability _ was such that we had nearly as many varieties as plants, and among other sorts had one which in its head was precisely the Cinara major Boloniensts of the “ Hortus Eystettensis,”* 1613; and another, which was the Cinara seu Artischoche vulgatiss. of the same. The color of the heads also found mention in the early writers. In our first division, the French, the green is mentioned by Tra-’ gus in 1552, by Mawe in 1778, and by “ Miller’s Dictionary” in 1807; the purple by Quintyne in 1693. Inthe Globe class the white is named by Gerarde in 1597, and by Quintyne in 1693; and the Red by Gerarde in 1597, by Quintyne in 1693, and by Mawe in 1778; and Parkinson, in 1629, names the red and the white. | ‘The so-called wild plants of the herbalists seem to offer like variations to those we have noted in the cultivated forms, but the difficulty of identification renders it inexpedient to state a fixed conclusion, The heads are certainly no larger now than they — were tree Dundee amity years ago, for the “ Hortus cee . es a eo 5. >» 1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 129 sis” figures one fifteen inches in diameter. The long period during which the larger part of the present varieties have been known seems to justify the belief that modern origination has not been frequent. “Le Jardinier Solitaire,’ 1612, describes early varie- ties,—le Blanc, le Rouge, and le Violet; Worlidge, in 1683, says there are several kinds, and he names the tender and the hardy sort. McMahan names the French and two varieties of the Globe in America in 1806; “ L’Hort. Français,” 1824, names the Blanc, Rouge, Violet, and the Gros vert de Laon; Petit, “ Nouv. Dict. du Jard.,” 1826, adds Sucre de Genes to the list; Noisette, in 1829, adds the Camus of Brittany. The name given by Ruellius* to the artichoke in France, in- 1536, is a@rticols, from the Italian articoclos. He says it comes from arcocum of the Ligurians, coca signifying the cone of the pine. The Romans call it carchiophos, and the plant and the name came to France from Italy. The names I have seen as- signed are in alphabetical order: Arabs, £harchiof, hirshuf,? raxos, harxos ;3 Berber, taga ;* Egypt, charsjuf;* Flanders, artisjok ;5 France, carciophe $ artichaut ;3 Germany, strobildorn,? artischoke ;5 Hindustanee, Aunjir ;? Holland, artisjok ;5 India, hunjeer, atee- chuk ;* Italy, carciofo, articiocca,s archichiocco ;*® Persia, kungir ;* Portugal, alcachofra ;5 Spain, alcachofas cardo de conners Asparacus. Asparagus officinalis L. The cultivated asparagus seems to have been unknown to the Greeks of the time of Theophrastus and Dioscorides, and the word asparagos seems to have been used for the wild plant of another species. The Romans of the time of Cato, about 200 B.C., knew it well, and Cato’s? directions for culture would answer fairly well for the gardeners of to-day, except that he recom- mends starting with the seed of the wild plant, and this seems good evidence that the wild and the cultivated forms were then of the same type as they are to-day. Columella,*° in the first cen- tury, recommends transplanting the young roots from a seed-bed, and devotes quite a space to their after-treatment, and he offers : Sape De ae .» 1536, 644. 2 Birdwood, Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 165. ist., I age ii. 1436. 4 De Candolle, Orig: des Pl. Cult., 74- s a Les pi. Pot. 14. 6 Cast. ora: 1617, 9I. 7 Tragus, 1552, 866 . 8 Speede, Ind. Handb. of Gard., 164, > 9 Cato, c. irot COE ks esac agre pe 130 History of Garden Vegetables. [ Feb. choice of cultivated seed or that from the wild plant, without in- dicating preference. Pliny, who wrote also in the first century of our era, says that asparagus, of all the plants of the garden, receives the most praiseworthy care, and also praises the good quality of the kind that grows wild in the island of Nesidis, near the coast of Campania. In his praise of gardens? he says, “ Sil- vestres fecerat natura corrudas, ut quisque demeteret passim ; ecce altiles spectantur asparagi; et Ravenna ternos libris repen- dit.” (Nature has made the asparagus wild, so that any one may gather as found. Behold, the highly-manured asparagus may be seen at Ravenna weighing three pounds.) This evidences the likeness remarked between the wild and the cultivated form, and the recognition of the change produced by culture. Palladius,’ an author of the third century, rather praises the sweetness of the wild form found growing among the rocks, and recommends the transplanting to such places otherwise worthless for agricul- ture, but he also gives full directions for garden culture with as much care as did Cato. Gesner* quotes Pomponius, who lived in the second century, as saying that there are two kinds, the garden and the wild asparagus, and the wild asparagus the: more pleasant to eat. The word Asparagus, as used by the Romans, meant the cul- tivated form, the word Corruda the wild plant. The original meaning seems to have been a succulent shoot, for in this sense it was frequently used by the Greek writers. In the European languages we have the continuance of the word under various forms, as Sperage by Turner, 1538; Asparagus by Gerarde, 1 597 and to date, as also Sparrowgrass. In Denmark, Asparges ; in France, Asperge or Esparge in 1586; in Germany, Zpargen in 1586, Epargel in 1807, and Spargel at the present time ; in Greece, Asparaggia; in Holland, Aspergie in 1807, Aspersie now; in Italy, Asparagus in 1586, and Sparagio at present; in Soctagel, Espargo; in Russia, Sparsa or Sparsch; in Spain, Asparrago and Esparrago; and in Sweden, Sparis or Spargels In extra-European languages the following names appear : By the Moors, halion or helium, Cam. Epit., 1586; in Arabic, yer- er z Pliny, lib, xix. c. a 2 Ib., c. 19. 3 Palladius, lib. iii. c. 245 lib, iv. c. 9. s Rei Rust., 1788, Lexicon, art. — oa Niles Di or Gaieraran, Epit. 1586; 1586; Vilmorin, Les PI. Poy 1583 1887] History of Garden Vegetables. 131 amya, marchoobeh ;* in India, marchooba, nagdoon, or asfuraj ;* Hindustanee, /z/yoon, nagdoun ;* in Persian, margeesh ;* in Japan, kikak kosi ;3 in the Mauritius, asperge.s The expression of Parkinson, 1629, “a delectable sallet- herbe,” implies the consideration in which for many centuries it has been held. Its culture in Italy was, as we have seen, quite general in ancient times. We have no records of its first appear- ance in the various countries of Europe, but it is mentioned in England by Turner in 1538, and as under cultivation by Gerarde in 1597. In Frances it was well known in 1529. In America “ Sparagus” is mentioned in Virginia in 1648,° and in Alabama in 1775, and in 1785 Cutter mentions asparagus as if it was then a well-known vegetable in Massachusetts. The wild plant is indigenous to Europe; as an escape from gardens it is often noted in America, not only in waste places on the coast, as Gray states, but also inland. There are no essen- tial points of difference between the wild and cultivated forms; such as are noted between the escapes and the garden plants are only such as come from protected culture and rich soil; the fig- - ures in the ancient botanies do not indicate other variation than this, and the few varieties, so called, of our gardens have no es- pecial importance, the differences being but in minor points, and but indicative of a careful selection and high culture, the ordinary variability of a variety furnishing plants which are propagated by division. The point I wish to make regarding this vegetable is this, that although under high cultivation now for over two thousand years, under diverse climates and treatment, yet it has remained constant to type. The directions given by the Roman writers to plant the seed of the wild plant might be followed to-day with our escapes without detriment. It has given no variety types that have been recorded from the time of Cato up to this present year of grace. Where, then, is this boasted power of man by which he is supposed to modify our wild plants into improved types? It probably does not exist. The types of our cultivated plants have been apparently taken from nature, as produced by t Birdwood, Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 2 Speede, Ind. Handb. of Gard., 1 hed ‘160. 3 Thunberg, Japan, 139. 4 Bojer, Hort. Maur., 1837, 350. 5 Ruellius, Dioscorides, 1529, 124. 6 A Perfect Desc. of Va., 1649, 4. + Roman’s Nat. Hist. of Fla., i. 115. 132 History of Garden Vegetables. [ Feb, the slow process of natural selection, and the influence of selec- tion and diverse cultivations has been but to secure variation within the type limits, and such variations are usually of the character which may be described as expansion under culture,or its opposite; as smoothness and pogramy of form; as enhanced quality. AsparaGus BEAN. Dolichos sesquipedalis L. This bean was described by Linnæus* in 1763, and I find no record of an earlier notice. It reached England in 1781.7 Lin- nzus gives its habitat as America, and Jacquin received it from the West Indies. Martens considers it as a synonyme of Doli- chos sinensis L. Loureiro’s description of D. sinensis certainly applies well to the asparagus bean, and Loureiro‘ observes that he thinks the D. sesquipedalis of Linnzeus the same. He refers to Rumphius’s “ Amboina,” 1. 9, c. 22, tab. 134, as representing his plant, and this work, published in 1750, antedates the descrip- tion of Linnzus. I think this is probably an East Indian plant, introduced to the West Indies, but I am unable from my notes to present the varieties and the forms which have been included under D. chinensis. The name of Asparagus bean comes from the use of the green pods as a vegetable, served as a string-bean, and a tender aspara- gus-like dish it is. The name at Naples of Fagiolo e maccarone conveys the same idea. The pods grow very long, oftentimes are two feet in length, and hence the name of Yard-long often used. 7 The Asparagus or Yard-long bean is mentioned for American gardens in 1828, and probably was introduced earlier. It is mentioned for French gardens under the name of Haricot asperge in 18292 ere are no varieties known to our seedsmen, but Vilmorin offers one, the Doligue de Cuba? The names under which it is known are: in France, doligue asperge, haricot asperge ; in Germany, Americanische riesen-spar- gel Bohne ; in Holland, Judianische boon ; in Italy, fagiuolo spara- * Linnaeus, Sp. sie roig. 2 Miller’s Dict., 1807. 3 Matens. Die Gartenbohnen, 100. 4 Loureiro, FI. Cochinch., 1790, 436. , 6 Noisette, Man. du Jard., 1829. 7 Thorburn’s Seed Cat., 1828. 1887] The East Greenlanders. 133 gio, fasoi longhi, fagiolo e maccarone ;? at Cayenne, pots rubran ;* at Barbadoes, Halifax pea;? at Jamaica, asparagus bean ;+ in Cochin China, dau dau and tau cos (To be continued.) THE EAST GREENLANDERS. BY JOHN MURDOCH. HE veteran authority on the Eskimos, Dr. Rink, has recently published an able and interesting paper on this easternmost outpost of the great Eskimo race, in which he reviews the ethnological results of the late successful Danish expedition to East Greenland under Captain Holm, and draws important con- clusions as to the original home of the Eskimos, and the probable _ course of the wanderings by which they have reached their present habitations. In his opinion, the metropolis of the Eskimos is probably to be found in Alaska, and he finds a confirmation of this view in the fact that here the Eskimos are not confined to the coast, but spread inland along the rivers. It is a fact, however, that the proportion of the Eskimos of Alaska who really dwell in the interior is very small indeed, being confined to the valleys of the Kuskokwim and the adjoin- ing less important rivers, and to the three rivers emptying into Kotzebue Sound, while along the rest of the coast from Kadiak to Point Barrow they are as purely littoral—or “Orarian,” to adapt Mr. Dall’s term—as in Greenland or Labrador. Never- theless, this scanty remnant may represent the original condition of the race. He believes that the migrations of the race can be traced by ` the development of certain inventions as we pass along the shores of the continent from Alaska to Greenland. For instance, the kayak, which is probably, as he believes, derived from the open z Vilmorin, Les Pl. Pot., 280, 2 Martens, l. c. 3 Schomburgkh, Hist, of Barb. 4 Macfadyen, Jam., i. 288. 5 Loureiro, 1. c. § Die Ostgrénlander in ihrem Verhältnisse zu den übrigen Eskimostämmen. Von H. Rink. Deutsche geographische Blätter, vol. ix. No. 3, 1886, pp. 228-239. 134 The East Greenlanders. [Feb. bitch canoe, still used by the Eskimos of the Upper Kuskokwim, is far heavier and more clumsy in the west than in the interme- diate regions, and reaches its highest development in Greenland. It is, however, to be noted that the kayaks in use along the shores of the Arctic Ocean from Bering Strait to Point Barrow are far superior to those used by the nearest Eskimos to the east- ward of that point, and approach closely in lightness and elegance to those of the Cater anuet though essentially different in model. According to our author, the use of the double-bladed paddle among the true Eskimos (excluding the Aleuts) does not begin till we reach the mouth of the -Yukon, and is only used when speed is specially desired, even as far as Point Barrow, while a single- bladed paddle is sometimes used in the kayak as far as the Mac- kenzie. Moreover, the art of turning completely over in the kayak and righting oneself by means of the paddle is very un- usual on the Alaskan coast, and completely developed only in Greenland. A similar course of development, Dr. Rink believes, may be traced in the set of weapons with which the kayak is fitted out. He considers the “bird-dart” and “bladder-dart” (the former a javelin with a cluster of prongs at the middle of the shaft for taking fowls in the water, and the latter designed for catching seals, and therefore provided with an inflated bladder to impede the motions of the wounded animal) to be developments of the arrow, and the large harpoon, with a bladder attached by a line, to be a development of the latter, and finds the more primitive forms of these weapons more generally used in the south and west, while the more highly-developed forms gradually appear as we approach Greenland. Our extensive collections at the National Museum tend to con- firm these conclusions. The larger part of the harpoons from the region south of Bering Strait, even those of large size for the beluga, are of the type of the “ bladder-dart,” or of the still more simple type without a bladder, in which the shaft itself is made to act as a drag by attaching the line to it in a _ martingale, and these, especially to the southward, are often like arrows. Even as far as Point Barrow the only projectile weapons used in the kayak are the bird-dart and a martincale-dar ” 1887] The East Greenlanders. 135 The custom of wearing the labrets, or peculiar lip-studs of the western coast, which extends as far as the Mackenzie region, is believed by Dr. Rink to be a custom which the wandering Es- kimos brought with them from their original homes, when they were in contact with the labret-wearing Tlinkets. On this supposition, however, it is difficult to account for the abrupt way in which a custom universal up to Cape Bathurst ceases at that point, without a vestige of it traceable anywhere to the eastward. When we consider that there is now a long stretch of uninhabited country between the natives of Cape Bathurst and their neighbors in the east, with whom they have no communi- cation, is it not more probable that the labret-wearing habit is one of comparatively recent date, which, spreading from the south and west, only reached the Mackenzie ‘region after communica- tion with the east was severed ? : Dr. Rink derives a similar argument from the dwellings of the Eskimos, which in Southern Alaska resemble those of the In- dians, having a fireplace in the middle of the floor. As we go north and east the fireplace is replaced by the oil- lamp, and snow-huts gradually take the place of houses, till in Greenland we find edifices of earth or turf and stones and drift- wood. The form of the house also changes from square or round to an oblong shape in Greenland, capable of being added to at the ends in proportion to the number of the household. This extension reaches its greatest development in East Green- land, where the whole village occupies a single house. These large dwelling-houses also furnish a substitute for the large public club-houses, for working, and social and religious assemblies, so common among the Eskimos and also usual among the Indians. Such houses as these are no longer found in Green- land, if they ever existed there, and are but partially represented among the eastern Eskimos by a sort of large snow-houses. The periodical festivals and masked dances, so frequent in the west, are less frequently practised as we approach Greenland, appa- rently in proportion as the influence of the azgokoks, or wizards, increases. The greatest similarity between the branches of the race is to ` be seen in the language. According to Dr. Rink, the number of “radical words,” or those which form the basis of the intricate - compounds used in the language, which differ from the Green- 136 The East Greenlanders. [ Feb. landic or are doubtful in the other dialects, may be roughly stated in percentages, from the material at his command, as follows: in the Labrador dialect, fifteen per cent.; in the middle regions, twenty per cent.; in the Mackenzie region, thirty-one per cent. ; and in Alaska, fifty-three per cent. A careful study of the vocab- ulary collected by our expedition (U. S. International Polar Ex- pedition to Point Barrow, Alaska), containing over one thousand words, in which about five hundred and fifty radicals may be dis- tinguished, has convinced me that only fifteen ae cent. of these are different from the Greenlandic radicals. There is no doubt, as our author believes, that the inhabitants of East Greeland and Alaska, brought together and allowed suffi- cient time, could easily learn to understand each other. In fact, the interpreters from Labrador who accompanied the English explorers had no difficulty in conversing with the western nations, and I have seen American whalemen, who had made themselves familiar with the Eskimo jargon in use at Hudson’s Bay, converse fluently with the natives of Point Barrow. Dr. Rink believes that the dialectic differences indicate that the Aleuts were first separated from the parent stock, then, and much later, the Southern and Northern Alaskan Eskimos, those of the Mackenzie, and finally those of the middle region, and that Labrador and Greenland were peopled by branches from the last. Coming, now, to the consideration of the peculiarities of the newly-discovered East Greenlanders, he considers them in much the same condition as their western neighbors when described by Egede. One noticeable peculiarity about their harpoon is men- tioned,—namely, that the head is fastened to the shaft by a pivot, as in the “toggle-iron” used by civilized whalemen, whereas among all other Eskimos the head slips off the shaft and “tog- gles” at right angles to the line. The harpoon-float is made of two bladders instead of one, and the old implements for taking seals on the ice, abandoned on the west coast since the introduc- tion of firearms, are still in general use. _ The bow is no longer used, owing to the disappearance of the | reinde, but cross-bows are used as toys by the children, or for _ shooting birds. The knowledge of this weapon, the writer be- _ lieves, is due to foreign influence. They have no fish-hooks, but : - Oe oe ee a RA used by the Es! p ey ka 1887] The East Greenlanders. 137 Their artistic taste and skill is very great, and equals, or even excels, that of the long-famous Alaskan Eskimos. Their carv- ings often consist of little figures carved from bone or ivory, fastened with pegs to wooden surfaces. All sorts of implements are ornamented with such carvings, representing natural and im- aginary objects or conventionalized ornaments. The most ex- traordinary of their objects of art are the relief maps carved in wood, in which the islands are represented by séparate pieces, attached to the mainland by thongs. Much taste is also exhibited by the women in ornamenting and embroidering their clothing (in which, again, they resemble the Alaskan Eskimos), though their needles are all home-made, hammered and ground out of old iron obtained from wrecks. The inhabitants of each winter village appear to form one large household, more or less under the control of a single head, chosen apparently by tacit consent, and whose commands often do not need to be expressed. The head of the household was observed to give definite commands as to the order in which the eight families of his household should take their places on the sleeping platform, how the lamps should be lighted and the win- dows closed. During the winter one young man was expelled from the house by way of punishment, and compelled to seek shelter elsewhere. Hospitality is universal, as with the Eskimos everywhere. The largest of the several “ village-houses” on the Argmag- salik fjord, where Captain Holm wintered, contained fifty-eight people. The house nearest Captain Holm’s winter-quarters had eight families, thirty-eight souls living and performing all their work, sleeping, cooking, eating, singing, and dancing in a space twenty-seven feet long, fourteen and a half feet wide, and at the utmost six and a half feet high! Much valuable linguistic material was Gallectesi, thanks to their excellent interpreters, Christian West Greenlanders, and fifty-one interesting traditions, of which thirteen are plainly identical with those of other Eskimos, while in thirteen others are recognizable well-known traditional elements. From a preliminary examina- tion of the linguistic material, it appears that there is more differ- ence between the dialects of East and West Greenland than _ between the well-known North and South Greenland dialects. tain Holm is of the opinion that the East te 138 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. travelled round Greenland from the north, while the West Green- landers came down southward along the shores of Baffin’s Bay, meeting the others at the southern point of Greenland, and there forming a mixed race. The author considers that the differences described favor this hypothesis, but thinks it too early to draw a general conclusion from the facts at hand. He adds that the mixed race in all probability also contains Scandinavian elements, though not the slightest trace of Scandinavian culture is to be discovered. In a foot-note at the beginning of the article Dr. Rink states that the direct inspiration of the paper was the fact that he had the opportunity of studying the rich ethnological collection from East Greenland in company with Captain Holm, and also per- sonally received information about the western Eskimos from the brothers Krause and A. Jakobson, and about those of the middle region from Dr. F. Boas. He also courteously acknowledges the information received from other sources, especially from those in America who are engaged in studying similar subjects. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SEX. BY JULIUS NELSON. (Continued from page 42.) EXPLANATION OF PLATES VI.—VIII. Figs. 94 to 124, 4, illustrate cell-division (94-104 are Protozoan), and Figs. 124, 7,-133 ENER fertilization (ż.e., the union of male and female pronuclei). PLATE VI. FIG. 94, a-b. Opalina ranarum—Kent, Plate 26. See also Nussbaum, A. m vi., and Zeller, Z. w. Z., xxix.—This “ unicellular” animal is multinucleate, a the nuclei maltiply by karyokinesis (see Figs. 104, 105) independently of cell- divis- ion. The latter takes place successively as in a, until small cells like 4 Sage con- taining few nuclei. These become encysted and the nuclei fuse to becom Then the mononucleate animal escapes and increases in size, roast the sa ibe come more numerous . Their number may rise to | again. Fic. 95, a-d. Oxytricha scutellum—Gruber, Z. w. Z., mei this infusorian ki am PS 7 een the groups of nuclei as shown in g and 4. one Polyericus sche i Ai ix.—This infusorian grows the amber of nuclei i increases aig comes division, w ye have a form like ¢, wt FTA PLATE VI. MISA Po OO a SY ei erp Maè E Se laze 1887] The Significance of Sex. 139 usually has a row of four nuclei as in æ, but when division takes place the nuclei divide so as to furnish the daughters with the normal number (4). Fic. 97, a—d. Stylonychia histrio—Nussbaum, A. m. A., xxvi.—Here we have wo sorts of nuclei, a small spindle-shaped * paranucleus,’’ which in division presents k spindle-fibres and microsomata of karyokinesis, and a large nucleus whose “ nuclein” substance is more irregularly distributed. In a resting state (a}the para- nucleus is homogeneous and nearly spherical, the nucleus has small bodies in it that resemble the paranucleus. When cell-division takes place (4, c) both sorts of nuclei ivide so that the daughter-cells are multinucleate, but when these return to the “resting” condition the sey fuse once more, as seen ind. Here the nuclein bodies of the nucleus are drawn out into filaments. 1G..97 4, a-b. pane vision of Paramecium,—tfrom article “ Protozoa” in Encyclopeed. Brit., by Lankester. Here the paranucleus divides into two groups of four each, but the nucleus Ge a up much finer and strongly suggests. beaded ng a Bütschli in A. m X., figures the nucleus as broken up more irregular G. 98, a-g. RN ~ e (a—c, f-g) and Dallingeria drysdali (d EA D e Jour. R. Micr. Soc., April, 1886.—After conjugation (see Fig. 131) the fertilized nucleus of the sp je EES a the protoplasm in ultra mi- croscopic particles (gemmules), and when the cyst bursts these are projected out, and soon grow so as to be visible to a power e fifteen thousand diameters, until final they attain the size and shape seen in a, then granules appear in their substance, and at the same time a clear zone of protoplasm (4) is secreted about this body, which henceforth is the nucleus (c). When division is to take place the u themselves in regular lines as in g, and a peculiar and simple karyokinesis follows (e-f), with return of granules to normal distribution in g, a daughter-nucleus. Fic. 99, a—c. Nucleus of Chromulina woroniana—Fisch, Z. w. Z., xlii.—The wall of the nucleus is thick and contains nuclein, but there is also a nucleolus which segments up into fine granules, while simple constriction of the nucleus ensues (a-c), and when the daughter-nuclei are established, these granules fuse and return by in- verse kinesis to the normal state. ` Fic. 100, a-d. Nucleus of Cyathomonas truncata—Fisch, |. c,—This is thin- walled, sin most all the ace is in the nucleoli. In æ four of these bodies are seen. es raying out from the nucleolus, and the nucleus and nucleolus behave in division : much as if the former were a cell and the latter its nucleus; finally, after division (c-d), the rays disappear, and we get a simple nucleus with a nucleolus, Fic. 101, a-e. Nucleus of Cordosiga botrytis—Fisch, l. c.—We have first a clear _ vesicle containing a nucleolus, the latter gradually dissolves into granules (a, 6), and use to filaments (d), which arrange themselves parallel to one another like a spindle, and then the fibre-bundle constricts, followed by the nucleus (e). The original state is assumed by the daughter-nuclei passing ugh an inverse series of : : thus ae e we get successively d, c, 4, a, etc. Fic. » a-b. Onychodactylus acrobates—Entz, Mitt. Neap., v.; 1 Stylonychia PERE (from Kent, Plate 1.).—Division of nucleus and paranucleus during ee a The nucleus and paranucleus remain dent applied to each other; the latter /eads in division. The segments of the former remain united by a brides (c), the centre one only being severed by cell-division as in 4. ae 1G. 103, 6-9 “ae, Nucleus of Spirochona gemmipara—Hertwig, Jenaische Zeit- : jum etchornit- ig, Z see Gruber, Z. w. Z., xxxviii—a-c show the ameeboid powers of nuclear substance; 140 The Significance of Sex, [ Feb. in a the phenomena are restricted to the nucleus; in 4 to the hyaline body which holds the nucleolus, and at last, in ç, the nucleolus is sending out ray-like pseudo- podia, which become the chromatin fibrils. A spindle is finally formed with a hy- aline mg at each end. d-A show different states of a nucleus in the “ resting” condition. In æ we have a nucleolus and paranucleolus ; these segment and become related, as ine and f. Ing the nucleolus is much segmented. 4 shows us the nu- cleus preparing for division ; the aa protoplasm sheet saa the nucleus is amee- boid, as is also the nucleolus. The former, at last, gathers as two polar caps (/), while the latter dissolves to granules (); ; at first the granules are in the centre of the nucleus, then they pervade its whole substance, and finally a peripheral clear zone is abil ed (2). The substance of this zone then moves to the poles, forming a “ polar plate,” while the granules egate in vertical lines, and fuse more and more towards ator to form an equatorial plate of microsomata (7). Then SSO, begins n, and the daughter-microsomata move apart towards the s (m). On their way they form a continuous plate or zone of very minute anhi (2), but sometimes the groups may be shown to be still distinct, as at o, which also shows the polar stars (“ so) raying out from the protoplasmic cap. The microsomata are received and absorbed by the polar plate in a rosette-like figure (2). The polar ana invaginates like a gastrula, while the spindle constricts; the polar masses of pro w down on the sides (g), and are at last jamn constricted to serve as an envelope for the daughter-nuclei ; the spindle-fibres are absorbed into the cavity of the gastrula-like “ calotte,” and a stage-like 4 results. The substance of these brils is probably that which is separated from the nucleolus to form the paranu- cleolus. Fic. 104, a-c. A nucleus of Opalina ranarum—Nussbaum, A. m. A., xxvi.—The nucleus divides by first forming four “ microsomata nucleoli,” seen in polar view in a. ese microsomata divide and move along fibres to the poles, as in 4, and simple constriction, as in ¢, and reversion to uninuclear condition follows. oo 105, a-f- A ikii of Opalin m. According to Wisenes: (M. J., xi.), 2 shows an irregular reticulum or “ inet” with a couple of nucleoli and irregular masses of chromatin at the surface. In 4 the chromatin has become aggregated in superficial microsomata. These are forms of resting nuclei. The initial condition from which division p ds is seen in c. We have an abundant knäuel and a few nucleoli; then ind the knauel (skein) filament segments ; next, in z, the segments are concentrated to the centre. The nucleoli may or may not be absorbed. Now there ray out fibres from an “ amphiaster”’ towards the centre from two opposite the segments of nuclein arrange themselves into an equatorial plate (/), <- and, splitting each into two, send the regular number of V-shaped loops along the ae fibres of the spindle to the poles (s4). AS follows (7), and the segments "once more fuse into a “ skein-filament” or a “ reticulum.” BEE oe cated a form of karyokinesis as psies ROT Secs 106; pa Nucleus of embryonic e = Scorpion—Blochmann, M. J.,x.—To show “ direct” atoé; the nucleolus then divides, next the nucleus does so, and at {last the cell constricts jecol to > “Fis. 107. Nucleus of Vorticella in division—Camnoy, p-217-—Shows a simple con- t modification of the net-work. — n PLATE VII. alt 09 oa ie SES eee ff T A asof 1887] 5 The Significance of Sex. 141 simple @onstriction; the segments of the nucleolus are thus separated without a spindle,—a mode of division known as “ stenosis.” Fic. 110. N ucleus of muscle-fibre of psi of Hydrophilus (Carnoy, p- 240) enter- ing into division. The segments of the nuclein filament are seen lying among the fibres of the kpindi, which latter have been bas from the ie oem net- work, PLATE VII. - 111, a—&. Nucleus from cells of endoderm of Ccelenterates except (4) which „is aGieciermal-—-Pitcaer .m. xii.—a gives the * skein!” reticulum; 4shows the in centre; in g the nucleoli have dissolved; in e the polar asters have formed a spindle, and the segments have formed a “ rosette” in its equator ; f shows the “ ro- sette” broken up into loops by segmentation of outer limbs of the rosette. This is the “m get in g the “ dyaster.’’ shows the spindle with the loops near the poles and with astral et streaming out into the cytoplasm ; 7 shows the constriction of spindle and of cell; in 4 we have a true skein-filament that does not form a reticulum. The Sarian of the cel] “ plate,” where (as in plants) there is no cell constriction, , may be seen in Figs. 124, and s, and modern text-books on botany. Fic. 112, a-g. Kayokinesis from epithelium of Salamander—Flemming, A. m. A., xviii.—c, d are from testes as seen in living state. Here we see bodies at the poles nearly corresponding in number to the segments of the filament. When the dyaster is formed they are about twice as numerous, and strongly suggest that they are a species of paranucleolus. cf. 9714, 103, etc. In the daughter-nuclei the series a, b, is inversely followed, as in z, f, g. - In g the filament is cut across by the knife in many of its windings, thus giving us pseudo-nucleoli. Fic. 113, a-g. Epithelium of Salamander according to Rabl, M. J., x.—a is a schematic side view, and 4 a polar view of a resting nucleus. According to Rabl the segments of the filament do not fuse or in any way anastomose in the resting nucleus, but simply branch out finer and finer. Then in kinesis the branches are withdrawn, and short thickish loops are formed. The spindle is first seen in its entirety at one pole, which, as seen in æ and å, is different from the other pole, and then the spindle turns at an angle of 90° and forms the usual amphiaster (c, d). When the srt si the halves are carried apart at their dend first, and the shorter arms of th separated as seen in e. Arriving at the poles th as in we to form the figure æ. In g we see a PE REEE from testicular epithetinns of Proteus, where the branching does not take place, but the loops are formed of a row of microsomata (beaded filament). Fic. 114, a—ġ, shows how such a beaded filament splits by each microsoma divid- ing in the general plane of the loop. Pfitzner, M. J., vii. FIG. 115, a—e. Nucleus from growing point of Tradescantia vir, virgin tca—Strasburger, “ Zellbildung u. NRIS Jena, 1880.—The nearly homogeneous protoplasm of the nucleus (a) becomes granular; the granules fuse and arrange themselves in rows of microsomata (6), poe these rows are cut across (c) in the equator and pushed to- wards the poles while undergoing various changes of segmentation back to granules again, but a central nucleolus remains undissolved, or rather is built up during the process of reconstruction of the daughter-nucleus (d;e). : Fic, 116,a—e. Nucleus of Spirogyra majuscula—Strasburger, 1. c.—In a we see the view showing it becoming granular. aier nuc — with its nacie] bisa oe In D A oo 9 142 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. or microsomata which soon reach the granular state again (c, d, e). Meanwhile the nucleus flattens more and becomes biconcave; the granular protoplasm ane in concavities and sends across and through the nucleus the spindle-fibres (e); t marked boundary of the nucleus = dissolved, and the equatorial atone of cee splits and moves towards and into the polar masses, while the intervening portions of the ane -fibres (“ connecting aie) spread out and help build the cell-plate. 117 is from Spirogyra nitida, where the nucleus is more spherical and the callie Bees are at first aggregated towards the centre in union with the central gran- ular mass of chromatin, and they become more spread out as the nucleus loses in outline and the chromatin is divided into its daughter portions. We see also that the latter is confined to the central fibres of the spindle. Fic. 118, a—dz. Nuclei from protoplasmic layer next wall of embryo-sac of Galan- thus nivalis—Strasburger, A. m. A., xxiii.—a, first step towards karyokinesis; the finely-wound “skein” or “tangle,” the meshes of whose reticulum give a finely gran- ular appearance to the protoplasm. A large nucleolus exists besides. This is dis- solving and adding itself to the filament in 4, where the boun aries between the microsomata are not indicated in the diagram. cis she “ segmented stage,” in which * around like hooks (only a few segments are shown). Next, the ot split — dinally, and the halves of each hook seek opposite poles; to do this there must be stage where one-half of the loops of the southern aA cross as equator on meet correspondin g hooks from the northern y to the southern hemisphere. (See d, where w and w are the corresponding sateen 4 the southern hooks, and x d the northern hooks. w/ and x’ are represented as having just crossed.) While this “ metakinesis” is progressing the hooks become more U-shaped, and taking the northern daughter-nucleus, as in dy, we can see how its skein-filament “is reconstituted in dz, by union of neighboring limbs of the sets of loops. (Meta- esis refers to the changes that take place after the splitting of the loops or micro- somata to form the chromatin figures which are to occupy the So The’ ing changes constitute the “ prophase,” the succeeding, the phase.’’) Fic. 119, a-/. From wall of embryo-sac of Fritillaria imperialis urger, A. m. A., xxiii—a-d represent the prophase, e-f, the metaphase, g-/, the anaphase. Here the first step of the metaphase is, as in the last case, one of mutual transfer be- tween the opposite sides of the equator. (See f.) Following any one loop in the - northern hemisphere, splitting into two halves (1, 2, Fig. fw), the part 2 is des- tined for the northern daughter-nucleus, and 1 for the southern. Separation between the two halves proceeds from one end to the other, so that the part 1 becomes pulled _ out straight, one limb of the part 2 is held back, while the other is dragged t towards its own pole (fx), both halves are therefore acted on so as to be pulled into line par- allel with a meridian, but the end, as it approaches the pole, bends around hook- -shaped to form a new loop, hence the part 2 passes through an “ S”? stage (fy), and the part 1 a hook stage, and they finally reach the U stage stage in fz, when the stages a ma oe, as in he preceding ane On comparing — it will be Hata Dever ai Gy ti d by means of the d a a PEN g Pee sake RUN a f the loops p but are oftener hooks or even straight filaments : and fx would be omitted. ; approximated. The number of Toop Sgr grrr grat ia e diagram, : > 2 J A s 1- >, Æ c : ‘ fi A / is : r enw: lej AR? « : -a tae . rag ae o i, Rd . UY wie a / ` ar oe ai = s- i ne > j i ey f ` < 1887] The Significance of Sex. 143 Fic. 120. Cell from testis of Chelonia caja—Carnoy, p. 250.—The nuclear spindle is nearly constricted off in the equator; the ‘hpi: is partly so, and shows its T as ri dis goo arranged as those of the spind] 1. Dividing sperm-cells from Aat—Weidersperg, A. m. A., xxv.—The two sat i are at a distance from each other, but still the Abie fibres unite the two daughter-nuclei. PLATE VIII. Fic. 122, a-¢, From pollen mother-cells of Fritillaria persica—Strasburger, A. m. A., xxiii.—a-g is the SA pet -m the anaphase, m-r a succeeditig prophase, and r-¢ the next anaphase he filament is at first much finer pap more intricately woven than represented in the een three diagrams. In ġ we see a nucleolus at one ih in connection with which the loops of the skein are put; ¢ is a polar view of the d the filament has shortened more and passed out of its relation with the te sadist which is now breaking down. Next, in ¢, the segmentation is com- pleted, and the limbs of the U-shaped segments are closely applied to each other; then, in 7, these stumpy “loops” get crowded into the centre, and the spindle is formed (g). Then splitting ensues and metakinesis (4). In the daughter-nuclei the loops come to lie so as to make the poles of the nucleus unlike : side view in 7 and 2 and polar view in /, where the open ends of the loops point towards the old equator. Finally the eta sae is constituted as in m and # side and surface (polar) views respectively. But as about to divide again, the return to the resting state is not complete, AE e a a continuous filament is established, with local thicken- ings on it, showing the chromatin already segmenting. While segmentation pro- ceeds, the segments get into the meridians and shorten towards the equator (f and g), then the spindle is formed (7), and after the anaphase straight rods of chromatin pass to the poles, where they curve into loops (s, 7). This series shows what varia- bility there may be between successive divisions of same nucleus. Such variability - 124). FIG. 123, a-gx. Spermatogenesis of Helix pomatia.—a, the nucleus, with a thin layer of protoplasm about oh forming the “sperm mother-cell.” It is now homogene- ous, soon becomes granular, and a reticulum is developed (4). Out of the nucleus now buds a paranucleus (x). Then there is a period of growth until we get c, with a rich surface reticulum of chromatin. In g the meshes of the reticulum absorbed by the TAS In e hiss —— a ie any a formed four microsomata ; these re distant distribution, and, by tie the connecting proteases in i aie s directii and strengthening them in a meridional direction, they form a series of loops of a filament e MIRER now approaches the pole, and at the same time the loops ikri towards it, forming a rosette (g). The outer turns of the rosette break, as seen in polar view given in 4. The paranucleus is absorbed, and the loops with their bends wa ea axis ssi saree to the dre cee (J); at a same — Sr SPEA is formed. such bodies in an cea sie (4); the fibres of the spindle are in union, by- means of the rays of the polar aster, with the cytoplasmic reticulum. Each karysoma now segments again into four microsomata (/), but only the first plane Lees in the meridian cuts through completely; the second is simply the beginning of an attempt _ to form a beaded filament. These short filaments, consisting each of a pair of mi- 144 The Significance of Sex. [Feb, in forming the paranucleus (see A. m. A., xxvi.), the karyosomata segment to form the rosette p and fx, where ż is the figure in the first division and gr that of the last. The reticulum is again established in gand gx ; the steps following the final division are ete in Fig. 81, a, 4, ¢, etc. 24,a-s. “ Cy ideri” of the egg of Ascaris megalocephala (a-g), from Car- aii Cellule, vol. ii., May, 1886. %-s from Van Beneden, A. B., iv.