THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, An illustrate Hagazine OF NATURAL HISTORY. EDITED BY EDWARD D. COPE anp J. S. KINGSLEY ASSISTED BY Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, DR. C. E. BESSEY, PRoF. C. M. WEED, PROF. W. S BAYLEY, PROF. E. A. ANDREWS, PROF. W. H. Hosss, Dr. WM. ROMAINE NEWBOLD, Mr. H. C. MERCER. i lan. June Is Boe Mo. Bot. tye rat de H, PHILADELPHIA, U. $ THE EDWARDS & DOCKER CO, 518 & 520 MINOR STREET 1895. CONTENTS. LEADING ARTICLES. Birds of New Guinea (Illustrated). GEORGE S. MEAD...... , 409, 627, Leuciscus Balteatus (Richardson) A Study in Variation E H On the Evolution of the Art of Working in Stone. J. D. McGut The rere: of Flower Seasons, and the Piiendlogical Keitas the Entomophilus Flora and a 4 cae seg Insect Fauna anaatcited. CHARLES ROBER Insanity in Royal Families, A Study in n Heredity, Foshan BODINGTON, The Significance of Anomalies. In the Region of the New Fossil, AE AA pee DA row. KENYON Sec e tere sosoo The Cold Spring Harbor Biological Laboratory (Illustrated). H. W. CONN Minor Time Divisions of the Ice Age. WARREN UPHAM The Skunk as a Source of Rabies. W. W The Classifi.ation of the Lepidoptera. nthe Presence of Fluorine as a Test for the PwasiieaGon of Animal Bon THOM WILSON 301, 439, ecclesia Evolution Among Plants. L. H. BAILEy....... aces Dane Observations on a so-called Petrified Man. J. M. STEDMAN On the Validity of the Genus Margaritana. C. T. Simpson The Hereditary Mechanism and the Search for the Unknown Factors of Evolution. H. F. OSBORN......... The Genera of Branchiostomidae. ‘THEODORE GILI Is Daemonelix a Burrow (Illustrated)? E. H. BARBOUR On Successive Protandri Syd sith Hermaphroditism in Ani- MONTGO Mj SE E E P E O suvens Sponges Recent and Fossil pren J. F. JAMES The Mouth-Parts of the Lepidoptera. V, L. KELLOGG .... ...eseceseseees The Symbiosis of Stock and Graft. E. F. SMITH... orcociessini vos On a Supposed Case of Parallelism in the Genus Palaeosyops ( Illustra- ted). CHARLES EARLE Ona oye zemp of the Lepidoptera ( epi A D 63 Inv estigntions Pokeria the Etiology of Small- Pok (Illustrated). J. The Aint of the Lepidopterous Wing (Illustrated). V. L. KEL- OGG Contributions to Coccidolegy. T. D. A. CocKERELI The Present SS ae of the Florida Manatee, 7 fenial latirostris Harlan, in the Indian River Waters. Deviation in T dué to Unripe Seeds. F C pearen .804, The Effect of Female Suffrage on Posterity. JAMES WIER, JR....... = 1056 10 26 iv The American Naturalist. (Vol. XXIX, The First Fauna of the pr y J EP JAMI n- 880, 970 Organic Variations. C. Mo 888 Root Tubercles of Leria E. F. SMITH 898 The Distinction between Animals and Plants. J. C. ARTT 961 Notes on the een of Plumularian Hydroids TETA A CCN 966 ntidromy in Piai (Illustrated). G. MACLOSKIE 973 P Studies of the Forests of Japan. C. E. BESSEY ......sseseseees 1049 The pe ge of the Lepidoptera on Larval AET, HG; Dy 1066 EDITOR’S paiga —Meeting of Scientific Societies at Baltimore, 1 36; Scientific Exploration, 136; Modern Systematic Writers, 345 ; Endowment of Original Research, 345; Antarctic Exploration: oe Wood’s Holl, a correction, 347; The Philadelphia Acad- and Lieutenant Peary, 347 ; Coeducation, 825 ; Execution i E eiat, 827; The Field Museum, 827; The Challenger Exploration, 828 ; The American Association for the Advance- Department, a ; The U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisher- ies, 916; How to get Separates of Papers in the Naturalist, ee The Peary Expedition 985 ; The prance of Mosquito 986 ; The Promotion of Scientific Societ 1142 RECENT LITERATURE.—Packard on the Tal of Acquired Characters, 34 ; Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science ` for 1893, 35 ; The Mesozoic Echinodermata of the United States , 258 ; Geology of the Coastal Plain of Alabama, 259; Thirteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geoiogical Survey for 1891-92, Part IF, 259°; pps of the Geological Survey of Arkansas, for 1891 and 1892, 260; Botany in the Secondary Schools, 348; The New ae of Plants, 349; Bulletin of the U.S. Fish Com- mi Ord’s Zoology, 459; The Life of Richard Owen, 460; The Cam- bridge Natural History, 557; Marshall’s Biological Lectures and Addresses, 558 ; Butterfly Hunters in the Caribbees, 558 ; L’ Am- ateur de des Papillons, 559; Monographic Revision of the Pocket Gophers, 559 ; Monograph of the Bats of North America, @ ; Some Recent Text-Cooks and Student Guides, 647 ; Com- stock’s Manual for the Study of Insects, 649; In Bird Land, 650 ; From the Greeks to Darwin, 828 ; The Glacial Nightmare and the Flood, 830; Rambles in Alpine Valleys, 916; Lead and Zinc Deposits of Missouri, 916 ; Minot’s Land-Birds and Game- Birds of New England, 917; Birds of Eastern North America, 917; Origin of Inventions, 918; A Pretty Book on Plants and ar tear: "e Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1893, Geological Survey of Michigan, Vol. V, 987; Geology of Minnesota, wi Flora of Denver, 1073; Two Plant OS al - 10735 Poa o € Poeddi, 1074; des 's Diseases of 1895.] Contents. Loy 1074; Wilson's Atlas of Karyokinesis, 1075 ; Scudder’s Book on Butterflie 1076 RECENT nea AND PAMPHLETS.—3I, 140, 261, 353, 460, 560, 647, 732, 831, 919, 998 1077 GENERAL NotEs.—J/meralogy,—Identity of Rhabdite and Schreiber- site, 37; English’s New Catalogue of Minerals, 37 ; Leadhillite from near Granby, Missouri, 38 ; Two new Instruments for Min- eral Study, 38; Mis cellaneous Notes, 39, 838, 994 ; Minerals Crystals of Zinc Oxide, 149 ; Artificial Copper Crystals in Aventurine Glass, 149 ; New Minerals, 149, 655 ; New Instruments, 266 ; Goniometer with two Graduatea Circles, 266 268 ; Klein’s Lens with Micrometer, 269; Symmetry of Nephe- line and Davyne, 358; The Minerals of the Emery Deposits of Naxos, 358; Boleite and Cumengeite, 359; The Formula of i ; Formula of Staurolite, 361; Sara of Li in A Kloc Text-Book of Mineralogy, 469 ; Origin of te Poata of Mellilite, 563 ; Blowpipe Coatings on Glass, 563; Use of Phos- phorus in Stndying Minerals of High Renai rare 564; Chalcocite gua Monte Catini, 564; ; Dioside and A e from Z Anomalies at Artificial Coloring, 565 ; New Method of Illumi- nating in Photomicrographic Work, 565 ; Chemical Behavior of Dimorphous Minerals, 566 ; Pearls, 566; Vicinal Planes and the Variation of Crystal Angles, 653 ; Determination of the Princi- Minerals, 654; Doelter, The Characters of Gems, 655; New Edition of Groth’s Physical Crystallography, 734; Tables of the Thirty-two Classes of Crystal Forms, 736 ; Universal Stage for the Microscope, 834 ; Connection between Atomic Weight of Contained Metals and Morphological and Optical Properties of Crystals, 835 ; Boleite and Nautokite from Broken Hill, N. S. 837; New Minerals from Chili, 837; An Instrument -for preparing accurately Oriented Sections and Prisms for Crystals, 990 ; An Instrument for Producing Monochromatic Light of any Wave Length, 991 ; Other Mineralogical Apparatus, 991 ; 992; Pseudochromism and Pseudodichromism, 992 ; Meteorites in Field Columbian Museum, 993 ; Ce Rey, of Wiscon- Minerals } Pararapis, —The Serpentines of San Francisco, 41; The Blue Hen ee blende in the California ~ ar; ; The ERTE Gabbros sha a : The American Naturalist, [Vol. XXIX, Amphibolites of Argentina, 42 ; Amphiboles in Russian Rocks, ; The Basalt Boulders from Thetford, Vt., 44; Maryland Granites, 44 ; Geology of Angel Island, San Francisco Bay, 152; A New Rock Volcanite, 153 ; Acmite Trachytes from Montana, 153; aia Notes, 154, 364, 473, 569, 740, 997; Some Basalts of Asia Minor, 362 ; District, 362; Notes from Minnesota, 363; The Geology of Dartmoor, England, 364; Granite Inclusions in Gabbro, 470; The Geology of Pretoria, South Africa, 470; The Gabbro of the Adirondacks, 471 ; The Dykes of the Thousand Islands, 472 ; Analcite Diabases from California, 472; A Quartz-Keratophyre rom Wisconsin, 473; Notes, 473, 569, 740, 997, 1082; Th Eruptive Rocks of