THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, %H kllnsttaled $8aa*in* NATURAL HISTORY. EDWARD D. COPE and J. S. KINGSLEY, ASSISTED BY Dr. C O. Whitman, Dr. C. E. Bessey, Thomas Whson, Prof. C. M. Weed, Prof. W. S. Baxley, Prof. E. A. Andrews. VOLUME XXVI. Mo. Bot. Garden, 189 3 PHILADELPHIA binder & kelly, 518 and 520 MINOR STREET. 1892. CONTENTS. Causes Which Influence Topographical Changes, Loeenzo Gordin Yi On Problematic Organisms, Joseph F. James. . . . The Shell-Bearing Molluspa of Portage County, Ohio, Geo. W. Dean. Ceremonial Circuit of the Cardinal Points, J. WALTER Fkwkes . The Ash-Gray Harvest Spider, C. M. Weed . . Phenomena and Development of Fecundation, H. J. Webber . Notes Upon the Anatomy and Histology of the Prosencephalon of T< (Illustrated.) CL. Herrj _ Habits typkhps. (Illustrated.) E. D. Cope. A Burial Mound of Florida, C. B. Moore.... Natural Analogies, S. V. Clevenger, M.D. The Zoology of the Snake Plains of Idaho, C. H. Ml Record of North American Zoology, J. S. Kingsley. History of the Moas, F. W. Hutton. . Experimental Embryology. (Illustrated.) E. A. At Rules of Nomenclature Adopted by the Inti - *:~ held in Paris, France. 1889, M. Fischer... . . . The Contemporary Evolution of Man, H. F. Osborn . . . Mental Evolution in Man and the Lower Animals, A. Bodington. The Unionidse of Spoon River, Fulton County, Illinois, W. E Notoryetes Present Existing in Germany and . . 211 ‘311,389,’ 722 lional Zoological Congress e Hereditary Theory. (Illustrated.) H. F. Osborn . ligation at Tick Island. (Illustrated.) C. B. Moore... Why the Mocking-Birds Left New Jersey— A Geological Reason, S. LOCK- Heredity and the Germ-Cells. (1 The Head of an Embryo Amphiuma, J. S. KINGSLEY. Importance of the Science and of the Department of ogy, T. Wiisow-.*....>.... . . Bifurcated Annelids. (Illustrated.) E. A. Brain Centers, S. V. Clevenger, M. D . Catalogue of the Snakes of Nebraska with N< H. F. Osborn . - Prehistoric Anthropol- Problem of Marine Biology^G. W. Field.—..—. . :dity oTAcquiTed Characters, U. Miles- . Heredity of Acquired Characti . Some Uses of Bacteria, H. W. Conn_. Certain Shell-Heaps of the St. John's (Illustrated.) C. B. Moore—. , Florida, Hitherto Unexplored. Relative Intensity of the Conflict l Organisms. (Illustrated.) J. of Lungs, a Chapter in Evolution, C Morris... . „ * * -.ldy in Variation, C. M. • . C. Nutting—...— — ins i mn ssi isi in nm sss s The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXVI, , 287; Rational No. :r, 234 ; Heels or Stomach, vs. il Isaac J. Wistar, 235 ; Mongoose in Mistakes, 236; Change of Publish- re, 319; Reduction of Number and r the Advancement of Science, 833; The American Biologi- at Naples, 834; Vertebrata of the U. S. Geological Survey, rld’s Congress Auxiliary of the Columbian Expositic Courses of Study in the Grammar Schools of Massachusetts, 1014. Recent Books and Pamphlets.— 37, 144, 223, 321, S97, 502, 607, 81 932 . . . Recent Liter; ler’s Cat 147; Sy: -Report of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1887, 39 ; But- of the Birds of Indiana, 40 ; Kuntze’s Revisio Generum, sche andTopographische Anatomie des Hundes, Bearbei- tet von isiienDerger und Baum, 155, 226 ; Braun’s Literature of Parasites, 231; Recent Zoological Text-Books, 324; Mennier’s Les Methodes de Synthese en Mineralogie,328; TheWormsofBronn’s Thier-Reichs,329; Loeb’s Heliotropic Animals, 400; Cope’s Homologies of the Cranial Arches of the Reptilia, 407; An American Book on Fungi, 690; Ward’s Study of an Oak Tree, 690; Flower’s Study of the Horse, 691; The Fur of Animals, Lacroix-Dauliard, 692; Eimer on the Origin of Striped Muscular Tissue, 837; Beecher’s Studies of the Brachiopoda, 837; On the Occurrence of Artesian and Other Underground Waters in Texas, Eastern New Mexico and Indian Territory West of the 97th Meridian, R. T. Hill, 935; Evolution in Science, Philosophy and Art, 936 ; Newell’s Outline Lessons in Botany, 937 ; Garner’s Speech of Monkeys, 1019; Parker’s Elementary Biology, 1021 ; Apgaris Trees of Northern United States, 1022; Bailey’s Rule Book, 1023; Brehm’s Thierleben, Kriechthiere und Lurche, 1023. Geology and Paleontology.— The Crystalline Cambrian Deposits in Massachu¬ setts, 156; The Fauna of the Armorician Sandstones, 156 ; Relations of the Chemung-Catskill Group to the Lower Carboniferous, 157 ; Water-Bearing Horizons of Southern New Jersey, 157; Prizes of the London Geological Society for 1891, 158; Interval Between the Gla¬ cial Epochs, 158; Arkansas Geological Survey, 1890, 158 ; Geological Survey of Texas, 1890, 159; The Genus Scolithus, 240; The Sirocco as a Disintegrating Agent, 242: Vertebrate Fossils at Samos, 243; Geologic Correlation by Means of Fossil Plants, 243; The Eocene of the United States, 330; A Florida Lake Basin, 332; Xanthidia, 333; The North American Coal Supply, 409 ; Cretacic Marine Currents in France, 410 ; Prof. Marsh on Extinct Horses and Other Mammalia, n the Correlation of Moraines with Raised Beaches of Lake ; Geology o Erie, 412; Glacial 1 415; Fresh-Water Diatomaceous Deposit from Staked Plain. . 505; Is Memscotherium a Member of the Chalicotheriodea ? fii The Mexican Meteorites, 693 ; On the Separation and Study of Heavy Accessories of Rocks, 694 ; A Section of the Strata at Rod ter. New York, 695; Geological Survey of Mi Cable Survey, 756; Fourth Note on the Dim 756; The Elevation of Mount Orizaba or Citl 4; The Pad 1892.] Contents. The Illinois Insectarium , 353 ; A Spider Enemy of Oeneis ztmidea , 444 ; Biology of the Chalcididse, 445 ; The Gypsy Moth, 446 ; Notes on Harvest-Spiders, 528; The Cattle Tick, 530 ; Recent Bulletins, 531; Classification of the Mites, 712 ; Color Preferences of the Carpet Beetle, 712 ; Association of Economic Entomologists, 714 ; Dr. Lintner’s Seventh Report, 714 ; Notes on the Clover Mite, 715 ; Harvest Spider Notes, 786; Protective Resemblance in Trombidium, 786; The Sooth Dakota Insectary, 786 ; Wasps and Humming-Birds, 787 ; Recent Publications, 788, 873 ; Habits of PrenoUpis imparts Say, 871 ; Descrip¬ tion of the Female of Aphanogaster fulva Roger, 872; Spread of the Horn Fly, 872; Chinch Bugs in New Hampshire, 872; Instinct of Ammophila affinis , 873 ; Some Florida Spiders, 873 ; Entomology at Rochester, 874; Iowa Insects, 968 ; Distribution of Spiders, 968; The Encyrtinse, 969 ; Directions for Collecting Insects, 970 ; Number of Microscopy. — Notes on Celloidin Technique, 354 ; Notes on Bone Technique, 532 ; Methods of Decalcification, 534, 631 ; Bone Cells, 632 ; Fibres of Sharpey, 632 ; Bone Medulla, 632; Gulland’s Method of Fixing Paraffin Sections to the Slide, 971 ; A Method of Killing Nematodes Physiology. — The Functions of the Nervous System of the Myriopoda . 1051 Archeology and Ethnology. — The International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archeology of Paris of 1889, 185; When will the Earth be Entirely Peopled ? 187 ; Man and the Mylodon . 628 Proceedings of Scientific Societies, 83, 188, 274, 357, 448, 789, 879 . 1056 Scientific News, 101, 276, 358, 452, 535, 634, 717, 790, 886, 973 . 1060 1892.] INDEX. 4CCADIAN Ideograms.. . 458 Acquired Characters, 887-... 10<>9 Address of Prof. KSlliker.... 284 Adelite . 251 A^ssuau^::::::::::::::: 277 Almogen Crystals . 57 Alona lepida . 781 Alteration Products of Diabase from Friedensdorf . 947 American Microscopical Society.... 1060 American Morphological Society... 91 American Physiological Society . 274 American Society of Naturalists... 83 Ammophila affinis . 873 Ampbiuma, Head of an Embryo.- Anatomy and Histology of the Prosencephalon of Teleosts... Anatomy of a Human Embryo . Anatomy of Stenostoma . Andrews, E. A., Bifurcated j 725 580 Andrews, E. A., Review of Loeb’s Der Heliotropisms der Thiere. Anquis fragilis . - 967 725 Astrophyllite. Australian Exploration. Azunte . 701 Bacteria, some uses of. 901 Bailey’s Rule Book . Barton, B. W., Review o: Guignard’s New Studies in Fecundation . Barite, 339, 615 . - . Barande’s Fossil Collection . Basalt of Cassel . . .. . Basalt of Stempel . . . Bascanium flagelliforme Catesby... Baur, G , Cervical Vertebrae of the E‘s§i§i S|£»§i§=3S S-s §§1885 I 1 I [Vol. XXVI, §4.00 per Year. $4.60 per Year (Foreign). 35 els. per Copy. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST THE AMERICAN NATURALIST Vo... XXVI. Jamary. Tsgi. ~ ON SOME CAUSES WHICH INFLUENCE TOPOGRAPH¬ ICAL CHANGES AND GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS IN THE CHANNEL ISLANDS OF CALIFORNIA. BY DR. LORENZO GORDIN YATES. During a recent visit to San Miguel, the most westerly of the so-called “ Channel Islands,” off the coast near Santa Bar¬ bara, my attention was attracted to phases of the history of the island, which proved intensely interesting. The general trend of the coast of California is north-west and south-east, but at Point Conception, about 240 miles south¬ easterly from San Francisco, the direction changes to east and west, and this bend, with the chain of islands distant about 25 miles, forms the Santa Barbara Channel, running parallel with the Santa Ynez Mountains. These islands are notable from their having furnished shel¬ ter to the ships of their discoverers, the old Spanish naviga¬ tors commanded by the Portuguese, Cabrillo, who died in about the year 1543, and whose body is supposed to have been buried on San Miguel. The islands east of San Miguel, are Santa Rosa; Santa Cruz ; and the Anacapas. They are separated from each other by channels of from four to five miles in width ; they are of eruptive origin, and their areas are principally occupied by a range of low mountains running parallel with the Santa Ynez Mountains, The At Naturalist. and with the coast, forming the longer axis of each of the islands above named. The prevailing winds of the coast, except in January and December, come from the northwest, and form such a reliable meteorological feature as to be called “ The Summer trade Winds. Back of the Coast Ranges of Mountains these winds are scarcely perceptible, except where there is a depression in the highlands upon the coast, where the sea breeze rushes in to fill the partial vacuum caused by the rising of the heated air of the valleys. In these instances the portion of the wind- force deflected from its general direction, follows up the line of the main valley and its tributaries, its force being rapidly diminished as it recedes from the main current. These deflections are apparent at the Golden Gate ; the Pajaro and Salinas rivers; the Santa Ynez and Santa Clara Valleys, and various other points north and south. At Point Conception the mountains extend to the coast, and if the depression forming the Channel were a heated valley, it would draw a large portion of the current of cold, fog-laden wind to replace its over-heated atmosphere. The cool, tem¬ perate, sea-filled Channel offering no such conditions, the wind continues its course, without obstruction, across the mouth of the Channel, a small portion only being deflected in an easterly direction. This follows the Santa Barbara Channel with rapidly decreasing force, and long before it reaches Santa Barbara it is represented by a gentle westerly breeze, of which sailing vessels take advantage in making their runs to and fro, between the mainland and the islands. The main current of wind continues on its course in the direction of San Miguel and Santa Rosa Islands which it sweeps with unabated force, carrying the dry sand from the windward shores and dispersing it in the form of drifts over the entire surface; and I have been at the west end of Santa Rosa Island when the sand was being blown over from San Miguel like a drifting snow storm, over a distance of fully four miles of intervening waters. These island* were formerly covered by a dense growth of vegetation, and densely populated by aborigines, but since the 1892.] Causes Which Influence Topographical Changes. 3 advent of the whites, the aboriginal tribes have become ex¬ tinct, and the introduction of sheep and cattle, to the pasturage of which they have been entirely devoted for many years, has so far destroj'ed the vegetation as to render a large proportion of some of the islands barren wastes, and land which formerly supported hundreds or thousands of human beings, is fast becoming occupied by shifting sands of no value whatever. The principal cause of this desolation is the destruction of the plants by sheep ; the thick carpeting of the seashore by Mesembryanthemums and other succulent plants kept the sands confined to the immediate shore line, and trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants and creepers served to protect the soil from the destructive agency of the wind and rain ; whereas, large areas of the surface now show no evidence of its former condi¬ tion other than the presence of countless thousands of the dead shells of a snail peculiar to these islands (Helix ayresiana Newc.), the bleaching bones of the aborigines, and the vast ac¬ cumulations of the refuse of their camps, together with the casts of dead trees and shrubs, whose places in the soil appear to have been filled by concretionary columns of sandstone which stand erect, sometimes projecting from two to four feet above the present surface, like gravestones in a cemetery, showing how the soil in which they grew has been blown away. These again will be covered by sand dunes, which may eventually become solid rock and puzzle geologists of future ages. These casts appear to have been formed by sand falling into the cavities in the soil, the latter having become hardened by exposure to the action of wind and sun, when deprived of the protection of the growth of vegetation ; the dead roots of the shrubs decayed, leaving their impress in the mold; these molds filled with sand during the dry season, would, during the rainy season, hold the water which, filling the interstices, furnished the mineral substance which cemented the grains of sand into a solid mass. On the northeasterly shore of San Miguel Island is a cres¬ cent-shaped harbor, protected from the northwest winds by a ridge of basaltic rock, called Harris Point, which forms the The American Naturalist. northern extremity of the island ; over this point the wind sweeps with great force, carrying the sand mixed with frag¬ ments of shells, Helix ayresiana , marine shells and other debris from the rancherias, &c. The sand beach forming around Cuylers Harbor, above re¬ ferred to, is composed of sand with a large proportion of frag¬ ments of the land shell, and a small proportion of those of marine origin. Santa Barbara , Californio,, August 1 6th, 1891. 1892.] On Problematic Organisms. ON PROBLEMATIC ORGANISMS, AND THE PRESER¬ VATION OF ALG^E AS FOSSILS. BY JOSEPH F. JAMES, M. SC., F. G. S. A. For many years past the subject of the animal or vegetable nature of a large class of fossil bodies has been a matter of discussion between two schools of geologists. One of these considers as fucoids or algae a certain group of forms whose members do not present any organic appearance, but which in the early days of their study were made to do duty as plants, and which consequently still pose as such. The other class refuses to recognize the fossils as the remains of plants, and point out the analogy they present to worm trails, worm bor¬ ings, animal tracks or marks of inorganic origin. These schools are represented on the fucoid-side by Saporta, Delgado and others, and on the opposite side by Nathorst, Dawson and others. The attention of the present writer was first attracted to these fossil forms by their abundance in rocks of Lower Silu¬ rian age in the vicinity of Cincinnati, Ohio, the geologists there universally regarding them as plants. During the sum¬ mer of 1884, while engaged in arranging the collections of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History many specimens were studied ; and as supplementary thereto the markings made by various insect larvse, shells, or by running water upon the mud¬ flats of the Little Miami river. The result of these studies was a paper on the “ Fucoids of the Cincinnati Group/' pub¬ lished in the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, in October 1884 and January 1885. In this paper some of these so-called fucoids were referred to inorganic causes ; many more to trails and burrows, and some few to graptolites. None were considered indubitable algae. Some of the opinions in that paper require modification, but no addi¬ tional information has caused the opinion that they are not the remains of algae, to be changed. The American Naturalist. Two subjects of primary importance need to be discussed before any detailed examination of these problematic organ¬ isms can be made. These are: — I. — Absence of organic or carbonaceous matter. II. — Probability of the preservation of algae. I. — Absence of organic or carbonaceous matter. The absence of organic’ matter in the fossil bodies under consideration makes it difficult to decide in many cases what they really are. Their mode of occurrence is usually on the under side of the strata as objects in relief. They are mostly of indefinite and quite variable form, so it is scarcely possible to find any two alike in details. Not only are organic form and organic substance absent, but the beds in which the greater part of the bodies occur are strikingly deficient in organic re¬ mains of any other kind, and while these may be and are abundant in strata both above and below, the beds themselves are nearly barren of any but the problematic fossils. The absence of carbonaceous matter has been considered by some a strong argument against the vegetable nature of the remains; while the presence of it has, conversely, been re¬ garded as indicating an undoubted vegetable origin. But on the one hand we know of organisms, of unquestioned animal origin, in which not a trace of organic matter is left, the im¬ pression or cast alone remaining ; and we likewise know of unquestioned vegetable remains which are also in the form of casts ; but which are so perfectly preserved that even the deli¬ cate venation can be studied and described. On the other hand there are forms of animal origin, like the graptolites, in which there is abundant evidence of the presence of carbonaceous matter, just as there is in true plants, and some of the graptolites were originally referred to the vegetable kingdom on this account. So that it can scarcely be con¬ sidered that the presence of carbonaceous matter makes the organisms plants ; or that its absence militates against their vegetable nature. But, when the absence of definite form, of carbonaceous matter, of other organisms in the same beds of rock, and their occurrence in demi-relief on the under side of the strata ; when all these are taken into consideration, it can On Problematic Organisms. scarcely be denied that the probabilities are strongly against, not alone the vegetable nature of the remains, but also against their being the actual remains of animal forms. The disposition to regard certain branching fossils as plants, even when all carbonaceous material was absent, has been very general because it was for a long time supposed that worm burrows would not show any tendency to branch. But it is now well-known, as was pointed out by Dawson in 1873, and in much greater detail by Nathorst in 1881, that many worm burrows are habitually branched. This differs, however, mate¬ rially from the dichotomy of true plants, although it has been confounded with it. II. — Probabilities of the Preservation of Algae. Under the head of the probability of the preservation of algae in a fossil state, much can be said. It will perhaps not be denied by any geologist, no matter to which one of the two schools he may belong, that algae must have existed through¬ out all geological time, and that, too, often in the greatest abundance. This has been insisted upon by Salter (Memoirs of Geological Survey of Great Britain, vol. 3, 1866): by Les- quereux in his various publications (2nd Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, Report J ; also Coal Flora, Report P ; 13th An¬ nual Report Geological Survey of Indiana; Annual Report Geological Survey of Pennsylvania for 1886, etc.), and by others. The presence of masses of graphite in the Laurentian rocks ; of oil and gas in the Trenton and Devonian periods, to say nothing of the mere fact that myriads of animal forms could not have existed without the presence of algae, is suffi¬ cient proof that they once existed. But the questions are: Have they been preserved ? What are the chances of their preservation ? Are all the forms that have been described as algse, really such? If not; to what can they be referred? What is their origin ? The answer to some of these questions is final' as regards certain of the problematical organisms ; but the answer to the first two general questions has certainly not yet been given. The opinion held by many students is frequently biased by the expressed opinion of the first observer or describer of a The American Naturalist [Janaary, fossil. It has frequently happened, therefore, that when a form has been described originally as a plant, this identification has been accepted by subsequent workers, and only after many observations have been made and many treatises written, does the original opinion change. This is well shown in the case of Scolithw. Originally described as a plant, it was retained . for many years in the vegetable kingdom, and only after numerous investigators had examined it, was it definitely re¬ ferred to the animal world. To secure an answer to the query, “ what are the chances for the preservation of. algae as fossils ?” It becomes necessary to observe what is going on in modem oceans and the ocean margins to-day. In all favorable localities seaweeds occur in wonderful profusion. Some varieties live only between tide marks; others only below tide and to a depth of 15 fathoms; others at still greater depths, the growth of these deeper water forms, however, being limited by the penetration of light, vegetation ceasing entirely at depths between 100 and 200 fathoms. These plants occasionally form great masses in the eddies caused by oceanic currents, and cover many square miles of surface. This is the case with the Sargasso sea in mid Atlantic : the sea of kelp off the Falkland islands, and that off the coast of Japan. Some species are tough and leathery, and have thick stems and long fronds, some of these reaching a length of 300 feet. Some are fine and feathery, branching so as to form innumerable minute divisions. Some are hardly more than masses of jelly ; and some are covered with a calcareous coating and are thus more or less hard and horny. The last class, however, are not numerous. They are known commonly as Nullipores. The structural characters of the algse as a class, are strongly against their preservation under any sort of cover for any long period of time. The tissue is a mass of loosely united cells, often with scarcely more than sufficient coherence to hold to¬ gether ; and even in the tough and leathery varieties, the cells have little consistence, are all of one character, and retain their form for only a short period when buried. The late Prof. Leo Lesquereux studied the possibilities of preservation of algae, On Problematic Organic and he reached the conclusion that marine plants are only rarely preserved in a fossil state. He based his deductions of past conditions upon present ones ; and he noted that algae are at the present time scarcely ever found in any good state of preservation. “ The difference,” he says, “ between the woody or vascular tissue of land plants and the cellular compound of the marine or fresh-water algae, mere filaments glued together, or imbedded in vegetable mucus or gelatine, explains at once why the remains of fucoids are so rarely found petrified.’’ Further he says : " Nowhere have I been able to find any trace of a deposit of sea-weeds preserved from decomposition under any kind of superposed materials, sand, clay, etc. And, nevertheless in some of the countries visited, the shores in many localities are strewn with immense heaps of those plants thrown out by the waves. Marine vegetables, though they may appear of hard, leathery texture like most of the common species of Fucus, soon disintegrate, and pass into a gelatinous, half-fluid matter, which penetrates the sand, so that the lowest strata of these heaps when exposed to atmospheric action, do not generally preserve traces of their organism for more than one year.” While Lesquereux thus announces his positive belief, Mr. G. F. Matthew says that while the algae buried in sand, leave no trace, “ in clay the result is different. In the Till and Leda Clays of the Acadian coast, which have considerable antiquity, the writer has seen Polysiphonias and other delicate sea-weeds as well preserved as the ferns and Asterophyllites of the shales of the Carboniferous system.” It is generally acknowledged that organic remains are more likely to be preserved in an area of subsidence than in one that is stationary or rising. Sediment is rapidly accumulated in the first, and animals living in the vicinity are likely to be preserved. It is also probable that animals living on or near the bottom of the ocean have a better chance of being entombed than those floating in the water, so that a certain depth of water and a comparatively rapid accumulation of sediment seem to be two necessary adjuncts for the preservation of or¬ ganisms in anything like abundance or perfection. The so- The American Naturalist. called “ Fueoids,” and the problematical organisms in general are mostly found in strata whose appearance indicates disposi¬ tion in shallow water. Now this is in just the position where alga! might be expected to occur, but it is also the place where the chances of preservation are fewest. This seems to be con¬ clusively shown by the almost complete absence of true ani¬ mal remains from strata where the problematical organisms are most abundant. While fossils occur both above and below this horizon, and frequently in the greatest abundance, the actual layers where “Fueoids” are found are notorious for their barrenness.. The fragments which are found attest the abrading power of the water and we again see the small chance cellular organisms would have of being preserved, when cal¬ careous bodies of animals are ground to fragments.’ On the other hand it should be remembered that shallow flats, exposed, it may be, to the air twice a day, or even cov¬ ered with a slight depth of water, are admirably situated to receive and retain impressions left by crawling animal forms. Rain drop impressions, too, could be preserved, as well as mud cracks and the excavations made by rills of water on a sloping shore. These have all occured. Rain drop impressions, sun cracked earth, rill marks on the shore, and the burrows or trails of worms and molluscs, are all known from various geological homons. But true alga! in the older rocks are rare indeed ; and the most of those described as such take their place among he much discussed problematic organisms. The probabilities that true algai are included among the long list of species re¬ ferred to as plants is almost infinitely small; while on the ™tT7 he(cha“c!stl;at ^at have been so considered are referable to tracks, trails or inorganic causes, are almost in¬ finitely great. Nathoist has pointed out that an algm in sink¬ ing to the bottom of the water, if sufficiently solid to be pre¬ served, would not make a depression in the mud, but rather an devotion In reality the depression is what is found in the top of he stratum, while the elevation or cast occurs on the bottom of the next overlying stratum of rock. Shell-Bearing Mollusea. CATALOGUE OF THE SHELL-BEARING MOLLUSCA OF PORTAGE COUNTY, OHIO. By Geo. W. Dean.1 The following pages are the result of a somewhat industrious experience of about ten years, with the assistance of friends and experts, both within the state and outside of it. No pre¬ tence is made of completeness or perfect accuracy, for such a thing belongs to the impossibilities in the present unsettled and confused state of the nomenclature of this interesting de¬ partment of the science of Natural History. This confusion is most striking among the fresh water univalves and the Corbiculidse but it exists in nearly all the genera. I have no doubt that species new to the county will yet be discovered. I predict that TJnio parvus Barnes, and possibly Margaritana hildrethiana Lea, will be found in the south branch of the Mahoning in the township of Deerfield. I think also that the Rissoids will be increased by the dis¬ covery of new forms. My thanks are due to S. M. Luther and Geo. I. Streator for valuable aid. Class GASTROPODA. Sub-Class PULMONATA. Order Stylommatophora. Family Zonitidje. Genus Zonites, Gray. Section Hyalina Ferrussac. Zonites arbor eus Say. Common everywhere in woods and under logs. It is naturally an upland species, but it is often found in wet places. Zonites nitidus Mull. • Not so common as the above but is often found in large numbers in wet places, subject to occasional overflow. This is the largest of our Hyalinas. The American Naturalist. Zonites viridulus Mencke. Wet and swampy grounds away from running streams. Not abundant. Zonites indentatus Say. Habitat moist woods. Not gregarious or abundant. A dis¬ tinct and beautiful species. Zonites minusculus Binney. Rather rare. Damp old pastures around stumps and logs, sometimes in woods. I have found this species in four differ¬ ent localities but do not know how generally it is distributed. Zonites milium Morse. Habitat thick woods, in depressions among the moist leaves. Common, but not usually found in large numbers. The smallest of all our zonites. Zonites ferrem Morse. A northern species very rare in this latitude. A few ex¬ amples have been collected by S. M. Luther and Geo. I. Streator in the vicinity of Garrettsville. I have compared it with specimens from Maine and have no doubt of its correct¬ ness. Zonites exiguus Stimpson. I have collected this species in considerable numbers in an open marsh near my place, under sticks and old fence rails.' Not very common. All of the above are found at Kent except ferreus. Section Conidus, Fitz. Zonites fulvus Drap. Moist places, and very common. Section Gastrodonta, Albers. Zonites mppressus Say. This species is not uncommon but has not been collected in large numbers. It is found in different situations but gener¬ ally under leaves in moist woods. Zonites midtidentatus Binn. Habitat same as the above. It is a very beautiful species and has been collected in large numbers by Luther and Streator near Garrettsville, rather common. 1892.] Shell- Bearing Mollusca. 13 Section Mesomphix, Rafinsque. Zonites fuliginoms Griffith. Rather rare in this county so far as I have observed. On hill-sides in deep woods. Zonites ligurus Say. More common than any other species of mesomphix. Zonites intertextus Binn. Quite rare and has no existence in this part of the county. From Luther and Streator. Zonites inomatus Say. I have collected a few specimens of this species in Shalers- ville and Hiram townships, but it may be considered rare throughout the county. Family Selentid^e. Genus Macrocyclis Beck. M. concava Say. Common. This genus has its greatest development in the Pacific States, but it is the opinion of Mr. Hemphill, whose field of observation has been very extensive, that all of the recognized species of that region are simply varieties of con¬ cava. Specimens of concava from Kentucky are found to very closely resemble the large forms of vancouverensis from Oregon and Washington. Family Hemcid^e. Genus Patula. P. solitaria Say. Streator reports two localities where this species is found. I know of one. It is in woods on high ground in Hiram town¬ ship. The shells are small but high colored for the species which is usually rather dull. Gregarious. P. aliemata Say. A very common and abundant species. P. perspediva Say. Also very common in rotten wood. P. striatella Anthony. Rather common in wet places liable to overflow. It re¬ sembles the preceding in appearance but is quite different in its choice of location. The American Naturalist. Section Microphysa Albers. M. pygmea Drap. This minute species is not uncommon in woods among damp leaves, but it requires close search to find it. Section Helicodiscus Morse. if. lineatas Say. Under old logs, in limited quantity. Section Strobila Morse. & labyrinthica Say. Rather rare in most localities. There is a small variety in my woods near Kent that is depressed and keeled. Section Stenotrema Rafinesque. 3. hirsuta Say. Very common in wet places. S. monodon Rack. Var fratema. Common in woods. Section Triodopsis Raf. T. palliata Say. Rather common on heavy soils. Absent on the light soils about Kent. Its habitat is about decaying timber. T. infleda Say. Very rare in this county. More common in Sumit. I found two miles west of Akron a shell in every respect except size like the new species T. craigini Call, Kansas, and this leads to the suspicion that craigini may prove to be only an umbilicated variety of this species. T. tridmtata Say. Common. Shells of this species and the following one are small throughout the county, only about 12 mm. greatest diameter while at Cincinnati and further south they are 18 mm. or more. T. faUax Say. Much like the above but not as common. MW.] Shell-Bearing Mollusm. 15 Section Vallonia Risso. V pulchella Mull. Common. A circumpolar species common to three conti¬ nents. The costate variety, has not been observed here. Section Mesodon Rafinesque. M. alholabris Say. Our most common species. The heavy variety prevails in the northern part of the county, sometimes with the parietal tooth. Only the small variety is found near Kent and this is uniformly without the tooth. M. thyroides Say. A common and very distinct species. Like the above the large variety is found only upon heavy soils, and the small variety at Kent. M. profundus Say. Not common and it does not occur at Kent. Fine speci¬ mens have been collected at Garrettsville and elsewhere. M. multilineatus Say. The large variety is rare and only found in the northern part of the county. The small variety is not uncommon at Kent. The variety rufus is occasionally found, but the plain unbanded variety so common in some places does not occur in the county. M. sayi Binn. A small variety of this species has been found along Tinker’s €reek in Cuyahoga county, but only one specimen is known from this county. Collected by S. M. Luther. M. dentifera W. G. Binney. A single specimen reported from Hiram township by Mr. Luther. The determination may well be considered doubtful from the fact that there are so many forms of albolabris that this single specimen may be a sport or abnormal. It is the opinion of some well informed conchologists that major , exoleta, andrewsi, and this species are only some of its varietal forms. It is certain that the dividing lines are hard to find. The American Naturalist [January, Family Achatinid®. Genus Ferrussacia Risso. F. subcylindrica Linn. Not yet discovered in any numbers. A few isolated speci¬ mens only have been collected. Family Pupid®. Genus Pupa Lam. P pentodon Say. Most or all of the specimens I have seen are what is known as P. curvidens Gld. I have no doubt that both forms occur in the county. It is extremely variable and I do not with my present knowledge regard the latter as a distinct species. It is a common species and is found in localities very different in character. P. contracts Say. Common in wet places under decaying wood. P. corticaria Say. Inhabits bark of decaying logs as its nan^e indicates. Quite rare here ; I have 'only found six specimens in ten years. Pupa edentula Drap.= Vertigo simplex Gould. Not common. Attached to decaying wood and under leaves. Best time for collecting this species is late in the fall. P. alticola Ing. is probably identical with this. Genus Vertigo Muller. V bollesiana Morse. In swamps. Rare. V ovata Say. Rather common in wet places on logs and sometimes stones. V milium Gould. i“nt “ some places °“ deoayins wood and am°nS Family Succiniid®. Genus Succinea Drap. S. ovalis Gould. Very common. Shell-Bearing Mollmca. Also a very common species. It is usually covered with a black wooly substance easily removed with a brush. S. aurea Lea. Not recognized here. Collected at Garrettsville by Mr. Luther. S. obliqua Say. Found sparingly in low grounds. S. totteniana Lea. Not common. This is the only succinea that I have col¬ lected on uplands. It is usually considered a variety of obliqua , but its decided green color and different habitat would indicate that it is at least as good a species as some others. Family Auriculid^e. Genus Carychium Mull. C. exiguum Say. An abundant species attached to bits of decaying wood in localities like the preceding. Family Pomatiopsida;. Genus Pomatiopsis. P. lapidaria Say. Common along the borders of streams subject to overflow, along with Z. nitida and Succinea avara. This family is not usually placed among the Pulmonata. I give it this place because it is undoubtedly a land species. Family Limnauda:. Genus IAmnsea Lamark. L. columella Say. Not uncommon in stagnant water. L. casta Lea. A much smaller shell. Habitat the same and thought to be a variety of columella. L. decidiosa Say. Very common and abundant. Our smallest Limnea. 2 The American Naturalist. L. humilis Say. Much like the preceding only a little larger, common. L. caperata Say. A more robust species than the preceding but almost equally common. L. Jcirtlandiana Lea. There is much confusion about this species. The type was evidently only about half grown. The mature shell is quite common and it may prove to be only a slender form of the following. L. palustris Mull. I do not know that this species has been collected here but I think it has and I have no doubt of its existence in the county. L. reflexa Say. I have not seen it here but Mr. Streator reports it rather common at Garrettsville. Genus Bulinus Adanson. Bulinus hypnorum Linn. Not uncommon with habitat like the Limnseas in stagnant waters. Genus Physa Drap. Physa heterostropha Say. If Mr. Say had placed everything under this head that he could not place elsewhere the result would be about what we find it; an extremely variable and abundant species. Physa sayi Tappan. Physa zordii Baird. Physa ancillaria Say. All found here and all may prove only varieties of hetero¬ stropha. I have collected the latter in Stewart’s Lake together with anciUaria and more than half were doubtful as to which species they belonged. I regard anciUaria as only a variety. Physa gyrina Say. Equally variable with heterostropha and almost as common. 1892.] Shell-Bearing Mollusca. Physa ampuUacea Gould. Rare. This seems distinct but is said to be only a variety Physa niagarensis Lea. Reported by Streator from Camp Creek north of Garretts- ville but I have not seen the shells. Shells collected at Akron for this species are undoubtedly heterostropha. The true niagarensis is very heavy and very white, and not half the size of heterostropha. Very uniform in size and appearance. Genus Planorbis Guettard. P. trivolvis Say. Common but does not develop its full size here. P. bicarinatus Say. Common. Also small. P. campamdatus Say. Not uncommon. P. corpulentus Say. Doubtfully determined. Section Qyraulus Agass. P. albus Mull. P. dejledus Say. P. parvus Say. P. exacatus Say. All common. Section Segmentina Fleming. P. armigerus Say. An abundant and very distinct species. The following fresh water univalves are not classed with Pulmonata. Family Valvatid^j, Genus Valvata Mull. V. tricarinata Say. A very common species in streams. Family Strepomatid.k. Genus Goniobasis Lea. The American Naturalist. G. depygis Say. Very common and abundant in all the larger streams. J Family Rissoida. Genus Bithynella Moquin Tandon. B. nickliniana Lea. Known from Tinker’s Creek only. Genus Amnicola Gld. and Hald. A. pallida Hald. Tinker’s Creek: The two species last named were collected by Mr. Pettengell ol Hudson and I can give no particulars about them. A. porata Say. A. parva Lea. These two species are common at Kent, A. cincinnatienm Anth. douUfol6^7, Kent‘ The determinati- at the National M=oTX:hlernSthatthere^ut°“e^^ Family Ancylinas. A. nvutans Say ^ ^Sroy. gt Adheres to stones and is common in many of the streams. A. parallelus Hald. hoI°rt“mrin c‘UDggish Watere- Plentiful i„ the Cuva- hoga river on stems of Pontederin curdata, Streator. Shell-Bearing Mollusca. CLASS LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. Family Unionise. Genus Anodonta Cuvier. A. edentula Say. A common and well marked species. A. lacustris Lea. Not common. Lake Brady. A. ferrussaciana Lea. Reported by Luther and Streator from Silver Creek. I have no means of knowing whether the determination is correct. A. salmonea Lea. Cuyahoga river near the Geauga line. This shell is identi¬ cal with specimens from Ashtabula County that have been submitted to Geo. W. Tryon and Samuel H. Wright and iden¬ tified as this species. The whole interior of adult specimens are colored a deep salmon, apparently caused by a constitu¬ tional disease of the animal. It is, in some places very abun¬ dant in sluggish streams. A. svbcylindracea Lea. . An abundant species in all of the larger streams. A. pavonia Lea. The typical form is rather common in the Cuyahoga river. A fine radiated variety is found in the Little Mahoning. A. grandis Say. I have fine large specimens of this species from a small stream in Windham township. A. decora Lea. This is a very beautiful shell but evidently only a smaller form of grandis. A . fragilis Lam. I am unable to see any value in this species. It is probably another form of grandis. A. pipiniana Lea. A set of this species is now in good condition, in the Lea collection at the National Museum from Lake Pepin in this township. Superficial examinations have not resulted in its re-discovery. The American Naturalist. A. plana Lea. Immense specimens of this species over eight inches long inhabit a small pond in Stratsboro township. A. imbedlis Say. Very rare here. One specimen from Lake Brady and one from a small pond in Franklin township. They have not the beantiful bluish green tint of Ohio river specimens. Recently Mr. Streator reports this species in considerable numbers from the Cuyahoga river in the north part of Hiram township. Genus Margaritana Schum. M. rugosa Lea. This robust and plentiful species in the larger streams is com¬ paratively rare here, but I have seen it in the Cuyahoga and it is probably found in Silver Creek and other tributaries of the Mahoning. M. complanata Lea. In Silver Creek, but not abundant. M. marginata Say. In Silver Creek and doubtless other branches of the Mahon¬ ing, but not very common. Genus JJnio Retz. U. coccinem Lea. Silver Creek, Windham township. Unio gibbosus Barnes. Silver Creek, Windham township. Common. U. luteolus Lam. Common and abundant in all the larger streams. U. nasutus Say. Common in many of the lakes and small streams and abun¬ dant in the Cuyahoga. U. pressus Lea. A very common species. U. undulatus Barnes. Silver Creek, Windham and doubtless other tributaries of the Mahoning. U. occidens Lea. Branches of the Mahoning but not abun¬ dant. This form of occidens is identical with V. mbovatus Lea. Shell-Bearing Mollusea. Family Corbiculid^. Genus Sphserium Scopoli. S. sulcatum Lam. Common at Kent. S. solidulum Prime. Kent. S. striatinum Lam. Kent. & stromboideum Say. Not common. Garrettsville. * S. ocddentale Prime. Not common. Kent. S. truncatum Kingsly. Kent. There is some doubt about the determination of this species. S.fabalis Prime. Fine specimens from Geo. I. Streator at Garrettsville. S. securis Prime. Rare at Kent. & rosaceum Prime. This species undoubtedly occurs here, but like the preceding is rare. & partumeium Say. Genus Pisidium Pfr. P. abditum Hald. Found sparingly in swamps. P. compressum Prime. Abundant here in the Breakneck Creek. Fine large speci¬ mens. The American Naturalist. [January,. THE CEREMONIAL CIRCUIT OF THE CARDINAL ! POINTS AMONG THE TUSAYAN INDIANS. By J. Walter Fewkes. During the progress of the secret ceremonials which are per¬ formed in the Kib-vas or Esfufas at Hual-pi, and other pueblos of the old province of Tusayan, it is customary for a priest to pass on the north side of the fire-place as he -approaches the altar, and on the south as he passes from the altar to the ladder. This custom is conscientiously followed by the older priests, especially when taking part in important ceremonials, and I have seen novices, and even old priests corrected and sent back when they had violated this simple kib-va custom. Has this usage1 a meaning and if so what is it? I cannot answer these questions * satisfactorily, but I can show that the custom permeates most of their religious ceremonials, and that it makes its appearance in many different forms. It may shed some light on our knowledge of the meaning of this usage if some of the instances in which it appears in ceremonials be mentioned. Possibly kindred facts may suggest at least a theoretical explanation. It is necessary at the very threshold of -the subject to define the Hopi conception of the position of the cardinal points. The Hopi* or as they are generally called the Mokis have six points which they recognize in their ceremonial observances. liiiiiii iiiis 1892.] Ceremonial Circuit of the Cardinal Points. 29 have always noticed that after having puffed the smoke upon the sacred things on the altar, they send a whiff to each of the cardinal points in the ceremonial circuit. In the midst of some of the most sacred ceremonies of prepara¬ tion of medicine it is customary in certain observances to make four marks with sacred meal on each wall of the house, on the ceiling and floor. During the midnight exercises of the Flute Observance and in the woman’s dance, La-la-kon-ti, as well as in several other ceremonies this has been observed. When the priests make their four marks on the walls, they always begin with the north and follow the ceremonial circuit, ending with the floor. In the Snake Celebration the planting of the prayer plumes is entrusted to one of the four chiefs of the antelopes, who places four each day in appropriate shrines, one at each of the four cardinal points. To do this he makes a course around the mesa, the radius of which diminishes each day until the last when he does not leave the top of the mesa itself. In making these runs to deposit the plumes he follows the ceremonial cir¬ cuit, beginning with the shrine at the north and ending with that at the east. The snake priests plant their prayer sticks and hunt on four consecutive days for the snakes used in the dance, first to the north, then to the west, then to the south and finally to the east of the mesa on which the pueblo stands. It is the custom of the Tusayan pueblos to celebrate a solemn ceremony at the time of the Flute Festival1 in which the cloud god, O-man-a, personified by one of their priests, deposits prayer plumes in the bed of their large springs and takes offerings from the same. At a most impressive time in this ceremony he wades about the spring, neck deep in the water, four times each in the direction necessitated by the cere¬ monial circuit. 1 This celebration lasts nine days Dance in Hual-pi and Mi-shon-o-vi Shi-mo-pa-vi end O-lai-bi. I had tl pueblo and to be initiated into the celebration called the Ley-la-tak I I of American Folk Lore, a Suggestic last day of the er place (Journal i Snake Dance). the sun in its daily course in the sky. It is proba- -1892.] Ceremonial Circuit of the Cardinal Points. 31 bly more than a coincidence that it is the same circuit which the snake and antelope priests take when they move about the place, and where the latter carry the snakes in their mouths. It is generally the same circuit adopted by some of the Kat- chi-nas when they turn in the dances, viz : opposite the motion of the hands of a watch.1 It is not possible in a short notice to develop the idea of a fixed ceremonial circuit which is rarely violated. To do so as I would wish, necessitates long descriptions of ceremonies, the names even of which are new to ethnological students. It is possible here to hardly do more than make the barest state¬ ments, which will later be substantiated when the ceremonial ■events are minutely described. The custom of entering and leaving a kib-va, or of passing the fire-place on a certain side is but one illustration of a law which finds expression through¬ out all the religious customs, secret and public, of the Tusayan Indians. It would be interesting to see whether other Ameri¬ can races have the same ceremonial circuit of the cardinal points. My reading has shown me that in some instances they -do not. 32 The American Naturalist. [January, THE ASH-GRAY HARVEST-SPIDER. By Clarence M. Weed, D. Sc. The Ash-gray HaTvest-spider ( Phalangium dnereum Wood) occurs over a large portion of the northern United States, and is the species most commonly found about sheds and outbuild¬ ings. It is the only one of the harvest-spiders described by Say and Wood that is still retained in the genus Phalangium. LITERATURE. This species, like many others of the family, was first de¬ scribed in Dr. Wood’s paper published in 1868 in the Com¬ munications , of the Essex Institute (vol: vi,pp. 25-26, 39 ; fig. 5) under the name by which it is yet known. The author had received a large number of specimens collected in northern New York. Aside from a bibliographical reference by Professor Under¬ wood, occurring in the Canadian Entomologist in 1885 (vol. xvii, p. 168), no notice of the species appears in our literature until October, 1887, when the present writer called attention, in the American Naturalist (vol. xxi, p. 935), to the fact that this species comes properly in the genus Phalangium as restricted by Simon. Two years later I again treated of the species in my Descriptive Catalogue of the Phalangiina; of Illinois (Bull. III. St. Lab. Nat. Hist, vol: iii, pp. 93—94), publishing extended descriptions from specimens’ collected in Central Illinois and Southern Michigan. It was also briefly mentioned in my paper on the Harvest-spiders of North America in the American Naturalist for October, 1890 (vol. xxiv, p. 916) where it is said to occur in the northern states from New York to Nebraska. life-history. The Ash-gray Harvest-spider passes the winter in the egg state. A few years ago in Illinois I found a bunch of about a dozen small, white, spherical eggs, slightly beneath the soil sur¬ face, which were transferred to breeding cages. During the spring they hatched into small, gray phalangids which were PLATE T. Phalangim 1892.] The Ash-Gray Harvest-Spider. 33 believed to belong to the present species. I have never seen the female engaged in oviposition, but the structure of the ovipositor (Fig. 2, h) indicates that the eggs are deposited in the ground, about half an inch below the surface. In the latitude of central Ohio there are apparently two broods each season, the first maturing late in June or early in July, and the second, which is much the more numerous in individuals, in September. This species is preeminently what may be called an in-door species. It abounds especially in sheds, out-houses and neglected board piles, being rarely found, so far as my experi¬ ence goes, in the open field. Its color especially fits it for crawling over weather-beaten boards, making it inconspicuous against such a back-ground. During the day it is usually quiet, but at dusk, and on cloudy days, it moves about quite rapidly. It probably feeds upon small flies and other insects that it finds during its nocturnal rambles. The only natural enemies that I have seen it suffering from are the web-making spiders, in the webs of which it often perishes, often getting its long legs inextricably entangled. DESCRIPTION. The following descriptions have been drawn up from a long series of specimens collected over a wide range of territory. The American Naturalist. Variation. Like most members of its family the Ash-gray Harvest- spider varies greatly in the size of its body and the length of its legs. To determine the extent of this variation, I collected at Columbus, Ohio, about the middle of September, 1889, a large number of adult specimens of both sexes, which were carefully measured by my assistant, Miss Freda Detmers. The results are shown in the tables on "pages 35 and 36. These tables show a remarkable amount of variation on both sides of the line of average. It will be noted that the differ¬ ence between the greatest and least measurements averages about one-third the entire length of the latter in both sexes ; and that only two cases occur in each table where the leg measurements are identical, viz: Nos. 5 and 13, and 7 and 25 in Table I ; and 16 and 20, and 23 and 25 in Table II. These facts indicate how readily -this family of long-legged spiders could have been developed from allied forms with shorter legs. DISTRIBUTION. Hr. Wood states that this species was found abundantly in northern New York. Specimens in my collection represent the following counties of the states named : Illinois: Champaign. Iowa : Story (C. P. Gillette). 18?2.J The Ash-Gray Harvest-Spider. 35 Maine : Penobscot (F. L. Harvey). Michigan : Ingham (H. E. Weed). Nebraska : Lancaster (Lawrence Bruner). New York : Tompkins (J. H. Comstock : N. Banks). Ohio : Butler, 1 September, 1890 ; Delaware, 18 September, 1890;*Erie, 5 July, 1890; Franklin, 4 October, 1890; 18, 20, 21 September, 1889 ; 18 October, 1889 ; Lawrence, July, 1889 ; Madison, 21 July, 1890. South Dakota : Brookings (J. M. Aldrich). The American Naturalist. Variation of Phalangium cinereum. Table II. Female. Fig. 1. — Phalangium cinereum, male natural size. (Original F. Detmers, del) Fig. 2. — Phalangium cinereum, structural details : a, body of male, back view ; h, eye eminence of male, side view ; d, palpus of male, side view ; e, claw of palpus of male, side view ; /, max¬ illary lobe of second legs, of female ; h, apical joints of ovi¬ positor; i, dorsal tubercle of male — all magnified. (Original, F. Detmers, del) 1882.] General Notes. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. 42 The American Naturalist. shells of arenaceous Foramenifera, like H yperammina. The number of known species of fish was doubled, and specimens were secured of a remarkable deep-sea Plagyodus. In archaeology a very interesting discovery was made of the remains of an ancient Esquimaux village, among the refuse of which were found many bone implements, orna¬ ments and carvings of ivory. The work of a sub-expedition, which rediscovered the grand falls, whose height was shown to be 316 feet, was briefly referred to. In closing, Prof. • Lee said that, while a great many additions to the fauna have been made by the large collections secured, there is still great opportunity for further investigation and exploration, and the members of the expedition consider the country a very important field. Studies of the Gulf Stream. The last report presented to the meeting was by Prof. William Lib- bey, Jr., of Princeton University, and it proved one of the most inter¬ esting and valuable of the series. It referred to the study, with the United States Fish Commission, of the currents in the Gulf Stream on portions of the Atlantic coast. The Professor said the work was conducted on a series of lines parallel to the coast of New Jersey, between Block Island and Nantucket. Along these lines, which were 150 miles m length, were made a series of stations, at which stations observations were made in temperature and densities ; also in currents ; and, at the same time, meteorological observations. All of these observations, he said, showed the peculiar relations of the Gulf Stream to the Labra¬ dor current. The position of the different curves of temperature were drawn after these observations were plotted. These curves of fifty degrees showed marks of the boundary of the intrusion of the Labra- dorcurrent into the northern edge of the warmer waters. Then the fact was shown, continued Professor Libbey, that we were dealing with two different sets of currents — one a deep series, and the other a surface set; both being modified by the mechanical laws of their motion, by changes in velocity, temperature and density. But e su ace currents were further modified by the direction, duration and velocity of the wind currents. The appearance of smaller, band-like currents upon the north-bound Gulf Stream, which were reversed in the direction of their motion after they had passed somewhat to the northward, was explained and offered as a reason for the appearance of schools of fishes at different points o t e coast, since the warmer waters provide the proper conditions E. T. The American Naturalist. deposits are not confined to the eastern slope, as Bailey had supposed. Mr. Edwards further states that the geological age of a fresh-water Diatomaceous strata cannot be determined by means of the microscope unless they are proved by other evidence to be of greater age than the present period. Enough is known of the habitat of certain species to make it easy to tell whether the deposit has been made in pond, lake, river, marsh, bay or ocean. On the Relationship of the Plistocene to the Pre-plisto- cene Formations of the Mississippi Basin South of the Limit of Glaciation. — In the American Journal of Science, May, 1891, is published a paper, the joint production of Mr. T. C. Cham¬ berlin and Mr. E. D. Salisbury, on the relationship of the Loess and the Orange Sand south of the limit of glaciation. The deposits inves¬ tigated by the writers are included between the parallels of 35° and that of the northern limit of the Mississippi Basin. Throughout much of this territory the loess lies upon the glacial drift. It may be traced across the limit of the drift from north to south. The continuity is complete, and the character of the formation is the same on both sides of the line which marks the limit of ice advance. North of the limit, the evidence, in the judgment of the writers, is conclusive that the loess belongs to the closing stages of the first glacial epoch. If, there¬ fore, the age of the loess which covers the drift be first glacial, the age of that which lies south of the drift, in the area under discussion, is likewise first glacial. Between the relationship of the till north of the limit of glaciation and the relationship of the loess to the residuary earths of the Paleo¬ zoic rocks immediately outside the drift there is an important differ¬ ence. The presence of a weathered and highly-oxidized zone, subja¬ cent to the loess, south of the drift-limit, is as conspicuous as its absence to the north. This oxidized zone is the upper surface of the residuary earths, and clearly indicates the existence of a long interval between the loess and the residuary earths beneath. Beneath the loess, south of the limit of glaciation, lie the series of gravels and sands known as the Orange sands. It is a peculiarity of the distribution of loess, that elevations within the area of its occur¬ rence seem to be no obstacle to its presence. The same may be said of the gravel. From their relative position it is evident that the latter is the older of the two. That it is much older is shown (1 ) by a zone of oxidation between the loess and the Orange sand ; (2) by a marked unconformity when the loess covers a hill, indicating a long period of PLATE II. Myxoshma macrolepidotum Les. PLATE III. Mo. Bot. Garden, 1893 50 The American Naturalist. between the two in age, and as filling a gap in the geologic series hith¬ erto vacant. — E. D. Cope. Boulder Trains and Boulder Belts. — Mr. T. C. Chamberlain recognizes two leading types of glacial boulders: (1) boulder trains, and (2) boulder belts. Boulder trains originate from knobs or promi¬ nences of rock which lay in the path of the glacial movement. They lie in the line of glacial movement, but not strictly parallel to it, but rather in radiating lines, and may be called boulder fans. The boul¬ ders are usually of a single kind, growing smaller and more worn as traced away from the parent knob, and are mingled with the underly¬ ing drift. The boulder belts lie transverse to the direction of glacial movement, are composed of stones of different kinds, from distant sources, and do not mingle deeply with the underlying drift. These boulder belts coincide closely with terminal moraines, which suggests that they were deposited by the margin of the ice that formed the moraines. — Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Yol. I.. 1889. Geological News. — General. — Elk Lake, discovered by Mr. Chambers, July 6, 1872, is officialy announced as the ultimate source of the Mississippi River. — Am. Geol., Nov., 1891) - Accord¬ ing to J. C. Branner, Crowley’s Ridge, in Eastern Arkansas, is not an upheaval, but is the result of an erosion along both sides of it. The ridge is capped with Tertiary, while the valleys, both east and west, are covered with material of a later date. (Report Geol. Surv. Ark., 1889.) - Mr. Ellsworth Call’s studies of the geology of East¬ ern Arkansas have shown that divisions within this area must be based upon stratigraphic and petrographic, rather than upon paleontologic data. The paucity of fossil remains to preclude a classification based upon faunal contents. (Report Ark. Geol. Surv., 1889.) Paleozoic.