—a is the nu- cleus of a young egg having a beaded filament forming a “skein.” There is besides a nucleolus which Carnoy calls a “ — -nucleolus” (x). Soon the filament seg- ments (4) into eight karyosomata, and then reticulum of the nucleus can be seen remaining. -The egg grows, and when mature, ee containing the spermatozoon, the preparations for forming the polar globules are made. The poles of the egg become marked each by a plasmatic-nucleolus; and the eight karyosomata now take an equa- torial pee in two groups (c), which gives to the germinal vesicle the appearance o! ing two germinal spots when viewed with moderate powers. The next stage soe the reticulum and wall of the germinal vesicle dissolved (which solution ap- pears with all nuclei at oe stage). Two groups of fibres now ray down from one pole towards the kary ta (d). The other half of the spindle is soon completed in a similar manner. “Then from the poles, where is a granular mass called a “ pla- teau,” there ray out into the protoplasm, fibres to form primary asters (1). The pti may split and so form several secondary plateaux, one of which is shown at ’, Fig. ¢, for each pole, but its aster is still primary, because a part of its rays enter into the nuclear spindle. There may be several of these formed by repeated split- ting of the “ plateau.” ees asters (2) are formed when the streamers flow from the karyosomata. Tertiary asters (3) are those ponnera” with primary asters, but not a part of nuclear ieai while quatenary asters (4) are small asters scattered through the yelk, but they may be connected ady any other aster by one or two fila- fixed law governs their production, and the utmost variety of combination may be found. The system of asters is much more complex in the formation of the second pear globule than in the first. Our description of Fig. z is from the second “ cary etique figure.” The asters finally fade out until only one plateau with its bilat- on spindle is left; this often closes up on itself (/),so that the polar plate looks like an equatorial. plate; the karyosomata are thus carried around into a plane at right angles to a. old position, ang ead to approach each other. But this mode of dis- The last trace of the spindles and asters disappears (zg), the plateaux are reduced to ticulum of the plasma is restored, | but not as ya ie membrane of the nucleus. Now the reticulum produces Pi simple spi al (the tion’’) between the two groups of kary- aaasta. aad the tit periphoral one is at off by an equatorial cell-plate, much as two each, y re eated, so that only two karyosomata a ave leftin de cat ton eee eae divide by karyokinesis. After the last polar globule has been extruded (4) the two _ karyosomata of the female pronucleus segment up into microsomata, and a similar eola uate Aled gee aa eE agen 7 shows the two in a stage y eoncestration snd. pais ieee 1887] The Significance of Sex. 145 finally arrange themselves in the equator, so as to show in polar view as in , two of these loops were furnished by the male and two by the female. A side-view of this stage is shown in o, where the filaments have split in the middle, but not yet at the ends and the centre. In g the V-shaped loops have diverged towards the poles quite a ways; the central apices, however, move faster towards the poles than the outer limbs. hows the microsomata somewhat irregularly segregated at the base of a figure formed by the polar aster and spindle of conducting fibre, and at the apex of — the spindle of connecting fibrils, which is now constructing the cell-plate as ins. This e seems to show that the connecting fibres and the conducting fibres belong to distinct systems, which is more clearly shown in 7, where the karyosomata are placed at the ints of the meshes formed by the interlacing of the two systems. In the con- struction of the daughter-nucleus the microsomata pass by segmentation into a knauel like that seen in 7 and 4, and only when the equatorial plate is again formed for sub- sequent division do we get the four Ud once more established, as is seen respect- sg at the left and right of s. Van Beneden, however, ignores the evidence of his s, and states that the four loops remain distinct throughout. (See text for sibs prises n.) (c) KARYOKINESIS. WO extreme types of cell-division are known; in one, the nucleus simply constricts into two halves that move apart, followed by a similar constriction of the cell-body, so that each of the daughter-cells is provided with its own nucleus; in the other type the nucleus undergoes changes by which it becomes invisible to the microscope, unless the cell be treated with proper reagents, and as the partition which divides the cell-body appears, there is gradually built up a nucleus in each of the daughter-cells. The former type is known as direct division, the latter as indirect division. The term aryokinesis (nuclear motion) is usually re- stricted to the latter kind of division, but we are learning that there are many forms of indirect division that gradually unite the two extremes, so that we can no longer make the above dis- tinction. The term karyokinesis admits readily of a broad sig- nification, and we shall use the word as including all sorts of nuclear transformations Our knowledge of Gell stractuce and of the nucleus has won- derfully increased since 1833, when Robert Brown discovered the nucleus while studying the generative organs of orchids, and Von Mohi (1835) first saw it divide. To-day we are making as rapid progress in this direction as ever, and there is no field of biological research which offers so great inducements to the in- vestigator, or so valuable results as this. In all our progress there has been but one tendency, and that is to show us that the cell, and especially the nucleus, is a com- 140 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. plex and highly-organized structure. We can no longer use the term protoplasm in its old sense of one definite substance whose remarkable properties are due to the great chemical complexity of its molecule. 1. Historical—In the works of Schleiden and Schwann (1838- 1840), which established the cell-doctrine, the cell was described as originating by the activity of the cytod/ast (the nucleus), which was itself due to a condensation of granules in the cell-substance of the mother-cell. The endogenous origin of cells and cell-nuclei was, however, gradually overthrown, and in 1855 Remak estab- lished the generalization that all cells are due to the division of pre-existing cells in such manner that the nucleolus first divides, then the nucleus, and lastly the cell-body. This schema could rest only on the facts of direct division and a superficial observation of indirect division. As soon as the latter was carefully studied by Hoffmeister, in 1867, he found that the nucleus disappears and two centres of attraction arise in the cell, in connection with which the daughter-nuclei were built up. These facts had been observed in animal-cells already in 1858, by Munk, so that the view that a cell must return to a cytode condition to divide and so, in a manner, be rejuvenated, and produce new nuclei endoge- nously, was fairly established. This school was strengthened by receiving the support of all who had observed the maturation of e ovum (except Warneck, 1850), for here it was seen that the rminal vesicle disappears before segmentation, and that the nuclei of the segmentation products arise as new structures, and, moreover, Valette St, George had, in 1866, shown that the ovum is a cell, the germinal vesicle a nucleus, and the germinal dot a nucleolus. complex nature of cell-structure was surmised by Brücke as early as 1861, although the microscope had then only re- vealed granules, and that these were at times arranged in a radiate manner with reference to the nuclei. In 1865, Frommann, through extended research, described the reticulate nature of protoplasm and generalized that this was the typical structure of protoplasm, but his views remained for many years unnoticed. 2 = | Ia: eed the view that whenever a pro- 1887] The Significance of Sex. 147 peared as granules. The nucleus is only a large nodal point in the centre, and as this developed it repeated the process, and finally the nucleolus in a mature cell takes on the reticulate structure. He laid the basis for Nageli’s theory of heredity by advancing the notion that the reticuli of all the cells in the body are continuous, and so anticipated modern studies of protoplasmic continuity. This year is memorable as marking the beginning of studies on karyokinesis. The stimulus came from a paper by Schneider, in which the different phases were pretty well described, though their connection and sequence were unknown. Even the spindle and cell plate were figured. Bütschli and Fol confirmed these results, the former mainly as to the nuclear rosette and its sepa- ration into two halves to constitute.the daughter-nuclei, while the latter got the asters and spindle best; hence the former agreed with Schneider that there was no deconstitution of the nucleus, while the latter inclined to side with the orthodox school. Auerbach now appeared with his “Organologische Studien” (1874). He starts with Heitzmann’s views as to the organization of protoplasm, but considers the nucleus to be a sap-cavity into which molecules of protoplasm wander and grow to become nucleoli. These multiply by division, so that old cells have many nucleoli. The cells of highly-organized tissues, he says, have more nucleoli than cells lower in the scale of organization. The nucleoli are young cells, and they are simply separated into two groups in direct division ; but in indirect division, which he dis- tinguishes as palingenetic, these are dissolved into a molecular state in the nuclear sap, and then absorbed with the sap by the cell-plasma. This process is termed £aryolysis, the spindle with its polar asters is the karyolytic figure and the simple expression of the streaming out of the nuclear substance. Later, near each star, the sap and molecules return to form a daughter-nucleus. _ This seemed a pretty fair explanation, and Flemming at this time was much influenced by it. Bütschli, however (1875), opposed the theory, though he modi- fied his former view of the simple persistence and division of the nucleus to the view that the nucleus is reconstructed into a spindle, at whose equator the fibres become thickened to form the nu- clear plate, which plate by splitting passed its halves to the poles of the spindle to be re-formed into nuclei. In the same © A list of the papers referred to will be given at the close of the article. 148 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. year the first edition of Stvasburger’s work on cell-division ap- peared. This treated in the main of the plant-cell, where the spindle thickenings after separating leave between themselves connecting fibrils that are more prominent than in the animal- cell. These he called xuclear fibrils, and at their equator a second set of thickenings appear that go to construct the dividing wall between the new cells, hence he named it the cedl-plate. The second edition of this work appeared in 1876, and the third in 1880. In the last he changes the name he gave the connecting fibres to cell-fibres, because he supposed that they were formed from the ‘cytoplasm penetrating into the nuclear matter at the time of the deconstitution of the latter. Van Beneden, on the other hand, agreed with Bütschli that the spindle comes from the old nucleus. He distinguishes between the nuclear sap and the xuclear essence. The connecting fibrils are of the same essence as the nuclear disk, and are due to the draw- ing out of the elements as they segment into the daughter-disks. In this year, also, Hertuig showed that the egg-nucleus does not disappear during cleavage, but passes through a metamorpho- sis similar to the cell-divisions described by Bütschli. At the poles of the spindle and in the centre of each aster he finds a polar corpuscle. Fol had seen corpuscles in the stars, but had confounded them with the daughter-nuclei. The following year, 1876, Fol corrects this error. Balbiani found the nuclear plate to be composed of rod-like elements that were composed of granules, but these views were unnoticed, so that Pfitsner received the honor of their discovery five years later. At this time the elements which compose the nuclear plate -= were not distinguished from the spindle-fibres, due to the fact that reagents which made the one visible left the other obscure, hence there was a good deal of contradiction in the results, which was unreal. In this year Bitschi’s chief work appears. He supposes the -infusorian ‘nucleus to represent the original type of nucleus. He thinks the cytoplasm stimulates the nucleus to division, though it may not itself necessarily follow the example. The rays of the stars are not the expression of attractive forces of the nucleus, T mie toa Shona influence. He found that the 1887] The Significance of Sex. "149 ter, like Van Beneden, into sap and nuclear substance, Strasdurger now proposes the following scheme. There are in the nucleus three formed substances, one of which is active. By the excita- tion of the cytoplasm the active substance gathers at the poles of the nucleus, leaving the spindle-fibres stretching between; the latter are cytoplasmic in origin, and the polar substance acts on them just as it acts on the fibres of the cytoplasm which form the stars, hence the general disposition of the polarized mole- cules in rows radiating away from the polar area. The third substance is first repelled from the poles to form the nuclear equatorial plate; but in some way there is a change of polarity by which it is subsequently attracted to the poles, and so the plate splits in two (it might also do this through internal repul- sion, but, as we shall show farther on, there is no necessity for a physical explanation). This is perhaps the best of the few theo- ries which have been advanced to account for the phenomena." On the question of the solution of the nucleus, Fo now took a middle ground, holding with Strasburger that the cytoplasm entering formed the spindle, but the nuclear matter simply be- came continuous ae the cytoplasm through the dissolution of the nuclear membran In 1878, Schleicher adtaindsd the view that the protoplasm was composed not of parts that had a fixed relation to one another, but of units that were independently mobile, and so all the struc- _ tures were amoeboid in form, hence there could be no definite phases during cell-division, wherefore he proposed the term karyokinesis to designate the phenomena. On the other hand, Flemming had, by careful staining, worked out the series of forms through which the nuclear matter passes during karyokinesis. He did not get the spindle well because, as he showed the next year, this was composed of non-stainable matter. The resting nucleus consists of a vesicle enclosing a reticulum and one or more nucleoli. This reticulum is changed to an exceedingly long and intricately wound filament, at the same time the nu- cleoli dissolve in the sap and the filament absorbs the material. This is the phase of the close knauel. (Fig. 112, a.) The filament now shortens and grows thicker, passing through the open * We give the theory in its most developed form, third edition of Strasburger’s work, 1880, where he slightly modified it from its original statement in the second edition. 150 . The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. knauel stage, until it shows as a rosette (Fig. 111, e), with loops turned peripherally and towards the centre. Then the outer limbs of the loops break, leaving a lot of V-shaped filaments having their apices towards a common centre. (Fig. 105, 7.) This is the “ mother-star.” Meanwhile the central point of attraction splits and movés to the poles, where asters now appear. This is accompanied by alternate expansion and contraction of the nuclear star (diastole and systole), and finally results in its flat- tening into an “ equatorial plate” (Fig. 113, Æ); then each loop splits lengthwise, though it may have done so while still in the mother-star (Fig. 119, ¢), and thus formed the “ fine-rayed star.” The halves of each loop become separated and grouped in a “ dyaster,” or two daughter-stars, passing through the phase which shows as a splitting of the equatorial plate. Then the apices of the loops (travelling along the spindle-fibres) are drawn towards the poles (Fig. 112, ¢), drawing the limbs after them, and so reach the pole. Here they form into a figure like the old mother-star (Figs. 112, f, 105, 4), and return, by uniting ends through the rosette (Fig. 118, f) into the knauel form, and finally become like the mother-nucleus. The next year Flemming divided cell-division into direct and indirect. He limited the former to motile cells, and accepted Schleicher’s term as applying to the indirect kind. He thinks the nucleoli are an accidental thing in a nucleus, and according as nuclear substance stains or not he calls it chromatin and achro- matin. In the same year, 1879, Fol proposed his electrolytic theory of cell-division. He believed the nuclear reticulum was directly transformed into the spindle, and the nuclear plate was due to an equatorial thickening of its fibres. Strasburger's studies gave him different results from Flemming. In plants the phases are not so marked, but may give a spindle figure of chromatic granules arranged in rows like the staves of a cask; and the daughter-nuclei arise through the simple break- ing of these across the middle. (Figs. 115, a-d.) ` In 1881, Retzius had confirmed the phases of Flemming, but showed that the rosette must be given up, as segmentation of the knauel may take place while in the loose or open knauel stage. _ (Fig. 112, 6.) He says the chromatic substance is contained in a = hyaline matrix, as Pfitzner has shown, and most of it is absorbed : a and these are the nucleoli. p #' 1887] The Significance of Sex. 151 Pfitzner, this year, called attention to the fact that the nuclear loops are composed of granules like a row of beads, and that the loop splits by the segmentation of each granule. He thought these granules to be the protoplasmic molecules, but later (1883) said they were independent and individual units in the. nuclear structure. (See Fig. 114, a, 6.) In 1882, Strasburger proposed the terms cytoplasm, microso- mata, nucleoplasm, etc., which we adopted in Section æ of this paper. He studied more carefully the method of rearrangement of the loops in the equatorial plate during its division, and finds that it is more complex than Flemming made it, for the old bend straightens out, and one end of the loop gets drawn towards the pole, and then bends like a hook, and this new bend travels along the filament to its middle point, thus making the two limbs equal, while at the same time the loop is drawn polewards. Strasburger had not yet discovered the splitting of the loops, so that he had as yet only an imperfect notion of how the rearrangement took place. (See Figs. 118 and 119 for the actual facts.) In this year appeared Flemming’s systematic work on the cell, and in it he accepts the criticisms of Retzius and Strasburger, so far as they relate to the rosette phase and the “ rearrangement.” He doubts if there is a reticulum in cells, or at least in nuclei. The appearance.may be due to the optical effect of a closely- wound filament or mitom, the sap is the paramitom, and karyo- kinesis should be termed mitokinesis, or mitosis. Besides the mitom there are chief and accessory nucleoli. He gives up the idea that the chromatin may dissolve in the cell-sap. He gives us the term sgzrem for the knauel phase. Rearrangement in the equatorial plate is termed metakinesis. He uses the term aster for the star-form of the mother-nucleus, and dyaster for that of the daughter-nucleus. In 1883, Pfitzner makes three sorts of chromatic substance in the nucleus. The substance of the spindle, hitherto called achro- matic, he terms parachromatin, while the sap only is true achro- matin. The nucleolus has prochromatin, while the mitom has the true chromatin. In the resting nucleus there may be, besides Strasburger’s membrane, which belongs to the cytoplasm, a true nuclear membrane of parachromatin. Roux, in this year, proposes a theory of karyokinesis, based on the idea that there is a mixture of qualities in the chromatin, 152 The Significance of Sex. [Feb. etc., and that these have to be distributed in a definite way be- iict the daughter-cells at each division. Hence the complicated machinery. In 1884, Rad/ seeks to show that there never is a simple fila- ment in a cell, but that the loops pre-exist even in the resting state, and that in this latter state the chromatin flows out along definite paths into finer and finer branches, which never anasto- mose, but may swell up at points, where a special lot of chro- matin gathers, and there form nucleoli. The cell is heteropolar, always having the apices of the loops directed towards the principal pole. (See Fig. 113, a) Teuser agrees with Rabl in finding the mitom segmental in the resting phase. In this year Strasburger discovers the splitting phase in certain plant-tissues. (Figs. 118, 119.) Carnoy now comes to the front with important contributions. He finds, what has not been noticed by previous observers in its true light, that there exists a true reticulum in the nucleus, like the reticulum in the cytoplasm (Fig. 4), but that the mitom in its convolutions hides this, and gives us the aspect of a coarser reticulum (Fig. 3), which is the one referred to by previous in- vestigators. The mitom may be itself reticulated (Fig. 13), or its segments be short and rod-like in some cells (Figs. 123, 124), but besides these there are the nucleoli. All the nucleoli are not composed of true chromatin. There are one or two that are composed of plastin (Figs. 44, 124, 6, c), like the true reticulum, and with it and the membrane become transformed to the achro- matic or spindle part of the figure. The phases of Flemming are realized only in a limited number of cases, and there appears to be the utmost variety in the karyokinetic figures; we may get forms where the nuclear reticulum does not become transformed, although the mitom may segment. (Figs. 109, 110, stenotic di- vision.) Again, the achromatic part of the figure may in one and the same cell differ under different circumstances from great —— to simplicity of structure." Platner has also made important contributions (see Fig. 123, a-ga); but these will be considered i in another connection.? 8 See also, Lee, “ Carnoy’s Cell R. hes.” Q. J. M.S, April, 1886. Egle rater ee eed oa eter as just come to my notice. — eae e e a 1887] The Significance of Sex. 153 Thus we get a notion of the cell as a most varied organism. Cells may be as varied among themselves as the higher organ- isms. But we have hardly begun to get an idea of the variety of karyokinetic phenomena; what is to appear by future study we can only vaguely imagine. The phenomena of cell-division can- not be purely physical phenomena. They are living phenomena, and show they are subject to the laws of heredity and evolu- tion of adaptation and variation. If this be so, we can under- stand karyokinesis only through comparative studies, just as we study the laws of variation and evolution, of homology and affin- ity with higher organisms. It becomes important, therefore, to understand karyokinetic phenomena among the Protozoa. Re- cent studies in this line have shown that here we may get nearly as complex figures of karyokinesis as in tissue-cells; but from this we get all grades down to the simplest direct division. We learn that nuclei may be alike in distantly-related forms, while closely-allied forms may have very diverse nucléi. 2. Protozoa.—These organisms present, as we should expect, a great variety of nuclear forms and karyokinesis. The differ- entiation has been in so many different directions, with the ac- quirement of secondary characters whose physiological signifi- cance we can hardly guess, that it is perhaps impossible to connect the forms. Frey thinks the vesicular form of nucleus is the primitive one, but most writers agree with R. Hertwig in de- riving this form from a solid form through vacuolation of the latter, which leaves the chromatin either all in a cortical zone, or else in one or more nucleoli; and this process may be repeated in a nucleolus when this becomes large and important. Gruber suggests that in a primitive state the chromatin was present throughout the cell ina granular form, as in Trichospherium, Pleurophrys, Trachelocercus, Chcenia, and others, and that solid nuclei arose by fusion of these granules, or by some of them re- maining in close union following their multiplication. But it must be observed that this granular condition could easily arise by the segmentation of larger bodies and so be secondary in plasmic streaming in one direction. Each meridian bears a karyosoma that splits, because the fibre splits; thus, always in a meridional plane. The parachromatic mitom is so wound that the current is towards opposite poles in neighboring fibres after the splitting, hence the daughter PPE are swept to their proper poles. This theory appears to be as weak as its predecesso: 154 The Significance of Sex. [Feb. character. In some forms we get either many small nuclei or else granules, besides one or more chief nuclei, and, according to Altmann, this is true of all tissue-cells, so that we have nuclear bodies first differentiated in two directions, the granules serving some nutritive or other function, while the nuclei retained the office of being the primary reproductive bodies. The next differentiation arising would be the differentiation of the nuclei into two kinds, which in some Ciliates have acquired considerable independence and act quite differently during di- vision. We know them as nuclei and nucleoli, or as nuclei and paranuclei, respectively. Better terms are Huxley’s endoplast and endoplastule, as not implying homologies which are probably false. In massive nuclei the chromatin exists in a fine net-work, which gives the appearance of granules in the resting phase and of fibrillz during division. In Gastrostyla the endoplastules divide by a true spindle and a nuclear plate of karyosomata. Nearly all the nuclei of Opalina are of this sort. The substance of the nucleus may differentiate into two sorts that gather in two portions of the nucleus, either by polar dif- ferentiation or by centripetal differentiation. One substance is hyaline, the other granular; examples are Leptodiscus, Spirochona, and Noctiluca. In Spirochona it is the endoplast which has this structure, and it divides by a complex kinesis. A nucleolus appears in the clear part, which becomes transformed into fibrils while the hyaline portion gathers as two polar plates that sepa- rate, and so, as it were, tear the nucleus in two. The three endoplastules present divide by simple constriction at the same time; and here also there are polar plates of a substance different from the equatorial portion. | Ina different direction we get the vesicular differentiation, and this is most common in the lower Protozoa, and is that from which the metazoan cell-nucleus is derived. In Rhizopods we may not only get many nuclei (about two hundred in Pelomyxa), but each nucleus may present a great variety of phenomena. There may be a central nucleolus, and this nucleolus may be composed of many microsomata, or the microsomata may sepa- rate as so many nucleoli, or again may fall into granules. To- gether with all these forms there may be a cortical shell of micros¢ for examples, see Figs. 14, a, b, 20, 22. The = - multin clearity of many of the Protozoa is due to the fact that 1887] The Significance of Sex. 155 cell-division is purely facultative, and has not been inseparably associated with nuclear division. When it takes place, as in Opalina, any number of nuclei may be separated away in the daughter-cell. In many cases the nuclear divisions affect only the chromatin, while the hyaloplasm and its nucleolemma remain as funiculi uniting the segments. (See Figs. 42, 31, 29, 28, 41, etc.) The microsomata of a nucleolus or of a karyosoma behave in the same way; as in Figs. 19, d, 43, 114, 115, 123, g, 124, 9. In Radiolaria we get a multitude of small “ massive” nuclei that divide by amceboid constriction (Fig. 25), and in the central capsule vesicular nuclei, whose different metamorphoses are shown in Figs. 16, 17, 18, and I9. In division of vesicular nuclei we get, as the simplest form, the Remakian scheme. (Fig. 100.) Next we may get the granular contents arranged in fibrils that are bisected by the constrict- ing nucleus (Fig. 101), or they may remain in the granular state. (Fig. 99.) The most complex case is given by Actinospherium eichornii. (Fig. 103, a-g.) Here the nucleolus separates into two bodies, one containing chromatin and oné the parachromatin ; then each body segments into fine granules; these granules get arranged in fibrils; the chromatin-granules fuse to karyosomata lying in an equatorial plate in the spindle formed by the parachro- matin; the karyosomata divide into daughter-karyosomata that pass towards the poles; on its way each daughter-karyosoma segments to microsomata; the microsomata segment to granules, which, however, form separate karyosoma-like masses until they are absorbed by the polar plates. The latter are due to the fact that the external protoplasm had gathered at two opposite poles of the nucleus and had attracted the parachromatic cortical layer of the nucleus. Why the protoplasm should gather at the poles and so induce nuclear division is unknown. Possibly substances in the nucleus have first passed to the poles and attracted the cytoplasm. These substances may be the segments of the para- nucleolus, for it is possible to derive the spindle-fibres from a dif- . ferentiation of some of the chromatin-granules into hyaloplasm. It is rare to find the nucleolus (or the granules that represent it when it is segmented) in the same condition during nuclear di- vision as during the resting phase. There is a cycle of changes, so that one condition has to be assumed for division, and then the chromatin returns through inverse stages to its resting state. i. The Significance of Sex. [ Feb, The phases of this cycle may be few or they may be many, and besides, the phase in which the nucleus rests may be in one case in one point of this cycle, in another it is a different phase of this cycle. But in all cases the cycle is made up of stages of fusion or of segmentation between the two extremes of one single nucleolus and of numerous granules. (The law is unchanged even if we sup- pose that the granules are the nodes of a reticulum.) Usually nuclear division follows that point in the cycle where the chro- matin is most condensed. Thus, even in the Remakian schema, this law is followed, as see Figs. 99, 100, 101. Cases like Figs. IOI, 103, 104, and karyokinesis in Metazoa are related to the Rema- kian schema by a compounding of the latter, for cach karyosoma fol- lows the Remakian schema. We thus see that direct division is to in- direct division asa unicellular or unisegmental animal is to one that is multicellular or multisegmented. Jf we study the cell-division of multinuclear Protozoa we find that the same laws hold. Opalina is an exception, and such forms as Polykrikos (Fig. 96), that have only nuclear division during cell-division, are connecting links to the far larger class of cases, where, as in Oxytricha (Fig. 95), Paramoecium (Fig. 9734), Stentor, etc., there is fusion of the nuclei (or of nuclear segments in moniliform endoplasts) before division and multiplication of these bodies preceding, during, or following division. In Paramcecium the resting phase concurs with the mononucleate phase. But even in the exceptions to this law there is fusion, when these forms encyst to produce spores (Fig. 97) by the successive or by simultaneous division of the fused nucleus. In such cases, as in conjugation of low forms, the phenomena may be facultative, the number of nuclei resulting from the fusion being one which varies from one to the original number, just as the resulting spores may vary in number. What is the meaning of this? Zt ts evident that we have here to do with conjugative phenomena. These self-same nuclei that with one form of cell-division fuse, may, in case of buds, be set free, as microgonidia to fertilize other gonidia. It may be that the granules and nuclei are in different parts of the cell subjected to different conditions, and thus come to vary slightly. If, now, the cell divided, the daughter-cells would differ, and ultimately new species be formed. But, as we find that if conjugation phe- _ nomena be left out in one place in the different modes of repro- 1887] The Significance of Sex. 157 prevented, as in male and female parthenogenesis, the resulting organisms are weak, we must conclude that the organism derives some benefit from the mixture of chromatins that are slightly dif- ferent. In the case assumed above, where cell-division is not ac- companied by fusion of the nuclei, we may presume that conju- gation of gametes supplies this lack,’ though in Opalina the only form of fertilization as yet discovered is that of nuclear fusion during encystment. But Opalina is a parasite, and parasites, we know, get along remarkably well without fertilization. This explanation of karyokinesis seems quite plausible, so that we may formulate the law ¢hat every cell-division ts preceded by fertilization phenomena: ts accompanied by close inbreeding. Other explanations have been suggested. Strasburger regards karyo- kinesis as resulting in like cells, therefore the different chroma- tins present must be carefully divided, so that each daughter-cell shall receive its proper ingredients. Roux and Weismann go further and call attention to the fact that dividing cells are not alike, so that we need a particular distribution of the gemmules for each division, so that, to follow the last author, in the first egg-segmentation, the histogenic plasm is separated from the generative plasm. Thus the soma is descended from one blasto- mere and the generative cells from another. In a similar way the endoderm-cells have a common ancestor, and the ectoderm another, and so on. This explanation seems to me difficult of application to the Protozoa, so that the law enunciated above - appears to be unaffected. 3. General—It would extend the length of this paper unduly, as well as be of no interest except to the specialist, to discuss the various views that have been advanced in interpretation of the special stages of karyokinesis. Nevertheless, some of the more prominent features should be noticed. We have already seen that cell-division need not be necessarily associated with nuclear division, whether this be direct or indirect, so in the higher tis- sues there occur cells that present such conditions. These are the internodal cells of Chara, many fungi where the nuclei are granules, and the generative tissues of both plants and animals; also in cartilage-cells and marrow-cells. In the generative tissues of plants cell-division does not take place until many endosperm * The formation of varieties and species must take place in spite of this tendency of differentiated chromatins to fm. 158 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. nuclei are present, and to this form of division the term /ree-cell Jormation has been applied, while the term in the sense in which Schleiden used it has been pretty nearly abandoned. Still, we saw that in the Protozoa nuclei could arise by the fusion of gran- ules, and return by fragmentation to the granular state, and it may be a question whether similar phenomena may not be found in tissue-cells. The cases of the endogenous origin of nuclei are reported in eggs that have so much yelk that it is hard to follow the nuclear changes. Does the cytoplasm or the keelas ilate division? Hertwig holds that the nucleus is the automatic centre which controls the individuality of the cell, but it must be confessed that the earliest changes are in the cytoplasm. Protoplasm gathers at two points and forms stars, between which the nucleus becomes stretched out and transformed. Carnoy (Fig. 124), and lately (1886) Hert- wig, have found independent stars arising in the cytoplasm, and if more than two of these get connection with the nucleus, there are as many polesand spindles or resulting daughter-nuclei as there are asters. The rays about these asters are simply a transforma- tion of the reticulum. What their function is we can only guess with the numerous guesses made by predecessors. They may be nutritive, may be paths for travelling gemmules, may have a nervous function, or finally only serve motor functions. The spindle-fibres are a similar transformation of the nuclear reticu- lum (że. the parachromatin reticulum); whether the nuclear membrane in dissolving adds to their material, or gathers at the poles of the spindle as in Actinospherium, may be doubtful. In the latter case it would continue its original function of medi- ating between the intra- and the extra-nuclear reticulum. But Strasburger and others find that the astral- and spindle-fibres are continuous, and thinks the latter come by a penetration of the former through the poles of the nucleus. But the mass of evi- dence is against him, and besides, the spindle-fibres are composed of parachromatin (chemically, plastin) and react differently from the extra-nuclear fibres. _ Then there are the polar corpuscles in the centres of the stars, and forming the apices of the spindle. Their origin is obscure. _ Possibly the plastin nucleolus of Carnoy may, by its division and ‘migration, have initiated the division of the nucleus, and is rep- ee It is ee T o DERA 1887] The Significance of Sex. 159 may divide, and so split the spindle (Fig. 124), and often the two stars first arise close together, and move later to opposite poles. We must also notice Rabl’s discovery of a spindle intact in the nucleus, which rotates into its position (see Fig. 113, c) through an angle of In what condition is the chromatin in the resting nucleus? It may be present as a fine or as a coarse reticulum, closely inter- penetrating the parachromatic reticulum, and perhaps fused with it. In the germinal vesicle it is present as a nucleus, which be- comes transformed into the reticulum before division. The next change this reticulum suffers is its transformation into a mitom,— z.é., a filament,—which, while it is very long and closely balled up, may not be distinguished from a reticulum. Some nuclei rest in this phase, or in subsequent phases of its shortening and conse- quent thickening. When thick it has been found to be com- posed of granules that fuse to form microsomata, so that finally the mitom is one microsoma thick. The next phase is one in which the mitom segments into loops or filamentous karyosomata. Some cells rest in this phase. (See Fig. 124.) When the segmen- tation occurs early, while the reticulum is being transformed into the mitom, we get a condition of things represented in Figs. 113 and 45. The karyosomata are apt to be short or corpuscular in generative cells. (See Figs. 122 and 123.) Now we have two ways in which the karyosomata are sepa- rated into two groups to form the daughter-nuclei. In one they are separated without accompanying division, as in Fig. 124. In the other they divide in such a way that each half of the karyo- soma is destined to pass into different daughter-nuclei. In this case we get two forms. In one form the karyosomata, if they are short, become arranged into a nuclear plate in the equator of the spindle, and by division and separation of the halves we get two daughter-plates that pass to the poles, and become the daughter-nuclei, but if they are long, they lie along each spindle- fibre and are bisected in the equator as in Figs. 101 and 115. In the other case the daughter-segments are produced by a longi- tudinal splitting of the loop, as shown in Figs. 114, 118, and 119, in which splitting usually occurs early, while the spirem figure still persists, and in this case no true equatorial plate may form, but be only the expression of separating loops passing each other on the way to their respective ogg Between all these different VOL. XXI.—NO, 2, 160 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb. methods there are connecting links. Carnoy calls such a case as is seen in Fig. 109 stenotic division, while similar separation with more complex spindle and asters, as in Fig. 124, he terms cyto- dieresis. Finally, the karyosomata reach the poles and pass through stages of fusion of the larger bodies and segmentation of the smaller, so that the nucleus appears homogeneous because of its very fine reticulum. Then from this point the changes continue along the upward path to the resting phase, wherever that may be. While undergoing this fusion, the hyaloplasm in which the chromatin-granules are imbedded become much increased, so that if the chromatin is sparse we get vesicular unions, like Fig. 125. This hyaloplasm is parachromatin, and it undoubt- edly enters partly into the formation of the spindle-fibres; in Fig. 126 appears to be the only source of these. Concerning the nucleoli that may be present, besides the re- ticulum or mitom and the plasmatic nucleolus, there exist the most diverse views. In the first place, we must call attention to the fact that very diverse structures have received this name by different writers. The nodes of the reticulum, the karyosomata, the groups these may’form when unresolved by the lens, all have received this name. The true nucleolus seems to disappear during division, and to be gradually built up by fusion of gran-, ules at its close. It has been supposed that it dissolved in the nuclear sap, and was absorbed by the mitom, or that it was di- rectly connected with the mitom, and so incorporated into it. us Pfitzner called its substance prochromatin, as being a store iam which the mitom replenished itself, but has lately changed the name to pseudochromatin, and other authors think it is of accidental value. Those who think with Strasburger, Fraisse, Kassel, and Brass that the chromatin is food-substance and the hyaloplasm the real idioplasm, find no difficulty with this body. But it must be remembered that it also has hyaloplasm, so the difficulty i is unsolved. What is the meaning of those polar cor- ~ puscles (not to be confounded with the polar corpuscles consid- he Ee cla seen in Fig. 112, c, o, d, which multiply as the loops ly, and whose number is approximately two or three times that of the loops ? It almost seems as if they were related to the oe kacpeomats,. as the endoplastules of Protozoa are to the endo- icy Ne Hes Rome by She segmentation othe nache 46 1887] The Significance of Sex. - 161 olus, and in that case this body is a paranucleolus over against the mitom. But these bodies may have come from the plasmatic nucleolus of Carnoy, and so we are still in doubt. nother unsolved problem is concerning the connecting fibres that remain between the retreating karyosomata. In plants they help to build the cell-plate, and the nucleus gets reconstructed without their being absorbed. In animals they seem to be ab- sorbed, for, if left outside, they form the paranucleus of Platner (see Fig. 123), which is later absorbed by the nucleus to form the spindle. They are thus made of substances similar to those which enter into the parachromatic reticulum, and, when not absorbed by the nucleus, they join the other fibres of the cyto- -plasmic reticulum, from which they can no longer be distin- guished. Thus the chromatin of the nucleus must make more hyaloplasm, from which a new parachromatic reticulum can arise. There is some evidence of the existence of microsomata that are not chromatin; in the cytoplasmic reticulum these are not so active in their fusions and segmentations as the nuclear microso- mata, but still they do this, for the spindle-fibres and rays, when extra-nuclear, have been observed to segment and fuse. This can easily be understood by combining with Heitzmann’s schema the idea of units in the cell. Strasburger and Pfitzner recognize the microsoma as such a unit, and we have shown that there are numerous units of differing complexity and degrees. When two organisms differ in the number of units that enter into their structure, such difference is one of degree in the ordinary sense, but when two organisms differ by belonging to higher or lower stadia of organization, such difference constitutes a discrete degree. Such degrees separate the Protozoa from Metozoa, a man from the social organism, a cell from the microsoma, a microsoma from a gemmule. Though here further study is needed to discover the number of stadia visible to the microscope, Nageli has ad- meaty discussed the stadia that lie between the chemical mole- a NS, a icell „and Altmann | Ppa aes, HL that the bacterial organisms are of the same grade of organization as the microsoma. Each node in a reticulum may be conceived as a unit. We have already seen how, when chromatin segments, it may leave a funic- ulus of hyaloplasm (with or without a wall). This connecting piece of hyaloplasm may break by beiig drawn towards the 162 The Significance of Sex. [ Feb, centres on either side of it, or it may, like a pseudopodium, reach out and obtain a fresh connection with a neighbor. This is ad- mirably illustrated in Fig. 123. In this way it is that a reticulum can be transformed into a mitom or a fibre. The observations of Rabl and of Retzius on the formation of the mitom become intelligible. By the attraction of the hyaloplasm along definite paths, and their separation along others, we may also see how a nucleus arises in a cell, as in Fig. 2. By mutual attraction the microsomata fuse. Why they segment may be explained by assuming that certain gemmules or societies of gemmules differ- entiate from the others and serve as governing centres, about which the rest flock. Individuality arises in this way everywhere. The cause of union between two units of like order, which con- stitutes sexual union, is not so apparent. We find this occurring only where a slight difference has arisen, so that, Lankester says, “they may mutually gain each other’s experience.” At bottom all the phenomena of the cell-life may be referred to attrac- tions, and through its action the reticulum becomes the organ of movement. There is considerable evidence that successive cell-divisions differ in their karyokinetic phenomena. We know that the num- ber of karyosomata in the segmenting-egg are fewer than in the tissue-cells, and that they are shorter. There must be a change somewhere. But in gametogenesis two successive generations may differ, as can be seen by Figs. 123 and 124. We may start in gametogenesis with direct division, pass on to generations pro- duced by budding or by stenosis, and finally reach the complex phenomena of the segmenting embryo. We know only a little. ut this. Our knowledge compares with what we should know, as the knowledge of zoologists, before embryology, com- pares with their present knowledge. When we reflect that we | must observe cells in all periods of their life and all the genera- tions of cells as they differentiate, and we must do this for all the different animals, and the results must be corroborated by different observers, morphologists need not quarrel for lack of room nor sit idle for lack of work. We can also understand why is is such a mysterious phenomenon. Ce//-division = must be r understood onlegeutically and PS _ (To be concluded. ) 1887] ee Editors’ Table. . 