the Christiana Region, 567 ; The Massive Rocks of Arran, 568; Migration of Crystals from a Younger to an Older Rock, 569 ; Rock Differentiation, 656; The Metamor- phism of Inclusions in Volcanic Rocks, 657; The ERO ARLY a ba o Serpentines of the Central Alps, 738 is Dynamic Metamorphism, 739; The Rocks of Gouverneur, N. » 994 ; Diorites and Gab- bro at St. John’s N. B., 995; South ea rican Volcanics, 996; Rock Classification, 997 ; The Lherzolites of the Pyrenees and their Contact Action, 1079; Nepheline Rocks from the Kola Peninsula, 1080; The Matrix of Naxos Corundum, 1081 ; For- Dolomi te Geography pe Travels, —Zoological Explorations, 45; An Expedition orld, 356; eines Scientific eiekaagunaay of 1895 -- eo Bitumens, zi : Canoe in Ore Deposits, 158 ; Ten on Copro- lites, 159; New Moiluscan Forms from the Dakota Formation, 159; Glacial Lakes in Western New York, 160; Geological WS, I61, 272, 369, 478, 578, 664, 844; Relations of Devonian and Carboniferous Faunz, 270; Characters of Glossopteris, 270 ; Geological History of the West Indies, 271 ; Fossil Mammals of the Lower Miocene White River Beds, 272 ; Origin of the Con- tinental Area of Australia, 366; The Carboniferous System of Brazil, 367 ; The Affinities of Agriochaerus, 368 ; The Mastodons of Russia, 368 ; The Lakes of Central Africa, 474; Structure of Triarthrus, 475 ; Land Animals of the Canadian Paleozoic, 476; The Devonian System of Eastern Pennsylvania and New York, 476 ; The English Tarns, 477 ; The Loess of Northern China, 478; Niagara and the Great Lakes, 570; Paleozoic Insects, 572 ; The Phylogeny of the Whalebone Whales, 572 ; Two New Spe- cies of Dinictis from the ere River Beds (Illustrated), 371. The California Coast, 660 ; Disintegration of Granite, 660 ; Dol- omites from the Northwestern States, 661 ; The Silver Mines of Lake Valley, New Mexico, 661; Erosion of Submerged Lime- stones, 663; Irrigation of Westeen Kansas, 664; Plistocene Deposits in a ae a 664 ; Dawson on the Oscillations of the Behring Sea Region, 741; Green Pond Conglomerate, Prot ; Notes on the Osteology of Ss cetoides, 745 3 ae 1083 1895.] Contents. vii nus Fauna, 839; Formation of Oolite, 840; The er tee of Saurians, 841; The Geology of Cuba, 841 ; e Greenland, 842 ; Age of the AEREA of Crow aA S Ridge, 843; Faunal Migrations, 922; A New Geomyid from: the Upper Eocene, 923; Cenozoic History of the Baltic Sui: a, at ; Fossil Elephants of Tilloux, 925 ; The Latest Connection between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 926; A Batrachian Armadillo ery Cope on the Temporal Part of the Skull, aud on the Svateiatic Position of the PRETE a reply, 998 ; EA o Dr. Baur’s critique on my paper on the Paroccipital Bone of the Scaled Reptiles and the E stoat Position of the Pythonomorpha, 1003 ; Recent Elevation of New England, 1005 ; On a New Spe- cies of Diplacodon, with a Discussion of the Relations of that Genus to the Telmatotherium, 1084; Discovery in the Oligocene of South Dakota, of Eusmilus, a Genus of Sabre -toothed Cats new to North America. .....-.--00.065 + +e: I0QI slate -The Wild Flowers d a. 49; Willis’ Practical Flora, he age Botany of North America, 164; Botanical Ner ws, 165, 748; Some Botanical Collections, 274; Some Recent Botan me Papers, 276; Nitrogen Fixation in Algae, 371 ; Rules i "Tue Different Stock, 485 ; Some Features of the Native Vegetation . of Nebraska, 486; The Division of Agrostology, 487; Gray's Field, Forest and Garden Botany, 488; Progress of the Botani- cal Survey of Nebraska. 580 ; Phani os Botany, 582; A Protest against the ‘‘ nea Rules,” 666; The Missouri Botanical Garden, 668; A New Astragalus, 670; Decades of North American Petts 747; North American Species of Poly- gonum, 747; Summer-School Botany in the Mountains, 845; Notes on Recent Botanical Publications, 926; Fertilization of the Yellow Adder’s Tongue, 928; ‘‘ Aboriginal’’ Botany, 92 New Species of Physalis, 928; The Mycetozoa, 929; Seane 1007; Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum. 1008; North American Fungi, ary Hough’s American Woods, 1008; Seymour’s ve a Gre like Plants of North America, 1008; The Eroon 1093 Pea Phe —What becomes of the Flagella?, 583; tre of the Apple-Scab Fungus, 583; Poisonous Cactacea, 584; re ae on Heliotropism, 585; Austro-German Views on Botai- ical Nomenclature, 585; Separation of Enzymes, 586; The Action of Light on Bacteria, 671; The Pole of Calciusa and Magnesium, 674; Woronin on Sclerotinia, 749; Demonstration of Photosyntax by Bacteria, 750; Detection of Glukose by Aux- pice oe Methods, 752; Fischer on Bacteria, 847; The Mush- m Gardens of South American Ants, $51; Bactericidal Act- ion Bp Metals, mi. een on Paraheliotropism, 1100; Chal- azogamy in Juglans regia Zoology.—The Sensory Ny System of Chondrosteans, 52 ; The Hypo- physis, 52; The Species of Bothriocephalus, 53 ; Batrachia of Vincennes, Indiana, 53 ; List of Snakes Olek at Raleigh, N. ooo C., 56; An Abnormal Pes of Columbia livia (Illustrated ), 57; ao 1103 Pie viii The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXIX, Zooloescal News, 58, A 285, 380, 493, 680, 760, 862, 942, IIIO; he Influence of Changed Environment on Mollusca, 167 ; The Genus teppi, 167; The shies of the Salamander Linguelapsus annulatus, 168 ; The White Headed Eagle in North- ern Ohio, 168 ; The Paludicolae, 170 ; Mexican Glires, 171; The Central Nervous System of Teleosts, 278 ; New Deep Sea Fishes, 281; Preliminary Notes on the Osteology of the North Ameri- can Crotalidae, 281 ; The Senses of Pilumnus, 376; More Deep Sea Fishes (Illustrated), 376; Destruction of Food Fishes, 377 ; A Swallow Roost at Waterville, Maine, 377; The Distribution of Seeds by Birds, 378; The Effects of Cold, 379; Web-Spinning Spiders, 490 ; Fishes of the Northwest, 490 ; Queer Misfortunes of Birds, 492 ; The Cotton-Tail Rabbit, 493 ; Habits of Limpets, 587; Life History of the Lobster, 587 ; The Gas in the Swim- bladder of Deep Sea Fishes, 587; A new Locality for Aédastor eryihrogrammus, 588; The Cold Storage Warehouse Cat 4 New Harvest Mouse from Florida, 589 : The Faunal Regions of Australia, 674 ; Notes on a Snapping Turtle’s Nest, 676; On me new North American Snakes, 676 ; The Characters of the Enchytraeid Genus he 753 ; New Mollusca from the Pacific, 756; Taylor o x Tortoises, 756; The Genera of Xantusiidae, 757 ; ies of the Siberian Lemming-Vole- (Lagurus) in the United States, 758 ; The Introitus Vaginae of Certain Muridae, 759 ; Irish Fresh-water Sponges, 854; Repro- duction of the Edible Crab, 854; The Odonata of Lower Califor- nia, 855; Baur on the Temporal Part of the Skull, and on the Morphology of the a in the Mosasauridae (Illustrated), 855 ; A new Xantusia, 859 ; ts of Queen Charlotte Islands, B. C., Í 860; Migrations of the ipl ial ig 861; The Brain of Micro- cephalic Idiots, 861; Antivenine, 936; Dall on the irera branchiata, 938; On the Species of Uma and Xantusia, sha Co Marriages and Births in the Dilat tatone ernie 939; Additions to the Mammal Fauna of British Colum o; A Stratified Lake Fauna, 1011 ; Sexual Rights and Po (Illustrated), 1012 ; The Bats of Cuka. 1014; Fatigue and Toxicity, 1014 ; Poisons oe Putrid Fish, r015 ; Variation in Flalicystus PERET 1104; The Role of the Liver in the Anti- coagulating Action of Peptone, 1105; The Noviformation o° Nerve-cells in ue Hin of the Ape after a Complete Removal of the Occipital Lobes, 1106 ; The Æstivation of Snails in Southern California, 1106; A Ca selesi Writer on Amphiuma..... cin SOD Embryology.