— Mr. G. F. Matthew is of the opinion that more than one horizon of life is represented in the assemblage of forms known as the Olenellus Fauna. This appears to be indicated by the fauna <>f Washington County, N. Y., the source of the Emmons types, which has been recently studied by Mr. Walcott. {Am. Geol., Nov., 1891. - A series of papers on the Paleontology of the Ohio Valley, by J. F. James, is being published in the Journal of the Cin.Soc. Nat. Hist., 1891. The first one treats of Plante and Protozoa. The other groups will be taken up in regular order. - A study of the rocks at Toint Pleasant, in Southern Ohio, leads Mr. James to the conclusion that there is no more reason for assigning them to the Trenton than there The American Naturalist. probably from Mauritius. Its principal distinctive features are the very small tympanic cavity and the backward prolongation of the palatines and vomers, the latter forming a suture with the basisphe- noid. (Proceeds. Lond. Zool. Soc., Jan., 1891.) - Two species of Procoptodon are described and figured by Mr. Lydekker in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, Nov., 1891. These fos¬ sils are two mandibular rami, and they were obtained from the clay- beds near Miall Creek, on the Northern frontier of New South Wales. They have been referred provisionally to P. rapha and P. goliah. MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.1 Petrographical News. — The eruptive rocks of Velay, Haute Loire, France, in the order of their age are basalts, trachytes and tra- chytic phonolites, augite andesites, porphyritic basalts, nepheline pho- nolites and nepheline basalts. Termier,2 who describes them, gives but a few brief notes on each type. The younger phonolites form the lar¬ ger part of the hill. They contain aegerine in light-green porphyritic crystals, and in microlites. At the south-east of St. Pierre-Eynac are tertiary clay slates cut by dykes of phonolite, whose tiny veins pene¬ trate metamorphosed phases of the elastics, and are thus consequently regarded as the agents producing the alteration. The rocks represent¬ ing the first stage in the alteration consist of granitic debris, in which secondary opal has been deposited around the feldspar and quartz frag¬ ments. In some instances, in addition to the opal there have been formed also secondary quartz and calcite, the former as a fibrous rim around the grains. In more intensely changed phases, the slate is traversed by veins of phonolite, whose contact with the sedimentary rock is not visible, since on both sides of it the material of the phono¬ lite has thoroughly impregnated the slate. On the other hand the phonolite of the veins contains sphene, but no augite, while the normal rock contains an abundance of aegerine, but no sphene. In the final stage all the quartz of the slate has disappeared, and the rock is com¬ prised principally of opal, serpentine and clay (halloysite ?), with pleo- naste, colorless augite and hornblende as new prpducts. The alteration is thus a silicification. In other, more rare cases, it is a feldspathiza- tion.— Hutchings3 has recently studied the material of which slates are formed, having examined for this purpose, clays and micaceous sand- 1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me. 2 Bull. d. Serv. d. 1. carte Gebl. d. Fr. No. 13, 1890. 8 Geological Magazine VII, 1890, p. 264 and 316, and lb. 1891, p. 164. iliiiii)! IlliSiirS'I 'till! ,I,p.21. The American Naturalist. 64 ZOOLOGY. PLATE IV. Trochocopua pulcher Aym. PLATE V. Scar us hoplomystax Cope The American Naturalist. B Unarmed Hymenolepis, i. e. Adult without hooks. 13. H. relicta Zschokke, 1888. 14. H. diminuta End., 1819. Svn. Taenia diminuta Rud., 1819. T. leptocephala Crep- lin, 1825. T. flavopunctata Weinland, 1858. T. varesina Erm Parona, 1884. T. minima Grassi, scattered through the parenchym. Most of the species of this group are parasites of birds, D. ( Taenia ) madagascariensis however is para¬ sitic in man. 3, Ophryocotyle Friis, 1869. Rostrum absent, infundi¬ bulum present, its border armed with several rows of small hooks. Several transverse rows of hooks on the suckers. The subfamile Anoplocephalinae R. Bl., ’91, contains the unarmed Taeniae found in herbivorous animals, segments wider than long, egg with pyriform apparatus, 3 genera. 1, Bertia, R. Bl., ’91, genital pores irregularly alternate, etc., 2 species, found in primate anthro- poides, (Mem. cit. p. 186-196). 2, Moniezia, R. Bl., ’91, two genital pores to each segment, etc., (Bui. cit. p. 444) contains 11 species many of which are important to economic zoology : M. ( Taenia ) expansa and M. (T.) denticulata of sheep and cattle, etc. 3, Anoploeephala Em. Bl., 1868, sexual pores unilateral, etc., contains 2 species: A . ( Taenia ) mamillana and A. (T.) perfoliata of the horse, etc. In the 3ame publication R. Blanchard treats more minutely several species of the genus Moniezia found in rodents and gives some shorter observations on various Distomes.— C. W. Stiles. Nematodes.— Willach (Arch. f. w. u. pr. Thierheilkunde, 1891, p. 340-346) describes a new and dangerous parasite, found in nodules of the colon of Maeacus cynomolgus. This helminth, which receives the name of Sclero8toma apiostomnm, proved fatal in two out of three cases ex¬ amined. Stiles (Sur la Dent des Embryons d’Ascaris ; Bull. d. 1. Soc. Zool. d. France, 1891, p. 162) claims that the so-called “boring tooth” found in embryos of Ascaris lumbricoides is composed of three parts, each of which corresponds to a lip of the adult Ascaris.— C. W. S. (Mus deeumanus 1 Cercocystis lAsopia farinalis Im. deeumanus Anisolabis annu- L lipes M. rattus Axis spinosa M. musculus Scaurus striatus M. alexandrinus Homo . liiiia'lPiiilii iIliiMUiii -U. O. Cox. 72 EMBRYOLOGY.1 etfl lltlfl The American Naturalist. first part of the paper deals with the author’s visits to Florida and his own and others’ observations on the habits of the alligator. The times of laying lie between June 9th and 17 th, “while it is probable their eggs are occasionally laid somewhat later. I doubt if they are ever laid much before the 9th.” The nest is very large and is built by the female, and it is probable that the same nest may be used more than once but not more than once each year. In counting lots of eggs the number averaged twenty-eight each. Fine plates accompany the paper giving the superficial structure of the stages of development. Unfortunately none of the internal changes are given, and the text is a very brief description of the fifty- The author’s purpose is to furnish a general account or outline of the forming of the alligator as seen in external features. “ I have been led to do this by reason of the entire lack of any embryological knowledge of the alligator group, and on account of there still being something to be desired in the way of a set of general figures illustrating the development of a reptile.” ENTOMOLOGY.1 The Ox Warble Fly. — The Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Archives for June, 1891, contains an article by Dr. Cooper Curtis upon the “ Oxwarble in the United States.” Dr. Curtis reviews the literature of the subject and shows that what American writers have thought to be Hypoderma bovis, is really H. lineata. Larvae of this insect having been found in the oesophagus, under the pleura near the eleventh rib, and in the subcutaneous tissue of the back, led Dr. Curtis to conclude that the life history of this insect is not as has been supposed ; i. e. that the eggs are laid along the backs of cattle, and upon hatching, the young larvae bore into the skin. If no larvae or “ wolves ” are found in the backs of cattle until January, it is probable that the eggs are taken into the mouth and the larvae go from the oesophagus to the back. — Howard Evarts Weed, Miss¬ issippi Agricultural College. Spontaneous Ignition of Carbon Bisulphide. — According to- a recent issue of the Scientific American Supplement , Dr. Max Popel ‘Conducted by Prof. C. M. Weed, Hanover, N. H. The American Naturalist. orably associated. Fortunately her work as an entomologist is not to be interrupted, and she will continue to place her knowledge at the service of agriculturists.” The newspapers report that a large manufacturing building at Springfield, Illinois, has been riddled by an insect borer, apparently a small beetle. MICKOSCOPY.1 A New Method of Using Celloidin for Serial Section Cutting. — The following has several features which recommend it as preferable to the ordinary methods of section cutting. — It allows a perfect orientation ; the entire object is visible during the process of cutting ; yolk-bearing eggs offer no serious difficulty ; sections of large area and of unusual thinness are easily secured ; crimping and curling during the process of clearing are avoided and the sections may be readily arranged in series. The object is first stained in toto, dehydrated, infiltrated with thin, medium and thick celloidin or collodion, (Squibbs Flexible Collodion rendered thick by evaporation is excellent) and finally placed in a paper tray filled with the thick collodion. In a few moments a film will form over the exposed surface of the collodion, when the paper tray with its contents is thrown into a jar of strong chloroform, in which after a few hours, the collodion becomes quite hard. Thus far we have been following only the more ordinary methods. The tray is now taken from the chloroform and, after the paper has been removed from the hardened block, the collodion with its enclosed object is placed in a vial of white oil of thyme, or some other similar oil. If the block of collodion is not large, in a few hours it will become as clear as glass, the stained object appearing as if suspended in a transparent fluid. For the process of orienting, the block of collodion may now be taken from the oil, placed in a watch crystal and, after covering with the oil of thyme, examined with a lens or, if more desirable, with a compound microscope. The side of the block that is to be attached to the object holder of the minotome is now selected, wiped dry of the oil and immersed for a moment in ether and then smeared with thick collodion. The object holder, a block of wood rather than cork, is 1 Edited by C. O. Whitman, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. >LATE VI. 1892.] Microscopy. smeared in the same way and the two collodionized surfaces are brought together. The holder and collodion block are now immersed for a few minutes in chloroform, or long enough for them to become firmly united. The preparation is now screwed between the jaws of the object- carrier of the minotome and covered, by means of a camel’s hair brush, with oil of thyme. The minotome knife is flooded with the same oil. The oil, which thus takes the place of alcohol usually used, has the advantage because of its lubricating property, of not only permitting thin sections to be cut, but its slow evaporation allows one to leave his work at anytime for minutes or even hours without the object being injured. After a few sections have been cut from the block of collodion, the relative position of the plane of the knife to the axis of the object can be definitely established. I have had no difficulty in orienting small Arthropod embryos by simply examining the object and plane of cut¬ ting at this time with a compound microscope. The segments, appen¬ dages and even nuclei being as clearly shown as if mounted in balsam. The object, satisfactorily oriented, is now cut and the sections at once transferred to the slides, covered with balsam and mounted, or, if they are not immediately needed, they may be kept indefinitely in. a vial of the oil. If the sections are to be arranged * in series,’ they are simply placed upon a slide one after the other, care being taken not to flood the slide with oil but to keep it quite dry. After the sections are arranged, the slide is tilted up to allow the excess of oil to dram away, fifteen minutes generally being sufficient. Balsam is now7 placed on t e sections and a warm cover is allowed to gently fall over the series, no section of which ought to leave its place. The above method is especially useful in the preparation of larger yolk-bearing eggs.— H. C. Bumpus, Brown University, Frov., R. l.y Dec., 14, 1891. Imbedding Blastoderm of Chick in Collodion.1— For sec¬ tioning, blastoderms should be dehydrated, either before or after staining, as is thought best, and immediately transferred to a in solution of collodion* (2 per cent.,) after which they are placed m a The American Naturalist. thick solution of collodion (5 per cent.) and then arranged for imbed¬ ding and sectioning. To accomplish this, the following procedure has been found useful : With a camel’s hair brush transfer the blastoderm from 95 per cent, alcohol to a paper box. It is better to fill this box partly full of alchohol (95 per cent.) before transferring the blastoderm to it, as the alcohol partially floats the blastoderm and thus facilitates its removal from the brush. As soon as the blastoderm is safely in the box, remove the alchohol with a dropper (do not try to pour it off, other- the blastoderm will curl up) and carefully pour in enough thin collodion to cover the blastoderm to the depth of about £ c.m. The box is now placed in a tightly covered jar to pre¬ vent too rapid evaporation and the consequent solidification of the collodion. After the blastoderm has remained a sufficient length of time (from one to three or more hours, depending on the size of the blastoderm) in the thin solu¬ tion, the collodion is removed with a dropper, and the thick solution poured on. After infiltrating sufficiently with thick collodion, 2 to 10 hours, open the jar and allow a film to form on the surface of the collodion, then fill the paper box 'with alcohol (60 to 80 per cent.) and allow it to remain until the collodion, of collodion-imbedded collodion becomes firm and tough ; two °^p tsL to four hours is usually sufficient. Now aJ . h^te,4 T dlSC’ m wh‘ch a sharp knife a square or rectang- are imbedded the glass tacks. The i . ^ cork (C), on which the embryo (E) “lar P1*0® °f C°!lod,0n mcl“dmg the is imbedded, is poshed down npon blaStodcrm 18 cut out and arranged on a glass tack (T), and is held in cor^ in any position desired ; the position under the liquid (L), alco- block is fastened to the cork, as any hoi or chloroform, while the collo- ordinary tissue, by simply pouring over ion is hardening. it thick collodion, which is hardened by immersing in alcohol (60 to 80 per cent.) for from 5 to 15 hours. For holding^ the corks under the alcohol the following apparatus e j i economical and convenient than the method of has been found Proceedings of Scientific Societies. attaching weights to the < The apparatus consists simply of a glass jar, in the bottom of which are fastened several rows of glass tacks. The material necessary for its construction consist of a wide-mouthed jar, a few pieces of glass rod, and a little plaster of Paris. The tacks are made by heating the glass rod and drawing it out to a rather sharp point. It is then cut off at the right length and the cut end softened by heat and then quickly pressed upon some hard surface, so as to form a sort of head. The tacks are then arranged in rows vapor upon collodion or celloidin sections to fasten viousiy Oliea, ana enougn them to the slide. The tube of calcium chloride plaster of Paris poured ( Ca Cl 2) is for dehydrating the ether vapor. around them to form a layer li to 2 c.m. deep. When this hardens, the tacks are firmly held in an upright position, and all that remains to be done is to place the plaster disc in the bottom of the glass jar. To use the apparatus, fill it partly full of alcohol (60 to 80 per cent.). As the specimens are imbedded on the corks, transfer them to this jar, sticking each cork upon a tack. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. The American Society of Naturalists— Met in Philadelphia, December 29th and 30th, 1891. They discussed a salient point in evo¬ lution on the morning of the 30th, and in the afternoon listened to the descriptions of three important expeditions which went out in 1891. The morning session was given up to the reading of four papers on ** Definite vs. Fortuitous Variation in Animals and Plants.” Professor Thomas Meehan, Professor J. P. McMurrich, Professor J. A. Allen and The Ar Naturalist. Professor E. D. Cope each read papers on their separate specialties in reference to the subject under discussion. The meeting was called to ‘ order on the 29th, by the President, Professor Rice, and the report of the Treasurer of the society was approved. Among the other items in the Treasurer’s report was $100 as a subscription to the “American table” at the Naples Zoological Station. Professor H. F. Osborn, of Princeton, introduced Professor Charles W. Stiles, of Washington, that the latter might describe the present status of the Naples Station. Professor Stiles told of the excellent work done at Naples, where a laboratory has been erected, which is now a centre of investigation for naturalists all over the world. Here the most eminent scien¬ tists of all nations assemble to exchange views and study the life that teems in the Bay of Naples. Almost every nation in the world has made a subscription to the station in the form of an endowment for a “ table,” at which the distinguished scholars may study. The United States was represented for three years through the Smithsonian Institu¬ tion, but for many years there has been no American table, and those American students who visit the Biological Station do so as a courtesy from foreign nations. The cost of a table is $500 a year. The American Association for the Advancement of Science has made a donation of $100, which, with the present donation and one or two other gifts from colleges, will greatly aid the work, so that an American table will almost certainly be maintained in 1892. Looking toward the future maintenance of this table, the Executive Committee recommended that the society memorialize the Smithsonian Institution, recommending that the Institution assume the responsibility of maintaining an American table at the Naples Zoological Station in future years. This recommendation was adopted. The following members were elected; George V. McLanthalen, Massachusetts Institute of Technology : Henry B. Ward, Harvard College; Charles W. Stiles, Department of Agriculture, Washington ; George W. Fuller,* Biologist, Massachusetts Board of Health ; J. E. Ives, Philadelphia Academy ; Robert P. Bigelow, Johns Hopkins Univer¬ sity; Alexander H. Philip, Princeton College; Charles Freeman William McClure, Princeton College ; William A. Setchell, Yale Col¬ lege; Joel A. Allen, American Museum of Natural History, New York ; Henry A. Fernald, State College of Pennsylvania. The Committee on Nominations recommended the following officers, who were unanimously elected : President, H. Fairfield Osborn, Co¬ lumbia College; Vice-Presidents, Samuel F. Clarke, Williams College; The American Naturalist. Water plants, with the varying characteristics in proportion to their growth on land or in water, were referred to, rather as hereditary powers of adaptation than as acquired ones. Carnivorous plants and parasitic plants were referred to in the same connection. Professor Meehan urged, however, that there were very strong facts in favor of fortuitous variation, as there must necessarily be, to draw so strong a support of that view from eminent men. A comparison of some trees of the Rocky Mountains with identical species on the Pacific was made. They undoubtedly had a common origin within comparatively recent times, and the elevation following the upheaval of the Rockies, was assumed to be the fortuitous circumstance in¬ fluencing the change. Some of these had wandered so far apart as to be regarded in some cases as distinct species. The hardiness of mag¬ nolias, sweet gums and others, from Northern seed, as against seeds of Southern trees, was also touched on. On the other hand, annual plants would not resist frost. The same white frost killed foliage in these as probably did long ages ago. Heredity was then taken up and the point made that, no matter how originating, all variation was hereditary when once introduced. In this respect there was no difference between what was recognized as a good species or a mere variety. Concluding, he said : “To my mind it would be unjust to ignore the separate existence of either fortuitous or definite variations. We have not the remotest conception how either of these forces operate on protoplasm. They may eventually be found but varied manifestations of the same power ; but while we are arguing as we are to-day, arguing on the separate nature of these two forces, we must concede consider¬ able power to both, with by far the larger influence, to my mind, to definite variation/' Invertebrate Animals.— Professor McMurrich followed with the discussion of the question with reference to invertebrate animals. He compared the question not inaptly to the rolling of a spheroidal body having a larger number of facets over a hard surface. If the ball was uniformly balanced it was a matter of “chance” that is to say, of a large number of causes which could not be determined or analyzed as to which facet it would stop at. If, however, the ball was weighted it would stop definitely on a single facet, or one close to the one selected. “At present,” he said, “there are no extensive observations recorded on the question under discussion, although there are certain special cases which seem to bear more or less directly upon it. The most 1892.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. noteworthy of these is the series of observations made by Schmanke- witsch, on the effect of the degree of saltness of the water in which certain animals live upon the form of the body. The form experi¬ mented upon was a rather lowly organized crustacean, known as Arte- mia salina, which normally lives in water of a moderate degree of sa¬ linity. By gradually increasing the saltness of the water, in the course of several generations, the animals assumed the characteristics of an entirely different species, known as A. muhlhausenii. By gradually diluting the moderately salt water with fresh water until it becomes practically fresh, the A. salina gradually assumed structural character¬ istics which rendered it necessary to refer the forms thus obtained to an entirely different genus, Branchipus. Here we have, apparently, a very good case of the production of definite variations of form under the influence of external conditions. A further study of the results, however, brought out some facts which diminish the value of these observations for our present purposes. It was shown that A. salina resembled an immature form of Branchi¬ pus, while A. muhlhausenii represents a stage which is passed over in the immature life of both Branchipus and A. salina. In other words, the effect of the salinity of the water was not to produce definite variations of the body form, but to produce an acceleration of the ma¬ turity of the reproductive elements, so that in the water of the greatest degree of saltness the animals became mature, while the body form was still in a larval condition. A few cases have, however, come under my observation which have bearing on the subject. Among the Isopod Crustacea of our coast is a form, Jsera, which presents a great variety of coloration ; all the varia¬ tions may however, be reduced to two types, one in which the coloration is uniformly distributed, and the other in which the pigment is arranged in transverse bands. Within these limits the variations are innumer¬ able, but still the variations may be considered definite. A similar vari¬ ability within definite limits has been described in another Isopod. In certain sea anemones, as well as in certain caterpillars, the color ap¬ peared to be due to environment purely. Comparison of processes of variation to vicarious substitutions which occur in the more complicated silicates of the mineral world was made. The number of substitutions is limited, but within these limits the amount of variation is practically indefinite, if not infinite.^ Vertebrated Animals. — Professor Allen next spoke on Varia¬ tions in Vertebrated Animals. He confined his paper to variations The American Naturalist. which occur in mammals and birds, as those which occur in the lower forms — reptiles and fishes — are less well known. He said that a rather wide range of individual variation is recognized as inherent in all ani¬ mals. These variations, however, are usually confined within rather narrow constant limits, any considerable excess beyond the normal range coming into the category of sports and are popularly termed for¬ tuitous. A step further gives malformations and monsti osities. Such extreme departures from the normal, while more rare, are probably no more fortuitous than those less marked. The only difference was that the immediate cause was hard to discover. He illustrated this point by a number of examples, in which changes were plainly due to geographical and climatic forces. As a result biologists had accepted certain generalizations which might be stated as follows : First. Baird’s law of geographical variation in size, which, announced in 1865, still held its own. It asserted that there was a constant increase in the size of individuals of the same 'species from the south northward, and from the lowlands toward the higher eleva- Second. The frequent increase in size of peripheral parts, as the tail, beak and claws of birds, took place from the north southward or inversely to the increase and general size. Third. A general deepening of the coloration took place from the north southward in North America, east of the plains, together with a reduction of white markings and white areas, and a corresponding increase of dark markings and dark areas and a gradual increase in the intensity of iridescent tints in species thus marked. Fourth. The loss of color over the interior in both mammals and birds having a continental distribution is marked. Fifth. There is an extreme intensification of color over the heavy rainfall district of the Northwest coast. The failure of verification of the first law led to its modification to the following formulae, first published in 1876, which has stood the test of subsequent investigation : First. The maximum physical development of the individual is attained where the conditions of environment are most favorable to the life of the species. Second. The largest species of a group (genus, sub-family or family, as the case might be) are found where the group to which they sev¬ erally belong reaches its highest development, or where it has what may be termed its centre of distribution. 90 The American Naturalist been direct. It is only necessary to call attention to the leading facts, now well known, thanks largely to the investigations of Americans, of the evolution of the vertebrate skeleton. He commenced with the highest class, the mammalia, where the evidence is very complete. Such is the simple fact of numerical digital reduction from five in the lower ungulates through the numbers four and three to one, as in the horse ; or to four and two, as in the ox and deer. Then carrying the line of variation towards the central parts of the skeleton, Professor Cope described the articulation of the limbs. The development of keels on the metacarpals was mentioned ; then the development of facets on the radius at the wrist. Next, the devel¬ opment of the tongue and groove articulation between the radius and ulna proximally, and next the same in the humerus and radius at the elbow. The successive reduction of the ulna was mentioned. The hind limb was next considered, and the progressive process of devel¬ opment was described. The intervertebral articulations were then dis¬ cussed, and their successive modifications in the artiodactyla described. These characters all indicate a direct variation of individuals in the direction of perfect mechanical contrivances in the skeleton. Professor Cope then referred to the presence of the same phenome¬ non in the dentition of mammalia. He dwelt especially on the evolu¬ tion of the sectorial teeth of carnivorous forms, from the tritubercular upper molar and tuberculosectorial inferior molar. The successive variations seen in the reptilian skeleton were then referred to. The development of fins from ambulatory limbs in the Ichthyosauria ; next of upright walking types, like the birds, in the Dinosauria, with the pelvic bones thrown back to sustain the weight of the viscera in the same position. Next the evolution of the modern types of lizards and snakes by the development in the length of the suspensoria of the lower jaw to enlarge the gape for swallowing ; and second, in the loss of the capitular articulations of the ribs, due to the support of the weight on the ground, just as occurs in the Plesiosau- rian reptiles and in the whales, where the body is supported by the Professor Cope stated that his conclusion from these and many other similar facts was that the origin of such variations had not been pro¬ miscuous or fortuitous, but direct, and in consequence of the operation of a definite cause. That cause he believed to be growth energy (of which we know little or nothing), directed by the mechanical rela¬ tions between the animal and its environment. Of 9ll The American Naturalist. the degeneracy of the scapular and pelvic arches in the Lacertilia ; E. B. Wilson, The relation between bilateral symmetry and the cleav¬ age of the ovum ; H. F. Osborn, The dentition of Palseonictis, Am- blyctonus and Oxyaenas ; J. P. McMurrich, On the early development of the marine Isopod Jsera ; G. Baur, On variation in the genus Tro- pidurus ; C. W. Stiles, On Spiroptera scutata Muller : H. F. Osborn, The Evolution of the mammalian molars to and from the tritubercu- late type; H. B. Ward, Some notes on Nectonema. The officers for the current year are : President, Professor C. 0. Whitman ; Vice-President, Professor H. F. Osborn ; Secretary-Treas¬ urer, Professor J. P. McMurrich ; Members, with the preceding, of the Executive Committee, Professors E. L. Mark and T. H. Morgan. The Indiana Academy of Science held its seventh annual session in the capitol at Indianapolis, December 30 and 31, 1891. The president of this meeting was Prof. O. P. Hay, Butler University, Irving¬ ton, Ind. The unusual number of 98 papers were entered, requiring the Academy to meet, except Wednesday morning and night, in two sections ; one devoted to Zoology, Botany and Geology, the other to Physics, Mathematics and Chemistry. Wednesday night President Hay delivered the customary address on “The present state of the Theory of Organic Evolution.” The officers for next year are as follows : President, J. L. Campbell, Crawfordsville, Ind. Vice-Presidents, J. C. Arthur, Lafayette, Ind., W. A. Noyes, Terre Haute, Ind. Secretary, A. W. Butler, Brook ville, Ind. Treasurer, C. A. Waldo, Greencastle, Ind. Auditors, P. S. Baker, Greencastle, Ind. W. W. Norman, Green¬ castle, Ind. Curators: — Botany, J. M. Coulter, Ichthyology, C. H. Eigenmann, Geology, S. S. Gorby, Ornithology, A. W. Butler, Herpetology , O. P. Hay. Entomology, F. M. Webster, Mammalogy, E. R. Quick. The summer meeting of the Academy will be held by invitation of the faculty of Earlham College, at Richmond, Ind., in May next. At the same time and place will be held the meeting of the Mathematical The American Naturalist The Flora of Mt. Orizaba . H. E. Seaton An apparatus for determining the periodicity of Root Pres¬ sure . M. B. Thomas Condensation of Acetophenone with Ketols, by means of dilute Potassium Cyanide . Alex. Smith Condensation of Acetone with Benzoin, by means of dilute Potassium Cyanide . Alex. Smith Pyrone and Pyridone derivatives from Benzoyl-acetone . Alex. Smith Carbonic Acid in the Urine . T. C. Van Nuys and R. E. Lyons Results of Estimations of Chlorine in Mineral Waters, by Volhardt’s Method . . . Sherman Davis The Sugar Beet in Indiana . . . .H. A. Huston Forms of Nitrogen for Wheat . . . . ...H. A. Huston A Copper Ammonium Oxide. . ...P. S. Baker Di-benzyl carbinamine..... . . . . . W. A. Noyes The Character of Well Waters in a thickly populated area, W. A. Noyes Laboratory and Field Work on the Phosphate of Alumina, . . H. A. Huston Recent Archaeological discoveries in southern Ohio, . . . . . . . Warren K. Moorehead Photographing certain natural objects without a camera, . * . W. A. Kellerman Recent methods for the determination of Phosphoric Acid, . . . ' . T . H. A. Huston The digestibility of the Pentose Carbohydrates, By title . . . W.E. Stone The action of Phenyl-hydrazin on Furfurol, By title . W. E. Stone A Graphical Solution for Equations of Higher Degree, for both Real and Imaginary Roots . A. S. Hathaway On some Theorems of Intergrations in Quaternions . A. S. Hathaway The Section of the Anchor Riner . . . W. V. Brown A note on the Early History of Potential Functions, A. S. Hathaway Some Geometrical Propositions . C. A. Waldo Some suggested changes in Notation . R. L. Green An adjustment for the Control Magnet on a Mirror Galva¬ nometer . . J. P. Naylor A combined Wheatstone’s Bridge and Potentiometer. .....J. P* Naylor Hysteresis Curves for Mitis and other cast iron, J. E. Moore . ’....and E. M. Tingley c in a Condenser. Preliminary note . . . Albert P. Carman Heating of a Dielectric mm ®»r a. 97 ar^ Kind of Food?” $4.00 per Tear. $4.60 per Tear (Foreign). 35 cts. per Copy. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST MONTHLY JOURNAL Brain of Haploidonotu THE AMERICAN NATURALIST PHENOMENA AND DEVELOPMENT OF FECUNDATION.1 By H. J. Webber. NECESSITY OP REPRODUCTION. The necessity for animals and plants to have some means of reproducing themselves is clearly evident. Every organism has what we may term a normal length of life, which as Weis- rrmnn has shown, is probably determined by the environment of the species, having been gradually developed by natural selection. If then, after a certain period, organisms die, species would become extinct unless means are provided for their perpetuation. Of certain organisms, however, we cannot predicate that death will occur. On the contrary, for the Protozoa and proba¬ bly Protophvta, (unicellular organisms,) it has been deter¬ mined by investigation that there is no normal length of life and consequently following, death. They are according to Weismann, immortal, so far as normal death is con¬ cerned. Nevertheless here also is a necessity for repro¬ duction. Accidental death must be considered and the ravages from higher animals to which tire Protozoa and ^otophyte are exposed, are enormous. Sothrojighout animals and plants, without exception, methods are provided for the reproductio of the species. * A lecture delivered December 16, 1891, before a meeting of the Alumm Assocr- ation of the St. Louis Medical College. 104 The American Naturalist. The first and simplest reproduction is a simple, almost mechanical fission or breaking apart of a naked mass of pro¬ toplasm, which is nevertheless an organized being, as seen in the fission of the swarm spores of Myxomycetes, in other Protozoa and Protophyta. The body of the organism, after a lengthened period of growth, reaches a size where the proportion of the surface to the bulk is not sufficient to provide suitable nourish¬ ment for its continued growth. Thus a division or multiplica¬ tion of the body is necessitated to provide greater surface for absorption. In a thorough consideration of these facts, we come to see how intimately growth and reproduction are associated, growth being nothing more than a protoplasmic and usually cellular reproduction. We are very apt to think of cell divi¬ sion as a necessary accompaniment of growth. But this is not so. Growth is independent of cell multiplication. Cell divi¬ sion need not take place during growth, but may appear only after its conclusion. In Stypocaulon, an alga belonging to the Phseosporeae the lateral branches of the frond, as pointed out by Geyler, attain their full size before the formation of cells begins. Cells are then formed from the base upward, until finally the branch, which was a single cell, becomes a normal multi¬ cellular organ. One of the most remarkable cases illustrating this point is found in Caulerpa, a seaweed, the whole vegetative body of which remains throughout life an enormous single cell. (Fig. 1, a portion of frond, natural size). In the cavity of this thick walled vescicle, however, numerous cross bars of cellulose are found to give greater strength. In the common green felt (Yaucheria) even these cross bars are wanting. Cell division, however, usually accompanies growth and as shown above is in most cases a necessity to provide sufficient nutri¬ tion. CELL REPRODUCTION. The phenomena of cell reproduction or division are so inti¬ mately connected with the consideration of all phenomena of reproduction and fecundation that it is necessary for us to briefly consider this subject as a preparatory step. The changes which take place in the cell nucleus seem to be of paramount 1892.] Phenomena and Development of Fecundation. 105 importance in cell division. Since Robert Brown, in 1833, first discovered the cell nucleus in the generative organs of orchids, and Von Mohl in 1835 first saw it divide, it has- been growing in importance until now, or at least not long ago, the majority of biologists were willing to assign to it all importance in repro¬ duction and in the life of the cell, the cell brain as it were. Amitosis. — We need only to consider the so called indirect , mitotic or karyokinetic division. The direct or amitotic nuclear division it appears from Flemming’s1 late paper and Ziegler’s2 biological discussion of amitotic nuclear division, having merely a nutritive or secretory function, occurs in the animal kingdom only at the end of typical cell multiplication, when the cell is given over to other purposes and loses its power of physi¬ ological multiplication and reproduction of cells. Amitotic nuclear division then always indicates the end of the series of divisions. Ziegler thinks “ it occurs chiefly (perhaps exclu¬ sively) in such nuclei as minister to a process of unusually ac¬ tive secretion or assimilation.” In typical gland cells it is frequently found. Whethef like conclusion will be reached in the vegetable kingdom is yet doubtful, but in the absence of definite investigations we are justified in assuming that similar limitations may be drawn, and that in our consideration of reproduction we need not further discuss this kind of cell division. Karyokenens. — In the cell nucleus, two kinds of protoplasm may be distinguished, the chromatin, so named from its strong affinity ,for stains, and the achromatin. Other substances have, it is claimed, been differentiated, but these will for the present answer our purpose. Investigators have come almost uniformly to agree that the essential feature^ of karyokenesis lies in the equal distribution of the chromatin elements to the daughter cells. The resting nucleus (fig. 2) presents under the microscope a finely punctate character but close examination will show us that these granules ( microsomata ) are connected by fine granu- iW. Flemming, “ Ueber Teilung and Kernformen bei Leukocyten and uber i&ren." Archiv. f. mikr. Anatomie, 37Bd. 1891. (direct) Kern- 2H. E. Ziegler, « Die biologische Bedeutung d< a Tierrei ungder amitotiscnen (dire XI, PP. 372-389, July 1891 106 The American Naturalist. [February, lar threads, and that these, winding up and down here and there in the nucleus, form the so-called reticulum of the nuclear protoplasm. It is in reality then a complexly coiled, possibly continuous thread composing the chromatin matter of the nucleus, coiled in the clear achromatin and surrounded. by the nuclear membrane. The first indication of division is an increase in the size of the nucleus. The reticulum gradually contracts until the nucleus, presents a coarsly granular appear¬ ance. This contracting continues. The protoplasm begins to collect at the ends of the nucleus which will be the poles of the future nuclear spindle. The contracted chromatin thread becomes apparently homogeneous and finally breaks up into an even number of segments which are distributed in a more or less definite manner at the equator of the nuclear spindle which has made its appearance in the protoplasm during the above changes (figs. 3-4). Each segment now divides into two, splitting longitudinally, making twice the original num¬ ber, and these, yielding to an apparent attraction from the poles of the dividing nucleus, gradually separate in a definite manner and pull awTay from the equator toward the poles, fol¬ lowing the lines of the delicate nuclear spindle. As they approach their respective poles the daughter segments draw closer and closer together until their upper ends meet and fuse (figs. 5-6). The lower ends then bend inward and also appar¬ ently fuse forming a continuous coil (figs. 6-7); while the daughter segments move towards the poles, the spindle fibres remain behind, and others become intercalated and a» bulging out occurs, forming ultimately a barrel shaped structure. Soon in the equatorial region slight thickenings form on the spindle fibers (figs. 7-8). These become more and more marked and gradually touch and fuse, forming the new cell-wall between the now divided daughter nuclei (fig. 9). During the process of cell-wall formation, the segments of the daughter nuclei which have united as above explained, begin to elongate and decrease in thickness, taking on the ap¬ pearance of the resting nucleus. The remaining steps are just the reverse of those preparatory to division. The filament 1392.] Phenomena and. Development of Fecundation. 107 elongates and decreases in thickness until it comes again to present the appearance of a resting nucleus. The above outline of the general course of cell division, in main taken from Strasburger, represents the view of cell divi¬ sion in the vegetable kingdom that has been recognized until very lately. Karyokinesis in the Animal Cell. — In the division of the ani¬ mal cell, the phenomena agree in all essential features. We have appearing here the two important bodies occupying the poles of the dividing nucleus, designated first by Fol as “ asters" later by Van Beneden as “attractive spheres ” and quite recently by Boveri as “archoplasmic spheres.” The central area of the archoplasm (fig. 10, a.) is situated in the cytoplasm near the nuclear membrane, and from it, as a centre there radiate out in all directions the granular archo¬ plasmic filaments or radiating striae of the asters, some directed toward the nucleus and penetrating into it. The center of the archoplasm is sometimes occupied by a definite body the so- called centrosome. The fundamental importance of the function of the archoplasm and its centrosome is yet rather doubtful. Van Beneden looks upon it as a permanent organ, equal in value to the nucleus itself. Guignard, as we shall shortly see, is inclined to assign to it paramount importance in cell divi¬ sion, as directing and guiding the distribution of the chromatin elements. When we examine a daughter nucleus at the close of kary- okinetic division, we see at one side of it the archoplasmic sphere in the position it occupied during the process of divi¬ sion. Shortly before a new division starts (or we may say as the first step in* the next division) this archoplasmic sphere divides into two (fig. 11) and the two new archoplasmic spheres thus formed, pass around the nucleus in opposite directions until they come to occupy points on exactly opposite sides, when their effect is soon shown by the starting of the phenomenal changes of karyokinetic division.- Thus it is seen as new nuclei arise by division, so also the new archoplasmic spheres arise in in the same manner. 108 The American Naturalist . [February, Guignard’ s 1 and Wildeman’s 2 Recent Discoveries. — It is not until very recently that anything similar to the asters or archo- plasm has been discovered in the vegetable cell. This year Guignard, a careful observer, published his observations “ On the Existence of Attractive Spheres in the Vegetable Cell” which, from present appearances, marks an epoch in the devel¬ opment of vegetable cytology. In the resting nucleus, according to Guignard, two attractive spheres or asters are present. They lie close together at one side of the nucleus, (figs. 49, 54 and 56). Within each is a cen¬ tral corpuscle, the centrosome (figs. 12, a, 49, 54, etc.) surrounded by a transparent areole and around this a granular circle (fig. 12 b.). In general the radiating striae are invisible as long as the cell is in a state of repose (fig. 49). They become feebly apparent when the nucleus presents the first symptoms of en¬ tering upon division and at this time they withdraw from each other in order to place themselves at two opposite points cor¬ responding to the poles of the future spindle (figs. 12 and 51). After this the striae become more evident and direct themselves toward the nucleus, while it is still provided with a nuclear membrane, which confirms the opinion of Strasburger that the spindle originates outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm. When the chromatin segments have separated and collected at the poles, the centrosomes divide in each sphere into two new cen- trosomes, which thus have their origin at each pole (figs. 53 and 55). They remain in this position till the next nuclear divi¬ sion is preparing to start, when they separate as explained above. “ In resume,” says Guignard, “the bodies in question, which merit the name of directive spheres since they govern the divi¬ sion of the nucleus, transmit themselves without discontinuity from one cell to the other throughout the life of the plant.” 1 Leon Guignard, “ Snr l’Existence des * Spheres Attractives ’ dans les Cellules Vegetales.” Compt. Rend. Soc. de Biol. T.iii ; p. 182. (March 20, 1891). — Ann. des Sci. Nat. Bot. T. xiv; No’s. 3-4; pp. 163-288 (Nov. 1891), (10 pi.). Comptes rendusAcad. des Sci., 9 Mars 1891. 2 E. De Wildeman, in Bull. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belgique, LXI (1891) pp. 594-602 (1 Pi ) Phenomena and Development of Fecundation. 109 It is interesting to note that very shortly after the appear¬ ance of Guignard’s paper on attractive spheres, Wildeman (1. c.) published a paper on the same subject containing observations on Spirogyra and several Liverworts and Mosses which is entirely confirmatory of Guignard’s discoveries, and Van Tieg- hem1 has proposed the term “directing leucites” or tinoleucites for them, from their property of inciting and directing the binary division of nuclei. CHARACTER OP THE SEXES. Oeddes and Thompson's Katabolic-Anabolic Theory of Male and Female— In approaching a consideration of fecundation it is well for us to inquire into the characters of the sexes and as to what determines sex. Let us plunge immediately into a dis¬ cussion of the theory which seems to us to be the best yet sug¬ gested. Geddes and Thompson in their excellent work on the “Evolution of Sex”2 strongly support what we may term the katabolic-anaholic theory of male and female. In the changes of protoplasm necessitated by the process of living, the upbuilding constructive series of chemical changes are known under the general term anabolism ; while the disrup¬ tive descending series are known under the term Jcatabolism. Now male and female differ according to this theory of Geddes and Thompson in their physiological habits ; the female being fundamentally of an anabolic character, the male of katabolic character. According to this view males are stronger, hand¬ somer, more active, etc., merely because they are males, that is, are of more active physiological habit, — more metabolic — dis¬ ruptive changes tending to predominate in the sum of changes in the living matter. The females, on the other hand, live at a profit, are more anabolic,— constructive process predominate in their life ; whence indeed their capacity of bearing offspring. Haeckel in the introduction to his “History of Creation” re¬ marks that the intrinsic value of an hypothesis or theory, depends upon the number of phenomena we can explain by its application. Judging this theory of sex by such a standard, iVan Tieghem, Jouni. de Bot (Morot), V. (1891) pp. 101-102. *Geddes and Thompson, “Evolution of Sex,” London 1889. 110 The American Naturalist. and we come to realize its great worth, reaching to the very boundaries of sex in its application and being a chief ele¬ ment in the development of sex. Of the very numerous illus¬ trations given by Geddes and Thompson, we can only select a very few. The female cochineal insect, laden with reserve products spends most of her time on the cactus plant as a mere quiescent gall, while the male, on the contrary, is provided with wings, agile, restless and short lived. Almost innumerable instances of a similar character might be cited. Up to the level of the amphibians the females are generally larger. A sluggish conservative habit of body tends to an increase of size. Lavish expenditure of energy uses up the reVei|e material and keeps down the size. The large and small spores (macrospores and mi¬ crospores) which we find in plants, and which mark the begin¬ ning of sex, illustrate the same law. Of sex cells in general, all are familiar with the fact that the antherozoids and spermatozoids are always much smaller and infinitely more active than the female cells. The agility of males it appears then is not a special adaptation as Darwin suggested to enable them to better and more surely perform their functions with relation to the other sex, but is a natural characteristic of the constitutional activity of males. . Body temperature which is an index to the pitch of life is distinctly lower in females as observed in the human species, insects and plants. A familiar and striking illustration of this law is found in the process of menstruation, if it has been rightly interpreted. You are likely, as physicians, more familiar with the various theories of menstruation than I. Probably the most generally accepted one is “ that which regards the growth of the mucus coat before fecundation as a preparation for the reception of an ovum if duly fertilized, and the menstruation process itself as the expression of the failure of these preparations.” If we express it now in terms of the anabolic-katabolic law, or the anabolic highly vegetative character of the female, menstrua¬ tion is the means of getting rid of the anabolic surplus in case it*is not consumed as intended in the growth and development 1892.] Phenomena and Development of Fecundation. Ill of the forming embryo. If fertilization be accomplished we should expect no menstrual flow and so indeed it is, — we have none ; the, as it were, parasitic embryo using up the surplus. So also during lactation, while the offspring is still supported by the mother, menstruation does not usually occur, and here also from this theory of sex and of the anabolic female we should not expect it to occur, the surplus being taken up in the support of the offspring. At the close of lactation, menstru¬ ation begins again, as we should further expect. A very different yet similar case is found in the secretion of nectar in flowers. The distinctive anabolic flow continues until fecundation is accomplished, after which it ceases and the surplus passes into the forming seed. The katabolie-anabolie law seems also to have fundamental importance in determining the sex of a developing embryo. Some experiments conducted by Young, on tadpoles, are very interesting and instructive as bearing on this problem. Tadpoles pass through a hermaphrodite stage, in common, according to other authors, with most animals. During this phase external influences and especially food decide their fate as regards sex, though hermaphroditism sometimes persists in adult life. When tadpoles were left to themselves, the per¬ centage of females was rather in the majority, the average number being about 57 in a hundred. In the first brood, by feeding with beef, Young raised the percentage of females from 57 to 78 : in the second with fish, the percentage raised from 61 to 81 ; while in the third set when the especially nutritious flesh of frogs was supplied, the percentage rose from 56 to 92. That is to say in the last case, the result of high feeding was that there were 92 females to 8 males. These results coming from such an investigator, emphasizing the anabolic character of the female, are surely very suggestive. Meehan’s observation that old branches of conifers over¬ grown and shaded by younger ones produce only male inflor¬ escence ; and those of various botanists that prothallia of ferns grown in unfavorable conditions produce only antheridia and no archegonia or female organs are further illustrations of the same law and its bearing on the determination of sex. {To he continued .) 112 The American Naturalist [February, NOTES UPON THE ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE PROSENCEPHALON OF TELEOSTS. By C. L. Herrick. Our knowledge of the microscopic structure of the cerebrum of bony fishes is very imperfect, and I shall endeavor to show that, notwithstanding the great progress recently made in de¬ termining the difficult homologies involved, gross misconcep¬ tions pass current at the present time. The fundamental diffi¬ culty lies in the fact that the cortex is anatomically absent though morphologically present. In other words, though there is no functionally normal cortex, its place is taken by an epithel- igerous membrane which in all important morphological par¬ ticulars substitutes for it. It is quite a different question whether the cortex is physiologically represented ; i. e., whether cellular structures exist which functionally replace the unde¬ veloped cortical areas. This may rank among the most impor¬ tant question of physiology as it undoubtedly is of morphology. Inasmuch as the cortex of higher vertebrates serves solely as the organ of consciousness in the limited sense, if it could be shown that it is not only anatomically absent, but physi¬ ologically unrepresented, we should have strong reason to sup¬ pose that consciousness is practically absent in the group of fishes and thus is an unnecessary element in a purely animal existence even of a relatively highly differentiated organism. On the other hand, if it could be shown that some other cell aggregate functions in place of the suppressed cortex, it might be hoped that in locating the substituting areas we should ob¬ tain the clue to the origin of the cortex and the law of devel¬ opment or, rather, the archetectonie plan of formation. In the latter respect we have secured so much concurrent evidence from widely different sources that the case seems comparatively clear. If the fish brain, in spite of its great dissimilarity to the brains of higher vertebrates is actually homologous with the latter in detail, it should be possible, to discover the exact Prosencephalon of Teleosts. 113 homologies of the separate organs, or determine the absence of certain parts, together with the morphological reasons for their suppression. In this direction nothing was possible before the pallium had been identified with the cortex and the homologies of the ventricles had been determined in conformity therewith. Even since this has been accomplished many homologies remained uncertain which were essential to a proper under¬ standing of the evolution of the brain of higher vertebrates. None of these homologies are more important than those which relate to the commissures which may naturally be taken as the points of reference. In this last mentioned direction a study of the Drum (Ilaplodinotus) has fortunately afforded the necessary clues. What follows is a brief summary of a detailed paper to appear in the December number of the Journal of Comparative Neurology , forming part of a series which has appeared in several previous issues. The methods pursued will be given in full in connection with the paper, so that it is only necessary to say that a modification of the hsematoxylin process has been hit upon, which serves to sharply differentiate all the histological elements, bringing out the variations in cell-structure beauti¬ fully. In fact a fish brain thus treated is histologically, instead of the least satisfactory, rather the most beautiful of brain pre¬ parations. A large series of sections has been secured from which a few of the more important data are here noted. First, in respect to histological differentiation within the cerebrum. If the axial lobe of the fish cerebrum represents functionally the entire brain, as would seem probable unless one -claims that the fish leads a purely reflex nervous existence, that there should occur in it the various types of cells which characterize the several regions of the cortex in higher animals. The writer has abundantly shown in a series of publications covering most of the classes of vertebrates that there is a structural difference between the kinesodic and sesthesodic areas of the cortex and that the motor and sensory cells are more distinctly aggregated in lower than in higher vertebrates. In other words, that types of cells, which in higher animals are interblended, are quite distinctly seggregated into definite 114 The American Naturalist. [February, areas in lower groups. Thus we have shown that in rodents and marsupials the motor and sensory cells are more distinct and topographically separable than in higher animals, that in reptiles they are much more sharply limited than in mammals and that in fishes the distinction is still sharper. Mr. Turner, who at our suggestion investigated the same question in birds, has found a close resemblance to the reptilian type and fully corroborates the statement that complete structural dissimilar¬ ity between kinesodic and sesthesodic cells prevail in the Monocondylia. Whether we regard the brain of a fish as the result of a retrograde metamorphosis from a more typical structure, or as representing a primitive condition, it will be conceded that the cells corresponding to kinesodic and sesthesodic processes must be in all probability represented. The absence of the cortex limits our search to the axial lobe. Observations upon various groups of reptiles have led me on several different occasions to suggest that the axial lobe, seen in those groups where the cortex is present, is a sort of pro¬ liferating centre from which cortical cells are .formed. 