163 EDITORS’ TABLE. EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. For twenty years the AMERICAN NATURALIST has played an important part in the history and development of American science. In the seventeen thousand pages which compose the twenty volumes there is contained not only an epitome of the world’s scientific progress but a large proportion of the original investigation carried on in this country. The magazine has won for itself an honorable place in the sciéntific literature of the world, and to-day its position is higher than ever before. Through these twenty years it has pursued but a single policy, and in its fundamental features it is, in 1887, the same that it was in 1867. It has constantly aimed to make American natural history prominent, and to occupy a happy medium between a technical magazine and one in which all science is sacrificed to popularity. It has aimed to instruct rather than to amuse; it has sought accuracy rather than elegance of diction. Through- out it has aimed at independence, and its columns have ever been open to all. There have been many changes in these twenty years, but these have been in way of expansion, rather than alterations of the original plan. In mere size alone the development has been considerable. The volume which has just been closed contained nearly twice the matter that was given twenty years ago. Then fifty writers contributed notes and longer articles to a single volume, now the contributors number nearly one hundred. In the beginning there were four editors, now the editorial corps numbers nine. In the first number the minor notes were grouped under the heads of Botany, Zoology, and Geology. To-day it has, besides these, departments of Anthropology, Embryology, Entomology, Geography and Travels, Microscopy, Mineralogy and Petrog- raphy, Physiology and Psychology, as well as one embracing the miscellaneous scientific news of the day. All of these facts show progress, and apparently a growth in the right direction. They indicate that the magazine had friends and has made more friends; and to all these, both subscribers and contributors, the AMERICAN NATURALIST returns its most cordial thanks. In the past the editors and proprietors have endeavored to show 164 Editors’ Table. [ Feb. their appreciation of public favor by increasing the size and im- proving the quality of the magazine. There is still room for improvement, and it is confidently believed that the present volume will surpass any of its predecessors, a belief that seems warranted by the reputation of the J. B. Lippincott Company of Philadelphia, which has assumed the business management. The enterprise shown by this house in other lines is an ample guar- antee that in all that pertains to the mechanical execution the future volumes will be better than the past. It also ensures a wider field of influence and a larger circulation, and this, in turn, will result in still further improvements. With the present volume there is a change in the editorial management. Professor A. S. Packard, to whom is due the credit of starting the magazine, and who has labored unceasingly for its success for twenty years, retires from the management. He has won the thanks of every lover of Natural History, and has fully earned the relaxation and release which his retirement will give him. Certainly no one has done more for the spread of a knowledge of nature than he. His place will be taken by Dr. J. S. Kingsley, of Malden, Massachusetts, who needs no in- troduction to the readers of this journal, and who prefers to begin his editorial labors without further announcement. The depart- ment of Entomology will be in the able hands of Professor J. H. Comstock, of Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. In the years 1878 and 1880 Congress, by concurrent resolution, ordered the publication “ by the public printer, with the necessary illustrations,” of the third and fourth volumes of the final report of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, at that time under the direction of Dr. F. V. Hayden. These volumes were to contain the reports on the Tertiary and Mesozoic Vertebrata of the West, by Professor E. D. Cope, which were to be based on materials preserved in the collection of that naturalist, On the faith of these resolutions of Congress, Professor Cope undertook extensive explorations in all parts of the far West, at his own ex- pense, examining various regions from Southern Texas to North- ern Montana, and from Kansas to Oregon and California. This was necessary, erage oa survey was not in a financial — Loca sustain the expenses of the investigations in the field _ of v > palzeont og) yand h he had no other collectors of ver- 1887] Editors’ Table. 165 tebrate fossils than those employed and paid by Professor Cope. The result was the accumulation of a large amount of material, which includes about one thousand species of vertebrata from all the vertebrate-bearing horizons in the Western half of North America, excepting one, and a large amount of material from most of the Eastern bone-bearing beds. In 1880 the survey under Hayden was abolished on pretence of a consolidation, which was never carried into effect, and a new survey was organized under the direction of Major J. W. Powell. The unfinished work of the Hayden survey was placed in the hands of Major Powell by the following order of the Secretary of the Interior, Teller: : « WASHINGTON, Sept. 27, 1882. “ Maj. J. W. PowE x pAn g S. Geological Survey, City “ Sır, —The letter of Dr. H. V. Hayden, dated June 27th, bearing your endorse- - ment of July 2oth, relating to the unpublished reports of the survey formerly under his charge, is herewith returned « You will please take charge of the publications referred toin the same in accord- ance with the suggestions made by Professor Hayden. “ It is the desire of this office that these volumes shall be completed and published as early as practicable. “ Very respectfully, “H. M. TELLER, Secretary.” In spite of the above order, no part of Volumes III. and IV. of the Hayden series which was not previously in the printer’s hands, has been sent to the Government printing-office, nor even been prepared for it since they came under the control of Major Powell. The verbal promise made to Dr. Hayden and Professor Cope by Major Powell, that part of the unfinished work repre- sented by these volumes would be undertaken and completed as part of the work of the new survey, was not fulfilled; and inquiry finally elicited the statement from the director that this unfin- — ished work would not be published by him. Under these circumstances, Professor Cope, with the advice and consent of Dr. Hayden, applied to Congress for a small appro- priation to pay the expenses of the preparation of the reports. The amount required per annum was three thousand eight hun- dred dollars, of which one thousand dollars was for an artist, seven hundred and twenty dollars for a preparateur of materials, and two thousand and eighty dollars for the preparation of the text and completing the reports. A lump amount was at first 166 Recent Literature. [ Feb. asked for in the winter of 1885-86, but failed for want of the approval of the Secretary of the Interior. The smaller amount asked for at the session of Congress of 1886-87 was approved by the Interior Department and by the Senate,-but was lost in the conference between the committees of the Senate and House, during the last days of the term. This explanation is due to the various palzontologists and others who are interested in the completion of the work so suc- cessfully begun sixteen years ago, and for which so many pre- liminary publications have been made. The long delay in pub- lishing the illustrations, of which many have been prepared, is thus accounted for; although the inconvenience experienced by students is not diminished thereby. Pending the consideration of the question by Congress, letters approving or urging its favorable consideration by that body were received from Professors Baird, Osborn, and Scott in this country, and Flower, Gaudry, Riitimeyer, and Zittel in Europe. Notes favoring such action by Congress appeared in the ¥ahrduch Sir Mineralogie and Cosmos in Germany. i RECENT LITERATURE. Ridgeway’s “Nomenclature of Colors.'—This work has a value to others than naturalists, for it gives first'a large number of hints upon the selection of water-colors, pointing out thirty- six of the most useful and most permanent forms, and then How ese can be combined to make one hundred distinct shades. Next is a comparative vocabulary of the names of colors in English, Latin, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Norwegian, and Danish. Illustrating this part of the work are ten colored plates, which contain one hundred and ninety-two distinct shades, each one named, while the explanation of each plate tells how these can be produced from the thirty-six colors deemed most essential for the water-color artist. As will readily be seen, this illustrated nomenclator renders the work of great value to the artist as well as to the naturalist, who has frequently considerable difficulty in his descriptions, of deciding exactly the meaning of nearly _ Synonymous terms. Could this nomenclature have a further ee Ridgeway, Robert: A Nomenclature of olen for Naturalists, and Compendium : si i. eed rnithologists. pp- 129, pls. 17. — s 1887] Recent Literature. 167 introduction, and its terminology replace the meaningless terms like “elephant’s breath,” etc., introduced in trade, it would have a very beneficial effect. As to the correctness of the colors we cannot in all cases decide. We have never seen clothes worn as long as the famous ones of the Spanish queen, but should judge that the representation of “Isabella color’ was about the hue that linen would assume under such conditions. e only bibliographical omission we ee is the absence of reference to the two handsome volumes of The remainder of the book is more Sarmclatly suited for the ornithologist. It contains a vocabulary of the technical terms used in descriptive ornithology, which occupies fifty-eight pages ; tables for the conversion of metric into English measures, and others for reducing inches to millimetres. The seven plates which illustrate this part of the book give the parts of a bird named. The portions of the head, shapes of wings, different markings of feathers, shapes of eggs, and comparisons of milli- metres with English and French inches. The most noticeable specially intended. RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. Plateau, Felix —De Y Absence de Mouvements respiratoires eek gts chez' les Arachnides. E Arch. de Biol., vii., 1886. From the a Spencer, W. B.—On the Structure and Presence i in Sphenodon a other Lizards of the Median Eye. ote Proc. Roy. Soc., 1886. From the author Minot, C. S. ae Number-Habit. Ext. Proc. Am. Soc. Psy. EE 1886. From the Goss, N. S. aS “of Kansas. Topeka, 1886. From the author. McMurrich, F. P—A Contribution to the Embryology of the Biceobran h Gastero- pods. Ext, Stud. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ., 1886. From the author. ht E: EE Laboratory Appliances. Ext. Am. g From the author. es, Y. W.—Report on the Medusæ collected by th S. Fish Commission Tanas Albatross. Ext. Ann. Rep. Commissioner re Fish and Fisheries, 1886. From the author. Annual Report Smithsonian Institution for are ar From the Institution. Scudder, S. H.—Systematic Review of our Pr owledge of Fossil Insects, including oe and Arachnids. Bull. "UL S. prer Survey, No. 31. - 1886. | From Herrick, F. H- aai on the Embryology of Alpheus and other Crustacea, and the Development of the Compound Eye. Ext. Circ. Johns Hopkins Univ., 1886. From Plateau, E ur la perception de la Lumière par les Myriopodes wi a Ext. Jour. dei P Anat. et Phys., 1886. From the author. Norman, A. M., and Stebbing, T. R. R—On the Crustacea Isopoda of the “ Light- ning,” “ Porcupine,” and “ Valorous” expeditions. Part I. Ext. Trans. Zool. Soc., 1886. From the author De Borre, A. P.—Note sur les Crustacts eagar de la Religi Ext. C. R. Soc. Ent. Belgique, 1886. From the author. d 168 : General Notes. [ Feb. Packard, A. S.—The Organ of Smell in the Arthropoda. - Ext. Am. Nat., 1886. From the author Dimmock, Geo. Eeer dæ and some other Fish- wees. A ig Ext. Rep. Fish and Game Commissioners of Mass., 1886. From the Fleischmann, Albert—Ueber die erste Anlage der Placenta fa: re Riibthieréa Ext. Sitz. Phys. Med. Soc. Erlangen, 1886.—Zur POE der Raubthiere. Ext. Biol. Centralbl., vii., 1887. From the author. Nee, G. Frederick —The Muir Glacier. Ext. Am. po Sci.; 1887. From the uthor Pilar, Rob ert.—Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists, and Compendium of la oe open for Ornithologists. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1886. Fro meee fom ote Morton Laboratory in the University of Caneeess vol. ii., part 2; vol. iii., From the Balfour Libra Meinert, Fr. —Myria aa p i Hau unensis; iii., Chilo opoda. E Vid. Medd. f. d. Naturrh. Foren. Kobita, 1884 (188 6). From the a : Stuxberg, Anton.—Faunan pa och Kring Novaja Semlja. accel 1886. From the author. Sowers Paul.—Notice sur un Crustacé de la craie bliss des environs de Mons. otice sur un Crustacé des pe npa a Groa nis —Note sur la présence de Can adina desmaresti dans les de la Meuse.—Notice sur les Mollusques recueillis par M. le Pa ary Storms dan oh régi ion du Tanganyka.—Notice sur les Crustacés és Décapod n Maeitiid du Tabon: Ext. Bulletin. Mus. Roy. d’Hists Nat. fisece iv., 1885-1886. From the author Shufetdt R. W.—Bibliographical résumé of the writings of R. W. Shufeldt, M. D. New York, 1887. From the author GENERAL NOTES. GEOLOGY AND PALZZONTOLOGY. Notes upon Warping of the Earth’s Crust in its Relation to the Origin of the Basins of the Great Lakes.—Evidence of unequal oscillation of continental areas, producing warping of the crust of the earth in the ppi of the Mississippi and in the basins of the Great Lakes, is of importance. Numerous borings have been made by the Mississippi River Commission—alor the course of the Mississippi River, and on its flood-plains be- tween Lake Providence, La., and New Madrid, Mo.—that have passed through the alluvium and entered the Li ignitic clays, which Mr. Wilson (of the Commission) identified as those of the I (Eocene) group of Professor Hilgard. measurements of these borings, given in the Report of : a premet for 1881, I have found that the slope of the bed _ of the preglacial valley, for a distance of three hundred miles below nor Mamia, is only 0.41 foot Beds age while that of the ce and | the e Gulf the sio e ike terion in only : 1887] Geology and Palaontology. 169 ‘0.35 foot per mile, while that of the ancient bed is indefinitely greater, as shown from the record of the borings of the deep well at New Orleans. From New Madrid to St. Louis the slope of the valley is 0.73 foot per mile, but above it is reduced to about half a foot, throughout a long stretch below Rock Island Rapids. Above the Rapids (where the fall is twenty-two feet in fourteen miles), for two hundred miles the slope, so much nearer its higher waters, is again reduced to only 0.28 foot per mile. The valley at St. Louis is about eight miles wide. Within a mile of its western side, as shown at the eastern abutment of the St. Louis bridge, the old channel reaches to a depth below the flood-plain of one hundred and thirty-six feet, increasing towards the eastward. Therefore there is every reason to conclude that from New Madrid to St. Louis, or even above it, the floor of the of that above and below this region, but without success. North of St. Louis the floor of the buried valley rises. It is not known whether the modern channel of the Des Moines Rapids at Keokuk has been produced by erosion into the rocky floor, exposed by the upward warping of the earth’s crust, or by the river deflected over hard rock by the filling up of War- ren’s channel to the westward. | been stated, the slope of the valley above Rock Island Rapids is only half that below. But a more striking difference 170 General Notes. [Feb. exists along this floor of the buried channel, as shown by various borings at Prairie du Chien, La Crosse, and elsewhere, from which we learn that the bottom does not slope southward, but actually to the northward. Even at La Crosse, two hundred miles north of Rock Island Rapids, the bed of the old channel is fifty = pores that at the Rapids. Fr e above observations it is apparent that there is a ncaa warping across the Mississippi, which has culminated at Rock Island, and exposed a floor of the hard rocks to be eroded during later geological days. The uplift is further demonstrated by the observations of Mr. W. J. McGee, who that an old channel of the Mississippi leaves the mouth of the Maquoketa River, and is coincident with it for several miles, and then passes southward to the valley of the Wapsipenicon, with which it is identical to its mouth. This old valley is from one to three miles wide, and rises to fifty feet above the Missis- sippi River. It is cut not only through the Paleozoic rocks, but also through the Drift and Loess. The floor consists of alluvium only. Accordingly, the uplift or warping has been quite recent. As this channel is above Rock Island, its presence does not relieve the necessity for an explanation of the stricture in the valley below that place, but only shows more plainly the warp- ing of the strata in later geological times, which has brought up the old rocky floor of the region to be chiselled into by the waters flowing since the Drift epoch. _ This warping is part of a fold which extends across the conti- and separation of their basins. A low anticlinal extends from the head of Lake Ontario westward, between Lake Huron and Lake Erie, and beyond, as was long ago pointed out by the geological survey of Canada. It is along the axis of this fold that the Dundas valley—part of the ancient outlet of the Erie basin—is located, where the dip of the strata upon the southern In the new volume under consideration, Rosenbusch character- izes these deeply-formed rocks as possessing, I., each of their constituents in but one generation, and, II., so developed that the different individuals have mutually interfered with each other’s growth, thus giving rise to the granular (kdrnige) struc- ture. When none of the constituents possess crystal outlines, the structure is cated hypidiomorphic ; when certain of the con- quently possess this granular structure, are designated as intrusive _ or plutonic (Tiefengesteine). The intrusive rocks are subdivided in accordance with their chemical and mineralogical composition into granites, syenites, _eleolite syenites, diorites, gabbros and norites, diabases, theralites, and peridotites. All these are characterized by the possession of the hy pidtomorphic structure, in which by far the larger part of the constituents are allotriomorphic (possess a form due to ex- ternal causes and not to the action of intermolecular forces,—z.., words, s constituents become zdiomorphic (possess eyil outlines), and the rock tends to the Forala structure, such as many of the diabases. On glancing over the list of the names of intrusive rocks, it will be noticed that in it are included, with the single exception of teschnite, all those formerly described as pre-Tertiary with a granular — In the place of teschnite we find the new te sie theral The abolition of the old type teschnite is due particularly to = work we Sne, a in 1885, after a paana examina- lity thin his 1887] - Mineralogy and Petrography. 175 group. This disposition Rosenbusch accepts as the correct one for many of the rocks heretofore denominated teschnites, an among them that from Teschen, Moravia, named by Hohen- egger teschnite, in which Zirkel, in 1868, and Tschermak, in 1869, thought they had found nepheline. Since, therefore, the original teschnite is probably only a variety of diabase, it was thought best to drop the name as descriptive of intrusive nepheline-plagi- lase rocks, and to substitute for it the name theralite (@j;e¢-— seek diligently). is name is intended to cover all intrusive rocks containing nepheline and plagioclase as prime constituents. That such rocks occur has not yet been positively proved, although the recent work of Wolff in Montana and the earlier work o Hawes and of Harrington in the neighborhood of Montreal, Canada, render their existence probable. The gabbros and the norites have been included together in one family, the former comprehending those plagioclase rocks in which a monoclinic augite (of a composition approaching that of diallage) occurs as the predominant bisilicate constituent, and the latter those in which this augitic constituent is orthorhombic. Every gradation between the typical gabbro and the typical norite is recognized as possible. The diabases are regarded as occupying a peculiar position characteristics of thin magmas which cooled at the surface, such as the possession of amygdaloidal upper surfaces, the asso- ciation with them of tufas, etc. The greater mass of diabase, however, Rosenbusch describes as intrusive (in sheets or dykes), description of this rock chlorite also was considered as essential. This mineral is now regarded as merely secondary, the last pro- duct in the alteration of the augite. In this connection occasion is taken to remark that uralitizatine is not a paramorphism of hornblende after augite, but that the change is probably due to loss of calcium,—the hornblende is an apomorph. The frequent association of epidote with chlorite would seem to confirm this ew scription of Dathe’s, which this writer himself acknowledges to be erroneous in some of its essential particulars. : The second great class is that of the dyke rocks. These are not as well characterized as the intrusive class. The conditions : American Naturalist, Notes, May, 1885, p. 499. VOL. XXI.—NO. 2. 12 176 . General Notes. [ Feb. under which they solidified have varied to such an extent, in consequence of differences in the thickness of the dyke, in the depths at which pos portions crystallized, in the degree of conductivity of the S pricama Pe that all types of - structure are found i em. s t be expected, this class is much less well defined than tliat. of the intrusive rocks later. In it are included only those rocks which can neither be regarded as intrusive nor yet as effusive. They are divided according to structure into three distinct types, — aes the granitic; , the grano-porphyritic; and, III., the lamprophyric. They all tend to the development of one or ‘the other of their constitu- ents in porphyritic crystals; in other words, they are all panidio- hic. The granitic class includes only aplite and beresite The structure of the grano-porphyritic type is defined by the name. They are porphyries in the sense that they contain certain of their ingredients in two generations, but differ from them in e possession of a holocrystalline ground-mass. Among the grano-porphyritic class are placed granite-porphyry, syenite-por- phyry, eleolite-syenite-porphyry, diorite-porphyrite, and quartz- diorite-porphyrite. It will be seen that this class embraces most oen those pre-Tertiary porphyritic rocks that are not true porphy- ge lamprophyres are distinguished from the grano-porphy- ritic group by the prevalence of bisilicates and the subordination of the feldspathic constituents. They consist of a fine-grained to very compact (dicht) ground-mass, in which porphyritic crystals of biotite, augite, or hornblende are scattered. They all weather very readily, and, as a consequence, pea a great deal of cal- cite, so that in many cases before their structure can be studied it is necessary to etch their thin sections with a dilute acid. The lamprophyres are subdivided into the syenitic and the dioritic varieties. The syenitic varieties include minette, charac- terized by the e predominance of biotite, and vogesite, in which the place of the biotite is taken by hornblende or augite. The dioritic varieties embrace kersantite and camptonite. The latter name is applied to the porphyritic diorites described by Hawes * from the neighborhood of Campton, N. H. They contain por- phyritic brown hornblende and lath-shaped plagioclase crystals in a ground-mass composed essentially of green augite, apatite, 1 i i i exist. id : | y The third and last great class of rocks is that of the effusives (Ergussgesteine). It embraces those which were poured out -~ „upon the surface and then solidified . They are found in sheets ~ and in volcanic streams (Decke and Ströme). There seems to be aeons kA should not be a corresponding effusive rock *Minenlegr 408 Leber os emo, 1878, p. 160. 1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 177 for every intrusive one, if difference of structure is due merely corresponding intrusive equivalents. This is accounted for by Rosenbusch on the assumption that during the gradual rise of the magma in the cracks through which it reached the surface enough time was consumed to allow of its separation into strata, the heavier, more basic portions accumulating towards the bottom, and the lighter portion floating on the top The characteristic structure of the effusive rocks is the por- phyritic. The porphyritic crystals are supposed to have been developed at the period during which the rock was ascending to the surface. After it reached the surface another more rapid crystallization set in, and the result is a glassy or finely-granular ground-mass. The effusive ra are divided into two classes, according to age. This iš only remnant left of the old classification into _ pre-Tertiary cat recent rocks. Here certain characteristics are noted in those rocks erupted at an early geological period, which distinguish them from the rocks of later eruptions,—e.g., the ground-mass, of the older rocks, is more lithoidal in character than that of the younger ones, the appearance of their porphyritic feld- spathic constituents is different t, etc. Whether these differences are of primary or secondary origin is still a matter of doubt. The pretertiary effusive a are known as palæo-volcanic, the younger ones as neo-volcan The palæo-volcanic rocks include the quartz-porphyries, quartz- free- opii, eee augite-porphyrites and melaphyres, and the pikrite-porphyr e full discussion of the different varieties of the palzo- cles rocks and the entire discussion of the younger class are left to the second part of the book, which is promised to appear in a few months. It is of course impossible to give any adequate conception of the amount of new material incorporated in this volume, or even to mention all the important results reached in its consideration. Perhaps the most important of all the advances _ have been in the direction of what is now known as dynamical metamorphism, by the action of which a massive rock is made to assume a schistose structure. This mode of alteration is treated in some detail. It is needless to say that the very latest ee Soa ste have all been critically examined and their teachings made use of in de- veloping the new system of classification. It isa gitter wobe of note that quite a large proportion `of the most instructive papers bearing on this subject have been # shaggngs by Americans. Instructors in petrography, and all those to whom a ready Sth of German is denied, will be glad to learn that a . n of both the first and second volumes of the “ Mikro- 178 | General Notes. [ Feb, skopische Physiographie” is contemplated by Mr. J. P. Iddings, of Washington. It is proposed to omit those parts which are not essential to the production of a good text-book, and to in- corporate the remaining portions in one volume. As the labor involved in translating the work is very great, it. may be some time before the English version is given to the public. BOTANY.: A Study of the Growing Parts of the Stem of Pinus strobus. THE WHITE Pine.’ —Before beginning work on this | special part of the subject a cursory examination was made o the tissues in general as compared with that of Pinus sylvestris, the so-called Scotch Pine. Roughly speaking, they are the same,—a central pith, a zone of xylem varying in width according to the number of years’ growth, the phlceum, outer cortex, and the epidermal system. But by direct comparison the tissue of the White Pine is seen to be more dense than that of its foreign relative,—the cells having a smaller ARRE and the resin pas- sages being smaller and less numerou In Pinus sylvestris there are ket rows of resin passages in each year’s growth of the xylem, one comparatively near each margin of the zone, while in Pinus strobus there is but one row, which lies towards the outer part of the zone. Sometimes an extra passage is found lying deeper in the xylem. On the con- trary, in the outer cortical tissue of Pinus strobus are two rows of resin passages, the inner row being much larger than the outer one, but both being quite large, while there is but one row found here in Pinus sylvestris Growing from the epidermis of the bud and young shoot of Pinus strobus are many glandular, often capitate, hairs, composed of but two or three somewhat elongated cells, filled with densely granular matter. ese, appear to be secretory hairs, producing 3 the resin that is found in such abundance in the bud of the : ia Pine. They were not found in the Scotch Pine. 2 In the phloeum, in slehgated cells which are distributed irregu- larly throughout this tissue, with the exception that they never * occur within a zone of about eight cells from the xylem, occur large numbers of crystals of i mes of lime. Fig. 1 of, plate i is - the ariii of a Geyer stem, showing parts of five of these cells, three of which contain crystals. These crystals do not lie oe the cell-wall, but are embedded in a substance which more or ron ene. fills the~cell, offers great resistance to acids, is Edited by Prof. CHARLES E. BEssEY, tees, N ebraska. oe tected fe work of students in the botanical laboratory - a oe Universi of eee: meee and communicated by Professor V. M. we re TES PLATE IX. is : A 1887] Botany. 179 not affected by ether, and stains from yellowish brown to dark blue with Hanstein’s aniline violet. The cells surrounding these contain much starch and protoplasm, with usually a nucleus. Resin passages are also found in the phlceum and outer cortex, which do not run parallel to the long axis of the stem. Some were found running radially from towards the centre. At one end of some of these radially directed passages they hend at, or nearly at, a right angle, and pass up the stem. The great major- of growth in the spring. This material was preserved in alco- hol and used as desired. Schultze’s solution and Hanstein’s aniline violet gave the best satisfaction as staining agents: Schultze’s olution for differentiation of tissues, the aniline violet for staining nuclei. To clarify the sections, after cutting placed them in sulphuric ether for some time, which removed the resinous substances, then, if staining with the violet, I removed them to a reduced solution of this, and after overstain- ing removed the excess with alcohol by placing the sections in it for a short time, and afterwards cleared with clove oil and mounted in dammar. . 180 General Notes, [ Feb. tudinal sections showing large numbers of dividing nuclei. At this time. the ground tissue composed the greater part of the stem, though the vascular system had increased considerably. Soon the growth in the cortical and medullary tissues almost entirely ceased. May 27, cell-division had so nearly ceased in these tissues that I could find no dividing nuclei, though I spent much time looking for them; and in the same material cell- division was taking place along the cambium line. But growth does not entirely cease, at least in the outer cortex, for I found cell-division here in a three years’ growth. ig. 3, a, is a camera drawing from near the epidermis of a three-year-old stem, showing a nucleus that has divided and the new cell-wall just formed. I think, in this tissue, growth con- contained protoplasm and nuclei. I do not think the central cortical tissue lives very long, though I found some cells of a four years’ growth containing protoplasm and starch. The main growth of the stem is along the line of cells desig- nated as the “ cambium zone.” On one side the cells that are here newly formed pass into the xylem, on the other into the As each year’s growth of xylem is much larger than that of the phlceum, many more cells must go to the formation of xylem than of phlceum. To all appearances, when the stem is growing, the cambium zone is but one cell broad, as all nuclei that show signs of division in this tissue are found along a straight line in a longitudinal - Fig. 3, c, is a longitudinal section through a three-year-old diameter of a cambium-cell, thus showing that there must be one year old, but in cells of the medullary rays passing through the zylem, and which were four years old, I found protoplasm ~ Many cells of the phlceum, in all specimens examined, were 1887] Botany. 18r apparently empty and lifeless, but the great majority contained nuclei me of these cells must have been quite old, as I ex amined some sections s prike from the body of a tree about eight inches in diamete {n studying the acti of the nucleus and the process of cell-division, I had about equal success in the three above-men- tioned tissues. ig. 4 is from a drawing of a cross-section of a young shoot cut April 26, showing a few cells of the xylem (x), the newly- formed tissue (7), some cells of the old phlceum (2), and a medul- Wid ray (m). In this shoot a zone about seven cells broad had med. "To obtain some idea of the rate of cell-division I made an estimate of the number of newly-formed cells produced by the cambium in a piece of a three-year-old stem one inch long, cut April 26, by counting the number of cells in the breadth of the zone, the number of cells around the stem, measuring the length of a number of cells, and taking the eeoa Also, in obtaining the number of cells around the stem, I took four sections from - different stems, but all of about average size, and took the aver- age. By this means I estimated the number of newly-formed cells, in such a piece of stem one inch long, April 26, to be 560,640. As April 17 there were no signs of growth, and as I could find but few nuclei and cells in the process of division in the material cut April 26, and from the great number of newly- formed cells, I conclude that the entire process of cell-division can last but a very short time,—perhaps two or three hours. Fig. 5, a, ġ, c, d, and Fig. 6, f, g, and Å, are camera drawings of some of the forms of the dividing nucleus found in the medul- lary rays along the line of the cambium. These are all from a four years’ growth, cut May 6 and Fig. 6, 7, and Fig. 3, 4, c, d, represent some forms found in the cambium from material the same as the above. Fig. 7 represents cells from the inner cortex of a young shoot cut May 6, and Fig. 8, the same from the outer cortex. Forms essentially like all these drawn were found in each of the three tissues, and from these we can trace the process of growth of cell-division in the pine. First the nucleus in a state of repose; the nuclear filament making the section. It demonstrates the composition of the nucleus. About the first change manifest in division is the seg- -mentation of the nuclear filament, shown in Fig. 5, c and d. Then these segments double and arrange themselves in a radial manner around a common centre, as shown in somewhat varying stages in Fig. 8, c, and Fig. 6, g and h. Then the oe of 182 . : General Notes. [ Feb. the nuclear threads running off from the ends of these pegnenn to the poles of the nuclear spindle, as shown at Fig. 6, f and These “ conjunctive threads,” as Fol calls them, arrange IMS selves in such a manner as to form a double hollow cone with a common base. The segments of the filament then pass out along the line of these threads and gather at the two poles of the spindle. Fig. 5, a,and Fig. 8, 4, show early stages of this kani formation, and Fig. 8, a, and Fig. 7, 6,a little later. The n cell-wall or “nuclear plate” is then formed, as shown in Fig. . c, across these threads at right angles and about midway between the two masses of filaments, the parts of each of which have now united and form a rounded mass, in appearance like the until it reaches across the cell from side to side and forms a complete cell-wall. All these sections are radial longitudinal ones.—L/mer Sanford. ENTOMOLOGY. Critical Remarks on the Literature of the Organ of Smell in Arthropods.—[ The following abstract of the more important portions of Kraepelin’s criticisms on the works of writers on the olfactory organs of arthropods, may prove not unwelcome to ‘our entomologists, who may never be able to obtain Kraepelin’s rather rare pamphlet. See pp. 889 and 973 of vol. xx—A. S. Packard. in My own observations on different groups of insects agree, in general, with those of. Perris, Forel, and Hauser, without being in a position to confirm or deny the varying relations of the Hemiptera. That irritating odorous substances (chloroform, acetic acid) cause the limbs to move in sympathy with the stimulus, I have seen several times in Acanthosoma; still it may be a Sees rather than olfactory stimulus. As regards Crustacea, there are no observations or experiments _ (except on Asellus) on the conjectural seat of their olfactory organs. It should be here mentioned that Jourdain has described and Professor Dohrn, in Naples, has reported to me that the Brachyura by a remarkable. movement of their inner antenne, which are almost continually in convulsive movements, seem to support the opinion long entertained of the perception of odors _ by the antenne oe 5 o spiders, it is not certainly known whether and to what they oes in the sense of smell. Robineau-Desvoidy cot said t hat their sense of smell is very well developed and paragre m the mandibles, but Perris placed them in the lowest hr ki i ei e remarks on “the sensibility of Turning n now w from peas and panpe observation to exact ; 1887] Entomology. 183 to have a distinct reference to the perception of odors.. It com- prises a structure composed of nervous substances which are enclosed in a chitinous tube, and either only stand in relation to the surrounding bodies by the perforated point, or pass to the surface as free nerve-fibrilla. Wolff’s theory that the sense of smell is lodged in the skin of the soft palate-like roof of the mouth is published in a work of two hundred and fifty quarto pages, which shows so much skill, acuteness, and subtle reasoning that his views prevailed for several years, and were adopted by Graber in his well-known work on in- sects. Forel appears to have been the first to oppose Wolff's con- clusions, both on theoretical grounds and from his experiments on Polistes and Sphex. Leydig, in his work on Amphipoda and Iso- poda (p. 235), expresses the view that “this nasal skin possesses nothing more special than other regions of the skin which should be considered as tactile.” I think that Leydig is here perfectly correct, and that those small pit-hairs are plainly tactile organs, since such must be present in the mouth near the organs of taste. Moreover, it is generally. doubtful whether such direct sense-per- they are formed to feel and repel solid bodies, rather than to smell them. The presence of a gland differing in the nature of its secretion from the other glands of the mouth, on which Wolff laid so great weight, should not have much force as an argument, ` since we know as good as nothing of the chemistry of digestion and the secretions in insects necessary for it. The apparatus is better fitted by its situation for a gustatory apparatus. Hence we should adopt Leydig’s view of the tactile nature of these minute hairs so long as no further anatomical and physiological data prove their gustatory function. ; In insects there is a remarkable and fundamental difference in the structures of the parts supposed to be the organs of smell. Erichson (10) was acquainted only with the “pori” covered by a thin membrane; but Burmeister (11), in his careful work on the antennz of the lamellicorns, distinguished pits at the bottom of which hairs rise from a glass-like tubercle, from those which were _ free from hairs. Leydig (14) afterwards was the first to regard as olfactory organs the so-called pegs (kegel), a short, thick hair- like structure distinctly perforated at the tip, which had already by Lespés (38) in Cercopsis, etc., been described as a kind of tactile papilla. Other very peculiar olfactory organs of different form Forel (Fourmis de la Suisse) discovered in the antenne of ants, which Lubbock (“On some points,” etc.), according to a short Ee. 184 General Notes. ; [Feb. notice of Forel, incorrectly associated with the nerve-end appa- ratus found by Hicks in other insects. This manifold nature of the antennal organs has by the last investigator, Hauser (22), from thorough studies of the nerve-elements belonging to them, been not simplified but rendered more complicated. According to this naturalist we may distinguish the following forms which the olfactory organs may assume: I. Pale, tooth-like chitinous hairs on the outer surface of the antennz, which are perforated at the end; nothing is known as to the relation of the nerve passing into it (Chrysopa, Anophthalmus). 2. In pit-like depressions of the antenne arise nerve-rods (without a chitinous case) which These pits are either szzf/e, viz., with only an “olfactory rod (Tabanus and other Diptera, Vanessa), or compound (Muscide and most other Diptera, and Philonthus). It seems important that these pits are partly opez (in the above-named groups of in- sects), and partly closed and covered with a thin membrane, under whose concavity the olfactory rods end (Orthoptera, Melolontha, and other lamellicorns). 3. Short, thick pits sunken slightly into the surface of the antennz, and over this a chitinous peg perforated at the end, in whose base, from the interior, projects a very singular nerve-peg, which is situated over an olfactory gan glion-cell, and provided with a slender crown of litle rods, and flanked on each side by a flagellum-cell | (Hymenoptera). 4. Round or crevice-like pits covered over by a perforated chitinous _ membrane with nerve-rods like those in 3, but in place of the flagellum-cell with “membrane-forming”’ cells Spread before it. Hauser finally mentions further differences in the ganglion-cells sent out into the nerve-end apparatus. These exhibit in Diptera and Melolontha only one nucleus, in Hymenoptera a single very large one (with many nucleoli) and three small ones, in Vanessa six, in Orthoptera a very large number of nuclei, etc. We add beside all these different forms also the Forelian flasks (“ micro- scopical stethoscopes” of Lubbock) not known to Hauser, and the champagne-cork organ in ants; thus we have in fact a very great variety, so that it seems difficult to understand how Hauser could aamen ascribe a common function to all these nerve- end appara’ As the ans result of my researches I may state that the great variety of antennal structures previously described may be referred to a single common fundamental type of a more or less developed free or sunken hair-like body which stands in connection by means of a wide pore-canal walle a many-nucleated ganglion-cell.* The latter sends mice a relatively n nerve-fibre (axial cord) through o Vi oop thie stracture might’ more more correctly be considered as a lion with : Humerus cells, ee structure of the nerve: ae OH E sg arom gl -a ca 1887] : 3 Zoology. 185 the pore-canal into the hair; but the same is enclosed by epithelial cells which surround the pore-canal. Kraepelin thus sums up our present knowledge of the olfactory organs of Coleoptera: The terminal apparatus of the organ of sense in the antenne of beetles consists in each case of a ai delicate or iSong long or short hair-like —— Set as planted in the mt. le of a more or less arched, “ e membrane” closing in the sai pore-canal of the Saleen vall “D his membrane extends over the st at the same level as the surface of the antennal integument (Geotrupes, Strangalia), or it rises as a cupola in the middle of a beaker-shaped pit (Melolontha, Buprestide, Dytiscidz). Often such sense-organs (either with or without special pits) are so united that they stand associated in flat depressions of the surface of the antenne, the so-called “ compound” pits (Melolontha, Stran- - galia, Euchroma, Lucanus, etc.).—. Kraepelin. ZOOLOGY. Mimicry in Amphipods.—Dr. Carl orena ga ryta Acta Reg. Soc. Sci. Upsaliensis, xviii., 1886) a new genus of Hy- perid Amphipods, the three species of wicks are ie for their mimicry of jelly-fishes. The head and five, six, or all seven of the thoracic segments are enormously inflated, so that the an- terior part of the body closely resembles the bell: of a medusa, while the feet and compressed abdomen hang down like the ten- t following: The eyes “do not form a continuous mass on each side of the head as, in the other Hyperids, but consist of six to ten large ocelli scattered over the lower side of the head. These do not show such long crystallic [szc] eak as in Phronima, Rhabdosoma, and others, but seem to be composed each of a great many granular, fine, ighe amakiig corpuscles interspersed with dark brown pigment.” The innervation of these ocelli is eculiar; some receive their nerve-supply directly from the not remains to be determined by sections of fresh specimens, but it is interesting to note that all the ocellar nerves betort arise bell” ` Mimonectes om the a rom the Canary Isles; and M. steenstrupii, from the mouth of Davis Strait. 186 General Notes. [ Feb. Australian Cladocera.—It is a well-known fact that the eggs of various fresh-water animals (notably those of Entomostraca) will withstand long desiccation, but still the experiments de- tailed by Mr. G. O. Sars have SPE Hee interest. cor- respondent sent him in Christiania, Norway, some dried mud from the shores of a fresh-water lake in opie Australia. This mud was placed in water, and from it were hatched out one Copepod, one Ostracode, a species of Polyzoan, apparently be- longing to the genus Plumatella, and five species of Clado- cera. These last ‘are made the subject of an article of nearly fifty pages and eight plates in the Forhandlinger Vidensk. Selsk. Christiania for 1885 (1886). These species all belonged to genera (Daphnia, Diaphanosoma, Ceriodaphnia, Moina, and Ley- digia) already known from European waters, and the species themselves closely resembled those of the antipodes, notwith- standing that they came from localities thousands of miles apart and which have entirely different environments. These facts recall to the author the close similarity—even identity—of the crustacean species of Italy and Norway, and he concludes that one cannot lay too great stress on the importance of birds in the distribution of these forms. Sars’s paper is, like many others, written in English. The Myzostomata.