—Optimum Temperature for Incubation, 62 ; Cell peas 2; Fertilization in the Earthworm, 62; Cleavage in Batrachia, 63; Development of Sponges, 64; Development of an Isopod, 180; Sexually Produced es on ae Maternal Charac- ek 286 ; Double Monsters, 287 ; n of Blastomeres, 288 ; ‘Temperature and Development, ae “AP Problematical Structure in a Mammal, 289; Developeient: of ements 290; Blastomeres of Medusae, 290; Development Rarified Air, 291 ; Cytotropism, 385; : Acat Eggs and Temperature, 499; Isolated Blasto tomeres in Ascidians, 500 ; Frog's E n Salt Solution, 501; —-< Feii ee ne Sony Grafti: La 1895.] Contents. ix bia, 590; The Embryo of the Duckbill, 592; Origin of Twins, 686 ; Half Embryos versus Whole Embryos, 769 ; The Mouse’s Egg, 770; Conjugation in an American Crayfish (Illustrated), 867; Eggs of Nematodes, 945; Cell Phenomena in the Triton Egg, 947; atone of the Brandling (Illustrated)...... 1o2I, 1121 Entomology. ies ight Insects, 66; Origin of Reproductive ce in Insects, 67 ; Alimentary Canal in Orthoptera, 68 ; North Amer- ican Jaod a, 68; The Use of Parasitic and rg taint see 69 ; Osipa in Acridiidae, 70; The Use of Chinch Bug Diseases, 71; Two New Species of Lecanium from Brazil, 174 ; The Wood Leopard Moth (Illustrated), 175; Relaxing Insects, cas Eyes of ome 177; Spread of Otorhynchus ovatus, 177; o More New S f Lecanium, 381 ; A New Trombician fags), 382 ; The Cabbage Root Maggot (Illustrated), 495; Ohio Dragonflies, 496; A Unique Journal, 497 ; Loss by Fire, 497; Male Reproductive Organs of Beetles, 497; Lan p Chimneys for Breeding Cages, 498; The Name of the Southern or Splenic Cattle-fever Parasite, 498 ; Distribution of Injurious Insects, 681; An All-purpose Net, 682; Picobia villosa, 682 ; Preparing Orthoptera, 684 ; Recent hatare 685; A New Tet- tix (iiluateetea), 761; On the Early Stages of some Carabidae and Chrysomelidae, 762; Cecidomyia atriplicis, 766; Mexican Jumping Bean (Illustrated), 767 ; Chordeumidae or Craspedoso- matidae, 862; On the Generic Names Strigamia, Linotaenia and Beôlloplänes 864; Picobia villosa, 866; E.tomology at Springfield, 942 ; Pigments of Pieridae, 943 ; Sense of Sight in “sme 944 ; ; The Genera of Ly Se oe 1017 ; Habits of Or vdin ype sretenene III Psychology. —The Burrowing Habits of Snakes, 74; Habits of Heterodon Ti at Raleigh, 75; The Present State of Psychology, 292 Morgan’s Introduction to Comparative Eea 388; Puychical ae 503; Mental Development in Child and the Race : Methods oe: Processes, 687 ; The ea lem of Instinct, a: Professor Baldwin on Mental Develop- i ra Matches, 1031; Sand pipes and Sawdust, 1031 ; Criminology, 1127; Habits of Nesto II3I Arche aay a a graye -y,—Certain Sand ike the St. John’s River, : Florida, 76; Dues very of Shell Mounds in Chira Valley, Peru, 188 ; The R Man in Java, 192; The Contention of Mr. J: D. McGuire, 298; The Results of Cave Exploration in Ger- many, 298; The Antiquity of Man at Petit Anse (Avery’s Isl- and) Louisiana, 393; Notes on a Collection of Archeological and Geological Specimens collected in a Trip to Avery’s Island, February Ist, 1890, 394 ; Notes on Yucatan, 507 ; The Potter’s eel in Yucatan Sit . Anthropology. —The Antiquity of Manin North America, 593 ; Paleo- oe cca fore Ancie nt ee and | Netting i in Den otes p! he Lehigh Florida, sod; < x The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXIX, and Susquehanna Valleys for the University of Pennsylvania in the summer of 1892, 778; Another Human Jaw of the Naulette Type, 876; Sandals in Yucatan, 876 ; Strange Hints for Anthro- pology, 877 ; New Evidence n Glacial Man in Ohio, 951 ; The Discovery of Aboriginal Net Rope and Wood Implements in a Mud Deposit in Florica a, 1032 ; A Preliminary woe of Aboriginal Remains near Pine Island, Marco, st Florida E32 D — Formal as a Preserving Fluid, 82 ; On a New Method of Raph ston Killing, Embedding and Orient Infusoria and ing and other very small Objects for the Microtome (Illustrated), 194 ; Pecan of some Marine Animals, 399 ; Cytotropism Of Cleavage Cells........0+--eccccecserccenscscscesesenensersscccssesoes soeeeeor se 511 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES 199, 402, 513, 600, 953, 1135 SCIENTIFIC NEWS 92, 200, 404, 514, 604, 695, 779, 959, 1040, 1137 1895.] Index. INDEX. Ae Butterfly Hunte rribees, Reviewer 558 Abnormal Pes of Columba livia, $. D. JUdd....eeeeeseeeeeeee eee 57 Abastor erythrogy ammus in Vir- gin 588 Aboriginal Botany.. 928 Aboriginal Nettin ope Wood Implements in a Mud Desa a Western Flor- ida. C. D. Durnford........ 1032 Aboriginal Tpi near Pine ae West Florida. F. leek R AE ee 1122 Agateety ‘of Sciences for Michi- hs Geer eerie eee 94 Academy of Sciences, St. Lois, 600 eE Patyeephatu pen eee 272 ae r in 273 Acmite “rachytes from Mon- | 153 OS ain la act ioe ge ulate ole 929 NGS se ra “2098502 70 i. I New Species e Dinictis om the Whit ETTE P T PR OA 573 Pangea . Perithecial Stage cage tes Fungus, Abstract E. F. Smith.. 583 peel semen 997 Aegina, Peirograpliy o vnanetcer 658 AÆluro 413 perfil AE T OTT i 13, 632 aai ete of Snails. “Sy. Wil- Tier at anys os pavers 104 Affinities Fo ag gA parani mg. V D Kellogg.....- African Volcanoes......... PES eines cas atha o2.eeseeeeee se cece ceeeeeeere 493, ochaerus, Affinities of....... 368 ihe Sel Natural Park ....... 514 panes Canal in 1 Orthop- - 68 Allani 4 99 Allen’ > Monograph of the Bats of North America, Review of. 560 10 Allolobophora foetida 02I Amanita MMS arid, erar eossrs te Fi Amaurochætaceæ an 932 Amaurochætiner i-s sesesrensio 932 prales ne enniaserri ees oer 932 Apera inornatus ee sv | Subnuia 1064 Ambystoma “parr shessshaoerucesn 55 PUN ae E EE S tienes 55 paai inum.. EP REE T h I a 4s Se i - aire oy reg Advance- t Science, -......--..- I3, 955 | EEEE Piilcaophical Socie- | ty 600, 1136 | American Physiological Society 200 American Microscopical gai American Morphological Sode LY scree ssreeseer ceeeeees sereeneene 200 American Society of Natural- TEE cos ccacess Seceeeser cise aterese 199 \MOÆDOpSİS. -sesse seeeeeees rererere 758 \mphibia, Grafting of....-....--- 590 my les in Russian Rocks.. 43 \mphibolites of lah, AnA fe 42 \mphioxid EB ikede sirier atie tsho 458 \mphiuma.....-...sssrssssseer reren 1108 \na $ eps.. I0I2 na cite Diabase ‘from Califor 472 Ancistrodon contortrix 283 PUSCTVOTUS voce sevenscneres serere 283 | Andrews, E A. On Conjuga- tion in an Eba Cray- Sh esera iride E 867 Conjugation o of the br 1121 An 932 Angel Island, Geology w 152 AphydIE <.. : Lepidoptera on Jarval Charac 1066 Earle, C. On. a supposed Case of Parallelism in the Genus Palos yÓ iner senscia 622 aera A Ea s Flora of Denver, Revi a 1073 Echin pital Gi loans Von E EE 58 eehinodertia, Dieanceation of.. 400 Echinus microtuberculatus. 286 eee r’s Table, 136, 345) "825, siase 985 Effect vi Female Suffrage on Posterity J, Weir, Jr...... 815 Eigenmann’s Fishes ol the. Northwest, Abstract of...... go Eigenmann, Papen pale us, a Study i in Varia- 10 Flaps popes 61 Electr eas REDE Ape OO ETE ER 827 Elephant Rock of Transvaal.... 273 Elevation giants of New Eng- MAGE py Soest erecta vrsanty (eonesee$ 1007 Elfstorpite 655 ee gant a 839 and Everhart’s No America Fungi, Review of. 1008 Embryology, oo 180, 286, 385, 499 590) 686, 769, 867, 945, 1121 Embryos o of £ Frogs Seh (bdbsners 7 Endosporece. .....srsss ssseseee 930, 932 Ketosen of Original Re- EOE 346 Engleman the Demon- stration of Photosyntax by cteria, Abstract of ....... 750 Pugin >. Cg Catalogue of 37 oes 66, 174, 381, 495, 681, 761, 862, 942, IOI7...... ÏI Entomology at Springfield...... 64 Entrapping, Embedding, Kill- - ingand Orienting Infusoria and other small objects for the Microscope. der.... setatia ii ssseseesss See eee ee ssessopossoss ssssoos eee ween ee, gee eee aera eter LE eae E RT R ee MS Eupetes caerulescens olus.