1 This hypothesis has been further substantiated by the obser¬ vations of Mr. Turner,1 upon the axial lobe of various birds. It is also worthy of note that the birds resemble fishes in the great restriction of the cortex and in specific substitutions therefore in the form of niduli within the axial lobe. It would, therefore, appear legitimate to consider the axial lobe as the source from which the cortex has sprung, so far as its histological elements are concerned, a suggestion which is further empha¬ sized by the fact, brought out by Professor His and extended by the writer, that all neural elements are derived from the epithelial structures lining the ventricle. A corollary of this would be the concentration of fell com¬ missures and tracts belonging strictly to the cortex in the axial lobe. The position of such structures might then serve to determine the direction in which the complicated brain of 1 Notes on the Brain of the Alligator. Journ. Cincinnati Society of Natural His¬ tory, vol. XII, p. 455; Contributions to the Comparative Morphology of the Central Nervous System, II. Morphology and Histology of the Brain of certain Reptiles, Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. I. p. 21, March 1891. 2 Journ. Comp. Neurology. Vol. i,p. 7/. 13»2 ] Prosencephalon of Teleosts. 115 higher vertebrates has been folded and differentiated. This principle the writer has employed in the determination of the histogenesis of the cerebellum. (Compare a recent article on the cerebellum in “Science”) Now to return to the special subject of our study, the cerebrum of the Drum is moderately large and well differentiated. The pallium is well developed and completely devoid of nerve cells, but the surface of the cerebrum is nevertheless quite conspicuously fissured. It was shown by my brother and myself in a series of articles in the Journal of Comparative Neurology for June and October, that the cerebrum of teleosts is more or less constantly marked by fissures which cannot be homologized, except in two cases, with the fissures of higher vertebrates, because of their lying in the surface of the axial lobe rather than the cortex. Nevertheless, these fissures serve to constantly delimit certain areas of the axial lobe, which are also remarkably constant in their histol¬ ogical differentiation. Using these land marks it has proven possible to define a number of distinct lobes, which have re¬ ceived names suggestive of their position. The homologue of the hippocampus, however, is easily recognized, not only by its position, but by reason of the anatomical connections. It forms a raised lip or projection along the ventral surface and is lateral of a fissure perfectly homologous of the rhinalis of higher animals. The forward prolongation may be compared to the convexity in the corresponding region of the pyriform lobe of rodents. Caudad it expands into an obpyriform lobe which is the hippocampus in a restricted sense. Throughout its entire extent, the hippocampal lobe is the part which mediates between the pallium (cortex) and the axial lobe, and is therefore identical in position with the outer part of the hippocampus of mam¬ mals. In microscopic structure it differs from the adjacent regions. The radix lateralis, which, as we have shown in the series of articles above referred to, is wholly distinct from the radix mesalis, follows the rhinalis fissure and may be traced in a single horizontal section to the caudo-ventral aspect of the hippocampus, where the fibres spread out upon the surface in a way entirely similar to that observed in rodents. The resem¬ blance to the homologous organ of higher vertebrates does not 116 The American Naturalist. [February, cease here, hut from the deeper parts of the hippocampal lobe an ental tract, corresponding to the hippocampal commissure and descending fornix tract, arises and passes cephalomesad to cross just caudad of the strongly developed callosum. At this point a branch is given off precisely like the fornix which passes to a bilobed cellular mass, projecting ventrad into the ventricle caudad and dorsal of the lamina terminalis. In appearance and structure, as well as fibrous connections, these tubers can only be regarded as identical with the corpus fornicis. Nothing is wanting to make the homology perfect. Fibres from the fornix body can be traced into the thalamus, but nothing indentifiable with the mammillaries could be made out with certainty. The radix mesalis of the olfactory is much larger and more distinct, and seems to be derived from a mass of cells occupy¬ ing the pes, while the radix lateralis springs from the pero. This bundle passes caudo-dorsad and then mesad and crosses in a special ventral portion of the prsecommissura quite dis¬ tinct from the specific homologue of the latter. In the Drum, the olfactories are attached to the cerebrum, or more strictly, to the pnethalamus just at the origin of the lamina terminalis. They are obviously not appendages of the prosencephalon, as we have suggested on morphological grounds it would be impossi¬ ble for them to be, but the radices have suffered division or latero-flexion with the outgrowth of the secondary cerebral vesicles. The origin of the hippocampal loop of the olfactory tract becomes obvious by inspection of an embryonic brain or that of a fish, it being the least diverted portion of the walls of the primitive prosencephalic ventricle carrying with it the tracts and commissural origins proper to it. It is a curious fact that of the two radices of the olfactory, one belongs to the dorsal and the other to the ventral system and the commissural or decussational fibres likewise belong, one to the ventral the other to the dorsal of the two primary commissural systems of the neural tube. The radix lateralis connects, via hippocam¬ pus, with the dorsal system associated with the callosum, i. e. the fornix and hippocampal commissure. The radix mesalis, on the other hand connects with the anterior commissure sys- 117 1892.] Prosencephalon of Teleosts. tem. It would thus appear that the olfactory system, includ¬ ing the pes, is homodynamous with a complete neuromere or symmetrical fraction thereof. The corpus callosum has been so much studied of late that it would be an act of presumption to put forth a new theory without the amplest evidence. In the present case the writer, in presenting an interpretation entirely different from the prevailing one, does so with the perfect confidence that any one who will examine the facts exhibited in our sections will be convinced of the correctness of the view. In a previous paper1 the writer has indicated the existence of a hitherto unsuspected commissure in Lepidosteus and identified it as the homologue of the callosum hippocampal commissure in the following words : “ Commissures of the Cerebrum. — The exact equivalence of the commissures of the cerebrum is a matter of much difficulty in these fishes where the whole dorsal and median portion of the tectum cerebri or mantle portion is apparently represented by the pallium cerebri. Considering, however, that the direction in which the cerebrum has been differentiated in higher ani¬ mals is caudad, and that, in the lower brains, bodies which lie caudad or dorsad in higher vertebrates must be sought dorsad or cephalad, it is not difficult to homologize the pallium with the plexus-bearing projection from the posterior and mesal margin of the mantle. Since the plexus in this case occupies the vertex, instead of projecting from the caudal region, all structures morphologically cephalad of the plexus must be sought still further cephalad or ventrad. Using this clue, and observing thatjthe cerebral cortex folds ventrad over the olfac¬ tory structure, we think we find a homologue of the ealloso- hippocampal commissure connecting the two halves of the cerebrum cephalad of the openings of the olfactory crura into the common ventricle, and lying just entad of the membran¬ ous lamina terminalis. The bundle is very small and seems to contain a few fibres from the olfactory regions, as well as 1 Topography and Histology of the Brain of certain Ganoid Fishes, Journ. Comp. Neurology, voL L, p. 167-168- 118 The American Naturalist [February, ' others from the cephalic portions of the cerebrum. No indi¬ cation of the callosum was seen in Scaphirynchus.” In the Drum, however, the callosum is relatively large and conspicuous. It lies far cephalad and somewhat ventrad (mor¬ phologically dorso-cephalad) of the anterior commissure. It is directly associated with a large nidulus of pyramidal cells, which occupies a central position in the axial lobe in the direct line of the pyramid fibres produced. This central lobe is the unmistakable homologue of the motor areas occupying the cephalic cortical regions of higher vertebrates, and is therefore properly associated with the callosum. The callosum lies dorsad of and adjacent to the line where the pallium adheres to the axial lobe. It is therefore just where it would be ex¬ pected upon the hypothesis that the structures otherwise found in the cortex had been driven from the latter by its conversion into the pallium, or, better, had failed to grow out into the pal¬ lium when it was formed. Remembering that the growth of the cerebrum has been largely dorso-caudad, such a retarding as here supposed would leave the callosum where we find it at the cephalic juncture of pallium and axial lobe. Since the interventricular cortical lobe is suppressed in teleosts, it follows that the callosum and anterior commissure, which are collocated by accident, rather than relationship in Reptilia and Amphibia, are here widely separated. These facts are entirely in agreement with the highly philosophical theory of the commissures proposed by Osborn, though in the present case, Osborn supposed (an opinion in which the writer at first shared) that the callosum of fishes is contained in the anterior commissure group. The considerations above mentioned show that in the absence of the mesal walls of the cortex a collocation the two commissural systems, except by great axial shortening of the brain, would be impossible. As to the general question, whether it is proper to suppose that the cell structures normally found in the cortex are derived from the axial lobe and may be retained there by conversion of the cortex to a cell-less pallium, I refer, first, to the data of embryology ; second, to my own observations upon young PLATE VIII. Prosencephalon of Teleoats. 119 reptilian brains; and, third, to the discovery made by my phpil, Mr. Turner, that in the brain of birds there are several introverted cortical niduli within the axial lobe, in regions where the cortex is restricted or aborted. In general, then, it seems proper to regard the cerebrum as a product of a dorso-lateral pouch from the thalamus, carrying with it the commissural systems (dorsal and ventral) belonging to what may be called the prsethalamic segment or neuromere. The hippocampal system may be regarded as representing a ’ part of the dorsal commissure, the callosum a part of the ven¬ tral and perhaps part of the dorsal, while the anterior com¬ missure is decidedly ventral. At any rate the morphological relations in fishes are precisely as in higher vertebrates. The conclusions above indicated may be thus summarized. 1. Fishes have a distinct corpus callosum separated from and on the opposite side of the ventricle to the prsecom- missura. 2. Fishes have a distinct fornix and hippocampal com¬ missure. 3. A well-marked fornix body is present in fishes having normal fibre connections. 4. There are distinct radices mesalis and lateralis in the iehthic olfactory lobe, the former crossing in the anterior commissure, the latter passing to a hippocampal lobe. 5. The hippocampus of fishes is a distinct lobe of the axial part of the cerebrum. 6. The axial lobe in fishes is composed not only of the elements proper to the corpus striatum or sauropsidian axial lobe but also contains rudiments of the sensory and motor niduli of the cortex. 7. The two types of cells are sharply differentiated. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate VII. Horizontal longitudinal sections through the entire brain of the drum, Haplodinotus grunniens. 120 The American Naturalist. Fig. 1. Section through the olfactory lobes and corpus fornicis. The radix lateralis is easily followed throughout its entire length from the lateral aspect of the pero to the hippocampus. The radix mesalis arises in the pes and, curving ventral and then dorsal, appears cephalo-ventrad of the axial commissure as a circular bundle. Fig. 2. Section at the level of the axial commissure (decus¬ sation of the basal peduncular tracts of Edinger) and callosum. Fig. 3. Section above the level of the praecommissure, the tracts of which are visible in the section. Fig. 4. Section near the dorsal surface of the cerebrum. The figure illustrates the structure of volvula and cerebellum. Plate VIII. Fig. 1 . Portion of olfactory pero highly magnified. Fig. 2. Pyramidal (kinesodic) cells from the central lobe of cerebrum. Fig. 3. Superficial portion of lateral lobe to show epithelium. The aesthesodic cells are transversely cut. • Fig. 4. Cells from E in fig. 3 of the previous plate. Fig. 5. Portion of the cuneus. Fig. 6. Cells from the lateral lobe. Fig. 7. Longitudinal section through the whole brain. Fig. 8. Horizonal section through entire brain somewhat dorsad of fig. 3 of. the preceding plate. Fig. 9. Section just dorsad of the olfactory crus to show the relations of fornix tracts and callosum. New Australian Mammal. 121 ON THE HABITS AND AFFINITIES OF THE NEW AUSTRALIAN MAMMAL, NOTORYCTES TYPHLOPS. By E. D. Cope. The description of this remarkable mammal by Professor Stirling, of the University of Adelaide, has appeared in the Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia, 1891 (July), p. 154. The announcement of the discovery of this supposed new marsupial by Prof. Stirling in the English journals during the past season has excited much interest, and the full descrip¬ tion now given will be carefully read. My own reading has led me to make certain reflections on the characters and affin¬ ities of the animal, which are herewith given. But I first copy the following account of its HABITS from Professor Stirling’s paper : “ It appears that the first specimen was captured by Mr. Wm. Coulthard, manager of the Frew-River Station and other Northern runs belonging to the Willowie Pastoral Company. Attracted by some peculiar tracks on reaching his camp one evening on the Finke River, while traversing the Idracowra Station with cattle, he followed them up and found the animal lying under a tussock of spinifex, or porcupine grass {Triodia irritans). Though he is an old bush hand, with all the watch¬ ful alertness and powers of observation usually acquired by those who live lives of difficulty and danger, this was the first and only specimen of the animal he ever saw. As previously stated, this found its way to the museum through the agency of Messrs. Benham and Molineaux. The three subsequently received shortly afterwards, as well as the last lot recently secured by Mr. Bishop during our journey through the coun¬ try, were also found on the Idracowra Station. This is a large cattle-run, comprising several hundred square miles of country in the Southern part of the Northern Territory of South Aus- 122 The American Naturalist. [February, tralia, which lies immediately to the West of the telegraph line between the Charlotte Waters and Alice Springs Stations. The great dry water-course of the Finke River, which runs from N. W. to S. E., bounds the run for some eighty miles on the North and North East. Its distance from Adelaide is, roughly speaking, a thousand miles. Flats and sandhills of red sand, more or less well covered with spinifex and acacias, constitute a large portion of the country, and the rainfall is - inconsiderable. Curiously enough, all the specimens hitherto received by me have been found within a circumscribed area, four miles from the Idracowra Head Station, which is situated on the Finke water-course itself, and almost invariably among the sandhills. I have it, however, on very fair authority, that the animal has been seen on the Undoolya Station, which lies immediately South of the McDonnell Ranges, and that one also was found drowned after heavy rain at Tempe Downs, a station situated about 120 miles W. S. W. of Alice Springs. These points will sufficiently define its’ range, so far as is known at present. They do not appear to be very numerous. Very few of the white men in the district had ever seen it, even though constantly traveling, and not many of the natives whom I came across recognized the well-executed colored drawing I carried with me. It must be remembered, however, that I did not pass through the exact spot which so far appears to be its focus of distribution. Nor did a very considerable reward which I offered cause any specimens to be forthcoming between the first lot received, over two years ago, and that recently secured during my transcontinental trip. With few exceptions the animals have been captured by the aboriginals, who, with their phenomenal powers of tracking, follow up their traces until they are caught. For this reason they can only be found with certainty after rain, which sets the surface of the sand and enables it to retain tracks that would be immediately obliterated when it is dry and loose. Nor are they found except during warm weather. So that the short period of semi-tropical summer rains appears to be the favor¬ able period for their capture. For this suitable combination of wet and warmth, Mr. Bishop had to wait three mouths New Australian Ma 123 before he was able to get them, and in all cases they were found during the day time. Perpetual burrowing seems to be the characteristic feature of its life. Both Mr. Bishop and Mr. Benham, who have seen the animal in its native state, report that emerging from the sand it travels on the surface for a few feet, at a slowish pace, with a peculiar sinuous motion, the belly much flattened against the ground while it rests on the outside of its fore-paws, which are thus doubled in under it. It leaves behind it a peculiar sinuous triple track, the outer impressions more or less interrupted, being caused by the feet, and the central continuous line by the tail, which seems to be pressed down in the rear. Constantly on the look-out for its tracks, I was often deceived by those of numerous lizards, which are somewhat similar in these respects. It enters the sand obliquely and travels underground either for a few feet or for many yards, not apparently reaching a depth of more than two or three inches, for whilst underground its progress can often be detected by a slight cracking or moving of the surface over its position. In penetrating the soil, free use as a borer is made of the conical snout with its horny protecting shield, and the powerful scoop-like fore-claws are also early brought into play. As it disappears from sight, the hind limbs as well are used to throw the soil backward, which falls in again behind it as it goes, so that no permanent tunnel is left to mark its course. Again emerging at some distance, it trav¬ els for a few feet upon the surface, and then descends as before. I hear nothing of its making or occupying at any time per¬ manent burrows. Both my informants lay great stress on the phenomenal rapidity with which it can burrow, as observed both in a state of nature and in captivity. In some notes sent me by Mr. Benham the following statement appears ; ‘ Almost any of the men here (Idracowra) can tell you how one got away from me in the loose sand. I brought it home alive and began talking about how fast it could burrow, so Mr. Stokes wanted to see it. We took a spade and loosfened the top soil near the house,, and put it down. I kept my hand close to it until it was nearly out of sight, and then started scratching after it, 124 The American Naturalist. [February, but it was too quick ; so I took a shovel and began to dig after it, but could not get him. “ 4 One of the men then came with another shovel, and also a lubra (aboriginal female) who scratched, but the three of us failed to get him.’ Making all allowances for possible misdi¬ rected energies in this experiment, there is no doubt but that their burrowing powers are remarkable. Mr. Bishop, who knew of my approach, made great efforts to keep alive for me some of those he had captured, and placed them for safe keep¬ ing in buckets of sand, but in spite of all care and attention one only lived as long as four days. Night and day the sound of their ceaseless burrowing was to be heard. Acting on my advice, previously given, in consequence of an examination of the contents of the intestines of one of the earlier specimens, he supplied them with ants as food, but they ate none. They did, however, eat one ‘ witchety,’ the native name of large white grubs, much relished by the blacks as an article of food, which are the larval forms of certain Longicorn beetles and Lepidoptera, and Mr. Benham informed me that one of his ate a piece of bread on one occasion, but it only lived a day. They thus appear to stand captivity very badly. On being handled they make no attempt to bite. No black fellow that I questioned had even seen the young, nor did they know any thing whatever of any nests or breeding places used by them. Their native name is 4 oor-quamata, ’ the terminal 4 r ’ of the first syllable being much rolled so as almost to convey the sound of an interpolated short 4 i * between the 4 r ’ and the 4 q ’ ; the accentuated syllable is strongly marked, the vowels having the same value as in 4 quarrel.’ Mr. Benham states that the natives have a superstitious dread of them, and applied to one the term 4 kudoicka ’ which they translate as 4 devil-devil ; ’ but I could not get this confirmed by any of the blacks I saw. In fact the natives seem to know very little about them, and could give me no information whatever as to what their food was, or whether they got it above or under ground. With the material at my disposal I should be able definitely to settle this point, and indeed, in one of my first specimens, I did most certainly find the remains of ants and 1892.] New Australian Mammal. 125 some other insect debris in what remained of the intestines ; but as the Editor of these Transactions urgently calls for the completion of this paper, I am reluctantly obliged to postpone to a future issue the result of further investigation on this and on other points.” (Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia, vol. xiv, Pt. 1, 1891. p. 155). Affinities. The most superficial observer will be at once struck with the remarkable resemblance which evidently subsists between the genus Notoryetes and the Chrysoehlorid Insectivora of South Africa. The question then presents itself, is this a case of adaptive resemblance, or is it an example of true affinity ? The question to be decided early in the investigation is whether Notoryetes is truly a marsupial. The evidence furnished by Prof. Stirling that this animal is marsupial, consists of the following characters. First ; it has a posteriorly opening marsupial pouch. Second ; it has two very small osseous nodules in the tendon of the external oblique muscles, close to their insertion on the anterior border of the pubic symphysis (p. 178). They are scarcely visible without a lens, and are consequently liable to be overlooked. Third; the angle of the lower jatf is inflected. On these characters it may be remarked ; First ; that the pouch contains no mammae as in Marsupialia, indicating that the early parturition of that order does not exist. Second ; that a fibro- cartilage connects the external oblique muscle with the pubis in Canis, which Huxley, (Anatomy of Vert. Animals, p. 355) says “appears to represent the marsupial bone or cartilage of the marsupials.” Third ; that the inflection of the angle of the mandible is not greater, (to judge from Prof. Stirling’s figures), than that seen in some Glires (Haplodontia) and Insectivora. In fact, this region is much like that seen in the species of Chrysochloris, where the angle is produced and incurved. In opposition to the view that Notoryetes is a marsupial may be cited the two objections just made to the first and second of the characters adduced by Stirling, which might however be overcome, if stronger marsupial characters could 126 The American Naturalist. be found in the brain and reproductive system. The brain has not been examined, but the external form of the skull indicates characters like those of Chrysochloris, including lar¬ ger hemispheres than are usual in marsupials. As to the reproductive system, the penis is single, indicating an undi¬ vided vagina in the female, a character non-marsupial, or present only in a highly specialized family of the order. The penis is cloacal as it is in Chrysochloris, as described by Dob¬ son (Monograph of the Insectivora p. 125). Returning to the skeleton, we have other Insectivorous characters, which are non-marsupial. First; the imperforate palate-; Second; the presence of a patella ; Third ; the incisor teeth, which are neither diprotodont, nor polyprotodont, but in number j, nor¬ mal in the placental Mammalia. If we adopt the view that this genus is placental, we have the following additional points of resemblance to the Chryso- chloridse. First, the general shape and structure of the skull. Second, the shape of the scapula, where the inferior (posterior) spinous ridge represents the edge of the thickened border in Chrysochloris. Third, the presence of a heavy metacromion. Fourth, the slenderness of the clavicle. Fifth, the shape of the humerus, especially distally, where however the entepicondylar foramen is closed, while it is open in Chrysochloris (Dobson). Sixth, the shapes of the ulna and radius are much like those in Chrysochloris. Seventh, even the form and character of the anterior foot, where the resemblance is great, although obvious differences exist. Eighth, the general shape of the pelvis is similar, especially the horizontal position, with minute obturator foramen. The presence of a symphysis pubis, and a posterior articulation of the ischium with the sacrum are important differences. The symphysis exists however in various Insectivora and the ischiosacral articulation is present in many Edentata. There is not much resemblance in the forms of the tibia and fibula, but these two elements are distinct from each other in both forms. Ninth, the posterior foot resembles considerably that of Chrysochloris, with manifest differences; and is similarly related to the anterior foot in proportions, and in the number of its digits, five to four, both genera. Tenth, the dentition. New Australian Mammal. 127 Here the characters are remarkably like those of Chrysoehloris both in the number and detailed structure of the teeth. The anterior incisors are long in the latter, and in Notoryctes there is no heel to the inferior true molars, thus resembling the true genus Chrysoehloris.1 Such an aggregate of resemblances to the Chrysochloridid® signifies, it appears to me, zoological affinity. Whether Noto¬ ryctes will ultimately be found to enter the Marsupialia or not, it must be a descendant out of the same stock as that which gave origin to the ChrysochlorididsB. But I suspect that the brain, female generative organs, and foetal characters will turn out to resemble those of Chrysoehloris, as do its other characters, and in that case Notoryctes will enter the Insectivora. In this order it will form a special family, Notoryctidse, characterized by the presence of a symphysis pubis ; the coossification of the posterior part of the ischium with the sacrum, and perhaps by the coossification of the cervical vertebrae. Perhaps there should be added to these characters, the fusion of the sacral metapophysis into a continuous roof, and the ossification and fusion with the first rib of its hsemapophysis. The tritubercular molars, the large caudal intecenntra, the cloacal penis, show Notoryctes to be a primitive type. As to resemblances to Monotremata, such as have been suggested by a recent author, none exist. On the contrary, the Notoryctidee realize a desideration to mammalian phylogeny, viz : a form which connects the marsupial with the placental mammalia, although it is a specialized representative of this type. That the insectivora are the connectant forms among placentals has been long suspected and, that the connection is polyphyletie is sug¬ gested by Notoryctes, since the Creodonta are also candidates for this position, from the resemblance of some them to the Dasy- 1 There are three genera of Chrysochloridida*, which are distinguished by the following dental characters, already pointed out by authors (See Dobson 1. c. p. 109). Teeth 40 ; lower molars without heel ; Chrysoehloris Cur. Teeth 40 ; lower molars with heel ; Bematiscus Cope. Teeth 36 ; lower molars with heel ; Amblysomus Pom. Chrysoehloris includes only the C. aurea ; Bematiscus includes C. villosa and C. trevelyanii; and Amblysomus the C. rutilans and C. obtusirostris. All are South African. The American Naturalist. [February, tiridse. The structure of the pelvis approximates that of a num¬ ber of the Edentata, as do apparently the inferior incisor teeth. The origin of the latter order has yet to be discovered. The existence of a South African type of placental mammal in Australia need not greatly surprise us, since the fresh water fish Gonorhynchus greyi is common to both countries, and the ratite birds and pleurodire tortoises are found in both. Explanation of Plates. Copied from Prof. Stirling’s Memoir in the Transactions of the Linnean Society of South Australia. Plate IX. Notorydes typhlops Stirling, natural size, side view. Fig. 2, muzzle from front, Plate X. Notorydes typhlops, skull and dentition enlarged. Fig. 1, skull side view. Fig. 2, lower jaw from behind. Figs. 3-6, superior molar from within, without, from front, and from below. Figs. 7-10, inferior molar, from within, without, above, and obliquely. Fig. 11, skull from below. 1892.] A Burial Mound of Florida. 129 A BURIAL MOUND OF FLORIDA. By Clarence Bloomfield Moore. Florida’s burial mounds of sand are fast disappearing through the fruitless search of the treasure-seeking native or the unsystematic explorations of the relic-hunting tourist from / Ground Plan of Work. A, B, C, D. E, F, G, H, various shafts and trenches. the North. In view of this it would seem fitting to put upon record a comparatively thorough exploration of a somewhat remarkable burial mound previously unopened, and probably unknown to those making scientific investigations in connec¬ tion with the burial mounds and the shell heaps of the State.1 1 The late Jeffries Wyman, in referring to shell heaps not far distant, makes no St. John’s River, Florida,” although carefully indicating all burial mounds coming under his notice. Le Baron, in a long list of the mounds from the mouth to the source of the St. John’s (Smithsonian Report, 1882, page 771 et seq.), makes no ref¬ erence to Tick Island. [It is not included in Thomas’ “ Catalogue of Prehistoric Works, ”1891 .-Ed. Am. Nat.] 130 The American Naturalist. [February, Tick Island, Volusia County, Florida, is reached from the St. John’s River by turning east and crossing Lake Dexter to the mouth of Spring Garden Creek, and by following the course of this creek until a tumble-down wharf of palmetto logs is reached, from whence a path half a mile in length leads to the burial mound. Tick Island is separated from the mainland by a narrow waterway, its other boundaries being Lake Woodruff and Spring Garden Creek. The Island presents in parts a very wild appearance, covered as it is with gnarled live oak and towering palmetto, with trailing vine and tangled undergrowth, where the presence of the rattlesnake imparts a certain risk to exploration. With the exception of one small house upon the island, at intervals occupied by the hired man whose care it is to look after the orange grove, the nearest point where quarters can be secured is at Astor, eight miles distant on the river. It is, therefore, evident that the explorer with his assistants and the necessary workmen, at least four or five in number (for the throwing out of sand from a stifling trench during a hot Flor¬ ida day demands frequent change of laborers), must either camp upon the island or occupy a boat chartered for the pur¬ pose. Shape, Size, and Composition of the Mound. The burial mound, seventeen feet in height (spirit level and tape line measurement) and in circumference four hundred and seventy-eight feet, is conical in shape, save to the East, where from the summit a gradual slope extends into a winding cause¬ way or breastwork three hundred and ninety-two feet in length (tape line measurement), averaging four feet in height with an average breadth of twenty-five feet at base and fifteen feet at summit. The description of the composition of the mound is based upon careful observation through parts of ten days of February, March and April, 1891, during which time eight shafts and trenches were dug, the largest being forty-six and a half feet long with an average breadth of thirteen feet, and nine feet deep at the end, having from the level of the ground Burial Mound of Florida. 131 followed the sloping base of shell to a point three feet vertically from the centre of the mound where operations were suspended owing to the difficulty and danger of the work, arising from the frequent caving in of heavy masses of sand. It is of course possible that an entire demolition of the mound might to a certain extent modify the conclusions embodied in this description, although in every case the results of the digging correspond in character.1 Dr. Brinton in his interesting chapter on the antiquities of Florida (The Floridian Peninsula), states that during his inves¬ tigations he met with no stratification in the formation of any of the larger burial mounds. To this the Tick Island mound is a notable exception. The base of the mound is composed of shells, apparently brought from the neighboring shell fields to serve as a founda¬ tion in the marshy soil. Across the centre of this layer of shells from North to South runs a ridge of pure white sand, more like the sand of the ocean than of the surrounding fields. Above this ridge of white sand is a stratum of dark sandy loam mingled with shells,1 while the sides of the ridge are rounded out with sandy loam in which shells are wanting, thus forming a symmetrical mound. Through the layer of shell but slight excavation was attempted, owing to its great compactness, its slope being fol¬ lowed at about six inches below its surface. The main trench, running in the same direction as the ridge, followed its course, and at the point where the excavation ended, the layers were respectively five, six, and three feet in thickness. In the burial mounds at Lake Harney, at the Indian Fields on the Upper St. John’s, on Dunn’s Island, and at a point on the Eastern bank of the river about eight miles below Enter¬ prise, no stratification was observed, but these mounds having 1 Portions of the subject matter of this article are contained in a report made to the Peabody Museum of Archaeology, accompanying the bones, pottery and imple- 132 The American Naturalist. [February* been opened frequently are now of little value to the archaeol¬ ogist. Human Remains. During the excavations at Tick Island over one hundred skeletons were exhumed, and that many hundred still remain is beyond the shadow of a doubt. The skeletons except one (now at Peabody Museum of Archaeology) were in a very friable condition, owing to the layer of while sand ; D, skeletons on the shell ; E, shell foundation of mound. moisture of the sand, requiring the utmost care in handling, and even in the majority of cases rendering futile the most careful efforts to save them. The skeleton recovered entire was in the main trench five feet from the margin of the mound and three feet from the surface. It lay imbedded in the shelly base and through impregnation with lime from its surround¬ ings it had escaped the decay occuring to such a marked extent in all the others. Above it the various strata were undis¬ turbed, showing it to be from no intrusive burial, that bUe noire 1892.] A Burial Mound of Florida. 133 of the careful investigator of mounds which has led at times to so many erroneous conclusions. The skull of this skeleton was small and round, as were all exhumed at Tick Island in a condition to bear investigation, since the large majority crumbled to pieces upon exposure to the air, or were found crushed through the weight of superim¬ posed sand. No other bodies were found in the shells, but upon J. Fig. 3 (1). Section of Mound from North to South, sand ; D, skeletons on shell layer; E, shell foundation of mound.’ ’ ^ /K.Z Fig. 3. Fig. 3 (2). Section of Mound from East to West. [Lettering same as above.] it, covered with pure white sand, lay numerous skeletons of adults, in some cases the skulls in immediate contact, and this layer of bodies apparently continued through the mound. There seemed to be no fixed position for burial, the bodies lying'as. though thrown without arrangement, often with arms and legs flexed, and in one case the head pushed down to one 134 The American Naturalist. side to such an extent that a portion of the clavicle had entered the mouth. Several facts in connection with this layer of bodies lying on the shells are very suggestive. All were adults save one, a lit¬ tle child, near whose head three small pots of clay were found. The bodies lay in close juxtaposition, the skulls of some crushed in as by a blow from a blunt instrument ; the bones of all the bodies lay in anatomical order, while the white sand in the ridge above was precisely the same shade throughout. From all this it would seem almost conclusive that over the bodies of many men slain in battle a long ridge of pure white sand was erected, and this ridge was never disturbed by subse¬ quent burials, no skeletons being found in the white sand. However upon it many bodies were afterwards placed at inter¬ vals and covered with a mixture of sandy loam and shells intermingled, considerably increasing the height of the ridge, which was rounded out with sandy loam to form the mound. We are told that the lower Creeks and Seminoles hid the bod¬ ies of their dead save in the case of a victorious battle, when a mound was raised over them, a fact that would still farther strengthen the conclusion arrived at, were it possible to -attrib¬ ute to the Tick Island mound an origin as late as the occupancy of the Peninsula of Florida by those tribes of Indians. Upon the mound lies a fallen live-oak that was old when the Creeks left their home to the North, and separate burials were continued long after the fight was over. Moreover, though negative testimony, any investigator of the burial mounds of Florida knows how frequently in post-Columbian times arti¬ cles valued by the deceased were buried with them, and that, on the river at least, mounds erected or used for intrusive bur¬ ials after the coming of the whites teem with beads of glass, and that pieces of copper, tomahawks of iron, beads and trink¬ ets of silver and even ornaments of gold are4 occasionally 1The supply of iron, copper and silver among the Indians of Florida, must be considered as obtained through the medium of the whites, and this is probably true with respect to gold which, with the silver, was derived from shipwrecks on the coast. It has been asserted that some gold found its way south from the Indians of the north of Georgia, an opinion which Mr. A. E. Douglass, to whom the authoris indebted for many valuable references, has ably combated in the American Antiquarian for January, 1890. As to ornaments of metal found in Florida, see paper by Le Baron, Smithsonian Report 1882, page 791 et seq. PLATE IX. Notoryctet typhlops. A Burial Mound of Florida. 135 found in them. In the mound at Tick Island, though careful searchers examined each spadeful of sand, not a bead of glass Plan of Mound and Causeway. nor a particle of metal was discovered, a fact very strongly pointing to the conclusion that the mound was no longer ilsed 10 136 The American Naturalist. [February, for burial purposes when the first white men settled ip the State. In many places near the surface of the mound separate bones, or portions of skeletons not in anatomical order, were brought to light, suggestive of a custom of the earlier Indians, who are known to have exposed bodies to the elements or to have buried them until, through decomposition they were more readily enabled to separate the flesh from the bones, which were gathered together and buried at stated periods. It is possible, however, that separate bones (and these bones were always near the surface) were due to the disarrangement of previous inter¬ ments caused by intrusive burials. The teeth in all the jaws exhumed were remarkably perfect. In no case was any decay apparent and almost never was there a missing tooth, though many were unusually worn as from chewing upon hard substances, possibly fragments of shell found in conjunction with their usual diet. A number of bones of great pathological interest were brought to light. In three excavations a number of tibiae were found marked with anterior curvature, great increase in cir¬ cumference and abnormal roughness of surface, giving evidence of a chronic inflammatory action, while in one instance, at least, a portion of a shin bone was found bearing the marks of acute inflammation. While the condition does not offer ab¬ solute evidence as to the existence of a certain blood disease1 among the Indians who made the mound, the period of the origin of which disease is still in doubt, it is certain that it would produce like results. Were They Cannibals? In immediate association with at least five skeletons in the lower levels of the Tick Island mound were found bones charred and calcined by the action of fire. Of these bones portions were positively identified as belonging to the cranium and ulna. 18»2.] A Burial Mound of Florida. 137 That the makers of many of the shell heaps of the River were cannibals is everywhere admitted since the researches of Professor Wyman; and the writer, in January, 1873, found in a shell heap in a swamp near the west bank of the St. John’s, a few miles north of Palatka, in association with the bones of the deer and. other animals which had been similarly treated, many human bones showing the action of fire, and split, presumably more readily to extract the marrow. With them lay an arrow head of bluish flint. We do not know that the makers of the burial mounds and of the shell heaps were contemporary, and in the burial mounds, with the exception of the one at Hun- toon’s Islands, referred to by Professor Wyman (Fresh Water Shell Mounds of the St. John’s River, Florida, page 28) the writer has been unable to learn of any discoveries pointing to the use of the human body for food. But the presence of these charred human remains would be 'difficult to explain save by the hypothesis of cannibalism or human sacrifice by fire, in which event, cannibalistic rites might possibly be included. Perforated Crania. Among the objects found in the Tick Island mound were two portions of separate crania ; one with two perforations about the circumference of an ordinary lead pencil, the second with a similar hole in the centre and the evidence of another on its margin. The origin of these perforations is difficult to explain. No weapon known to the Indians could have caused such a perforation by a single blow, and even admitting the presence of the whites, no bullet or buckshot could have caused the holes, since the perforation was of equal size and regular¬ ity on either side, with no splintering of the inner table, as is the case with gunshot wounds of the skull. Not far distant from these fragments was found a piece of bone (unidentified) with a perforation half an inch in diam¬ eter. In many parts of Florida pieces of shell, pottery and stone are met with, having single and double perforations, and were probably used as talismans, though it is possible that in the case of the pottery the perforations made from either side and meeting in the middle, precisely in the manner The American Naturalist. [February, described by Professor Morse1 as existing in fragments of pot¬ tery, found in the shell heaps of Japan, served the same pur¬ pose as there, to furnish means of strengthening cracked earth¬ enware or of joining that already broken. Be this as it may, perforated objects of stone and shell are found which must be considered as charms and amulets, and it is possible that the fragments of bone were put to a similar use. But the cranial perforations at least admit of a very differ¬ ent explanation, if we suppose the skulls to have been buried entire with subsequent separation through pressure of sand or through decay. While perforated crania in Florida are hith¬ erto unreported, barring hearsay testimony, their discovery is no novelty in Michigan, where numbers have been found in the great mound at Rouge River and others near Detroit. It is presumable that these holes were made more readily to sus¬ pend the cranium of an enemy, similar perforations, it is stated, being formerly customary among the head-hunting Dyaks of Borneo. For fuller details as to perforated crania the reader is referred to American Antiquarian, vol. xii, p. 165, and vol. ix, p. 392 ; also to Henry Gillman’s most inter¬ esting paper in the Smithsonian Report for 1875, p. 235, et seq. PoTTEEY. From the Tick Island mound hundreds of pieces of pottery were taken, the great majority rude and unornamented, the rest decorated with lines, with crossed lines and with knobs, the latter a form unfamiliar to the writer. In no case in any part of the mound were fragments of pottery discovered that had any connection with each other, no matter how closely associated. From the lowest level, pottery showing equal advancement in the arts was taken as from near the surface. It is safe to infer that these bits of pottery, many of which were shaped in a form suggestive of lance heads, were placed with the dead in fulfilment of sacred rites. The presence of broken pottery in the upper portions of the mound where the sandy loam was -mixed with the shells could readily be explained by the supposition that the soil brought from the *Shell Mounds of Omori, Tokio, 1879, p. 9. A Burial Mound of Florida. 139 neighborhood of the shell fields would naturally be intermin¬ gled with debris, but in the lower portions of the mound where pure white sand alone covered the bodies, two or three pieces of pottery were almost invariably found in close associa¬ tion with each skeleton usually near the skull. The Etruscans often buried hollow jewelry with their dead, doubtless not caring to waste solid ornaments on the departed. May we not infer then, that the savages of Tick Island, wretchedly poor, since not even stone was indigenous, hesitated to bury with the disceased his most precious implements upon which his descendants doubtless looked as a coveted inheritance, but rather satisfied their cupidity and their conscience by the interment of fragments of pottery in place of the cherished weapons and implements of stone. Implements, Weapons and Ornaments. In the main trench were found : three small earthenware pots, unornamented, lying near the body of a child an arrowhead of whitish flint ; a small chisel of stone ; two discs of shell, each with two small perforations; a small pebble of quartz from the seashore, around the lesser end of which a groove had been cut ; four beads of shell and a number of chippings of flint. In a large excavation made on the south side of the mound were brought to light : a spear head of flint, five inches in length ; one rude arrow head ; one flake of flint; a large quantity of small shell beads; three barrel shaped beads made from the columella of the Busycon, or conch, two, one inch in length, the other, one and three quarter inches. Large shell beads of this kind, probably made in Florida, have been found as far north as East Tennessee1. Is it a Serpent Mound? If any effigy mounds are to be found in Florida, they are of exceeding rarity. During fifteen winters spent in the State, none have come under the notice of the writer. In Emble¬ matic Mounds and Animal “ Effigies,* ” is cited a description by S. T. Walker of an effigy mound in the form of a 'Fresh- water shell Moands of the St. John’s River, p. 56. 5 By Steven D. Peet. 140 The American Naturalist. turtle on Long Key off the south-western coast. The author is not entirely persuaded that the shape arose from design; he, informs us, however, that turtles abound in the vicinity. This is the only allusion to an effigy mound in Florida that the writer has been able to discover. As has been stated, a long and winding causeway joins the Tick Island mound, which on this side, sloping1 to meet it is much less steep than* elsewhere, and were the pal- mettoes and undergrowth cleared from the causeway the resemblance to a serpent would -be strong. In the rainy season the territory surrounding the burial mound becomes soft and swampy, and a causeway to the place of sepulture would prove a great convenience and for this purpose the causeway doubtless served, though its winding shape may have been intended also as emblematic. The raised pathway terminates at a large bean-shaped shell or refuse heap, upon which and the adjacent acres of shell-fields the Indians doubtless lived, and if the causeway were to serve as a means of communication alone, it seems fair to suppose that the natives with their limited methods of conveyance would have made it in as straight a line as possible. More¬ over, a second causeway, skirting the base of the mound runs in a direct line from the great shell heap, towards the solid hammock land beyond. It is impossible with our present light to state what race or races2 piled up the burial mounds and by the slow deposit of debris formed the vast shell heaps of the river and of the coast, since many mounds give no evidence of intercourse with the white men, while such as do, may furnish their beads of glass and ornaments and implements of metal through the intru- A Burial Mound of Florida. 141 sive burials of later Indians. Hence all data are wanting as to the superstitions of the Indians who built the mounds. Still, it is well known how widely the cult of the serpent has obtained in various parts of the world, and it is not unlikely that the savages of Tick Island, where the Crotalus and other snakes are numerous, if erecting an effigy mound, should give it the form of a serpent. We are told1 that the Indians of the sixteenth century along the St. John’s, held the serpent in veneration and treated with every mark of respect the head of a snake cut off by a soldier of De Gourgues. Moreover, it is not infrequently the case that a conquering race, when amalgamating with a conquered people in taking possession of the soil, incorporates with its own the worship of the vanquished, and it would seem at least fair to conjecture that the worship and veneration of the serpent descended from the earlier inhabitants of Florida through Indians of whom we have historical record, to the Semin oles. How the Seminoles of a century ago regarded the rattle¬ snake is amusingly told by the naive though learned William Bartram, who just before our war of Independency made a journey up the St. John’s as far as Lake Beresford.2 In the great serpent mound of Ohio the. head and the body are of nearly the same height, while a difference of thirteen feet in favor of the head exists in the Tick Island mound. Moreover the head or mound proper has been extensively used for burial purposes. In view of these facts and the probable absence of effigy mounds elsewhere in the state* the weight of evidence would seem to bear against the existence of a serpent mound on Tick Island. Nevertheless there are enough points in its favor to justify the wTriter in hazarding the suggestion. The Height of the Florida Mound Builders. Although not bearing directly on the Tick Island mound, yet as applying to it and to many other mounds and shell 1 Floridian Peninsula, p. 131. Travels, Chap. IX. sProf. Putnam in a letter to the writer states that no effigy mound in Florida has 142 The American Naturalist. [February, heaps investigated by the writer on the east coast, the west coast and the River, a few words as to the stature of the mound builders may not be considered amiss. In forming estimates from the whole or a part of a skeleton, as to the height of the body during life there is but one basis' upon which to go: actual measurement; and unless these data are furnished by men of the utmost reliability, measure¬ ments made in person are alone of value. As the German physicians where no post mortem has been made dismiss useless theorizing as to the cause of death with the simple words “ no autopsy ” so it is well to put aside all reports of the finding of skeletons which, “judging from their bones must have been of giants.” In all scientific researches of this nature the explorer comes in contact with three classes of inhabitants, the conscientious resident whose memory is possibly defective ; the kind-hearted inhabitant, who, having learned what information is wanted, rather than disappoint, will corroborate anything; and the facetious native, who, seeing a city man spending time and money upon what he regards as matters of small import, takes delight iij filling to repletion, with marvelous details evolved from his own imagination, the person whom he considers to be a mild form of lunatic. For a scientist with a theory to establish the native Floridian is an acquisition beyond price. On an average the length of the femur is about two hundred and seventy five thousandths1 of the entire height ; thus the thigh bone of a six foot man would be 19‘8 inches in length. To those unfamiliar with this relative size of the thigh bone, a femur when found in nearly every case gives the idea of hav¬ ing done duty in a body of abnormal size. The writer well recalls in March 1879, while engaged in an . imperfect investigation of the burial mound at Bluflton on the St. John’s, having found a skeleton and in association with it a pipe of stone, an arrow head and a portion of a drinking cup wrought from a human skull and ornamented — an object by the way, of great archaeological interest. The femur of this 143 Burial Mound, of Florida. skeleton seemed so large that it required the assurance of a professor of Harvard to carry conviction to the finder then unfamiliar with the ratio existing between thigh bone and skeleton, that the remains of a giant had not been disinterred. In the burial mound at Tick Island, over one hundred skeletons were found, none belonging to men of extraordinary size, while the same holds good in the case of very many skeletons excavated by the writer on other parts of the river and the coast, while the same may be said of bones found in orange groves and cultivated land where the spade or plow of the agriculturist had left them. Great pains have been taken by the writer, and considerable distances have been traveled to inspect the bones of so-called giants and ever with a like result. The bones, if forthcoming at all, have never indicated a greater stature than can readily be found among the white men of to-day.1 It is true that Dr. Brinton (The Floridan Peninsula, page 171) cites a case reported to him of the finding in that State of skeletons of abnormal size. In this instance, no measurements were made, but it must be remembered, however, that even conscientious men, when measuring a skeleton laid at length upon the ground, frequently fail to make due allowance for the interlocked portions, or joints, and arrive at an estimate greater than is justified by fact. Upon the whole, it would not be unsafe to assert that the former races inhabiting Florida contained no taller men than can readily be found at the present time. 144 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. u. s. (In PLATE X. Notoryctes typhlops. imm General Kates. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. valves and by the length of the cardinal line. A IlflliHH E.T.] mi ~ 171 12.00 M . 102.2 12.00 A. M. 2.00 P. M . 102.4 2.00 P. M. 5.30 P. M. . 101.7 5.30 P. M.. 8.15 P. M . 101.5 8,15 P. M.. 10.30 P. M . 101.5 10.30 P. M. 12.00 P. M . 101.4 12.00 P. M. 2.00 A. M . 101.4 2.00 A. M. 4.00 A. M . 100.4 4.00 A. M. .100.6 7.40 A. M., 7.40 A. M. mmm k mm eh 176 The American Naturalist. The temperature was taken in the rectum in each instance for ten minutes. As the experiments were intended to be scientifically accurate, a self-registering thermometer with a Kew certificate testi¬ fying that the instrument was strictly accurate, was used. Such a one costs three dollars, but for ordinary work a good instrument can be secured at a lower price ; nevertheless it does not pay to buy a cheap instrument. The next table is the consecutive temperatures in one day for a Great Dane Bitch, eight months old. Hours. Deg. F. 8.30 A. M . 102.8 10.00 A. M . 101.9 2.00 P. M . 101.3 415 P. M . 101.5 Hours. Deg. F. 6.15 P. M . 101.7 8.00 P. M . 10U 10.00 P. M . 100.5 It will be seen in this case the temperature in one instance reached almost 103 degrees. The temperature in puppies is rather higher and decidedly more vaii- able than in grown dogs. The following table for two English setter puppies of the same litter, nine months old, illustrates this less than it does the variations for the same breed and individual kept under pre cisely the same conditions: Temp, in de- Hours. grees F. 8.30 A. M . 102.2 11.00 A. M . 102.6 2.00 P. M . 102.7 5.00 P. M . 101.7 7.00 P. M . 101.9 9.00 P. M . 102.2 Temp, in de- Hours. grees F. 8.30 A. M . I#2-5 11.00 A. M . |l°2-4 2.00 P. M . 102.5 5.00 P. M . . 