—Nansen’s beautifully-illustrated “ Contri- butions to the Anatomy and Histology of the Myzostomata” is the last publication of the Bergens Museum. The text (sixty- eight pages) is in Norwegian, but a résumé in English of twelve pages places the substance of the article within reach. Two new species are described with great detail, the integument, nervous system, sensory organs, segmental glandular sacs, hook appa- ratus, alimentary tract, genital organs, complemental males, and hermaphroditism being discussed. Nansen comes into frequent conflict with Beard. Thus he does not believe with Beard that the dicecious forms of Myzostomata were the primitive type,and - the hermaphrodite the secondary. He finds nothing resembling ` the epidermal sense organs or chitinous hollow rods described Beard, nor can he accept Beard’s account of the development of the nervous system by which the larval nervous system dis- appears and has nothing to do with that of the adult. Nansen considers the “suckers” as “ a es ental glandulous sacs,” stating that they are ciliated, and lack the SaS walls described by Graff. Whether they are homologous with the segmental organs of the Annelids is left undecided. The fact that they do - not communicate with the body cavity is the greatest objec- tion to this view, but the ready answer to aon is -o unless the -cavities in which the ova are situated are such, the c coelom is " Nansen's conclusions as to the systematic position of the 1887] Zoology. 187 agony we quote (from the résumé) in full: “I cannot agree Beard in regarding the Myzostomida as belonging to the Paecspods. there are too many dissimilar features in their struc- ture, and I do not think that their development, as described by ard, is ‘quite that of a Chztopod.’ The absence of a preoral ring of cilia, the relatively small development of the preoral lobe, and the great development of the body part of the larva are no insignificant differences; they show that the larva is not a little differentiated. The presence of a preanal ring of cilia is com- n to most Annelid larve, and the larve of Mollusca, Bryozoa, etc., also usually possess such a ring. In the absence of this ring, as well as in the rudimentary development of the preoral lobe, the larve of Myzostomida resemble those of Sipunculus; in their general structure there is, however, but little resemblance to be traced. I am inclined to regard the Myzostomida as a peculiar, distinct group, belonging to the Daid, related to the Chætopods, but also showing a tendency towards some of the Arachnids (Linguatulida, Tardigrada, and perhaps Pycnogonida) and Crustaceans; they are sprung from the Trochophora; amon the Archianelleda their ancestor has been chiefly related to that of Histiodrilus; on the other hand, it has also been related to that of the Arthropods, because the Myzostomida really show, in their structure, a tendency towards these. They are therefore one of those groups presenting the greatest interest as a subject for phylogenetic studies.” The present reviewer fails to recog- nize the EE ge resemblances of these forms. He is in- clined to regard them as Annelids but remotely related to the Chetopods, parasitism having extensively modified them. Anatomy of Echinorhynchi.—The Acanthocephali have been regarded as devoid of a digestive apparatus, and Lespés'’s discov- ery of what he considered the alimentary tract in the pyriform body in the proboscis of Echinorynchus claviceps, met with but little acceptance. Recently AE n has been studying the sub- ject, and gave the result of his researches before the Scientific Congress of Paris. In order to settle the question it was neces- ` sary to study these worms at a period before the development of the sexual organs, and when the nutritive system was in full function. Megnin found Echinorhynchi encysted in the cellular tissue of some Varanidæ from the Sahara. These proved to be in a larval stage and to have a digestive apparatus composed of two long convoluted tubes, each giving rise to numerous cecal diverticula. The whole — an analogy to the alimentary tract of the Trematodes. In some species, as the Æ. brevicollis found in Lalenoptera sibbaldi, ee aeea apparatus persists and acquires considerable development. In others it undergoes a degeneration and is to be sought in the “lemnisci,” structures heretofore of problematical nature, occasionally regarded as sali- 188 General Notes, [ Feb. vary glands. The larve have a rudimentary dorsal vessel, and this, with their proboscis and aquiferous apparatus (which, how- ever, is well developed in the adult), shows the relation of the canthocephali to the Nemerteans or Rhynchoccela, while the digestive apparatus is more like that of the Trematodes. They can no longer be arranged with the Nematodes. | Argulus and Mortality of Fishes.—In the October num- ber of this journal (vol. xx. p. 856) Mr. F. L. Washburn records an annually recurring extensive mortality of different species of fish in Lake Mille Lac, Minnesota, and describes as the cause of death a Siphonostome, the abdomen of which is furnished with an umbrella-like disk. Although this description hardly answers to an Argulus, yet I think the mode of occurrence and the great mortality point to the parasite being a member of this genus. I do not remember to have seen before an account of such de- vastations by — in America, but similar accounts from Europe are not uncommon. Mr. Washburn’s Hote reminded me of the circumstance that two years ago Mr. A. C. Lawson, of the Geological Survey of Can- ada, brought me an account of a similar mortality of an undeter- mined species of Coregonus in the Lake of the Woods. He had preserved a number of the parasites, which I marked at the time re coregont Thorell (?), with the intention of determining afterwards whether the Canadian and Norwegian species should turn oar to be identical. I find now that the characteristic cop- ulatory ridges on the swimming legs of the male are very dif- ferent in the Canadian species from those in Argulus foliaceus or coregont. Dr. J. S. Kingsley has undertaken to see whether they agree with those in any described American form. It may be of interest to note here that Leydig, in a recent communication to the Zoologische Anzeiger (No. 237), announcès that the “ poison-sting” of Argulus is in reality a sense organ, the “ poison-duct” a broad nerve-tube, and the “poison-gland” a part of the fat body, so that the great mortality caused by Ar- gulids is not to be attributed to any poison injected with the bite—R. Ramsay Wright, University College, Toronto, January 8, 1887. Irish Red Deer.—In the March number of the Zoologist Rt J Ussher states that the Irish red deer lingered in the moun- tains of Knockmealdown, Counties Waterford and Tipperary, in bags that its last haunt was Erris, County Mayo, where a few existed as s late as 847, when they were slaughtered for food ı peasantry. The onl 1887] Zoology. 189 rusty grackle (Scolecophagus ferrugineus) was shot last autumn at Cardiff, Wales. The Birds of India.—W. T. H. in Ward’s Science Bulletin ‘gives a short notice of the comprehensive ornithological survey of India that has for several years been carried on under the direction and at the expense of Mr. A. O. Hume, Secretary to e Government. Not only India, but British Burmah, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands are included in this work. Besides doing a vast amount of field-work himself, and writing largely upon the subject, Mr. Hume has constantly kept from one to three corps of collectors in the field. Among the- results of the work is a collection of over forty-five thou- sand bird-skins and unnumbered eggs at Simla, a superb four- volume work upon the Game Birds of India, and a work on the Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. Mr. Wm. Davison, one of Mr. Hume’s collectors, has found five hundred and eighty species in Tenasserim, and seven hundred and twenty-eight in British Burmah. The Zoology of British Burmah.—Apropos of the preced- ing note comes a condensed account of the contents of the Revue Scientifique of April 1. The mammiferous fauna presents many relations to that of the Sunda Isles, and includes four species of rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus, Rh. indicus, Ceratorhinus crossi, C. sumatrensis), the tapir (Tapirus malayanus) and Orcella Juminalis, a peculiar form of fresh-water dolphin, the anatomy of which has been fully described by Mr. Anderson. The bats hibernate as in Europe, and the genus Taphozous is particularly remarkable for the reservoir of fat stored in its tail for winter use. The roussettes do not hibernate. Mr. E. W. Oates enumerates seven hundred and seventy-five species of birds, or a hundred more than is contained in all urope. these, four hundred and fifty are also found in Hindostan, about one hundred of which are water-birds common to all the Old World, and winter visitants of Burmah; one hun- dred and fifty Malayan species, the northern limit of which is in Burmah; fifty species common to Burmah, Siam, and China level. Birds identical with or closely related to those of Europe are few; among them are Cotyle riparia, Chelidon urbica, Strix . flammea, the cuckoo, the wrens, the skylark, the pipits, and Saxi- la. co The variety of the fauna is’ explained by that of the country, : 190 General Notes. [E Feb. which is so varied that in an hour one can pass from grassy plains interspersed with rice-fields to the inaccessible precipices of granitic mountains; from a sea of bamboo jungles to the shady retreats of the virgin forest; and from the rich tropical vegetation of the coast to the pine-woods of the heights. In- numerable water-courses, interminable creeks, broad marshes, valleys alternately inundated and dried up; chains of mountains of various elevations diversify the surface of'this province, giving it an unequalled array of flowers and fruits, birds, reptiles, in- sect, and molluscs. The list of reptiles given by Mr. W. Theobald includes four crocodiles and more than seventy serpents, fifteen of which are among the most deadly, and shows that in this province Malayan and Indian species meet. Among the fishes are many of those singular forms which seem as much at home on land as in water, such as the tree- climbing Azabas scandens, the Ophiocephalide and Trichogaster, which have a reservoir of air above their gills; Clarias, with an accessory respiratory apparatus; and Saccobranchus, with its long air-vessel extended across the dorsal muscles and commu- nicating with the gills. The singular modifications of the organs of respiration in these fishes are an adaptation to the zstivation that follows the rains. Some, as Oph. punctatus, Rhynchobdella aculeata, and Amphipnous ached live i in summer buried two feet below the surface. After a storm fishes appear as if by magic; the Ophiocephalidz glide, eel-like, from pond to pond through the wet herbage, and the cu chia lies on the ground -hidden among the tall weeds, iah to spring into the water when dis- turbed. Many species, both marine and fresh-water, migrate regularly in accordance with the monsoons. Many mount to the mountain torrents to lay their eggs, and descend with the falling waters, while their young often remain above till the en- suing year. e siluroids of these rapid torrents are provided aquatic plants beside the rivers. The nest is formed of the stems of herbs, which it bites off for the purpose; the male guards the es the eggs, from fifteen to twenty, in his mouth, manicus hatch and during the incubation takes no fi - -The _prosobranchiate Gasteropoda are more numerous and does the South American genus Nenia. The conchological oc : fauna of British Burmah shows that the ng was primi- 5 tively E EE EE E for upon $. 1887 | Zoology. IQI the cretaceous hills of the valleys of Salween and Aracan occur isolated species, more numerous and interesting than those of the flat country that separates them. Two hills fifteen miles apart have a different molluscan fauna, and many forms are confined to this region. Besides the, to some extent, special fauna of these hills near Maulmain, three other molluscan faunæ can be distinguished : first, that of Aracan and southern Pegu, considerably resembling that of Assam and of the Himalayas; second, that of Upper Burmah and Thayet, resembling that of India, Central Asia, and China; and, third, that of Tenasserim, allied to that of Siam and the Malay Peninsula and connected with that of the Malayan Archipelago. Description of a New Species of Wood-Rat from Cerros Island, off Lower California (Neotoma bryanti sp. nov.).—Mr. ` Walter E. Bryant has kindly presented to me the skin and skull of a wood-rat collected by him January 11, 1885, on Cerros Island, off Lower California, in lat. 28° 12’ N. Concerning its capture he writes as follows: “On the shore of a small, shallow lake, about two thousand feet in altitude, on Cerros Island, I found a nest composed of the large dry leaves of the Maguey plant (Agave). It was built among small living plants of the same kind, which held it so firmly that I could not overturn it. It was about. four feet high and as much or a little more in diameter at base. One of our party set fire to the struc- ture, and while it was enveloped in flame and smoke a scorched rat ran out, which I shot. This was the only nest and only rat seen on the island.” This unfortunate circumstance, together with the fact that the skin was preserved in brine, explains the very poor condition in which it reached me. Enough remains, however, to show that the species differs remarkably from all known representatives of the genus in possessing a very dark belly, which, in this indi- vidual at least, is absolutely concolor with the back and sides. It may be added that the dark color of the under parts is in no way due to the scorching above mentioned. In all the pre- viously described species the belly is pure white, or nearly white, in sharp contrast to the color of the upper parts. This animal may be distinguished from its congeners by the following characters : _NEOTOMA BRYANTI sp. nov. Bryant's Wood-Rat. (Type No. 2838, 1833 Size large, about equal to that of eastern specimens of N. flori- dana; hind foot, 37 mm.; tail naked, its length uncertain, part of it being wanting; ears, apparently about the size of those of eastern 7 , but too imperfect to admit of measurement; head, throat, and body all round, dark slate color, almost sooty, 13 VOL, XXI. —NO. 2. male, immature; Merriam Collection.) 192 ~ General Notes. [ Feb. exactly the same below as above, without trace of whitish on under parts. The feet may have been white, but it is impossible to tell from this specimen. Behind each ear there is a patch of fulvous-tipped hairs, and it is possible that a superficial wash of this color was spread over much of the upper parts where the tips of the hairs have been singed off. The skull shows that the animal from which it came was full grown, but not quite adult. The grinding down of the molar teeth has only recently begun; consequently the deep pli- cations along their sides are of unusual length. The enamel of the front upper molar forms two well-marked re-entrant angles of the inner side of the tooth. The pattern of the crowns of “the molar teeth in both jaws is the same as in eastern specimens of flori- dana of corresponding age. The incisive foramina extend poste- riorly beyond the plane of the anterior roots of the first molars. The pterygoid fossa is narrow, as in all the western forms of the enus,—very unlike its condition in eastern floridana. The con- dyloid process of the mandible is decidedly longer than in any of the other species. The zygomatic breadth is “noticeably less than in the other members of the genus, which may be due in part to the immaturity of the individual, the zygome usually last character, however, is common to the western representatives of the genus. Comparison with the western forms of the floridana type has : been intentionally withheld because of the unsatisfactory if not ies condition in which these forms have been left by recent rite e new species is named in ene of its discoverer, Mr. Walter E. Bryant, of Oakland, Californ e following cranial mreasiranieits will suffice for present purposes (all measurements in millimet Basilar length (from one of the occipital condyles to posterior edge of alveola of incisor of same sid e) 1.80 Basilar len math - Hensel (from inferior lip of foramen magnum to posterior edge of alveola of incisor) 38.20 Ocsipitgrnasal i ee “nes occipital crest in mediei uae to most anterior — ent of very little va 45.80 Greivest aginst 22.50 ; 3 es t int bital triction 5.50 Greatest sa of nasal bon 17.70 Greatest width of nasal pouti anteriorly = Leas width f nasal bones posteriorly 2.10 Least width of rostrum in front of zygomz 4.80 Distance between outer rims of alveolze of sppe tiee 4.80 s Distance from posterior rim of alveola of anterior rim of alveola oe of first ooe molar.....+.0... 12.50 g rim of “ pal- ase = vee te siete d iache gue raha 1887] Zoology. 193 Length of upper molar series measured on the alveolz 10.40 Length of upper molar series measured on the crowns 8.30 Distance between alveolz of upper molar series anteriorly 2.70 Distance between alveolz of upper molar series posteriorly 4.40 Width of pterygoid fossa 2. pex of post-palatal notch to foramen magnum ry: Hei cranium from inferior lip of foramen magnum 11.20 Fronto-palatal depth (taken at middle of molar series) 11.80 Greatest length of single mandible (exclusive of incisors) 29.30 istance from incisors to first molar (on ) Length of under molariform series measured on the alveolæ 9. . Hart Merriam. Zoological News.—Sponces.—Franz Vejdovsky points out that the recently described Spongilla glomerata Noll is the same as Sp. fragilis described by Dr. Leidy in 1851, and since described under several different names. He also gives a list of the known fresh-water sponges of Europe, enumerating eight species dis- tributed among the genera Euspongilla, Spongilla, Trochospon- gilla, Ephydatia, and Carterius. EcuHINODERMs.—C. F. and P. B. Sarasin describe (Zool. Anzet- ger, ix. pp. 80-82, 1886) the poison apparatus of the leather-urchin, Cyanosoma urens, a new genus and species. From the integu- ment arise slender stalks bearing on their extremities strong connective-tissue poison-sacs. Hubert Ludwig, in the same journal (p. 472), describes a six radiate condition in Cucumaria doliolum. Out of about one hun- dred and fifty half-grown specimens which he obtained at Naples, five had this peculiar structure, which affected not only the tenta- cles and ambulacra, but made itself evident in the internal organs. Such variations are extremely rare among the Holothurians. Worms.—Dr. H. Schauinsland has a note (Zool. Anzeiger, ix. 574, 1886) upon the excretory and genital organs of the Pria- pulidæ, a family of Gephyrean worms, in which he points out that the so-called genital organs of these animals are not simply genital in function, but that, in fact, they are but portions of the ducts of the excretory organs, the epithelium of which gives rise to the genital products. He also states that these worms differ from the other Gephyrea in that the ova and spermatozoa do not escape: into the body cavity, but are directly expelled into the sea. In a paper read before the Linnean Society of New South Wales, June 30, 1886, Mr. J. J. Fletcher described six new species of earth-worms from Australia in addition to the three previously known. Of these, two belonged to the genus Perichzta, two to Notoscolex (a new genus), while two new genera, Didymogaster and Cryptodrilus, are created for the other two. Those pre. viously known belong to the genera Lumbricus, Digaster, and Megascolides. Prof. R. Ramsay Wright described at the meeting of the 194 General Notes. [Feb. Zoological Society of London, June 29, a new ectoparasitic Tre- matode under the name Sphyranura oslert. In its position it = Sibesencdints between ee and Polystomium, and w found upon Menobranchus Mo ttuscs.—Kobelt ina “ Nachtrag” to his former papers on the Molluscan fauna of Nassau ( /ahré. Nassauichen Vereins, Bd. 39, 1886) reviews, among other molluscs, the Unionidæ of Nassau, and describes, besides several varieties, Unio rhenanus, U. kochi, and Margaritana Jreytagi as new! Eight plates illustrate the paper. The rarest of the Cypreeas is possibly Cyprea deckpions: It was described by Edgar mith in 1880 from a single worn specimen, which until recently was the only one known in any collection: It somewhat resembled a young C. ¢hersites, and some had oe as to the validity of the species. Recently several specimens have been obtained from the pearl-divers of Northwestern Aari, and these show conclusively that the species is a good one. It is said that the large green turtle feeds upon these molluscs Usually molluscs are very tolerant of those commensals, the oyster-crabs, which make their homes within their valves. At a recent meeting of the Zoological Society of London, Henry ‘Woodward exhibited a specimen of the pearl-oyster (Meleagrina) from seks in which a -male Pinnotheres was enclosed in a cyst of pearl. Bednal, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of South Aus- tralia, enumerates five species of Murex and one of Typhis as being found on those Mee _ Crustacea.—Collett, in a paper on Rudolphi’s rorqual (Ba/e- noptera borealis), ecole the presence (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1886) of the parasitic ie oa Balenophilus unisetus, on this whale. It is regarded as very rare, and has before been recorded but twice, = then on Balenoptera sibbaldu. Myrrapops.—Berlese has a monograph of the Italian Iulids in the seventesath volume of the Bulletin of the Italian Entomologt- octet) y. According to G. Saint-Remy the brain of Scolopendra is much more like that of Hexapods s than like that of either Crustacea or ida. o < AROSA a recent meeting of the Entomological So- - ciety of Washington, Dr. Marx announced the finding of the Eur n Epeira diademat i é esota. At the meeting of the Linnean Society of London, November 18, “1886, Mr. A. D. Michael exhibited specimens of the mite Argus Ww which | > been received from Australia, and which were z ly identical with- the celebrated Argus persicus, the bite a ch is said to pre oo and even fatal results. : 1887] _ Embryology. 195 EMBRYOLOGY." Notes on Two Forms of Cestoid Embryos.—While engaged on the systematic study of the entozoa of*marine fishes in the laboratory of the United States Fish Commission, Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, I have made notes and sketches of different stages of development of several species of Cestoidea. Without attempt- ing at this time to give a detailed account of any one species, I wish to present a few notes on two forms which are of frequent occurrence. To illustrate the first I have chosen a cyst taken from the peritoneum of the bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), and containing an embryo Rhynchobothrium. (Fig. 1.) Cysts like these, either of the same or closely related species, are abundant in most of the Teleostei, and are also occasionally found in Selachians. In the specimen under consideration the length was 12 mm., breadth at the widest part6 mm. When removed from its ‘host the following points could be made out. The outer covering or cyst proper was oblong, larger at one end than the other, and tapering uniformly; thin, transparent, and delicate, sag yellow granular patches, apparently masses of lymph-cells, on the sur- face at the larger end. When the cyst was broken Spell an en- docyst TTA Diesing, “ Revis. der Ceph. Ab. Param.,” Intro- duction, p. 3) was released. After the escape of the endocyst from its enveloping cyst, the latter, retained its shape and was not irritable or contractile. It was easily separable into a thicker outer and thinner inner layer, both hyaline and formed of connective tissue. The endocyst when released from its capsular envelope wa white and opaque, but became translucent, with a faint bluish tinge, when subjected to the action of the compressor and viewed by transmitted light. In form, while somewhat variable, it is usually club-shaped; much larger at one end than the other; the larger end blunt and rounded. The breadth of the larger _ end is uniform for about one-third the length of the endocyst, at which point there is a sudden constriction, beyond which the breadth diminishes gradually to the smaller end. When placed in sea-water it continues in a state of activity for hours. There is no decided locomotion, but a continuous series of movements, consisting of alternate contraction and extension of different parts of the sac-like mass and feeble lateral movements of the smaller end. In this condition the appearance of the endocyst is that of a thick-walled sac, the walls of which are made up of granular protoplasm with a thin investing membrane, and filled with clear, highly refractile globular masses. When placed under the compressor and slight pressure applied, the embryo Rhynchobothrium could be seen lying in a loose, irregular coil in 2 Edited by Dr. JoHN A. RYDER, Philadelphia. s 196 General Notes, [ Feb. the large end of the blastocyst. (Fig. 2.) A sinuous vessel, re- vealing the existence of a water vascular system, could be plainly uniting in the median line at the smaller end. At the larger end they seem to be merged in the common parenchyma. In the immediate vicinity of the embryo the blastocyst is more trans- parent than in other parts, and the embryo seems to be held in position by a limiting membrane which lines the blastocyst and surrounds the embryo. When considerable pressure is applied the embryo is forced through the walls of the larger end of the blastocyst. The parenchyma is then seen to be confined to the thick walls of the blastocyst, as it does not flow out when the walls are ruptured. I succeeded in separating the wall of the blastocyst into two distinct coats, the outer one much thicker an the inner. In the outer coat three distinct layers were dis- tinguishable ; an outer granular layer, under which was a layer of longitudinal muscular fibres, and under this a thick layer in which were the characteristic refractile masses. These layers were not separable from each other. The thin inner coat, which tained a few irregular, flat, granular masses. The presence of transverse muscular fibres was not demonstrated, although their existence was shown by the power which the blastocyst had to contract and expand lawerally. They probably lie in the outer granular layer. The irritability and contractility of the blastocyst continue for several hours after the embryo is removed. In earlier stages of the development of similar forms, before the embryo is‘ c learly outlined within the blastocyst, the individuality of the latter is even more clearly marked, and is strongly suggestive of the from a’six-hooked larva, as in most other Cestoidea, and whic er the manner of a nurse, gives rise to an embryo by internal gemmiation, This embryo, when ready to escape from the blas- tocyst, is a scolex similar in form to the adult, and if transferred to a proper host would develop directly into an adult strobile. The embryo, when freed from the endocyst (Figs. 3, 3 4, and 4), Was quite active, and consequently definitely accurate meas- urements of many of the dimensions were impossible. Its length i was about 24 mm., although it was capable of varying this to a considerable degree both by contraction and extension. ae are ant in number, marginal, oblong, widely divergent behind, a each other, but not uniting, in front; notche on the posterior Badd and obscurely two-lobed; edges free, o thin, and mobile. Length of bothria, Seance while paewhat _ flattened under the compressor, 2.23 mm.; breadth of head, com- ” 1887] Embryology. 197 ressed, 2.72 mm. Proboscides, four, very long, slender, cylin- drical, and armed with recurved hooks of different sizes. The proboscides were not entirely everted, but by counting the series of hooks which are exposed, and allowing for the part which is inverted, which can be plainly seen through the transparent walls of the proboscis, the result is about one hundred series of hooks arranged in spirals. The spirals are nearly 0.05 mm. apart, and the proboscides about 4.80 mm. in length. There are about fif- teen longitudinal rows of hooks. These rows do not coincide exactly with the axis of the proboscis, but make about one and a half turns around it from base to apex. The hooks in these longitudinal rows present Be following differences. (Fig. 6. Three contiguous rows have small, recurved, stoutish hooks, which lie in groups of two, one hook noia ey in front of the other, and each group of two thus formed corresponding in position with a single hook in each of the other longitudinal series. The central of these three rows does not have the hooks as distinctly placed in groups of two as the two remaining rows. t the bases of the proboscides these hooks are 0.0152 mm. in length, increasing to 0.02 mm. at the apex, gas e breadth of base 0.0102 mm. throughout the series. On e side of this group of three longitudinal series lies a series of pb slender, slightly recurved hooks, These hooks are 0.0127 mm. in length at the base of the proboscis, increasing to 0.02 mm, at the apex, with the breadth of base 0.0076 mm. Each hook of these two series corresponds in position to one of the groups of two in the three series first mentioned. e remaining series of hooks are ten in number. It is rather difficult to estimate the exact num- ber of these longitudinal series, since the transverse spirals are not in even curves, but have a slight zigzag or sinuous course, so that the exact number of longitudinal series in a given part of the circumference is not always Plainly: shown. In one proboscis I counted eleven of these series, but in another, of which I had a plainer view, there were certainly but po These hooks are much larger, stouter, and more sharply recurved than those in the other series.- The length of one of the largest near the base of the Sokoi was 0.0356 mm., with a breadth of base of 0.0254 mm. Towards the apex of the proboscis they are a little longer than this. These larger hooks are not of uniform size, those adjoining the smaller longitudinal series being smaller than course standing side b The e Ge (Fig. 4) are long and spiral. A con- tractile ligament was clearly defined in each and could be traced out into the proboscis, where it appeared as a tubular band con- taining a fluid in which floated a few granules. Towards the end 198 General Notes. [ Feb, this tubular ligament merged imperceptibly into the proboscis, and t uid interior with granules became the interior of the inverted EA with, at first small wie scattered rod-like hooks, and towards the apex of the inverted proboscis, with normal hooks attached to the inner parietes The front end of the long and slender contractile bulbs lies about 10 mm. back of the apex of the head; length 2.46 mm.; breadth 0.24 mm. The contractile bulbs, as in all the Trypano- rhyncha, are thick-walled. The walls are composed of diagonal muscular fibres, which interlace, making angles 2 about 70° and 110° with each other. These organs act in much the same manner as the bulb of a syringe. By their penen the fluid contents is forced into the proboscis-sheaths and proboscides. The column of fluid thus forced into the proboscides causes them nated from the apex. When the embryo was first liberated the proboscides were entirely retracted; when, however, pressure was applied, they unrolled. In this condition the proboscides are very beautiful objects, being quite transparent, while the chitinous hooks have a brilliant vitreous lustre. When fully extended the proboscides throw themselves into graceful spiral curves. When e pressure is released they are apt to be withdrawn. e bothria, in life, are transparent, finely granular, with a few maiie refractile globular masses similar to those in the walls of the blastocyst. The tubular neck, when flattened under the tudinal muscles, and outside of this a layer of vascular tissue, in which the reticulated vessels of the water vascular system nearly as can be ascertained without stained sections, consists of oriens muscular fibres. water vascular system consists of a net-work of vessels in he tra of the bothria which connects with large sinuous — in the centre of the head, and together with these with he reticulated subcuticular vessels of the neck. Back of the cnet bulbs the system is represented by two pairs of : a lie in sinuous curves near each edge of the em- bryo. One ' these ne was _— larger ‘in the others, € ed in a bulbous enlar the contractile bulba. E e body has the appearance of sac, filled with poe — e with the 1887] | Embryology. 199 refractile masses much smaller than those in the blastocyst, and enclosed in an investing membrane about 0.005 mm. thick. The posterior end is terminated by a papillary, button-like pro- cess, which is retractile and covered with a dense coat of minute, straight, hair-like bristles. (Fig. 5.) Another form of cyst I will notice briefly and illustrate by an embryo Tetrarhynchobothrium, taken from the surface of the liver of the cero (Cybium regale). (Fig. 7.) This cyst is long and slender, about 10.5 mm. in length and 1.5 mm. in breadth, yellowish, opaque, but broken in places so as to show the out- line of the blastocyst. The blastocyst, which is set free, when the walls of the cyst are ruptured, is long and slender, with a neck-like constriction at one end. (Fig. 8.) The head part. thus set off is very changeable in form, expanding, contracting, moving up and down and from side to side, and revolving with a rotary move- ment on the constricted neck. The longer part or body of the When compressed the embryo is discovered lying in a coil in the head of the blastocyst. (Fig. 8.) The parenchyma of the head part is now seen to be much coarser than that of the body part, the coarseness being due to the presence of numbers of large, oval, refractile fluid spaces. The parenchyma of the body is dense and finely granular, with smaller refractile masses than those in the head part. When the head part of the blastocyst is braken open the embryo is released, but instead of separatin from the blastocyst, as in the case of the embryo Rhynchoboth- rium, the blastocyst remains attached to the body of the scolex ` much like the Cystocercus of Tenia. The method of release, however, is quite different from that of the Cystocercus of most Tæniæ. Instead of unfolding like the finger of a glove, the neck of the scolex first emerges in the form of a loop. (Fig. 9.) While in this position the head lies close beside the base of th neck in the vicinity of the contractile bulbs. The head is re- leased by a simple straightening of the neck, which at its base, a short distance back of the contractile bulbs, remains attached to the head part of the blastocyst. (Fig. 11.) In this speci- men, after the head of the scolex was released, the anterior part or head of the blastocyst continued for some time working backwards and forwards on the neck of the scolex like a mova- ble barrel on a stationary piston. (Fig. 10.) Considerable press- re was applied for the purpose of making the scolex separate entirely from the blastocyst, but without causing it to break loose. When pressed out as far as it would go, it could be seen that there was an unbroken continuity between the scolex and blasto- 200 General Notes. — [ Feb. cyst. The posterior tapering end of the scolex, however, was clothed with the straight, fine hair-like bristles noticed in the Rhynchobothrium embryo. bothria are four in number, in opposite, lateral pairs, backward, and ‘with a retractile proboscis, armed with long, slender, slightly recurved hooks, belonging to each bothrium. (Figs. 11 æ and 11 4.) The proboscides were everted but a short distance, but they were apparently as fully developed as those in - the Rhyrichobothrium embryo. The proboscis-sheaths were in spirals and the contractile bulbs slender. A reticulated system of vessels in the margins of the bothria, and sinuous longi- tudinal vessels behind the contractile bulbs and near the edge of the blastocyst, were made out in the living specimen. In a specimen which was lightly stained with carmine and placed in glycerine, the scolex and body part of the blastocyst are red, while the globular head-like part of the blastocyst is a golden yellow, the carmine only showing faintly in some longi- tudinal central vessels, which apparently belong to the water vascular system. This same part in unstained specimens in al- cohol is yellowish and more opaque than the body, which is white with a faint bluish tinge. The development of this form differs at this period from that of the Rhynchobothrium described, in that the blastocyst is re- tained as a part of the scolex after the latter is released. I have repeatedly tried the experiment of opening blastocysts of these two types, with the results in every case as given above. one case, the embryo does not seem to have any vital connection with the blastocyst when the walls of the latter are broken. In the other, the embryo cannot be removed from the blastocyst ~ except by breaking a connecting bond. Whether, in the latter instance, the blastocyst becomes a part of the adult strobile by giving rise to segments by absorption or otherwise, or whether -it is evanescent, I have, as yet, had no opportunity of observing. —Edwin Linton, Wood’s Holl, Mass., August 31, 1886. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Fic. 1. Cyst from peritoneum of Pomatomus saltatrix containing endocyst, en- about two diameters. ocyst released from its cyst, somewhat flattened under the compressor P3 . = ph a ar 5 ane Ary Se | El 1 Mi VEEE WERE : ona Embryo liberated from the endocyst (or blastocyst), lateral view, enlarged ameters. Fic. 3 a. One of the bothria, isolated, enlarged three diameters. __ oo Fic. 4. ‘he same flattened under the compressor, showing the contractile bulbs, __ the spiral proboscis-sheaths, and the protruded proboscides, enlarged six diameters. Fic. 5. Posterior end of same, showing the termination of the vessels of the water _ RGE E : - os oe p; Cae 1887 | Embryology. "20I G. 6. Portion of proboscis, showing the five series of smaller hooks in sg and a zie of the larger hooks at the side, a two hundred and twenty-five diam- ~ eters. i ae X Cyst with endocyst, from surface of liver of Cydium regale, enlarged six iame re 3. Endocyst renting i liberated from its cyst, slightly compressed and showing the coiled embryo T Scat mae at vee in the “head,” enlarged nine owe oe The same, subjected to greater pressure, Somn the embryo in the act of Piety “from the blas stocyst, enlarged nine dia Fic. 10. The same, with head freed from the ‘blastocyst, but still attached pos- teriorly to the “ head” of the blastocyst. The bothria are seen from below as they are spread out and applied to the under glass of. oh compressor, enlarged twenty- five eres eters. Outline of ra with its blastocyst now-attached like a rudimentary dohil; calang eds six diam ai Hiei near ai or proboscis, enlarged three hundred and fifty diam- a II å. Portion of proboscis, enlarged two aes bag and twenty-five diameters. All the figures drawn from life by Mrs. Edwin Lint Edwin Linton. ee of Scorpions.—Kowalevsky and Schulgin have a paper on the development of Androctonus ornatus in the pr S Centralblatt (vi. pp. 525- 532, 1886) which throws much light on these forms. As long as the egg remains in the ovarium it is not impregnated. Segmentation begins in the uterus. Their earliest embryo had the blastoderm completely formed at one pole of the egg, and at this time no nuclei were to be seen in the yolk. The first appearance of a differentiation into germ-layers was seen in the appearance of a swelling beneath blastoderm cells and sink to the lower layer. This germin area is circular in outline. The next step consists in the forma- tion of the embryonic envelopes, which arise as a circular Mpt cature ok the blastoderm in a manner analogous to thos Hexapods. Now the germinal area elongates, aod one af oe iceabalicy retains its breadth while the other (abdominal) becomes thicker and longer. During these processes many cells separate from the lower layer (ento-mesodermal) cells and sink into the olk. These cells are not regarded as forming any of sa tissue of the scorpion, but as digesting or softening the y e entoderm arises as a layer of cells which separate kon the ento- mesodermal layer and come to lie close upon the yolk. These rapidly spread over the yolk, which has already been enclosed by the amnion and serosa. The entoderm cells modify the outer layer of the yolk and then take up the modified deutoplasm, at the same time taking on the character of a cylindrical epithelium. The abdomen now grows out, and a portion of the mesenteron extends into it as far as the penultimate segment, where it unites with the proctodeum. The central portion of the mesenteron is latest in being differentiated io the tubular mid-gut and the 202 General Notes. [Feb. lobulated liver. The neural surface is outlined first, then the sides and hzmal wal The mesoderm is first differentiated when the entoderm sepa- rates from the ento-mesodermal layer, but for a long time it lingers in the germinal area. It then segments, and there is a preoral segment which contains a cavity like those of the post-oral series. The somatopleure is thicker than the splanchnopleure. Beyond their character separate, and become the primary blood-corpus- cles hey fill the space on the back of the embryo, which the authors afer as the homologue of the segmentation cavity. Later the mesodermal layers unite—first above and later below mesodermal origin, and even before the union of the layers of either side the histological differentiation of endothelium and muscular layers is eviden The first traces of oa nervous system appear as ectodermal thickenings. In each segment appear, on either side, two eleva- tions. Of these the lateral give rise to the appendages, ber median to the ganglia. At first these latter are simple dermal thickenings, but soon a rapid process of wall: pronieanoa takes place—first in the cephalic, then in the body region—in the following manner. In the head there are from fifteen to twenty places, in the other segments from ten to twelve, where this growth takes place. Each has the appearance of a groove, and in section these grooves are seen to be simple cavities which soon disappear by the growth of the bounding cells, In this way a very rapid proliferation is possible, but the authors do not consider the point whether it have any phylogenetic importance. The development of the brain is distinguished from that of the rest of the nervous system in that an accessory fold takes part in its formation. This fold was previously recognized by Metschni- in the scorpion and by Balfour in the spiders ; it is distinct from the grooves mentioned above. A groove is formed around the periphery of the procephalic lobes, which becomes deeper and finally forms a right and a left cerebral vesicle. Next a second _ fold arises and forms a pouch on either side, the mouths of which are directed laterally. These are the first traces of the median eral eyes are developed independently, but their history has not been worked out. The coxal glands, when first seen, appeared as a pair of tubes opening externally at the base of the second(?) pair of feet. Later the tubes were much coiled. Two portions could be dis- tinguished,—an inner, arising from the spla eure and com- . ASE S Me ratom by a broad funnel, ond a S DEE AA E Aa M mo EN a ne SRE ge EE a E a 1887] Embryology. 203 late, as simple inpushings into a space rich with blood-cor- puscles , In this connection the reader is referred to this journal, vols. xix. p. 560; xx. pp. 666, 825, and 862.— F. S. K. Polar Globules in the Crustacea.