é Eurygyru eee utr rygon PAE Io ese dakotensis, , Description J Evclation of ‘the Ant of Work- ing in Stone. J. D. McGuire Evotomus rioba; ENAN OEA Exospore Expeitions, Scientific... Experim volution Amongst Plants. L.H ey Fa orations, Scientific AIRBANKS’ Analcite - Dia- bases from California, Abs- tract of. Tn he Glacial Lakes in Bip rn New York, Abstr- Miery ra K nipo ow itsch On = ety d Lake Fauna, Ab- Riek d AG ab inpe epee ceases edeten s Deterinination of Op- a Sign i sy Random Min- ral Sectio a ead Of: Peuilockion: m and Pseu- dodichro reer Abstract of.. Darveron Stage for the Microscope Fernald’s Plant Catalogues...... erri L Fertilization | in the Earthworm Field Museum First iog of the Earth. J. 5 Fi hers s Ta Review ah rT 59, {h 285, e a eep cee of Peasy tania cies Fixed Idea Flagella of Swarm, Spores Fletcher’ a Vn ical Indicatrix, ss.ssere evi ey ei PAA e as a Test of onra aen Of Animal T. Wilson Food Fishes, destruction VRR eest sf the Wor a Preserving Agent. [Vol. XXIX, 160 IOII 1895,] gerh s b Ligeanes of Plants, Re- of I aer s A PRAE N on Sna Poisons and their Ee aes Index. bstract of 936 Fuess’ Instrument aogas... 469 Fusicladium dendriticum... o.. 584 Fusion of A as gala E EER 288 Gs s of te E a pa riik pas 471 of Agentina 4 of England 470 Gaines, eea Batrachia of Vin- cen 53 The ma aame. Habit of Snakes 47 Caina a a 50000, .0000. 273 994 PARE s Life-History of the Lobster, Abstract of........... 587 On Sexual Rights and Le P ATEEN AE NS bce Cbnebuees I2 Gasteropoda, Cambrian........... I Gauberte Study of Optical Ano- ee id ao RENS Ra OE aa o 565 Glacial Lakes ay Western New 160 Man in Ohio 51 Gley and Pachon. On the Pole of the Liver in th ti- coagula ong. Aeon of i tone, Ape PPR RENE 1105 Glires, Me 171 Globigerina.. 839 Glukase 752 Genera of eerie K. GUE owe a a EA 457 ai S Origin of the Pflocks- are r of A aati Ab- Olu, : 563 Cimi, gaie i OEE bene 655 Geograptiy and Travels, 45, 143, 63 Geological News.—General...... III rchean, 161 72 oe psi Ie 161, 272, 369, 478, 57 664 at 162, 369, 479------ 665 Cenozoic, 162, dosh os ” 665, 844 Geology ot Paleontology, 157, 270, 36 366, 474, 470, 660, 741, 39, 922 wae os: Survey o of Michigan, Vol. V, Review of..........+-- 7 Giacominis’ ereloon in Ra- rified Air, Abstract of........ 291 Gigliolia „ns... sessesnesessreeseee terree 376 Gill, T. The Genera of Branch- josto Biscsiiisrvinaeenea AST The Genus Leptophidium. 167 Girvatiella -sssreresnss isot. -psi 840 isses, Classification of......... 1082 feceboensdecsubenessynses 1058 xvii Goura coronata 1058 na r ii. 1059 victo 2 1058 Gra i anais 634 dumontii 63 3 orientalis 633 Graf’s Fusion of Blastosmeres, Abstract o 88 — Disint egration of....... s in Gabbro......... 470 of nee E 44, 659 Of PIKE p Peake cosss ssie 1082 Graucalus majoorensis Woveveustnke ven 633 Graptolitha sebastiane 768 Gravels of Long Island, identi- cation of 370 Gray, Herbariu 926 on Forest and Garden ny, Review of............ 488 Synoptical Flossa of North America II 3 g Goldschmidt’s cial oa a8 Coat- ings on Glass, Abstract of.. 563 eee with two Graduated CIV CIES serach E E E 266 Goode, G. B. and T. H. Beam’s New oe Sea Fishes, iam AOE OE eisie csse 376 Gorham maa Tower’s rlipeestion of the Cat. ...... s.cesseceeveee., 49 Geeren Altitude of......,...-+. 43 tific Expedition of E E E R S E 463 Green Pond Conglomerate. ...... 43 Grimslev’ r Eapro ee Granites, Abstr 659 Groth’s Physical oh beret 8 phy, Review of............... 734 Tables of Thirty-two of Crystal Forms, Reviewof 736 Gundlach. On the Bats of Cuba, eine DSi, Acs oe sucess tenes AOA Gymnom tessegeesseeees OZI RTAS PEA 1060 Hanus at of Heterodon platyrh- mus at Raleigh, N. C....... 75 allesu 716 Hall oe Sardeson’s Dolomites of "e Po paene States, A I Hamilton, ie the Poisons of Putrid Fish, Abstract of 1015 Hanitsch’s Iri Fresh-Wat Sponges, Abstract of ........ 54 Hancock, J. L. Description of Tetti INCUPUALUS, oorsese teins» 761 A new Trombidian............ On Picobia villosa 866 Hariotta í 376 Sabres Aen agents ETE SNTE ast Harker wpe Differentiation, l Attest pakisti 56 Harvey, F. 5 "On the Mexican Jumping XVill Hatcher, J. hae! in the Ht aad of ie Dakota, of Eus a new speci of Dipla- codon with a Discussion of ne relations of Seance enus o Telmatotheri Hedley’s jtk: i Revionwer s.esososs ik ire nares to the Cal- eee of Crystals, Review rr petit one A EE EEA Helix tia shit ECA. eed cds E E H- slater Seidat nM EO S, Hemiptera of Colorado Hepialidæ S A Ann 710, ssoorssssss vivinus Fertitta of Columbia Goile Herbst’s See in Embryo- lo of Mirean Mechanical and the Search for the Unknown Factors of Evolution. H. Hernies Development of iai ae. a Salt Solu- rei MOOG Oise sitesi: Hisperocichta » PADUS- ipar Seer eee eee te Beers . H. Botany in the Secondary Schools .... ...... par Geol of Cuba, Ab- ract o SURPRESA Hill piir Matin’s s Embryo of the ckbill, A Orie Hippocrphalus jaf aae s nic yisaloey of Slee POD ccicavdsy E Hite, E. Expedition to La- brado: Hobbs, W w Minerals.. On the Tej srallarepht of Yistonsin Minerals, of. Review of Behren’s Manual of Microchemical analyses Review of bok oth’s Physical ‘Crystallograpy. Review o Czapski’ s Theory -f Optical Instrumen Review of Groth’s Tables of “Thirty-two Classes of Crys- -tal Forms Rev ew of Hecht’s Intro- evdin to the Calculation Review of Fletcher’s Op- The American Naturalist. 109I 467 [Vo]. XXIX, tical Indicatrix ............--.. 466 Review: of Klockmann’s Text-Book 2 niet a 469 Hopkins. of Pie- ridze bates of: P FAN RA, 943 Kite Ay fe Alabama Cherts, Ab- 659 Howard's Disteibution of ies a ious Insects, Abstract of.... 681 Howorth’s Ole ial N pera and the ods Review of.. 830 Human Jaw, Naulette Type. 87 Huxley, Thomas Henry, Obitu- ary 779 Hyde’ s Development of a Scy homedusa, Abstract of 289 Phe a ae ws parasitic) of the Island of St. Vincent......... 86 Hiyoithus 839 be eg steeebeercoosccsceee teense “72 FLY PUOUBEEL iret decisis dc cose sp screres 027 Hypophysis i = Teleosts and Ba- 52 CER YA montserratensis.. sssr... 731 TOIR sores ss 27 Identity of Rhabdite and Schre- ibersite 37 leno Botka of the Eureka -1362 Taaa in icone ar Rocks... 657 India sie Academy of Science, Indices’ of ‘Refraction for Certain z 54 Influence pe changed Environ- ent on Mollusca 167 Insanity in pall Families, Alice Bodington...........2.+ 118 a 59, 380 geet magmas dee icbaepes E E 1020 PR EE EE 15 ai of the Apple Trees 685 Taen e the Clover Field....... 85 572 Injurious Io21 Instin 73 International Bibliographical Bu 914 Zoo ao ogical Congress.......... 14 icici asin WEBI OR agit sey seeins 918 Inverteb 58 Taveira Concerning the Et tiology of Small-Pox. J. tian Bay 699 Iowa aarp of Science... 206 rri: n of Western e P 664 Tutus haran. E TEES, ` 1017 ABONCOILLO. i cite: SS James, J. F “The First Fauna oi = mi degen 970 Recent and Fossi ges 53 Tae On the Fi xcd A riea, Ab ctof: 1028 1897.] Joor, J. F. otes on a Colle = tion of Pies eological a a ne ag ‘Specimens foot judd, S. b yp Ca Pes of Columba livia Judd’s Granite Inclusions in Gabbro, Abstract of Juglans regia ENYON, F. C. Abstract of Van Gehuchten’ s Central Nervous System of Teleosts Formal asa Preserving A gent In the ig of the New ; Deemonelix Foss Kellicott’s Ohi = p aea Review OF srest isde perel nsn Kellogg, V. L. The Affinities of the Lepidopterous Wing The ification of the T opidOptern. -isr ices ynnes n ame. anh- Parts of the gain oO Neoformation of Nerve-cells in the Brai of the Ape after a complete Removal of th pital bes, Abstract of............. Knower, H. McE. ract of in ule’s aie bse of an sopod Krabbes R es a e iA Kroeber’s Transpiration Exper- iments, Abstract of............ K vlindrite Keyser’ s bosi Land, Review of Klockmann’s Text-Book of Pasa sg Review of......... ADORE ORY at Cold Spri Bn, ie Division of Vegetable g a a a A E ERE rtilia Lacroix’ Metamo: hism of I clusions in Volcanic Soke: Abstract of ee ee ers Topogra phy of the Coli Formic Coast, sates Lad Vases of Missouri........ Index. . 1103 Leadhillite from near Granby, Missouri 38 Lecanium baccharidis 174 hesperidum 728 hemisphæericUmM,ssssssrossossin se 728 lonotulum 7 28 putor 727 ae POD T 727 eei 727 lin 381 preudohesperidum S WENA 381 iic culat Éti1 174 731 Lecanotsi IMER on ..0s-visesees, 728 yiicce Var, r. rufescens «u 73> Lecture Microscope... 