101-0 7.00 P. M . -101-9 9.00 P. M . . . 101* It will be noted that the temperature in the case of one of these puppies reached 102 degrees, or higher, four times in twelve hours. Zoological News.— Mollusca.— According to J. G. Cooper, the peninsula of Lower California has as yet yielded but 24 species of ter¬ restrial Mollusca, 3 of which are Californian, while the rest belong to tropical groups but are in general peculiar to the peninsula. A curi¬ ous fact to be noted is that 2 of the species occur in the similar and regions of western South America and nowhere in the intervening moist regions. (Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Science, vol. iii., p. 1*) Univ. vol. vi. Pt. 1.) ‘ 178 The American Naturalist. EMBRYOLOGY.1 Epigenesis or Evolution?2 — One part of this paper is devoted to the results of certain experiments upon the action of light upon the cleavage of eggs. These show that the eggs of Echinus microtubercu- latus, Planorbis carinatus t and Rana esculenta undergo cleavage and the early stages of organ formation equally well in darkness, white light or colored light. Light then has no effect upon the early stages of development, though others have shown that the presence or absence as well as the color of light does have an effect upon the later stages of differentiation of embryos. The main portion of the paper, however, contains the most interest¬ ing results : that from one of the first two blastomeres of the egg of Echinus microtubereulatus, and the same is true of a species of Sphce- rechinus, a complete pluteus of normal form but of half the normal size may be reared ! Owing to the importance of these experiments as bearing upon the value of the blastomeres upon the question of early potential repara¬ tion of organs within the egg, that is, upon the question of evolution as opposed to epigenesis, it will be necessary to give here a brief account of the author’s methods, from which the chance of error may be deduced. When the first cleavage furrow has come in, 50-100 eggs are shaken vigorously for five minutes, with little water in a test tube 4 cm. long and 0*6 cm. wide, then quickly poured into clean sea water and exam¬ ined. If the right moment has been taken, neither too soon nor too late, some of the blastomeres will be found not only isolated but still alive, others of course dead, or not separated from their fellows as the egg membrane does not always burst open. There is also great varia¬ tions in the resistance offered by eggs of different individuals — some may need to be shaken several times. The best isolated cells are removed and placed two or three together in sea water in solid watch glasses covered, and with a hang¬ ing drop on the cover to diminish evaporation and concentration of the sea water. In these glasses the embryos develop and were observed from time to time without removal. 1 Edited by Dr. T. H. Morgan, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr Penn. 2 Hans Driesch : Entwick lungs mechaniscbe Studien. Zeit. f. wis. Zool. bii, Nov., 1891. action of the embryo is not confined to in three cases the blastula divided into a W The American Naturalist. [February, Of the subsequent fate of the embryo to the time of its hatching in the adult form we can only note from the detailed organogeny given by the author the facts that the reproductive organs arise from two small sets of cells given off from the progeny of I, that is from the entoderm : that the nervous system and muscles both come direct from the ectoderm, the former as solid ingrowths, the latter as sinking in of separate cells, muscle cells. The excretory tubes arise from cells of undetermined origin. The flame cells are from the first blind tubes, closed by a protoplasmic mass bearing the numerous cilia. The author also takes up, in less detail, the embryology of Melicerta ringens, a less favorable subject. Here also the precaution was taken to keep the observed embryos up to hatching to avoid the vitiation of results by study of abnormalities. The cleavage is remarkably similar to that of Callidina. Yet the polar body is found towards the posterior, dorsal end. Both male and female eggs have the same cleavage and subsequent development in spite of difference of size. In the author’s interpretation of the embryology of Rotifers there is no mesoderm, no middle layer. The sexual organs arise from the entoderm, the ccelon, muscles, pharynx and salivary gland from certain granular ectoderm cells, the circular muscles directly from the adja¬ cent ectoderm and the excretory organs not from the entoderm but probably from the ectoderm. A comparison is thus drawn between the Rotifer and the Trochosphere — the great similarity being over¬ balanced by the absence of mesoblasts. Thus the Rotifer is to be regarded as an earlier stage than the Trochophore, wanting as yet the special mesoderm mass. The Rotifer is thus not a sexually mature Trochophere. Yet the possession of a subcesophageal ganglia points out a resemblance to the Molluscan trochophore, while there is also much resemblance to an ancestral form for the Polyzoa, Brach- iopods and Chsetognaths. The “ foot ” of the Rotifer is not a ventral organ but to be regarded as a tail or posterior end of the body, having at first a terminal anus afterwards moved dorsally by the formation of a terminal adhesive gland. The embryology of this region is accepted by the author as homologous with that of the abdomen of Crustacea. While the Rotifers thus stand as representatives of the ancestors of so many groups they themselves are to be divided, as the embryology indicates, from the “ Protrochophora ” of the Platyhelminthes. 184 The American Naturalist. origin of the duct is that it arises from a solid proliferation of somato- pleure . . . In so far as these authors maintain that the duct arises from a solid profileration of mesoderm and acquires its lumen secondarily I entirely agree with them ; but my own observations on this point lead me to conclude further that the duct arises throughout its entire length from a continous thickening of somatopleure and that the only free growth which occurs in the Amphibia studied by me is for the purpose of effecting a union with the cloaca. “ Finally it remains for me to consider the third view, that of the ectodermal origin of the duct, which is to-day advocated on so many sides ... In my opinion the entire excretory system of the forms I have studied unquestionably develops without any participation of the ectoderm in its formation. The duct develops from mesoderm through¬ out its entire length and at its posterior end, in Ran a and Bufo at least, comes in contact with one of the endodermal coruna of the mid¬ gut so that nowhere in its development does it come into organic union with the outer germ layer.” An intimate fusion in several processes between the duct and the ectoderm has been described but this fusion the author concludes is secondary and meaningless (?) The remaining part of the paper deals with “ those inferences of a general nature ” drawn from a study of the pronephros. “I conclude therefore that pronephros and mesonephros are parts of one ancestral organ ; that the glomeruli are strictly homodynamous with the glomus ; that the entire tubular portion of the pronephros is represented in the mesonephros ; that the cavity of a Malpbigan capsule and the nephrostomal canal connecting it with the body cavity are detached portions of the coelom, the equivalents of which are not thus differentiated in the pronephros ; that the pronephros is developed as a larval excretory organ ; and that the period at which it appears largely accounts for its peculiarities of structure.” The closing sections are devoted to a consideration of the evidence which the development of the excretory system throws on the origin of the vertebrates. On the whole, the evidence brought forward does not add materially to the solution of the ancestry of the vertebrates and such a theory can only be established by investigations which shall include in their scope the entire organization of the two groups- 1892.] ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.1 188 The American Naturalist. Europe, Africa . Australia and Oceanica North America . South America . Total . . , . 8 per, cent, by decade With this ratio of increase as a basis, the figure 5,994,000,000 will be attained A. D. 2072, or in about 181 years. It is a curious fact that this is very nearly the same date when, according to the geologists, the coal supply of Great Britain, which ^ gives her prestige among nations, will be exhausted. Our great-grandchildren will have reason to reflect upon the future and the fate of their posterity doomed to struggle for life under the hard conditions that may be summarized in these words : want of combustibles and room upon the face of the earth. (L’Anthropologie, Tome II, No. 6, p. 753.) PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Association of American Anatomists. — The fourth annual session was held September 23 to 25, 1891, at Washington, D. C. The officers for 1890-91 were : Joseph Leidy, M. D., LL.D. (deceased), Philadelphia, Pa., President; Frank Baker, M. D., Washington, D. C. , 1st Vice President and Acting President ; Faneuil D. Weisse, M. D. , New York City, 2d Vice President ; D. S. Lamb, M. D., Wash¬ ington, D. C., Secretary and Treasurer. Executive Committee: Harrison Allen, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. ; Burt G. Wilder, M. D., Cornell University ; Thomas Dwight, M. D., LL.D., Harvard Univer¬ sity, President and Secretory, ex-officio ; Mr. Fred, A. Lucas, of Washington, D. C., Delegate to the Congress; D. K. Shute, M. D., of Washington, D. C., Alternate. Wednesday, September 23. — 1. Opening of the session by the Acting President. 2. Report of Executive Committee. 3. Report of Secre¬ tary and Treasurer. 4. Election of new members. 5. Report o Committee on anatomical Nomenclature. 6. Proposed amendment to Constitution abolishing dues and substituting assessments. Db. Alee>t- 7. Proposed amendment to Constitution providing for Honorary Men1 berships, to apply more especially to foreign anatomists. Db. Lamb. 1892.] Ut IfH [February, 194 The American Naturalist. January 6tb.— The following papers were read : Mr. Percival Lowell, j Shinto Occultism from a Scientific Standpoint ; Prof. E. S. Morse, On j the Form of the Ancient Bow in Various Parts of the World. |M January 20th. — The following papers were read : Dr. Charles ¥-1 Riley, Life History of Sphecius speciosus, Drury ; Notes on CapriS'J cation ; Mr. S. H. Scudder, The Tertiary Weevils of North America! Biological Society of Washington. — November 28.— TheftH lowing communications were read : Dr. George Marx, On the Struol ture and Construction of the Geometric Spider Web ; Mr. Charles D. White, Some Peculiar Forms in an Upland Carboniferous Fkj;| Prof. F. H. Knowlton, Fruiting Ferns from the Laramie Group; Mr. | Frederick V. Coville, Review of Kuntze’s Revisio Generum Plant* | rum ; Dr. C. W. Stiles, Notes on Parasites — Spiroptera scutata. December 12th. — The following communications were read: Mr. ? Frederick V. Coville, Review of Kuntze’s Revisio Generum Plant* rum ; Mr. E. M. Hasbrouck, Remarks on Di chromatism; Prof. Le^r F. Ward, Recent Discoveries of Potomac Fossil Plants near W ington. , December 26th. — The following communications were read: P • E. H. Knowlton, A Fossil Bread Fruit Tree from the Sierras of Cali¬ fornia; Prof Lester F. Ward, Alphonse de Candolle on the Trans¬ mission of acquired Characters; Prof. B. T. Galloway, A New Disease; Dr.C. Hart Merriam, Remarks on the Affinities of the Sort American Squirrels, Chipmunks, Spermophiles, Prairie Dogs au Marmots. n T W. January 23d. — The following comm unications were read: Dr. * • Stiles, Notes on Parasites ; Myzonimus gen. nov. ; Mr. Tbeo. o Studies of the Morphological Identity of the Stamens ; Dr. T eo Smith, On Peculiar Forms of Red Corpuscles in Mammalia m mic Conditions.— Frederic A. Lucas, Secretary. $4.60 per Year (Foreign). 35 cte. per Copy. AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. CONTENTS. 518 520 MINOR STREET. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST Vol. XXVI. March, 1892. 303 NATURAL ANALOGIES. By S. V. Clevenger, M. D. In several articles on biological subjects published during the last fifteen years, I have called attention to the importance of analogical reasoning in the consideration of many scien¬ tific subjects. To a limited extent this process of reasoning is carried on by scientific writers generally, but more with reference to its convenience than with a full realization of its great impor¬ tance ; for example, the vibratory theory is made use of by physicists in discussing heat, light, electricity, and sound, and most authors on the correlation of forces, and modern philoso¬ phers like Herbert Spencer endeavored to reduce 'universal phenomena to simple terms such as the convertibility of mat¬ ter and motion, but from first to last all these thinkers seem to have missed what appears to me to be the most valuable application of analogy to practical sciences. It does not require much thought to concede that a house built of bricks will possess the properties inherent in individ¬ ual bricks, such as un inflammability, degrees of porosity, impermeability to moisture and air, and even the colors of the original brick, but it has taken thousands of years to establish the fact that however highly differentiated the ani¬ mal tissues may be they possess only attributes of the primi¬ tive cell, some having one or more abilities highly developed with others in abeyance. 14 196 [March, Thus the protozoon eats, grows, reproduces ; so does the man, and for the same reasons. Whether we regard the processes as homologous or analogous, these acts performed by every animal have their foundation in the ability of the primitive cell to do the same things. It requires a certain familiarity with zoology and physiology to be capable of appreciating this connection, and it is a hopeless undertaking to try to teach such conceptions to those who are not furnished with the nec¬ essary preliminary knowledge. And there are those who are instructed in such matters, who for the want of sufficient deductive ability are unable to see the dependence of the phe¬ nomena because to their untrained minds the complicated pro¬ cesses of ingestion, such as deglutition, insalivation, mastica¬ tion, digestion, etc., apparently differ so radically from the simple assimilative act of the amoeba. The ends attained are identical, though the processes may differ, somewhat as the sun-dial, the hour-glass and the clep¬ sydra differ from the modern watch. No matter how complex the organism, the individual cells that compose it absorb food directly, very much the same as do primitive single-celled animals. The complicated differentiations, to those unfamiliar with the subject, differ radically from their origin, as Talmage imagines he differs from the ancestral ape. That analogies have been considered useful in some ways is shown by many attempts to utilize them, as, for example, in the celebrated work of Bishop Butler, whose success in the application Huxley thinks was not very great, for the latter claimed that the story of Jack and the Bean-stalk could be proven by the same method of reasoning. The sloppy man¬ ner in which analogies have been selected to illustrate certain points show that while there was acknowledgment of their value there is universal ignorance of their real nature. I firmly believe that there will eventually be elaborated a science of analogies which will bear a relationship t° the imperfect usage of the past in such matters that the old bears to the present zoology and botany. Natural Analogies. 197 Spencer makes good use of the method in an essay on “ The Social Organism,” and pretty generally throughout his works, but I think that neither he nor any other author touches upon the special point which I shall endeavor to make clear in this article. Superficial resemblances often betray writers into incorrect use of metaphor, figures, or simile, either of which is upon close inspection nothing but a rhetorical admission that anal¬ ogy has its uses. But its abuses are all too numerous, partic¬ ularly in attempts at allegory and the puerile fable. Superstition arises from an imperfect observation of natural phenomena which science dispels by the growth of intelli¬ gence with more accuracy of observation ; as alchemy and astrology were followed by chemistry and astronomy, so mythology, which is the savage attempt to explain the uni¬ verse through crude conceptions, is gradually being super- ceded by philosophic recognition of the unity of the laws gov¬ erning everything. One of Lord Bacon's essays is devoted to an ingenious attempt at explaining ancient Greek and Homan mythologies as symbolizing profound wisdom, and no legend among them was too silly not to be reconciled on this basis. The confus¬ ingly complex ecclesiastical symbolization is the outgrowth of endeavors to find material equivalents for spiritual things, with sueh poor success that the Christian can see nothing holy in the crescent and horse-tail of the Mohammedan, while the latter derides the cross as “ two sticks,” and exclaims “ Behold the Christian’s God.” And now we come to the main consideration. It is nothing new that there are parallelisms between the acts of men and nations, but these connections were treated of as purely acci¬ dental, or at best as if they were caused by some inscrutable law. I am not aware that anyone has preceded me in announ¬ cing that so far from there being anything mysterious in such matters the interdependence of phenomena and the possibil¬ ity of reducing all things, if not to their ultimates, at least to simpler terms, enables many of the operations of the universe to be better understood and simplifies them astonishingly. X98 The American Naturalist. [March, But first of all to enable this insight, the scales of ignorance must be scraped from the eyes, for the past system of educa¬ tion that ignored the sciences would create this blindness. Sociological study depends upon a knowledge of biology in its widest sense, comprising such things as anthropology, ethnol¬ ogy, zoology, botany, comparative anatomy and comparative physiology, and the front door to all this knowledge is chem¬ istry and physics. It may not be possible for any one person to master all these branches in their entirety, and we daily encounter narrow specialists in scientific fields, who, for want of education, can¬ not see the bearing of all the departments of information upon their particular branch. Such are anatomists who know no botany or chemistry ; botanists who know nothing outside of plants ; chemists who can see nothing beyond their test tubes and reagents. But, other things being equal, no one is so well equipped to begin the study of the universe as is the one with a good training in chemistry. During the great fire of Chicago it was observed that the marble fronts of the houses seemed to melt in the flames and that the bricks were the really fire-proof material, facts which did not surprise the mineralogist, who, with his chemical knowledge, knows that carbonate of lime readily calcines and that silicates resist heat. Comparably the philosophical scientist can reason from cause to effect, or backward, intelligently, and see associations that do not exist for the one with purely classical knowledge. A house may be an aggregation of bricks, stone, or wood, and will behave toward fire, water, and air as its component mate¬ rials enable it, without surprise to anyone, but when commu¬ nities are made up of human beings the old-time historian never traces relationship in the behavior of one to that of the other. The whole had no relation to its. parts. Even among sociologists who recognize these dependencies, a deeper source of information Was seldom sought, such as biology in general, and they might indulge in the general smile of contemptous ignorance if it were hinted that chem¬ istry and physics coqld aid their research. Natural Analogies. 199 To illustrate that analogies have a deeper significance than is usually assigned them, let us take the instance of what has been called a “ bread riot.” People are starving ; they are tur¬ bulent, rushing here and there, finally gathering at some ware¬ house where food is stored, which is soon scramblingly dis¬ tributed and eaten. This proceeding on the part of the popu¬ lace is instigated by analogous and in many respects identical conditions existing in each individual of the mob. The col¬ lection of cells composing each person are in revolt ; they are badly nourished; the intestines, muscles, nerves and their cells are hungry ; the blood corpuscles surge through the ves¬ sels irregularly and riotously. The white blood corpuscles particularly are more active than usual, exactly as the free amoeba moves more rapidly when hungry than when fed. There is starvation excitement throughout the body. The lymph and vascular channels are ransacked for food, and what previously would have been rejected is now assimilated exactly as the starving rabble gather offal from the streets and alleys. The fat repositories are drawn upon with resulting emacia¬ tion ; the cellular elements are enfeebled, and multitudes of them die, as occurs among the starving populace. A single cell may become a source of irritation to the colony of cells by provoking action, and individuals seek to impress themselves upon a community by orating, sermonizing, lectur¬ ing, quarreling, fighting; all more or less ignorantly are seek¬ ing gain. A modicum of such excitement may result in benefit to the colony of cells, as an individual’s action may result in the common good. Great national activity may eventuate in ben¬ efit to the world. In all these cases the good done may be accidentally accomplished. An epidemic of insanity may become as wide-spread as during the crusades, as crazy phys¬ iological processes may be induced by a fever. Metzchnikoff’s description of phagocytosis, interestingly reviewed by J. L. Kellogg in The American Naturalist, June, 1891, quotes Osier’s summation as follows : “ He says that Metzchnikoff has likened specific inflammation to a war¬ fare in which the invading forces are represented by micro- 200 The American Naturalist. [March, organisms, and those who offer resistance by leucocytes. The news of the arrival of the enemy is telegraphed, to headquar¬ ters by the vaso-motor nerves, and the blood-vessels are used as an avenue of communication with the threatened region. When the invaders are established they live on the host and scatter injurious substances which they have formed. The active leucocytes make an attack and try to eat the micro¬ organisms, and some die in the fight. Their dead bodies form an accumulation of pus, and when many are slain the battle¬ ground is known as an abscess. The hostile force may be overcome resulting in the recovery of an animal, and if not, in its sickness or death. In our bodies, then, there is a stand¬ ing army of moveable cells, which may be equally concen¬ trated and attack any force which may appear,” Now let us see what chemistry will afford in further expla¬ nation. In plethora the cell is quiet. When sufficiently nour¬ ished it performs its functions calmly and deliberately ; its basic substance, the living protoplasm, was defined by Hoppe- Seyler as consisting of anhydrous nitrogenous hydrocarbon molecules capable of motion in a hydrated medium ; the dead protoplasm resulted from the hydration of these molecules; the assimilative, reproductive abilities of the cell depended upon this molecular life, while this compound molecule existed intact and was able to construct, develop and differ¬ entiate similar molecules out of the less complex by chemical affinity. The molecule lived and was part of the cell, which was part of the man, which was part of the mob. In a condition of surfeit no one would deny that a molecule was comparatively idle, but during privation its tension is necessarily increased, and there is danger of its breaking down into its component elements or forming lower compounds. Other sociological relationships may be traced, and in a loose way the human organism has been likened to a monarchy. In a series of articles entitled “ Monistic Mental Science,” pub¬ lished in the “ Open Court,” 1887, 1 took the ground that the ideal, highest man was a republic; that the association of cells throughout his body cohered and worked, or should do so, in health, for the common good of the organism ; that the ner- Natural Analogic. vous system, including' the brain, related the parts intelli¬ gently to conserve life purposes. The nervous system governs the body, but it receives its power to do so from the aggrega¬ ted cells, and in this sense is a republic, and proper considera¬ tion of analogies will eventually work out clear conceptions of the social organism. It is the common idea that kings, par¬ liaments, presidents, legislatures, congress, constitute the brains of society, when in reality they are one and all intestinal ganglia. The Chinese locate intelligence in the abdomen, and the European, without being aware of it, mistakes abdominal for intellectual processes, and here is an instance where a better appreciation of things in general can be arrived at analog¬ ically. The real brains of a community consist of (it would seem trite to say) those who think, particularly those who think for the common weal ; the philosopher, the scientist, the investigator stand in the front rank as brains ; even the inventing mechanic should have high rank, and all such thinkers, in spite of the fact that they are not so recognized popularly. Heretofore, and to a great extent to-day, the real brains of a community are neglected, starved. In times of dearth they are the first to suffer, just.as the reasoning power abates in sickness, and emotionalism develops. In this and other respects a clarifying of our conceptions must occur before natural analogies shall be recognized as capable of being erected into a science. At present in this respect we are in a blundering, forming stage. Superficial resemblances for the most part have been used in analogy, and its profundity and capacity for exactitude have not been seen. One consideration alone baffled the carrying out of analogies, and that is, that in comparing an organism to a nation it was considered necessary to make use only of living material, when in reality living material coheres with the inorganic, or what is called the “ formed or dead material ” of Beale. In the func¬ tions of the body there is use for such parts as the bones, just as machinery of all kinds, the telegraph, etc, are essential parts of a social organism. 202 The American Naturalist. [March, The cells of the body are used up, die, or are cast off, but the man lives on. The individuals of a city perish here and there and are buried, until in a few generations there is an entirely new population, but the city, more or less changed, still exists. The molecular interchange of the cells is identi¬ cal with this, and while so far as time and general processes are concerned there are differences, the operations of the nation depend upon the organism function, this upon the cel¬ lular, and the cellular upon the molecular. Nor are the activ¬ ities so radically changed as we might imagine. The whole end and aim, physically speaking, is the conversion of mole¬ cular into mass motion, death reversing the process. The molecular life may be less than a minute ; the cell life dura¬ tion cover a few days or longer time ; man may live nearly a century ; the nation ten times as long or longer, but disinte¬ gration in some form or other overtakes them all, and history has to be studied in a new light to determine when the death took place. The hermit crab is not the builder of the shell he lives in. Egypt will some day be wholly occupied by Europeans, and so in regarding the life of a city we may mistake the persistence of a shell and overlook the fact that the social organism which constituted the real city may have long since, passed away. Sociologically, merchants, bankers, etc., are the nation’s intestinal or other visceral cells, and that they do not eat up everything that passes into their custody is solely due to their not being able to do so. Common carriers may be the blood-vessels. Telegraphs and other such means of communication consti¬ tute the nervous system. Laborers, soldiers, are the muscle cells. So-called rulers and law-makers (whether in republic or monarchy), merely obtain their power from the general units, and serve to correlate the intestinal and vascular operations as the sympathetic system does. The professors, authors, and other real thinkers generally afford the unrecognized brains of communities, however starved and neglected ; and, as individuals are usually guided emo- tionally and think afterward, so the real brains of a commu¬ nity are disregarded in the main. Pathological conditions infest communities as well as indi¬ viduals, from want of harmonious working of parts. When the elaborating, transferring apparatus of a person or nation, as the intestines and blood vessels, or merchants and railways, either separately or together, become too selfish, and want to absorb everything, it is an easy matter to induce the intestinal ganglia legislature to adjust means for so doing ; but, as this means death to the organism in general, a feverish condition may follow that threatens the national life until an equilib¬ rium is restored. The intestines are often traitors to the com¬ monwealth, but so may be other associated parts. The workings of the nervous system, especially that of the spinal cord with its gray centre and white columns, may be explained some day by an application of electrical laws, particularly when the latter shall be better understood. New principles are yearly being worked out in this realm. Care¬ fully applied reasoning may enable an explanation of phy¬ siological mysteries that cannot be possibly arrived at any other way. Many of the viscera are not so well understood as they should be. The functions of the spleen, liver, and pan¬ creas, while much better known than formerly, are still to a large extent “ sub judice.” Analogies may enable us to better understand these parts, and in turn a better understanding may be reflected upon sociological and other matters. In the American Journal of Psychology, Jan. 1890, the fol¬ lowing comment occurs on the discussion between Weismann and Gotte (uber die Dauer des Lebens,und der Ursprung des Todes.) "We may illustrate Gotte’s idea by an analogy. Essentially there is no difference in the idea of death as applied to biology and as applied to the death of a literary society when the members agree to disband, possibly to found new societies. If we could feel sure that the analogy is some¬ times more than a mere analogy, but at bottom is a universal principle of life, we could gain immensely by the mutual comparison between sociology and biology. There are many terms and ideas common to the two sciences, such as division 204 The At Naturalist. [March, of labor, development, atavism, colony, etc. Reproduction by self-division might be illustrated by a splitting of the tribe into two. Budding, by the founding of a colony by emigra¬ tion of individuals representing different trades needed in the new colony. Sexual reproduction, by emigration of a single couple, and the gradual development (embryology) of the colony with differentiation of labor as the individuals increase in number. The individual in this illustration represents the gemmule. The integrity of a state does not depend upon the number of persons, though the amount of its activity and wealth does. Similarly in the cell, the gemmules may be of like nature, and vary much in number. Here the illustration favors the view of Kolliker rather than Weisraann. “ Although the work of two persons may be different, they are essentially alike in characteristics, and the descendants of any person in a state could found a similar state if forced to do so by emigration.” The same journal in the connection of criminology, suggests’ that “ the whole study of pathological humanity may do for humanity what pathology has done for medicine.” Analogy (which is often identity) may be used to illustrate psychological processes. For example, the individual thinks pretty much as the social organism does. Seldom is a com¬ munity wholly guided by superior thought. Its mercantile, transportation, and intercommunicating machinery is hard at work on the victual and clothes question. Amusement comes next. If a subject such as popular reform, inebriety, education, comes up, any person with advanced views will be talked at and about, by silly vaporers, and his ideas will be contested ; this or apathy may smother the measure, the organism goes blundering on, guided by average expediency. Methods of rural village, town, and city workings are com¬ parable to those of individuals with different degrees of wealth and intelligence. As in higher animal life there is better Co-ordination and correlation of parts, so in the growth of a community there is a tendency to increased subordination to intelligence, for the higher grade intellects may eventually impress their ideas upon the commonwealth. Natural Analogies. Sulphur, carbonate of- lime, silicates, chloride of sodium, and other inorganic substances enter combined or uncombined into the composition of carapaces, shells, bones, serum of living animals, pretty much as telegraphs are integral parts of the social organism. Several years ago in a work entitled “Comparative Physiology and Psychology,” I argued that primarily, some of our ancestral animals accidently picked up a nervous system, consisting of phosphatic granules, which became linearly arranged by action in the line of least resist¬ ance, forming axis cylinders which became encapsulated, precisely as do many foreign substances in the body. Professor Cope advanced the doctrine of “Acceleration,” by which is meant that every time an ontogenesis is reviewed, the characters appear at earlier and earlier periods, or in other words, the developmental history is compressed to give room for the later added requirements. Adapting this to national matters, the United States seems to be rapidly passing through stages which required ages, comparatively, in older nations. Written languages tend to become phonetic in spelling; more rapidly in America where conservatism is not so strong as in England, less rapidly in France owing to euphony being paramount ; in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, it has been accom¬ plished for many decades, radically in the last named country ; in Germany there would seem to be little to be accomplished in this direction, but in the last twenty years the silent letter “ h ” may be omitted. Conservatism holds on to unpro¬ nounced, absolutely useless letters under various pleas and biases. How very like this is to the unfaithful copying of ontogenesis by phylogenesis. The abridgment occurs in the interest of the individual and the race, with here and there fossilizing tendencies against alteration. The rapidity with which phonetic spelling advances in America indicates that Cope’s law of acceleration is at work to develop the United States in this as in other regards beyond the capabilities of its senile parentage. Many other useful innovations are similarly made and meet with resistance. And yet without conservatism there would be no advance, for, 206 The American Naturalist. [March, in general, resistance to the new until its utility is demon¬ strated, prevents the adoption of many vagaries. In past generations, boys up to fourteen and sixteen years of age were greatly influenced by dime novel, Indian and pirate tales. No matter what the cause may be (probably the dissemination of better reading matter), it is the boy of ten years, or younger, nowadays, who affects such reading, and this may be likened to a condition existing in the days of knight errantry, when cock and bull stories of fights with dragons and giants were rife among every class of adults. Bombastic and emotional influences for centuries back existed generally among all, and more recently the Capt. Marryat style of novel lured young men to become sailors, and in some instances, pirates. As the individual repeats in his life-time the history of the world, so to speak, he must pass through the stages of puerile belligerency, until he profits by his own experience, or that of others, and a boy of to-day, by the law of acceleration, passes more rapidly through these periods than did the one of a gen¬ eration ago ; and going back we find a period when a lifetime was required to outgrow this disposition. Friends fall away during misfortune and are attracted to wealth and power, in obedience to laws which are identical with those that create parasites among plants and animals and the so-called messmates of the latter : the attraction of single and multiple celled organisms to food ; and all these find their fundamental causes in laws of chemical attraction and repul¬ sion of atoms. Increase in chemical and mechanical motions often induce atomic interchange and molecular motion and recombination ; as for instance, stirring a compound to produce precipitation or crystallization, changing the temperature of re-agents to pro¬ duce a reaction, heating a battery to increase electrical gener¬ ation, and so massage or bodily irritation draws blood to a part and stimulates physiological processes. The stirring up of individuals by excitement increases the working capacity, and communities are similarly affected by causal relationship in these matters. If a nation is impelled 1892.] Natural Analogies. 207 to greater activity through mental influences, it is because the molecular makeup of many of the individuals composing the nation is in a state of changed activity. Without the atoms there would be. no cells ; without the cells no man; without the man, no nation; and activities among either affect all of them. For many years as a student of diseased mental processes, I have often satisfactorily com¬ bated such things as delusions of persecution, morbid fears, apprehensions, and fright, particularly in incipient insanity, by an application of the following reasoning : In a healthy state, a fright produces certain sensory and motor phenomena in the body, such as rapidity of heart action, capillary dilatation and contraction, temporary muscu¬ lar paralysis, and in extreme cases, perspiration and loss of sphincter control. Now as these are the usual expressions of fright, it is plain as anything can be that if disease may so interfere with the nerve mechanism as to produce any or all of these associated effects, it would be natural for the mind to interpret them as being' due to the usual cause. For example, fear may make the heart beat fast. I have known an organic disease that interfered with the pneumogastric branches at the base of the brain, or with the cardiac sympathetic nerves running from in front of the spinal column to set up irregular heart action, and a feeling of dread or apprehension, or even terror will be thus caused by association, unless some compen¬ sating influence, which is not usual, interferes. By artificial regulation of the heart’s action, both the physi¬ cal and mental disturbances may be caused to cease. Evi¬ dently a fright stimulates the heart muscle to greater activity, necessarily causing greater commotion among its cellular molecules, and the reverse condition is also true. The mole¬ cular action of the heart muscle may produce fright. I would divide analogies into two particular classes, the apparent, and the real. The fact that as we advance in knowledge, resemblances in the mode of operation of widely unlike phenomena are being more clearly seen, and that even by the lowest races, resemblances are more or less accurately traced, justify the prediction that some of our greatest revela- The American Naturalist. [March, tions of the universal workings will be obtained through a scientific study of analogies. The apparent analogy may be taken as tentative, or it may be wholly false, or merely poetical, such as is afforded us by the allegories and mythologies, and even scientific writers may find a use for an apparent analogy in illustrating certain matters. The real analogy is such by direct interdependence and relationship, and the great difficulty in determining its reality lies in the necessity for the accurate understanding of these relationships. It is not possible for any one human mind to be thoroughly versed in chemistry, physics, biology, psychology, geology, and astronomy, and for this reason the one who may be familiar with one or two branches and have a fair knowledge of the rest, will be able only to generalize, but his suggestions could be heard and amended by a worker in complementary fields, and eventually a synthetic study can be erected, unifying what is known in these various departments, and thus astron¬ omy may come to explain a problem in microscopy; biology may clear up a chemical point ; and sociology, in the light of the other sciences, may explain an otherwise inscrutable physr ological matter. Necessarily the history of the past may thus be laid bare, and ethology may become a science such as David Hume little dreamed of. The reasons for behavior, the feelings, passions, vices, and virtues, may thus be seen. It will be found that we are truly creatures of circumstance. The significance of institutions may be more easily under¬ stood in their relation to the commonwealth. We may be better able to determine whether a measure will be useful or harmful, for example, when we make comparisons of certain physiological processes with sociological ones, there may arise a necessity for assigning a certain contemplated national movement to its proper place in the general economy. These comparisons may enable us to prove that instead of being a newly evolved useful structure, it may be in the nature of a cancer or an ulcer hostile to the national life. 1892.] Natural Analogies. 209 Plato’s model republic was founded upon vague correspon¬ dences between mental and social divisions. Under Reason, Will, and Passion, he placed counsellors, the military and the people, and Hobbes pictured the State as a monster “ Levia¬ than.” Herbert Spencer deserves full credit for formulating many analogies in the light of biology, and in the essay on “Social Organism” lays down parallelisms and leading differ¬ ences well worth studying. Some of which are as follows : The differentiation of labor is universal in all kinds of development. Among primitive people the ruling class is comparable to the ectoderm, the governed to the entoderm, and when with later evolution the trading class was created, then the meso¬ derm arose, which furnished the distributing avenues. This may be taken to represent Europe in the feudal period. Great activities in society may abstract capital in one direction at the expense of another, just as over cerebral excitememt may draw blood from the abdomen and cause indigestion. In the lowest animals there exists no blood. Among aborigines there is no circulating medium. Circulating methods and channels increase in complexity in the ascending scales of animal and national evolution. The growth of a consolidated kingdom out of petty baronies is like an advance among the species of Articulata. Closer commercial and governmental unions between the several segments subordinated to a cephalic ganglion. England of to-day, Spencer would compare to some much lower vertebrate form than the human. Parliaments discharge functions that are comparable to those discharged by the cerebral macses in a vertebrate, he says in the essay, but he refused a in parliament, as he denied that it was any place for a high order of thought, stating that that body did not govern or make laws, but merely promulgated what was indicated to it by extrinsic (mainly popular) influences. And in this idea of the legisla¬ tive and executive being the cerebral and cerebellar parts lies a great field for discussion. 210 The American Naturalist. [March, My view is that scarcely any nation has much more than passed the invertebrate stage. At least all are pretty low in the Simian scale, if as far advanced as that. Some may be likened to ferocious gorillas, brutal baboons, capering lemurs. The highest are scarcely as thoughtful as the chimpanzee. But seriously, the Science of Analogies, merits very deep consideration as promising revelations obtainable in ho other way in chemistry, physiology, biology, sociology, in all their ramifications. The orbits of the planets have been with reason found analogous to molecular rotations and between the atom and the star lie universal principles applicable to a better understanding of mental and physical laws of animals and society. History will by its means be read in a new and brilliant light, and the ideal nation may possibly be evolved from the better understanding of what would constitute one. Two School* of Plant Physiology. 211 THE TWO SCHOOLS OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS AT PRESENT EXISTING IN GERMANY AND ENGLAND.1 By E. L. Gregory. It is an admitted fact that the science of vegetable physiol¬ ogy has reached a stage of development in the different scien¬ tific schools of Europe in advance even of the same depart¬ ment of animal life. It is also well-known that in Germany the three most prominent men who have contributed to this result are Naegeli, Sachs and Schwendener. The expression “ Two Schools of Plant Physiology ” is one, however, which requires some explanation, and possibly, defense. It implies that the various conflicting theories which are at present occupying the botanical world may be traced back to two distinct sources, which, if true, is a fact not so universally known or admitted. All scientific students whose knowledge of botany extends as far as a mere superficial acquaintance with the ordinary text books, are more or less familiar with the position occupied by Sachs. His text book may be said to be the first general text book on the science of the plant kingdom ; that is, the first reckoning from that time when our knowledge of the phe¬ nomena occurring in this kingdom and of the laws governing them was considered sufficient to warrant the expression “Sci¬ ence of the vegetable kingdom.” The various text books of general botany written before this time are now considered of little worth except as historical records. It is partly owing to this fact of priority that all our later text books bear so strongly the impress of Sachs’ personal teaching. His name is constantly repeated in connection with the principles which he advocates, whether these principles owe their discovery to him or his predecessors. It is, therefore, impossible to read any of the ordinary text books without becoming somewhat famil¬ iar with the ideas and theories advocated by Sachs. before the meeting of the American Society of Naturalists, Phila., Dec. 29, 15 ‘Read 1 212 The American Naturalist. [March, It is, however, quite different in the case of the works of the two others, Naegeli and Schwendener ; especially is this true of the first named, whose long and busy life presents a record of intellectual labor and achievement possibly unequaled and probably unsurpassed by any other scientist of the present generation. He was a teacher, like the other two, and not only retained his position as professor of botany in the Uni¬ versity of Munich, but fulfilled all its duties up to the day preceding his death. Unlike the other two, he seemed to lack in some degree that quality of mind usually so predominant in teachers, namely, the necessity of impressing its mode of thought on other minds. He was a sharp, keen, and logical thinker, and directed his strongest efforts in search of unknown truths. Although he may not in any sense be considered the founder of a school, it would be impossible to discuss fairly the present condition of this science without referring to the influ¬ ence of his thought and labor. The object, therefore, of the following paper is to consider briefly the present condition of plant physiology as it now stands in Germany and England, represented as under the controlling influence of two men, Sachs and Schwendener. A paper claiming such an object must necessarily contain much that is personal in character ; it may, therefore, be allowed the writer to disclaim, at the outset, all design of personal defense or attack, whatever the appearance may be, the purpose being to show, as clearly as possible.in such brief limits, the princi¬ pal features presented by the teachings of two men whose methods and theories are in some respects antagonistic. Again, in farther explanation of this purpose, as before inti¬ mated, the teachings of Sachs have become familiar through the works and text books of his numerous students and disci¬ ples. It is, perhaps, quite safe to say there is not a single text book on plant physiology which in all its important features is not based on the principles expressed and advocated by Sachs. On the other hand, it is equally true that if there is a school of scientists opposed to many of these theories it has not yet reached the position to lay claim to this title by the publica- 1892-] Two Schools of Plant Physiology. 213 tion of text books. In short, this school is of a date so recent that comparatively few of its theories are accessible to the English-speaking world. As an illustration of this fact, one of the most strongly contested points of disagreement between Sachs and Schwendener is in reference to the cause of twining stems. Vines in his text book of physiology gives the theory of Sachs and also those of various later writers, and among others refers briefly to that of Schwendener in these words : “ Schwendener attributes the twining to circumnutation and to an antidromous torsion.” Professor Schwendener said of this after reading it carefully, “ This is quite erroneous ; he has entirely misunderstood my theory. According to my expla¬ nation of this fact, torsion is only an effect of twining and not a ca.use.” In that department of plant physiology which deals with nutrition there are fewer differences of opinion than in that of the physiology of movement. It is in the latter field espec¬ ially that Professor Schwendener has worked out solutions of various problems differing vitally from those of any other physiologists. In fact, his fondness for mechanical questions has given him the reputation of a specialist in the narrow sense of the term. Added to this is the fact that his discuss¬ ions of several theories are so abstruse as to render them diffi¬ cult even for the mature students who are likely to choose such studies in the German Universities. Thus, in speaking of his work on the position of leaves, he said it was extremely diffi¬ cult for his advanced students who had been under his own training to follow his lectures on this subject ; that with all his illustrations and models which he had constructed for these lectures it was often necessary for him to go twice through the same lecture, and that he never felt certain of the number who had conquered the subject until he had tested them in the laboratory. Again referring to Vines, who may be considered at once the best exponent of the views of the English botanists and a fair disciple of Sachs, he says of this : “ Schwendener has constructed an extremely simple theory regarding the posi¬ tion of leaves.” 214 The American Naturalist. [March, This implication of narrowness and specialization is, in the writer’s opinion, extremely unjust and lacking foundation in truth. The fact that he chooses to devote special attention to the mechanical problems connected with the subject of growth by no means proves his unwillingness or inability to cope with all the questions connected with the subject, those referring to plant nutrition as well as those of growth. It is, however, unquestionably true that the habit of reasoning induced by studies of this nature is such as to lead to a different treat¬ ment of the questions of plant nutrition from that adopted by most of his cotemporaries. For example, in all those questions included in the general term, “plant-metabolism,” his views may be said to be strongly conservative when contrasted with those of the school of Sachs. Among the latter are many who express the hope of being able to trace the course of the changes connected with these processes in such a manner as to prove by actual weight and measurement the principle of conservation of energy. There are no text-books on plant physiology except, perhaps, a few elementary ones, in which the author does not run through some mode of reasoning either attempting to prove it, or show how it may possibly be proven. Starting with the process of C02 assimilation as it is called, an arbitrary equa¬ tion is formed which may, or may not, show the changes undergone in this single process. The equation is purely arbitrary,, no proof whatever can be given of its truth, except that it expresses how the relations might be adjusted. A much more difficult matter is undertaken by those who try to explain the process occurring in the changes caused by respira¬ tion. All the German text books, Sachs, PfefFer, Weisner, Reinke, Detmer and others, all have tried to give some hypo¬ thesis which may explain the exact nature of the changes by which the rhythm of destructive and constructive metabolism is kept up in the living processes of the plant. The physicist and the chemist both are able to carry on their computations, weigh and measure to the smallest fraction and verify their theories by actual demonstration. So far the botanist has tried in vain to apply the weights and measures of Physics ,1891.3 2\uo Schools of Plant Physiology. 21$ and Chemistry to the results of action connected with the living portions of the plant. The difficulty lies not only in the extreme delicacy of the material in question but in the danger of interference with the processes as they go on. Schwendener and his followers claim that we have not yet reached that point in the development of the science where such questions may be asked with a reasonable hope of a satisfactory reply. Our knowledge is too meagre and our means of acquiring more are as yet inadequate. In other words, they claim that the methods now used are incorrect, inasmuch as they do not aim at constructing a theory which shall satisfactorily account for certain facts, but they presup¬ pose the existence of the facts, and the methods result, for the most part, in mere conjectures and speculations which count for nothing. Whether this view be true or false it is unquestionably the source of the implication of narrowness and onesidedness before referred to, as obtaining against -Schwendener among his own cotemporaries and his own country. Even here, however, it cannot be said that there is any actual difference in opinion between the two schools, only that the methods and results so far obtained by the one, are held in very light esteem by the other. It is very different when we come to the various problems connected with the growth and motion of plants. It is in this field particularly that the difference of opinion between the two men leads to positive difference in the teaching and modes of treatment of several important questions. Schwendener gives, each year, a course of advanced lectures covering the following ten subjects. 1st. The mechanical principle in the development structure. 2nd. Theory of leaf position. 3rd. Mechanics of stomata. 4th. Bending of the medullary rays in eccentric secondary growth in thickness. 5th. Torsion, as caused by hygroscopical changes. 6th. Ascent of sap ; hydro-mechanics of. 7th. Mechanics of twining. 216 Naturalist. 8th. Nyctitropic movement of leaves. 9th. Mechanics of irritation movements. 10th. Flying apparatus of fruits and seeds. All of these ten subjects he treats from his own standpoint, giving the results of his own experiments and study, except, perhaps, the last one, which is sometimes omitted for lack of time, and it is one to which he has given less attention than to the remaining nine. From these ten subjects there may be selected three in which his opinions are diametrically opposed to those of Sachs and his followers ; several of the rest are not treated at all in the latter school ; and to the three here mentioned may be added two more important questions in which Schwendener differs radically from other physiologists. He gives the fol- • lowing list as including the most important questions of differ¬ ence between his opinions and those of Sachs. 1. The problem of the ascent of water. 2. Cause of the year’s ring. 3. Bending aside of the medullary rays by the rind pressure. 4. Mechanism of twining stems. 5. Turgor, its influence on growth of cell wall. These may be said to represent fairly the important points which serve to separate the new school from the old. It is hoped a brief consideration of some portions will be sufficient to vindicate the right of the new school to this title, claimed for it here for the first time. The problem of the water ascent is one in .which SchWend- ener not only differs from Bachs but also from a large number of other botanists, who cannot be considered the followers of Sachs. The theory held by the latter and his school is, that the water rising in stems more than 30 feet high is for the most part carried through the lignified cell-walls. Schwend- ener and a large number of other botanists believe it is carried through the lumina of the cells. The# difference, however, in the theory as taught by Schwendener and these other botanists, some of whom are, in other respects, his followers and adher¬ ents, is that they claim to give an exact explanation of the Two Schools of Plant Physiology. 