—The question whether tere are polar globules formed in the maturation of the arthro- egg has long remained in doubt, and both Minot and Bal- se have suggested that their absence was connected with the existence of parthenogenesis. Several writers have described and figured what might be polar globules, but their observations have contained a considerable element of doubt. Recently, August Weismann (Zool. Anzeiger, ix. 570-573, 1886) gives a preliminary account of the studies in this direction made by himself and his pupil, Chiyomatsu Ishikawa, on the partheno- genetic eggs of several Crustacea. In Polyphemus oculus, the ripe summer egg forms a polar globule in the normal manner, with a soen; the long axis of which is at right angles to the surface of the egg. Then the egg enters the brood space, and there quickly forms a vitelline membrane. While this is going on the spindle divides, and the polar globule, which contains considerable protoplasm, becomes separated from the egg. This takes place at the animal pole of the egg, and then the inner end of the spindle becomes converted into the segmentation nucleus, and segmentation quickly follows. At the close of the second segmentation the polar globule itself divides and then quickly disappears; the authors think it is absorbed again by the egg. In Bythotrepes longimanus the process is much the same, except that the transformation of the proximal end of the spindelkern into the segmentation nucleus has not been seen. At the eight-cell stage the remnants of the polar globules are still visible, sunk between the cells, but with further development of the egg ‘they sink deeper and finally disappear. Grobben had described polar globules in Motina paradoxa and Weismann con- firms the observation, describing the process of formation as witnessed in the living egg. It does not differ materially from that outlined in the other species. In Leptodora, Weismann found a body very like the polar globules of Polyphem mus and Bythotrepes, but did not see the method of their formation. In Daphnia longispina the spindle is apparently not so evident as in other cases, but its place is taken by a clear spot about half-way between the pole and the os see Shortly after this the polar globule appears on the surface, its ada frequently retaining traces of the ieeryokinetic figures of formation while its circular or oblong body remains homogeneous. During the first and second segmentation of the e “gs the polar globule itself divides, the process being accompanied by karyokinesis and the resulting cells ASEAN close together. In this species the egg 204 General Notes. [ Feb. completely fills its envelopes, and hence the polar globules are forced into the soft surface of the yolk, where they are with dif- ficulty visible, at least without reagents. Leydig a quarter of a century ago, on the eggs of this same species showed bodies which have been supposed to be polar globules; but this could not have been the case, as these bodies which he describes were outside the chorion A full paper is a in the Verhandlungen of the Freiburg Gesellschaft — F. S ANTHROPOLOGY. The Races of Men.—A. Hennuyer, of Paris, will publish a series of volumes entitled “ Bibliothèque Ethnolo ogique, Histoire Générale des Races humaines.” The first volume has already appeared, with the title : Introduction à l'Étude des Races humaines, by A. de Quatre- fages. There will follow Les’ Races Noires, by E. T. Hamy. Les Races Jaunes, by M. J. Montano: Les Races Rouges, by Lucien Biart History of the Mongols, by Jules Denitar. Les Foulahs, by Dr. Tautain. Les Aztèques, by Lucien Biart M. Quatrefages perfects the scheme of nature which has al- ready appeared in his work, entitled “ L’Espèce humaine,” but which may not be familiar to all the readers of the AMERI- CAN NATURALIST EMPIRES. KINGDOMS. PHENOMENA. CAUSES. Sidereal Keplerian movement Gravitation. ish ase | . Keplerian movement Gravitatio Mineral i \ { plus physico-chemist Etherodynamics. Keplerian movement Gravitation. Vegetal fo us physico-chemistry Me herodynamics. plus vitality Keplerian movem Gravit ation. Avie’ plus 5 physico-chemisuy E FA erodynam: Lee lus voluntary motion Animal Spirit. { Keplerian movement Gravitation. plus us physico-chemistry Etherodynamics. Human | plus vitality + Life plus bier Me otion pore Spirit. plus morality and religiosity | Human Spirit. The views of monogenists and polygenists are presented in par- allel columns, with monogenism as the personal equation of the author. ve remains for a polygenist to prepare a similar table with as much fairness. fll men belong t one andthe same There are evel pecie ot men man groups are racial characters, mi 1887] MONOGENISM. At = epoch did this single species appear on the surface of the ee p- The ening ‘of antiquity is simple. The human species first ons only a circumscribed area of the globe. There is, then, a question of geographic origin to ve. e globe was peopled by anise’ o! ich we have to bi the es and iseti the histo To-day there ne “ee no autoch- thonous people n particular, oor fy: olynesia v were agate only by col- The human soaa inhabits to- asy the entire sreng le as well as the ator. It ig therefor, subjected it- f to environments the most diverse. The question of erant ting in its widest and in its most special sense is necessarily In these Shige the human species, ed action of new environ- be & S passing in our day ought to arrest special manner the attention of anthro- pologists. Crosses between human races in the parent types. the persian oksa combined in peoples of . an class ae een human 1 races most di- ss ce under eyes. They have piven birth to populations which en- mer 5 day and more d eng oe The aly of th ea ouble an the past and permits us to look into the ~All actual populations have been m or less modified, either by pakane i h or by crossing. The primitive type of hu- manity is lost. r i could sible which would — it? Anthropology. 20¢ POLYGENISM. At what epoch have appeared the dif- fe Siyan species? H ave they arisen ively? The question ee antiquity is tiple. The ent species have first appeared th where history announces their discovery. The question of ge raphic in does not exi Migr count nothing i in ae The P ea of which histor sery ed the memory ar an in: ence over the pirita distribution of eoples. Excepting the European colonies founded in our day and those recorded in history, almost the entire globe has been peopled af auth ones. Specially, all the peo f America and Polynesia were my could oly he the products of the soil where modern explorers have found A Sos ples, constituting any Biss originating on the spot, were the ‘ade to live nich ey which sree ae diem The ere is no general estion of acclimating. We ri ave only i study the special cases resulting from e expansion of m pulations. ifferent Saat ies have ap- peared with all the characteristics now arking ` a environment could nor alter these. We have not to searc -o distinctive edan ea could be Wong _ Populations with mixed characters therefore, about their irecte. ethnic ins. Crosses among human species can have if the crossing c study possesses, therefore, a serious in- terest for us. All the human species having appeared with their — characters, such as. we now re em, nye B oblem of roe primitive man oe no 206 7 General Notes. [Feb, Some of e burning questions which M. Spuafrefages discusses are the following : The pretended Simian origin of man. Incompatibility of Darwinism and polygen Impossibility of going back to the first oa a the species. The survival of fossil human races. In his general treatment of his theme M. Quatrefages has fol- lowed the method of Prichard. The Deities of the Navajos.—In the interesting account en- `Ț\ the fact that the warriors offered their sacrifices at the sacred shrine of Thoyetli, in the San Juan valley. He says that the Navajos have a tradition that the gods of war, or sacred brothers, still dwell at Thoyetli, and their reflection is sometimes seen on the San Juan River. Dr. Matthews is certain the last part is due to some natural phenomenon. The following account seems to furnish a complete explanation of this last part of the myth. Several years ago, a clergyman, while travelling in the San Juan valley, noticed a curious phenomenon while gazing h and surrounded by a circular rainbow, the “circle of Ulloa.” They jumped, moved away, and performed a number of exer- cises, to be certain that the figures were their reflections, and the dians to consider these reflections as those of their deities.— G. A. Brennan, Roseland, Cook County, Til., January 12, 1887. . Franz Boas, the successful explorer of the polar countries north of Hudson’s Bay, has just returned to the East from a three months’ trip to the east side of Vancouver’s Island, B. C.,and the mainland opposite. He visited there a considerable number of tribes, most of which, he thinks, belong to the Selish family, though he entertains doubts whether the Kwákiūtl belong there or not. As far as their intercourse with the whites is concerned, are harmless and friendly; but outside of Nanaimo and Victoria the white population there is very sparse. The Gospels and John have been translated into the Kwákiūtl of Fort Rupert, a post now abandoned. Dr. Boas in- he tee to publish soon a part of his exploratory results in this country, with illustrations.. A pamphlet upon the Bi lkúla, or He peas iora ati attention than explorers 1887] Microscopy. 207 the collecting of myths, traditions, and vocabularies. To get these he was obliged to avail himself of the Chinook jargon, which he has mastered in a pretty short lapse of time. The songs and melodies which Professor C. Stumpf, of Halle, obtained from the Bilkula Indians travelling in Germany were published y him in an article inserted in the Zettschr. fir Musikwissen- schaft, 1886, pp. 405-426, and two articles by Dr. Boas (with an- other by Goeken) upon the same tribe are to be found in the “ Original - Mittheilungen der Ethnolog. Abtheilung der Kon. Museen zu Berlin,” 1886, pp. 177-186.—A. S. Gatschet. MICROSCOPY.? Note on the Practical Study of Moulds.—lIt is well known that the study of moulds may be greatly facilitated by following their development in gelatine films, or other solid substrata, spread on glass slides ; but the value of the method for classes in elementary biology has not been sufficiently recognized. The _ following aaen of the method is perhaps already in use; o call attention to it as simple and practical, and especially as eat a ready means of making very clear and beautiful permanent preparations. e spores are sown with a needle-point in films, consisting of a modification of Pasteur’s or Mayer’s fluid (with pepsin) thick- ened with Iceland moss. In this medium moulds grow freely in the moist chamber. They may be examined either fresh or after treatment with iodine, which scarcely colors the substratum. For the purpose of making permanent preparations the culture- slides are transferred directly from the moist chamber to a satu- rated solution of eosin in ninety-five per cent. of alcohol, a fluid by which the moulds are at once fixed and stained. After twenty-four hours (or, preferably, three or four days) the prepa- rations are washed in ninety-five per cent. alcohol until the color nearly disappears from the substratum, cleared with oil of cloves, d mounted in balsam. All stages may thus be prepared. The mycelia, conidia, etc., appear of an intense red color, while the substratum is scarcely stained. Alcoholic fuchsin may be used instead of eosin, though inferior to it; but other dyes (of which a Sone aS number have been tested) color the substratum the moulds, and are therefore useless. Eosin ee rton made more than a year s do not yet show the slightest alteration of color. The best results have thus far been obtained with Penicillium, Eurotium, and certain parasitic — Mucor gives less satisfactory preparations, since it is always m or less shrunken by the alcohol. Fair preparations of yeast al be made by mixing it with the liquefied medium and ome the mixture on glass slides, which, after solidification of the films. Edited by C. O. es ue apes Wisconsin, ` VOL. XXI.—NO. 2. 208 Scientific News. [Feb. are placed in the eosin solution, as in the case of mould-cul- ures For preparing the cultures, Pasteur’s or Mayer’s fluid, with pepsin [see Huxley and Ma rtin’s Practical Biology], but not containing more thei five per cent. of sugar, is heated with Ice- land moss until the mixture attains such a consistency that it will just solidify when cold (fifteen to thirty minutes). It is then filtered by means of a hot filter into small glass flasks, which are afterwards plugged with cotton-wool, and sterilized at 65° to 70° . by the ordinary method. When required for use, the mass is liquefied by gentle heat, poured on the slides, and allowed to solidify. The spores are sown by a needle-point, touched once to a mass of spores, and thereupon drawn across several films in SCIENTIFIC NEWS. —W. Baldwin Spencer, of Lincoln College, Oxford, has been appointed to the chair of Biology in the University of Melbourne. He is a pupil of Professor BS: N. Moseley. He has published papers on the Armary organs of Amphipods and on the neuren- retains all of its optical structure, though it is probably not functional. —The Buffalo Society of Natural Science is at last provided with suitable quarters. It has long occupied rooms in the old building of the Young Men’s aese w of Buffalo, but they have been inadequate for the accommodation of the library and collections. The Young Men’s P Paa has also been cram for room, and a few years ago they began the erection of a new building, which has at last been completed, at a cost of about three hundred thousand dollars. It occupies a very eligible re 1887] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 209 and the Buffalo Society of Natural Science. The latter soeiety have ample e in the western portion of the base ment. Professor D. S. Kellicott, the president of the Society of Natural Dalee, gave the address for that society. This society was organized in sa ny er, 1861, and its history has been one of continual progress. It has accumulated a fine mu seum, which is especially rich re local forms. The collection of fossils of the Waterlime group is noteworthy. Nowhere in America can be seen a better rai of Eurypterids, those oa Limulus-like am which were a prominent feature in the Pa zoic seas. rst president the late Judge Clinton, gave the society his valucke herbarium, while its A a collection contains many of 2 type- ee D of t : Robinson, A. R. Grote, L. F. Hervey, D. S. Kellicott, and stare The library is ome rich in Satomologieal works. At present the society is somewhat cramped for funds, but in time it will be amply provided with money. Its late president, Dr. George E. Hayes, left about two hundred thousand dollars, which, after the so of his widow, are to come into the possession of the so- present its funds are Agree nee from the bequest of the late Professor C. T. Robin We are glad to learn that the meetings of the society fave, never bern better attended or the discussions and papers more interesting than at present. —The Johns Hopkins University will have its marine labora- tory this year at Nassau, N. P. The party will sail about March 1, and will stay until July 1,if not longer. It is proposed to hire a building for the laboratory. Dr. W. K. Brooks will be in charge | as usual. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, Boston Society of Natural History.—January 19, 1887——On account of the inclemency of the weather the regular paper of peculiar feature was noticed in the development of Decapods, in that the germ from the eyes to the tip of the abdomen was ac- | tually longer in early than in later stages. An explanation of this fact is difficult. Dr. Kingsley also referred to the classifica- tion of Arthropods and their derivation from Worms. Cs. Minot gave a résumé of observations on the origin of the trachee of Hexapods, and suggested that they supported Dr. Kingsley’s view that these organs were not homologous in Arachnids and Hexapods. Professor W. T. Sedgwick spoke of the extrusion of trichocysts in Paramecium under the stimulation of tannic acid. Sudene 2.—Dr. Kingsley gave his paper pope: from the preceding m eeting. He maintained that the ‘ centro- lecithal” as applied to Arthropod eggs, and “ ener” as de- 210 Proceedings of Sctentific Societes. [Feb. 1887. scribing their segmentation, were totally erroneous. A superficial segmentation is of necessity meroblastic. In Arthropod eggs the first segmentations are central, and the blastoderm is formed by migration of the resulting cells to the surface. With this new view it is a comparatively easy matter to reconcile the process of gastrulation in the Hexapods with that of other Metazoa. It affords an excellent example of the theory of acceleration, or concentration of development, held by Professors Cope and Hyatt. The nauplius of Crustacea was regarded as an adaptive stage, and one which had far less phylogenetic significance than was usually assigned it. Professor Hyatt spoke of the early development of the sponges, and instanced cases which paral- leled and supported the views of Dr. Kingsley General meeting, Wednesday evening, February 16.—The fol- lowing papers were read: “On the Range of Variations in the Human Shoulder-Blade,’ by Dr. Thomas Dwight; “A Study of North American Geraniaceæ,” by Professor Wm. Trelease. Middlesex [ Mass. ] Institute-—January 19, 1887.—Mr. Frank S. Collins read a paper on “ Curious Conceits of the Older Her- balists,” quoting from Gerarde and earlier writers. New York Academy of Sciences.—Monday Retin A het .—The following paper was read: “ Report upon ink. Dolomite recently obtained near Morrisania, with LEA by Mr. A. B. Bjerregaard. onday evening, February 14.—The following paper was read: “ The Landskibet, or Viking Ship, discovered near Gok- Se Norway, in 1880” (with lantern illustration), by Dr. John S. hite. Biological Society of Washington.—February 5, 1887.— The following communications were read: Mr. William T. Horn- aday, “ The Last of the Buffalo; Mr. Richard Rathbun, “ Ocean Temperature Charts in Connection with Studies in Geographical Distribution ;’ Dr. C. Hart Merriam, “ Contributions to North —— Mammalogy. Description of a New Species of Wood- Rat” (Neotoma); Mr. Henry W. Elliott, “ Ridgeway’s Nomencla- ture of Colors for Naturalists;” Dr. $a BY tejneger, “ Exhibition ; of New Species of Birds from the Sandwich Islands ;’ Dr. Tar- leton H. Bean, “ Variation under horns of the Rainbow _ Trout” (with exhibition of specim Sinti 19—The | following Oa s were read: —— ED m “An Un described — s of Snake from id 5; = “ae E. Patines “6 Professor RE C. we E Notes on Physian- ee P sex Moth-tr THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. VoL. XXI. MARCH, 1887. No. 3. THE MASSASAUGA AND ITS HABITS. BY O. P. HAY, M.A. AJ OTWITHSTANDING the almost universal dislike enter- tained by people for snakes, the horror even that the sight of them excites in some minds, and the low value generally placed on ophidian intelligence, the more unprejudiced attention that has been bestowed by a few persons on these animals within recent years has shown that there is, after all, much to be said in their favor. Their lithe forms, their active and graceful move- ments, and their frequently brilliant and variegated colors, would at all times have rendered them attractive objects had not the possession of these qualities been more than offset by the actual or supposed possession of others of a disagreeable or dangerous nature. A closer acquaintance with snakes dispels many of our old prejudices against them, as being animals degraded in struc- ture, malicious in disposition, and as laboring under a special curse; and presents them to us as possessors of many singular adaptations to their environment, many sagacious habits relating to the preservation of themselves and of their young, and some- times of considerable conjugal and parental affection; and, by inference, enjoying as much of the favor of Heaven as most “animals. That very interesting work by Miss C. C. Hopley, entitled “Snakes; Curiosities and Wonders of Serpent Life,” will doubtless do much to remove unreasonable prepossessions against these persecuted animals, and to awaken greater interest in them and their ways. When we have learned more about VOL. XXI.—NO. 3. 15 212 The Massasauga and tts Habits. [March them, we may discover that He who “spake with authority” also spake as having knowledge of nature when He used the words, “as wise as a serpent.” At present far too little is known concerning the life-history of the great majority of our snakes. Of the breeding habits of many species and large groups of species we know little or nothing, and it is to be desired therefore that accurate observations should be made and reported. I hope in this paper to contribute some- thing to the knowledge of the Prairie Rattlesnake, or Massasauga (Caudisona tergemina). This venomous serpent ranges from Ohio to Utah. Towards the north it extends into Michigan, Wisconsin, and to the Yellow- stone River. It has also been found in Georgia and in Missis- sippi ; but it appears to be replaced in the greater part of the South by Caudisona miliaria. Its general color above is from gray to brown, with seven rows of dark spots which have a light margin. The belly is mottled with black and yellowish. In Ohio and some parts of Indiana black specimens are sometimes found, and to these the name “ Black Massasauga” has been given. Speci- mens of these were described by Holbrook as Crotalophorus kirt- landu in honor of Dr. J. P. Kirtland, their discoverer. Professor S. F. Baird also regarded this form as a distinct species; but of late herpetologists are not inclined to consider it as worthy of even varietal distinction. That the spotted form is ever found in wooded lands I do not know; but the black form, both in Ohio and Indiana, lives in swampy lands which are overgrown with brush, weeds, Sees coarse grass, and not on the open prairies. Some of Dr. Kirtland’s statements concerning the Black Mas- sasauga are, I think, to be taken with some grains of allow- ance. With reference to its bite he has, it appears, asserted that its virulence is scarcely greater than that of the sting of a hornet. There are probably no differences, as respects virulence, between this snake and the more common pale and spotted form living on the open prairies, and where the latter is best known it is much feared ; and certainly the effects of its bite on the large domestic animals are very serious. The members of this species are probably as poisonous as are individuals of equal size belonging -~ to any of the other species; and since specimens of the Mas- eee ee 1887] The Massasauga and its Habits. 213 them would probably be equivalent in virulence to a _ whole colony of hornets. Some twenty-five or thirty years ago this species was exces- sively abundant on the then sparsely-settled prairies of Northern Illinois; and among the farmers’ boys of that day the slaughter of these snakes furnished a means for establishing a reputation for courage and enterprise. As more and more of the land came under cultivation, these serpents rapidly disappeared; so that, where they were once so numerous, they have scarcely been seen for perhaps twenty years. The reasons for this rapid extinction are, I think, not clear. Men, hogs, deer, and the larger wild fowl are regarded as the principal enemies of the Crotalide. Of course every. man and boy attacked and killed every rattlesnake that was seen; but so likewise they did with every harmless snake; and the species of the latter have not usually suffered to the same extent as the rattlesnakes. The members of the hog family are the foes of the venomous, and perhaps also of the non-venomous, serpents; but in the dis- tricts to which I refer the production of wheat, oats, and corn was at that time so exclusively pursued that but few hogs were raised, and these few were kept shut up in close pens, and thus prevented from exercising any influence on the reptilian fauna. Of their other enemies, the deer were early exterminated, and the native large wild birds, which may possibly have been ad- dicted to devouring the young snakes, were by the “ murdering guns” soon greatly reduced in numbers. That the mere dis- turbance of the soil in cultivation would be more prejudicial to the welfare of the rattlesnakes than to that of other species of serpents we do not know. Possibly, being heavy and clumsy animals, they would find it difficult to move about over culti- vated fields and pursue there their vocation, and would abandon them. In this connection it might be profitable to study the influence of similar changes of environment on the Heterodons, ` It appears to me quite probable, however, that as the country became more thickly settled, the rattlesnakes were deprived to a considerable extent of their opportunities for securing food. In primitive times the prairies were the breeding-grounds of great numbers of prairie-hens (Cupidonia cupido) and other ground- nesting birds, whose young and possibly also eggs contributed largely to the support of the various species of snakes. The cul- 214 The Massasauga and its Habits. [March tivation of the land interfered greatly with the breeding of these birds, and the prairie-hens were soon thinned out by the hunters, and thus the resources of the venomous snakes were greatly _ reduced, `The assertion that the sound of the rattle of the Massasauga is so feeble that it is scarcely audible is certainly incorrect. From experience I know that it can be heard at a distance of several feet. The purpose of the rattle of the Crotalide has exercised the ingenuity of many minds and called forth many conjectures. The old notion that it was intended as a means of preserving man from the bite of the snake does not meet the requirements of the case. The organs of animals and plants are designed for the benefit of their possessors, and not for the benefit of some other organism. The somewhat close resemblance of the whirr of the rattle to the song of some grasshoppers has suggested to some one the idea that it is produced in order to lure within reach of the snake some of the grasshopper-eating birds. This hypothesis seems to lack the necessary basis of observation. No one probably has yet heard hungry rattlesnakes in imprison- ment sounding the rattle in the vain hope of securing food. Nor is there any more evidence to prove that it is of use in bringing the sexes together. The anal scent-glands would seem. to be far more efficient for that purpose. The sexes once together, it is quite possible that their emotions may be expressed by the low humming of the rattle that has been observed. Mr. Darwin concluded that the crepitation produced by the organ is used to frighten away the many birds and beasts that are liable to attack the snake. The means adopted to produce this result ought, then, to be regarded as a signal failure, for no man, or hog, or deer, or ravenous bird, that had resolved to attack a serpent, would prob- ably be deterred therefrom by such impotent demonstrations. If the inspiration of fear were their purpose, we might expect the serpent to elevate itself like the cobra, or make other threatening movements, whereas the rattlesnake lies almost motionless in a coil, meanwhile sounding its rattle, a model of repose born of a consciousness of the possession of reserve power. _ The opinion that is generally held that the rattle is sounded ee en ni ae snake bas reason to fear ee get ¥2 ns 1887] The Massasauga and its Habits. 215 said against it. Dr. Elliott Coues has concluded that “the actual result of its use as a menace in self-defence is the reverse of beneficial to the serpent, since the sound serves to direct and provoke attack from all the enemies which the animal has reason to fear.” We are led to wonder how the rattlesnakes have been enabled to maintain themselves in the struggle for existence. In spite of the possession of this organ, thus pronounced to be of no use to them, and constantly betraying them into the hands of their enemies, the rattlesnakes have succeeded in diffusing themselves over most of the western hemisphere, in adapting themselves to many varied conditions, and in producing many species and an excessive number of individuals. On the other hand, the Copperheads and Cottonmouths, in possession of all the advantages enjoyed by the rattlesnakes in the way of poison- glands and fangs and relieved of the so-called disadvantage of the rattle, have neither extended their range so widely, nor de- veloped into so many species, nor perhaps become so abundant in individuals. Nothing can be more certain than the fact that the rattle is used chiefly when the snake is alarmed or angry. The whirr then serves to warn an approaching enemy that it is coming into col- lision with a rattlesnake, and not with something else. This is done for the special benefit of the snake. It is not benevolent, but intensely selfish. It is evidently extremely solicitous for its precious store of poison and its battery of fangs, without which it would fare slenderly in its endeavors to get a living ; and if it can induce its antagonist to withdraw, the snake will have saved its stores and have escaped other possible results of a pitched battle. This warning must have been very efficient with most animals. In the eastern United States there were no native species of the hog tribe to devour snakes. To what extent deer are accustomed to destroy rattlesnakes we do not know. It appears to me that the rattlesnakes had more to fear from the numerous buffaloes that roamed over the greater part of the continent than from any ani- mals that made direct war onthem. The serpents must have been in frequent danger of being trodden upon by these, and to have attempted a war on a herd of large animals would have been useless. But through the simple device of sounding the rattle, each animal as it approached would be~ warned of the presence of the snake and would probably be induced to give it abundant 216 i The Massasauga and its Habits. [March space. Thus the poison might be reserved for such as could not take a hint. Doubtless, too, by this means, the snake was saved from many a rude tread by bear, or wolf, or. panther, that to the serpent would at least have been very unpleasant, and. might have involved it in a fight in which it had everything to lose and nothing to gain. Within the past few weeks some specimens of the Massasauga have come under my notice, whose history may throw some light on the breeding habits of this species, as well as on some other matters that have, been discussed. These specimens belonged to the black variety, and were captured in the northern part of Hendricks County, Indiana, by Mr. M. B. Harvey, of Rainstown. This gentleman’s truthfulness is testified to by friends in whom I have complete confidence, and his statements are made with such sincerity and carefulness that I have no hesitafion whatever in accepting them. he specimens, two in number, one about two feet long, the other somewhat less, both dull black without trace of spots above, were captured about the Ist of last August and kept in close confinement. They were found in an old swampy clear- ing that was somewhat overgrown with brush. About the Ist of September they both brought forth living young,—one five and the other six,—the two broods appearing within thirty or forty hours of each other. Two of the young died when about three weeks old; the others are still alive (January 28) and in apparent health. Neither the parents since their capture nor the young since their birth had had, up to January I, anything either to eat or to drink. About the latter date the corner of the box containing them was put into a vessel of water, and one old one and one young one partook. With this exception none have had either food or water up to the presenttime. Mr. Harvey states that at first the young were but three or four inches long. Some of them are now at least ten inches long, as I know from obser- vation. Others are somewhat smaller. How can this growth have been made? It is possible, I think, that the gentleman has been somewhat mistaken as to the original size ; or some of | may have been that small, while others not occa ob- JEPP were larger. A specimen of the light-colored variety in = my possession, which was taken from the mother but which had fe the fangs dorejapen, measures, when ea and a 1887] The Massasauga and its Habits. 217 half inches. It was hardened in alcohol while spirally twisted within the egg-membranes, and would when born probably have been somewhat longer. However, it is quite evident that Mr. Harvey’s specimens have made some growth. Having at hand another alcoholic specimen, seven and a half inches long, which probably had not long been born at the time of its capture, and observing in the posterior portion of its body a hard lump, it oc- curred to me to open the abdomen and see what the young snake had eaten. The whole intestine was empty, and the hard lump consisted of an elongated mass of egg-yolk two and a half inches long and about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. On such a store of highly-nutritious materials doubtless the young are ac- customed to subsist and grow until they are able to capture their own food. The question whether or not the young ever enter the mother’s mouth and stomach for refuge from danger and are permitted to come forth again has been much discussed. It would seem that the results of Mr. Goode’s inquiries ought to have settled the question, but there are still many sceptical persons. In the issue of Wature for December 24, 1885, a writer, in discussing the case of Pelias berus, suggests as an explanation of what has been observed, that possibly the young in their fright, against the mother’s will, rush into her mouth as they would into any other _ opening that might present itself; and that once having entered the stomach they may either never leave it again alive, or they may act there as an emetic and be violently ejected! Now, Mr, Harvey states that his young snakes were accustomed, from their birth up to the time they were a month old, to pass freely into and out of the mothers’ mouths. He does not know that they were ever all in the mothers’ stomachs at the same moment, but some- times three or four of them would be missing at once. Some- times one would be seen going down the throat while another was coming out. Occasionally one might be seen with his head sticking out of one corner of the mother’s mouth like a cigar, while in the other corner would be another’s head or possibly tail. In describing the mother’s movements, Mr. Harvey says, in a letter, that “the mother would sometimes lay her lower jaw on the floor, raise her upper jaw and with it her entire backbone, thus adjusting herself for them to play in and out... . They seemed to go in the full length of the stomach.” When the 218 The Massasauga and its Habits, [March young were about a month old they sloughed their skins, and after that event they were never observed to enter the mother’s mouth, though they may have done so. The maternal instinct must be very strong in these reptiles, usually regarded as so low in intelligence and so unfeeling, when they will for weeks and months endure hunger and thirst and still continue to care for their young. One might readily sup- pose that if the young ever entered the mother’s stomach, the temptation would, under the circumstances, be almost irresistible for her to keep them there. When I first saw these specimens, about January 1, the old and most of the young were coiled up together as if for the purpose of keeping themselves warm. The heads of all the young ones were lying out on top of the coils, as if they were as desirous of seeing what was going on as are other young folks. One little one, however, was away from the others on the bottom of the box. One of the mothers appeared to take great interest in it, and kept rubbing it with her head and pushing it gently about with her snout. Mr. Harvey states that the mothers have been accustomed in various ways to show their affection for their young. “ The mother would raise her head, turn it about and look over the young, place her nose. against them, push them about, and pull them to her side.” The old ones have not shed their outer skins since their cap- tivity began. Since they appear to change their dress twice a year, it is quite likely that this was accomplished just before they were captured. One young one who was watched got rid of his cuticle in about twenty minutes from the time that it was seen to be loose on his head. : Most of the young are quite dark in color, but all have plain indications of the rows of spots usually found in the species, and one has the ground color so pale that it closely resembles the young of the specimens found on the open prairies. es L L œ A] ` 1887] The Significance of Sex. 219 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SEX. BY JULIUS NELSON. (Concluded from page 162.) PLATE XI. Fic. 125, a—e. From the segmenting egg of the 4.xo/ot/— Bellonci, Arch. Italiennes de Biol., vi.—Shows how the knäuel reticulum is formed from the loops. The loops in this case are hook-shaped, or almost straight rods, the end of the segment which first reaches the pole swells out and the chromatin breaks up into microsomata, the whole segment is thus transformed into a vesicle containing peripheral microsomata. These vesicles fuse as in ç, æ, e, and the microsomata become arranged in rows, which thus form a reticulating filament. Fic, 126, a-k. Fertilization of ovum of Arion empiricorum—Platner, A. m. A., xxvii.—In æ we see the polar globule (fg) and the pro (sf), whose head and neck have “poten into the Bes but left the tail The head consists of a hyaline material holding two karyosomata. As usual ack rays surround it. germinal vesicle contains many cps mata, each with a hyaline envelope. e head of the spermatozoon at last becomes included in the germinal vesicle. In 4 we see the karyosomata have broken up into many microsomata arranged at the periph- ery of each hyaline vesicle, they fuse, so that for the most part, as in c, each shall wo microsomata at opposite sides. But the hyaline vesicles themselves fuse (or divide?) as indicated by the dumb-bell forms in 6. The hyaline mass of the male pronucleus divides, so each half has a karyosoma, and the latter passes through the same stages of segmentation and fusion as the female karyosoma, except that each vesicle has finally four microsomata instead of two (c, d, e sf). [Only the , -rminal vesicle or its contents are shown in all figures except a.] On the side of the vesicle towards the centre of the egg there arises an aster (c), and some into connection with it, the membrane of the germinal vesicle disappearing at this point. Ind a second aster has arisen, also near the first, so that the two are not at first opposite each other, but become so more and more by swinging around into a right line, and as they do so the germinal vesicle sinks towards the interior of the ‘egg; ther RERA microsomata, like the first lot, now become connected with thi aster, except that the male karyosomata are behindhand (æ, e), but finally these join. Meanwhile ths microsomata become regularly disposed in an equatorial plate and grouped in fours, each pair of a four being united by a spindle-fibre to its own pole (f). Then each group of four microsomata fuse to form one karyosoma on each fibre _ g), and again segmenting into four (4), they separate, leaving connecting fibrils osomata move polewards there is a stage, as usual, where sy ine seem to fuse laterally (7). In 4 we see the spindle turned out of its position, leaving the two large polar asters i situ, but still possessing little ones of its own. Such is the history of the first segmentation after fertilization. By comparing it on the one side with Fig. 124, and on the other with Fig. 127, it is seen to form a con- necting link. Fic. sg a-f. A case of conjugation ing Vorticella microstomum—Engelmann, M. J., i.—When division or budding takes place the nucleus stretches into the bud and is CSE off. These buds are a sea SENS or males, and may suffer 220 The Significance of Sex. {March segmentation like sperm mother-cells before being set free. The mother from which they budded is the macrogonidium, and is itself soon fertilized by a microgonidium, which is the child of another macrogonidium, c shows the first step in this conjuga- tion. The nucleus, both in the macro- and the. micro-individual, segments up into bits, oe and smaller, and the microgonidium being absorbed, its microsomata are added to the more numerous microsomata of the female. Then there is gradua fusion al the single nucleus i is reconstituted. Before this happens there may be division and budding, as in @ and 4. An exactly similar series of phenomena is described for Zpzsty/is ania Fic. 128, a-e. Conjugation of ahem pete Brit., “ Protozoa.””—This illus- trates “temporary conjugation.” æ is a normal individual; å, two united for sexual ends. The nucleus and paranucleus divide successively, the former into eS the —_— a kow _ and bce they fuse Do ay parey oaiae in e; REDE pa icle eus, functions of the nucleus. The individuals separate and couse asexual tere This is probably an incomplete account of what happens. There is much co! about this ill-understood process, but we must assume that there is nee airc of microsomata between the two individuals in harmony with some observations, and thus bring this process into line with what we know happens in ai other cases of fer- tilization. (See text for further discussion.) IG. 129. Fertilization of egg of Bat—Van Beneden and Julin, A. B., i.— two pronuclei are seen each in a vesicle lying in a clear space in the vitellus and in proximity to each other. Fic. 130, a—g. Fertilization of ovum sad ee eer A. m. A., xx.—In @ we see a large fi ronucleus in the egg. In ġ each has been crowned by an aster. The male pronucleus now moves towards and fuses with the female pronucleus (c). The chromatin of the male pronucleus may split as in d, but soon all the chromatin of the fertilized nucleus is transformed into a segmented “skein” (e). At the same time polar asters appear, whose rays drive the segments to the equator (/), where they arrange themselves a regular plate, split, and pass to the poles, there constituting the daughter-nuclei, one of which is shown at g, still crowned by its aster. Fic. 131, a-b. “ Genetic blending” of Dallingeria drysdali—J. R. M. S., April, 1886.—We may suppose the form with one flagellum, large nucleus, and granular zone to be female ; then the form with three flagella and small nucleus is mal i nuclei and bodies fuse to one individual, and then the nucleus is dissolved, and the cell is encysted, finally to burst, as myriads of spores, scarce visible under fifteen thousand diameters magnificati Fic. 132, a-d. Fertilization r S in Orchis latifolia—Strasburger, Befruch- _ so ea animale ore , Jena, 1884; see also Jen. Zeits., xi—Two | sorts of nuclei, “ germinative’” and “ vepar are found in the pollen-grain and and these may multiply by karyokinesis. The former alone act as male pro- l sitll, eek Whee thet more than one, the first one to make a egg 1887] The Significance of Sex. 221 clei at the other end (s’) are the antipodal cells. In æ the male pronucleus has en- tered the ovum. In å the two have fused, but the nucleoli are still separate. In c the nucleoli are one; and in d the first segmentation spindle of the embryo is formed. fits 133. A segmentation spindle from the egg of Aulostomum gulo—Nussbaum, . m. A., xxvi.—To show the direct continuity of spindle-fibres with the yelk retic- aa (d) FERTILIZATION. aen fecundation, copulation, conjugation, zy- gosis, are Some of the terms used indiscriminately when referring to the fusion of sexual elements. We may refer to the Jusion of nuclei, or of cells; or simply to the apposition of cells, or of individuals for sexual purposes. We shall use the term con- Jugation always in the former sense and copulation always in the latter. Thus we shall use the term copulation where other writers say “temporary conjugation.” Conjugation of cells when not followed by conjugation of the nuclei produces plasmodia; we might u$e the term zygosis when fusion of the nuclei is involved. Polyspermy is where more than one male cell fuses with a female cell; and superfecundation implies, or should imply, the conjuga- tion of more than two nuclei to form one zygote. We need one term more, and that is where, in polyspermy, the female nucleus segments by stenosis to furnish a partner for each of the male nuclei. For this case we would suggest the term mu/tifecunda- tion. The modern theory of fertilization dates from the birth of the cell theory, when Kolliker extended its scope by advancing the view that the spermatozoon is a cell, and that it fertilizes the egg by a fusion with its substance, as against the theory that it was the fluid portion of the semen which holds the impregnating power. This view was not established until 1847, although Barry had seen the spermatozoon penetrate the ovum in 1843. It was now possible to compare fertilization with the conjugation which successive years of study continued to discover in the dif- -ferent groups of plants and animals, but with this line of devel- opment we are not here concerned. In 1827, Baer described as maturation of the ovum the changes which the egg nucleus suffers, and Purkinje three years later _ named this nucleus the germinal vesicle, because it bursts and lets out its “generating lymph” through the germ. Attention was first called to the polar globules by Dumortier, and Müller named them direction corpuscles in 1848, because he thought they fixed 222 The Significance of Sex. [March the plane of cleavage. It was in 1862 that Robin gave them the name they now usually bear. In 1842, Bischoff saw the germinal vesicle expelled from the egg during maturation, and this was confirmed by other observers, and thus the idea that the polar globules were the extruded ger- minal vesicle was gradually established. In 1853, Keber discovered the micropyle, and the theory o actual penetration of spermatozoa into the egg thus received more favor, speculations concerning the functions of the sperma- tozoon became more numerous. Bischoff held the katalytic theory, by which molecular motion was supposed imparted to the egg through the spermatozoon. Meissner thought it was a nutriment, others thought it served to help maturation, and thus for a long time the formation of polar globules was supposed to depend on fertilization. The independence of these phenoment was shown in 1875 by Hertwig. The penetration of more than one spermatozoon was seen by several observers, and it was only gradually that the idea gained ground that normally but one spermatozoon enters the egg. Perez thought, in 1879, that there may be degrees of partheno- genesis, so that if this is strong in tendency, it does not take as many spermatozoa to saturate the ovum as if weak. The next step was the discovery of the sexual pronuclei. The male pronucleus (so termed by Fol) was first seen by Weil in 1873, but its direct morphological connection with the head of a spermatozoon was first established by Hertwig in 1875. Hert- wig also showed that the whole germinal vesicle was not ex- truded in the polar globules, but that the germinal dot remained to be transformed into the female pronucleus, which fused with the male pronucleus. Auerbach had seen these pronuclei fuse, but supposed they originated in opposite poles of the egg, and by uniting, the characters of the different hemispheres of the egg would be mixed. Beneden and Bütschli practically saw the same thing bie, but likewise derived these bodies by endoge- nous formation. Fol was, however, successful in seeing the female pronucleus derived from the amphiaster which extruded the polar globule ; but it remained for Hertwig, in 1877, to show that the polar bo dies arise , an sie ian tlie kneiadegie Of the fomai pror i and Giard arrived at this result independently . arise by a true karyokinetic division of the 1887] The Significance of Sex. 223 Then Whitmann was enabled to give what we consider as the true theory of the polar globules,—viz., that they represent an asexual generation of cells that once were functional. Beneden, Minot, and Balfour carried this view so far as to say that the polar globules are male cells. Thus, that every cell is hermaphrodite, having male and female plasmas, and that the cells become sexed by extruding one of these plasmas. It can then no longer develop until it has fused with a cell containing _ plasma opposite in character to itself. The absence of polar globules in any instance does not disprove the theory, for this plasm may be gotten rid of in many different ways. But this theory has lately received its death-blow by the discovery of polar globules in parthenogenetic ova. Strasburger has modi- fied the theory by his idea that the nucleo-hyaloplasm is primary idioplasm, while the cytohyaloplasm is secondary; the former is conservative, the latter is adaptive. Cell phenomena are due to a dynamic interaction of the two. Two nuclei may be alike, but because the cytoplasms differ the cells will develop in a different manner. Cells become sexually mature, therefore, by getting rid, by division or any other way, of certain constituents in the cyto- plasm.? Weismann says that these constituents are histogenic plasm,—z.