68 ingests against Injurious 1021 ‘eid ng 861 Lepidium VIrginicUm .ssessssssossss QUT TMP OPtE re scion. sas nsivese eve res 248, 1066 Lepid aptera haustellata 643 laciniata 636 Lepidoptera, a new classifica- tion of 636, LIA E O E N 58 Lepiodora haera 1027 ptomitu 541 Leptophidinttti isss sescdesiisaegss sien 167 ‘pus mericanus 144 sylvaticus 493 Leuciscus balteatus Se ET A Study in Variation, C iaria 12 lateralis 10 Lherzolit 1079 Liceacez....... .. 932 one 747 480 Lidbeault. ‘On Criminal Sug- gesti Abstract of...c..s.-0 1029 On tie: Psychology of Sleep, ADRREECE OF -prasot wneeseestebanns ndor Seene ARNULALUS...c00000--. LOS LANGULE ONIGUA -u asistp naipon 884 Limestoes; Erosion Of..........0 663 Linotze 864 y poies ili E TE E gidtess 376 Lister. On Mycetozoa, Abstract 2 929 Lithosiidæ S 799 Litorin Sea. siie Gad. Lobster, Life Histo tory of E a 587 Loeb’s Origin of Twins, Abstract OF ee Se es ENTS ee 686 Loess of ones China... EARS? 477 Lucas, F. A. e OBEY of yp sh cet- Ol des a) 745 Lumbricus terrestris sss... Io2I, 1025 ycogalaceæ... s.es serrosereserecsse: 933 Lynx canaden oryestss jnnecneteees|. LAA Lysiopetalum carinatum....... sav east TOIS Setidissimum. ...... seve TOTS LARP MEME PERAE TEE S R E os XX Lysopetalidze Neo G. Antidromy Plants Mac Donald, Marshall............ Macdonaldia c e NEN nas Soe pein nnn ropygia reinwardtii roc y sti S sesessses Whi Manucotia comrii cha Man, Antiquity of,at Petit Anse, Louisiana See orem weer esse naeeeneee Marine Bi foloplest enaere at Wood’s Holl, Mass ....-.. sgt ae aaa Births i in Euro- Countri Marr’s English Tarns, Abstract ..... Marshall’s Biological iene and A sses, Review isan’ s — isis Faventini, Revi Massive Kocks Of ‘ALTAR sis š Mastodon s of Russia The American Naturalist. 1017 Matias- “Duval’s Histological ` Theory of Sleep, Abstract I He ci On Diorites and Gab. B., Ab- bres ee Protelenus Fauna, Abstract “oo Marshall.: McClate i ag _— of Pasadena, McGuire re, pe n the Evolu- ey: sh the a ‘of Working n Sto McMarrick’s Invertebrate Mor- be nr , 409, 627, eee eee ee eee eer) iacembhes Lite sik Melipotes gymnops ercer, H. C Abstract of C. B. re’s Sand Mounds of oes St. johi’s River, Flor- | wee eens seine H. C. Antiquity of Man at Petit Anse, Louisi- Discovery of Ancient Rope and rening in Southwest- ern Fl and Susquel of the Lehigh = nna Valleys vac? 1892 tesse. orida in the j ‘Notes bins Potter's s Wii in Yu- ee Merocheta ewe ee ees eccesces St eseaeens Merri pi Bats òf Queen a ig Island, B. nl Glires, Abstract of ono Rev sion of the Pocket pat Re- ew of s.sssss SOOO eee eossosossosossssss 5 ot of the Siberian Lemning Vole in the Uni- ted St RATER icin. KA ede Merr a 1’s espe Na ‘of Granite, Abstrac M eunier’ s Meteorites prt aranda sowseseses iei Rehine hita of the jd; nited State Metamorphism, Dysam wa salio mete PE in Yaleanic Metamynodon E eebes ici eee odes Methana, “Petrography i i Micropod nies Microp Micreergs purderelia bvaybewy rocker f unimaculella Microscopy.. s.s... 82, 194, 399, Microtus agrestis.. caseccecssernee Sosse Prinpipalis sssrisrer sai Miers Inverted Goni ometer... Vicinal Planes and the Var- sesrossssoessssesssss Migration age ceva stals nesis Migra ons, Faunal of the Lemming. iian Milch. On Deiccale Meta- Hock Classi Abstract of lassification, Ab- Miller. “On the Introitus Vagi- æ of Certain Muridz, Ab- eaan (0) Mina robertson Mineralog em 148, 266, 358, 466, 5 3, 653, 734 r ET Mineralogical News. Minerals from the Ch its of Lower Silica. of the Emery its o NaXOS. -00. 0200 seeeeesreeeeee cere Minot’s Course in Embryology, [Vol. XXIX, - 1895.] Index. Announcement of. ........... 047 Land and Game Birds of New England, eview of.. 917 Minor Time Divisions of the Ice S, ba’ oe aides tins 235 Mio igripe 61 Miseellancons Notes, Mineral- ogic 39 Missouri Botani ical Gardens..... 668 Geological octet Vols VI & V view of........ 16 State Horticultural Society 612 gain et s Geology o South Africa, es pir 470 Mollu 167, 493, 760, 839 Molluscan “Forms (new) from the Dakota Formation...... 159 Mod iiare. 931 MONOCHEUE ieee. sce sesessecscicss. IIIS Monomorium salomonis 1019 Monsters, Double......... ......... 287 Montgomery, a jr Successive, Protandric and Proterogynic Hermaphro- diti dot A als.. 528 Moore, Certa and eas of the st. "Joh s nati Florida 76 The Chara of the s Enchytracid Genie 8 Dis- PRCTRODIR acc niae a 53 Morgan’s “Experiments on Frog Embryos. Abstract of........ 769 Introduction to Compara- tive oy Soren $6 Review, R.N 389 Morris, C ati ic Variation 880 Theory of the tg gu hey incre Abstract of......... 841 Mosasaurt je seayess --855, 1001 Moseley, E L. Th White- — Eagle in arer 168 Mosquitoes, Extermination of . 986 seve 1020 Mouth Parts of the Lepidop- ra, V: Li Kellogg........... 46 Munthe” On the Cenozoic His- tory of the Baltic Sea, Ab- stract of sis ocr: R 924 Mus sylvaticus, 759 ycetozoa 929 Mjlodon hariantisvsnsreinso kars 397 Myrm a fodi rorg Mystacides punctatus.....0 serevevesss 15 Myti albus +h. CONCOLOP. enn. 730 Myx TOS isisisi ene Geese idovess 929 Myxomycetes. ..sss.» secoscceeeeveese 9 N4 TICA Panamensis,,.cocccrassee 192 N bets nal Academy of HENCE: 65355 \45058.5G02, pa 1135 Nataix compressicauda teniata.. 76 © fasciata pictiVentrts.c.ccecceeees 677 xxi Natural Science Association, Staten Island ii 601 Naulette Bh iene es 876 autokite 837 hoo sagen Man in Java, E. D. 192 Ni ea pipe ee eCaabva¢seckeveesss 54 Nelumbi 976 NGHHALOUES.:. sii ss Reis ORG Neolepidoptera. Widessdedevcdess: drist 645 Nepheline Rocks 1080 Nephelene eiea mi 839 per paran and Se Sym- 58 35 Neptu 149 Nest of. ‘Snapping Pare... i 676 of.. AAEN! Sea! for Catching Insects......... 682 E EE meshiever vovcbesns 712 Newbold, W. R. Recent Work in Hypnotism.....2... 00. -+s 027 The present State of Psy- ch ology 292 The Problem of Instinct.. 773 Review of Baldwins Men- 1 Development in Child and the Race........... €87 Review of Morgan’s sab duction to Compara Psychology. .....+++--++-+000+00+ 388 enon oO arse s Psy- cal Rese 03 rv Norden’s Psychic Factor civico 874 aiet and Reason in Ani- A PER T 948 Niagara and the Great Lakes: 570 Nitrogen Fixation in pec teh? OTe Nomenclature, KEAT 27 Botanical... scd 00k. ssersvsess 585 Nolidz.....-. Sor Nova Scotian Institute of Sci- ski 402 PE: C. C. Notes on the TS of Plumular- ian Hydroids ascii ge vera paale aie in r North. icine? ciee 45 Piei okat. sese: 553 Cr Dana, James W 515 Ferri, Luigi «......... 1041 Foote, Albert E. Dr ......... 1144 Gizycke, G VON aiar 1044 Huxley, Toa 5 Liked ens 779 Lamborn 210 McDonald, ; Marshal. OSE 1042 Morris, Rev ae wey Tide Riley, Charles 959 Ruse Paoli William S À P R srecserese 405 Ryder, —* waha O Odo PE 855 nw ; Officialiam in Ponar Depart- xxii Ohio kon = emy of Science....... Ophi bolus getulus Ophid ia Optical Anomaliet, Study of.... : Indicatrix Properties of Crystals ....... Optimum Fomiperaiee © for In- Suena Hesi EATER aie Orbul Ord’s Zoology: ; Review of........ Ore Deposits: covets eves r sissi reodon Organic Variation, C. nen of Reproductive ( Cells | in Insects Oriolus striatu Oisithcvhomehus PArAdOKUS, sures Ortheria anne nigrocincta sonorensis Orthoptera, oviposition of........ reparation of Osborn 5 i . . Hereditary Mechanism, and the Search for the Unknown Factors 0 Greeks to Darwin, Review of Osteology of the North Ameri- can Crotalide, W. E. Tay- lor Getraccrin Teavesee Otiorhyncus ovatus. eari V rity Ot ia insign ae cae nobilis Ofthotheca caor ba arira Ovi becaition re Arna IOE aroye Owen’s Life of Richard Owen, ACH 7 C. E PHALOPSIS Rat- S. On a New Tassifioation of the Lepi- TE E AE se 636, Packie. Tanara of Ac- an red characters, Review Paleolepidoptera s se sssesos: ssy. ee eee of nape a Vol. ae Review of...:....... Paleos Palladino, anwar deesdabs riir Paludico Ea Paradisea apoda pgm aris eos ay hio: D ah Tairi asa in the Genus Palæ- syops, C. Earle eee The American Naturalist. 