217 manner in which this is done. On the other hand, Schwend- ener, who treats this question at length, denies our ability at the present condition of botanical knowledge to explain how the water is driven up. The agent he gives, but of the manner in which this agent works, he says we know nothing. His treatment rests on a long series of experiments, the last of which were made several years ago and conducted as follows : A forester several miles out of Berlin was authorized by the government to allow the forest under his charge to be invaded for scientific purposes, and a small lodge was built where one of Schwendener’s assistants remained for several weeks, in fact about eight weeks, so that the experiments might have an uninterrupted course, the professor going over every few days to perform the manipulations himself, while the assistant remained to watch and report the results. , (To be continued) 218 The American Naturalist. [March, THE ZOOLOGY OF THE SNAKE PLAINS OF IDAHO. By C. Hart Merriam. The basin of the Snake River in Idaho is an undulating, sage-eovered plain, stretching completely across the State in its widest part. It is crescentic in shape (with the convexity to the south) and measures about 600 kilometers (375 miles) in length by 120 to 160 kilometers (75 t© 100 miles) in average breadth. Its boundaries on the north and east are everywhere Sharply defined, consisting of rugged mountains rising more or less precipitously from the plain. In several places these mountains project southward in parallel ranges, like so many fingers, alternating with northward extensions of the plains* which occupy the valleys between them. Such valleys are those of Birch Creek and Lemhi River, Little Lost River? and Malade or Big Wood River. On the south and west the Snake Plains are not so well defined, passing south ward into Utah and Nevada between irregular ranges of mountains, and westward and northwestward into OregoD and Washington, where they are continuous with the Malheur Plains and plains of the Columbia. The altitude of the basin along the course of Snake River is about 1,800 meters (nearly 6,000 feet) at the eastern end, and less than 900 meters (3,000 feet) at the western, and its sides rise on the north and south to the altitude of 2,000 or even 2,150 meters (approximately 6,500 to 7,000 feet), forming a broad trough whose general direction is east and west. The dominant feature of the Snake River basin is sage plains — rolling, uninterrupted plains, rising so gradually from the bottom of the basin as to appear almost level, and stretch¬ ing away in every direction as far as the eye can reach. The plains are everywhere arid. The few streams that reach Snake River by a surface course usually flow in lower channels and do not water the region on either side. The surface rock which crops out here and there over the sage plains proper is dark basaltic lava. It appears in the form of irregular masses or beds, extensive lava flows, and in 1892.] Snake Plains of Idaho . 219 a few instances of broken down craters, the largest of which. Big Butte, rises about 600 meters (2,000 feet) above the plain. Borne of canons of Big Butte support a growth of Douglas fir and Murray pine. The lava flows present great diversity of form ; elevated ridges of rough rock irregularly fissured and with jagged edges alternate with smooth, flat domes, suggest¬ ing giant bubbles ; nearly level stretches marked by wavelets and ripples which bend and double, spread out as if just escaped from a seething, tumultuous caldron, while in many places the thick crust has fallen in, leaving deep pits of circular or elliptical outline, exposing the mouths of dark caverns that extend to unknown depths and furnish homes to owls and bats and a multitude of nocturnal animals. This black lava or basalt overlies an earlier flow of porphyritic traehite, gray in color and much less firm in texture. The Great Shoshone Fall, commonly known as the “ Niagara of the West,” results from the cutting down of the river bed through the hard basalt to the softer traehite below. In summer the heat is excessive, the thermometer frequently reaching 110° in the shade/while in winter the snow covers the ground, and icy winds sweep over the plain. The forms of life which inhabit the region, therefore are such as can endure great heat during the season of reproductive activity, and can avoid the cold of winter by migration or hibernation .; or if they remain active throughout the year they are hardy species, able to withstand great extremes of temperature and valleys disappear on reaching the plains, and the greater part of the water which reaches Snake River does so by subter¬ ranean channels. Hundreds of springs pour their waters into the lava canons of Snake River, usually at or near e o om. and many of them are of great size. In winter their tempera¬ ture is considerably higher than that of the river. Crayfish, identified by Mr. Walter Faxon as Adacut gambeUu Girard^ abound in these warm springs and are muchsoughtafer by , (Procym r?) and a small shell, .dentified by Dr. raccoons l The American Naturalist R. E. C. Steams as Fluminioola nuttalliana Lea, is exceedingly abundant on stones in the same springs. It is a common feature of the Snake Plains, as of many other arid parts of the West, that the rivers which do not sink cut for themselves deep channels with precipitous walls, their present beds being several hundred feet below the general surface level. Of this character are the grand lava canons of Snake River itself and many of its tributaries, particularly on the south side. As a rule these canons cannot be seen until their very brinks are reached, and it is not often that they can be crossed on horse-back. The northern boundary of the Snake Plains is formed by the lofty mountains of central Idaho, and by that part of the main range of the Rocky Mountains which bends directly west¬ ward from the Yellowstone National Park. Three narrow parallel valleys penetrate the mountains of east-central Idaho in a northwesterly direction, carrying slender tongues of the sage plains all the way to Salmon River. The soil of the Snake Plains, where not lava or sand, is generally alkaline, and the characteristic plants, in addition to the ever present sage (Artemisia tridentata), are such Sonoran species as Atriplex confertifolia, Atriplex nuttallii, Artemisia peda- tifida, Sarcobatus vermiculatus, Tetradymia canescens, Eurotia lanata, Eriogonum cernuum tenue, several species of Bigelovia , a Malvadrum, and two or three kinds of cactus. Artemisia trifida and Purshia tridentata are common in the higher levels ; and Iva axillaris, a saline species, was found at the sinks of Big Lost River. The characteristic birds of the sage plains are sage sparrow (Amphispiza belli nevadensis), Brewer’s sparrow ( Spizella breiverii ), sage thrasher ( Oroscoptes montanus), burrowing owl ( Speotyto cunicularia hypogaea), sage hen (Centrocercus urophasianus ), and sharp-tailed grouse (. Pediocmtes phasianellus columbianus ), though the latter is rare in the area traversed. Ravens ( Corvus corax sinuatm ) and magpies (Pica pica hudsonica) are common in places, and the canon wren (Catherpes conspersus ) was found near Shoshone Falls in the lava canon of Snake River. 1892.] Snake Plains of Idaho . 221 The most common diurnal mammals are the Great Basin or sage chipmunk ( Tamias minimus pidus) and a small sperm o- phile (Spermophilus toumsendii). Other equalty characteristic species are the nocturnal kangaroo rat ( Dipodops ordii ), pocket mouse ( Perognathus olivaceus), grasshopper mouse ( Onychomys leucogaster brevicaudvs). Four species of rabbits, namely, the white-tailed and the black-tailed jack rabbits (Lepus campestris and L. texianus), the Idaho pigmy rabbit {L. idahoensis ) here described for the first time, and the great basin cotton-tail (L. silvaticus nuttallii ) are common. Antelope roam over the plain in small herds, and badgers and coyotes are abundant. In the lava canon of Snake River, near Shos¬ hone Falls, the plateau lynx {Lynx baileyi), raccoon {Procyon lotor?), little striped skunk (Spilogale saxatilis f), dusky wood rat {Neotoma cinerea occidentalis), and cliff mouse {Hesperomys crinitus sp. nov.) are common, and tracks of porcupine {Erethizon epixanthus) were seen. Black-tailed deer {Cariacus macrotis) inhabit the canons in winter. Rattlesnakes ( Crotalus lucifer), homed toads {Phrynosoma dovglasii), and small lizards {Sceloporus graciosus ) are common on the Snake Plains, and extend north through the principal sage-covered valleys. Two Bull snakes, provisionally referred to Pityophis catenifer by Dr. Stejneger, were collected at Big Butte and Arco, and a single Bascanion vetustum at Big Butte. Salmon and sturgeon ascend Snake River to the Great Shoshone Falls. When we crossed the river at Lewis Ferry, October 15, we saw several large sturgeon (Acipenser tram- montanus ) tied by the tails to stakes driven in the bank. One weighed fully 70 kilograms (150 pounds), and we were told by Mr. Lewis that he sometimes catches individuals weighing as much as 300 kilograms (600 pounds). He told us also that a fall run of salmon reached his place about October 1, and that the fish that do not die go back in November. We met a number of Shoshone or Bannock Indians on their way to the river to spear salmon. Some of them came all the way from the Lemhi Reservation. „ A kind of mole cricket locally known as the Idaho Devil 0 Stmopelmatus fasdntus) is common on the Snake Plains m 222 The American Naturalist. [March, October. It is a large wingless insect with a great yellow head, powerful jaws, and a bonded abdomen. I first saw it in eastern Idaho in October, 1872, and found it common from Shoshone Falls and Lewis Ferry to the head waters of Brun- eau River in October, 1890. It lives in burrows in the sage plains and its holes resemble those of the small pocket mice (Perognathus olivaceus) in being clean cut, going straight down at first, and having no mound at the opening. In crossing the plains during cold stormy weather the heads of these curious animals were often seen at the mouths of their burrows and many were met with walking about among the sagebrush. They walk much, with seeming dignity and deliberation, and their tracks may be seen in every direction. If two are held together they immediately bite off one another’s legs and inflict other Serious wounds. — From Animd Life. 1S»2.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. RECENT LITERATURE. Recent Literature. 233 H. nana has been found in man in Egypt, England, Italy, United States of America and Argentine Republic. H. diminuta (Jlavo- punctata) in America and Italy. Complete bibliography of the genus follows. The work is well done and like most of his work exhausts the subject up to date. — C. W. Stiles, Washington, D. C. 234 it Hi I General Notes. WWW i L 1 I irli WWW ft i T.I.p.81. ill” (K,Ca), A1 Si,* + 17 H*0. BOTANY. n i! IHiiif t'mi Mi Iff EEEE| | 6,"', * Dr' c- “ N°nh 1892.] tinge on the belly is more pronounced in some specimens than in others, and in most there is a tendency for the fur in the region of the anus and genital organs to become pure white. The fulvous pectoral spot is absent in two specimens, and in the others varies from a mere trace to an irregular stripe 25 mm. long and about one third as broad in the widest part. The dusky mark at the ankle is conspicuous in some individuals and nearly absent in others. The skull of Vesperimus fraterculus resembles so closely that of V. eremicus that I can find no character by which to distinguish them. The number of specimens of eremicus at my disposal is, however, too limited to furnish satisfactory data. As compared with skulls of V. americanus, those of V. fraterculus average shorter, with brain case of about equal width and rather flatter. The nasals end in an obtuse angle about 1 mm. short of the premaxillaries. They are narrower than in americanus. The incisive foramina extend about to first third of anterior molar. The articular process of the mandible is shorter, and the coronoid occupies a more posterior position. The posterior upper molar is relatively smaller than in americanus. The following are some cranial measurements of seven specimens of V. fraterculus. Number . m M M Ms Sex . . . $ $ $ S Basilar length . 21.4 19 19.8 19 Basilar length of Hensel . 19 17 17.6 16.4 Zygomatic breadth . 12.6 12 11.8 11.4 Interorbital constriction.. . 4 4 4 3.8 Greatest length of nasals . 9.6' 8.6 8.4 8.2 Incisor to molar (alveolae) . 6 5.2 5.4 5.4 Incisor to postpalatal notch — 10f2 8.2 8.8 9 Height of crown from inferior lip of foramen magnum . 7.6 7 7 7 Length of upper molar series along crowns _ . .. . 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.6 Length of mandible, exclusive of incisors . 13.2 11.5 12.6 12.4 Length of lower molar series along crowns. . . . 4 3.8 3.8 3.8 m m Mr 9 9 9 21 20.6 20.8 18.8 18 18.4 - 12 12.6 4 3.8 3.6 9 8.6 8.4 6 5.8 6 9.2 9.8 9.2 7 6.8 7.4 3.4 3.6 3.6 13 13 13.2 3.8 3.8 3.6 — Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., Cambridge, Mass. February, 1892. 265 2. hartii. The Illinois : 10 9 specimens, taken July 5, 9, and Aug. 5, on flowers of Dianthera americana and Pontederia c or data.— Charles Robertson, 1892.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 275 ing officers elected for the ensuing year : President, Prof. John G. Curtis, of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York city ; Secretary, H. Newell Martin, Johns Hopkins University; Council, H. P. Bowditcii, Harvard College; R. H. Crittenden, Yale College ; W. H. Howell, University of Michigan. Mill Hi m of Saxe-Altenburg ; Prof. Dr. Bla- t*»00 per Year. $4.60 per Year (Foreign). 35 ets. per Copy. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST PLATE XI. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST Vor.. XXVI. April, 189a. 304 THE TWO SCHOOLS OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AS AT PRESENT EXISTING IN GERMANY AND ENGLAND. By E. L. Gregory. (Continued from p. 217.) The nature of the experiments will be best understood by a brief statement of the outlines of his theory in regard to the processes by which the water is carried up. He regards the ducts, and to a certain extent, the tracheids, as reservoirs into which the water is passed from the absorbing cells. These ducts, except it may be in a certain period of the year when the so-called root pressure is taking place, are never filled with water but with alternating columns of air and water. A1 1 who are at all familiar with this subj ect will remem¬ ber that this was the first argument against the new theory. How could the water pass up in the cell lumena when these were not themselves filled ? It is claimed now that this very fact is the one which admits of such a possibility. That is, these alternating columns make a combination known as the Jaminschen chain, from the name of the Frenchman, Jamin, who was the first to compute the force exerted by a chain of air and water columns in a capillary tube. Such an apparatus was called by his name, and the discovery of such a system of chains in the ducts and tracheids of woody tissue has been the strong point in the new water theories. The manner of action ; of this chain may be seen at once, the meniscuses acting as 20 The American Naturalist. [April, forces to prevent the motion of the water which would other* wise sink. In other words, the sole function of the chain is to prevent the water from yielding to the action of the gravity. In this way according to the distribution and tension of the air bubbles, the water is more or less evenly distributed through¬ out the whole stem of the tree and is ready for use whenever needed at different altitudes. The next step in the problem is to discover the factor by which the water is drawn out and set in motion upward. It is here that Professor Schwendener differs from nearly all the younger men who adhere even too zealously to his cause. In short, the last set of experiments which he made were for the purpose of disproving the claims of those who consider themselves able to follow all the succes¬ sive forces which act in sending the water upward from the root hairs to the transpiring leaves. The question of lumen versus wall was not at all touched by these experiments. On the other hand, they were made to test the length of alternat¬ ing air and water columns, diameter of tube, etc., and from these results a series of mathematical computations was made, it is true from data more or less uncertain, but yet with such allowances for extreme cases as to prove conclusively that some other force was necessary than those held sufficient by his contemporaries. Pieces of wood were taken from the inner portions of the trunks of various trees, with apparatus allowing perfectly air tight processes. The pieces were transposed from the tube of the borer into glycerine or water from which all air had been expelled. From these computations it was shown that in no case would it be possible for the action of suction caused by the evaporation from the leaves to reach down much below the crown of the tree, and in ease of trees with trunks from 50 to 100 metres long this might be considered proof against the possibility of the force reaching downward until it reaches that effected below by the forces acting in the lower part of the tree. The whole labor is merely to disprove certain theories, not to establish new ones. In conclusion Professor Schwendener says the results agree with those expressed in 1867. Stated briefly it may be said 281 1892,] Plant Physiology in Germany and England. they prove that some other forces must be present besides those recognized by authors who claim to give an explanation of the mechanical forces acting in forcing the water upward. These forces must lie more or less scattered through the length of the trunk because they are concentrated at points at con¬ siderable distances from each other, and tensions arise which are not present The Jaminish chain serves to hold the water in the ducts and tracheids from falling by its own weight ; the living cells of the medullary rays and of the wood parenchym, in some manner as yet unknown to us, take the water held in these reservoirs and distribute it to places where it is needed. Now contrast this with the explanation of Sachs, which is virtually the same as that held by all claiming that the wall is the chief path taken by the water in its ascent. This may be stated as follows : Water is able to reach the tops of the trees fast enough to supply the lack caused by transpiration, owing to the peculiar quality residing in the micellae of the lignified cellulose, which enables the water molecules to move with great rapidity, when the equilbrium is once disturbed by tran spiration above. This pecu liar quality is entirely lost when once the water has dried out of the walls so the micellae touch each other. Imbibition may occur as in ordinary cases but the micellae have lost that character which enabled the water particles to move with such rapidity. One of the favorite experiments given in favor of this theory is that of Th. Hartig with the stick, which being held upright and a drop of water placed on its upper surface, it at once disappears and a drop of water appears below. Now it is admitted that this succeeds only when the wood of the stick is saturated with water. Schwendener’s explanation of this phenomenon is ex¬ tremely simple and takes away all evidence of the rapidly moving particles or molecules of water in the wall. In this saturated condition, there would be continuous water columns inside the tracheids, the cut surface at the top transpires enough to form the concave meniscuses for all these columns, the added drop is sufficient to destroy these meniscuses, the water columns sink until the drop is drawn in and new menis- 282 The American Naturalist. [April, euses again form, preventing farther sinking. In case the wood is partly dried, instead of a drop appearing below, the water at the top sinks in without farther visible result either at once or slowly. In this case there are no continuous water streams as before, they are broken by internal meniscuses forming the chain. Contrast now the njethods of reasoning used in the two cases. It is admitted on both sides that all the mechanical forces here in play whose action we understand, are not suf¬ ficient to cause the water to ascend higher than about 30 feet. Sachs, therefore, affirms the presence of a quality in the micellae of the wood, which if it existed there would account for the water rising. There is no other proof that this quality exists than simply this fact This statement, perhaps, should be modified by adding, there is no proof which is considered conclusive. On the other hand, the theory as taught by Schwendener stops short of the assumption of a mechanical cause. No known mechanical forces can be found active here which are sufficient to explain the result. As there is always one factor of whose manner of action we are ignorant, namely : the action of living matter, he assumes this to be the factor which accomplishes that part of the result not reached by mechanical causes. This inference is supported by the arrangement of the living cells in connection with the ducts and tracheids holding the water. For example the presence of wood paren- chym around those ducts which are otherwise not in connec¬ tion with the medullary rays. In regard to the experiment of Hartig before referred to, it may be of interest to those not familiar with the anatomy of the tissues through which the water passes if a few words of added explanation are given. In the saturated piece of wood we have said there were continuous water columns in the tracheids, these are continuous only in the sense of there being no air columns present. These tracheids are closed cells? therefore there is the interruption of the cell walls at intervals in the otherwise continuous columns. So that according to Schwendener’s view all that is proven by the drop of water 1892.] Plant Physiology in Germany and England. 283 experiment is, the amount of resistance of filtration. This in a piece of wood ten metres long in an upright position is less than one atmosphere. Similar experiments have been tried, the stick being placed obliquely ; from these it has been proven that a column of water 12 centimetres in height is able to move a water net 100 centimetres or one metre in length. Npw if we turn from the discussion of this old and long dis¬ puted question to one of the most recent and perhaps least known, namely: “Turgor as the necessary condition of growth ” we shall find the same principle again, only illus¬ trated in a different way. A cell is said to be be turgescent when the hydrostatic pres¬ sure within exceeds that of the atmosphere without. The common teaching regarding the manner of growth of cell wall in surface is, that the cell must be in the turgescent state, that is that the actual growth depends upon and is the result of such condition of cell wall. Owing to the pressure within, the micellae of the wall are supposed to be separated from each other until the extreme limit of elasticity is reached. In this way place is made for the new particles of matter between the old. This theory is known in botanical literature as the Sachs-De Vries theory as it was first suggested by Sachs and afterward supported by De Vries. It is often referred to as the one sus¬ tained by Naegeli, but a careful study of his works shows that what he says upon this subject has reference to tissue tensions for the most part, rather than to simple turgor. It is now claimed by Schwendener that there is no proof whatever that the surface growth of the wall depends upon turgor, and on the contrary, that there is considerable evidence against this assumption. For example, it has been shown that cells having an excess of turgor, are not growing at all, while cells are found in a state of great activity whose turgor is very small. One and one-half atmosphere is considered about the medium for ordinal^ turgescent cells. Again, in a certain kind of tissue found in stems of water plants and others where large air spaces occur, growth of wall 284 The Ameriean Naturalist. [April, takes place in direct opposition to a turgor force, that is, the wall grows inward into a cell which is strongly turgescent. There is also one other ground for the position taken by Schwendener’s school in reference to the relation of turgor to growth. This is certain facts connected with what is known as “ Gliding growth,” “ Gleitendes Waehsthum.” The prin¬ ciple included in this idea may be briefly explained as follows : In the early stages of the secondary growth, during the time when the new cells are receiving or taking on their final char¬ acter as vessels and libriform cells, etc., a growth takes place by means of the walls of one cell gliding along the wall of another. To explain this, it* must be assumed that the walls of the young cell consist of two lamellae ; whether this is' so from the beginning or not is entirely unknown, but at the stage of the development where the gliding growth begins, the two layers are there. These are not to be distinuguished by the highest power of the microscope, the wall appearing perfectly homogeneous under the most powerful lens. The subsequent growth is such as to prove that there are two lamellae, as under no other assumption could such growth be possible. This assumption has also other and positive facts sustaining it, besides the negative one mentioned above. In certain cases the thin young walls of cambium cells have been proven by maceration to consist of two or more lamellae. . Now according to this principle there must reside in certain growing cells some force entirely independent of the mere mechanical one of pressure. In other words, there is an active as well as passive condition of growth and this active condition depends on certain properties of living matter and these properties are entirely outside and independent of what we know as mechanical force. Again we are brought to the same conclusion as before, there is a force residing in living matter of whose manner of action we are ignorant. That this force exists in this matter we have certain and positive proof. This subject of turgor as before stated is one of the most recent questions and in a certain sense less important than the standard ones concerning the phenomena of growth. 1892.J Plant Physiology in Germany and England. 285 To treat any one of the latter class fully would require more time than the limits of this paper allow. It is however* in these questions that the peculiar character of the new school is best expressed. The preference given to mechanical questions is evident from the list of subjects previously given as representing the line of physiological teaching Schwendener follows with his present classes. It is in connection with such questions that he has acquired his present reputation, and he is known best through the discussions of mechanical theories which are either peculiarly his own, or in which he opposes those of other leading physiologists. But it by no means follows from this that he recognizes the mechanical forces as the only ones acting in the plant economy, nor that in his treatment of these, he fails to group their rela¬ tions to the whole in a way to injure the unity of the entire subject. Rather than this it may be said he gives the first place to such questions because be believes this logical order of all investigation. If the present aim of the scientist be to trace all the processes of living matter back to the action of chemical and physical forces, how can this result be reached unless we begin with the study of those laws whose action we know and under¬ stand? It is in this sense that he says we are yet far from being able to take up the subtle and delicate questions connected with the action of living matter. There are many problems whose solutions lie nearer to us, and on these solutions depend our ability to handle the more remote and difficult questions of plant physiology. One single illustration of what is here claimed may be found in what he says of the expression “Mechanics of Growth.” Of this he says, “ There is no such thing as the mechanics of growth, for it is the immediate result of the action of living matter and of this action we are ignorant.” In answer to a possible criticism as to there being but two main sources of the principles of plant physiology as they are now taught in Germany and England it may be said : there is 286 The American Naturalist. [April, no question regarding the position occupied by Schwendeher as leading the modem school in Germany. In reference to the influence of Sachs on the leading text books of the present day, this is even more evident. While many other men of eminence in this field have contributed the results of their labors, not only by original research but also by writing text books, it is as yet true that they differ but little in methods of work or in the results obtained, from those general methods and principles which were first disseminated from the laboratory of Wurzburg from the pen of the most popular and brilliant writer the world has yet produced in this special field of investigation. In conclusion, therefore, it remains only to contrast once more, briefly the leading features of both schools. In the one there is a tendency to put mere speculation and fanciful conjecture in the place of theory. Rather than to admit our present ignorance and weakness, effects are some¬ times referred to causes which cannot be proven in harmony with those laws of nature which are recognized in other departments of natural science. In the other the principal lines of research are in the direc¬ tion of mechanical questions, but at the same time there is a dear and distinct recognition of our present limitations and of the relative value of such questions in the ultimate determi¬ nation of the action of forces which are yet beyond our reach. To the botanists of the present day and the future it remains to verify and reject, choosing the true and rejecting the false from both lines of research, till the decisions of the future shall make clear how much of error yet clings to the old school and the new. Phenomena and Development of Fecundation. 287 PHENOMENA AND DEVELOPMENT OF FECUN¬ DATION. By H. J. Webber. (Continued from page 111.) ORIGIN OP FECUNDATION. Having now discussed shortly the nature of the sexes and the effect of environment on them, we are ready to inquire into the origin of fecundation. There are several well-marked stages which we may select, that appear to indicate the proba¬ ble course of the development. 1. Among certain of the Mycetozoa or Myxomycetes, the Slime Molds, we find some very suggestive forms that are appar¬ ently near the beginning of the differentiation. They are ieven more interesting, if possible, coming as they do from a class of organisms placed in either kingdom as the lowest group, their animal or vegetable nature being in question, although authorities seem to incline toward believing them of slightly preponderating animal nature. In the lower Slime Molds belonging to the group Acrasieae, the life history is shortly this: From the spore (fig. 13, a), on germination there creeps out a naked motile mass of protoplasm, which takes nourishment, grows and reproduces rapidly by divid¬ ing, the products of the division being in each case similar swarm spores (fig. 13, b-f). After an extended vegetation of this sort, a number of the swarm spores collect into a “ herd ” and creep about in company for a time, after which two of them, apparently through accident, come closer together and adhere. Now the others close in and unite with these two, forming what is termed a plasmodium (fig. 13, g). But in this union each swarm spore retains its individuality, the union being merely an adhesion, not even a fusion of the individual protoplasms. They creep around in this plasmodium form for a time until ready to complete the cycle by forming the mature stage, which is accomplished by the plasmodium coming to rest, The American Naturalist. [April, collecting into a conical mass and each original swarm spore forming a single encysted spore (fig. 13, h). Why this mechanical adhesion of the swarm spores into a plasmodium ? It would seem a scheme adopted by the plant to better protect the encysted spores. 2. In the Myxomycetes proper (the higher Slime Molds), the mode of life is practically the same as in the Acrasiese, but here, when the swarm spores fuse to form the plasmodium ; the fusion is complete so far as the protoplasms are concerned, but still there is a lack of a thorough fusion of all the elements as the nuclei remain apparently ununited (fig. 14). In some Myxomycetes we find an indefinite number of swarm spores uniting to form the plasmodium, but in others the number thus fusing is reduced to a very few. Thus coupled with the growing complexity of the fusion or pseudo-conjuga¬ tion of the swarm spores we have a reduction, also, in the num¬ ber of elements fusing. . 3. Between this process and that described as conjugation there are many interesting intermediate forms. Sometimes three or four spores of low Algse unite as if to. gather sufficient strength to make a combined start in life. In Didyosiphon hippuroides Aresehoug1 has observed and figured the union of three zoospores. In Acetabularia mediterranea DeBary and Strasburger2 have figured the copulation of several swarm spores (figs. 15 and 16). This multiple conjugation has also been observed in Hydrodidyon, Spirogyra and some other algse, and while considered as abnormal, is apparently by no means uncommon. Among animals the young form of the sun ani¬ malcule ( Adinosphserium ) though usually uniting in twos, have been observed by Gabriel to sometimes exhibit multiple conju¬ gation. In this stage the number uniting is reduced to a very few, usually not more than three or four, and is probably accompanied by nucle fusion. 4. In Ulothrix we find the differentiation carried still fur¬ ther. Here the protoplasm of certain cells of the parent plant divides up into numerous little pyriform bodies (fig. 17), which 1 Aresehoug, Nova Acta., Reg. Soc. Ser. Ill, vol. x. Upsali* 1875. ’DeBary and Strasburger Bot. Zeit., Bd. xxxv (1877), p. 714. iiiiiiiim mm mm fstmii . 290; The American Naturalist. . [April, tion has been carried further, the female having beqome wholly- Incapable of independent motion, and the antherozooids have: been gradually decreasing in comparative size. Here we have peached as high a development of fecundation as is probably found in the vegetable kingdom. (The stages in this develop¬ ment may be made clear by an examination of fig. 20, which is a modification of an illustrative diagram designed by Geddes and Thomson.) I trust I have now made clear to you how fecundation prob¬ ably originated, or father the course it likely pursued in its gradual differentiation. Cell division, as we have seen, origi¬ nated in almost a mechanical breaking apart of a mass of pro¬ toplasm. Conjugation and fecundation we now see, probably originated in the almost mechanical adhesion of the swarm spores of the Acrasiese, followed by the mechanical fusion of the swarm spores of Myxcmycetes , and gradually increasing in complexity until there is complete fusion (conjugation), then a fusion of elements differing in character. Which is femnda- DIFFERENTIATION OF SEX. We may now direct our inquiry to the point in this evolu¬ tion where sex becomes differentiated. In the conjugating swarm spores of the Slime Molds there seems to be no point where we can detect indications of a difference in the uniting individuals. So far as known there is no differentiation into male and female. In blothriz (fig. 17) we begin to get a differentiation. In the conjugating microzoospores or planogametes (so called because of their similar character), it has been observed that planogametes produced in the same organ or gametangium will not coalesce with each other, but coalesce with planoga¬ metes from other gametangia. Here then, where the micro¬ scope fails to reveal any difference in the conjugating cells we nevertheless know from this fact that there must be some dif¬ ference. Ectocarpus siliculosits, one of the brown seaweeds, from the observations of Berthold, illustrates a rather different feature, by which we determine that the planogametes are really male 1892.] Phenomena and Development of Fecundation. 291 and female, although from external appearances we cannot recognize the difference between them. When the zoospores or planogametes are discharged from the mother cell, they do not differ by any morphological character. The females do not attract the males, but they swim around in the water and pass each other unnoticed. After a time, however, sex becomes manifest, and notably in accordance with the anabolic character of the female. Certain ones of the planogametes become motion¬ less, draw in their cilia and assume a rounded shape (fig. 19, a-c). The female character of such cells is shown by the attraction they exert on the active males which collect about them in great numbers (a hundred or more), clustering at one side in a half circle. The anterior filament of each male is directed toward the female cell and is kept continually mov¬ ing back and forth over it, the object being, it is thought, to provoke in the female planogamete genital excitation (fig. 19, d). After continuing to stroke the female for a time, one of the male planogametes leaves the circle and approaches the female, with which it gradually fuses, and fertilization is com¬ plete (fig. 19, e-h). In the pond scums ( Spirogyra , etc.), the reproduction of which is probably familiar to all, the filaments appear exactly alike, but the female character of one is shown by the cells of that filament containing all the spores resulting from the conjugation. In Outleria, mentioned above, the difference is manifested by the size of the conjugating cells, but as we noticed, both male and female are still motile. In the common rock weed, ( Fucus — fig. 21), the differentia¬ tion becomes marked by the external forms of the sexual cells. The female cells are large and motionless, while the male cells are becoming more intensely male by a comparative decrease in size and increase, if anything, in vigor. By the vigor of their motions they give the oosphere, around which they col¬ lect in great numbers, a rotary motion for a time until it is fer¬ tilized. In the mosses (fig. 18) and ferns, discussed above, we reach a complete and highly developed state of sexuality, probably more complete than in the higher flowering plants. 292 The American Naturalist. [April, We have now traced hastily the course of the differentiation into the sexes, but the question “ what causes this differentia tion ? ” remains. Starting with an amoeboid cell let us see what changes envi¬ ronment might bring about in this direction. We have already seen that nourishment evidently has considerable to do in the determination of sex. Now the physiological conditions in reference to nourishment to which a cell may be subjected are evidently three: preponderating anabolism, preponderating katabolism or a medium between these when katabolism and anabolism are equal. Suppose an amoeboid cell is subject to a preponderance of anabolism over katabolism the result would naturally be, increase in size, accompanied by a growing regu¬ larity of outline, increase in reserve food material and decreased mobility. The result is surely plain, we would have differen¬ tiated an ovum or egg cell. On the other hand subject the amoeboid cell to preponderant katabolism, and we would as reasonably expect a decrease in size and in reserve materials accompanied by increased activity and the development of organs to aid in more rapid motion through the surrounding medium. In short in this manner we reach intelligibly the differentiation of sperm and ovum, antherozoid and oosphere (fig. 60, and explanations). THE TWO SEXUAL ACTS IN SEA WEEDS. In certain of the Red Seaweeds we appear to have the curi¬ ous and unparalleled occurence of two sexual acts in the life cycle of the plant, and the manner in which it is lead up to by transitional forms is very suggestive. The female reproductive organs which are borne on the same plant as the antheridia or on different ones consists usually of a group of cells, the pro- carpium, from one of which the egg cell proper, a long contin¬ uous closed tube, the trichogyne, grows out. In fertilization the spermatia are wafted about in the water until they come in contact with the trichogyne to which they adhere. The walls at the point of contact are absorbed, allowing the nucleus of the spermatia to pass over into the trichogyne and thus down to the egg cell, where it unites with the female pronu- Phene i and Development of Fecundation. cleus (figs. 22 and 23). Shortly after fertilization a partition forms between the triehogyne and the egg cell, debarring the entrance of further spermatia and affording thus an excellent illustration of what Whitman has termed “Self-regulating receptivity." After fertilization the egg cell does not separate from its previous tissue connections, as in the oogonia of other green algse, and the archegonia. of the archegoniata, but remains in continuous connection with the hypogynal cells through which it is nourished. In the simplest case ( Hdminthodadiese ) the ovacell develops from its surface many several-celled filaments, ooblastemas, as they are called, which form usually a closely compressed tuft. A single carpospore is developed at the apex of each of these ooblastema filaments (Nemalion, etc.) In this case, it will be noticed, all the ooblastema filaments are nourished through the egg cell. In the Gelidese, a slightly higher form, the fertilized ovgi from its surface cell develops a single filament, termed the ooblastema, which turns toward the axis of the branch and, ramifying abundantly, winds around this, sending branches into the highly nutritive outer layer of cells of the branch and connecting with some of these cells by the devel¬ opment of pits. Being thus abundantly nourished through this tissue, the branches of the ooblastema filament develop from each of the clavate erect terminal branch cells, either a single spore or short chains of two or more. In this case it is seen the ooblastema filament becomes in a sense parasitic upon the tissue of the parent plant. In the families Orytonemiese and Squamarieae a single or at least few ooblastema filaments develop from the fertilized egg cell. These creep about until they come in contact with certain specialized cells of the branch known as auxiliary cells, with which they enter into connection directly or by the development of conjugation processes. In many cases the union thus formed is limited to a fusion of the protoplasm while the cell nuclei remain separate, ( Dudresnaya ). In this case a process issues laterally from that half of the conjugation 294 The American Naturalist. [Aprils cell which represents the ooblastema cell which by its further growth gives rise to the spore complex (fig. 22). : In other cases (Gloeosiphonia) when the contents of the ooblastema filaments flow into the auxiliary cell, the nuclei unite , the fusion or conjugation being thus complete. In this case the auxiliary cell separates off as an individual cell and gives rise to a lateral cell which becomes the centre of a spore complex (fig.. 23). In the above case where the nuclei unite and where the conjugation gives an impulse to further development in the auxiliary cell, which otherwise would have remained quies¬ cent, we have a case fulfilling all the requirements of a true sexual act, — true fecundation, and there seems to be no other way to consider this, than that here we have in the life cycle of the plant, two entirely different sexual acts, one following the other. W e are surprised at this unprecedented phenomenon but we can not predicate why it should not occur. The reason for it we may assign to natural selection and development along natural lines. (1) The spores develop at the ends of filaments grown out from the egg cell. (2) The filaments thus formed begin to attach themselves to cells of the branch for nourishment. (3) We find special cells developed which the ooblastema filament finds and unites with in one sense but giving no nuclear union. (4) The ooblastema strikes a specialized cell with which it unite nuclei and protoplasm, the conjugation being complete and the further development from this auxiliary cell. May we not here in the development of the second sexual act of the Red Seaweeds derive a hint as to the physiological meaning of fecundation. We start in a union for nutrition. We end with conjugation. FECUNDATION IN ANIMALS. Character of Ovum. — The animal egg or ovum presents all the characteristics of a normal somatic cell. The rather large nucleus is situated approximately in the centre of the cell, surrounded by abundant protoplasm. The abundant chroma¬ tin of the nucleus is arranged as in other cells in the form of a tangled coil like a disordered ball of twine. It is thought by PLATE XII. 1892.] Phenomena and Development of Fecundation. 295 some, Van Beneden and others, to be continuous, but by Boveri and his followers it is maintained to be interrupted. This matters little, however, as the ultimate division of the coil is into a definite and regular number. When the egg cell has attained its mature size, a peculiar occurence takes place. The nucleus approaches the wall, forms ft spindle and divides, forming at one side of the large ovum a tiny cell, containing half the nuclear matter and a small quantity of protoplasm from the ovum. This is not all, later a second spindle is formed and again the nucleus of the ovum divides throwing off another small cell. These cells thus given off from the ovum are known as polar globules. These little bodies, long passed by as of no importance, have by the mas¬ terly studies of later authors, foremost among whom are Van Beneden, Boveri and Weismann, been raised to a most impor¬ tant position and are intimately connected with late theories of fecundation. Minot’s Theory of Polar Globules. — What we may term Minot's theory assumes that in the cells both sexes are potenti¬ ally present. To produce sexual elements the cell divides into its parts; in the case of the egg cell the male polar globules are cast off leaving the female ovum. In partheno- genetic ova he supposes that enough male matter is retained since only one polar globule appears to be formed. Van Ben¬ eden is also inclined to regard polar globules as eliminated male matter. Minot’s theory then is that in every cell of every organism having sexual reproduction that there is an equal amount of female and of male matter, an equal number of male and of female chromatin bands; and that before the egg can be fertilized, it throws off the male matter that it con¬ tains as polar globules, so that the pronucleus consists merely of the female matter, of half the ordinary number of chroma¬ tin bands. The spermatozoon which has eliminated all female matter, enters and supplies the required amount of male matter. So that in the fecundated nucleus thus formed We have again the normal number of male and female chro¬ matin segments from the different parents, and this nucleus hy its segmentation forms every cell of the new organism. .So 21 296 The American Naturalist. [April, from ' this theory we arriye at an intelligible reason why the ; offspring comes to resemble both parents but there are diffi¬ culties in the way of further tracing heredity which we have not time here to consider. * Weismann’s Theory. — Weismann’s view is wholly different. He distinguishes in the ovum two kinds of plasm, the germ plasm and the histogenetic or ovogenetic nucleoplasm. The germ plasm which is at first present in the young egg he con¬ cludes originates first of all a special histogenetic or ovogenetic nucleoplasm which controls the egg cell up to the point of .maturity, enabling it to secrete food material, develop mem-, ibranes, etc. At maturity this ovogenetic nucleoplasm is of no more use and incapable of retransformation into germ plasm, and is hence thrown off by nuclear division forming the first polar globule. This is all that is extruded in the partheno- ■ genetic ova. The second kind,— -his germ plasm, — present in the egg, is that which enables the ovum to develop into an em¬ bryo. The second extrusion of a polar globule is a reduction of this germ plasm of the nucleus by half and the same must occur in the male germ cell also. What is thus lost in the forma- tipirof the second polar globule, is supplied by the fertilizing spermatozoon. The beginning of development depends, accord¬ ing to this hypothesis, upon the presence of a definite quantity of germ plasm. This the normal egg attains by first losing half and then regaining it; while the parthenogenetic egg attains the same result by never losing any. According to Weismann’s view we see that only the second polar globule has to do directly with reproduction and here we have to look for an explanation of reproduction and heredity. As mentioned above Weismanu looks upon the second polar globule, by which the germ plasm is reduced one half, as a reduction not only in quantity but above all in complexity of constitution, for by this means, he reasons, the excessive accumulations of differ¬ ent kinds of hereditary tendencies or germ plasms is prevented, which without it would necessarily be produced by fertiliza¬ tion. With the nucleus of the second polar body as many different kinds of germ plasms are removed from the egg as Will be afterward added through the sperm nucleus. This 1892.] Phenomena and Development of Fecundation. 297 will likely need illustration to make it plain. Suppose we imagine an organism in which sex has just arisen and we thus have fertilization for the first time. In the egg cell resulting from this fertilization we would have mingled the germ plasms of but two parents, or but two kinds of chromatin in the nucleus ; the chromatin, be it remembered, being the organ to which all such phenomena are traced. This daughter organ¬ ism now conjugates with another similar individual which ia also but one generation removed from the sexual origin. In the organism resulting from this union we obviously have Commingled in the chromatin elements four ancestral tenden¬ cies or idioplasms. It is unnecessary to carry this further, obviously the next generation form a similar union, would contain 8 ancestral idioplasms, the next 16, the 10th genera¬ tion 1024, and so on, doubling each time with every sexually produced generation. It is merely following the well known calculation made by breeders who merely differ in that they use the term blood, half blood or quarter blood, instead of germ, plasm or idioplasms as we have. While in each succeeding generation the number of germ plasms are doubled, their quantities are reduced by one-half. Thus in a series of generations the continually recurring divisions of the ancestral germ plasms must theoretically ultimately reach a limit. So Weismann argues that the reduc¬ tion in the number of chromatin bands accomplished by the formation of the second polar globule is to reduce by one-half the number of the ancestral germ plasms in the ovum, and the ancestral germ plasm added by the spermatozoan brings the number of germ plasms in the ovum up to the normal num¬ ber which he supposes to be present. This theory is of course based on the almost universally accepted theory that fertiliza¬ tion consists in that an equal number of chromatin loops from either parent are placed side by side and form the new seg¬ mentation nucleus. Character of Sperm.— The character of the spermatozoon is familiar to all. It consists of a minute head, composed chiefly of chromatin nuclear matter with a minimum allowance of cytoplasm and a long contractile tail which working behind 298 The American Naturalist. like a screw propeller, moves the essential head through the water or along the duets. Fertilization consists in a union of the spermatozoon with the ovum. Many devices are developed to bring the two cells near together, but they are then left to conjugate at will, as it were. The road that it is necessary for the spermatozoon to pass over to reach the ovum is frequently quite long, being in the hen about 60 cm. and in large mammifers from 25-30 cm. But they are katabolic little creatures. It is wonderful how such frail creatures can manage to overcome such obsta¬ cles. Henle has seen spermatozoa carry along masses of crys¬ tals 10 times larger than themselves. Pouchet has seen them carry bunches of from eight to ten blood corpuscles; They have been estimated to carry burdens four or five times heavier than themselves without much difficulty or incon¬ venience. FolVs Observations on the Union of Pronuclei } — Herman Foil describes the phenomena of fecundation in the egg of the sea urchin in about the following manner. The spermatozoon five minutes after entering the egg is conical and from its tip a small corpuscle, the spermocenter is detached (fig. 24). The spermatic pronucleus swells and approaches the female pron¬ ucleus the spermocentre in advance (6g. 25). The ovocenter is located on the side of the female pronucleus opposite to the side which gave rise to the polar globules. The spermocenter becomes placed at the pole on the side opposite the ovocenter (fig. 26). There are now two prolonged phases the “ solar " and the “ aureolar ; ” at the end of the first of these the ovocen¬ ter and spermocenter becomes divided in the form of “ halters, n as the author expresses it, which are not placed in the same plane. These “ halters ” come to lie parallel to each other in the plane which will be that of the aureole (fig. 27.) In the next phase the spermocenter and ovocenter become divided (fig. 28) and the halves passing in opposite directions along a fourth of a circumference of the combined nucleus arrive at a point at right angles to their previous position. This Foil calls the “ Marche du quadrille. ” ie de la fecondation, " Coinptes Rend® Phenomena and Development of Fecundation. 299 At the moment when the demiovocenters and demispermo- eenters are on the point of uniting, the aureole rapidly disap¬ pear and true aster become apparent with their perfectly dis¬ tinct fibrils, much different from the radiations which are visible till then (fig. 29). The demicenters unite and fuse to form the first asterocenters. The author concludes that fecundation consists not only in the addition of two nuclei arising from different individ¬ uals of different sexes, but in the union of two demispermo- centers with two demi-ovocentres to form the first two astro- centers. All succeeding astrocenters are derived in equal parts from the mother and father. Fecundation in Higher Plants. Development of Embryo Sac and Egg Apparatus: — In the higher plants (the anthophytes or spermophytes) we are par¬ ticularly concerned with the embryo sac and its inclosed egg apparatus. It is necessary that we should thoroughly under¬ stand its development. The embryo sac first shows itself as an enlarged specialized cell in the upper central part of the nueellus or body of the ovule (fig. 30, a). In the maturation the nucleus divides and the two daughter nuclei thus formed travel in opposite directions, one going to the apex, the other to the base of the embryo sac which has, in the meantime, been growing larger and longer (fig. 31). After reaching their re¬ spective ends each divide again (figs. 32 and 33) and the two in each end thus formed again divide (fig. 34) forming a tetrad of nuclei at both the apex and the base of the embryo sac. Now a very peculiar thing happens. One of the nuclei from each tetrad thus formed leaves its position and journeys toward the centre of the embryo sac where they come together and fuse, forming the nucleus proper of the embryo sac (fig. 35, c). There is now left at each end of the embryo sac three nuclei of the original tetrad. The nuclei of the upper end become partitioned off by walls and form the egg ap¬ paratus proper. The two upper cells, the so-called synergidae or accessory cells (fig. 35, a) are of doubtful function, being merely of secondary value in fertilization. They are some- 300 The At Naturalist. [April, times capable, it has been observed, of being fertilized as egg cells and developing embryos (in cases of polyembryony). The lower cell (fig. 35, b) is the egg cell proper. The three basal cells become partitioned off by walls also and are known as antipodal cells ; they appear to have no function in fertiliza¬ tion (fig. 35, d). Development of Pollen: — The pollen or male germ cells are produced in great quantities in the pollen sacs of the anthers. They are formed in mother cells by two successive divisions of the nucleus, thus there are four pollen grains produced in each pollen mother cell (figs. 49 to 55). Later the nucleus of the pollen grains thus formed divides again (fig. 39) forming two cells in the grain, a small and a large one, the so-called generative and vegetative cells. The generative nucleus (fig. 40, b) of the small cell is the one important in fecunda¬ tion. The vegetative nucleus (fig. 40, a) remains in the pollen grain having no further role in fecundation, or according to Guignard, sometimes passes into the pollen tube in advance of the generative nucleus and follows down the tube as it lengthens, until the micropyle is reached, when it gradually disorganizes and before fertilization takes place has disap¬ peared. At first these two nuclei are separated by a cell wall but sooner or later the wall is broken down allowing the two nuclei to float free in the protoplasm of the pollen grain. Reduction of the Number of Chromatin Elements in Sexual Nuclei. — Guignard1 in a late article has emphasized the fact that in sexual cells there is a reduction in the number of the chromatin segments. In somatic cells he finds usually 24 segments, in the sexual cells the number is reduced to 12. In the formation of the young tissue of the anther 24 bands are uniformly present as far as the mother cells, the nucleus of which receives, as have the others so far 24 segments. After the complete differentiation of the mother cell it relapses for a time into a state of repose before the two divisions which are to form the pollen grain. When now the nucleus of the mother cell begins to manifest division it shows all the normal Constitution 2.] Phenomena and Development of Fecundation. 309 fecundation propet of egg cell by antherozooid, ex. Moss Plant. Fig. 21. (Redrawn from Thuret in Bessev’s Bot. p. 267). Oosphere of Fucus vesiculosa surrounded by spermatozoids. Fig. 22. (Adapted from Schmitz Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist, vol. xiii, Ser. 5, (1884) PI. 1, figs. 1G-19 ) Dudresnaya purpurifera. (a) Triehogyne with adhering spermatia ; ( b ) egg cell ; ( c ) con¬ jugating cell cutoff at end of ooblastema filament; (d) auxil¬ iary cell ; ( e ) later stage after conjugation of auxiliary cell and ooblastema filament. Fig. 23. (Adapted from Schmitz, 1. c.) Glwosiphonia capillaris, (letters as in fig. 22.) Figs. 24-29. Redrawn from Foil, Comptes Rend us 1. c.) Fecundation of the egg of the sea urchin. Figs. 30-35. (Redrawn from Strasburger, Zellbild, und Zellteil, 3 Auflage, Pis. iv and v). Development of the embryo sac and egg apparatus of Monotropa hypopitys. Fig. 30. Nucellus with embryo sac ; and (a) its primary embryo sac nucleus. Fig. 31-34, enlargement of embryo sac and for¬ mation of the two apical tetrads of nuclei. Fig. 35. (a) synergidae; ( b ) egg cell; (c) the two nuclei, one from each tetrad that fuse forming the nucleus proper of the embryo sac ; ( d ) antipodal cells. Fig. 36. (Original). Camera sketch of a longitudinal section of the pistil of Yucca angustifolia, x. about 5 diam. Showing the continuous styler tube with numerous pollen tubes running down to the ovules. Fig. 37. (Original). Camera sketch, x. 400 diam. of the ovule of Yucca angustifolia , showing one ovule coat, the nucellus, the embryo sac with its enclosed egg apparatus, and a pollen tube ; (e) that has entered the micropyle of the ovule and penetrated to the embryo sac. Fig. 38. (Original). Conducting tissue. Cross section of the style of Yucca angustifolia. Camera sketch, x. 150 diam. Figs. 39-42. (Redrawn from Strasburger Befrucht. bei den Phaner. Taf. 1.) Fig. 39. Young pollen grain during division into generative and vegetative cells. Fig. 10. Mature pollen grain; (a) vegetative nucleus; (6) generative nucleus. Figs. 41 and 42. Portions of the pollen tube with the generative Nucleus in division. 