¢., plasm which belongs to the cell as a cell,—and when this is lost then the plasm, which represents the generation of tissue-cells to come from the segmenting egg, ‘may develop. A view similar in some respects was advocated by Robin in 1875. It is strange how many different bodies, having not the slight- est homology, have been appealed to to prove the sexual nature of protoplasm. Every sort of paranucleus has been worked into line with this theory. We have already adverted to the fact that paranuclei are themselves very different bodies. Thus, in Fig. 49, Gaule’s paranucleus can be homologous only with the germi- nal dot of the (parthenogenetic) ovum; for from it the new cell develops, while the old nucleus goes to the ground. Besides paranuclei other things have been supposed to represent the lost sexed protoplasm, such as canal-cells, perivitelline excretions, _ 1 Bütschli said the polar globules are to be considered as the first stages of de- _ The idea of Fol is that certain substances injurious to further development must * be excreted. This is only a general statement of the fact that cells must i a certain cycle of work before they are sexually mature, most commonly a certain number of divisions. a 224 The Significance of Sex. [March synergid-cells, follicle-cells, nutritive cells, seminal granules, “ re- mains” (“ Rest”) of protoplasm in spore formations, and, in fact, any sort of excretion and secretion. Trouble arises in explain- ing cases where more than one of these modes coexist. Thus, Sabatier holds that in gametogenesis one cell buds off a number of cells, which become nutritive to the mother-cell, in the ovary ; while in the testes the daughter-cells develop to spermatozoa at the expense of the mother-cell. Such a theory as this cannot possibly be universally applied, and does not explain polar glob- ules. Our knowledge of sex has developed by two steps more. Beneden showed in ascaris that the two pronuclei are just alike, each containing two loops that are placed in order in one equa- torial plate in the zygote, and split as in ordinary karyokinesis, to furnish the two daughter-nuclei. (See Fig. 124, 0.) In the latter the four loops reappear as a result of the process of reconstruc- tion, so that Beneden thought that each daughter-nucleus had still two male and two female loops; and thus every cell of the body may be considered hermaphrodite, having the chromatins of the two sexes in morphologically distinct structures; and finally, when any cell becomes sexually mature, all that happens is a cell-division at right angles to the ordinary cell-division, thus separating the male from the female chromatin. But this theory is very faulty, for in the first place the phenomena of karyoki- nesis have as one object the mixture of the chromatins, and we know that this is accomplished in one phase or other somewhere between two successive divisions. Then, secondly, the chroma- tin derived from the spermatozoon possesses the characters of its ancestry, both: male and female; if this be lost the characters which fertilization has bestowed are lost; and as this loss occurs with every generation, how could there ever be an accumulation of characters?* Only through the idea that chromatin is sexed can such grave errors as this arise. Platner (see Fig. 126) fur- nished an important contribution when he showed that in Arion the number of microsomata derived from the male pronucleus is less than a fourth as great as that of the microsomata in the female pronucleus. Thus the two pronuclei bear the relation of 1 Strasburger holds that the contributions of the ancestors in each fertilization eae ae in Set ports: of the mitom: Roux, in a somewhat analogous ponds oh a eee ee o re 1887] The Significance of Sex. 225 macrogonidia and microgonidia to each other. In Limax the microsomata are approximately equal in number in the two pro- nuclei; and as the result, so far as fertilization is concerned, is the same in the two animals, we must believe that the pronuclei need not be morphologically equal. It has been said that the two parents furnish equal contributions of hereditary characters be- cause the chromatin is alike in amount in the two pronuclei. But this assumes that quality depends on quantity. We cannot accept this notion. We believe the quality of the chromatin inheres in the nature of each gemmule, that the gemmules are nearly alike, and that the quantity of chromatin may readily be increased by the multiplication of the gemmules. Such multiplication may take place in the male pronucleus before fusion because of the nutri- tive conditions furnished by the yelk. Even if it did not increase in this way, it might happen that the reproductive vigor of the fertilizing gemmules is so great that during ontogeny they would at last outnumber the ovum gemmules. We do not know whether characters are realized in proportion to the number of the gemmules, or whether it depends on the strength of the gemmules, or, again, on some dynamic influence reciprocally acting between the gemmules. In the last supposition we might have each gemmule possessing a system of vibrations whose wave-form could be slightly altered by the proximity of differing systems ; and that, finally, equilibrium being established, it would require a new fertilization to introduce a new variation. It would also be intelligible how gametes may develop parthenogeneti- cally before fusion is accomplished where only the preliminary steps to such end have been taken. Finally, such variation could be effected by other means than by fertilization. Under the first supposition we could understand how, if cell- division should not succeed in separating the gemmules in due proportions, we might get cells that had a preponderance of gemmules of one ancestor, and the parts of the body developed from the offspring of these cells would present the characters of one parent to the exclusion of the other. But we defer the discussion of this point to the subject of heredity. Strasburger claims that fertilization is effected by the fusion of similar parts in two cells, cytoplasm with cytoplasm, nucleus with nucleus, and nucleolus with nucleolus. But in phanerogams it is only nuclei that migrate from the pollen-tube to fuse with 226 The Significance of Sex. [ March the egg, and in many animals it is only the head of the sperma- tozoon that makes the male pronucleus, the greater part of the flagellum not even getting into the yelk, so that we are justified in believing that fertilization is essentially a phenomenon of the mixture of chromatins. e cannot speak even of the union of “half nuclei” to make a whole nucleus, nor say that the nuclei are morphologically alike, nor yet that they are the complements of each other in any way. That the sexual pronuclei are physio- logically alike we may infer from the fact that the characters of both parents are equally well transmitted, and from the fact that we may get both male and female parthenogenesis, which latter statement receives its best support from the evidence afforded by polyspermy and by the behavior of unfertilized eggs. We know that, aside from differences in size or in locomotor organs and other secondary characters, gamete may differ physiologi- cally in this way: in one, which we usually call the male, or mi- crogamete, there has been a greater number of cell-divisions than in the female gamete, but in the latter we may, by enforced par- thenogenesis, secure just as many divisions, and so make the cells alike. But neither of the gametes have divided as many times as they can, for it is possible, though more difficult than with the ovum, to get male parthenogenesis. The offspring thus resulting are more sexed, have greater desire as well as need for fusion with other cells, especially cells that have not divided as much as themselves. Unless we give such cells easy conditions of life we reach a stage when they can no longer divide. Such facts as these, observed with spores and the proto- organisms, enable us to understand certain phenomena obtaining with fertilization in higher forms of life. We should expect that in most cases the ovum would possess a tendency to segmentation, which is realized normally under con- ditions of easy nutrition in parthenogenetic development, but may be realized in a less degree with other eggs. As a matter of fact there have been a number of observations in widely different groups of animals that show a sort of irregular segmentation of unfertilized eggs. I have observed such cases not infrequently. Such segmentation is slow and irregular, and probably cannot pro- _ ceed as far as normal is. Pane phat nsieecteasie = a 1887] : The Significance of Sex. 227 fertilized eggs. But this phenomenon has not received the at- tention it deserves. In polyspermy we find that not only does the female nucleus form an amphiaster, either alone or by zygosis, with one male nucleus, but that the male nuclei left unconjugated also form amphiasters. This phenomenon was first studied by Fol, 1879, but Hertwig has just published an article fully illustrating these forms. If more than one spermatozoon conjugates with the female nucleus it develops a tetraster (sometimes a triaster), or a figure having a greater number of poles according to the num- ber of spermatozoa fusing. It results that segmentation follows a series whose terms are multiples of the normal one. But this only when there are no free spermatozoa in the yelk, for in such a case each of these also segments and receives its bud of cyto- plasm, thus making the segmentation of the egg irregular. When the nuclei fuse before the spindle is formed, the number of spindles seems to depend on the number of nuclei. (This may be doubtful, as the poles seem to be determined by asters independently arising in the yelk, which migrate to the nuclei and direct their transformation.) But the amphiasters and the more complex tetrasters, etc., may also unite among themselves, re- gardless of sex, by superposition of poles, thus building up complex figures that may be as regular as a dodecahedron. The result is the fusion of daughter-nuclei of diverse origins. It follows, therefore, that the spermatic nuclei after one segmentation have an affinity for each other. Hertwig found further, that the nuclei resulting from the segmentation of pronuclei became fused again, but whether there was subsequent division and normal development remains an obscure question. The male nuclei also form triasters and tetrasters which cannot be distinguished from those made by the female pronucleus; but it is possible that in these cases multifecundation has taken place. Besides Fol and Hertwig, polyspermy has been studied by Bergh and Horst, 1881, and by Strasburger in phanerogams; Salenka and Schneider report normal development as following polyspermy ; but this subject also requires further study. Another line of study has been followed by Hertwig. It is well known that certain nuclei which are not too closely nor too distantly related to each other are prepotent in zygosis above ag a = am mn afi foi VOL. XXI.—NO. 3. 228 The Significance of Sex. [March spermatozoa. By letting the eggs lie a long time in impure water Hertwig has so weakened this resistance as to effect hybridization between forms not ordinarily capable of being thus hybridized. But as he got results closely similar with unfertilized eggs and also with eggs where polyspermy of its own species took place, and furthermore, that polyspermy ensued in these cases of enforced hybridization, we must be cautious in our inferences. To leave eggs a long time unfertilized, instead of developing the tendency to fuse with any partner, ought rather to develop the opposite or parthenogenetic tendency. Strasburger thinks superfecunda- tion arises when the gametes are not sexually mature. But here again we have no thorough knowledge of the facts. Spermatozoa have also been seen to penetrate the polar globules, which is not remarkable, as we know that these are (when the first globule has divided again) the counterparts of the female pronucleus; but Hertwig found that the spermatozoa penetrate any globule of extruded yelk (whether it has a nucleus or not) when artificially pressed out through a riftin the egg membrane. Probably, then, the attraction of the spermatozoa is for the nutriment, or for the cytoplasm, and the nuclear attraction arises later in accordance with other laws. We see from this survey that sex in its primary sense, as in- hering in the nucleus, or perhaps in Strasburger’s sense as due to a peculiar stimulus of the cytoplasm upon the unsexed nucleus, sex is not an absolute condition but admits of degrees, is, in fact, a want, a hunger, which the cells may experience in different degrees. How the mixture of different characters confers vigor to cell-division we cannot explain. Perhaps we would be more general if we said that fertilization consists in broadening cell-_ education. Hence parasites that are cells of one idea do not need it to any extent. At present we cannot see how it is possible to explain it on physical principles. It is, however, only a confes- sion of ignorance to refer the problem of heredity to the domain of psychology; we have explained nothing in so doing. tozoa—Here the phenomena of fertilization are very ated: In the lower flagellates more than two cells may fuse; and polyzygosis has been observed also in Actinophrys and Arcella. We meh with Lankester, also place in this catagoiy 3: ‘ ; ce Sg T 1887] The Significance of Sex. A 229 be a fusion of nuclei to a greater or a less extent before spore multiplication; and the same thing happens with multinucleated forms like Gastrostyla, Actinophrys, and Actinospherium. Multi- nucleated cells are not separated from plasmodia by any distinct line, for in Heliozoa, Greeff found that division of the cell is facul- tative and optional, following the nuclear division, and if it occurs, the cell-bodies are apt to fuse again. In low forms of Protozoa conjugation also is as facultative as with those protophyta, where both male and female parthenogenesis have been noticed. We may get conjugation between ordinary zooids, or one of the gametes may be a microgonidium while the other, not having divided so fast, remains as a macrogonidium. Again, the gametes may be due to spore formation; and here, again, the spores may be alike or unlike, and conjugation may be between like spores, or may be between macrospores and microspores. If the con- ditions of life are equal, the more often the cell-division has taken place the stronger is the desire and need of conjugation, so that where macrospores are parthenogenetic, microspores may be gametes. That this need of conjugation does not depend on the small quantity of idioplasm present may be gathered from two facts : first, when spore formation succeeds conjugation the re- sulting spores are smaller and more numerous than if parthen- ogenetically produced, but whereas the latter are apt to be gametes the former grow with vigor and multiply rapidly; secondly, where cell-multiplication allows time for the cell to grow as in ordinary gonidia, gametes are just as apt to form. In spore formation the microspores are not gametes more often than the macrospores because they are small, but because they have undergone division more frequently. In forms where both gonidial and sporular gametes occur, a failure to conjugate in _ the gonidial stage insures conjugation of the spores, while the occurrence of conjugation in the gonidial stage insures sporular parthenogenesis. The Vorticellz enable us to understand that fertilization has to do with quality of the gemmules and not with the number of these present. Two zooids which have resulted from the repeated division of a mother-zygote and standing near each other bend together and conjugate. But others just like these bud off a piece off the nucleus with some of the cytoplasm, and this goes swimming away until it finds the appropriate gamete (a macro- * t 230 ; The Significance of Sex. [March gonidium) with which to fuse. As the chance of cross-fertiliza- tion is greater in proportion to the number of these microgonidia, they have acquired the habit of dividing a few times after their separation from the macrogonidium before starting out on their search for partners. Here, as with Arion, a small quantity only of the idioplasm is needed to effect fertilization. We do not contend that there may not be some advantage in starting with a large quantity of idioplasm, but we do call attention to the. fact that, compared with the vigor due to the mixture of idioplasms of diverse experience, such advantage becomes quite secondary. We may now pass to the consideration of the phenomena of copulation. The simplest cases join easily on to the case last . considered. When the bud from the nucleus is not carried away y cell-division it may still be transferred to the interior of another cell, if. such cell be brought with an aperture close to a corresponding aperture of its own cell. When the nuclear bud is produced at the time of the fertilization, Engelmann terms the metz “ periodic hermaphrodites” (so far as this implies sex it is a misleading term). When, however, the nuclear bud remains as a permanent endoplastule and does not conjugate with the endo- plast, except perhaps for a brief period in connection with fertili- zation, after which it is immediately budded off again to form the endoplastule, then Engelmann calls such a cell a “ permanent hermaphrodite.” In some cases the whole reproductive function may have passed over to the endoplastule, so that this never con- jugates with the endoplast, but rather by its own division builds up the latter when this disintegrates. Periodic hermaphrodites are Stentor, Spirostoma, and Trachelius; while permanent her- maphrodites are Stylonychia, Euplotes, and Paramcecium. ulation is most frequent with the Ciliata, but has been ob- served in Peridinium and in one-chambered Rhizopods. An al- ternation of copulation with conjugation occurs in Stylonychia and in Platoum (Troglodytes). See Gabriel. ~ In connection with conjugation and copulation there is in all the higher forms a segmentation of the nucleus, or of the endo- plast and endoplastule respectively. The last leads in the di- vision, car stiri engi era Sri eng eh _The 1887} = The Significance of Sex. 231 structure, Possibly it does not get thoroughly mixed with the nuclear idioplasm in a molecular or rather gemmular intimacy, but as this process of segmentation and fusion is repeated for each division, there is no reason to suppose that after a while this may not be attained. Thus it is that every cell-division is a ferti- lization. In the conjugation of Stylonychia, there is a fusion of nuclei with nuclei across the body, first uniting the nuclei of the two gametes; and then the anterior nucleus (zygote) fuses with the posterior one, after which the two nuclei are reconstituted. Possi- bly, Engelmann says, the nucleoli (endoplastules) do likewise. In copulation of Stylonychia there is segmentation of the nuclei and probably of the nucleoli, but Engelmann was unable to observe any transfer of material between the gametes. The nu- clear fragments fuse to one body and bud off the nucleoli, but here there is disagreement, for in another case it seemed as if the nuclear products were extruded (Bütschli), the nucleoli be- came four in number, one disappeared, two became the new nucleoli, and the fourth, dividing, formed the endoplasts. In copulation of Anoplophrya, Schneider could not observe ` any exchange of nucleoli, but the nuclei sent processes into the apposed cell, which became budded off mutually and fused with the remnant of the original nucleus to form a new nucleus, while the nucleolus came from one of the four segments into which the nucleolus divided; the other three disappeared. In Paramecium, the endoplastule and the endoplast get segmented, the former usually into four, the latter into many, granules. Then there is a fusion of the fragments, but-as to how this is done, and as to whether there is any mutual interchange of idio- plasm, is a question which has received a dozen different answers, Greeff thought the nucleolus was a semen capsule and the nu- cleus an ovary. The “eggs” that came from the “ ovary” being fertilized, developed to living embryos viviparously. Stein called that part of the nucleus which remained after budding off eggs the “ placenta,” Balbiani, that the eggs were laid, and Engelmann also, with many other early observers, held views of a similar nature, according to which we had here a true hermaphodite, Engelmann subsequently modified his views to some extent, but Bütschli attempted to bring the phenomena into line with his observations on tissue-cells, and so he held that the nucleus is — 232 The Significance of Sex. [March extruded, due to fertilization, and a new nucleus arises endoge- nously, and this is rejuvenescence. In 1882, Balbiani showed that there was an interchange of nucleoli; and Jickeli, in 1884, saw two nucleoli in the act of passing each other across the line separating the gametes. Lankester could find no interchange, but said that a portion of the segments of both bodies are lost, the remaining ones fuse to constitute the new nucleus and nucle- olus, but with reversed functions. (See Fig. 128.) ' Maupas, in 1886, said all the products of the nucleolus are lost except one; this divides, and one daughter remains and one crosses to the other gamete to fuse with the stay-at-home over there. The resulting zygotes segment to eight daughters; of these, three are absorbed, four become nuclei, and the eighth, after repeated divisions accompanying cell-division, becomes four nucleoli. The old nucleus is absorbed. Plate, in the same year, saw no interchange, but did see two nucleoli in apposition with a wall between. Gruber, however, saw the same thing, but no wall between, so that there was a chance for some interchange of sub- stance. There was no fusion, however, for the nucleo-gametes separated and returned to divide into four. Gruber thinks the “ stay-at-home” nucleolus acted in a similar way, for eight nucleoli result, and four of these fuse to form a new nucleus, the other four fuse to make a new nucleolus. Truly, when such eminent observers disagree, who can decide ? For our present purposes it is sufficient to know that there is an interchange in this case as in all others of fertilizing material, and that this is mutual and reciprocal. We cannot here, as did the older observers, speak of male and female idioplasm. That the functions of the endoplast are different from those of the endoplastule is evident, but Weismann’claims that the reproduc- tive plasma is restricted to the latter, while the former has only histogenic plasm. Thus, from a survey of fertilization in its rela- tion to the nuclear phenomena, have we been enabled to get pretty clear notions of the significance of sex. But our morpho- logical inquiry would not be complete did we not study the various methods of cell reproduction and observe the relations of these to the Tena of gaet Several of the lows 1887] The Significance of Sex. 233 Briefly, then, in conclusion, we have shown that the phenom- . ena of life are the manifestation of forces that are organized, . by being in some way connected with an ultimate unit, which unit, by multiplying and differentiating, forms units of a higher order; and these units repeat the same process, and so we get higher and higher units capable of a more complex life. Only in this way is organic life connected with inorganic life. A series of discrete degrees separates such life, as we study with the lens, from the substances with which the chemist deals. We can study the higher stadia morphologically, and only by analogy do we guess concerning the nature of the lower. We find the cell a reticu- lum of hyaloplasm holding microsomata in its nodes as nuclei. We find the soma of a metazoon likewise a reticulum in which the cell is the unit. As in the body, all cells come from embry- onic or germinal cells, all traceable back to a single egg, so in the cell, all the differentiated gemmules, or micelle, or tagmata* are descended from nuclear idioplasm, which is itself due to the multiplication of a single gemmule. Finally, we find that cell phenomena are accompanied by fusion or mixture of idioplasms that have had diverse experiences, and in some way the cell-life is thereby invigorated. Sex has been evolved as the means of effecting such fusions. The distinction of male and female has arisen comparatively late and is coupled with very secondary characters. We have seen that half a dozen different structures are present in the cell, and that those in the spermatozoon are transformed into the different parts of its structure. Undoubtedly in the metamorphosis of all tissue-cells these structures play a part. If we could see which of these structures preponderates in a given tissue or organ, we could infer that the function of this part is similar in the cell to the function of the tissue in the soma. Gaule’s work on the cytozoan, or paranucleus, which can wan- der from cell to cell, and on which the cell-life depends, is yet too little known to be criticised. We may expect fuller details when Gaule has completed his researches. 1 The ferments such as zymogen, etc., which are lower in the scale of organiza- tion than the bacteria, seem to come in somewhere near the plane occupied by the gemmule ; but their relation to the latter is probably at present beyond the scope even of a guess. 234 The Significance of Sex. [March LITERATURE BEARING ON THE SIGNIFICANCE St THE. CELL- NUCLEUS TO THE PROBLEM OF SE . The following are a few of the principal papers Taa on the subjects discussed in the preceding pages. The list does not in- clude those referred to in the text, or in the explanations of the plates. ARNOLD.—“‘ Beobachtung über Kerntheilungsfiguren in den Zellen d, Geschwulste” (Virchows Archiv, 1879); “ Beob, über Kerne u. Kerntheilung in den Zellen des Knochenmarks” (/éid., 1883). AUERBACH. oe Studien,” Breslau, 1874. Von BAER.—*“ De ovi animalium et hominis genesi,” Lipsiz, 1827. BALBIANI.—“ Note sis a Sara d'une génération iale chez les Infu- soires” (Compt. spurte Es xlvi., 1858); ‘‘Sur les phénomènes de la division du noyau cellulaire” (ġid. “ta, 1876) ; “ Les organismes unicellulaires” ( Journal de SA cttw BALFouR.—“ Development of ee ee. Fishes” ( Fournal of Anatomy sand EEE vol. x., 1876); “The Maturation and Impregnation of the (Q. F M. Sa vol. xvii., 1878). BAMBEKE,—“ aeeaiei = la constitution de l’ceuf” (4. B., BENEDEN.—“ La maturation, la fécondation, etc., de Pœuf” (Bul ne P Acad. Roy. de ye a = xli., 1875); “ Saia to the History of the Germinal Vesicle” C0. -F , Xvi., 1876) ; “ Recherches sur la maturation et fécondation” (4. os iv., I ge BiscHorr.—* Entwicklungsgeschichte des Kaninchen Eies,” 1842. LOCH .— Bemerkungen zu einem neuen Erklarungsversuch der Karyoki- nese” (Zool. Anzeiger, 100, 1882 Bower.—* Recent Researches into the Origin and Morphology of Chlorophyl Cor- 1884). RANDT.—‘‘Commentare zur Keimblaschentheorie des Eies” (4. M. A., xvii., 1880) ; “ Die Zelle als elementar Organismus” (Zool. Anzeiger, 1882). Brass.—“ Die Zelle als elementar Organismus,” 1882; “ Biologische Studien,” _ Halle, 1883. Rogert Brown.—* Organs and Modes of Fecundation in Orchidee,” etc., 1833. Reprinted by Ray Society in 1847. Brocke.—“ Die elementar Organismen” (Sitzber. Wien., 1861). Töm —* Mittheilung über die Conjugation der Infusorien und die Zelltheil- ung” (Z. w. Z., xxv., 1875); “ Studien über die ersten Entwicklungsvorgange _ der Eizelle, die Zelltheilung u. d. Conjugation d. Infusorien” (dh. d. Senckenberg. Naturf. Ges., Frankfurt, 1876). : CUNNINGHAM.—“‘ Review of Recent Researches on Karyokinesis,” etc. (Q. aes S., xxii., 1882). DUMORTIER.—“ Mémoire sur les évolutions de embryon dans les molinsġues gas- pmet Aa de l Acad. de Bruxelles, se x; 1837)- Zur Kenntniss vom Bau d: Zellkerns” (4. m. A., viii., 1872); “ Ueber _ den Bau des Zellkerns” (4. m. A., Xiv., 1877). “Ueber € ie Vielzelligkeit von Noctiluca? (Z. w. Z., xii., 1863); a prera (M. FJ = es “ The 1887] The Significance of Sex. 235 Physiology of Protoplasm ;”” Hermann’s “ Physiologie,” 1879 (Trans. in Q. F. M S., 1884). FLEMMING.—“ Die ersten Entwicklungserscheinungen am Ei der Teichmuschel” (4. m. A., X., 1874); “ Beobachtungen über die Beschaffenheit des Zellkerns’ a xiii., 1876); “ Zur gee der Zelle,” etc. (Centralblatt für Med. Wiss., XV., 1877; A. m: A., xvi., xviii., a -» 1879, 1880, 1881) ; “ Befruchtungs, étc., pu Eizelle” feiii paa iii., 1884). TT « The Nucleus of Benedenia Ha etc. hes E ns pps —*“ Ersten Entwicklung d, Geryoniden Eies” (7. Z., 1873); “Sur le dév’t Ea Pteropodes” ( sempe RARA r k)i S SAR naik et ee (vol. lxxxi., 1875) ; “ Sur division cellulaire” (vol. lxxxiii., 876); “Sur, etc., de le fécondation ;’’ ‘ = le premier dév. ’une étoile de mer ;” “ Sur pat th fécondations anormales,” etc. ao Ixxxiv., 1877); “ Re ponse à quelques objections formulées contre mes idées sur la pe aR s du zoo- e G., vi.); “ Recherches sur la fi Pala et commencem @hénogénie ches divers animaux” ren ves des Sciences Phys. et anes 1877; Mém. Soc. Phys.-Hist. Nat. de Gen 1879 FROMMANN.—* Zur Lehre von der Structur ee Zellen” (F. Z., ix., 1875); ‘ Bild- ung der Starke Körner,” ete. (Zbid., xiii., 1879); “ Structure, etc., tierische u. panache Zellen” (Zbid., xvi., 1883); “Zur Lehre von der Bildung der Mem- . pflanzlichen Zelle” (lid, xvii., 1884 Ca RIEL.—“ Unters. über Morph., Zeugung, ia Yotrwickinng d. Protozoen” (Trog- lodytes) (M. F., i-, 1875). GauLE.—* Kerntheilung in Pankreas” (4. 4. P., 1880); “‘ Die Beziehung der > tozoen zu der Zellkernen” (Zdid., 1881); “‘ Nebenkerne und Cytozoen” (Central. Jj. Med, Wiss., 1881); see also Biol. Ctb., 1886, and F.. R. M. S., Pecat, 1886. GEDDES.—“‘ Contributions to Eats Cell Theory” (Anzeiger, 1883); see also articles “ Reproduction” and “ Sex” in Encyclopedia B ee “ Nature and Function of the Yellow Cells of Radiolarians,” etc. (Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh, 1882). GIARD.—“ Sur la fécondation des Echale” (Compt. Rend., tome 1xxxv., 1877). GILson.—‘** PES comparées de la AP eE chez les Arthropodes’ (Za E b, —“ ease der Unke,” 1875. bier “ Beob. über die Fortpflanzung von Infusorien’”’ (Sitzd. d. Unterrheinische Ges., Bonn, 1868). GROBBEN.—“ ‘Evian - oo (Ard. aus Z. Inst., Wien, 1879) ; see AMER. NATURALIST, xiv. GRUBER.—“ Die Theilung von eae te w. Z., xxxv.); “ Theilung bei mono- xviii., ; ; 1885); “ Die Konjugations Process bei Paramecium aurelia” (Bericht d. Natf. Ges. Freiburg, ii. 2 1886); 3 see wne Z. w. “> xl. and and xli. GUIGNARD.—“ Sur lad h papii 1883; seealso Am. Sc, Nat., xvii., 1884). —“ Spermatogenése chez Ascaris” (Compt. Rend., i., 98, 1 1884). EA. — Untersuchungen über Protoplasma” (Theil i, and ii. in Sitsd. Akad. Wiss., Wien, i., 67, Abth. iii.; and iii., iv., and v., in t. lxviii., 1873). végétaux” ( Fourn. de Micro- 236 The Significance of Sex. [March HENNEGUY.—“ On the Existence of Polar Globules in the Crustacean Ovum” (Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., vi., 5th ser., HENSEN.—* Physiologie der siege? Hermann’s “ Physiologie,” vol. vi., 188 O. HErtTwic.—* ao zur Kenntniss der Bildung, Befruchtung und Theilung der tierischen Eies” (M. F, i., 1875; iii., 1877; iv., 1878 (R. Hertwig); “ Beitr. z. hseteeaesine a über die Bedingungen der Bastardbefruchtung” (Jéid., xix., 885); “Ueber = Befruchtung d. tierischen Eies unter Einfluss äusseren Agen- hae (Ibid., xx HEUSER. —““ Beobach hng über Zellkerntheilung” (Botanische Centralblatt, TE Hıs.—Unters. über d. Entwicklung von Knochenfische (Zeitschr. f. Anat. u. Ent- ee 1., 1876). Horst.— La fécondation et la développement de l’Hermella alveolata ;” see Carie s Jahresbericht, 1881 HYATT.—*“ Larval Theory of the Origin of Cellular Tissues” (Proc. Bost. Soc., xxiii., 1884). Von Jen — “ Befruchtung u. Furchung des thierischen Eies,” etc. Leipzig, 18 pow — “ Ueber d. Kernverhidltniss d. Infusorien” (Anzeiger, 1884). KLEIN.—* Obs. on Structure of Cells and Nuclei” (O. F M. S., xviii. and xix., KLEINENBERG,—* ia ete fice: 1872. KOLLIKER.—“ Ueber d. ersten Vorgänge im befruchteten Ei” (Arch. Sf. Anat. u. Phys. u. Wiss. Med., 1843); “ Die Bedeutung der Zellenkerne f. die Vo: orginge der E Vererbung” (Z. w. Z., xlii., 1885); see also AMER. NATURALIST, 1885, p Koksi — Ueber Geschlechtliche Fortpflanzung der Infusorien” (Kosmos, 1886, 43 Kupvecs: —‘ Ueber Differenzirung des Protoplasma,” etc. (Schriften d. Naturw. Verein, Schleswig-Holstein, i. 1875); “ a active Betheilung des Dotters am Befru TESEN etc. (Sitzb. München aaa “ Zeugung” (Wagner’s “ Handbanrinch des Physiologie,” 1853). —“ Maturation Fecundation, and Segmentation of Limax cam campestris” (Bull. sila Zool. Harvard, vi., 12 MARTIN.—“ Zur etude d. tidiekiei Zelltheilung” (Virchows Archiv, Band Ixxxvi., 1886). Maupas.—* Division of Semier le (Arch. Zool. Expt., i. 1883); “Sur la conjugaison des Infusoires ciliés” (Compt. Rend., 1886 MAYZEL.—“ Beitr. z Z. Lehre v. d. Paeilangsvoreang as Zellkerns” (Hoffmann’ á . of Cunchution” (Proc. Soc. Bost. Nat. Hist., 1879). MEISSNER.—* Beo. über das Eindringung der Samenzelle in san Dotter” (E Ze vi., 1854): . MULLER. —“ Zur Rania d. Furchungs-process,” ete. (Archiv f. Naturge- ‘sehiolés, xiv., 1848). 1887] The Significance of Sex. 237 —‘ Ueber d. Befruchtungserscheinungen im Ei der Neunaugen”’ Cor ys. Ok. Ges. Königsberg, 1864 UNK.—“ Ei und Samenbildung und Belnuchtung bei Nematoden” (Z. w. Z., ix., 105 NussrAvm. — Zur Differenzirung d. Geschlechts im Thierreichs” (A. m. A., xviii. 1880); r die Bau und Thätigkeit d. Drüsen” (Zbid., 1882); “ Veränderung d. A a bis zur Eifurchung” (Zbid., xxiii., 1884 oc ea —“ Beiträge z. Entwicklungsgeschichte der Kinochenfache” Z. 872); “ Die Arison des unbefruchteten Keimes des Esato aan ”” ete: ia: xxii; 1872 PEREZ.—‘* Hécherch. sur les phénom. qui précèdent la segmentation,” etc. ( Four. Anat. et Phys., xv PFITZNER.—“ Bee PHA e vom Bau des Zellkerns” (4. m. A., xxii., 1883). PFLÜGER.—“ Einfluss d. Schwerkraft auf d. Theilung d. Zelle” (Archiv fe Phys., 1883); “ Untersuchung. über Bastardirung” PLATNER.—“ Die a ess bei den Lejidoptirea” (Internat. Monatschrift f. Anat. u. Fist., 1886, iii. Heft 1 - PRIESTLEY.—“ Recent Raai hr on ‘thse Nuclei of Cells” (Q. F. M.S., xvi., 1876). PURKINJE.—*“ Symbolæ ad ovi avium historiam ante incubationem.” Lipsiz, open UBER.—“ Thiere und Pflanzen” (Anzeiger, 1881) ; “ Karyokinetischen Process bei erhöhten u. verminderten Atmosphaerische Druck ;” * Ueber die Bedeutung de ersten Furchung,” 1884. REICHERT.—“ Beitr. z. Entwickl. d. Samenkörperchen bei Nematoden” (Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys. u. Med., 1847). EMAK.—* Unt ntersuchungen iiber d. Entwickl. z hi ease ” Berlin, 1855. 1882. RINDFLEISCH.—“ Ueber die organische es i chow’ Archiv, 1883). Rosin.—* Mém. sur les phénom. qui passent dans l’ovule avant la segmentation” ( Four. de la Phys. v., 1862). Roux.—* Ueber die cas der Kerntheilung,” 1883. SARASIN.—* Reifung u. Furchung d. ie Sg Centralblatt, 1884). SCHÄFER.—“ Structure of the Animal Cell” (Brit. Med. Journal, 1883). SCHLEICHER.—* Die Knorpeltheilung” (4. m. A xvi., 187 ai ScHLEIDEN.—* Beitr. z. Phytogenesis” (Miller's Archiv f. Anat. u. Phys., 1838). SCHMITZ.—“ Beob. über die vielkernigen Zellen der Sonesta” ‘hci Natf. Ges. Halle, 1879). SCHNEIDER.—“ Untersuchungen über Platthelminthen’’ ganna Oberhess. Ges. J. Natur. ü. Heilkiinde, 1873); “ Ueber Befruchtung” (Anzeiger, 1880) ; “ Das Ei u. seine Befruchtung” (see Carus’s Sabihirkie 1884); Conjugation of OB THA circulans ergs 28 Rend., i., 100, 188 SCHWAN icroscopical A s on Structure ‘and Growth of Animals and vann ;” orig. in oi n 1847. STEIN.—“ Ueber die Auta Fortpflanzung der Infusorien” (Abh. d. K. Böhm. Ges., X., 1858). STRASBURGER.—* Zellbildung u. Korem A 1875, 1876, 1880; “Studien über Protoplasma” ( Y. Z., xi.) ; “ Ueber Befruchtung u. cas (Lbid., xi., 1877) ; ; **Bau u: Wechsthans d. Bie me 1882; naan organg. d. Zellkerne’ (A. m. = xxi., 1882); “ Die Kontroversen der a Kernteilung”’ (Ilid, xxiii., ie ai —“ Beob. über d. Entstehung der Kern,” 1877. 238 The Taconic Question Restated. [March — Kern u: Zelltheilung bei Bildung d. Pollen,” etc.; “ Kerntheilung in Senay (Sitst. Wien., 1882) ; “ Zur Lehre von d. Continuität des Protoplasm” (Zéid., 1884). Tor6K.—* Ueber die Rolle der Dotterplatchen beim Aufbau d. Gewebe,” 1874. TREUB.—* Quelques recherches sur le rôle du noyau dans la division des cellules végétaux” (Akad. v. Wetenschap. Amsterdam, xix., 1879). TSCHISTIAKOFF.—‘ Beitr. z. Physiologie d. Doede (Bot. Zeitung, xxxiii., 1875). Uskorr.—* Zur Bedeutung der brons (A. m. A., xxi., 1882). VALETTE.—“ Ueber d. Keimfleck u. die Deutung d. Eitheile”’ oi m. A., ii., 1866). VINES.—Article “ Repraditon” (regetebie)s in Encyc, Brit. WALDEYER.—“ Eierstock und 1870. ETY —“ Ueb. yas u. Entwickl. d. Embryos bei Gasteropoden” (Bul. Soc. Imp. d. Naturalistes Moscou, xxiii., 1850). WEIL.—“ Ueber d. ina. Entwickl. d. Kaninchen Eies ;’’ see Hoffmann and Schwalbe WitissmaNn. —“ Beitr. z. Kennt. d. ersten Entwickl. Vorgang im Insecten Ei.” Ronn, 1882. WHITMANN.—* ee of Clepsine” (Q. F M. S., xviii., 1878). WIELOWIEJsKI.—* Das Keimblaschen Stadium d. Gesce Kern” (Anzeiger, Vii., 188 5)- ZACHARIAS.—* Ueber Eiweiss, Nuclein u. Plastin” (Bot. Zeits., 1884). ZALEWSKI.—“ Ueber Theilung d. Pollenmutter Zellen bei tiaa" (Kosmos, 1881). ZELLER.—Obs. on Opalina (Z. w. Z., xxxix., 1883). NoTE.—The substance of what has been published under the head of Significance of Sex was Goit delivered as part of a series of lectures in the spring of 1886, from random notes. In preparing the article for publication I have added historical matter and the latest literature, but the plates having been first prepared, do not con- tain, as they otherwise would, some of the instructive figures which accompanied this later literature. Jouns Hopxins UNIveErsity, March, 1887. THE TACONIC QUESTION RESTATED. BY T. STERRY HUNT. (Continued from page 125.) $ 15. WE have said above that Emmons, in his “ Agriculture of New York,” published in 1846, referred the upper portion of his Taconic to the horizon of the Calciferous Sand-rock. Iti is, however, important to note that in Chapter V., there devoted to -the account of the “Taconic System,” and previously printed ‘separately in 1844, two years earlier, he still adhered to the 1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 239 opinion expressed in 1842, that the whole Taconic system was “inferior to the Potsdam sandstone,” and repeated, in 1844, that “the Taconic system occupies a position inferior to the Champlain division of the New York system, or the lower division of the Silurian of Mr. Murchison.” In support of this view he attempts, in 1844, to show that both the Potsdam sand- stone and the Calciferous Sand-rock are found, the latter at inter- vals to the east of the valley of the Hudson, reposing upon the slates of the Taconic system, but adds, “probably, however, upon the Magnesian slates,” which, as we have seen (§ 12), were assigned by him to a horizon below the group called by him dis- tinctively the “ Taconic slates,” and were subsequently included in his Lower Taconic, the latter being Upper Taconic. In the same volume, in a subsequent chapter, which first appeared in 1846, or two years later, he had, however, arrived at the conclu- sion that the Calciferous Sand-rock to the eastward becomes more largely developed, and, losing the distinctive character which had given that name to the west of Lake Champlain, becomes, to use the expression of Emmons, “ protean” in its modifications. Among these he now included the red sandstones of Addison, Charlotte, and Burlington, Vermont, with their interstratified red and chocolate-colored slates, besides blue limestones and gray calcareous sandstones, the whole resting upon what were desig- nated as black Taconic slates. These so-called protean modifi- cations of the Calciferous Sand-rock were now described by ` Emmons as forming an irregular belt from Canada through Eastern Vermont, thence traversing Washington, Rensselaer, Columbia, and Dutchess Counties, and crossing the Hudson into Orange County. This series, more or less interrupted in its geographical distribution, but including areas of some miles in extent, is described as “ often forming the highest points in the _ region,” and Emmons remarks, “ We can hardly avoid the con- clusion that this belt was once continuous, and formed an impor- tant mass overlying the Taconic slate.” * § 16. It is scarcely necessary to remark that this great belt of sandstones, slates, and limestones, now described by Emmons, in 1846, as belonging to the Calciferous Sand-rock, and as resting on Taconic slates from Canada to Orange County, N. Y., is no other than the First or Transition Graywacke which, with the t Agriculture of New York, vol. i. pp. 118-122. 5 * 240 3 The Taconic Question Restated. [March same geographical distribution and similar lithological characters, had long before been described by Eaton as resting unconform- ably upon the Transition Argillite (§ 2), and subsequently by Mather (§ 8) and (apparently) by Emmons (§ 10) had been referred to the horizon of the Second Graywacke. It will also be re- membered that the Sparry Lime-rock, which we know forms an upper member of this Graywacke series, was already by Eaton, in 1832, regarded as the stratigraphical equivalent in the eastern region of what he had called the Calciferous Sand-rock to the west of Lake Champlain. Emmons had thus in 1846, after his pre- vious statements printed in 1842 and 1844, arrived to the same conclusion as his old master, and now assigned the great mass of uncrystalline more or less fossiliferous strata, which he subse- quently called Upper Taconic, to a horizon below the Trenton limestone, and regarded it as the equivalent of the Calciferous Sand-rock, including, however, as he afterwards taught, also the representative of the Potsdam sandstone. When he speaks of this great Graywacke group as resting on Taconic slates, we “must remember that already in his first recognition of the ae position of Calciferous Sand-rock to Taconic slates in 1844, a above cited, he had declared these to be “ probably the Mag- nesian slates,’ which correspond to the Transition Argillite of Eaton, included in the Lower Taconic, and not to what he else- where designates as the proper “Taconic Slate” group, which was later included in his Upper Taconic, and-is no other than this same “ protean” Calciferous Sand-rock and Potsdam sand- stone, or the First Graywacke itself. 