915 203 I OO 85 565 66 “u [ese] (os) Parn Parrot, ‘Change of Habit in ur, Lou Patella a org tes of Patton i ...., s.ssseeoss W. H. rtili the Y ellow Adder s Tongue Farior $ Mastodons of oad Peary Expediti Pec pene On yi s ‘Sighi Salas Abstrac Peckham’ s Origin n of bitumens, EETETTETETTT] Abstra Penrose’s Changes in Ore De posits, Abstract of PORTER OU Os re na a aa ae oN News 95, 210, 407, 514, , 698, 960, 1139, I141, Tee ewe erewees 1143 II Pes ( iih of mee Livia Petrified Man, a ions on Petrography a I a 262, 470, he os 737» ooks Si ia N A to. E re News 154, 364. 3 o Pert eee ssssesesosssossses see wen eww ewey, eee ee eres Phaseolus lunatus, Dwarf Variety ACAN Tiape es sabes ate pale » Phen Ss oramontis Philos phy of Flower Seasons SOTI. ssssesserse sr.se soss, Photomicrographic Work, Illu- Photosy ntax demonstrated bid Phylophiophi. aestivus wás itsa ninia Physal eee eee ee eee ee eee versie srsssoosesosess Bee ewe eee Physa ; Giona aie EAA 382, 384, 682, eris a Pb TE EAE ER tonne lumnus hirtellus T Pi ous 7A narolestes megarhymihus..- P Piran, rere eee ee ran, i a ludoviciana. ETE Piroplasma b [Vol. XXIX, 1895.] Index. Pitres,- OA a Case or n Pied o y NA ERR geda he cases Idea,’’ Abstract of............ 1029 Pre ee WRITING wai oa, A tata’ ee 994 -chobothrium Lonnberg ..... and I g18 | Pigchare australiensts Plants of the Posey collection.. 927 |-Ptych = att aiea A latops. xanthina 1018 | pin OM EE erp teers Plethodon cinereus 55 reel : SEY pa of Antia, erythronotus 55 Es: 3 gluti y 654 Zinc COR of Missouri...,..... 916 Zoja’s Pr pE of Medusæ, Abstract of 290 Zoology, 52, 167, 278, 376, 490, 583, 674, 753, 8541 936,------ IOTI Toora ror in the far 45 cag $ Séz. sy 380, Mie J» se Jan IIIO ygæ 799 2 ne sabes, 553 Zygomaturus eee ee eee ee ere eee ee $4.00 per Year. $4.60 per Year (Foreign). THE = AMERICAN NATURALIS A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES. IN THEIR TE RRR ae ee k ANAGING EDIT Prors. E. D. COPE, Philadelphia, AND J. B: athe: Tufts College, tlas Hi, Mass. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: SD H po ESSEY, Lincoln, H, C. MERCER, Philadelphia, Dr. © O? WHITMAN, Chicago C. PROF. E. A. ao NDREWS, Palins, Neb i Pror. C. M. WEED, Durham, N; H., e w. Ss. aS LEY, Walerii 3 oe Pror. W. H. HOBBS, Madison i Vol. XXIX. JANUARY, 1606 CONTE ly. PAGE, | pate OF Ne: Guinra. (Illustrated.) | ; George S. Seales = Ba EUCISCUS Bavteatos: (Ricarandéon), A STUDY k IN VARIATION. (Mlustrated.) a ae ee CoH ee. 10 | ‘On Due a aia OF THE ART oF Work | Boany thë witd “Flowers of lis’ Doolog y-—The Bao Canal System of Ck Hypophysis—The Ia “ot on | mal : ai strat. Resor New up yology— Optimum Tom) E cubation -cel Line age— 'ertiliz “World's Tribute to Chas s Marchand S AAN = AN Peroxide ¢ Hydrogen -VY Medicinal . EN Highest Award, MF ) ROSA D Poll Medal and Diploma. es 7 pa = EY World's Fair ee ; “aa and Diploma : awarded to as | Narchand's Peroxide‘ Hydrogen HO, @iedicinal ) CURES ALL DISEASES CAUSED BY T OP ABSCESSES. AND RBU NCLES, WOMEN’ S WEAK- i NEESS WHITES- LEUC BERUA, LTC. o Chas. Marchand’s Peroxide of Hydregen (Medicinal) is sold a a in- Ze, DZ., and 16-02 bo es, bearing a blue label, white kitem red and gold border, with his ] naam ica agar ox LY BY y thi bhi ; Chemie and Graduate of the “ Ecole ain ses Art : PE Ear Menton u s pi plication. ye “nd Graduate Hp ny ‘ SOLD BY LEADING DRUGGISTS. ma 28 Prince St., New vou THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VOL AXIX. January, 1895. 337 BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA. By Gero. S. MEAD. | (Continued from Vol. XXVIII, p. 920.) The Magnificent bird of paradise—Diphyllodes magnifica or speciosa, is as appropriately named as any of the Paradisea, since the qualifying adjectives are scarcely more than mere epithets, with nothing specially discriptive or distinctive about them. In the Magnificent we find an adornment not unlike that which beautifies the Superb, viz. a mantle or fringe of bright yellow feathers over an inch long, rising from the back — of the neck. The bird is still further characterized by the long filaments noted in the Red and other members of the family. These feathers in the Magnificent curve into a double circle, differing, therefore, in shape from those of his cousins.. A darker yellow than the mantle appears on the body above; this colour of course lights up or deepens with the play of light upon it, just as does also “the rich green flushed with purple” of the parts underneath, so that when the full, expanded plum- age is displayed, the radiant little creature will be seen to pos- sess every claim to his title. The under or secondary mantle, whence the generic name, rich and warm in color, sets off still more the novel charms of the bird. In size he is one of the smallest of his race, being but little larger than the King. 1 : 2 The American Naturalist. [January, Another bird of paradise is not inaptly called the Incom- parable, for it is wondrously attired, yet this designation too might as fittingly to bestowed upon almost any species where each is conspicuous for some particular charm. But in one respect at least this paragon (Paradisea gularis) presents a decided contrast to other genera—in the structure or appear- ance of the tail. In place of long floating plumes or bewilder- ing maze of drooping feathers with the wire filaments pro- jecting far beyond, there are true tail-feathers much prolonged and broadening somewhat toward the extremities. As a further mark of distinction in addition to the dispropor- tionately long and peculiarly shaped tail, the Incomparable bears on its head a double crest of velvety feathers which flash and glitter, requiring only the light to bring out all the colours from their dull depths. The same may be said of the scales of copper and gold on the throat and breast. Equally gorgeous though without the scintillating reflections is the glossy ap- parel of the body and tail. The whole plumage in fact “ glows with an effulgence ot varied hues that almost baffle descrip- tion.” To support this wealth of colour and feathers nature has fur- nished a pair of strong, substantial legs, very serviceable in- deed for grasping branches of trees, but far from shapely. Large, ugly feet and legs, however, are the common heritage of all the birds of paradise, the only parts visible where the useful has predominated over the ornamental. This is eminently true of Paradisea apoda whose descriptive, scientific appellation is decidedly a misnomer. Let us not, however, now that we are convinced that Apoda has legs, cast the term aside, for the pretty fiction it commemorates is worth retaining. This lovely bird is almost too well known to require more than a brief notice. It was the first of its kind to become a familiar and admired object in museums as it had long been an article of commerce. This fact may have arisen partly from its abundance, its supreme beauty or the accessibility of the regions it inhabited. The specimens we see in cabinets, well mounted as they often are and carefully preserved, are dim and lustreless beside the living creatures as they flash in all the 1895.] Birds of New Guinea. 