310 The American Naturalist. [April, Figs. 43-48. (Original). Diagramatic outlines of embryo sac and nuclear changes during fecundation modeled from Guignard’s descriptions. Fig. 43. Division of nuclei to form the upper tetrad, showing asters centrosomes, etc. Fig. 44. (a) synergidse; (6) oosphere; (c). union of nuclei to form the nucleus of the embryo sac. Fig. 45. (a) nuclei of the syner¬ gidse ; (6) nucleus of the oosphere ; (d) male pronucleus pre¬ ceded by its directive spheres; ( e ) pollen tube. Fig 46. Union of the male and female directive spheres. Fig. 47. Separation of the directive spheres and union of nuclei. Fig. 48. Fecundated nucleus ready for the first segmentation, the male portion is still distinguishable (the male nucleus in the last three colored dark). Figs. 49-56. (Redrawn from Guignard, Annal. des Sci. Nat. Bot. Se. 7, T. xiv, PI. 10). Formation of the pollen grains in a pollen mother cell of LUium martagon. Fig. 49. Mother cell in resting stage showing chromatin band, nucleolus (para- nucleolus) and two directive spheres. Fig. 50. Rupture of chromatin filament into 12 segments. Fig. 51. Division (longitudinal) of these segments. Fig. 52. The nuclear spindle in profile. Fig. 53. Separation of the daughter seg¬ ments and division of the directive sphere. Fig. 54. Two cells in the resting stage, completion of the first division. Fig. 55. Division of these two cells to form the four pollen grains. Fig. 56. One of the young pollen grains of the last division in a resting stage before the division which gives rise to the vegetative and generative nuclei. (See Fig. 39.) Figs. 57-59. (Redrawn from Wagner, Ann. of Bot. vol. iv, PI. vi.) Fecundation of Peronospora parasitica. Fig. 57. Oogonium with antheridium at one side. Fig. 58. Formation of oosphere, two nuclei approaching the centre to unite. Fig. 59. Mature oosphere in process of fecundation, showing the antheridial tube grown through the oogonium to the oosphere. Fig. GO. (Adapted from Geddes and Thomson, 1. c.) Dia¬ gram illustrating effect of environment on an amoeboid cell. On the left, when subjected to preponderating katabolism, yielding antherozodid. On the right when subjected to prepond¬ erating anabolism, yielding oosphere. Medium conditionsdn- dicated by the central line of amoeboid cells. Hi®: PLATE XIII. Fecundation and Development. Record of North American Zoology. 311 RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN ZOOLOGY. BY J. S. KINGSLEY. ARTHROPODA. Patten, W. — Is the ommatidium a hair-bearing sense bud ? Anat. Anz., V., p. 353, 1890. — See Am. Nat., XXIV., p. 1084. Clarke, J. M. — On the compound eyes of Arthropods. Am. Jour. Sci., XXXIX., p.409, 1890. — Notice of Watase’s paper and comparison with eyes of trilobites. Eyes of all except Phacopidae and Harpidae, like those of Limulus. Fernald, H. T. — The relationship of Arthropods. Studies J. Hopkins Univ., IV., p. 431, 1890. Parker, G. H. — The eyes in blind crayfishes. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XX., No. 5, 1890. CRUSTACEA. Parker, G. H. — The histology and development of the eye in the lobster. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XX., 1890. Leidy, J. — Parasites of Mola rotunda. Proc. A. N. S. Phila. 1890, p. 281.— Conchoderma, Penella, Cecrops, Lsmargus, Dine- matura. Ives, J. E.— Crustacea from the northern coast of Yucatan, the harbor of Vera Cruz, the west coast of Florida, and the Bermuda Islands. Proc. A. N. S., Phila, 1891, p. 176.— New species are Gelasimus speciosus (Yucatan), Paloemonella yucatanica, Cirolana may ana (Yucatan), Peneus braziliensis var. aztecus (Vera Cruz), Cymodocea bermudensis. Edwards, C. L.— Beschreibung einiger neuen Copepoden und eines neuen copepodenahnlichen Krebses, Leuckartella paradoxa. Arch, fur Naturgesch, LVII, 1891 .—Dactyiopus bahamensis, Esola (n. g.) longicauda, Rhaphidophorus (n. g.) wilsonii, Dioge- nidium (n. g.) nasutum, Abacola (n. g.) holothurue, Leuckartella (n. g.) paradoxa, all in body cavity of the holothurian Muellena agassizii, from the Bahamas. 22 312 The American Naturalist. [April, Bigelow, P. P.— Preliminary notes on some new species of Squilla. J. H. U. Circ., X., p. 93, 1891 .—S.polita (Cal.), S.parva (Panama), 5. panamensis, S. biformis (La Paz). Herrick, F. H. — Notes on the habits and larval stages of the American lobster. J. H. U. Circ., X., p. 97, 1891. - The reproductive organs and early stages of the develop¬ ment of the American lobster. J. H. U. Circ., X., p. 98, 1891. _ The development of the American lobster ; l. c. and Zool. Am ., XIV., pp. 133, i45> 1891. ARACHNIDA. Clarkson, F. — Argiope riparia, and its parasite Ichneumon aranearum, and its parasite a Chalcid fly. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 122, 1890. Banks, N. — A new Pseudoscorpion. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 1 52» 1890. — Chernes pallidus, and list of six others from Ithaca, N. Y. Stone, W. — Pennsylvania and New Jersey spiders of the family Lycosidae. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1890, p. 420. — New species are Pirata elegans , P. marxii, Pardosa nigra. Leidy, J. — Hypoderas in the little blue heron. Proc. A. N. S. Phila., 1890, p.63. - Remarks on ticks. Proc. A. N. S., Phila., 1890, p. 278. Packard, A. S. — Further studies on the brain of Limulus poly- phemus. Zool. Am., XIV. — See Am. Nat. Emerton, J. H, — New England spiders of the families Drassi- dae, Agelenidae, and Dysderidae. Trans. Conn. Acad., VIII., p. 66, 1890. — New species are Micaria longipes, M. montana, Geotrecha (nov. gen.) pinnata, Prosthesima depressa, Pcecilochroa montana , * Drassus saccatus, D. robustus , Clubiona mixta, C. tibialis, C. cana¬ densis, C. minuta, C. pusilla, C. omata, Chiracanthium viride, Anyphena rubra, A. calcarata, Phryolithus pugnatus, Agrcecia pra- tensis, Coelotes longitarsus, C. montanus, C. hybridus, Tegenaria brevis, Cicurina complicata , Hahnia bimaculata, H. radtda, H. cinerea. MYRIAPODA. Cook, O. F., and Collins, G. N.— Notes on North American Myriapoda of the family Geophilidae, with descriptions of three 313 1892.] Record of North American Zoology . genera. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIII., p. 383, 1891. — New forms are Escaryus (n. g.) phyllopliilus, E. liber (N. Y.). * Wheeler, W. M. — Hydrocyanic acid secreted by Polydesmus virginiensis. Psyche , V., p. 442, 1890. HEXAPODA. Shimer, H. — The intra-trarhral cilia of insects. Microscope, X., p. 332, 1890. Cockerell, T. D. A. — Fauna and flora of Colorado, I. West Am. Scientist, VI., p. 103, 1889. — List of 48 Lepidoptera, 11 Diptera. hymenoptera. Coquillet, D. W. — New Coccids from California, and one of their Chalcid parasites. West Am. Scientist, VII., p. 43, 1890. — Blastothrix yucca. HEMIPTERA. Snow, F. H. — Experiments for the artificial dissemination of a contagious disease among chinch-bugs. Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci., XII., p. 34, 1890. Kellogg, V. L.— Some notes on the Mallophaga. Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci, XII, p. 46, 1 890.— Trachial system of Tetroph- thalmus ; synopsis of genera ; two new genena characterized, not named. Garman, H .—CEbalus pugnax, an enemy of grasses. Psyche, VI, p. 61, 1891. Coquillet, D. W.— Mealy bugs of the United States. West Am. Scientist, VI, p. 12 1, 1889.— Synopsis of species; new are Dactylopius ryani, D. cravii, from California. - New Coccids from California, and one of their Chalcid parasites. West Am. Scientist, VII, p. 43, 1890.— Dactylopius ephedra. Pseudococcus yucca. diptera. Coquillet, D. W.— A new Rhaphiomidas from California. West Am. Scientist, VII, p. 84, 1891.—^. acton. Garman, H. — An undescribed larva from Mammoth Cave. Bull. Essex Inst, XXIII, 1891. 314 The American Naturalist [April, Gillette, C. P. — A new Cecidomyiidid infesting boxelder (Negundo aceroides). Psyche; V., p. 392, 1890. — Cecidomyia negundinis (Iowa). COLEOPTERA. Blaisdell, F. E. — Remarks upon the Stenini. West Amer Scientist , VII., p. 117, 1890. — Four of Casey's species from Cali. ' fornia. Brendel, E., and Wickham, H. F. — The Pselaphidae of North America. Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist., Univ. Iowa, I., p. 216; II., p. I, 1890. — A monographic revision of the family, describing numer¬ ous new species. Ricksecker, L. E.— Note on Cybister. Zoe, I., p. 304, 1890. Weed, C. M. — New food-plant of Rhodobcenus ij-punctatus. Am. Nat., XXIV., p. 1215, 1890. - A review of some plum curculio literature. Am. Nat., XXV., p.63. Popenoe, E. A. — Note on the ovi-position of a wood-borer. Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci., XII., p. 1 5, 1890. — Tragidium fulvipenne. Garman, H. — On the life-history of Diabrotica 1 2-punctala Oliv. Psyche , VI., pp. 28, 44, 1891. Cockerell, T. D. A. — List of the beetles of the genus Amora recently taken in Colorado. West. Am. Scientist, VI., p. 47, 1 889. - Contributions toward a list of the fauna and flora of Wet Mountain valley, Colorado. VIII., Coleoptera. West Am. Scien¬ tist, VII., p. 35, 1890. — Twenty-eight species. Howard, L. O. — Some beetles of San Diego county. Cal- West. Am. Scientist , VI., 87, 1889. LEPIDOPTERA. Hulst, G. D.— The Phycitidse of North America. Trans. Am. Entom. Soc., XVII., p. 93, 1890. — Vide Am. Nat., XXIV., p. 1215. Smith, J. B. — Contributions toward a monograph of theNoctui- dae of Temperate North America. — Revision of the species of Hadena referable to Xylophasia and Luperina. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIII., p. 407, 1891. — New species are X. cogitata (Col.), Record of North American Zoology. 315 X. alticola (Col.), X. nigrior (Maine), X. antennata (Cal.), X. cen¬ tralis (Cal.). Smith, J. B. — Contributions [etc.]. — Revision of Homohadena Grote. Proc. Nat. Mus., XIII., p. 397, 1891. — New species, H. deserta (Colorado Desert). Behr, H. H. — Lepidoptera from San Jose del Cabo. Zoe, I., p. 246, 1 890. — List of thirteen species and comparison of fauna. Blaisdell, F. E. — Hints about killing Lepidoptera. West Am, Scientist, VI., p. 6, 1889. Truman, P. C. — Butterflies of San Diego.' West Am. Scientist, VII., p. igr 1890. — Nothing important. VERTEBRATA. Waters, B. H. — Some additional points on the primitive seg¬ mentation of the vertebrate brain. Zool. Anz., XIV., p. 14 1, 1891. — See Am. Nat. Herrick, C. L. — Illustrations of the architecture of the cere¬ bellum. Jour. Comp. Neurol., I., p. 5, 1891. McClure, C. F. W. — The segmentation of the primitive ver¬ tebrate brain. Jour. Morph., IV., p. 35, 1890. — Vide Am. Nat., XXV. Rogers, F. A. — The histological difference between bone and enamel. Microscope, XI., p. 33, 1891. Piersol, G. A. — The colorless cells of the blood. Microscope XI. , p. 1, 1891. Eigenmann, C. H. & R. S. — Contributions [etc.]. — Additions to the fauna of San Diego. Fishes of Napa Springs. Young stages of some Selachians. West Am. Scientist, VI., p. 148, 1 889., New are Phoxinus ( Tigoma ) clevelandii , Uranidea centropleura. Eigenmann, C. H. — Coloration of fishes. West Am. Scientist, VII., p. 35, 1890. Morgan, T. H.— The anatomy and transformation ofTornaria. J, H. U. Circ., X., p. 94, 1891. teleostomi. Hopkins, G. S. — Structure of the stomach oiAmia calva. (Ab¬ stract.) Proc. A. A. A. S., XXXIX, p. 339. i890 (l89»)- Naturalist. 316 The American [April, Gill, Theo. — The characteristics of the family of Scatophagoid fishes. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XIII., p. 355, 1891. - On the relations of Cyclopteroida. Proc. Nat. Mus., XIII., p. 361, 1891. - The osteological characteristics of the family Hemitripte- ridae. Proc. Nat Mus., XIII., p.377, 1891. Gilbert, C. H. — Description of a new species of Etheostoma (E. micropterus) from Chihuahua, Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIII., p.289, 1890. . Eigenmann, C. H. and R. S. — On the phosphorescent spots of Porichthys margaritatus. West Amer. Scientist, VI., p. 32, 1889. - Contributions from the San Diego Biological Laboratory. West Am. Scientist , VI., p. 44, 1 889. — Notes on eggs and habits of several California fishes. - Contributions from the San Diego Biological Laboratory. II., On the genesis of the color-cells of fishes. West Am. Scien¬ tist, VI., p. 61, 1889. - Contributions from the San Diego Biological Laboratory. The fishes of the Cortez Banks. West Am. Scientist , VI., pp. 123, 147.— New species are Myctophum calif orniense, M. townsendii, Ditrema orthonotus, Sebastichthys Icevis , 5. purpureus , Icelinus australis, Paracelinus (g. n.) hopliticus, Zanolepis frenatus. Fifty- one species recorded. BATRACHIA. Gage, S. H. — Combined aquatic and aerial respiration in Amphibia, and the function of the external gills in Salamanders hatched on land. (Abstract.) Proc. A. A. A. S., XXXIX., p. 337, 1890(1891). Gage, S. H. and S. P. — Changes in the ciliated areas of the ali¬ mentary canal of the Amphibia during development and the rela¬ tion to the mode of respiration. (Abstract.) Proc. A. A. N. S., XXXIX.,p. 337, 1890(1891). Gage, S. H., and Norris, H. W.— Notes on the Amphibia of Ithaca. (Abstract.) Proc. A. A. A. S., XXXIX., p. 339, l89° (1891). 1892.] Record of North American Zoology. 317 REPTILIA. Herrick, C. L. — Topography and histology of the brain of certain reptiles. Jour. Comp. Neurol ., I., p. 14, 1891. Stejneger, L. — Diagnosis of a new species of snake ( Lichanura orcuttu) from San Diego county, Cal. West Am. Scientist, VI., p. 83, 1889. Orcutt, C. R. — Turtles of California. West Am. Scientist , VII., p. 49, 1 890. — Five species. Turner, C. L. — Morphology of the avian brain. Jour. Comp Neurol., I., p. 39, 1891. Thompson, E. E. — The birds of Manitoba. Proc. U. S. Nat Mus., XIII., p. 457, 1891. — Valuable paper of 126 pages, with notes on habits, songs, distribution, etc., of 266 species. Lucas, F. A. — The expedition to the Funk Island, with obser- Nat. Mus., 1887-88, p. 493, 1890. Lamborn, R. H. — Humming-birds of the Pacific coast. West Am. Scientist, VI., p. 109, 1889. MAMMALS. Minot, C.-S. — On the fate of the human decidua rejlexa. Ana. Am., V., p. 639, 1890.’ Todd, A. — The yellow-haired porcupine. West Amer. Scien¬ tist, VII., p. 122, 1891. Spencer, T. B. — A support for the chorda tympani nerve in the Felidae. (Abstract.) Proc. A. A. A. S., XXXIX., p. 339, 1890 (1891). Ryder, J. A. — The eye, ocular muscles, and lachrymal glands of the shrew mole ( Blarina talpoides). Pro. Am. Phil. Soc., XXVIII., p. 16, 1890. — Describes apparatus for forcing tears from gland. Allen, H. — Description of a new species of Macrotus. — M. bulleri, from Mexico. True, F. W. — Description of a new species of mouse, Phenaco- mys longicandus, from Oregon. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIII., p. 303, 1890. The American Naturalist [April,' Belding, L. — The deer of southern Lower California. West Am. Scientist, VI. p. 26, 1889. Cockerell, T. D. A. — Contributions towards a list of the fauna and flora of West Mountain valley, Colorado. IV., VI., Mammalia. West Am. Scientist, VII., p. 7, 1 890.— Twenty-three species. Stevens, F.— Land mammals of San Diego county, California. West Am. Scientist, VII., p. 36, 1 890.— Sixty-two species. 319 EDITORIALS. The American Naturalist [April, beach. There should, of course, be no such names as Naples, Berne or Leipsic in America ; but as they are there, it is a conspicuous gau- chene that scientists should seek to preserve them in nomenclature. Science is cosmopolitan, and the law of priority should apply to local names as well as to anything else. It is to be hoped that the time will come when a rule will be added to those in our code, that no name shall be given from a locality whose name had a previous existence in some other part of the world. —We have received a circular from a distinguished member of National Academy of Sciences which suggests that the number of members of the Academy be reduced to seventy. The number of one hundred does not seem to be excessive if we consider the probable future of our country, but an increase in the number is clearly inad¬ visable. The proposed reduction seems to us equally so. The change most needed is one which shall designate classes of members and thus keep deficiencies more clearly before the Academy. Four classes were proposed several years ago, with the following proportions: Of the 100, 35 to represent inorganic science (Sec. A); 35 to represent organic science (Sec. B) ; 15 to represent mental and mathematical science (Sec. C) ; and 15 to represent applied science (Sec. D). 1882.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 321 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. LEN, H.— Materials for a Memoir on Animal Locomotion. Ext. Rept. Muy- LEN, J. A.— Description . U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. s of Two Supposed ks on Hesperomys > XIV, pp. 193-195. malogy. .5,1891. Frc i de Historia Natural, June, 1891. From F. Ayres, H.— Concerning Vertebn IV, No. 2. From the author. Bendire, C.— Directions for Cc and Nests. Pt. D. Bull. U. S. Nat. Boehm, G. — Megalodon, Pachyei -Boletini Ihering and Herr Sebasti , G. A.- Sebas Cephalogenesis. Reprint Jour. Morph., Vol. :ting, Preparing and Preserving Birds’ Eggs s.. No. 39. From the Museum, la und Diceras. Mit 9 Original Holzschnit- Geographica e Geologic* do Estado de S. Paulo, count of the Siluroid Fishes Obtained by Dr. von rolff in tl ice Rio Grai . Proceeds. Royal College of Sur¬ ra the author. [oiti. Soc., 1890. From Easter author . g. UbereShli n Stockholms Hdgskola, No. 113- F ipeutic Study of HydraUii canadem Ext. Therapeutic GazeUe, May and June, 1891. From the author. XIV, pp. 337-346. Fro J, Afd. IV, No. 8. Meddelanden Ir A, D.— A Physiological and Thei Claypole, E. W. — On Pteraspi i Fish in the Upper Silurian Rocks of Nor i & l 324 t»LATE XIV. Fecundation and Development. 330 The American Naturalist. (general Notes. i. Hi! 345 ZOOLOGY. srS*8 I of the ! iiifflii liiRi SiflSIHiilKK Zoology. 351 from the Tertiaries of Northern Italy, containing milk teeth. A a these teeth showed a masked Selenodont structure it was urged that the specimen indicated the descent of the Sirenia from the Selenodont Artiodactyle Ungulates ; ” an exceedingly improbable suggestion. The American Naturalist [April, ENTOMOLOGY. PROCEEDINGS OF 358 SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 360 The American Naturalist. [April, : 6. The publication of an official bulletin instead of the costly Annales, which the Museum is reputed to publish. 6. The suppression of pensioned students and especially the residen¬ tiary canons. 7. Finally, the non-reeligibility of the director nominated for five years. $4.00 per Year. $4.60 per Year (Foreign). 35 ets. per Copy. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VOL. XXVI. May, 1892. 305 HISTORY OF THE MOAS. By F. W. Hutton. The Moas belong to a group of birds called Ratitae, to which also belong the Ostrich, the Rhea, the Emu, the Cassowary, and the Kiwi. They are all birds with rudimentary wings, soft fluffy feathers and adapted for terrestrial life. Professor T. J. Parker has conclusively proved that the Ratitae are descended from flying birds. The structure of their diminutive wings and the cellular character of their bones are evidence that the ancestors of the Ratitae could fly, but these flying ancestors must have lived a very long time ago, probably in the early part of the eocene period. That the Moas have been a long time in New Zealand is certain. In addition to the immense number of bones found in peat beds and river-alluvia of pleistocene age, remains have been found near Napier and probably also near Wanganui, which belong to the newer pliocene period. The bones of a small species of Moa, found two years ago under a lava stream at Timaru, are still older and probably upper miocene, while the Hon. W. Mantell found in 1849 a fragment of a bone, which probably belonged to a Moa, near Moeraki in beds of lower miocene age. The Ratitae are generally supposed to have originated in the Northern Hemisphere, and to have spread southwards into Patagonia, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. But if so, how could birds which could not fly manage to reach New 26 The American Naturalist. [May, Zealand without being accompanied by any Mammalia? Certainly they did not precede the Mammalia, and it is very unlikely that they should twice have swum across straits which were impassable to mammals — once from the Oriental into the Australian region, and again from the Australian region into New Zealand — and there are other reasons for doubting the northern origin of the Australasian Eatitae. The New Zealand Eatitae are smaller than any of the others, and make a nearer approach to the original flying ancestors ; and we should expect to find the smallest and least altered forms near the place of origin. Now there are in Central and South America a group of birds called Tinamous, which, although flying birds, have been shown by the late Professor W. K. Parker to resemble the Australasian Eatitae in many particu¬ lars, and as the connection between South America and New Zealand is well known, it seems more probable that the Moas originated in New Zealand in the eocene period, from flying birds related to the Tinamous, and that they spread from here into Australia and New Guinea, than that they should have migrated southward from Asia. In whatever way the Moas originated in New Zealand, it is evident that the land was a favorable one, for they multiplied enormously and spread from one end to the other. Not only was the number of individuals very large, but they belonged to no less than seven genera, containing twenty-five different species, a remarkable fact which is unparalleled in any other part of the world. Africa and Arabia are inhabited by but two or three species of ostrich ; South America from Peru to Patagonia, has only three species of Ehea ; Australia has two species of Emu and one Cassowary ; while eight other species of Cassowary in¬ habit islands from New Britain to Ceram. Outside New Zealand two species of Eatitae are rarely found living in the same district while a few hundred years ago there were in Newr Zealand several different kinds of Kiwi as well as the twenty- five species of Moas. An explanation of this problem may perhaps be found by examining the present distribution of the Cassowaries. Here we have eight species inhabiting five different islands, and if this region of the earth were to be History of the Mo 1892.] elevated, and the islands joined together, these eight species would mingle. If the region were to sink once more all of them would be driven to the highest land, and might all be crowded into one small island. Now we know, from geology, that New Zealand has gone through a series of changes in level, similar to those just mentioned. In the miocene period it consisted of a cluster of several islands, which were elevated and united in the older pliocene, and ultimately divided into the two islands we have now in the newer pliocene. If the ancestors of the Moas inhabited New Zealand during the eocene period they must have been separated on these islands during the whole of the miocene, and mingled together again in the pliocene. In this way — i.e., by isolation — probably the genera originated, but the species appear to be due to varia¬ tion without isolation. As is the case with most common animals, the Moas varied greatly and, there being no car¬ nivorous mammals to hold them in check, while vegetable food was abundant, natural selection did not come into play, and the intermediate forms were not strictly eliminated. Under such favorable circumstances the conditions of life were easy, and the birds got larger and fatter, more sluggish and more stupid. The oldest known Moa is one of the smallest, and it is the smaller species which are found in both islands ; from which we may infer that they were the only ones in existence when the two islands were united, and that the Moas since then increased in size. But the very large Moas were always comparatively rare. The commonest kinds in the North Islands were only from two and a half to four feet high, while those of the South Island were mostly from four to six feet in height. The giant forms, going up twelve and thirteen feet, were seldom seen. Throughout the pliocene period the Moas flourished greatly ; but in the pleistocene they must, in the South Island, have died in large numbers, for how else could such immense quan¬ tities of bones have come together in the peat-beds at Glenmark and at Hamilton in Central Otago. It has often been sug¬ gested that flocks of birds, attempting to escape from fires, rushed into the swamps and perished. But when we remember 364 The American Naturalist. . [May, that these Moas died thousand of years ago, long before there were any human inhabitants to light fires, it will be seen that this surmise is quite out of the question. Only two hypotheses appear to be possible to account for the facts. Either the birds walked into the swamp and were drowned or else their dead bodies were washed in. The first hypotheses is probably the explanation of the deposit at Te Aute near Napier, because many of the leg bones were found upright in their natural position. But at Glenmark and at Hamilton the bones were lying in all directions, as often upside down as in any other position, and the peat-beds were only a few feet thick, and filled with bones up to the very top. We cannot, therefore, suppose that these Moas were swamped, and there is evidence in both of these cases to show that the dead bodies of birds were washed in by floods. We find corroborative evidence of this in the alluvial plains of Central Otago, for these always contain numerous bones wherever a stream enters them from the hills. But how are we to account for th’e number of dead birds washed down from the hills ? There are two remarkable facts connected with these bone deposits at Hamilton and Glen¬ mark. One is the very large proportion of bones of young birds from one-half to three-quarters grown ; and the other is the absence of Moa egg shells. These two facts seem to show that the birds perished in the autumn or winter, when the birds of the year were not full grown, and when the females did not contain any hardened eggs. Also, it is evident that dead Moas could not be washed into swamps under the present cli¬ matic conditions, and the explanations of the puzzle must lie in the fact that in pleistocene times, when these bone deposits were formed, the climate was very different from what it is now. At that time the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit was very great, and when winter in the Southern Hemisphere hap¬ pened in aphelion, long cold winters were followed by short and very hot summers. It seems probable therefore, that the early winter snows killed large numbers of Moas and other birds on the hills, that their bodies were floated down 7 summer floods and avalanches caused by the melting snow, 1892.] History of the Moas. 365 and that they were deposited in hollows at the foot of the hills. As the pleistocene period passed away the climate became more equable and the surviving Moas once more increased and mul¬ tiplied, until they were ultimately exterminated by the hand of All are now agreed that the Moas were exterminated by the ancestors of the Maoris, and the only question upon which opinion is still divided is, How long ago was this? The case seems to me to stand thus. In the North Island there are several names of places in which the Moa is incorporated, but in the great number of Maori tales and poems which have been collected by Europeans the allusions to the bird are very slight and obscure, generally, indeed, fabulous. There is also one very ancient poem called “ The Lament of Ikaherengatu. ” in which the pharse “ Ka ngaro i te ngaro a tea Moa ” (lost as the Moa is lost) occurs, which certainly shows that the bird was not in existence when the poem was composed. The so-called traditions of its habits appear to be, in large part at least, late deductions from these words and phrases, and we must con- conclude that in the North Island, the Moa was exterminated by the Maoris soon after their arrival in New Zealand ; that is not less than 400 or 500 years ago. In the South Island there are no names of places contain¬ ing the word Moa, but here remains have been found — either skeletons lying on the surface or bones with skin and liga¬ ments still attached — which give the impression that the birds were living here not more than ten or twelve years ago. Now the bones which are said to have strewn the surface so abun¬ dantly when the first settlers came, had all disappeared in fif¬ teen years ; so it is plain that either some change in the sur¬ rounding conditions cause the bones to decay, or that none of the bones which were so abundant in 1861, were more than fifteen years old. But as we cannot believe that Moas were abundant in Otago in 1846, we must fall back on the opinion that the fires lighted by the early settlers to clear the scrub so altered the conditions under which the bones had been pre¬ served that they soon decayed, in which case we cannot say how long the bones may have been lying there. It is some- 866 The American Naturalist. thing the same with those bones which still have dried skin and ligaments attached. They are so fresh that, unless the birds lived a few years ago, they must have been preserved under specially favorable conditions ; and there are reasons for thinking that the small district of Central Otago, in which alone these remains have been found, is one specially favora¬ ble for preserving animal remains. If this be so we cannot say for how many years they may have been preserved, perhaps for centuries, and as we have every reason to believe, upon the authority of the Rev. J. W. Stack, that the ancestors of the Ngai Tahu, who have inhabited the South Island for the last 200 or 250 years, never had any personal knowledge of the birds, we must allow that the Moa has been extinct for at least that time. On the other hand, it is quite certain that the Moa was exterminated by the Maoris, and the Maoris are not sup¬ posed to have inhabited the South Island for more than 500 years, so that the time of extinction must fall between these dates. It seems improbable that the Ngatimamoe, the last remnant of whom inhabited the West Coast sounds a few years ago, were Moa hunters. The moa hunters of the South Island were not cannibals, and as Te-rapu-wai and Waitaha, the tribes who preceded the Ngatimamoe, are said to have been peaceful and to have “ covered the land like ants, ” it lends support to the Maori tradition that it was they who extermin¬ ated the Moa and made the shell heaps on the beach. If this be so the Moas were exterminated in the South Island about 300 or 400 years ago ; that is, about a hundred years later than in the North Island. — New Zealand Journal. Experimental Embryology. 367 EXPERIMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY. By E. A. Andrews. The accumulation of embryological facts and their applica¬ tion to problems of animal morphology from the days of von Baer to the period of Balfour’s text book of Comparative Embryology was carried on with ever increasing speed culminating in the present day when the revision of Balfour’s work by Korschelt and Heider assumes such unexpected pro¬ portions. Though the advance of descriptive embryology has been so great, the physiological aspects of the subject have been but little cultivated, partly to be sure, from the necessary dependence of such work upon the anatomical facts that were not at first available. Now, however, when the normal development is known for all groups of animals and com¬ parative embryology stands upon a firm basis, the application of physiological methods, the introduction of experimentation into a field promising much richer harvest than the study of adults can hope to yield, may be no longer delayed. Knowing the changes of- form that ova pass through to attain the adult condition may we not both eliminate such changes as are unessential and also press nearer to the solution of more fundamental questions by varying the condition of environ¬ ment and the physical state of the ovum or embryo ? Interference with the normal course of embryological phenomena was no doubt often brought about more or less unconsciously, or at least incidentally, by many of the older embryologists and remarkable results sometimes attained. Only, however, within the present decade have systematic researches been begun, definite and thought-out experiments devised and finally predictable results attained by workers in the domain of what may be called experimental embryology, though as yet the methods and the subject matter are so differently conceived by various authors and the question involved so overlaps the regions assigned to other branches of Biology that the term has at best but a vague and changing significance. The American Naturalist. [May, Some of the researches in this subject seem to be of such interest, though but beginnings and liable to be wrongly valued one way or the other, that a review of them here may aid in calling attention to a comparatively new line of research, one that is as yet in the limbo of pathology and thus excluded from zoological and embryological text books. Passing over numerous experimental investigations upon the hen’s egg, some of which appear to have resulted in the formation of definite, predictable monstrosities from localized interference with the embryo, we will mention only the work of Leo Gerlack1 who finally devised a movable window, embryoscope, that allows the chick to be observed and also experimented upon from time to time while continuing to live, at least for 13 days. With the aid of this instrument embryological problems such as the origin of the vascular system from parablast or from the primitive streak may be approached experimentally, by destroying the primitive streak for instance. By similar methods the author hopes to produce changes in embryos of several successive generations and thus strive towards the selection of important questions in heredity. It is the frog, however, rather than the cliick which has given more decided answers to physiological inquiry promis¬ ing to be in its early stages what it has become as adult, an easily accessible and not so excessively equivocable an oracle. Professor Pfluger,2 starting from the observed facts that frogs’ eggs taken from the uterus and thrown into water, float at first with variously inclined axes but after fertilization turn so that the black pole is uppermost and the white pole downward and that when cleavage takes place the first and second planes are vertical, the third horizontal was led to inquire what connection there may be between cleavage planes and gravitation. The method of investigation was simply to remove ovarian eggs with their gelatinous capsules and fix them by their own Embryology. Biol/^tb"e7"e1r^epp^^de,n Geb,ete der ^penmentalkn Zellen. f-Phys., 31.1883, pp. 311-318. Experimental Embryology. viscosity upon glass plates with the white ends upward ; then fertilize them artificially by sperm in so little water that the jelly does not change sufficiently to allow the egg to rotate as it normally would, but keeps it with the white side upward. In such inverted eggs cleavage takes place : moreover the first and second plane are vertical, the third often abnormal, often at right angles to the other two. This is true when the egg is much inclined or even hori¬ zontal, that is when the egg axis, or line joining the centers of the black and the white regions, is turned out of the vertical and the first and second plane no longer intersect at this line as they normally would. Later the neural folds often appear upon the upturned white pole and throughout this pole cleaves more rapidly than the lower pole, as is the case in a normal egg with black pole uppermost. An entirely different problem was also solved by the same method. Seventeen eggs fixed in normal positions and kept three days till the neural groove and ridges were formed, gave the direction of the median plane of the future frogs. The plane of the first cleavage furrow having been previously indicated by lines on the glass the eggs were stuck to, it was found that in twelve cases the median plane of the animal coincided with the first cleavage plane, in four it made an angle of 30°-60° and in one an angle of 90°. To return to the effects of gravitation: it seems from a second paper3 that normal larva; both of Rana esculenta and of Bovnbinator ignem were raised from eggs held inverted as well as some larvae partly white on the dorsal surface and not normal enough to live long. The medullary folds, normally upon the black pole, may be made to appear upon the white pole by inclining the egg axis. The author concludes that the egg is directed by gravity so that cleavage may take place in various planes of the egg according to the position of its axis with reference to the lines of gravitation or vertical plane. Moreover, these effects are seen later, the author thinks, in the origin of the blastopore 3E. Pfluger : Ueber den Einfluss der Schwere auf die Theilung der Zel'.en und aaf die Entwicklung des Embryo. Archiv. f. Phys., 32, 1883, p- 1-77. PI. 1-2. •sjs i •* ^^^.^raasrtst.i.-SEi: 372 The American Naturalist. cance of gravity as well as light, heat, magnetism in directing the cleavage processes from rotation experiment upon frogs’ eggs. Using a vertical wheel, revolving rapidly enough to produce centrifugal effect, about double that of gravitation, he found the eggs develop normally, though constantly present¬ ing their white poles away from the centre of the wheel and being thus acted upon alternately above and below, by gravitation. Having eliminated the constant action of grav¬ ity as a directive force, he concluded it was unnecessary for the appearance of cleavage planes and assigned this to causes within the egg. By numerous other contributions and complete devotion to a definite line of embryological research, this author has be¬ come as it were, the apostle of a new branch of embryology, Entwicklungsmechanik. Judging from the heterogenous char¬ acter of the 262, 384, and 277 works for. 1887, ’88, ’89, ranged under the above heading* as forming a separate department in Hermann and Schwalbe’s Jahresberichte we conclude that this term is by no means synonymous with physiological or with experimental embryology, but has a much wider applica¬ tion, including the last as one of its subdivisions. The first definite use of the term together with outlines of the problems to be attempted in this pre-determined field of work was made by Roux in 18857. We there find Entwick¬ lungsmechanik to be the science of the character and action of the combinations of energy which produce development. Also, development being the origin of observable multiplicity, there may be either read production of or merely transformation of non-observed into observable manifoldness. Epigenesis is then the actual creation of complexity : Evolution only the sensualization of latent diversities. The key to the causal knowlege of development lies in the determination of the relative value of two possibilities : self¬ differentiation : interaction with the environment. Self-differ* entiation of a system of part is the result of the energy of the system itself. Correlative differentiation is the change of * TW. Roux: Ent- icklungsmechanik des Embryo. Biologic, 21, 1885, pp. - Experimental Embryology . system from loss or advent of energy from without, provided these changes are specially determined by this outside energy. To determine what external forces might be at play in embryological phenomena he had thrust large pins into frog larvae, fastening them to wax under water, in the expectation that any electrical condition of the surface would be changed by the addition of a good conductor. As some of the tad¬ poles developed normally he inferred the electrical state of the surface of the body was not a determining cause in the pro¬ cesses of growth. In this work he found certain abnormal changes in the surface cells when death took place and subse¬ quently made use of these as a means of determining the con¬ dition of cells in early stages where there were no movements. The chief result appears, however, to have been the suggestion of a method afterwards very extensively employed. Thus as early as 1882 he thrust needles into frogs’ eggs to see if the protoplasm were arranged corresponding to the future differentiations, though recognizing the roughness of such attempts which he likens to the casting of a bomb into a factory, in hopes of drawing conclusions from the resulting changes in productivity, as to the character of damage inflicted. On withdrawing the needle point from an egg a mass of black, or black and white yolk exudes at once and may afterwards be increased. This eztraovate either remains con¬ nected with the wound by a narrow stalk or else separates and leaves no discoverable trace of the wounded spot. In extreme cases, one-fourth to one-fifth of the bulk of the egg may be thus lost, yet development may proceed. Regarding the effects of wounding we find, in general, a large number of eggs develop normally, though many em¬ bryos formed are weak and small, but there are many abnor¬ malities, some of which are like those often met with in eggs not operated upon, while others are rarely if ever found in nature. Operation at different stages produces results as follows : Injured before cleavage had begun the eggs developed abnormally in many cases, forming larvae with deformed 374 The American Naturalist. [May, heads, "absent medullary folds, etc. After the first cleavage the second plane often passes through the wound and after the second. 'cleavage one plane sometimes changed so as to pass through the wound now made. The resulting embryos often have circumscribed areas of deficient development. When injured after the equatorial plane was formed normal tadpoles were found amidst abnormal ones. Operations after the fourth, fifth and sixth planes have appeared show that injury to the black pole produces defects in the region of the medullary folds. Blastulse injured nine¬ teen hours after fertilization show fewer cases of circumscribed defects. In addition it is to be noted that the exuded part of the egg may undergo by itself, a sort of cleavage resulting in the formation of a mass of numerous cells. It thus appears that all the material of an egg is not neces¬ sary to form a normally shaped embryo: that rough me¬ chanical disturbance of the egg material does not produce complete irregularity in the subsequent arrangements of organs: that circumscribed injuries often produce circum¬ scribed defects and that about the same effect results what¬ ever stage of cleavage is injured. The author, however, does not know why the defects are sometimes absent, nor can he produce the same defect at pleasure, in different experiments. Yet the methods of injur¬ ing definite areas of the egg is made use of in referring the cleavage planes to the axes of the subsequent embryo. Thus when eggs in the two celled stage have the needle thrust into them in the black pole, at the uppermost part of the border between black and white, the egg being naturally inclined, a circumscribed defect appears posterior to the middle of the medullary folds, whence we see that the posterior part of the medullary folds were formed over what was the white pole and the third plane divides head from tail substance. But this question of axes and position of embryo will be dealt with later on in connection with other experiments. The gastrula also was injured by the needle, but with con¬ flicting results as to the circumscribed nature of the resulting defects. Deep cuts made into the gastrula yield the interesting result that each newly severed part may form its portion of the medullary fold separately. Development continued even when large tongue-shaped pieces were completely cut out. When the medullary fold region is cut lengthwise, a double-tailed monster was sometimes formed. Larvae with the medullary folds formed, completely cut into two, regenerate to the slight extent that an epithelial border may be formed around the rim of the wound. When cuts are made upon the ventral side the wound may heal over com¬ pletely. In all the gastrulae and later stages the wounds led to little loss of material unless continued into the yolk mass. No sub- sequents defects in ectoderm were found, the wound healing over or remaining open with no formation of new ectoderm from the underlying layer. When life continued, the develop¬ ment was often normal though tumors were found in some Roux sees in many of the above experiments evidence for the importance of self differentiation as a principle in embry- ology, and also emphasizes the self regulation there observed as the most essential common character of organisms. The interaction of the various parts of an embryo may fall under various heads not understood, but there are three chief methods insisted upon by Roux. These are functional adap¬ tation, struggle of organs, and mechanical mass correlation. This last factor was emphasized by Prof. His who laid stress upon the elasticity of the germ layers as an agent in bringing about folding, etc. Roux has, however, made experiments that tend to limit the application of this principle. Thus frog embryos cut into pieces showed no bending as would have resulted if there had been a tension of the surfaces. Again in a chick forty hours old the removal from yolk did not cause any gaping open of the medullary folds such as would be expected if lateral pressure had brought them about : in fact a younger embryo proceeded to form its folds even after removal, by self differentiation not by mass correlation evidently. PLATE XV. Jaeger. 2. Chilonyx Cope. 3. Pariotichus Cope. 4. Pantylus Cope. 378 The American Naturalist. [May, time of year, the latter part of the spawning season, some similar abnormalities were found in eggs that had not been operated upon at all. The various stages of abnormal growth were hardened, stained and sectioned. The results of such injury may be considered, first as relates to the uninjured and then to the injured half of the two celled stage. The single cell by side of the injured one develops in many cases into a half embryo, first a half blastula, a half gastrula then a half embryo with medullary fold, archenteron, chorda, mesoblast and metameres representing only half of the ndrmal condition of these organs. In the four-celled stage injury to both posterior cells some¬ times resulted in formation of only anterior half of medullary folds. Injury to three or to one of the cells resulted either in one-fourth blastulse or in the other cases three-fourths embryos. Finally injury above or below the first horizontal furrow gave rise to some cases of upper half blastulse. He concludes that as each of the first two cells may develop up to stage of medullary folds without aid from the other, there is marked self-differentiation and that the cleavage planes separate the material qualitatively and thus determine the subsequent position of the organs. The last experiment also indicates that the gastrula or embryo is a mosaic made up of at least four vertical elements or independent parts. Turning now to the complex phenomena that take place m the cell operated upon, regarded by Roux as dead, though evidently this is scarcely justifiable from its subsequent history we find three series of events taking place : 1st disintegration, 2nd reorganization, 3d post generation. In the first category are included, a vacuolation of the yolk, the appearance of a net work within it in places and the for¬ mation of peculiar bodies regarded as nuclei derived from the original nucleus of the operated cell. Here again we must not overlook the fact that some eggs found at this season do not develop but have similar abnormal nuclei. Only about one-third of the eggs operated upon and subsequently sec¬ tioned present these phenomena of disintegration. ] 892.] 379 Experimental Embryology . In all the operated eggs there are normal nuclei present in the half that was injured and these come in part from the original nuclei and in part by migration from the uninjured half, at least so the author concludes. These normal nuclei undergo further development and are associated with cell walls in the process of reorganization, the abnormal nuclei on the other hand collect in clusters and go to pieces. Where these abnormal nuclei and the vaculated nuclei are present reorgan¬ ization of the yolk is delayed for some time but elsewhere the yolk presents rearrangement of its granules leading to the for¬ mation of cell walls. Besides the formation and arrangement of normal nuclei and the reconstruction of the yolk there is a third process in the reorganizations, namely the growth of cells from the uninjured half over the injured half or at least over such parts of it as present vaculated yolk. All three pro¬ cesses may take place at once or separately. Post generation is the completion of the half of the embryo in which the above nuclear changes have regenerated the mass apparently killed by the injury of operation. It is externally manifested by the formation of a layer of pigmented cells over the operated half, the formation of the missing medullary fold which grows from before backward or of the posterior parts of both folds when we have an anterior half embryo. The com¬ plete tadpoles resulting are in part active, in part weak, easily killed creatures. The internal changes that take place in this post generation as revealed by sections are the growth of a new ectoblast and mesoblast into the previously imperfect cellular mass by a process of successive rearrangement and differentiation of the yolk cells, adding themselves to the edges of the advancing layers in such wise as to form parts symmetrical with those in the uninjured half of the embryo. The entoblast also is formed from the free edge of the entoblast of the perfect half by rearrangement of yolk cells and there is no invagination, no gastrula nor blastula cavity formed in this newly forming half of the embryo. The germ layers thus form by a sort of regeneration from the interrupted surfaces of the old germ layers, but as the material comes hum the new half of the Experimental Embryology. 381 esting facts and discussions regarding the axial relations of egg and embryo in the frog. In these experiments the eggs were put into semen for four minutes, then provided with a hair inserted into the gelatinous envelop as an index of move¬ ment and floated in a solution of gum arabic cohtained in a vessel of mercury that thus enabled one to see the reflected image of the under side of the egg. The eggs now take up a definite inclined position but subsequently, in 13 to 30 minutes change so as to stand vertically. Control experiments with eggs not fertilized show that the change in position does not take place as a rule. Hence fertilization is regarded as bring¬ ing about an alteration in the egg axes with reference to the lines of gravitation. The first cleavage plane would then pass through the egg in its secondary position which has been brought about by the entrance of the sperm. This led to the experiments previously reviewed, on the determination of the first plane by the plane of copulation of the nuclei. The validity of conclusions drawn from observations upon eggs in gum solutions is obviously, as Schultze has pointed out, very doubtful, especially when we find that of 47 eggs only 8 formed even the first cleavage plane and the inclination of these eight eggs in the gum was so obviously influenced by it, being 90°, 60°, 50°, 50°, 30°, 20°, 20°, 20°. In another part of this paper it is found that frogs’ eggs drawn out to double their normal diameter in narrow glass tubes assume a conical or else a lens shape, but cleave and at first transverse or at right angies to the tube, in the line of pressure. Again eggs in larger tubes wound about by wire through which an electric current was passing show no dif¬ ference from the normal cleavage. The same is true when the eggs are between the poles of a magnet. Incidentally it was found that the eggs left in the tube did not continue develop¬ ment unless close to the air, at ends of tube or next bubbles, the position of organs formed or at least the gastrula mouth has, however, no reference to the side whence the air supply came. With Pfliiger, Roux finds the first cleavage plane is the median plane of the frog, yet not without exceptions since the normal sequence may be interrupted and the first plane act- 382 The American Naturalist. [May, ually found separate the anterior from the posterior part and thus represent the normal second plane. Rauber2 it is to be noted, found somewhat similar irregularities. Thus in the frog the first plane in seven eggs made the following angles with the future median plane of the adult, 90°, 50°, 90, 85°, 0°, 82°, 90°. In the axolotl the same angles were, 80°, 53°, 90°, 50°, 90°, 30°, 90°, 2°, 90°, 90°, 70°, 80°, 32°, 90°, 90° .in fifteen eggs observed. Another point that appears to offer unusual difficulties to the experimentator is connected with the movement the egg per¬ forms after the embryo begins to form, which render the refer- f ence of organs to special regions of the egg by no means easy. Thus Roux3’4’5 and Schultze working upon similar material by similar methods arrive at very different conceptions of the re¬ lationships of the dorsal and ventral parts of the frog to the white and black parts of the egg. Roux holds that the medullary folds, that is, the dorsal re¬ gion of frog, appear upon the white or lower pole. This is seen when eggs are fastened in normal positions and is also inferred from experiments in which .injury to the black pole remains as injury to the ventral side of the embryo. The reason other observers find the dorsal area on the upper black pole is that the egg turns over so that the dorsal field floats upper¬ most. The blastopore first appears just beneath the union of black and white, the equator, and then shifts over while closing to the opposite side of the equator. Where the blastopore first appears arises the anterior end of the medullary plate and ex¬ tends across the white pole to the closing region of blastopore. All this is on lower side when egg is fixed, but the free normal egg turns upward so that the region of first appearance of blastopore rises and carries the head area into the uppermost pole where the black pigment was at first. {To be continued .) Ziir ersten Entwicklung des 1 b. vii, 1888, pp. 421-424. r. Roux : Zur Frage des b, viii, 1889, pp. 899-412. oches. O. ultze, Biol. Buies of Nomenclature. RULES OF NOMENCLATURE ADOPTED BY THE INTERNATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL CONGRESS HELD IN PARIS, FRANCE, 1889. Translated from the French by Moritz Fischer. I. Nomenclature. 1. The nomenclature adopted for organisms is a binary and binominal one. It is Latin or latinized. Each organism is distinguished by a generic name, followed by a specific name 2. In case varieties must be distinguished, the use of a third name is permitted, as : Corvus corax kamschaticus. 3. Since it would be wrong to write Corvus kamschaticus the insertion of the word varietas or its abbreviation var. between the specific and the varietal name is not essential. 4. When the word varietas is used, the name of the variety agrees with it as : Corvus corax var. kamschatica. If the word varietas is omitted, the varietal name agrees with the generic as : Corvus corax kamschaticus. II. Generic Names. 5. Generic names should consist of one word, either simple or compound, but always written as one, whether Latin or latinized. 6. Generic names may be derived from : (a) Greek nouns. These should have the correct Latin spelling as : Ancylus, Amphibola, Aplysia, Pompholyx, Phyrn, Oylichna. (b) Compound Greek words. In using these the adjective must be placed before the noun as : Stenogyra, Pleurobranchus, Tylodina , Cyclostoma, Sarcocystis, Pelodytes, Hydrophilus, Rhi- zobius. It is permissible to place the adjective after the noun as : Hippopotamus, Philydrus, Biorhiza. Names so formed are inelegant and should not be imitated. The American Naturalist. [Maj, (c) Latin nouns as Ancilla, Auricula , Cassis, Conus, Bolium , Metula, Oliva. Adjectives ( Prasina ) and past participles ( Productus ) should be avoided. (d) Compound Latin words as: Stiliger, Dolabrifer, Serni- fusus. (e) Greek or Latin derivatives expressing diminution, com¬ parison, resemblance, possession, as : Lingularius, Lingulm tig Lingulinopsis, Lingulella, Lingulepis, Lingulops, all derived from Lingula. (f) Mythological or heroic names as : Osiris, Venus, Brisinga Velleda, Orimora. Such names, if not Latin, take a Latin termination as : Aegirus, Gandulia. (g) Names used by the ancients as: Cleopatra, Belisarim, Melania. (h) Modern patronymics. These take an ending to indicate dedication. Patronymics taken from Latin and Germanic tongues retain their original Spelling including diacritic marks. Names terminating with a consonant take the ending^'tw, ia, mm as . Selysius, Lamarckia, Kollikeria, Mulleria, Stalia, Kroyeria, Ivanezia. Names terminating with the vowels e, i, o, y, take the ending us, a, um as : Blainvillea , Wyvillea, Cavolinia, Fativa, Bemaya, Quoya. Names terminating in a take the ending ia as : Banaia. Names ending in n or ean follow the preceding rule but take a euphonic t as : Payraudeantia. (i) Names of ships which take the same terminations as the mythological names ( Vega) or the modern patronymics as: Blakea, Hirondella, Challengeria. (j) Barbaric names taken from languages spoken by unciv¬ ilized races as : VaniTcoro. Such names must take a Latin ending as : Yetus. (k) Words formed by arbitrary combination of letters as: Fossarus, Neda, Clauculus. (l) Names formed by anagrams as : Vertusia, Lino&pa. 7. With patronymics consisting of two words only one of these is used as: Selysius, Targionia, Moquinia, Edwardsia, Buthiersia. Rules of Nomenclature. 8. In generic names formed from modem patronymics the particles are omitted, the articles are retained as: Sclyzius, BlainviUea, Lacazea, Lacepedea, Benedenia, Chiajea. This rule does not apply to modern patronymics in which the particle has united with the noun as Dumerilia. 9. The names specified in article 6, paragraphs f, g, h, and i, should not be used to form compound words. Generic names such as Eugrimmia, Buchiceras, Heromorpha, Mo biuspon gia, are not elegant. 10. Generic names already existing in botany should not be used in zoology and vice verm. A certain number of such names is now common to both kingdoms and does not cause serious inconvenience as : Balanus , Myrrha, Hagenia, Mirbelia. III. Specific Names. 11. Specific names, whether nouns or adjectives should con¬ sist of one word only. It is, however, permissible to use com¬ pound modern patronymics or compound words indicating comparison as : sandse-catarinse, zan-mayeni, comu-pastoris, cor-anguinum, etc. In using compound names the two words must be united by a hyphen. 