17. Emmons could scarcely have defined more clearly than he did in 1844* the great extent and the boundaries of this Taconic slate group as then known to him, with its breadth of fifteen or twenty miles, occupying the greater part of the three counties named in Eastern New York, and stretching from north to south one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles; its limita- tions on the west by the overlapping upper shecahers: of the Champlain division, and on the east by the great mass of the Sparry limestone, portions of which are said to occur at intervals in the section farther westward. He, moreover, declares in 1844, * Agriculture of New York, i. 65-72. We quote from this volume for the reason dita thai. tine fiat ind separater ceinied elimina ab esd 4] á pi x F 1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 241 that in this Taconic slate group—described in 1842 as “ often becoming a coarse graywacke” and now called “ protean”—are numerous subordinate divisions, among which he mentions coarse greenish sandstones, gray sandstones, red and chocolate-colored shales, roofing-slates, green and black flinty slates, blue compact limestones, and gray silicious limestones, all of which are in- cluded in this great disturbed and faulted belt of uncrystalline strata. One of these subdivisions he described as a black slate with trilobites, and noticed another containing impressions re- sembling graptolites. In further proof of the fossiliferous char- acter of this great Taconic slate group, which he had already, in ` 1842, referred to “the lower part of the Silurian system,” he de- clared that besides these in the black slates just mentioned he had found fossils in the green sandstones and the green slates; while with regard to the Sparry limestones he remarks that “ no fossils have yet been discovered in this rock, though it must be confessed sufficient examination has not yet been made for mi- croscopic bivalves.” § 18, It is here important to remark that the term “ Taconic slate” applied to this upper and notably fossiliferous portion of the Taconic system of Emmons has led to the erroneous opinion that it is in some special sense the representative of the system, and to look upon the lower members as of less significance; a view which, it is unnecessary to say, finds no countenance in the publications of Emmons. Eaton, as we have seen, asserted the existence of a stratigraphical break between the Taconic slate, his First Graywacke, and the underlying Transition Argillite. This upper unconformable portion was afterwards separated by Emmons from the inferior members of the system, and designated Upper Taconic. In his “ American Geology,” in 1855, he in fact proposed to consider the Taconic system as consisting of two parts, between which, according to him, “the line of demarcation is tolerably well defined.” Of these, the lower part, henceforth called by him Lower Taconic, included (1) the Primitive Quartz- rock, (2) the Primitive Lime-rock, or Stockbridge limestone, and (3) the Transition Argillite, or Magnesian slate, with the lower roofing-slates. The Upper Taconic included the great group of the First Graywacke, called by Emmons, in 1842 and 1844, the Taconic slates, with the Sparry Lime-rock, called by him the Sparry limestone. This same view is again set forth by Emmons, 242 The Taconic Question Restated. [March in his “ Manual of Geology” in 1860, and in his subsequent re- ports on the geology of North Carolina. § 19. It is important to note that the line of demarcation between the Lower and Upper Taconic series corresponds to the stratigraphical break already pointed out, in 1832, by Eaton be- tween the Transition Argillite and the First Graywacke. It should be further mentioned that this division is one between a series of essentially crystalline strata below and one of earthy sediments above ; and, moreover, that the facts known with regard | to the distribution of the two show clearly that their areas are not co-extensive. While found superimposed upon the Lower Ta- conic in certain districts, the Upper Taconic is wanting over great areas of the Lower, and is elsewhere seen in many places resting unconformably upon pre-Taconian crystalline schists. It was this Upper Taconic which Emmons, in 1842, declared to belong to “the lower part of the Silurian system,” which he showed, in 1844, to contain organic remains, such as trilobites and graptolites, in several of its subdivisions of shales and sandstones, remarking that while they had not yet been found in the Sparry Lime-rock sufficient search had not been made therein. It was the same Upper Taconic or Taconic slate group which he later, in 1860, declared to correspond to the Primordial zone of Barrande, which latter was included alike by Barrande and by the other followers of Murchison, both in Europe and America, in the so-called Silurian system. Yet, notwithstanding all these facts, we find that the discovery in Eastern New York of fossils of Cambrian and Ordovician age in what J. D. Dana calls “a limestone of the original Taconic of Professor Emmons,—his Sparry Limestone,’—is brought forward in 1885 as an argument against the views of Emmons. Ina letter to Marcou, dated Al- bany, September 1, 1860, Emmons writes, “ The upper part of the Taconic is equivalent to Barrande’s Primordial group,” while in his “ Manual of Geology,” also published in 1860, he declares (p. : that “it has been shown that the Primordial zone in Bohemia in co-ordination with the upper series of the Taconic rocks.” tn another letter to Marcou, in November of that year, he ex- pressed the opinion that neither his Taconic system nor the Pri- mordial zone or group of Barrande was Silurian, but in a subse- quent letter, November 29, 1860, admits his misconception and writes, “ On reading his [Barrande’s] papers I found that, after all, 1887] l The Taconic Question Restated. 243 his Primordial group is only Lower Silurian. I conceive that we have exactly his Primordial group in the band of slates con- taining the Paradoxides.” (Olenellus.) § 20. The study of these Upper Taconic rocks in the province of Quebec by the geological survey of Canada was carried on in the vicinity of the city of Quebec in 18 52-1855, the present writer being at intervals an assistant to Logan in his field-work in that district. The official reports of Mather and Emmons on the geol- ogy of New York were then repeatedly consulted, and the Ta- conic system of the latter being then generally discredited, the passages in accordance with the views of Mather, which, as we have already noticed, are to be found on certain pages of that volume, were alone accepted, and the Graywacke series of Quebec and its vicinity was referred to the horizon of the Second Gray- wacke of Eaton. This great thickness of contorted shales and sandstones, with intercalated limestone and dolomite beds, al- ready described, in 1827, by Bigsby as “a slaty series of shales and graywacke,” was then called Hudson River group, and as- signed to a position above the horizontal and well-characterized Utica and Trenton divisions found a very few miles away on the west side of the St. Lawrence, while the green sandstones which apparently overlie these inclined strata were designated Oneida sandstone. They were thus described and mapped in the “ Es- quisse Géologique du Canada,” bearing the names of W. E. Logan and the present writer, but prepared by the latter, and published in Paris in 1855. § 21. The great belt of disturbed strata described, in 1827, by Bigsby as “a slaty series of shales and graywacke,” which by the united labors of Eaton, Emmons, and Logan had now been traced with little interruption from the banks of the St. Lawrence below the city of Quebec, along the west side of Lake Cham- plain, and thence nearly to the Highlands of the Hudson, con- stituting the Upper Taconic of Emmons and the larger part of the Hudson River group of Vanuxem. That this, contrary to the teachings of Eaton, but in accordance with the views of . Mather, was regarded as above, and not below, the horizon of the Trenton limestone appears, from James Hall's Report to the geological survey of Canada, published in 1857, on the grapto- * Letter of Emmons to Marcou, November 20, 1860, in Marcou’s “ Taconic VOL. XXI.—NO. 3. 17 244 The Taconic Question Restated. [March lites of Pointe Levis, which were then described as belonging to _ a higher horizon than the Utica slate, and in the words of Hall to “that part of the Hudson River group which is sometimes designated as Eaton’s Sparry limestone,—being near the summit of the group.” Still later, in 1859, with regard to the trilobitic ‘strata of the town of Georgia, Vermont (the “slates with Para- doxides” of Emmons, noticed in § 19), Hall wrote, “I have the testimony of Sir William Logan that the shales of this locality are in the upper part of the Hudson River group, or form part ofa series of strata which he is inclined to rank as a distinct group above the Hudson River proper.” § 22. It was in 1856 that the finding by the present writer of an unknown trilobite in one of the many limestone bands of this Graywacke series at Pointe Levis, opposite the city of Quebec, led to further researches, revealing in that series a fauna which furnished to Billings convincing proof that the view of Eaton and Emmons was the correct one, and that this same Graywacke, or Hudson River group, was below and not above the horizon of the Trenton limestone, and was in fact the First and not the Second Graywacke of Eaton. This was first admitted by Logan in a letter to Barrande, dated December 31, 1860, but published in 1861." In this, referring to the trilobitic beds in Vermont noticed above, which he had placed at the summit of the Hudson River group, but now declares that he had “ recognized as equiv- alent to the magnesian part of the Quebec group,’ Logan writes, “ Prof. Emmons has long maintained, on evidence that has been much disputed,” that these rocks “are older than the Birds- eye formation” (the basal beds of the Trenton), and adds, “ the fossils which have this year been obtained at Quebec pretty clearly demonstrate that in this he is right.” Refusing, however, to adopt the name of Upper Taconic or that of the First Graywacke, Logan, for reasons of his own, chose to give to these rocks the title of the Quebec group, a name which he extended to the whole belt from the Lower St. Law- rence to the valley of the Hudson River, and henceforth made no further allusion to Emmons, whose views he had now adopted. In accordance with the teachings of Emmons in 1846 and 1855, these rocks were now declared by Logan to be a great sad eee of sediments about the age of the Chazy and the * American Journal of Science, xxxi. 220. La 1887] _ The Taconic Question Restated. 245 Calciferous divisions of the New York system. The Red Sand- rock included in this belt in Vermont was, however, subsequently, from its fauna, referred by Billings of the Canada geological survey to a lower horizon, the so-called Lower Potsdam, and an attempt was made to establish a Potsdam group beneath the Quebec group, including both the Red Sand-rock (which Logan, in 1859, had placed above the summit of the Hudson River group) and a group of strata at Farnham in Quebec, which are, however, of Chazy if not of Trenton age. ; § 23. The subsequent history of Logan’s endeavor to separate the Graywacke series, as displayed near the city of Quebec, into what he called the Levis, Lauzon, and Sillery divisions of the Que- bec group, and his conjecture that the apparent order of super- position in the section there exposed represents the real or true order has been elsewhere told in detail. By his adoption of this conjecture the Levis or Sparry Lime-rock was put at the base, and the massive green Sillery sandstone at the summit of a Graywacke series of many thousand feet, all of which was but a reaffirmation of the old hypothesis of 1855, which had made this sandstone the Oneida, and the underlying gray sandstones, with shales and limestones, the equivalent of the Loraine. That this apparent order was contrary to palzontological evidence was pointed out by Billings, who insisted that the horizon of the Sparry Lime-rock, and its adjacent Phyllograptus shales, was somewhat above the typical Calciferous Sand-rock of New York, and that the massive green sandstones belonged to a much lower horizon, Logan, although he had borrowed from Emmons the concep- tion that the great Graywacke series was really below the horizon of the Trenton limestone, still adhered to the stratigraphical scheme which he had framed when he believed that the section at Quebec and Pointe Levis represented the Loraine shale, with a great overlying mass of green sandstones with conglomerates and red shales, corresponding to the Oneida of the New York system. These sandstones, he now thought, might correspond to the St. Peter’s sandstone of the Upper Mississippi, and to the sandstones and shales which in parts of the Ottawa basin appear in the Chazy subdivision. The history of all this has been set forth in the writer’s volume on “ Azoic Rocks, etc.”? The dif- * Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, Report E, 1878. 246 The Taconic Question Restated. [March ferences between Billings and Logan on these points appear in the volume of the former on “ Paleozoic Fossils,’’* and more fully in the instructive correspondence of Billings with Jewett and Marcou, lately published by the latter in his paper on the Taconic system in 1885.7 §.24. James Hall, who had in 1857 declared that the graptolitic slates found in conjunction with the Sparry Lime-rock at Pointe Levis, the Levis limestone of Logan, were at the summit of the Hudson River group,—employing this term, as he had always done, as synonymous with Loraine shales,—was led by the palæ- ontological discoveries in Vermont, and near the city of Quebec, to reconsider the age of this so-called group and the true signifi- cance of the term. In his “ Report on the Geology of Wiscon- sin” in 1862 (p. 443), he referred to the evidence furnished by | organic remains in the rocks of the Graywacke belt in the prov- ince of Quebec and in Vermont, “ which prove conclusively that these slates are to great extent of older date than the Trenton limestone,” though probably newer than the Potsdam. He re- marked, moreover, that “the occurrence of well-known forms of the second fauna .. . in intimate relation with, and in beds apparently constituting a part of, the series along the Hudson River, requires some explanation. Looking critically at the localities in the Hudson valley which yield these fossils, we find them of limited and almost insignificant extent. Some of them are on the summits of elevations which are synclinal axes, .. . “where the remains of new formations would naturally occur. Others are apparently unconformable to the rocks below, or are entangled in the folds of the strata, .. . while the enormous thickness of beds exposed is almost destitute of fossils.’ He hence concluded that the name of Hudson River group cannot properly be extended to the great mass of strata which had hitherto borne that name, but which he now regarded as distinct from “the Hudson River group proper.” § 25. Thus while still retaining for the Loraine shales the name under which Vanuxem had, in 1842, included alike these shales and the great underlying mass of older strata belonging to two lower horizons which constitute by far the larger portion of the * Geological Survey of Canada, 1865; Paleozoic Fossils, vol. i. passim. 2 Proc. Amer. Acad. Sciences, New Series, vol. xii. pp. E See also therein the letters of Emmons and and Marcou, pp. 1 184-201. 1887] ‘Thè Taconic Question Restated. 247 rocks hitherto called Hudson River group, Hall admitted the distinctness and the greater antiquity of these. In 1877, while justifying the retention of the name of Hudson River group for the fossiliferous rocks of Loraine age found along the banks of | that river, and originally called “Hudson slates” by Mather,— _ which Hall speaks of as “the newer series, or the rocks above the Trenton limestone,” as contradistinguished from the older or infra-Trenton series,—he admits that “the error lay in extending the term [Hudson River group] to rocks on the eastward, at a time when their fossil contents had not been studied . . . and their geological position had not been determined by critical ex- amination.”’* The geological position of these rocks to the eastward and their relation to the newer series had, however, already been de- - termined, and Hall, in 1862, did but repeat the statements long before made by Emmons, who, in 1842, had declared that the Taconic slate group was undoubtedly overlapped along its west- ern border by “the Loraine or Hudson River slates.” Again, in describing, in 1846, beds of the Loraine shale alternating with the sandstone of the Gray band in the valley of the Rondout, and in their northern outcrop along the termination of the Helder- berg range, Emmons declares that this section of the Loraine strata “resembles the beds which occur in patches on the east side of the Hudson along the Western [Boston and Albany] Railway. These latter beds may be clearly distinguished from the slates and shales of the Taconic system. They neither con- form with them in dip nor in strike,” and, except in the immediate vicinity of the great northern fracture of the Hudson valley, their dip and their disturbance are not excessive. These unconform- ably overlying areas of Loraine shales resting on the older Gray- wacke were said to form a small range between Chatham Centre and Chatham Four Corners, “ where they lie in deep troughs and are exposed in the railway cuttings.” In some cases, we are told, “their peculiar distribution and the confined limits of the fossilif- erous beds’ render quite difficult the recognition of these shales when they lie in proximity to the Taconic system.”? It was thus clearly shown by Emmons, in 1844, that the Loraine shales not mely overlie the Upper Taconic or First Graywacke along its t Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1877, p. 263. 2 Emmons, —— of New York, pp. 124, 125, 128. 248 The Taconic Question Restated. [March western border in New York, but are found thereon in small un- conformably overlying areas, as was admitted by Hall in 1862. § 26. These facts regarding the relation of the Loraine shales to the great Graywacke belt were set forth by the writer in 1878. It was at the same time shown that within the limits of this belt, in the province of Quebec and in Vermont, there were found organic forms ranging from a horizon at least as low as the Pots- dam (the Olenellus or Lower Potsdam beds of Billings, which were the Paradoxides beds of Emmons) to the Phyllograptus shales (belofging to the horizon of the Arenig or Skiddaw of Great Britain), without counting the fossiliferous beds at Farn- ham, Quebec, assigned by Logan to the base of the Quebec group, but shown by Billings to be not lower than the Trenton. In other words, it was set forth that this First Graywacke, other- wise called the Taconic slate group, Upper Taconic and Quebec group, had been by Emmons, as long ago as 1842, declared to belong to the age of the Silurian of Murchison; that he had shown it in 1844 to contain in its various subdivisions trilobites, grapolites, and fucotids, and had in 1860 referred the same Taconic slate group to the Primordial zone, or so-called Primor- dial Silurian of Barrande. Still further, it was shown that it had been maintained by Emmons in 1844, and confirmed by Billings, that within this belt were accidentally included unconformable portions of post-Trenton fossiliferous strata of the Champlain division. It was further pointed out by the writer in illustration of these facts that similar conditions appear in the basin of the Ottawa, near the city of that name, where, as the result of an uncon- formity between the upper and lower members of the Champlain division, a belt twenty miles long of shales and sandstones, carrying the fauna of the Utica and Loraine subdivisions, is found lying transgressively alike on the Trenton, Chazy, and Calciferous subdivisions, as long ago shown by Logan. $ 27. The observations of Ford, Dwight, and Dale along the great Graywacke belt to the east of the Hudson, in the State of New York, which show, besides a Cambrian fauna of Potsdam and Calciferous age, the presence of small areas of strata belong- ing to the higher divisions of the Champlain divisions, are thus in direct confirmation of the original statements of Emmons, the later determinations of Billings, and my own teachings. They show 1887] The Taconic Question Restated. 249 the horizon of the Upper Taconic or Taconic slate group—the Transition or First Graywacke of Eaton—to be, as taught by Emmons in 1842, the lower part of the Silurian system, as he un- derstood it, and as he later declared it to be, the Primordial zone or Primordial Silurian of Barrande. If, then, we except small’ areas of true Silurian (Lower Helderberg) and possibly Devonian Strata, as at Becraft's Mountain, near Hudson, New York, and, according to James Hall (as cited by Edward Hitchcock), in Vermont, it will be seen that the great belt of Graywacke, stretch- ing from the St. Lawrence to the Hudson River in Dutchess County, is of Cambrian age, with overlying and included patches of Ordovician (Chazy-Loraine) and a few small areas of Silurian. It may here be added that the evident ignorance of these his- torical facts which is apparent therein, is the only excuse which -can be pleaded for the misstatements which have of late years been repeatedly put forward with regard to this important problem in American geology. § 28. Marcou, who had already, in 1880, insisted thereon, de- clares in 1885, the “time has now come to make clear the prior right and the real advantage to be found in the use of the term * Taconic System,’ instead of the so generally employed ex- pressions ‘Cambrian’ and ‘Silurian,’ to designate the strata enclos- ing the Primordial fauna.* In answer to this proposition, it is to be said that the names of Silurian and Cambrian were proposed for the great Transition or Graywacke series of Wales by Murchison and Sedgwick in 1835 and 1836. We need not here repeat the long history which I have elsewhere told,? of the means by which it was sought by Murchison to include in his Silurian the greater part of the Cambrian of Sedgwick, a task in which he was seconded by Barrande, who called the horizon of the lowest Cambrian fauna —his Primordial zone—Primordial Silurian. In the great work of the New York geological survey, be- gun in 1837 and summed up in the final reports of 1842 and 1843, a succession was independently wrought out for the Ameri- can palzozoic basin, in which were named the “New York ` System” and the “ Taconic System.” As regards the probable parallelism of these with the previously-named Cambrian an t The Taconic System, Proc. American Academy of Sciences, pit xii, * Hunt, History of Cambrian and Silurian, Chemical and Geologi Si heen pP- 349-425. 250 Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. [March Silurian, we find Emmons, in 1842, suggesting that the Taconic rocks in part might “be equivalent to the Lower Cambrian of Sedgwick,” “the upper portion being the lower part of the Silurian System,” to which the Middle and Upper Cambrian of »Sedgwick were then, on the authority of Murchison, very gen- erally referred. To repeat what we have already said, we add that this upper portion, the fossiliferous character of which he made known in 1844, was by Emmons declared, in 1860, to cor- respond to the Primordial of Barrande. “The upper part of the Taconic is equivalent to Barrande’s Primordial zone,” and again, “His Primordial group is only Lower Silurian. 1 conceive that we have exactly his Primordial group in the band of slates con- taining Paradoxides.”’* The names of Cambrian and Silurian were thus prior to that of Taconic, and so far as regards the Upper Taconic, it is now shown by palzontological studies to be unquestionably the strati- graphical equivalent of the great mass of the Cambrian of Sedg- wick, including accidentally, as we have seen, small portions of his Upper Cambrian (Ordovician), but excluding, so far as yet known, the lowest Cambrian or Paradoxides horizon. It remains to be seen whether American or European geologists will aban- don the accepted and well-defined terms of Cambrian for that of Taconic. (To be concluded.) NOTES ON THE GLACIATION OF THE PACIFIC COA BY G. FREDERICK WRIGHT. J HAVE elsewhere (see Am. Four. Sci. for January) given an account of the results of my observations during last summer _ onthe Muir Glacier, Alaska. The journey to and from that point of interest afforded equally good opportunities for observation. The Northern Pacific Railroad passes out of the glaciated re- gion at Sims’ Station, Dakota, about forty miles west of Bismarck, at an elevation of two thousand two hundred and eighteen feet Tha Haki Ps +s. meee t printed text, 1887] Notes on the Glaciation of the Pactfic Coast. a 51 above tide and three hundred and fifty above the Missouri River. The passage from the glaciated to the unglaciated region is quite marked and can easily be detected from the train. From this point on to the west no signs of glaciation appear until passing the western ridge of the Rocky Mountains near Lake Pend Oreille in Idaho. Here the movement was towards the west and was evidently local. Water-worn pebbles from this vicinity were observed far down in Eastern Washington Territory, in old water- courses, or “ coulees,” worn by post-glacial streams in the exten- sive lava deposits of that region. ; West of the Cascade Mountains, between Portland and Seattle, all the streams coming down from Mount Rainier and its com- panions are heavily charged with glacial mud, and can be traced to extensive glaciers in the mountains. The White River Glacier, ` on the north side, is the largest of these. This glacier is from one to one and a half miles wide at its termination, which is about five thousand feet above tide. Two or three miles farther up it is about four miles wide. It is about ten miles long, and in its higher level merges in the general ice-cap which envelops the upper five thousand feet of the mountain. The height of the mountain is fourteen thousand four hundred feet. The north and south valley between the Cascade Mountains and the Coast Range in Washington Territory is about one hun- dred miles wide. The northern half of this is penetrated by the innumerable channels and inlets of Puget Sound, which extends from Port Townsend south about eighty miles to the parallel of Mount Rainier. The Olympian Mountains to’the west rise to a height of about ten thousand feet, as does Mount Baker in the Cascade Range to the northeast. The shores and islands of Puget Sound have every appearance of being a true glacial accumula- tion. Norock in place anywhere appears. The shores and islands rise from fifty to two hundred feet above tide, and present a mix- ture of that stratified and unstratified material characteristic of the terminal accumulations of a great glacier. Boulders of light- colored granite and of volcanic rocks are indiscriminately scat- tered over the surface and embedded in the soil. One of these boulders near Seattle, two hundred feet above the sound, was twenty feet in diameter and twelve feet out of ground. The _ channels of the sound and of the adjacent fresh-water lakes have a general north and south direction, parallel with the axis of the 252 Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. [March valley. This is specially noticeable near Seattle, where Lake Washington, elevated sixteen feet above tide, and twenty-five miles long, is strictly parallel with the sound, and is separated from it by a series of ridges showing every mark of glacial origin. Not only is the surface of these ridges covered with boulders, but wherever the streets have cut down into the soil they show, at the depth of a few feet, an unstratified deposit abounding in striated stones. Superimposed upon this ridge there is a thin stratified deposit of varying depth but increasing in extent down the slope towards tide-water. At Port Townsend, on the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and forty miles north-northwest of Seattle, the coarsely stratified deposit is much greater in ex- tent. A noteworthy section of this I had the privilege of studying at Point Wilson, two and a half miles northwest of Port Town- send. Here, facing the strait, is a perpendicular bluff from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet in height, composed, in its lower portion, for about one hundred feet of rather fine, stratified material, which is capped at the summit by about fifty feet of coarse, unstratified material abounding in large striated boulders, which as they have been washed out by the erosion of the sea have fallen down to the foot of the bluff in immense numbers. Near the bottom of the bluff there are several strata of vege- table deposits. One of these, two feet thick, consisted almost wholly of the fragments of the bark of the fir-trees which are now so characteristic of that region. Fragments of wood pro- ject from the freshly exposed bank in great abundance. The meaning of these facts will be more readily apparent alter a study of the phenomena to the north of the strait. The Strait of Juan de Fuca is from fifteen to twenty miles in width, running east and west. Its north shore, near Victoria, on ` Vancouver’s Island, is remarkably clear of glacial débris. The rocks, however, near Victoria exhibit some of the most remark- able effects of glacial scoring and striation anywhere to be found. Immediately south of Victoria long parallel furrows rise from the shore of the inlet and ascend the slope of the hill to the south to its summit, a hundred feet or more above the water- level. At the steamboat-landing, outside of the harbor, extensive surfaces freshly uncovered exhibit the moutonnée appearance of true glaciation, and, in addition to the finer and abundant scratch- ing and striz, display numerous winding furrows from six inches t * 1887] Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. 253 to two feet in depth, and from twenty to thirty-two inches in width, and ten or more feet in length. These grooves are finely polished and striated, resembling those with which geologists are familiar on Kelly’s Island, Lake Erie. Like the corresponding grooves on Kelly’s Island, some of these also turn around the southern point in graceful curves, adjusting themselves to the retreating face of the rock-wall. That the motion of the ice here was to the south is evident not only from the direction of the striz, but from the fact that the stoss side of the glaciated rocky projections are towards the north. That they are due to glacial action, and not to icebergs, is evident both from their character and from their analogy to numerous facts farther to the north, which are unquestionably connected with true glaciers. Vancouver’s Island, which trends parallel with the shore of the continent, northwest by southeast, is nearly three hundred miles in length, and from fifty to seventy-five in breadth. In character it seems but a continuation of the Coast Range of mountains, with numerous peaks rising from four to seven thousand feet above the sea. The shore-line of the continent upon the northeastern side of the Strait of Georgia is formed by a continuation of the Cascade Range, with a general elevation of from three to eight thousand feet, penetrated in numerous places to a distance of seventy-five miles by inlets or fiords several miles in width. Mr. rge Dawson has described the glacial phenomena in Bute Inlet, which enters the Strait of Georgia about opposite the centre of Vancouver’s Island, in latitude 50° 30’. He describes the chasm (see Quarterly Fournal of Geolog. Soc., vol. xxxiv. p. 89) as forty miles in length, surrounded by mountains, rising in some places in cliffs and rocky slopes from six to eight thousand feet. “The islands about its mouth are roches moutonnées, polished and ground wherever the original surface has been preserved.” The mountains on either side the Strait of Georgia, and north- westward to the head of Lynn Channel, in latitude 59° 20’, are snow-clad throughout the whole season. The shores are every- where rocky and precipitous, retaining in many places far up their sides glacial striz parallel with the direction of the numer- ous channels which thread their way through the Alexander Archipelago. I had opportunity at Loring, on the western shore of Revilla Gigedo Island, to examine minutely the striation on the shores and islands of the bay. There are now no glaciers 254 Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. [March coming down from the mountains of this island, but the shores and islands abound in well-preserved glacial striæ running W. by 18° N., corresponding to the direction of the local valley down which the glacier came, and entering Behm’s Canal nearly at right angles to its course upon that side of the island. This is in lati- tude 55° 40’. Upon proceeding one degree to the north, I had opportunity also to observe closely the striæ at Fort Wrangell. Here, too, they show the influence of the continental elevation to the east, and are moving outward in a westerly direction towards the Duke of Clarence Strait. About thirty-five miles up the Stikine River, two glaciers are encountered of immense size coming down, one from the north and one from the south, to the vicinity of the vast cañon through which the river runs. The glacier from the north is about forty miles long and two miles wide near its mouth, spreading out to five miles a short distance back from the river, which it approaches to within four hundred yards. The glacier approaching the river at this point from the south is not so long and reaches only to within about two miles of the river. It is clear that a comparatively slight extension of these two glaciers would make them unite and close up the outlet of the river, and it requires no great stretch of the scientific imagination to see the whole valley occupied by a glacier, moving towards the ocean with an immense subglacial stream emerging at the ice front, wherever that might have been. From phenomena observed in Glacier Bay I am led to credit the tradition of the Indians that within historic times these glaciers met and the Stikine River made its way under them through an immense tunnel. From the mouth of the Stikine River northwards, glaciers in great numbers and of great size are seen coming down from the mountains towards the sea-level, while all the mountains upon the islands are snow-clad through the whole summer, and some of them contain glaciers of small size. At Holcomb Bay and Taku Inlet glaciers come down to the sea-level and send off ` numerous small icebergs, which are frequently met with in Stevens’ Passage. At the head of Glacier Bay no less than four glaciers of great size come down to tide-level, sending off im- mense numbers of small fragments and bergs. The evidence here of the recent vast extension of these glaciers down the bay, and of the facility of glacier-ice in adjusting itself to the local — 1887] Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. 255 topography, is of a most explicit and interesting character. The Muir Glacier, which is two miles wide at its mouth, is formed by the confluence of nine main streams, coming in majestic curves from the southeast, east, north, northwest, and west, and uniting in a vast amphitheatre of ice many miles in diameter a short distance above its present outlet. From the surface of this icy amphitheatre numerous islands project, as from the waters of an archipelago. The summits of these bear every mark of having been freshly uncovered by the decreasing volume of ice. Below the mouth of the glacier numerous islands in the bay present exactly the same appearance, except that they now project from water instead of ice. Their recent glaciation is indicated by every characteristic sign. Willoughby Island, about the middle of the bay, is as much as a thousand feet above the water. Were the ice to retreat a few miles farther, it would doubtless uncover an extension of the bay with numerous islands similar to those now dotting its surface south of the glacier. Fresh glacial débris lingers on the flanks of the mountains on either side of the inlet . ata height of two thousand feet; and at three thousand seven hundred feet striae were observed moving, not down the moun- tain, but parallel with the axis of the bay, showing that the present glacier is but the remnant of an ice-flow of similar character and direction of movement, but of vastly greater dimensions, extending and filling the whole bay to its mouth in Cross Sound, a distance of twenty-five miles. At Sitka the rocks in the harbor are all freshly striated, the direction of the move- ment being in a westerly direction, or towards the open sea. Glaciers still linger in the mountains at the head of the bay to the east of Sitka. : From all these facts it seems evident that we have only to suppose a slight increase of present forces favorable to the pro- duction of glaciers to find a state of things which will account for all the facts and unravel the whole intricate web of phenomena upon the western coast of North America. _ The present formation of glaciers on the coast of Southeastern Alaska is favored not so much by the coolness of the climate as by the elevation of the mountains and the excessive amount of precipitation, which is not far from one hundred inches annually. There is no evidence that the elevation of the coast has materially changed in recent times. Nor is there evidence of any changes 256 Notes on the Glaciation of the Pacific Coast. [March in the amount of precipitation. It would only be necessary to suppose a slight diminution of temperature to secure all the additional force required to extend the present glaciers of South- eastern Alaska, British Columbia, and of the Cascade Range in Washington Territory and Oregon, until they should occupy all the channels of the Alexander Archipelago, fill the space occu- pied by the Strait of Georgia between Vancouver’s Island and the main-land, and cover the whole valley between Mount Rainier and the Olympian Mountains, where now we find the vast moraine deposits of the islands and shores of Puget Sound. Southward, in Oregon, the Willamette valley is filled in a similar manner by an extension of the glaciers still lingering on the flanks of Mounts Hood and Shasta. The absence of drift on the southern shore of Vancouver’s Island seems to point to a termination of the northerly movement in the Strait of Juan de Fuca, where, perhaps, the confluent streams turned westward and sent off vast drift-laden icebergs to the sea. Mount Baker, immediately to the east of this point, is upwards of ten thousand feet high, and still preserves glaciers on its flanks, and would have aided greatly in this movement. In the boulders about Puget Sound, and in the striated surfaces which must exist somewhere in the vicinity, there is doubtless positive evidence of the direction of the ice movement which brought to its present position the immense ridges and piles of glacial débris forming the fertile soil of this remarkable region. It is to be hoped that local observers will not long leave the world in doubt as to the source of the boulders and the direction of the striz about Puget Sound. To me the shores and islands of that region had the appearance of being the terminal deposits of confluent glaciers coming down from the flanks of Rainier to the southeast, and from the lower portions of the Cascade Range farther north, joined by smaller glaciers from the Coast Range on the west. It is clear that the earlier glacial movements on the Pacific coast were local in character, and must be studied in- dependently of those east of the Rocky Mountains. The ancient glaciers of the Pacific coast can be understood only by reference to the glaciers which still linger at the head of all its numerous valleys, inlets, and fiords. In these the investigator has his vera causa ever before his eyes to guide his steps and to assist his imagination. * PLATE XII. MONACHUS TROPICALI 1887] Notes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicalis. 257 NOTES ON THE LIFE-HISTORY OF MONACHUS TROPICALIS, THE WEST INDIAN SEAL. BY HENRY L. WARD. HEN in 1494 Columbus was cruising among the West Indies with his little caravels, searching for the ever-delu- sive route to the kingdoms of the Grand Khan, towards the latter part of August his vessels became separated, and in order to spy out if possible the missing ones he came to anchor near a tall rock lying south of the centre of Hayti and called by him Alto Velo. Sailors were sent ashore with orders to climb to the top and look out for the other caravels. Unsuccessful in their search for them, on returning to the ship “they killed eight sea-wolves (seals) which were sleeping on the sands.” This West Indian seal was consequently the first observed American mammal larger than the Coypu or Cane-Rat that a ably had been seen at Cuba. The next notice that we have of it was written by Dampier in 1675; then follow Hill’s account in 1843, Gray’s in. 1849, 1850, and 1874, and Gosse’s in 1851. This comprises all accounts of which I am aware that, based upon specimens in hand, appeared previous to 1884. Dampier and Hill and Wilkie (Gosse’s account) in 1846 have given us the only records of observations concerning the life of this seal. Since then all trace of it has been lost, two small skins in Mexico and a single young one in this country comprising all the specimens known to be in existence up to the time that we obtained others. Last fall I had consummated a plan to try and find this seal, when, hearing from Professor F. Ferrari Perez, of the Mexican Geographical and Exploring Survey, that he had the same object in view, we decided to join forces. Accordingly, in November last we met by mutual appointment at the city of Campeche. The Triangles, or rather the East Triangle, was the point at which we had decided to make our first search for Monachus, This is in lat. 20° 55’ N., long. 92° 12’ W. or one hundred and eight nautical miles in a northwesterly direction from the nearest point of the Yucatan peninsula. Distant two or three hundred yards in a northeasterly direction from the east island lies what J shall 258 Notes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicals. (March designate as the North Triangle. The west island, distant seven and a half miles, was unvisited by us. A brief description of the east and north islands, the ones at which we obtained seals, will be of interest as depicting one of the hitherto unknown habitat of this animal. They are of coral formation and surrounded by dangerous reefs that here and there have reached the surface, from twenty-seven to twenty- eight fathoms of water surrounding them. Meandrina, Millepora, and Madrepora were the three genera noticed, the former, by far the more common, forming the bulk of the islands and outlying reefs. The East Triangle is an irregular oval in form, about half a mile in length by perhaps one hundred and fifty yards in greatest width. The northern part of the island is quite level, raised scarcely a yard above high tide, and consists of gleaming white coral sand interspersed with water-worn, rounded blocks of the same material. These sandy portions of the islands were the principal “ haul- ing-up” places of the seals. The southern part of the island is almost exclusively composed of these coral stones, strangely heaped up into pinnacles and ridges, about twenty feet above sea- level, between which lie gullies and circular pits six or seven feet in depth. Beginning a little distance from the smaller end of this island, so as to include between itself and the land a narrow lagoon, runs a reef which, for its entire length awash, loses itself in the sea before it reaches the Northern Triangle. This island, of ap- proximately half the area of the other, is quite similar to it in form and character. No trees or bushes grow upon either, three species of plants alone forming the observed vegetation. Two of these are trailing plants. The other, one of the Leguminosez, growing to a height of about two feet, formed sheltered nooks between the diverging stems, positions that were used as nests by the Booby (Sula cyanops) and the Man-o’-War-Bird (Fregata aquila). Sterna maxima was the only other bird noticed. Ala- crans (scorpions) a black kind, abounded in the sandy places, causing one to be somewhat careful where he sat or what he picked off the ground. The house-fly completes the list of the air-breathing observed fauna. _ Upon arriving at the islands we anticipan a stay long enough 1887] Notes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicals. 