3 ` splendor of vivid colours amid their native haunts. Here the foliaceous snow-white plumes waving in the wind, the buoyant pinions dark of hue, the brown-golden plush of the body, the violet and purple breast, the dazzling yellow of neck and head, the changing metallic green of the throat all form a picture that once seen is never forgotten. Of reduced size and of some- what paler colors, but in other respects almost the counterpart of the Apoda—or Great, Common, Emerald, as it is variously called, is the Lesser bird of paradise—Paradisea minor or papuana. These two species stand in about the same relation to each another as the hairy and downy woodpeckers of our forests. In his first visit to New Guinea in 1871, D’Albertis killed the male of a bird which i . eyenen a in his interesting work “new genus and new species.” Mr. Sclater denominated it Drepan- ornis albertisu. It certainly is very different in appearance, especially in the form of the beak, as D’Albertis points out, from other species of birds of paradise. “The beak resembles that of the hoope,” being long and curved. The plumage lacks the velvet-like texture of other species, but is downy, while the head, although crested with curious protuberances of small feathers gleaming green and copper in certain lights, is not similar in shape. Nor can it be placed on an equality with its fellows in that beauty and arrangement of plumage we think of as typical of birds of paradise. And yet its claims are not to be slighted ; its rich umber coat shines with lustre ; tufts of feathers, beautifully tinted and so long as to almost enfold the body, spring from the breast and sides, and the dividing colors seem to stand out, so vivid and distinct are they. Whether open or shut the two semicircular feather-fans or shoulder-crests gleam in the light like a humming-bird’s array ; the same may be said of the throat and breast. Purple, violet, yellow, brown and gold, are some of the hues that chase each another over the scft plumage. The under parts from the breast to the rounded tail which is unadorned with loose plumes or elongations, are white; a roseate tinge may be seen on the spurious wings, while greyish and olive reflections ap- _ pear on the edgings of both the wng and short feathers, Bd : 4 The American Naturalist. [January, long, curving bill continued from a small somewhat flattened head, suggest habits akin to the sun or honey birds, and even relationship to them. The above is also called Epimachus vethii, vide p. 393, Vol. 28, no. 329 of Amer. Nat. Mr. Denton, whose keenness of observation is evident in his interesting volume of personal experience as it is also in his recollection, and whose ready assistance one takes pleasure in acknowledging, likens the head of Drepanornis when the feath- ers are puffed out to that of the crested grebe. He regards it as one of the oddest, strangest and most grotesque-looking of birds. Whether the so-called Plume birds form a distinct family as some naturalists have divided them or whether they should be ranked among the birds of paradise as merely a long billed variation—a species to which the Drepanornis should properly belong, certain it is that there is nothing lovelierin feathers to entitle their possessors to a classification with the peerless Paradisea. This much asto their appearance ; as to their diet, they are both insectivorous and frugivorous feeding largely upon the fruit of the pandanus tree. The legs and feet are almost misshapen, naked along the thighs and livid in colour. The cry is long and cadenced. In essaying a description of these birds it is well to keep in mind the words Mr. Wood used in his own account. In speaking of the inadequacy of language to convey the impression the changing beauty of the - plumage leaves. upon the mind, he adds: “even with the assistance of colour, any idea that can be given, would neces- sarily be very imperfect, and the most admirable illustrations ever drawn, rich in ultramarine, carmine, and gold, would ‘pale their ineffectual fires’ even before the stiff and distorted form of the stuffed bird. The very respiration keeps the feathers in continued motion, causing them to change their tints with every breath, ete. This is in itself a description. In additional respects the species under consideration—tħe twelve-wired Epimachus, Seleucides alba of D’Albertis, is en- _ shrouded in soft, loose plumage, like velvet to look upon and- of the richest tone. Itis a beautiful puzzle in arrangement ~ and coloring, a poem in feathers, a symphony in the interfu- 1895.] Birds of New Guinea. 5 sion of a few tints only, which might almost be reduced to mere lustrous black and orange: the body being dark of hue, while beyond and enveloping the short tail, delicate creamy- yellow plumes extend in a bewildering maze. “The bird is so gorgeous,” exclaims D’Albertis, “ that it is not surpassed by any other of the feathered tribe.” Its distinguishing feature, uni- que among birds, is the display of wire feathers—six on a side, threading the intricacy of the waving plumes and prolonged severalinches. These are much attenuated, black in colour and without the terminal web. They cannot be said to add materially to the beauty of the bird though they certainly do to its singular appearance. Far more attractive from an aes- thetic point of view, are the recurved feathers standing out from and partly encircling the neck. These reflect from their burnished surface all flashing colours, blazing in sunlight like polished gems. D’Albertis observed that the tail of the female and young males was long in proportion to the body. There is, however, one of this interesting group of birds, the adult male of which is furnished with a tail remarkable for its ex- cessive length; this is the Superb epimachus—Epimachus magnus or Long-tailed bird of paradise. Mr. Denton in his Incidents of a Collector’s Rambles thus summarizes its charms :—“ The plumage is a velvety-purple-black; the tail is two feet long; and the side plumes have a bar of the most exquisite green and gold, extending across the tips.” In this example the coloration is even simpler than in the fore- going, that is, the ground or primitive tint is black, lustrous black, but the effect of light upon this basal colour is quite as marvellous as in any bird specimen. The play becomes always different and incessant. The black seems both suffused and shot over with emerald, turquoise, bronze, yellow, every hue you please, and this not only from the metallic surface of the wings and tail but from the soft, dark velvet of the body, as well. There is a similar collar or ruff around the neck of the Superb, as adorns the twelve-wired bird ; but the tail is alto- ` gether different. Instead of the pendulous plumes which may answer for caudal ornamentation we find twelve long-extended quill feathers, the two longest in the middle, sometimes cross- 6 The American Naturalist. [January,. ing each other at their extremities, the lateral feathers decreas- ing gradually in length towards the rump. These glow with colour of a brilliancy almost equalling that reflected from the shining throat and breast. Altogether this Plume bird is a splendid representative of its race, not only in respect to its exquisite shape and coloring, but also great size, for it can boast of a total length of nearly four feet. When the mantle is uplifted, there is plainly discernible a lovely wavering cres- cent of blue light about an inch from the edges and reaching as far as the body. Mr. Wallace describes these broad side- plumes as dilated at their extremities; rather do they seem as if a pair of shears had clipped them before they had become fringed. Nor can it be said that the bar of quivering color ex- tends along the tips; this must be removed as has been stated, a little space below, where, if so chameleon-like a tint can be labelled, it is a glowing azure. When Mr. John Gould, the author of Birds of Australia and other monumental works, was at work in the Island-continent, he limited the range of the Rifle Birds to one small section of that country. Recent travellers, however, in New Guinea have found members of this interesting group there also. Mr. Octav- ius Stone who spent “a Few Months in New Guinea” collected the Ptilorhis magnifica along the southern coast, and Mr. 8S. F. Denton gives an engaging description of his pursuit and capture of the same. This bird is not enriched with the feath- ered efflorescence, if we may so term it, to the same extent as the Plume-birds to which it is allied, and the birds of paradise, but the sheen of its scale-plumage is of even greater intensity. Colours flash from head and throat with gem-like rapidity and effulgence, for these parts are covered, as it were, with bits of glittering steel that are emerald-green to look upon when the bird is perfectly still, but when a movement is made there is a sudden blaze of yellow mingled with the primal tints. The rest of the body is of a velvety black “ touched here and there with purple gleams of light.” Mr. Denton calls it “one of the loveliest and richest creatures ” in the world. Its note ~ he says, is a loud and coarse croak and when it flies “every _ stroke of its wings squeak as if two pieces of crisp silk had been 1895.] Birds of New Guinea. 