12. Specific names can be divided into three classes : (a) Nouns and adjectives descriptive of a certain character¬ istic of a species (form, color, origin, habitat, use, habits, etc.) as cor, cordiformis , gigas, giganteus , fluviorum, fontinalis, edulis , pisdvoirus,Jlampunctatus, albipmnis. (b) Names of persons to whom a species is dedicated. These names must be put in the genitive. The genitive is always formed by the addition of i to the full name of the person to whom one dedicates as: cuvieri, linnei, cotteaui , muelleri, sebai , rissoi, pierrei. In case the -name applied is a given name or a surname which has been used and declined in Latin it follows the rules of declension as : plinii , aristotelis, vidoris, antonii, elisabethse, petri. (c) Names in apposition with generic names and consti¬ tuting a sort of prenomen as : leo, cord , hebe, napoleo, ardos , calcar. 386 The American Naturalist. [May, 13. A Latin adjective is best adapted for a specific name, it should be short, euphonic and of easy pronunciation. It is, however, permissible to use latinized Greek words or indecli¬ nable barbaric words as : hipposideros, echinococcus , zigzag. 14. The specific name must never be a repetition of the generic name as : Trutta trutta. In case a varietal name is used it must neyer be a repetition of the specific name as : Amblystoma jeffersonianum jefferso- 15. The prefixes mb and pseudo can be used with adjectives and nouns only, mb with Latin adjectives, pseudo with Greek nouns as: mbterraneus ,. subviridis , pseudacanthus, pseudophis, pseudomys. These prefixes cannot be used with proper nouns. Words like mb-wilsoni, pseudo-grateloupana are barbarous. 16. The termination eidos or its Latin form oides can be used only with Latin or Greek nouns. They cannot be used with proper nouns. 17. If the specific name requires the use of a geographical name this must be put in the genitive, or its adjective form must be used if it was known to the Romans or latinized by the writers of the middle ages. Used as an adjective it must be written with a small letter as : antUlarum, lybicus , segyptiacus, graccus , burdigalensis, iconensis, petrocoriensis , parisiensis. 18. All geographical names which do not come under the preceding category must be changed into adjectives following the rules of Latin derivation and retain the exact ^spelling of the radical if this has not been used in Latin as : neo-batavus , islandicus, brasiliensis, canadensis. 19. If from the radical of the geographical name two Latin adjectives have been derived as hispanus and hispanicus they both cannot be used in the same genus. 20. This rule also applies to common names as: Jluviorum, fluvialis, fluviatilis. 21. In transforming into Latin adjectives the names derived from the various languages using the Latin alphabet such as the Neo-Latin and Germanic tongues, the original spelling 1S retained and likewise all diacritical marks as: spitzbergen*** islandicus, paraguaymsis, paiagonim, barbadensis, faroensis. ^ 1892.] Rules of Nomenclature. 387 22. Geographical names derived from names of persons are transformed into Latin adjectives according to rules 18 and 19 as : edwardiensis, diemenensis, magellanicus. The name of islands such as St. Paul, St. Thomas, St. Helena, can retain their noun form but must then take the genitive ending as : sancti-pauli, sandst-helenie. IV. Writing of Generic and Specific Names. 23. The generic name must be written with a capital letter. 24. The specific name takes either ac apital1 or a small letter in conformity with the rules of spelling as : viridis, magnus, Cuvieri, Caesar. 25. The author of a species is he who : (a) First describes and names the same according to Section I. (b) According to the same section names a species already described but still unnamed. (c) Substitutes for a name not agreeing with Section I a name agreeing with said section. (d) Substitutes for a specific name used twice a new name. The name of the author of a species follows the specific name and is written in the same characters as the text ; if the text is Roman, the name of the species is in italics and vice versa as : La Rand esculenta Linne vit en France. 26. When the name of the author of a species or a sub¬ species is cited and abbreviated, the list of abbreviations pro¬ posed by the Zoological Museum of Berlin must be used. V. Division and Consolidation of Species. 27. When a genus is sub-divided the old name must be retained in the sub-division which contains the original type. 28. When the original type is not clearly specified the author who first sub-divides the genus can apply the old name 1The rale of the- American Naturalist is invariably to begin the specific name The American Naturalist. [M*T> to whatever sub-division he may select and this application cannot be changed subsequently. 29. The division of species is subject to the two preceding rules. 30. If in consequence of the division of a genus, a species is put into one of the divisions of the primary genus, the name of the author of the species must follow the specific name. Several notations are in use which we insert below in the order of their merits, taking as an illustration the old Hirudo muricata Linne, 1761, placed in the new genus Pontobdella by Leach in 3815: 1. Pontobdella muricata Linne. 2. P muricata (Linne). 3. P. muricata Linne (sub Hirudo. 4. P. muricata (Linne) Leach. 5. P. muricata Leach ex Linne. 3L A genus formed by consolidation of several old ones takes the name of the oldest of them. 32. This rule applies when several species are consolidated 33. When, in consequence of consolidation of two genera, two organisms, having the same specific name, are found in the same genus, the most recent receives a new name. VI. Family Names. * 34. Family names are formed by adding the ending idx to the radical of the genus serving as type. The sub-divisions of the family are named by adding the ending inse to the name of the genus serving as type. VII. Law of Priority. 35. The name originally given to each genus and species is permanent, provided : (a) The name has been announced in a publication in which it has been distinctly and sufficiently defined. (b) The author has properly applied the rules of binary nomenclature. — E. M. Museum, Princeton, New Jersey, ^oT* 14th, 1891. 822.] Record of North American Zoology. 389 RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN ZOOLOGY. Continued from Vol. XXV, p. 311. GENERAL. Biological Lectures, delivered at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hall in the summer session of 1890. 12°, Boston, 1891. Cockerell, T. D. A. — Additions to the Fauna and Flora of Jamaica. Jour. Inst. Jamaica, i, p. 81, 1891. Cope, E. D. — An Outline of the Philosophy of Evolution. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., xxvi, 495, 1889. Cox, C. F. — Protoplasm and the Cell Doctrine. Jour. N. Y. Micros. Soc., vi, 17, 1890. Dawson, J. W. — Modem Ideas of Evolution as Related to Revelation and Science. London, 1891. Fell, Geo. E. — The Influence of Electricity on Protoplasm. Am. Ins. Micro. Jour., xi, 169, 1890. Gaertner, F. — Vivisection. Am. Nat., xxv, 864, 1891. Hornaday, W. T. — Taxidermy and Zoological Collecting ; a complete handbook for the amateur taxidermist, collector, osteologist, museum builder, sportsman and traveller, with chapters on collecting and preserving insects by W. J. Hol¬ land. N. Y., 1891. Jeffries, J. A. — Lamarckianism and Darwinism. Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H., xxv, 42, 1891. Kellogg, J. L. — Wandering Cells in Animal Bodies. Am. Nat., xxv, 511, 1891. Kirsch, A. M. — Cytology, or Cellular Biology. Microscope x, 360, 1890 ; xi, 41, 65, 106, 140, 1891. Leconte, J. — Evolution : its Nature, its Evidences and its Relation to Religious Thought. London, 1891. Macallum, A. B. — Morphology and Physiology of the Cell. Trans. Canad. Inst., 247, 1891. Maynard, C. J. — Contributions to Science, vol. i, 1880-90 [1891]. 390 The American Naturalist. [M*y, Minot, C. S. — On Certain Phenomena of Growing Old. Proc. A. A. A. S., xxxix, 271, 1891. Mitchell, H. W. — The Evolution of Life, or Causes of Changes in Animal Forms ; A Study in Biology. New York, 1891. Osborn, H. L. — Heredity, its Part in Organic Evolution. Am. Mo. Micros. Jour., xii, 109, 1891. Shufeldt, R. W. — Where Amateur Photographers can be of Use to Science. Am. Nat., xxv, 626, 1891. Wilder, B. G. — The Fundamental Principles of Anatomi¬ cal Nomenclature. Medical News , Dec., 1891. invertebrata. Forbes, S. A. — Preliminary Report Upon the Invertebrate Animals Inhabiting Lakes Geneva and Mendota, Wis., with an account of the fish epidemic in Lake Mendota in 1884. Bull. U. S. Fish Com., viii, 473, 1891. Ganong, W. F. — Southern Invertebrates on the Shores of Acadia. Trans. Royal Soc. Canada, vii ; Sec. 4, 167, 1891. HoNifYMAN, D. — Glacial Boulders of Our Fisheries and Invertebrates, Attached and Detached. Trans. Nova Scotia Inst., vii, 205. - Two Cable Hauls of Marine Invertebrates. Trans. Nova Scotia Inst., vii, 260, 1889. protozoa. Linton, E.— On Certain Wart-like Excresences Occurring on the Short Minnow, Oyprinodon variegatus, due to Psom* sperms. Bull. U. S. Fish Com., ix, 99, 1891. - Notice of the Occurrence of Protozoan Parasites (Psoro- sperms) on Cyprinoid Fishes in Ohio. Bull. U. S. Fish Com-, ix, 359, 1891. Stokes, A. C, — Notices of New Fresh-water Infusoria. P*oc- Am. Phil. Soc., xxviii, 74, 1890. - Notes of the New Infusoria from the Fresh Waters of the United States. Jour. Roy. Micros. Soc., 1891, 697. 1 new species ; Trichototaxis n. g. 1892.] Record of . North American Zoology. 391 SPONGES. Dendy, A. — Observations on the West Indian Chalinine Sponges, with Descriptions of New Species. Trans. Zool. Soc. London, xii, 349, 1891. Kellicott, D. S. — The Mills Collection of Fresh Water Sponges. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Hist., v, 99, 1891. MacKay, A. H. — Fresh Water Sponges of Canada and New¬ foundland. Trans. Boy. Soc. Canada, vii, Sec. 4, 85, 1890. CCELENTERATA. Agassiz, A. — On the Rate of Growth of Corals. Bull. M. C. Z., xx, 2, 1890. Fewkes, J. W. — An Aid to a Collector of the Ccelenterata and Echinodermata of New England. Bull. Essex Inst., xxiii, 1, 1891. See Am. Nat., xxv, 995. McMurrich, J. P. — Contributions to the Morphology of the Actinozoa ; On the Development of the Hexactiniae. Jour. Morph., iv, 303, 1891. - The Development of Oyanea ardica. Am. Nat., xxv, 287, 1891. - Phylogeny of Actinozoa. Jour. Morph., v, 125, 1891. Smith, F. — The Gesticulation of Aurelia flavidula Per. and Les. Bull. M. C. Z., xxii, No. 2, 115, 1891. Wilson, E. B. — The Heliotropism of Hydra. Am. Nat., xxv, 413, 1891. echinoderms. Fewkes, J. W. — An Aid to a Collector of the Ccelenterata and Echinodermata of New England. Bull. Essex Inst., xxiii, 1, 1891, vide Am. Nat., xxv, 995. Ganong, W. F. — Zoological Notes. Bull. N. H. Soc. New Brunswick, No. 9, 49, 1890. Honeyman, D. — Nova Scotia Echinodermata. Trans. Nova Scotia Inst,, vii, 253, 1889. Ives, J. E. — Echinoderms and Crustaceans Collected by the West Greenland Expedition of 1891. Proc. Acad. Phila., 1891 » 479. The American Naturalist. PLATHELMINTHES. Graff, L. v. — Uber Haplodiscus piger Weldon. Zool. Anz., xy, 6, 1892. — Is an Acoelous Turbellarian. Hassall, A.— A New Species of Trematode Infesting Cattle. Amer. Veter. Review. 208, 1891.— Fasciola americana. Linton, E.— Notice of Trematode Parasites in the Crayfish. Am. Nat., xxvi, 69, 1892. - On Two Species of Larval Dibothria from the Yellow¬ stone National Park. Bull. U. S. F. C., ix, 65, 1891. ’ ^ Contribution to the Life History of Dibothrium cor- diceps, a Parasite Infesting the Trout of Yellowstone Lake. Bull. U. S. Fish Com., ix, 337, 1891. Ott, H. N. A Study of Stenostoma leucops. Zool. Anz., xv, NEMATHELMINTHES. T .^TfINSON’ Gr. F. — Note on a Nematode Leaf Disease. Insect Life, iv, 31, 1891. — Aphelenchus. Leidy, Jos.— Notice of Some Entozoa. Proc. Phila. Acad., 234, 1891.— None new. Stiles, C. W. — Notes on Parasites, III. On the American ntermediate Host of Echinorhynchus gigas. Zool. Anz., xv, ROTIFERA. Burn, W. B.— Some New and Little-known Rotifers. Am. Ins. Micros. Jour., xii, 145, 1891. ANNELIDA. ^NfEEWS} E. A. — Compound Eyes of Annelids. Jour. Morph., v, 271, 1891. 113 lS^^0^0^6 ^r£ans of I>iopatra. Jour. Morph., v, . °n the Eyes of Polychaetae. Zool. Anz., xiv, 285, 1S91. PLATE XVI. Record of North At Zoology. 393 - Report upon the Annelida Polychetse of Beaufort, North Carolina. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xiv" 277, 1891. Randolph, H. — The Regeneration of the Tail in Lumbricu- lus. Zool. Anz., xiv, 154, 1891. Shipley, A. E. — On a New Species of Phymosoma, with a synopsis of the genus and some account of its geographical distribution. Quarterly Jour. Micro. Sci., xxxii— iii, 1891. — Ph . wddoni, from the Bahamas. Treadwell, A. L. — Preliminary Note on the Anatomy and Histology of Serpula dianthus (Verrill). Zool. Anz., xiv, 276, 1891. Whitman, C. 0. — Spermatophores as a Means of Hypoder¬ mic Impregnation. Jour. Morph., iv, 361, 1891. — In Hiru- dinei. - Description of Clepsine plana. Jour. Morph., iv, 407, 1891. MOLLUSCOIDA. Davenport, C. B. — Observations on Budding in Paludi- cella and Some Other Bryozoa. Bull. M. C. Z., xxii, 1, 1891. Jelly, E. C. — A Synonymic Catalogue of the Recent Marine Bryozoa. London, 1889. MOLLUSCA. Beecher. C. E.— Lingual Dentition and Systematic Position of Pyrgula. Jour. N. Y. Micro. Soc., vi, 1, 1890. Brooks, W. K.— The Oyster ; a popular summary of a scien¬ tific study. Baltimore, 1891. Henchman, A. P. — Origin and Development of the Central Nervous System in Limax maximus. Bull. M. C. Z., xx, 169, Jackson, R. T.— Phytogeny of the Pelecypoda. The Avieuli- dse and Their Allies. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, iv, 277, 1890. Martin, H. N.— The Connection of the University with the Oyster Question. Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ., x, 59, 1891. 28 394 The American Naturalist. [May, Watase, S. — Studies on Cephalopods, L Cleavage of the Ovum. Jour. Morph., iv, 272, 1891. — Vide Am. Nat., xxv, 91.7. Apgar, A. C. — Mollusks of the Atlantic Coast of the United States South to Cape Hatteras. Jour. N. J. Nat. Hist. Soc., ii, 75. 1891. - Glossary of Molluscan. Terms, 1. c. 155, 1891. Bergh, R. — Reports on the Results of Dredging under the supervision of Alexander Agassiz, in the Gulf of Mexico (1877-78), and in the Caribbean Sea (1879-80). . . xxxii, Nudibranchs. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xix, 155, 1891. Cooper, J. J. — On Land and Fresh Water Shells of Lower California. Proc. Cal. Acad., iii, 99, 1891. Dale, W. H.— On Some New or Interesting West American Shells Obtained from the Dredgings of the U. S. Fish Com¬ mission Steamer Albatross in 1888, and from other sources. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xiv, 373, 1891.— Trophon cerroserms, Cancellaria crawfordiana, TeUina idee, Terebratilla occidentalis var. obsoleta, Buccinum strigillatum, B. taphrium, Mohnia fridei, Strombilla middendorfii, S. fragilis, S. melonis, Chrysodomu» ithius, C.periscelidus, C. phoeniceus , C. eucosmius C. (Sipho) hypo- lipsus, C. (S.) acosimus,C. (S.) halibrectus , Trophon (Boreotrophcm) scitulus, T. ( B .) disparilis, Puncturella major, Solemya johnsonii, Caliptogena (n. g. fam. Carditidse) pacifica, Lunopsis vaginatus, are new. Dean, Geo. W.— The Shell-bearing Mollusca of Portage County, Ohio. Am. Nat., xxv, 11, 1892. Ganong, W. F. — On the Economic Mollusca of Acadia. Bull. N. H. Soc. New Brunswick, No. 8, p. 3, 1889. - Zoological Notes. Bull. N. H. Soc., New Brunswick, No. 9, p. 46, 1890. Orcutt, C. R. — Contributions to West American Mollusca. W. A. Scientist, vii, 222, 269, 1891. , Pilsbry, H. A.— Land and Fresh Water Molluscs Collected in Yucatan and Mexico. Proc. Phila. Acad., 310, 1891. - Mollusca from Nantucket, Mass. Proc. Phila. Aca ■, 406. 1891. 1892.] 395 Record of North American Zoology. - Critical Notes on the Genus Tebenophorus and the recent literature relating to it. Ann. and Mag. N. H., vii, 184, Raymond, W. J. — Notes on the Sub-alpine Mollusca of the Sierra Nevada, nearLat. 38°. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., iii, 61, 1891. Rivers, J. J. — A New Volutoid Shell from Monterey Bay. Proc. Cal. Acad., iii, 107, 1891. Stearns, R. E. C. — List of North American Land and Fresh Water Shells Received from the U. S. Department of Agricul¬ ture, with notes and comments thereon. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xiv, p. 95, 1891. EDITORIALS. RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. '.’zzsz 400 The American Naturalist. [May, RECENT LITERATURE. jmwMmMmimimn •star PLATE XVII. General Nutes. 412 417 Ill 424 The American Naturalist. BOTANY. Zoology. 431 ZOOLOGY. 434 The American Naturalist before the year closed. Sir Joseph Fayrer brought forth some evidence, deduced from experiments, that went to show the poisonous nature of the bite of a Heloderm. Early in 1883, however, the matter seemed to be definitely settled for good, and all through the results obtained by the very celebrated experiments of those two distinguished physicians of Philadelphia, Dr. S. Weir Mitchell and Dr. Edward T. Reichert. After a most carefully conducted series of experiments with the saliva taken from living Heloderms, these authorities were prepared to say that it pos¬ sessed properties of an extremely venomous nature, killing pigeons and small mammals a few moments after they had received an injection of it hypodermically. Five years now elapsed with hardly a printed word appearing any¬ where upon the question of the poisonous or non-poisonous qualities of the saliva of one of these suspected reptiles. Then there appeared an account of the somewhat remarkable series of experiments made with the saliva of living Heloderms by Dr. H. C. Yarrow at the United States Natural Museum, Dr. Yarrow at the time being honorary curator of the Department of Reptiles in that institution. This investigator's methods of procedure were rather different from those adopted by Mit¬ chell and Reichert, but apparently they were conducted with equal care, and, strange to say, led to an entirely different result. Some eight or nine experiments upon chickens and rabbits went to prove that hypodermic injections of the saliva and bites of angry Heloderms were by no means fatal to those animals, and practically they always recovered from the effects of the same. After presenting the steps of his final trial, this author concludes his account with the following remarks : “ This experiment would seem to show that a large amount of the Heloderm saliva can be inserted into the tissues without pro¬ ducing any harm, and it is still a mystery to the writer how Dr. Mit¬ chell and Dr. Reichert obtained entirely different results. Were it not for the well-known accuracy and carefulness of Dr. Mitchell, it might be supposed possibly that the hypodermic syringe used in his experiments contained a certain amount of Crotalus obrorca venom, but under the circumstances, such a hypothesis is entirely untenable.” The following year Dr. Mitchell still adhered to ms original opinion, and undoubtedly does at the present time. Mr. Samuel Garman, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology ° Harvard University, next made some very interesting experiments, by allowing large and vigorous Heloderms to bite the shaved legs 0 438 The American Naturalist. EMBRYOLOGY.1 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Verhaltnissen.” The essay must reach the publication offic nomination of Dr. Maurice Bedot. $4.00 per Year. $4.60 per Year (Foreign). 35 ets. per Copy. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. VoL XXVI. JUNE, 1892. No. 306 CONTENTS. Thk Unionise of Sp Illinois. . . . ■r, Fulton County, V. S. Strode, M. D. RtC0(T Books and Pamphlets. Cebe*al Notes. Geology and Paleontology. — Fresh Water Diato- »aceons Deposit from Staked Plains, Texas— Is ^ecotherium a Member of the Chalicotheriodea? ~^eot#cal News-General . Aerology and Petrography.— Quartz and Feld- ^Incksions in Diabase— The Basalts of Cassel Rocks of the Piedmont Plateau— The Diorite PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. BINDER & KELLY, 518 AND 520 MINOR STREET THE AMERICAN NATURALIST Vol. XXVI. June, 1892. 306 THE CONTEMPORARY EVOLUTION OF MAN. By Henry Fairfield Osborn. The Cartwright Lectures for 1892, No. L1 In the past decade of practical research and speculation in biology two subjects have outstripped in interest and import¬ ance the rapid progress all along the line. These are, first, the life-history of the reproductive cell from its infancy in the ovum onward, and second, the associated problem of heredity, which passes insensibly from the field of direct observation into the region of pure speculation. As regards the cell it was generally believed that the nucleus was an arcanum into the mysteries of which we could not far penetrate ; but this belief has long been dispelled by the eager specialist, and it is no exaggeration to say that we now know more about the meaning of the nucleus than we did about the entire cell a few years ago. At that time the current solution of the heredity problem was a purely formal one ; it came to the main barrier, namely, the relation of heredity and evolu¬ tion to the reproductive cells, and leapt over it by the postulate of Pangenesis. The germ-cell studies of Balfour, Van Bene- den, the Hertwig brothers, Weismann, Boveri and others have gradually led us to hope that we shall some day trace the con- 1 Delivered before the Alumni of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, February 12th, 19th, 26th. 32 456 The American Naturalist. [June, neetion between the intricate metamorphoses in these cells and the external phenomena of heredity, and more than this, to realize that the heredity theory of the future must rest upon a far more exact knowledge than we enjoy at present of the his¬ tory of the reproductive cell both in itself and in the influ¬ ence which the surrounding body cells have upon it. These advances affect the problem of life and protoplasm, whether studied by the physician, the anthropologist or the zoologist, thus concentrating into one focus Opinions which have been formed by the observation of widely different classes of facts. As each class of facts bears to the observer a differ¬ ent aspect and gives him a personal bias, the discussion is by no means ironical, and it is our privilege to live through one of those heated periods which mark the course of every revo¬ lution in the world of ideas. Such a crisis was brought about by the publication of the theory of Darwin, in 1858, and after subsiding has again been roused by Weismann’s theory of heredity, published in 1883. This is the situation I have ventured to present to you as Cartwright lecturer, not, of course, without introducing some conclusions of my own, which have been derived from verte¬ brate palaeontology, but which I shall direct mainly upon human evolution. So far as theories need come before us now, remember that Lamarck (1792) attributed evolution to the hereditary trans¬ mission to offspring of changes (acquired variations) caused by environment and habit in the parent. Darwin’s latest view was that evolution is due to the Natural Selection of such congenital variations as favored survival, supplemented by the transmission of acquired variations. Weismann entirely denies the transmission of acquired variations or characters, and attributes evolution solely to the natural selection of the indi¬ viduals which bear the most favorable variations of the germ or reproductive cells. We must, therefore, clearly distinguish between “ congenital variations ” which are part of ourinhent- ance and “ acquired, variations ” which are due to our life- habits ; the question is, Are the latter transmitted ? The Contemporary Evolution of Man. 457 Significance of Anomalies. — At the outset I would empha¬ size the extreme complexity of evolution by a few words upon Variation, or in terms of medical science, upon anomalies. When we speak of a part as “ anomalous ” we mean that it varies at birth from the ordinary or typical form — it may be minute, as the small slip of a tendon, or large, as the addition of a complete vertebra to the spinal column. Wood has found that in the muscular system alone there are nine anomalies in the average individual. It is clear that the evolution of a new type, so far as the muscular system is concerned, must consist in the accumulation of anomalies in a certain definite direction by heredity. Thus the anomalous condition of one generation may become the typical condition of a very much later generation, and we observe the paradox of a typical structure becoming an anomaly and an anomalous structure becoming typical; for example, the supracondylar foramen of the humerus was once typical ; it is now anomalous ; the retar¬ dation in development of the wisdom tooth was once anoma¬ lous; it is now typical. _ The same principle applies to races which are m different stages of evolution; an anomaly in the white, such as the early closure of the cranial sutures, is normal in the black. Now the deductions of the Weismann school of evolutionists seem to be founded upon the principle “ de minimis non curat lex ; that we need only regard such major variations as can, ex hypothec, weigh in the scale of survival. Against this I urge that we must regard the evolution of particular structures, the components of larger organs, the separate muscles and bones for example, for the very reason that while in some cases they play a most humble role in our economy we can prove beyond a doubt that they are in course of evolution Minor varia¬ tions in foot structure, which are possibly of vital importan^ to a quadruped whose vei r existence may depend upon speed, sink into obscurity as factors : the survival of the modern The evolution of man in the most unimportant details of his structure promises, therefore, to afford a far more cruciM test of the Lamarckian « the pure Natural Selection theory, 458 The American Naturalist. [Jane, than in the domain of his higher faculties, for the reason that Selection may operate upon variations in mind, while it taxes our credulity to believe it can operate upon variations in muscle and bone. This is my ground for selecting the skele¬ ton and muscles for the subject of the introductory lecture. Nevertheless, let us review variation in all its forms in human anatomy before forming an opinion. Let us remember, too, that congenital and acquired variations are universal as neces¬ sities of birth and life; they are exhibited in the body as a whole — in its proportions, in the components of each limb, finally in the separate parts of each component, as in the divisions of a complex muscle. Thus the possibilities of transformism are everywhere. What is the nature and origin of congenital variations? Their causes? Do they follow cer¬ tain directions ? Do they spring from acquired variations by heredity? These are some of the questions which are still unsettled. But striking as are the anomalies from type, the repetitions of type as exhibited in atavism and normal inheritance are still more so, and equally difficult to explain. Therefore our theory must provide both for the observed laws of repetition of ancestral form and the laws of variation from ancestral form, as the pasture-land of evolution. Add to these, that for a period in each generation this entire legislation of nature is compressed into the tiny nucleus of the fertilized ovum, and the whole problem rises before us in the apparent impregna¬ bility which only intensifies our ardor of research. The anthropologists and anatomists have enjoyed a certain monopoly of Homo sapiens, while the biologists have directed their energies mainly upon the lower creation. But under the inspiring influences of the Darwinian theory these originally distinct branches have converged, and as man takes his place in the zoological system, comparative anatomy is recognized as the infallible key to human anatomy. For our present purpose we must suppress our sentiment at the outset and state plainly that the only interpretation of our bodily structure lies in the theory of our descent from some early member of the primates, such as may have given rise 1892.] 459 The Contemporary Evolution of Man. also to the living Anthropoidea. This is also the only tenable teleological view, for many of our inherited organs are at present non-purposive, in some cases even harmful, as the appendix vermiformis. From the typical mammalian stand-point man is a degen¬ erate animal ; his senses are inferior in acuteness ; his upright position, while giving him a superior aspect, entails many disadvantages, as recently enumerated by Clevenger,1 for the body is not fully adapted to it ; his feet are not superior to those of many lower Eocene plantigrades; his teeth are mechanically far inferior to those of the domestic cat. In fact, if an unbiased comparative anatomist should reach this planet from Mars he could only pass favorable comment upon the perfection of the hand and the massive brain ! Holding these trumps, man has been and now is discarding many useful structures. I refer especially to civilized man, who is more prodigal with his inheritance than the savage. By virtue of the hand and the brain he is, nevertheless, the best adapted and most cosmopolitan vertebrate. The man of Neanderthal or Spy, with retreating forehead and brain of small cubic capacity2 was limited both in his ideas and his powers of travel, yet he was our superior in some points of osteological structure. But the period of Neanderthal was recent com¬ pared with that in which some of our rudimentary organs were serviceable, such as the vermiform appendix or the pan- niculus carnosus3 muscle. These rudiments, in turn, are neo- genetic when we consider the age of the two antique sense organs in the optic thalamus, the remnants of the median or pineal eye and the pituitary body, both of which were undoubtedly present, and probably useful, in the recently dis¬ covered Silurian fishes ! 460 The American Naturalist. [June, I mention these vestiges of some of the first steps in crea¬ tion to illustrate the extraordinary conservative power of her¬ edity (which is even more forcibly seen in our embryological development), partly also to show how widely our organs differ in age. Galton has compared the human frame to a new building built up of fragments of old ones ; extend this back into the ages and the comparison is complete. Development, Balance, Degeneration. — It is probable that none of our organs are absolutely static and that the apparent halt in the development of some is merely relative, as where a fast train passes a slow one. The numerous cases of arrested evolution in nature are always connected with fixity of envir¬ onment, an exceptional condition with man, and we have ample evidence that pome organs are changing more rapidly than others. Adaptation to our changing circumstances is mainly effected by the simultaneous development and degeneration of organs which lie side by side, as in the muscles of the foot or hand ; in terms of physiology, we observe the hypertrophy of adapt¬ ive organs and atrophy of inadaptive or useless organs. This compensating readjustment, whereby the sum of nutrition to any region remains the same during redistribution to its parts, may be called metatrophism. It is the gerrymander principle in nature. In practical investigation it is very difficult in many cases to determine whether an organ is actually developing or degen¬ erating at the present time ; although its variability or ten¬ dency to present individual anomalies indicates that some change is in progress. I may instance the highly variable peroneus tertius muscle (Wood). The rise or fall of organs is so constantly associated with their degree of utility that in each case the doubt can be removed by a careful analysis of the greater or less actual service rendered by the part in ques¬ tion. Apart from the question of causation it is a fixed prin¬ ciple that a part degenerating by disuse in each individual will also be found degenerating in the race. The Contemporary Evolution of Man. 461 Degeneration is an extremely slow process; both in the muscular and skeletal systems we find organs so far on the down grade that they are mere pensioners of the body, draw¬ ing pay ( i . e., nutrition) for past honorable services without performing any corresponding work — the plantaris and pal- maris muscles for example. Of course an organ without a function is a disadvantage, so that the final duty of degenera¬ tion is to restore the balance between structure and function by placing it hors de combat entirely. One symptom of decline is variability, in which the organ seems to be demonstrating its own uselessness by occasional absence. As Humphrey remarks: “The muscles which are most frequently absent by anomalies are in fact those which can disappear with least inconvenience, either because they can be replaced by others or because they play an altogether secondary ro U in the organ¬ ism.” The stages downward are gradual; the rudiment becomes variable as an adult structure, then as a foetal struc¬ ture ; the percentage of absence slowly increases until it reap¬ pears only as a reversion ; finally the part ceases even to revert and all record of it is lost. This long struggle of the destruc¬ tive power of degeneration, which you see is essentially an adaptive factor, against the protective power of heredity is the most striking feature of the law of Repetition. (See Gallons similar principle of Regression in Anthropology). A careful study of our developing, degenerating, rudimen- tal and reversional organs amply demonstrates that man is now in a state of evolution hardly less rapid, I believe, than that which has produced the modem horse from his small five-toed ancestor. As far as I can see the only nason why our evolution should be slower than that of the ancient horse is the frequent intermingling of races, which always tends to resolve types which have specialized into more generalized types. Wherever the human species has been isolated or long period of time divergence of character is very marked, as will be seen in some of the races I refer to below To lighten the long catalogue of facts gathered from many authors, I shall frequently allude to haM, but will ask you consul it for the time as associations! rather than casual. 462 The American Naturalist. [June, Pouchet says : “ Man is a creature of the writing-table and could only have been invented in a country in which covering of the feet is universal ; ” he should have added the “ eating- table.” From the average man our fashions and occupations demand the play of the forearm and hand, the independent and complex movements of the thumb and finger ; the out¬ ward turning of the foot in walking. These are some of the most conspicuous features of modern habit. The Skeletal Variations.1 — In a most valuable essay by Arthur Thomson upon “ The Influence of Posture on the Form of the Articular Surfaces of the Tibia and Astragalus in the Different Races of Man and the Higher Apes,” 2 we find clearly brought out the distinction between congenital variations and those which may be acquired by prolonged habits of life. It is perfectly clear from this investigation that certain racial characters, such as “ platycnemism ” or flattened tibia, which have been considered of great importance in anthropology, may prove to be merely individual modifications due to cer¬ tain local and temporary customs. Thomson’s conclusions are that the tibia is the most variable in length and form of any long bone in the body. Platycnemia is most frequent in tribes living by hunting and climbing in hilly countries, and is asso¬ ciated with the strong development of the tibialis posticus. The great convexity of the external condyloid surface of the tibia in savage races appears to be developed during life by the frequent or habitual knee flexure in squatting ; it is less developed where the tibia has a backward curve and is inde¬ pendent of platycnemia. Another product of the squatting habit is a facet formed upon the neck of the astragalus by the tibia. This is very rare in Europeans; it is found in the gorilla and orang, but rarely in the chimpanzee. We must therefore be on our guard to distinguish between congenital or heredi¬ tary skeletal characters which are fundamental and “ acquired” skeletal variations which may not be hereditary. The latter 1F°r recent general articles see Blanchard, L'Atavisme chez 1' Homme, Rev. de Anthrop. 1885, p. 425 ; and Baker, The Ascent of Man, Proceedings of the Amer- *Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1889, p. 617. The Contemporary Evolution of Man. 463 are of questionable value in tracing lines of descent, if not actually misleading ; on the other hand, the teeth, as shown by Cope in his essay on “ Lemurine reversion in human denti¬ tion,” have distinct racial patterns and are reliable indices of consanguinity because their form cannot be modified during life. • The main features of present evolution in the backbone are the elaboration of the spines of the cervical vertebrae, the increase of the spinal curvatures, the shortening of the centra of the lumbar vertebrae and shifting of the pelvis upward, whereby a lumbar vertebra is added to the sacrum and sub¬ tracted from the dorso-lumbar series. Cunningham1 has found that the division of the neural spines in the upper cervical vertebrae distinguishes the higher races from the lower. The spine of the axis is always bifid, but the spines of the cervicals three, four and five are also, as a rule, bifid in the European, while they are single in the lower races. The same author shows2 that the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae are altering, by widening and shortening, to form a firmer pillar of support, with a compensating increase in the length of the intervertebral cartilages. In the child the vertebrae present more nearly their primitive elongate compressed form. With this is associated an increase, of the forward lumbar curvature (Turner);3 the primitive (i. e., Sim¬ ian) curve was backward; even in the negroes the collective measurement of the posterior faces of the five lumbars is greater than the anterior, in the proportion of 106 to 00, whereas in the white the collective anterior faces exceed the posterior in nearly the same proportion 100 to 96. The lower region of the back is also the seat of one of the most interesting and important of the changes m the body, namely, the correlated evolution of the inferior nbs, the lum¬ bar vertebrae and the pelvis— to which embryology, adult and comparative anatomy and reversion all contribute their quo of proof. In most of the anthropoid apes, and therefore pre- 1Ibid., 1886, p. 636. ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1890, p. 117. 464 The American Naturalist [June, sumably in the pro-anthropos, there are thirteen complete ribs and four lumbar vertebrae, while man has twelve ribs and five lumbars. Thus we may consider the superior lumbar of adult man as a ribless dorsal; not so in the human embryo, however, for Rosenberg1 has found a cartilaginous rudiment of the missing 13th rib upon the so-called first lumbar. Atavism contributes an earlier chapter in the history of this region, for Birmingham2 reports, out of fifty cases examined in one year, two in which there were six lumbars, and in each the 13th rib was well developed; this is an interesting example of u correlated reversion,” for as the pelvis shifted downward to its ancestral position upon the 26th vertebra the 13th rib was also restored. The other ribs are in what the ancients styled a “ state of flux ; ” our 8th rib has been so recently floated from the sternum that, and according to Cunningham,5 it reverts as a true rib in twenty cases out of a hundred, showing a decided preference for the right side. Regarding also the occasional fusion of the 5th lumbar with the sacrum and the unstable condition of the 12th rib, which is, by variation rudi¬ mentary or absent, Rosenberg makes bold to predict that in the man of the future the pelvis will shift another step upward to the 24th vertebrae and we shall then lose our 12th rib. The upright position and consequent transfer of the weight of the abdominal viscera to the pelvis may be consid¬ ered the habit associated with this reduction of the chest ; at all events, in the evolution of quadrupeds there is a constant relation of increase between the size of the posterior ribs and the weight of the viscera, until the rib-bearing vertebrae rise to twenty and the lumbars are reduced to three* It would be interesting to note the condition of the ribs in some of the large-bellied tribes of Africans in reference to this point. The coccyx has naturally been the center of active search for the missing flexible caudals. As is well known, the adult coccyx contains but from three to five centers, while the embryo contains from five to six. Dr. Max Bartels has made “ Die geschwanzten Menschen ” the subject of an exhaustive 1 Morph. Jahrb., 1876. ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1891, p. 526. *Ibid., 1890, p. 127. 4In the elephant and rhinoceros. 1892.] The Contemporary Evolution of Man. 465 memoir upon cases of the reversion of the. tail, while Testut records all the primitive tail muscles in various stages of reversion. Watson reports that the curvatores coccygia (-depressores caudse) only occur in 1 in 1000 cases. This suggests a moment's digression to consider the differ¬ ent phases of reversion. The 13th rib recurs by what Gegen- baur1 calls “ neogenetic reversion,” for it is simply the anom¬ alous adult development of an embryonic rudiment. Under neogenetic reversions many authors also include cases of the “ arrested development,” or persistence of an embryonic con¬ dition to adult life, such as the disunited odontoid process of the axis vertebra, which happens to repeat a very remote ancestral condition. I think such cases may illustrate a rever- sional tendency, although many cases of arrested development, such as anencephaly, have no atavistic significance whatever * More rare and far more difficult to explain' are the “ palaeogen- etic reversions,” in which the anomaly, such as the supracon¬ dylar foramen, reverts to an atavus so remote that the rudi¬ ment is not even represented in the embryo. The features of skull development are primarily the increase of the cranium and the late closure of the cranial sutures in contrast with the more complete and earlier closure of the facial sutures. So far as I can gather this seems to be another region where the white and colored races present reversed conditions; the early closure and arrest of brain development in the negroes is well known ; the later closure among the whites is undoubt¬ edly an adaptation to brain growth. In his valuable statistics upon the Cambridge students Galton says : “ Although it is pretty well ascertained that in the masses of population the brain ceases to grow after the age of nineteen, or even earlier, it is by no means the case with university students. In high honor men headgrowth is precocious, their heads predominate over the average more at nineteen than at twenty-five.” Many of the cases of arrested closure of facial sutures are reversional, as they correspond with the adult condition of 'Morph. Jahrb., Bd. vi, p. 585. ’Anencephaly, it should be said, is frequently associated with numerous reversions. The American Naturalist. [Jane, other races, such as the divided malar or os Japonicum. The human premaxillary, a discovery with which Goethe’s name will always be associated, is sometimes partially, more rarely wholly, isolated ; it is late to unite with the maxillary in the Australians, and has been reported entirely separate in a New Caledonian child (Deslongchamps) and in two Greenlanders (Carus). The orbito-maxillary frontal suture, cited by Turner as a reversion to the pithecoid condition, is believed by Thom¬ son,1 after the examination of one thousand and thirty-seven skulls, to be merely an accidental variation, without any deeper significance. The development of the temporal bone from two centers, observed by Meckel, Gruber and many others, is considered by Albrecht a reversion to the separate quadrate of the sauro-mammalia. This I think is in the highest degree improbable (see “ Limits of Reversion ”). The open cranial and ' closed facial sutures are apparently asso¬ ciated with our increasing brain action and decreasing jaw action ; in one case the growth is prolonged and the sutures are left open, in the other the growth is arrested and the sutures are closed. Is the lower jaw developing or degenerating ? This ques¬ tion has recently been the subject of a spirited controversy between Mr. W. Platt Ball,2 representing the Weismann school, and Mr. F. Howard Collins,3 supporting Herbert Spencer’s view that a diminishing jaw is one of the features of our evolution which can only be explained by disuse. Mr. Col¬ lins finds that, relatively to the skull, the mass of the recent English jaw is one-ninth less than that of the ancient British, and roughly speaking, half that of the Australian. He appears to establish the view that the jaw is diminishing. Closely connected with this is the evolution of the teeth,* how are they tending? This we will consider below. Variations of the Teeth _ Flower4 has shown, as regards the length of our molar series, that we, together with the ancient ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1890, p. 848. 2Are the Effects of Use and Disuse Inherited? Nature Series, 1890. sThe Lower Jaw in Civilized Races, 1891. ‘Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 1880. 1892.] The Contemporary Evolution of Ma 467 British and Egyptians, belong to a small-toothed or “microdont” race ; the Chinese, Indians (North American), Malayans and Negroes in part are intermediate or “mesodont,” while the Andamanese, Melanasions, Australians and Tasmanians are “ macrodont.” While undersize marks the molars as a whole the wisdom tooth is certainly in process of elimination ; it has the symptoms of decline ; it is very variable in size, form and in the date of its appearance ; is often misplaced, and is not uncommonly quite rudimentary (Tomes).1 Here is another instance where the knife-and-forkless races reverse our degen¬ eracy, for in them not only is the last normal molar (m. 3) large and cut long before the traditional years of discretion, but in the first two lower molars are found two intermediate cusps (Tomes)2 which are variable or absent in us (Abbott) ; moreover, in the macrodont races a surplus molar3 (m. 4) is sometimes devel¬ oped. Mummery reports nine such cases among three hun¬ dred and twenty-eight West Africans (Ashantis). As an instance of associated habit I may here mention that Dr. Lum- holtz, the Australian explorer, informs me that in adult natives the teeth are worn to the gum ; in the absence of tools they are used in every occupation, from eviscerating a snake to cutting a root. A tour of inspection through any large col¬ lection of skulls brings out the contrast between the sound and hard-worn molars of the savage and the decayed and little- worn molars of the white. Upon the descent theory the reduction of teeth in the pro¬ genitor of man began as far back as the Eocene period, for not later than that remote age do we find the full complement of three incisors and four premolars in each jaw ; now there are bat two remaining of each. Baume, a high authority, behoves he has discovered eleven cases of a rudimental reversion of one of these lost premolars4 not cutting the jaw. Not infre¬ quently both these missing teeth occur by reversion ! It is r macrodont tribes (Australians, Tasma¬ nians, Neo Caledonians), Fontan. *Odontologische Forschungen, p. 268- This i first [Jane, difficult to conceive of reversion to such a remote period, yet it is supported by other evidence. An embryonic third incisor has, I believe, been discovered. As long ago as 1863 Sedg¬ wick1 recorded a case of six upper and lower incisors in both jaws, and appearing in both the milk and permanent denti¬ tions; this anomaly was inherited from a grandparent, a striking instance of hereditary reversional tendency. We might consider that these cases of supernumerary teeth belonged in the same category as polydactylism or additional fingers, which are not atavistic, but for the fact that they do not exceed the typical ancestral number, whereas the fingers do. We owe to Windle1 a careful review of the incisor rever¬ sions in which he shows that the lost incisors reappear more frequently in the upper than the lower jaw (coinciding with the fact that the lower teeth were the first to disappear in the race) ; he considers that the lost tooth was the one originally next the canine, and concludes by adding our present upper outer incisor to .the long list of degenerating organs.3 He sup¬ ports this statement by measurements and by citing cases in which it has been found absent. Yet the reduction of the jaws is apparently outstripping that of the teeth, if we can judge from the frequent practice among American dentists of relieving the crowded jaw by extraction. We now turn to the arches and limbs. Flower has pointed out that the base of the scapula is widening in the higher races, so that the “ index/’ or ratio of length to breadth is quite distinctive. Gegenbaur associates this with the develop¬ ment of the scapulo-humeral muscles and the greater play 01 the humerus as a prehensile organ. In general, the arm increases in interest as we descend toward the hand, both in the skeleton and musculature, because here we meet with the first glimpses of facts which enable us to form some estimate of the rate of human evolu¬ tion. The well-known humeral torsion (connected wit British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, 1863. •Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1887, p. 85. ^ Tamer The Contemporary Evolution oj Mat 469 increased rotation) ascends from 152° in the polished stone age to 164° in the modern European. The intercondylar for¬ amen or perforation of the olecranon fossa is exceptionally well recorded ; 1 it is found in thirty per cent, of skeletons of the reindeer period ; in the dolmen period it fell to twenty- four per cent. ; in Parisian cemeteries between the fourth and tenth centuries it is found in 5.5 per cent. ; it has now fallen to 3.5 per cent. The condylar foramen, occasionally forming a complete bridge of bone above the inner condyle and trans¬ mitting the median nerve and brachial artery, is known as the “ entepicondylar ” foramen in comparative anatomy, and is one of the most ancient characters of the mammalia ; it reverts palseogenetically in one per cent, of recent skeletons, but much more frequently in inferior races (Lamb). In the wrist-bone is sometimes developed another extremely old structure— the os centrale. Gruber2 reported its recurrence at .25 per cent, approximately. This is a case of neogenetic reversion, for Leboucq3 shows that there is a distinct centrale in every human carpus in the first part of the second month, which normally fuses with the scaphoid by the middle of the third month. , . The divergence of the female from the male pelvis is an important feature of our progressive development; it is proved by the fact that as we descend among the lower races it becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish the female skele¬ ton from the male, for the pelves of the two sexes are nearly uniform. Here it seems to me is a most interesting problem for investigation. Arbuthnot Lane’s* views of the mechanical causes of this divergence, which are strongly Lamarckian, may be weighed with the theory of survival of the fittest, for a large female pelvis is perhaps the best example that can be adduced of a skeletal variation which would be preserved by natural selection for reasons which are self-evident. The third trochanter of the femur is believed by Professor Dwight, of *See Blanchard, op. cit., p. 450. ‘Virchow’s Archiv, 1885, p. 353. sAnn. de la Soc. de Med. de Gand, 1884. ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1888, p. 214. *Ibid., 1890, p. 61. 470 The American Naturalist. [June, the Harvard Medical School, to be a true reversion (one per cent.) in our race and not an acquired variation, as it is very frequently found among the Sioux (fifty per cent.), Lapland¬ ers sixty-four per cent., and Swedes thirty-seven percent.; like the condylar foramen it is an ancient mammalian char¬ acter. The foot is full of interest in its association of degeneration and development with our present habits of walking; the great toe is increasing and the little toe diminishing, causing the oblique slope from within outward which is in wide con¬ trast with the square toes in the infant or in the lower races. In many races the second toe is as long as the first, and the feet are carried parallel instead of the large toe turning out. If anyone will analyze his sensations in walking, even in his shoes, he will be conscious that the great toe is taking active part in progression, while the little toe is passive and insensi¬ tive. We are not surprised, therefore, to learn from Pfitzner1 that we are losing a phalanx, that in many human skeletons (41.5 per cent, in women and thirty-one per cent, in men) the two end joints of the little toe are fused. The fusion occurs not only in adults but between birth and the seventh year, and in embryos of between the fifth and seventh month. The author does not attribute this to the mechanical pressure of tight shoes because it is found in the poorer classes. He con¬ siders it the first act of a total degeneration of the fifth toe. Variations. in the Muscles. — The evolution of the muscles of the foot looks in the same direction. As you know, the large toe in many of the apes is set at an angle to the foot and is used in climbing. It is still employed in a variety of occupations by different races. According to Tremlett2 the celebrated great toe of the Annamese, which normally projects at a wide angle from the foot, is contempt¬ uously mentioned in Chinese annals of 2286 B.C., the race being then described as the “ cross-toes.” The long flexor of the hallux is apparently degenerating, showing a tendency to 'See Humboldt, 1890; also Nature, 1890, p. 301 . ‘Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 1880, p. 461. 1892.] The Contemporary Evolution of Man. fuse with the flexor communis : the abductors and adductors of this toe are also degenerating, the latter being proportion¬ ately large in children (Ruge). The little toe exhibits only by reversion its primitive share of the flexor brevis (Gegenbaur) ; more frequently it varies in the direction of its future decline by losing its flexor brevis tendon entirely. Two atavistic muscles, the abductor metatarsi quinti1 (always present in the apes), and the peroneus parvus (Bischoff), also point to the former mobility of the outer side of the foot. In general the bones of the foot are developing on the inner and degener¬ ating on the outer side, with loss of the lateral movements of the hallux and of all independent movements in the little toe. The associated habit is that the main axis of pressure and strain now connects the heel and great toe, leaving the outer side of the foot comparatively functionless. The variations in the muscular system mark off more clearly the regions of contemporary evolution, and therefore are even more instructive than those in the skeleton. Muscular anom¬ alies have, however, never been adequately analyzed. Even the remarkable memoir of M. Testut, “ Sur les anomalies mus- culaires,” is defective in not clearly distinguishing between variations which look to the future, those which revert to the past, and those which are fortuitous, for the author is strongly inclined to refer all anomalies to reversion. The law of muscular evolution is specialization by the sue- . • i _ j _ i hanna from me law oi muscuiai -r - * cessive separation of new independent contractile bands from the large fundamental muscles, while the law of skeletal evo¬ lution is reduction of primitive parts and the specialization of lDarwin: Descent of 33 Man, p. 42. 472 The American Naturalist. pedal locomotion ; while other muscles {e.g., those connecting the forearm and fingers) revert to a former simpler arrange¬ ment when the hand was mainly a grasping organ, and the thumb was not opposable. As in the skeleton, we find that muscular anomalies include, 1, palseogenetic reversions, or complete restorations of lost muscles ; 2, neogenetic reversions, or revivals of former types in the relations of existing muscles ; 3, progressive variations, which either by degeneration or specialization point to future types; 4, fortuitous variations, which cannot be referred to either of the above. Duval observes that the flexor longus pollicis repeats in reversion all the stages of its evolution between man and the apes, in which it is a division of the flexor profundus. Gruber and others have even observed the absence of the thumb tendon. This is true of all the new muscles. Of this Testut writes : “ Ne dirait-on pas, en le voyant s’eloigner si souvent de son etat normal, que la nature voudrait le ramener a sa disposition primitive, luttant ainsi sans cesse contre l’adapta- tion, et ne lui abandonnant qu* a regret Tune de ses plus belles conquetes.” Speaking of the hand, Baker1 says: “On comparing the human hand with that of the anthropoids, it may be seen that this efficiency is produced in two ways — first, increasing the mobility and variety of action of the thumb and fingeI^j . second, reducing the muscles used mainly to assist prolonged grasp, they being no longer necessary to an organ for delicate work requiring constant readjustment.” You have noticed the recent discovery that the grasping power of infants is so great that the reflex contraction of the fingers upon a slender cross bar sustains their weight ; this power and the decid inward rotation of the sole of the foot and mobility of the toes are persistent adaptations. Our grasping muscle, the palmaris longus, is highly variable and often absent ; like the plantans of the calf, it has been replaced by other muscles, and As insertion has been withdrawn from the metapodium to t e palmar fascia. In negroes we frequently find the palmaris 1Op. cit., p. 299. 1892.] The Contemporary Evolution of Man. 473 reverting to its former function of flexing the fingers by insertionjin the metacarpals. The rise of muscular specialization by degeneration is - beautifully shown in the extensor indicis, which, while nor¬ mally supplying the index only, reverts by sending its former slips to the thumb, middle, and even to the ring finger. Testut1 believes that the extension power of the middle and ring fingers has declined, as the cases of reversion point to greater mobility ; the extensor minimi digiti is distinct and highly variable (Wood), often sending a slip to the ring finger. The entire flexor group of the hand, excepting the palmaris, is apparently specializing. The demonstration by Windle* and Bland Sutton, that the origin of the flexors and entensors is shifting downward from their original position, is evidence of an adaptation to the short special contractions required of The abductor pollicis3 is also progressive and variable (Wood) ; the reduplication of its inferior tendon, which is sometimes provided with a distinct muscle, apparently pomte to the birth of a second abductor. The opponens of the thumb is well established and constant. Variability seems to charac¬ terize both the developing and degenerating muscles, the latter are apt to be absent ; it is rare that an important^ mus¬ cle, such as the extensor indicis, is absent, but such cases are le ^interesting to note that the lost muscles of the £ody are almost exclusively in the trunk or shouldered !