259 to enable us to do all the work both upon seals and other objects that we might desire; but on the second day the barometer in- dicated the near approach of a “Norther,” the severe winter wind of that part of the coast, and upon the third day we had hurriedly to break camp, even leaving some of our specimens, get aboard of our little schooner and scud back to harbor amid the breaking waves and chilling blasts of a winter gale. My observations therefore cover a very small period of time,—zz., from the Ist to the 4th of December. This proved to be the time of parturition among the seals, for upon making a landing on the east island we killed a female with a foetus nearly ready for birth, and in a little internal pond of salt water found a female lying on her side suckling her young. She paid no more atten- tion to our near approach than would the familiar denizens of the barn-yard under similar circumstances. ‘Subsequently four other females were killed containing nearly ripe foetuses. In one case, where the foetus was removed immediately after killing the mother, it kicked and squirmed for one or two minutes in such a lively manner as to indicate that delivery would have occurred in a few moments had the female not been molested. Following the usual order with seals, there is but one offspring ` at a birth. The female can have little difficulty in nursing this, as in any but a perfectly prone position one or more of her four teats will always be within reach of the young. The foetus is quite large, one measuring 85 c.m. in length from tip of nose to end of tail." The hair is long, very soft and woolly, and of a glossy black color. Parturition probably occurs in shallow water, as the three females noted nearest this period were lying stranded on the beach, half in and half out of water. The young seal previously mentioned was of a uniform black color, including its mystacial bristles, with large, dark brown, lustrous eyes that looked inquiringly at one: more intelligent in appearance than were the adults. This youngster we took with us on leaving the islands, and had it in captivity for a week or more at Campeche, where it eventually died, probably from lack of proper nourishment. Its teeth were uncut, and so it had no thoughts of offering * More measurements and descriptions of this seal will be found in a bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, now in course of preparation by Professor J. A. Allen. VOL, XXI.—NO. 3. 18 260 Notes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicalis. [March resistance when handled. It was totally devoid of fear ; but most too young to make any demonstrations of friendship. Its time on shipboard was spent in aimlessly roaming to and fro, serenely regardless of such trivial obstructions as people standing in «its way; uttering every few moments its cry, a long drawn out, guttural “ah,” with a series of vocal hitches during its enuncia- tion. At Campeche this little seal seemed to enjoy its daily bath in the sea, plunging its head under water and blowing and snort- ing as if in great glee, yet ever and anon uttering its plaintive cry, as if in momentary mourning for its lost parent. Two females containing foetuses measured respectively 2 m. 16 c.m. and I m. 99 c.m. from end of nose to end of tail. Two adult males measure from a skeleton and stuffed specimen re- spectively 2m. 29 c.m. and 2 m. 16 c.m. between the same points. These are about the maximum sizes, of the two sexes, noticed. Such a seal looks large and might easily give rise to the “about ten feet in length,’ and even greater measurements, that have been reported of this species. From the black pelage of the extremely young to that of the adult there is an intermediate stage of yellowish gray on the ‘dorsal surface, shading to almost a perfect ochre on the ventral portions. Adults are grayish brown or grisled on the back, a result of the Vandyke-brown hairs being tipped with light horn- color, the lower surface ochreous-yellow to yellowish white. — Females seem to have much less of the yellow or white on the ventral surface. The variations in coloration in individuals of approximately the same age seemed to be comparatively slight. In adults the -mystacial bristles vary from dark horn-color for the basal half and light horn or whitish for the remainder, to a clear light color for their entire length. They taper gradually to a remark- ably fine point, for a half-inch, in some specimens, being scarcely peace than a coarse human hair. _ The head is very large and prominent, having an extremely “brainy” appearance even for a Seal: quite belying its mental capacity, which seems to be very slight. This prominence is not so much on account of the size of the skull as because of the immense amount of muscle and flesh intervening between it and the skin. The whole body of the animal is very chunky. The bones are all deeply embedded in the flesh, over which, particu- 1887] Votes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicalis, 261 larly on the belly, lies a thick coating of fat. The eye of the adult is an index to its mental capacity, for so dull is it that in the first specimen observed I was much inclined to think that this organ was diseased. The pupil is medium-sized, round, and well defined, the iris is light reddish brown, in color, and with but little of the sclerotic coat showing. Over the cornea there appears a deadening film, giving it much the same appearance as a glass eye or marble that has been so much handled as to lose its polish. May not this lustreless eye arise from the strong reflection of a tropical sun upon the coral sands? Most seals have a peculiarly soft, intelligent eye. When lying with the head close to the ground, either in life or immediately after death, the shoulders appear more prominent than in any other seal with which we are familiar. The whole character of this seal is that of tropical inactiv- ity, exemplified by the peculiar circumstance that several of those collected had such a growth of minute alge upon their - backs and flippers, more especially the hinder ones, as to appear _ quite green. At no time does this seal raise its head as much above the line of its back as does the harbor seal: the flexibility of its cervical vertebrae appearing to be quite restricted. Upon first approaching them they appeared to have no dread whatever of the human presence, lazily looking at us, perhaps uneasily shifting their position, and then dozing off in restless sleep. Upon advancing to within three or four feet they would some- what rouse themselves, bark in a hoarse, gurgling, death-rattle tone, and uneasily hitch themselves along a few paces. At first the seals offered very little resistance, and only upon the second day of our stay, when they had become somewhat accustomed to our presence, and when we made an onslaught upon a group of several, did they show fight at all. On this occasion their numbers and their being huddled together seemed to give them courage, as well as making our attempts to kill them with clubs and daggers (we had early decided not to use firearms, because of the danger of frightening them away from such small islands) dangerous and more or less abortive. Not infrequently would they make savage rushes for a yard or two at some one of our attacking party, and failing to reap revenge upon us would fall — upon their dead or dying fellows, biting and shaking them in impotent rage; or occasionally two would engage each other in 262 Notes on the Life-History of Monachus Tropicalis, [March savage conflict for a moment or two, the heavy gnashing of their teeth as their powerful jaws closed giving us a lively idea of how unpleasant it would be to fall within their reach. Nevertheless, the whole aspect of the animals was one of indecision. Instead of stampeding when molested, they only roused themselves to action upon being individually attacked.: As another illustration of their lack of intellectual acuteness, I may mention that on the following morning we found several seals that had “hauled up” during the night among the dead ones surrounded by skinned carcasses. In the water they showed no particular curiosity in regard to a boat or its occupants, a curiosity usually so very marked among seals, nor did they disport themselves in play as does the harbor seal. That they are generally peaceful is borne out by their ap- pearance, very few scars of combat being observed, and some of these not unlikely inflicted by the myriads of sharks surround- ` ing the islands. The contents of the stomachs of several were examined, but nothing except fluids were found, which gave no clue to their food. It undoubtedly consists largely of fish: one in captivity was fed on this food and appeared to thrive well. They are greatly infested with intestinal parasites several inches in length, that shortly after death swarm out of anus and vagina, dying as they reach the air. On land or in shallow water the seal progresses by drawing forward the hind parts, thus throw- ing the line of the back into a strong curve, then pitching itself forward on to its breast to again repeat the same action. distance covered is usually about a foot, the difference between the chord of the arc and the horizontal length between the fore and hind flippers; but when this movement is violent the seal throws itself forward with so much force as to somewhat over- shoot this. The appearance of one moving is much like that ` of an “inch-worm,”—a continual bobbing up and down of the middle of the back. One was noticed that, when under consid- erable excitement, evidently forgot how to run, but lay on its belly trying to scull through the sand with its hind flippers as though it were in the water. On the 29th of November last a small seal was captured alive near the city of Campeche ; but as we were busy getting away we did not obtain it. On our return the purchaser tried to dispose of it to us for one thousand dollars! and on my departure for 1887] Notes on the Life-Fistory of Monachus Tropicalis. 263 the north still held it at two hundred dollars. It was difficult to glean any exact data from the inhabitants; but I am inclined to believe that the seal is quite uncommon on the coast. The high price asked for the young one, and the fact that it was here placed on exhibition and afterwards taken to Progresso for the same purpose, would seem to confirm this. About forty years ago, I am told, a vessel was wrecked at the Triangles, the captain and a negro, the only survivors, living upon seals and birds for six months before effecting their escape. Mr. W. B. Alexander, of Plymouth, Mass., writes me, under date of February 9, 1887, “In the spring of 1856 I was with Captain Lucas at the Triangles for a load of Mexican guano. I only saw two seals while there, which left the island in a hurry, so I can give you no information from personal knowledge, although there must have been great numbers there, by the skeletons, poor hides, etc. ; and some one must have carried on an extensive business in that line, for we made a grand bonfire of perhaps a hundred barrels of the remains.” Mr. F. A. Lucas writes me from the United States National Museum, February 2, 1887, “In the spring of 1856 my mother was at the Triangles, where my father, A. H. Lucas, had gone in the bark ‘ Edwin,’ of Charlestown, Mass., to seek guano. The young boobies were in downy plumage, and this is why I call it spring. My mother remembers seeing seals on the rocks, and seal-bones were found on the island.” Mr. Gosse, “ A Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica,” says that this seal has crimson irides, that “the hair prevails everywhere ex- cept on the palms of the flippers, which are bare,” and “the color of the body is an intense uniform black.” The first two points are evidently mistakes. The third is characteristic only of very young specimens of Monachus. Perhaps it is Gray’s Cysto- phora antillarum, a species concerning which I am very sceptical. But color seems to be a great stumbling-block with many. Mr. H. W. Elliott, usually so exact in description, in Science, vol. iv. pp. 752, 753, describes the specimen now in the National useum as “ intense ebony-black,” while Messrs. True and Lucas, in Smithsonian Report, 1884, Part II., p. 332,in describing the same specimen, say, “In our specimen the hairs of the back and hind flippers appear light at the tips, as if faded by age; but are dark sepia color or nearly black, except at the extremity.” 264 Editors’ Table. {March It is surprising how this seal has lived for so long a time in such a frequently traversed part of the ocean as the Gulf of Mexico, surrounded as it is on all sides by populous cities, and yet should for nearly four hundred years remain all but unknown. Naturalists are usually particularly acute in searching out rare specimens; but by some peculiar combination of circumstances this seal has eluded the many scientific expeditions heretofore made to these waters. For a full description of this seal the reader is referred to the previously-mentioned bulletin of Professor Allen, to whose much more able hands this work peculiarly belongs, and to whom I have willingly resigned it. EDITORS’ TABLE. EDITORS: E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY. WE most heartily approve the growing practice of using Eng- lish names for the various fungi, especially those which are of interest to us economically. Such fungi must be discussed over and over again in the journals of the day; they must be talked about by farmers, gardeners, stock-growers; they must be de- scribed by teachers and popular lecturers. A few of these spe- cies which are bound to have this publicity have scientific names which can be readily adopted into English speech ; but in the great majority of cases the scientific names cannot be used by the people, nor can they be in any way “anglicized” or modified into such forms as will bring them into every-day use. Thus, while the genus Bacterium has given us the accepted term Bac- teria for a group of organisms, the allied genus Saccharomyces has not been nor ever will be anglicized. Possibly Mucor may come into common use, but Entomophthora never will; nor will Phytophthora, Podosphzra, Sphzrotheca, Heop hasa, Ery- siphe, etc. Itis not too much to hope that gardeners will habit- ually speak of the “ Ramularia” of the strawberry, the “ Septoria” of the plum leaf, the “ Peronospora” of the grape-vine, but is any one rash enough to expect to hear our vineyardists speaking familiarly of the Physalospora (“ Black Rot”), the Cercospora € Grape-leaf Blight’ ’), or the Phyllosticta (“ Grape-leaf Spot”)? 1887] Editors’ Table. 265 English names, or names which can be readily used by Eng- lish-speaking common people, must be devised by our writers upon the injurious fungi. But in order that confusion shall not arise among and be propagated by the botanists themselves, it is all-important that English names should be chosen with the greatest care. Several years ago this matter was talked over in the Botanical Club of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, and it was hoped that some good would come of it, but no report has yet been made by the committee then appointed. Let us have, before the confusion proceeds further, a clear un- derstanding among botanical writers as to the application of the- terms Blight, Mildew, Rust, Smut, Scab, etc. Let the fungi of certain orders bear certain English names. Let us say “the Rusts” for the Uredinez in general, and Wheat Rust, Maize Rust, Euphorbia Rust, Rush Rust, Bean Rust, etc., for the species. Let us no longer use the name “ Rust” for other fungi. It is doubtful whether the use of a modifying term ought to be en- couraged in the English names of groups, as, for example, the “Downy Mildews” for the Peronosporee, and the “ Powdery _Mildews” for the Perisporiaceze. This compels us to use terms like “ the Powdery Mildew of the Lilac,” “the Downy Mildew of the Grape,” etc., forms of expression which are not likely to become common. There is opportunity here for the exercise of considerable in- genuity among our students of the fungi. In constructing such English or anglicized names, that most excellent rule, “ Avoi very long names as well as those that are difficult to articulate” (Laws Bot. Nomen., Art. 36), should be strictly observed.— “ik. D. A Louisiana planter, according to the public press, is import- ing a load of rabbits from Australia, for the purpose of stocking a game-preserve with that animal. The extreme fecundity of this species (Lepus cuniculus) is well known, and in Australia its ‘introduction from England has done incalculable harm to the agricultural interests. Hence the Louisiana enterprise is looked on with considerable anxiety by some persons. The prospective injury will depend on the management of his ‘preserves by their owner. The Australian fauna is peculiar in 266 Recent Literature. [March the absence of carnivorous mammalia, and hence the increase of rabbits, kangaroos, etc., has little natural check excepting that of deficient food-supply. In the United States the case is far different. Here the opossum, raccoon, several species of weasels, foxes, and cats furnish an effective restriction to the increase of any form of animal life sufficiently large to attract their atten- tion. If the keepers will permit the presence of these carnivora in the preserves there need be no fear of excessive increase of the rabbits, and quite a zoological porden might in this way be maintained. RECENT LITERATURE. Vines’s Physiology of Plants..—This important work has been before the scientific public for somewhat more than half a year, -and has in that time received the critical attention of most of the vegetable physiologists. It has already taken its place as an admirable cyclopedia of vegetable ee it from which the botanical lecturer can draw ad libitum in the preparation of his notes. This use of the book is much favored by its form, the various topics being treated in twenty-three “Lectures.” With the exception of the tables, which in some parts of the book are pretty freely used, there is ‘little in it to remind one of the usual text-boo e style i is eminently that of the lecturer before an audience, and, while it is pleasant to read, one cannot help think- ing that it might have all been given in the book in much less space. There is a notable absence of any indication of the scale upon which the figures are drawn in the illustrations, an over- sight which we attribute to the emphasis of the “ lecture” idea in the book. The general sequence of subjects may be understood from the headings of the successive chapters, as follows: the structure water in plants; transpiration, the food of plants; metabolism, growth, irritability, reproduction. In some cases several chapters or a are given to each topic; thus “irritability” is dis- cussed in seven lectures, covering 226 pages, or very pies one- third of the book. _ Ina work of this kind one may demand exactness of state- ment and a freedom from contradictions. It is puzzling to the reader to be told on page 22, that “in some cases it is evident 1 Lectures on the by ca of Plants. By Sidney Howard Vines, M.A., D.Sc., F. ym the Univers Lecturer of Christ’s ren ego Cambridge, and Reader in Bot- % Wi 96 & ea oe niversity Press, 1 "B86, ph x., 710. 1887] Geology and Palæontology. - 267 that the incrustation (on the surface 2 plants) has been formed by the evaporation of water holding e salt in solution, which had been excreted by the plant;” E ailé on page 60 it is said its mineral substances which it absorbs.” In the table on page 106 the relative numbers of stomata upon the two surfaces of the leaf of the Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) are given as 100 for the upper, 150 for the lower surface, an error which is the more not- able from the fact that the figures in the following column (“rel- ative quantity of water transpired ”) lose their significance when brought into relation with the proper numbers (o for the upper, 330 a ea mm. of the lower surface). On 99 we notice with pain the careless use of the word “bud, j in i spéakiiig of the one. of lichens. The use of words in this loose way in a scientific work can be productive of bad re- sults only. A bud is one sind: 6 a soredium is an entirely differ- ent thing. On pp. 602 and 603 we find another batch of loose statements, from the description of the mode of spore-formation in Bacillus to the remark that “the teleutospores of these fungi [Uredinez] are those which are formed in the autumn, at the close of the growing season In spite of these blemishes and a sig oe the book is one calculated to do much to elevate the botanical work of the schools and colleges, and we trust that in this country its spirit and influence may be abundantly felt.— Charles E. Bessey. GENERAL NOTES. GEOLOGY AND PALZZONTOLOGY. A Landslide at Brantford, Ontario, illustrating the Effects Thrusts upon Yielding Strata.—A landslide along the right bluff of the Grand River, about two miles southeast of Brant- ford, Ontario, which occurred at 6.45 P.M. of April 15, 1884, is worthy of notice as giving not only one of the best known illus- trations of the structure of the Erie Clay of Ontario, but as show- ing the physical effects upon a smaller scale of lateral thrusts upon yielding strata. At the point where the slide occurred the valley is about two miles wide, although some distance above and below it is much narrower. The sides of the valley rise about ninety feet above the flood piane which is ten feet above the usual surface of the river. upper twenty feet are composed of sandy Saugeen Clay (of Canadian geologists), in very thin regular beds, whilst the lower portion of the cliffs and that below the modern alluvium 268 General Notes. [March consists of Erie Clay. None of the underlying rocks of the per Silurian series are exposed. Owing to weathering, the surfaces of the Erie Clay soon cease to show their stratification. But here, after the slide, the great hummocks and pyramids— thickness, easily splitting into slabs. The landslide, in this material, extended along the face of the bluff for seven hundred feet. A belt, eighty feet wide, was detached from the brow of the table-topped cliff, and in sinking sixty feet, caused the for- te po ; bed of river; S, stones lifted by » grassy ] d forward; H, h r one hundred feet to one inch. Owing to the forward movement and reaction, the deposits of the Erie Clay have been raised into perfectly truncated anticlinal folds, which are composed of vertical strata more or less twisted. The vertical edges, where not concealed, are forty-four feet across, and on them—ten feet above the surface of the river—are resting the pebbles of the former bed of the stream now elevated i sloping surface, with the trees still standing, but sloping at angles from twenty-eight to thirty-five degrees from the perpen- - dicular towards the hill, as the present slope is that of a surface which formerly stood farther up the hill-side, at a higher angle. marked across the transporte grassy surface by a deep longitu- dinal fissure. The eastern end of the slide consists only of a confused mass of hummocks and pyramids. a b 1887] Geology and Paleontology. 269 The landslide was due not to any undermining of the bluff, as the inclination of its lower part was at too low an angle, and the river two or three hundred feet away, but due to the hydrostatic pressure acting in the joints and along the smooth bedding of ratory experiment on plications, twistings,’and thrusts, as shown in folded schistose rocks of mountain regions.—/. W. Spencer, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. - Age of the Niagara River.—The visit in August last of the Geological Section of the American Association to St. David’s Valley,—adjacent to the Whirlpool of the Niagara River,—has drawn forth some notes upon this subject in the i issues of Science for September 3 3 and 10, 1886. In my various arietes bearing upon the origin of the Great Lakes,—the most recent of which appeared in “ Surface Geology of the Region about the Western End of Lake Ontario,” Cana- dian Naturalist, 1882, —after having shown that the deep west- ern end of Lake Ontario was due to subaerial erosion and streams, —among which was a great river flowing from the Erie Basin, with large tributaries from the highlands of the province of On- tario, cutting a cafion through the thick beds of limestones and shales of the Niagara escarpment to a depth of nearly one thou- sand feet—now partly submerged beneath Lake Ontario—and a width of over two miles,—I accounted for the drift-filled valley of St. David as being a portion of a channel of an interglacial Niagara River. Subsequent observations of Dr. Julius Pohlmann (Proc. A. A. A. S., 1882) show that the eastern end of the Erie Basin is due to erosion by streams,—some of whose channels are now deeply buried near Buffalo —which emptied into the Alleghany River, as it flowed northward from near Dunkirk, into the western end of Lake Ontario by the Dundas Valley. This great ancient water-way is now partly filled with drift, and is still more ob- scured by the warping of the rocks along the anticlinal between the two Great Lakes. Upon further examination it will be found that the St. David’s Valley is small, not only when compared with the great (Dundas) valley, —the old outlet of the Erie Basin, —but even with man other valleys cutting into the Niagara escarpment. Again, Pro- fessor Claypole’s observation that rocks are found beneath the talus at a considerable height along the sides (at least) of the ath valley at the Whirlpool, restriéts still more its. probable h. In short, the St. David’s Valley is inadequate for the drainage of a great basin like that of Lake Erie. | 270 General Notes. [March eighty-three feet beneath the present surface of Lake Erie, whilst the adjacent ice-scratched bed of the Niagara River, at the Buf- falo International Bridge, is not more than forty-five feet beneath the lake surface. Consequently, it appears that the St. David’s Valley and such portions of the channel as those ice-scratched above the Whirl- pool which remain, represent only the water-course or water- courses of local drainage before the Ice Age. This being the case, the ancient river did not recede deeply into the Niagara es- carpment, and we are led to the conclusion that the cañon of the Niagara River, above the Whirlpool as below, is mostly of modern origin throughout, and not to any great extent an ancient drift- lled gorge, re-excavated since the Ice Age—% W. Spencer, University of Missouri, November, 1886. Palæontological Observations on the Taconic Limestones of Canaan, Columbia County, N. Y.'—These researches occu- pied a little more than two days in June of this year, and were made in continuation of those previously reported, with the following results : I. Thorough search was made in and around the farm of E. S. Hall, near Flatbrook, with the hope of finding in place the Trenton limestone which occufs here in large loose angular masses, filled with Solenopora (Chetetes) compacta and other minute corals. A ledge was found which may very likely con- tain altered nodules of this coral, but no positive evidence of its Presence was obtained. The fossiliferous masses may well have come from ledges concealed under the deep drift which covers this farm. II. An exceedingly interesting locality of richly fossiliferous limestone was discovered about two and a half miles to the north (of Hall’s farm. It is on the farm of Mr. Joseph Heminway, about a mile and a quarter northeasterly from the Canaan Four Corners Railway Station; it barely crops out at the surface, at the eastern foot of a very conspicuous limestone ledge lying im- mediately east of the farm buildings. Much of this rock is a mass of organic remains, most of which are finely comminuted ~ nts of crinoid columns mixed with portions of mollusc shells. - Though presenting a somewhat different set of the larger — organisms, this stratum appears most probably identical with the fossiliferous limestone at the Canaan railroad tunnel, described in the American Journal of Science for April, 1886. The Hem- ' * Abstract of paper presented before the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, at Buffalo, August, 1886. 1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 271 inway outcrop is, however, much the richer in fossils, of which ste following have already been Keone : . Crinoidal fragments in vast number: z Fragments of lamellibranchs, pets of the genus Lyro- desma. = Gasteropods of several genera and species. One of these is ‘diameter, and have six or seven whorls. They look exceedingly like Ophileta, but may prove on careful examination to be Heli- cotoma or Pleurotomaria. 4. A single genal spine of a small trilobite There were open also, large calcareous slates, whose precise nature is not evi The general ad of these organic remains indicates very decidedly the post-Cambrian origin of the strata; while, in spite of the Ophileta-like appearance of some of the Gas asteropods, the presumption is strong that they belong to the Trenton epoch. Nore.—Subsequently to the presentation of the above paper, the continuation of these investigations at Canaan developed yet more important facts. In a limestone ledge on the Hemin- way farm, lying a little east of the fossiliferous outcrop above described, indications of Orthocerata were noticed; on following this outcrop northward a few hundred feet into the farm owned by Professor Charles Drown, quite a number of very interesting Orthocerata were discovered. These are finely preserved and dis- tinctly characterized, showing admirably the septa and siphons. One of these is very nearly one foot long, and its shell is quite cylindrical, since the taper is exceedingly gentle. The septa in^ all are quite frequent, about fifteen to twenty to the inch. A well defined lituite was also found here. ese Orthoceratites are of the same general m as those occurring at Rockdale, near Poughkeepsie, N. Y., which from their character, and from their associate fossils, I consider as belonging to the horizon at present known as the Calciferous. This, and the Trenton, therefore, appear to be associate com- ponents of the Canaan limestones —Wm. B. Dwight. MINERALOGY AND .PETROGRAPHY. Volcanic Bombs.—In view of the fact that the volcanic bombs of Monte Somma present such a large variety of beautifully crys- tallized minerals in druses, and further, that in the case of the limestone bombs these minerals may well be supposed to owe their origin to the action of the hot lavas on pieces of limestone torn from the walls of the vent through which the lavas reached z Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayzey, Madison, Wis. ~ 272. General Notes. [March the surface of the earth, it is a matter of’no little surprise that sections of these bombs have not been more thoroughly inves- tigated by means of the microscope and the other appliances now so generally made use of in the attempt to discover the origin of rocks and minerals. The most satisfactory article which has thus far appeared on this subject is that of Bruno Mierisch,* working under the supervision of Professor Zirkel at Leipzig. Eighty specimens of these bodies belonging to the collection of the University of Leipzig were examined. As might be expected, the results reached are exceedingly interesting. According to Mierisch the bombs may be divided into two great classes: (1) those consisting of broken pieces of older lavas, which are in- cluded in the younger lavas, and (2) the limestone or silicate bombs, in the druses of which the crystallized minerals, as men- tioned above, are found. It is to the latter class that the present writer confines his attention. This class can be subdivided into limestone bombs and silicate bombs, and the latter of these again into (1) those in which the minerals are zonally arranged, and (2) those in which this arrangement is wanting. Under the micro- scope the limestone bombs are seen to consist of grains of cal- cite and an olivine mineral, which analysis proves to be forsterite, —the pure magnesium oliyine. A noteworthy fact in this con- nection is the entire absence of even a trace of calcium in the forsterite, and the existence of the merest trace of magnesium in the closely-associated calcite. When druses occur in these occurring in them, and describes in detail its appearance, micro- scopical characteristics and associations. Here again we find most important of which can be noticed. In the calcite of the limestone bombs glass inclusions were detected. These, accord- ing to the author, cannot be considered as secondary in origin, because not a trace of glass was detected in the ground-mass of any section examined. Consequently the calcite must have *Tschermak’s Min, u. Petrogr., Mitth. viii, 1886, P> 114. 1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. a included these in its crystallization from a molten magma. Por- phyritic biotite crystals were seen to be surrounded by a rim of little augite crystals, evidently an alteration product, since in the immediate vicinity of the augite the biotite was bleached. In the olivine, fluid inclusions containing crystals of salt were detected. In some of the hauyne crystals inclusions of pyrrho- tite were observed. It was noticed that as decomposition of these inclusions proceeded the substance of the hauyne became ofa deeper blue color. The inference drawn by the author is to the effect that the sulphur freed by this decomposition is the agent which produces the blue coloration.’ Petrographical News.—About a year ago reference was made in these notes to the.work of Hatch? on the andesites of Peru. The same author has continued his work, and now appears with a paper? on the rocks of the volcanoes in the neighborhood of Arequipa, a town in the southern part of Peru, about twenty miles from the Pacific coast. These rocks consist of andesites in all varieties, from the typical hornblende andesite, through in- termediate varieties, to the rock containing augite as its only bi- silicate constituent. Hypersthene occurs very widespread in the lavas of all the volcanoes in this region. Particular pains were taken to identify this mineral in a manner to preclude the possi- bility of error, and it was found that the only reliable means of distinguishing it from monoclinic augite consisted in the deter- mination of the position of the optical axes. In almost every case where hornblende was present it was found to be surrounded by an opacitic rim, outside of which was occasionally seen a second rim of augite microlites. The high percentage of silica noticed in certain of the specimens was proven to be due to the silicification of the rock by the impregnation of its constituents opal.The Ponza Islands, off the west coast of Italy, are comprised 4 principally of trachytes, rhyolites, and tufas. An interesting point in connection with the trachyte of the island of Ponza is the occurrence of olivine in it. Glaucophane is sup- posed to occur in that of San Stefano. The tufas contain peb- bles and pieces of quartz in addition to the broken crystals of various minerals. The ground-mass of the quartz trachyte from San Pietro,5 off the southwest coast of Sardinia, consists of chal- cedonic substance, in which are grouped little fibres of chalcedony in radial apie wae Rhyolite, obsidian, and perlite are also found there.——In the diabase porphyrite from Petrosawodsk,® in Russia, about = ued miles northeast of St. Ponerinae the porphyritic feldspar crystals are composed of parallel growths 1 E Mi er Ueber natiirliche oo enue ag mn aa American N Er February, 1 t. i aait u. Petrog., Mittheil. vii., 1886, p. 308. ; 4 F. Eigel, pi viii., 1886, P 73: s Ib., p. 62. 6 Ç. v. Vogdt, ib., ps tor. 274 General Notes. ` [March of oligoclase, labradorite, and orthoclase. These crystals, more- over, have undergone an unusual alteration into an aggregate of colorless prismatic needles of a uniaxial mineral, which occur either radially grouped or scattered indiscriminately in the mass of their otherwise apparently unaltered host. Their nature could not be determined, but an analysis showed that the altera- tion is attended with loss of silica and potassium and addition of aluminium. The ground-mass of the rock contains numerous little plagioclase ‘crystals and grains of epidote, which v. Vogdt thinks were derived from the substance of the ground-mass by —Certain conglomeratic, granitic, Mr. Hicks? thinks are pre-Cambrian in age, have recently been described by Bonney.” The so-called felsites from Trefgarn are, according to this author, halleflintas of volcanic origin, consist- ing of acid lavas and their associated ashes, which have been permeated by hot water, containing silica in solution, and have © thus been silicified by the replacement of their feldspathic c con- stituents by chalcedonic quartz. The greenstones of St. Min- ver, Cornwall, have been separated by Rutley3 into two distinct varieties. The first embraces those rocks which were once position with the production of bands and “small knots” of felsitic material, separated by bands of serpentine or palagonite. In the felsitic portion are small circular and lenticular areas o quartz and serpentine, which the author regards as the fillings of original vesicles. The second class described is of much | fresher rocks. These contain large areas of augite, polarizing as a single individual, in which are included small crystals of plagioclase. [This same structure has been described frequently y American petrographers* under the term “ lustre-mottling (Pumpelly and Irving) and “ poicilitic structure” (Williams).] Aggregates of augite, peace ilmenite, and a few accessory and secondary minerals make up the entire rock. The author calls it an augite-andesite. ser an appendix toan article by Mr. Durham 5 on the volcanic rocks of Fife, Professor Judd describes altered augite and enstatite andesites, in which the porphyritic pyroxene crystals occur in groups, and also porphyritic and per- litic mica-dacite glasses. In the base of the latter feldspar micro- _ lites and trichites are arranged in flowage lines. When heated before the blow-pipe a splinter of this rock lost 8.9 per cent. of its weight, and attained a bulk eight or ten times as great as that of the original fragment, producing a pumice which readily floated on water. The author concludes his paper with a dis- . E i Goi. 5 Quart. Jour. Geol. . Soc., August, 1886, p. 1887] Mineralogy and Petrography. 275 cussion of the several stages in the alteration of pyroxene ande- sites, as illustrated by the specimens examined. In the case of the mica-dacite glasses, alteration begins along the perlitic cracks, when it produces globiform masses, and then gradually extends outward until the entire body of the rock becomes white and opaque and appears to be isotropic. The author thinks that this alteration product may be a hydrated acid glass, corresponding to the palagonite of basic rocks. In a recent article in which are In a letter to the Neues Jahrbuch Sir Mineralogie, Siemiradski? describes three anorthite rocks from the island of St. Thomas, one of the Antilles. One is a corsite with a ground-mass saturated with secondary opal, which has been produced by the decomposition of the other constituents. The other two are dyke rocks cutting the corsite. They can be best characterized as altered anorthite andesites. Mineralogical News.—The optical investigations of Lange- mann 3 on harmotome, phillipsite, and stilbite seem to indicate that the plane P% produce eightlings, with a quadratic symmetry; and, finally (3), three eightlings with oo P as their twinning plane yield twenty-fourlings with a regular symmetry.——By observing mineral is like that of cuprite and salammoniac, in the gyroidal hemihedral division of the regular system. The bromide and the iodide of potassium crystallize similarly. n a late num- ber of the fourth Beilage Band of the Neues Fahrbuch fir Mineralogie H. Schedtler5 has an elaborate paper on the thermo- electrical relations of tourmaline. The paper opens with an his- torical introduction to the subject, in which the results of many earlier investigations are given. Then follow descriptions of the methods in use for the detection of electricity in minerals, and some general considerations, after which the author de- scribes his own results based upon the examination of sixty- 1 Min, u. Petrogr., Mitth. viii., 1886, p. 1. 2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1886, ii. p. 175. 3 Ib., p- 83. a ID., Vol, i Ds 234; s Ib., Beil. Band iv., 1886, p. 519. VOL, XXI.—NO. 3» 19 276 General Notes. [March seven crystals, from almost every known locality in which this mineral is found. These results are embraced under fifteen heads. Under one of these he states that the electrical activity is greater in the green, brown, and red crystals than it is in black or color- less ones; and that the black crystals often show no electrical phenomena, but, on the other hand, are conductors of electricity. ——The same subject has been treated in a paper by E. Riecke in the Annalen der Physik und Chemie. In his study of Brazilian topaz K. Mack? has found that-the electrical axis does not cor- respond to any crystallographic axis, and that in cases where the crystallographic axis does not exactly bisect the optical angle, this anomaly is accompanied by abnormal extinctions in the plane of the optical axes. BOTANY.: The Study of Plant Diseases.—Although the fungi them- selves have been studied in this country for many years, the dis- eases they produce have hitherto received little attention. One colleges and agricultural departments of colleges in the United usual thing to find professors teaching botany whose knowledge of the subject stops short of the.ability to handle the Compositæ. The Grasses and Sedges, to them, are little better than “ Crypto- gams,” and as to the latter, they are simply Cryptogams. From such botanists no study of plant diseases need be expected, Two recent publications ought to direct the attention of our botanists to this much-neglected field. Mr. Arthur's report, as botanist of the Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva, N. Y., shows where and how good work may be done by those = 5 any the pages treating of the Pear Blight, and he cannot help feeling that the work there recorded is of a much higher order than that 2 No. 5, 1886, p. 43... 2 Annalen der Physik und i Aa TaS PO ead E Eeay Ph nd Chemie, No. 6, 1886, p. 153 P E kd 7 1887] - Botany. : 277 usually considered as belonging to the botanist. The work here “recorded is entitled to be called strictly scientific. ` The second publication is Mr. F. L. Scribner's “ Fungus Diseases of the Grapevine,” issued by the Department of Agri- culture at Washington, D. C. Its principal contents are the Downy Mildew (Peronospora viticola), Powdery Mildew (Un- cinula spiralis), Black Rot (Physalospora bidwilltt), Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelineum), Grape-leaf Blight (Cercospora viticola), Grape-leaf Spot (Phyllosticta labrusceé). Some good plates ac- company the text, and add much to its value. As with the pre- ceding report, this one ought to show our younger botanists that there is an opportunity for them to do good work in botany even.—Charles E. Bessey. Vegetable Pathology.—Agriculture demands of botany a knowledge of the pathology of vegetation. It is not enough that the normal action of all parts of the plant should be under- stood; the abnormal and diseased actions must also be con- sidered. Unfortunately, the world is full of accidents, of noisome gases, of poisonous liquids, of freezing or scorching temperatures, of harmful insects, and of destructive fungi. The plant which is more or less affected by one or all of these is not the normal plant of the vegetable physiologist. The vegetable pathologist must build his science upon that of his fellow-worker in vegeta- ble physiology, and the results of the labor of both must be laid ore modern agriculture for its use. That botany which hopes to satisfy the demands of the advanced agriculture of to-day must include a knowledge of pathology.—Proc. Soc. Jor Promotion ` PrE Set. has been divided, and a new genus, Macrophoma, has been erected by Doctors Berlese and Voglino (Atti della Societa Veneto- Trentina di Scienze Naturali, vol. x.). The new genus also in- cludes species formerly referred to Sphæropsis and Sphæronema. - Ninety-nine species are enumerated, twenty-one of which are loge bring up the number of species to the following, viz.: Pyrenomyceteæ, 7564; Sphæropsideæ, 4078 ; Melanconiez, 606; Hyphomycetez, 3664; making a grand total of 15,912 species. A recent paper on Certain Cultures of Gymnosporangium, with notes on their Ræsteliæ, presented by Roland Thaxter to once 278 General Notes, [March the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, contains much of interest to the mycologist. As a result of these cultures the author of the paper concludes to connect the species of Gym- cornuta ; G. claviceps, with R. aurantiaca ; G. clavarieforme, with Reestelia of G. globosum is still left in doubt——H. N. Patterson, of Oquawka, Ill., has brought out a handy check-list of North American Plants, including Mexican species which approach the United States boundary. It will prove very serviceable. Cooke’s “ British Desmids” has reached the seventh number, and continues to maintain its high character. When completed it will form an excellent companion volume to Wolle’s “ Desmids of the United States.” Part III. of Macoun’s “ Catalogue of Canadian Plants” is devoted to the Apetale, including the and corrections to Parts I. and II., while a very full index com- pletes the volume. The publication is creditable to the Geolog- ical and Natural History Survey of Canada. It is to be hoped that the work will be continued. The Eriogonous genus Las- tarriæa Remy, has lately been studied by Dr. Parry, who con- rms its generic rank. Three species are characterized. viz.: a America; L. stricta Philippi, ined., from Chili; Z. Znearis Philippi, ined., Chili——An interesting paper, by Thomas Meehan, on the Fertilization of Cassia marilandica, received some time ago, as been noticed before-in these pages. The author found that not a single seed was produced when the flower was protected need of a revision of the Ranunculi, the statement is made that “almost half a century ago the North American species of Ra- nunculus, as then known, were hastily compiled for Torrey and Gray’s Flora, with very little knowledge of original materials; and they have not been elaborated since.” Numbers 146 and fully in these pages hereafter-—-The Gardeners’ Chronicle ee ee a te er ee ae XIII. PLATE — š aAa GLEE, Lge 77