*!™ arches, and not in the limbs. It will be rememteredthat he human shoulder-joint is exceptionally rigid, whereas in he quadrupedal state it was a factor in progresaron. Some of muscular reversions in this quadrupedal i!Tt^ 474 The American Naturalist. [June, atavistic coraco-brachialis-brevis (Testut), the epitrochleo-dor- salis (Testut), and pectoralis tertius (Testut).1 4 Centers of Variability. — As the literature is so readily accessible I will not multiply illustrations of the innumerable congenital variations related to human evolution. I call attention to several important inductions. First, there are several centers in which both the skeletal and muscular systems are highly variable. Second, that the most conspicu¬ ous variations, and therefore the most frequently recorded, are reversions. Third, that structure lags far behind function in evolution. The conclusions of Wood and Testut2 are that variability is independent of age or sex, of general muscularity, and of abnormal mental development. Wood found 981 anomalies in 102 subjects ; of these, 623 were developed upon both sides of the body, while 358 were unilateral. Of still greater interest are th'e statistics collected by Wood between 1867-68 in the dissecting-room of King’s College, upon 36 subjects (18 of each sex). These show that there are more anomalies in the limbs than in the trunk ; that anomalies are rare in the pelvis ; that there were 292 anomalies in the anterior limbs to 119 in the posterior ; that in both limbs the anomalies increase toward the distal segments, culminating in the muscles of the thumb, where they rise to ninety per cent, (mainly flex. long, pollicis, and abd. long, pollicis). These facts seem to prove conclusively that while variation is universal it rises to a maximum in the centers where human evolution is most rapid; here are Herbert Spencer’s conditions of unstable equilibrium. This has a direct bearing, as I shall show, upon our theory of heredity. Fortuitous Congenital Variations. — I have thus far con¬ sidered only those variations which apparently have a definite relation to the course of human evolution. There is an 1Qaain describes seventy anomalous muscles (Anat., Vol. I.) Testut describes a still larger number. *Op. cit., p. 760. The Contemporary Evolution of Man. 475 entirely different class of congenital variations which may be described as fortuitous or indefinite because they do not occur in any fixed percentage of cases ; they are liable to take any direction ; they cannot be considered reversional because they are not found in the hypothetical atavus, and there is not sufficient evidence to cause us to consider them as incipient features of our future structure. Some may not be truly congenital (i.e., springing direct from the germ-cells) but may be merely deviations from the normal course of development. I may instance the variations in the carpus recorded by Turner1 in which the trapezium and scaphoid unite, or the trapezoid and semi-lunar divide, or the astragalus and navicular unite (Anderson). The best examples of fortuitous congenital variations are seen in supernumerary fingers and vertebrae. The eighth cervical vertebra, bearing a rudimentary rib,2 is not a reversion because the most remote ancestors of man have but seven cer- vicals. In cases where a rib is developed upon the seventh cervical, however, the reversion theory is perhaps applicable because rib bearing cervicals are relatively less remote. The same distinction applies to polydactylism. How absurd it is to consider a sixth finger atavistic, when we remember that even our Permain ancestors had but five fingers. We cannot, however, class as purely fortuitous a variation which occurs in a definite percentage of cases presenting twenty-four different varieties, but occurring in the same region. Such is the much-discussed* musculus stemalis, a muscle extending vertically over the origin of the pectoralis from the region of the stemo-mastoid to that of the obliquus externus. Testut lightly applies his universal reversion the¬ ory, and as this muscle is not found in any mammal considers it a regression to the reptilian prestemal (Ophidia) ! Turner also considered it as reversional in connection with the panni- culus carnosus, the old twitching muscle of the skin, which plays so many freaks of reversion in the scalp and neck , this ^Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1884, p. 245. *Arb. Lane : Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1885, p. 266. *See Turner, Shepherd, and Cunningham: Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. 476 The American Naturalist. [June, view is negatived by the fact that this muscle is innervated by the anterior thoracic (Cunningham, Shepherd) which would connect it with the pectoral system, or by the intercostal nerves (Bardeleben). Although the high percentage of recur¬ rence in the sternalis in anencephalous monsters (ninety per cent, according to Shepherd) supports the reversion view, it is offset by the high percentage (four per cent.) in normal sub¬ jects, for this is far too high for a structure of such age as the reptilian prestemal. Cunningham has advanced another hypothesis, first suggested by the frequency of this anomaly in women, that this is a new inspiratory muscle, having its origin in reversion, but serving a useful purpose when it recurs, and therefore likely to be perpetuated. These fortuitous variations, as well as variations in the pro¬ portions of organs, play an important part in the present discussion upon heredity, for it is believed by the Weismann school that such variations, if they chance to be useful, will be accumulated by selection and thus become race characters. The Limits of Reversion. — There is such a wide difference of opinion upon the subject of reversions that it is important to determine what are some of the tests of genuine reversions? How shall we distinguish them from indefinite variations or from anomalies like the sternalis muscle, which strain the reversion theory to the breaking-point ? Testut,1 Duval, and Blanchard take the extreme position that almost all anomalies reproduce earlier normal structures, and that the exceptions may be attributed to the incomplete¬ ness of our knowledge of comparative anatomy. I may here observe that popular as the descent theory has recently become in France, neither these anthropologists nor the palaeontologists show a very clear conception of the phyletic or branching elements in evolution. If they do not find a muscle in the primates they look for it in other orders of mammals. Now, since these other branches diverged from that which gave rise to man at a most remote period, the dis- 1Op. cit, p. 4. 18#2.] The Contemporary Evolution of Man. 477 covery of a similar muscle may be merely a coincidence ; it is by no means a proof of reversion. The first test of reversion is therefore the anatomy of the atavus, and this is derived partly from the palaeontological record of the primates, partly from the law of divergence, viz., that features which are common to all the living primates were probably also found in the stem form which gave rise to man ; finally, from the comparative anatomy of the living anthropoidea. The second test is whether a structure passes the limits of reversion as determined by cases of atavism in which there can be no reasonable doubt. Two of these phenomena have recently been discussed, which seem to extend the possibilities of reversion back to structures which were lost at a very remote period. I refer to papers by Williams and Howes. Williams1 has analyzed 166 recorded cases of polymastism; he finds that supernumerary nipples of some form occur in two per cent., and that in all except four of the cases exam¬ ined the anomalies, tested by position, etc., support the rever¬ sion hypothesis. In the living lemurs, which form a persist¬ ent primitive group of monkeys, we find that the transition from polymastism to bimastism is now in progress by the degeneration of the abdominal and inguinal nipples, it is fair to assume that the higher monkeys also lost their abdominal nipples at a primitive stage of development, and therefore that cases of multiple nipples indicate reversion to a lower Eocene condition ! Howes2 has recently completed a most interesting study of the “ intranarial epiglottis,” or cases in which the epi¬ glottis is carried up into the posterior nares, as in young mar¬ supials and some cetacea, to subserve direct narial respiration. This has now been observed to occur by reversion in all orders of mammals, including the monkeys and lemurs. One case has also been reported by Sutton of its occurrence in a human foetus. This is apparently a human reversion to a structure much older than the age of the lemurs. The third test is the inverse ratio to time. It would seem, a priori, that the percentage of recurrence of atavistic structures journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 1891, p- 224. *Ibid, 1889, p. 587. 478 The American Naturalist [June, should decrease as the extent of time elapsing since the struc¬ ture disappeared increases. This law is apparently established in the case of the condylar and intercondylar foramina, and if we examine all the percentages which have been estab¬ lished, we see at once that they bear a ratio to time ; compare the relative frequency of the ischio-pubic (fifty per cent.), dorso-epitrochlearis (five per cent.), and levator-claviculse (1.66 per cent.) muscles with the periods which have elapsed since their past service. This is why it is so important to establish percentages for all our atavistic organs ; fuller statis¬ tics will not only bear upon heredity, but I can conceive of their application to the extremely difficult problem of estima- ting geological time. We must, of course, establish as a standard cases of congenital variation in which the frequency of recurrence has been steadily declining in the same race between two known periods of time — an available structure is the intercondylar foramen or supratrochlear foramen, as recorded by Blanchard, Shepherd and others. The reversional tendency is hereditary. There are many cases, both of reversions (as in the teeth) and indefinite varia¬ tions being hereditary, that is, reappearing in several genera¬ tions, or skipping a generation and recurring in the second. Summary. — There are clearly marked out several regions in the human body in which evolution is relatively most rapid, such as the lower portion of the chest, the upper cervi- cals, the shoulder girdle in its relation to the trunk, the lower portion of the arm and hand, the outer portion of. the foot. We notice that these regions especially are centers of adapta¬ tion to new habits of life in which new organs and new rela¬ tions of parts are being acquired and old organs abandoned. We observe, also, that all parts of the body are not equally variable, but these centers of evolution are also the chief cen¬ ters of variability. The variations here are not exclusively, but mainly, of one kind ; they rise from the constant struggle between adaptation and the force of heredity. Here is a muscle like the extensor indicis attempting to give up an old function and establish a new one ; it maintains its new func- The Contemporary Evolution of Man 479 tion for several generations and then goes back without any warning to a function which it had thousands of years ago. Thus the force of reversion strikes us as a universal factor. Now the singular fact about reversion is the frequent proof it affords of what Galton has called “ particulate inheritance.” When the extensor indicis reverts all the muscles around it may be normal ; therefore we are obliged to consider each of these muscles as a structure by itself, with its own particular history and its own tendencies to develop or degenerate. Thus it is misleading to base our theory of evolution and heredity solely upon entire organs; in the hand and foot we have numerous cases of muscles in close contiguity, one steadily developing, the other steadily degenerating. Reversion very rarely acts upon many structures at once ; when it does we have a case of diffused anomaly, some repetition in the epi¬ dermis or in the entire organism of a lower type. Yet in spite of reversion and the strong force of repetition in inheritance, the human race is steadily evolving into a new type. We must, it seems to me, admit that an active principle is con¬ stantly operating upon these particular structures, guiding them into new lines of adaptation, acting upon widely sepa¬ rate minor parts or causing two parts, side by side, to evolve in opposite directions, one toward degeneration the other toward development. I may now recall the two opposed theories as to what this active principle is : . The first, and oldest, is that individual adaptation, or the tendencies established by use and disuse upon particular struc¬ tures in the parent are, in some degree, transmitted to the oil¬ spring, and thus guide the main course of variation and adap¬ tation. ... , The second is that all parts of the body are variable, and that wherever variations take a direction favorable (that is adaptive) to the survival of the parent they tend to be pre¬ served ; where they take the opposite direction they tend to be eliminated. Thus, in the long run, adaptive variations are accumulated and a new type is evolved. The American Naturalist. «j i n il i| Hi il 'll il j 1 III S]l !lW I u ■m ifi mu 5 3 m I S A j 1 1 111 The Contemporary Evolution of Man. It is evident at once, from a glance over the facts brought for¬ ward in this lecture, that the first theory is the simplest expla¬ nation of these facts ; that use and disuse characterizes all the centers of evolution ; that changes of structure are slowly fol¬ lowing our changes of function or habit. But while the first explanation is the simplest it by no means follows that it is the true one. In fact, it lands us in many difficulties, so that I shall reserve the pros and cons for my second lecture upon Heredity. The Lamarckian theory is a suspiciously simple explanation of such complex processes. {To he continued.) Non.— Since thi* lecture was written I hare received copies of Topinard’s *‘L’ Homme dans la Nature,” Paris, 1891, and of Wiedersheim’s “Der Bau des Menschen als Zeugniss fur seine Vergangenheit.” The latter is full but not cntica . The American Naturalist. MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN AND THE LOWER* ANIMALS. By Alice Bodington. The science of Psychology is at last emerging from the cloudland of Metaphysics in which it has been enveloped from immemorial ages. Deep would be the folly of the man who would declare that we know what mind or consciousness really is, but at least we are beginning to understand some¬ thing of its phenomena on the physical side, and to recognize that even the human mind is a product of evolution. Whether an impassable gulf, of a rubicbn which can be boldly and safely crossed, separates the human mind from mind in the lower animals, is still a moot point with men of the high¬ est scientific repute. I do not for a moment pretend to approach the question from the high metaphysical point of view, but only to apply to the subject the same method which has so successfully been applied in biology ; to put theories on one side, until we have ascertained as many ordinary facts as possible. In biology the greatest triumphs have been obtained by the demonstration that ontogeny, the history of the individual, is a guide to phylogeny — the history of the race. And in exam¬ ining the history of the race, we find the development of the lower species of animals an invaluable guide in understanding the development of the higher species. Moreover if we wish to understand the peculiarities of domesticated animals, we must study the habits of their wild relations. These three guides we may take in studying the development of the human mind ; in the child we may study its ontogeny ; in the devel¬ opment of intelligence in animals we can observe the dawn of faculties which attain their supreme expression in man; and in the more primitive or savage races of man, we may see the germ which contained the nucleus of our civilization. Mental Evolution in Man and Lower Animals. 483 In the child, we find at the beginning of life a mental con¬ dition as low as that of a blind puppy or a kitten, showing two instincts only,1 of which one has but lately been revealed ; and no glimmerings, for many months, of reason. From this humble beginning, to the highest point which human faculties can reach, there is no break ; no point at which we can say “ here mind exists, where yesterday it was not.” Not only is the growth of the human mind gradual, but during its earlier phases of development it assuredly ascends “ through a scale “ of mental faculties parallel with those permanently presented “by the lower animals, whilst with regard to the emotions the “ area these cover in the lower animals is nearly co-extensive “ with that covered by the emotional faculties of man.*” The purely human emotions may indeed be limited to religion and the sense of the sublime. And if from the history of the individual, we turn to all we know of the history of the race, the evidence of a gradual evolution of mental faculties is the same ; from the rough flmt weapons of the drift period, to the era of polished stone; from nnlisbfid strmfi to bronze; from bronze to iron; from the stone, and thence to sucn “7 - - ied m the Parthenon, or in the Cathedrals of the middle ages we have similar evidences of evolution. And whatever pomt of view similar evidences 01 evoiuuuu. - ; , , . • . , _ _ +1^ humblest beginnings ; iThe instinct, pointing surely to an arboreal ancestry, by which a new 484 [June, on both sides. On the one hand though constant, and even rapid improvement, is a characteristic of certain races of men, yet there are numerous races whose improvement is either stationary or incredibly slow. They are to other men, what the Lingula, which has remained unchanged since Cambrian times is to other invertebrates. There are savages still in the age of unpolished stone; savages whose religion is the lowest fetich worship ; savages whose only refuge is a skin spread over a few sticks, and others to whom any kind of shelter is unknown. Some progress they have all made from the furry arboreal animal with pointed ears, but it has been a progress immeasurably behind that of the higher races of man. “ Rapid and continuous improvement,” in the words of Mr. Romanes, “ is a characteristic of only a small division of " the human race, during the last few hours, as it were, of its existence.” The wonder is that with articulate language, man should have improved so slowly. On the other hand it would be impossible to deny the great improvement which has taken place in the mental and moral qualities of the dog, when we compare him with the wolves and jackals from which he is descended. He has won for himself a tribute of praise from some of our noblest poets ; a tribute richly due to his devoted love and fidelity. Hear Wordsworth’s lament : Old household words in which thou hadst thy share, But for some precious boons vouchsafed to thee, Found scarcely anywhere in like degree. For love that comes to all, the holy sense. Best gift of God, in thee was most intense; A chain of heart, a feeling of the mind, A tender sympathy which did thee bind, Not only to us men but to thy kind : Yea for thy fellow brutes in thee we saw, The soul of love.” And Byron writes not less warmly: 1892.] Mental Evolution in Man and Lower Animals. 485 Who labors, fights, lives, breathes for him alone, Unhonored falls, unnoticed all his worth, Denied in heaven the soul he held on earth.” There can be little doubt that if other animals had been valued for their moral qualities, had these been carefully developed from generation to generation, they would have shown a like, or a greater improvement. The intellectual qualities shown by trained elephants, which in their youth have roamed wild through the forests, is so marvellous, that it is difficult to imagine or estimate what intelligence of the race might become after a few generations of cultivation. And the same remark applies to the acuteness of intellect shown in captivity by many apes and monkeys, which have been brought fresh from their native woods. What progress would creatures so intelligent, so teachable, so insatiably curious and so persevering make after a few generations of culture? But putting aside the great development in the psychology of the dog, we have in paleontology the most unanswerable evidence of the vast improvement which has taken place in the brains of mammals since Eocene times. In our own day the brains of the higher mammals show a great increase in the cerebrum, the part of the brain concerned especially with intellectual functions and its surface is greatly increased by convolutions. Gradually as we go back in geo¬ logical time the cerebral hemispheres are smaller, then they no longer cover the mid-brain, and the latter shows distinctly, as in reptiles and fishes there are of course no convolutions, and finally in the Eocene we meet with mammals, immense in size, but with the brains of reptiles.1 A faulty nomenclature has probably had a great deal to answer for in the tardy recognition of the intellectual powers of the lower animals. Ideas have been divided into “ simple ’ and “ general,” or into “ concrete ” and “ abstract.” It was impossible to deny the existence of simple ideas in brutes, but it was, and is, contended that they are incapable of abstract ideas. Mr. Romanes points out the existence of a wide terri¬ tory between simple and abstract ideas, and he proposes a Origin of the Fittest. Cope. 486 The American Naturalist. threefold definition of ideas to which he gives several names. It will make the question clearer if we take three of these names and speak of simple, complex and abstract ideas ; or of percepts, recepts and concepts. This definition can be illustrated by taking the word “star.” The recognition of one particular star is a simple idea or precept ; the recognition of a number of stars, or of bright twinkling objects resembling the shining of stars, is a complex idea or recept. So far the mind of the higher brutes keeps pace with the developing mind of man. But the next step carries us beyond the mental powers both of infants and of animals : neither can conceive the idea of a star as present to the mind of an astronomer. This is an abstract idea or con¬ cept, and is unattainable except through the medium of articu¬ late language. Where the child sees a twinkling spark, the astronomer is conscious of a flaming sun ; where, until lately, men recognized the symbol of unchangeableness, the astronomer knows he beholds stupendous worlds rushing through space at unimaginable speed ; where the Hebrew seer beheld “ lesser lights ” stuck in a solid firmament solely for the service of man, the astronomer knows that his eye beholds objects at a distance of millions upon millions of miles, objects whose grandeur throws our whole solar system into insignifi¬ cance. An abstract idea is in itself capable of containing a volume of knowledge ; its capacities have hardly any limits but that of the mind itself. Think only of the world of con¬ cepts contained in the words “political economy,” “verte- brata,” “ liberty,” “ Aryan Race,” “ mythology,” “ ethics,” and we see how far civilized man has outstripped, not only the lower animals, but the young of his own race and the savage; but the break is not at the minds of the lower animals. Rather there is no break, but a gradual evolution. We may take as another instance of simple, complex and abstract ideas the idea of one particular dog in the mind of the child ; the idea of dogs in general, extended to figures or pictures of dogs ; and the ideas of the genus “ Canis ” as pres¬ ent to the mind of the zoologist. The first and second con¬ ceptions are common to the young child and the lower ani- 1892.] Mental Evolution in Man and Lower Animals. 487 mals ; the third transcends the power of either. The exten¬ sion of simple ideas was amazingly illustrated by a little French child, who was warned not to touch fire and candles by the words “ Oa brule.” This idea she spontan eously applied to other shining objects. Her mother and nurse also amused her by hiding and saying “ Coucou.” Watching the sun set one evening the child generalized the ideas of shining, burn¬ ing and of hiding, by exclaiming “ Ca brule coucou.” A terrier has a very simple idea as to a rabbit ; to catch it and kill it anyhow and anywhere. But he also has a general idea of rabbits, as may be demonstrated by calling his attention to this idea if he is out for a walk, when a violent scampering, barking and digging for imaginary rabbits may be expected to take place. A dog formerly in the possession of the Arch¬ bishop of Canterbury had the habit of hunting pigs, and for inscrutable reason, always after prayers. After a time there were no more pigs to be hunted in the flesh, but at the word “ pigs,” the dog vehemently hunted imaginary pigs. Finally it was enough to open the door, without uttering a word, and the dog rushed to his visionary pig hunt A dog belonging to Mr. Romanes’ sister showed that it not only had an idea of men and women, but that it could recognize that which was like a human being and yet was not one. This dog showed the utmost terror at the appearance of three life- sized pictures. But instead of attacking them with tail erect, as he would have attacked a strange person, he “ barked vio¬ lently and incessantly at some distance from the paintings, with tail down and body elongated, sometimes bolting under the chairs and sofas in the extremity of his fear, and con¬ tinued barking from there.” When the faces of the pictures were covered he became quiet and contented, but resumed his frightened barking if one was uncovered. Gradually he became accustomed to the pictures, and after a time he was taken away from the house for some months. On returning, he was again much startled at seeing the pictures, and rushed at them barking. Very quickly though he appears to have reasoned that he had seen these strange things— that were and were not — men and women, before, and that they had proved 34 The American Naturalist. [June, harmless, for “ after three or four barks he ran back to me “ with the same apologetic manner he has when he has barked “ at a well-known friend by mistake.”1 If we arbitrarily confine the definition of “ reason ” to the power of putting our ideas into words, then of course animals must be denied the faculty of reason as they do not possess that of articulate speech. But if to “ reason ” be to form ideas in the mind ; to class them together ; to be influenced by them ; to act upon them, then animals possess reason. And the extent of reasoning faculty depends upon the development of the brain ; on its comparative richness in convolutions, and on its cultivation by education in animals as well as in men. The difference in degree is enormous, but differences in degree do not destroy homologies in zoological classification. An elephant’s nose is still a nose though it is prodigiously elongated, and serves as a tactile and prehensile organ. It is not that man has one particular organ highly specialized; immense numbers of animals have organs highly specialized ; the foot of the horse ; the fore limbs of the bat ; the whole skeleton of the whale are conspicuous instances. In man the specialization has been in the brain, and this has made him the master of creation, but the difference between the brain of man and of apes is not so great as the difference between the foot of the horse and that of the elephant. Yet the difference being not between foot and foot, but in the very organ of thought itself, the effect is incalculable ip producing superiority of the one animal over the other. It has been asserted that we can form no general ideas without words. It is true that we so commonly put our ideas into words, that we may be tempted to identify the one with the other. But deaf mutes who have been educated have related their mental experiences when untrained, and they describe themselves as “ thinking in pictures.” I have had a similar experience in meeting with two plants in the forest of British Columbia ; one attaining almost to the dimensions of a forest tree ; the other no larger than our wood anemone, yet agreeing exactly in the botanical peculiarity of their Romanes, Animal Intelligence, p. 456. 489 flowers. I know now that these plants belong to the genus Comus, but I did not ascertain this fact for many months, and in the mean time I thought of these plants in pictures in which I was vividly conscious of their peculiarities. And where the mind is unable to avail itself of articulate language, this faculty of thinking in pictures may be carried to a point far beyond what we may imagine credible ; just as the tying of knots in strings in a particular fashion served as whole books of history to the Peruvian Indians who were unac¬ quainted with writing. Moreover though unable themselves to employ articulate language, the higher animals have the mental advantage of being able to understand and remember spoken words. It is estimated that the more intelligent elephants in government employ in India and Ceylon understand more than eighty words and phrases addressed to them by their keepers. This statement is the more credible when we con¬ sider the diversity of occupations in which trained elephants are engaged. The most striking instance I know of bearing on the reasoning powers of these sagacious animals is given in Mr. Romanes’ work on Animal Intelligence,1 on the authority of Mr. Bingley. . “ In the last war in India a young elephant received a violent wound in its head, the pain of which rendered it so frantic and ungovernable that it was found impossible to per¬ suade the animal to have the part dressed. Whenever any one approached, it ran off with fury, and would suffer no person to come within several yards of it. The man who had care of it at length hit upon a contrivance for securing it. By a few words and signs he gave the mother of the animal suffi¬ cient intelligence of what was wanted ; the sensible creature immediately seized her young one with her trunk, and held n, firmly down, though groaning with agony, while the s geon completely dressed the wound; and she continued to perform this service until the animal was perfectly recovered.” When we consider the passionate devotion of the female elephant to her young one, and the fury with 1 Animal Intelligence. International Scientific Senes, p. 399- 490 The American Naturalist. [June, which she will defend it from injury or danger, it is almost impossible to admire too highly, the reasoning powers, the self-control, and the intelligent comprehension of words by this mother, under circumstances which would severely try all these qualities in a human parent. It is well-known that elephants patiently, and even gratefully endure painful opera¬ tions performed on their own persons, such as the cutting open and dressing of deep ulcers, and the dropping of nitric acid in the eye. Yet the same animal would deeply resent the slightest intentional injury, such as the prick of a pin, and would lose no opportunity of revenge. The account of the extraordinary intelligence shown by the trained elephant “ Siribeddi ” in the capture of wild elephants, is too long to be given here but will richly repay perusal. [Animal Intelligence, p. 402]. Her comprehension of everything required of her; her original ideas of what should be done on the spur of the moment ; her intense enjoyment of the sport ; her Delilah-like duplicity towards her male captives; her extreme care to avoid injuring the prisoners ; all show an intelligence not below that of a human hunter, whilst in her care to avoid injuring her captives, she puts the human hunter to shame. In the parrot, low as it is in the psychological scale, com¬ pared to the higher mammals, we have examples of the com¬ prehension of words uttered by the animal itself. Mr. Darwin gives an instance of a parrot belonging to the father of Admiral Sir J. Sullivan, which invariably called certain persons of the household, as well as visitors, by their names. He said “ good morning ” to everyone at breakfast, and “ good night” to each as they left the room at night, and never reversed their salutations. To his master he used to add to the “ good morning ” a short sentence, never repeated after his master’s death. He scolded a parrot which had got out of its cage and was eating apples on the kitchen table, calling it “ you naughty Polly.” Similar instances of the proper appli¬ cation of spoken words could be indefinitely multiplied, but will only quote the account given by Dr. Samuel Wilkes Mental Evolution in Man and Lower Animate. 491 F. R. S. of his own parrot, which he carefully observed.1 He says that when alone this bird used to “ utter a long catalogue of its sayings, more especially if lit heard talking in the dis¬ tance, as if wishing to join in the conversation, but at other times a particular word or phrase is only spoken when sug¬ gested by a person or object. Thus, certain friends who have addressed this bird frequently by some peculiar expression, or the whistling of an air, will always be welcomed by the same words or tune, and as regards myself, when I enter the house — for my foot-step is recognized — the bird will repeat one of my sayings. My coachman coming for orders has so often been told ‘ half-past two,’ that no sooner does he come to the door than Poll exclaims ‘half past two!’ Having found her awake at night I have said ‘ go to sleep ’ and now if I approach the cage after dark the same words are repeated. Then as regards objects, if certain words have been spoken in connection with them , these are ever after assocwted together. for example, at dinner time the parrot, having been accus¬ tomed to have savory morsels given to her, I taught her to say ‘give me a bit.’ This she now constantly repeats, but only and appropriately at dinner time. The bird associates the expression with something to eat. Again being very fond of cheese, she easily picked up the word, and always asks for cheese at the end of the dinner course and at no other time. She is also fond of nuts, and when these areon the table she utters a peculiar squeak : this she has not been taught, but it is Poll’s own name for nute for the sound is never heard until the fruit is in sight Some no«es which she utters have been obtained from the objects themselves, as that of a corkscrew at the sight of a bottle o wine noise of water poured into a tumbler, on seeing a bottle of water. The parage of the servant down the halltoopenthe hall door, suggests a noise of moving hinges, followed by a loud whistle for a cab.” , , , No animal hitherto under observation in E“|la“d- h“ shown a more remarkable comprehension of spoken words than the Chimpanzee lately in the Zoological Gardens, Romanes, Mental Evolution in Man, p. 131. 492 The American Naturalist. [June, London. This ape learned from her keeper so many words and phrases, that in this respect she resembled a child shortly before it begins to speak. Moreover it was not only particular words and phrases which she thus learnt to understand, but, to a large extent, “ she understands the combination of these words and phrases into sentences, so that the keeper is able to explain to the animal what it is he expects her to do. For example she will push a straw through any particular mesh in the net-work of her cage which he indicates by such phrases as ‘the one nearest your foot: now the one next the key-hole ; now the one above the bar/ etc., etc. Of course there is no pointing to the places thus verbally desig¬ nated, nor is any order observed in the designation. The animal understands what is meant by the words alone, and this even when a particular mesh is named by the keeper remarking to her the accident of its having a piece of straw already attached to it.” This Chimpanzee could also count correctly as far as five. She was asked for two straws, five straws, one straw, etc., no order being observed in the requests. If she were asked for four straws she successively picked up three straws and put them in her mouth, then she picked up the fourth and handed over all the four together; the ape having been taught, if more than one straw were asked for, to hold the others in her mouth until the sum was completed. The Crow is little behind the Chimpanzee in arithmetical genius if Monsieur Leroy Ranger at Versailles is to be trusted, and as his life-work consisted in watching the wild and tame animals of the royal domain, he was hardly likely to be deceived. He says “ crows will not return to their nests dur- day-light, if they see anyone waiting to shoot them. If t° lull suspicion a hut is made below the rookery, and a man conceals himself in it with a gun, he waits in vain if the bird has ever before been shot at in a similar manner. She knows that fire will issue from the cave into which she saw the man enter. To deceive these suspicious birds, the plan was hit upon of sending two men into the watch-house, one of whom passed on, whilst the other remained. But the crow counted and kept her distance. The next day three went, Mental Evolution in Man and Lower Animals . 493 and again she perceived that only two returned. In fine it was found necessary to send five or six men to the watch- house, in order to put her out of her calculations.” The ape and the crow here contrast advantageously with savages who can only count up to one and two, and with the Dammaras who apparently can count only one. In buying sheep from a Dammara one must pay for each sheep separately, for if a stick of tobacco is the price agreed on for a sheep, it would sorely puzzle the simple savage to take two sheep and give him two sticks.1 One stick must be paid for each sheep separately. Of the intelligence of the special friend of man in the under¬ standing of spoken words innumerable instances could be given, and many will, no doubt, recur to the mind of any person who has ever owned or watched a dog. Hogg the “ Ettrick Shepherd ” had a collie who understood most things his master said to him. On one occasion Hogg observed in the most natural tone possible. “I’m thinking the cow’s in the potatoes.” Immediately the dog, which had been lying half asleep on the floor, jumped up, ran into the potato field, round the house, and up the roof to take a survey; but find¬ ing no cow in the potatoes, lay down again. Some little time afterwards his master said in a tone of conviction : “ I’m sure the cow’s in the potatoes,” when the same scene was repeated. But on trying it a third time, the dog only wagged its tail. I had a rough terrier named “Butts” which had, like most dogs, a horror of a bath. If the fatal words “ Butts must be washed,” or “Butts must have a bath” were uttered m his presence, he would like the “Snark” slowly and silently vanish away, and would be found— if found at all— cowering under the remotest of beds, trembling with apprehension. From the comprehension of spoken words, (with their rnnta- “Peter,” who undoubtedly understands spoken words, and not only spec,a^t Certain words uttered by complete strangers to Peter result in is per onnam certain actions, snob as •‘djingfor his Queen, fetching slippers, sbutnng die walking and jumping through a hoop, etc., etc. The og’s w o e ace i 494 The American Naturalist . tive use by parrots) we come to the question of the origin of language. Did it spring from the human mind, ready equipped for all uses, like Minerva from the brain of Jove? Or was its origin as simple and as humble, as evolution has shown the early beginnings of other things to be? In studying the evidence for mental evolution supplied by language, it is essential to begin with the most primitive forms known to us. Instead therefore of having recourse to Sanskrit and kindred Aryan languages, the product of the mental processes of the highest race of man, we must examine the forms of speech of primitive people, and of semi-civilized and savage tribes. Here again ontogeny may take us further and deeper than phylogeny, and problems which have puzzled the learned may find their solution in the nursery. The dawning wishes and desires of an infant are expressed by indeterminate movements of the legs and arms. A vigorous kicking of the legs will express the joy of a healthy baby at being taken from a place of which it is tired* to a fresh room, or out-of-doors. Perhaps the first determinate movement that can be noticed is the forward movement of the arms with the hope of being taken by father, mother, or nurse, and the next, the stretching out of the hands for some coveted object, both occurring very early in a healthy baby. The frustration of these desires, as most of us know to our cost, is accompanied by most piercing vocal demonstrations indicating pain, anger, or disappointment. I cannot help regarding these vocal demonstrations as survivals from the mode of expressing him¬ self “ Homo alalus.” And if Miocene man roared and screamed as lustily in proportion to his size, as does our modern baby, the din must have been truly appalling, and calculated to strike terror into the heart of the Mastodon himself. {To he continued.) 18V2.] Unionidce of Spoon River. 495 THE UNIONID.E OF SPOON RIVER, FULTON COUNTY, ILLINOIS. By W. S. Strode, M. D.1 This report or review of the Unionidae of Fulton County, Illinois, is based mainly on researches made on Spoon River, a tributary of the Illinois and at a point about twenty miles from its mouth. It is a sinuous, winding stream, someth ing over 100 miles long and with a width varying from 100 to 150 feet. The valley through which it courses averages about one mile in width. In many places cultivated fields come up to the very banks of the stream, and then alternate with strips of timber, or a fringe four or five rods wide of willow, silver maple or elm, is left by the thrifty farmer to protect and hold the banks. Occasionally a great white-armed sycamore is still to be seen, a veritable giant left standing as a memento of the great forest that once filled all this beautiful valley. The bed and banks of the stream present a variety of con¬ ditions suitable to the tastes and habits of a large number of the Unionidae. Deposits of black mud, or of mud and clay, sand-banks, and long stretches of rocky or pebbly bottom covered with a suffi- cient deposit of mud and sand to afford a burrowing place for the molluscs of the river. The river is a clear-running spring-fed stream, with but little iron, lime or other corroding substances to damage or disfigure the shells; consequently they grow to a size and attain a beauty of markings and coloration not often excelled m the same species found in other water courses. My observations have for the most part been confined to a part of the stream lying within four or five miles above and below the village of Bernadette, and at such odd times and moments as a busy practitioner could spare from a large country practice. Provided with a bag or basket, and attired in gum boots reaching to the hips, a humed run would be lBern*dotte, 111. 496 The American Naturalist. [June, made to the beds of mussels a half mile or more above or below the mill-dam and in an hour’s time a bushel or two of specimens would be taken, the collection perhaps representing fifteen to twenty species. Unio rectus Lamarck. Not abundant, and fine young shells not often found ; both the white and purple nacre specimens are found. Shells seven to seven and a half inches in length are met with. 17. gibbosus Barnes. Adult shells are common at a locality a mile below the village. Young uneroded specimens harder to obtain, nacre both liver colored and white and occasionally one is found with the shadings beautifully intermingled in the central parts, and with a marginal band of deep purple. U. anodontoides Lea. Common ; found everywhere associated in small groups or singly. Not a hundred yards of bank can anywhere be found, where there is not more or less of the younger shells, which have been carried out by the muskrats or minks and from which a meal has been obtained from their juicy contents. It would be interesting to know why Lea gave this hand¬ some species its peculiar name, for it is as unlike an Anodonta as it well could be. The large old specimens are a rich horn color, while younger shells are almost white, and some beautifully rayed with greenish lines. These three allied species maintain characteristics and markings entirely distinct from each other. l>. plicata LeSueur. Very numerous; wagon loads of them are taken out every season by fishermen to bait trout lines ; bushels of them are carried away, and after the epidermis is removed by ashes water, they are utilized in the cemeteries for grave decora¬ tions ; they are also much used as an edging to flower beds, and walks. A score of years ago, rings made of this shell were in considerable demand and some village geniuses worked up quite a paying industry in their manufacture. A piece of the shell would be worked down by grinding, and the use of drills, UnionidcB of Spoon River. 497 round files, etc., a bit of the sky-tinted edge would be worked into a set, and this would sometimes be further enriched by the addition of a silver moon and stars, making a very pretty and unique ornament that would readily bring the maker one or two dollars. U. multiplicatus Lea. This species seems to me to be identical with U. undvlatus Barnes, and U. heros Say. It is not common in Spoon river, but grows to an extraordinary size. Specimens have been taken eight and a half inches long, and weighing several pounds. It is indeed a hero in size. U ligamentinus Lamarck. A numerous species, and growing very large ; nacre always a pearly white in this locality. Some shells received from Wisconsin show a pink-tinted nacre. From a shell of this Unio, I took a year ago, one of the finest pearls that I have ever seen, a perfect oval, as large as a small white bean. 17. occidens Lea. Quite common, and the handsomest Unio in Illinois ; no two are alike, there being as great a variety in their markings as there are shells. About one in ten is of the rare pink variety, as beautiful as any sea-shell. The occidens like the anodontoides is a great traveler, and I have tracked them for hundreds of feet in shallow water before coming up to them. U. ventricosus Barnes. This species is probably a synonym of the preceding, at any rate if they are two distinct species they shade so inter¬ minably into each other that I do not know where to draw the line separating them. The large U ventricosus is probably the male of occidens. V. capax Green. Several specimens that I have sent out as occidens, have been pronounced by competent conchologists as the a ve species. Butjas yet I doubt the correctness of their diagnosis and do not believe the true capax is to be found in Spoon river. The American Naturalist. U. luteolus Lamarck. This almost universally distributed species, is not without its representation in the rivers of Illinois. U. tuberculatus Barnes. * Very common and fine ; growing to a length of six and a half to seven inches. A characteristic species, totally unlike any other Unio. Found in many parts of the United States, and in all waters and localities maintaining its distinct in¬ dividuality. In northern waters, nacre white. In the far south a few specimens are found in which it is purple. U. alatus Say. Not numerous, but found sparingly all along the river. One was found two years ago, nine inches long. U. Isevissimus Lea. Very plentiful and fine ; a beautiful glossy epidermis and purple nacre. U. gracilis Barnes. Quite common in certain localities ; grows quite large, but the older shells show much erosion and are apt to be indented or otherwise injured. This Unio and the two preceding it, are a family group, and present many characteristics in common. 17. verrucosus Barnes. Not common, but a few fine large ones are found, always pre¬ senting the peculiar liver colored nacre of this species. The young ones I have not yet met with. Have received this shell from Iowa under the name of U. graniferus Lea. U. pustulosus Lea. One of the most numerous of all the unios found in Illinois. In Spoon river all sizes from the small young shells to the largest adults are easily found. V. pustulotus Lea. Not so common as the preceding but distinguished from it by the lesser number and larger size of the pustule. U. lacrymosus Lea. Synonym asperrimus Lea. Plentiful, and beautifully marked ; does not grow so large in Spoon river, as in the rivers of Indiana; some shells 1892 j Unionida of Spoon River. 499 received from White river being fully twice as large as any found in Illinois. 17 fragosus Conrad. Not common. It is closely allied to U. laarymosus Lea. 17 metanever Rafinesque. Not uncommon in some localities and a characteristic 17. comutus Barnes. A unique species. I know of no locality in Illinois where it can be found in abundance. After a season’s searching on the “Spoon” I am not rewarded with over twelve or fifteen, but these present such a variety of coloring of from green to red, and so odd in character with their knob or horn-like pro¬ jections that each find is welcomed as a prize. 17 ebmeus Lea. . _ T... . A few found in the Spoon; more common m the Illinois near Pekin. U. elegans Lea. . This fine shell does not belie its name; it is truly an elegant Unio; found associated with the next species to which it is related. V. dmaciformw Lea. Synonym zigzag Lea. Far more common than the elegant. A very handsome pink variety is found in Spoon river. mollusc found everywhere on the Spoo,, ; easily distinguished by its velvety epidermis and the red meat of the animal. U. obliquus Lamarck. Rare. 17 orbiculatus Hild. A few found. A doubtful species. V. parvus Barnes. Common above the dam in deep water. 17 ellipsis Lea. Rare. 500 The American Naturalist. U. solidus Lea. Rare. U. mbovaius Lea. Not common. 17. wardii Lea. Not common. Margaritana complanata Barnes. Quite common, and the largest Margaritana. M. rugosa Barnes. Common, large and fine ; salmon colored nacre. M. marginata Say. A few found in the Spoon. M. hildrethiana Lea. Have found them only in one locality on the Spoon. A half mile below the village of Bernadotte where a great ledge of rocks, juts out over the river ; here at low tide the muskrats carry them to the flat top of a rock ; and in no other place have I been able to find them. M. calceola Lea. A few in the Spoon, more common in the Illinois. M. confragosa Say. Rare. Anodonta grandis Say. Truly a grand species ; specimens six to seven inches long have been taken. More common above the dam in deep water. A. decora Lea. More common in the Spoon than the preceding, and much more fragile. A. plana Lea. A fine shell ; groups with the preceding, but much less common. A. edentula Say. Many in Spoon river, quite variable in coloration. UnionidcB oj Spoon River. 601 A. imbecilis Say. Common near the “ Big Rocks ” a half mile down the river. Not so large as specimens received from other localities, but epidermis a more brilliant green. A. corpulenta Cooper. A. mborbiculata Say. Two characteristic and beautiful Anodons, found in a lake near the mouth of Spoon river. The A. suborbiculaia Say, is a fine yellow, waxy looking shell, and does not seem to be in any way related to any other Anodon. I also found in this lake a variety of JJ. anodontoides but half the size of those found in Spoon river, and differing from it somewhat in shape. 502 The American Naturalist. [June, RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. 504 The American Naturalist. [June, Stanton, T. W.— The Stratigraphic Position of the Bear River Formation. Ext. Am. Jour. Science, Vol. XLIII, Feb., 1892. Stearns, R. E. C. — List of North American Land and Fresh Water Shells ceeds. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol.'xivTpp. 95-106. - List of Shells Collecte d on the West Coast of South America, principally between Latitudes 7° 30' S. and 80® 49/ N. by Dr. W. H, Jones, Surgeon U. S. N. Ext. Proceeds. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIV, pp. 307-335. From the author. Stejneger, L., and F. C. Test.— Description of a New Genus and Species of Tailless Batrachian from Tropical America. Ext. Proceeds. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIV, pp. 167-168. From the Museum. Tarr, R. S. — The Peruvian of Texas. Ext. Am. Jour. Science. Vol. XLIII, * Towne, E. C.— Electricity and Life; The Electro-Vital Theory of Nature. From the author. Trotter, S.— Zoology ; Abstract of Lectures. From the author. - United States Census Bulletin, Dec. 12, 1890. Voissin, I _ Nature Worship Among the Burmese. Ext. Jour. Am. Folk-Lore, 1891. Ward, L. F.— The Plant-bearing Deposits of the American Trias. Ext. Bull. Geol. Soc., Am., Vol. Ill, 1891. - Principles and Methods of Geologic Correlation by Means of Fossil Plants. Ext Am. Geol., Vol. IX, No. 1 , 1892. From the author. WATKINS, J. E.— The Development of the American Rail and Track as Repre¬ sented by the Collection in the U. S. National Museum. Ext. Report of the Nat. Mus., 1888-90, pp- 651-708. From the Smithsonian Institution. White, C. N.— On the Bear River Formation, a series of Strata Hitherto Known as the Bear River Laramie. Ext. Am. Jour. Science, Vol. XLIII, Feb., 1892. From the author. Wilder, B. G.— The Morphological Importance of the Membranous or other Thin Portions of the Parieties of the Encephalic Cavities. Ext. Jour. Comp. Murol., 1891, pp. 261-203. - The Fundamental Principles of Anatomical Nomenclature. Ext. Med. News, Dec., 1891. - Fissural Diagrams ; American Reports Upon Anatomical Nomenclature, 1889- 1890. From the author. ^ ^ Woodward, A. S.— Note on the Occurrence of the Saiga Antelope in the cene Deposits of the Thames Valley. Ext. Proceeds. London Zool. Soc., - Evidence of the Occurrence of Pterosaurians and Pleiosaurians in the Creta¬ ceous of Brazil, discovered by Joseph Mawson, Esq., F. G. S. Ext. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Oct., 1891. - Microsaurian from the Coal ; Memoir of William Davis, F. G. S. Ext. Geol. Mag., Decade III, VoL VIII, 1891. From the author. 505 General Notes. ill § Feet of i 510 The American Naturalist. [June, MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.1 Mineralogy and Petrography. 515 Texas, Pa., and is the same as that examined by Cooke1 in 1867. Three new forms were observed on it, viz. : P2, JP2 and &P . The prism £P2 is very characteristic and is seldom wanting. The author also corrects the axial ratio for mordenite to a: b: e = .401 : 1 : .4279. /3 =88° 29' 46", and briefly describes skeleton crystals of hematite from Durango, Mex., filled with cassiterite and pseudomorphs of the latter mineral after the former. Mineralogical News.— Dr. Hoffman2 mentions a quartzite from the North shore of St. Joseph Island, in Lake Huron, whose joint planes are coated with limonite containing numerous tiny spherules composed of a nucleus of silica, coated with a humus-like substance, which in turn is overlain by a layer of metallic iron. The spherules form 58.85% of the mixture. They have a density of 6.8612 and the following composition : Fe = 88.00 ; Mn = .51 ; Ni = .10 ; Co = .21 ; Cu = .09 ; S = .12 ; P = .96 ; C — ? ; insol. res. = 9.76. The insoluble residue consisted of little concentric bodies with the composi¬ tion : Si02 — 93.95 ; AlaO# = 1.13 ; Fe,Os = 1.02 ; CaO = .62 ; Mg - .31 ; Loss = 2.97. Analyses of uraninite from two new localities are given m a recent paper by Hillebrand3. The first is that of a specimen obtained from Marietta, Greenville Co., S. C., and the other that of one from the Villeneuve Mine, Ottawa, Quebec. Neither of the two was pure. UO, UO, Th02 ZrOg CeO, (La. etc.) Yt. etc. CaO PbO H,0 S. C . 83.95 1.65 .20 .19 2.05 6.16 .41 3.58 und. Que . 41.06 34.67 6.41 ? .40 1.11 2.57 .3911.271.47 N SiOj Insol. FeaOs X 8. C... . . undet .20 tr. tr. Que . 86 .19 .13 .10 .09 Results of the analyses of the same mineral from Llano Co., Texas, and from Johann-georgenstadt, Sax., show the presence of nitrogen in each. Williams4 has discovered anatase crystals in a jointed slate from five miles South of Bremo Bluffs, Buckingham Co., Va. The crystals are small and are associated with pyrite and quartz, which cover the faces »Ib., 1867, xliv, p. 201. aAmer. Geol., viii, p. 105. *Ib., Nov., *01, p. 431. PLATE XVIII. The American Naturalist. EMBRYOLOGY.1 ill If s HfUHli ii if ii ir- PLATE XIX. Lacerta muralis. The American Naturalist. persons wounded, 44,203 dwelling houses completely and 21,378 par¬ tially demolished, 23,379 damaged and 4159 burned after collapse, in addition to 1744 other buildings demolished or damaged. The total number of buildings thus affected in the ken was therefore 88,011. Recent Deaths. — Charles Smith Wilkinson, government geolo¬ gist, in Sydney, N. S. W., Aug. 26, 1891, aged 46 years. August von Pelzeln, the well-known ornithologist, in Vienna, Sept. 2, 1891. P. J. F. Lowrey, lepidopterologist, at Clapham Park, England, July 24, 1891, at the age of 30 years. Dr. Max Quedenfeldt, a traveler and collector of Coleoptera, in Berlin, July 13, 1891, aged 40 years. Friedrich Wilhelm Meves, the ornithologist, in Stockholm, in April, 1891, aged 77 years. Cesare Tapparone Canefri, the conchologist, August 6, 1891, at Quattordio. Dr. Edward Killias, in Chur, Switz., Nov. 14, 1891, aged 63 years ; he was a botanist and entomologist. George J. Bettany, December 2, 1891, at the age of 42. He was best known for his labors in condensing the papers of the late W. K. Parker into the useful volume “ Morphology of the Skull.” Indian Literature. — The Bureau of Ethnology has just issued a collection of Omaha and Ponka letters collected and edited by James Owen Dorsey. Seventy-seven of these letters are included, each being given first in interlinear and then in translation. Another most valuable publication for the student of American archaeology, published by the same bureau, is Dr. Cyrus Thomas’ “ Catalogue of Prehistoric Works East of the Rocky Mountains.” This is arranged first by States and then by counties, and is compiled from various sources. Like any similar first catalogue there are nec¬ essarily many omissions and mistakes, but the work will be useful, not only as a record of what is now known, but also as a means of collect¬ ing more information and correcting errors. Notes will be thankfully received by Prof. Thomas.