7 rubbed together.” The point of resemblance between the Pliloris and Epimachus is the long, curved beak. In other respects there is a marked contrast. The plumage in the former is mainly compact, and, divested of its glancing hues, is char- acterized by its simplicity. The tail too is not developed into a long or spreading train but is short, stout and square, serv- ing apparently the useful purpose of a prop or assistance to the bird as it climbs on branches of trees, for its likeness to the Creepers has already been pointed out, though its large size as- sorts oddly with their slender frames. It is, however, not en- tirely without side plumes, but these are thin and scant and reach underneath scarcely beyond the tail when the wings are closed. The croak of this bird is absolutely appalling in its loudness, volume and dissonance ; it may be heard halfa mile or more and when once heard is never forgotten. He is strangely local in his habitat and whatever spot he has appro- priated as his peculiar domain, he cannot be driven away from, nor does he endure a trespasser upon it. There are several more species of the Paradisea or kindred forms yet to be described, but further consideration of them will be deferred to another occasion. Probably others are still to be discovered, and it may be, as has been asserted, that as many as forty distinct varieties of these unrivalled creatures await the admiration and wonder invariably paid them. But on the subject of the irrelevancy of man to the animate beauties of nature, some reflections of Mr. Wallace, in connection with his first sight of the King-bird of paradise, may profitably be studied. It is needless to say that- the foregoing descriptions refer in every instance to the male bird. The female, as is invariably the rule with brilliantly plumaged birds, is comparatively plain, positively so in the case of the Rifle-bird where the dull- est shade of brown emitting no sparkle whatever is all that nature has allotted. She is not even graced with the two bright- green middle tail feathers which shine so conspicuously amid _ the dark-toned velvet of the male bird. Yet there are some — - examples of elegance of form and loveliness of plumage that, ‘whether their possessors are merely paler reflections of their 8 The American Naturalist. [January, mates or may be guaged on their own merits, can claim high rank in the lists of beauty. Such are, to mention two or three only, the Great and Lesser birds of paradise. It is only in the dazzling présence of their lords that the charms of the females seem dim and unimportant. But little that is exact and trustworthy is known of the hab- its, modification and general life of birds of paradise. They keep to the tallest trees as a rule, with the exception of the little King-bird and the Magnificent, who favor bushes and small growths. Although not particularly suspicious they re- sent intrusion on their haunts, retiring out of sight quickly or screaming in vociferous tones their uneasiness. They do not, however, by any means reserve their discordant cries for occa- sions of alarm, but are indefatigable in uttering them at other times as well, yet a singularly sweet note heard now and then in the dense forest is accredited to one or another of the para- dise-birds. From the Magnificent for instance proceeds a squirrel-like chatter that may be imitated by sucking the back of the hand rapidly. Raggiana too is said to make a peculiar whistle as when a man calls his dog. At periods of mating these birds are nosiy and clamorous. It is then that the natives undertake their capture at the time when those remarkable courting-dances or displays are in pro- gress, wherein the male, oblivious to everything but the object of his desire, is thrown into a frenzy of passion, attitudinizes in every conceivable posture and spreads out all the glories of his splendid plumage. The silent deadly blow-gun is now brought into requisition with telling effect, bird after bird fall- ing in the interests of trade. As the Paradisea are by no means solitary, but, where they are met with at all, fond of associating together in small flocks, it can easily be perceived how large a supply is annually furnished to the exigencies of commerce. But this murder of the innocents, one may be glad to remem- ber, is after all limited to a few species, for, as it has already been intimated, the majority of the different varieties are never exported—natural obstacles, scarcity of numbers or lack of de- mand effectually preventing. 1895.] Birds of New Guinea. 9 The fruits of the teak-wood, the pandanus, etc., constitute perhaps the larger portion of the food of these birds, but their grosser appetite does not disdain an insect diet---beetles, certain kinds of bugs and locusts, not forgetting frogs, lizards and other small reptiles with which the New Guinea forests are well stocked. If one would prefer that these ethereal creatures lived upon things less obnoxious to our tastes, he may console himself with the knowledge that they occasionally partake of butterflies, which in these wilds are, in many cases, almost as lovely and aerial asthe birds themselves. It is doubtful, how- ever, if these are taken on the wing as some have fancied ; the expanding plumage would seem to forbid any such attempt on the part of the pursuer even though the prey be only a slow- sailing Lepidopter. Seleucides alba is said to sip the nectar from flowers. Of the nests, eggs and young but little is yet known although it would seem as if opportunities for such knowledge, had not been altogether lacking. “ What character, O sovereign Nature! I appeal to thee, Of all thy feathered progeny Is so unearthly, and what shape so fair? So richly decked in variegated down, Green, sable, shining yellow, shadowy brown, Tints softly with each other blended, Hues doubtfully begun and ended ; Or intershooting, and to sight Lost and recovered, as the rays of light Glance on the conscious plumes touched here and there” Bird of Paradise. .— Wordsworth. A colored plate of the Drepanornis albertisii will appear in the next mumber of the Naturalist. 10 The American Naturalist. [January, LEUCISCUS BALTEATUS (RICHARDSON), A STUDY IN VARIATION: By Cari H. EIGENMANN. Nowhere else in North America do we find, within a limited region, such extensive variations among freshwater fishes as on the Pacific slope. This is true, whether we have reference to the extent of variation between the extremes of the same family or to the limits of variation in any given species. A comparison of the members of the eight families of fishes having representatives on both the Atlantic and Pacific slopes, show that, on an average, each of these families has four genera and sixteen species on the Pacific slope, and seven genera and thirty-six species on the Atlantic. Yet, although the number of species is more than twice as great on the At- lantic slope, the variation in the number of fin rays among the Pacific slope species is greater in all but two families. I have recently” made a detailed comparison between the mem- bers of the different families, and there attributed this great extent of variation to two causes. First: the fauna is of diverse origin; some of the members are of Asiatic, while others are of Atlantic descent. Second: the fauna is new as. compared with the Atlantic slope fauna, and has not yet reached a stage of stable equilibrium. It is possible, as sug- gested to me by President Jordan, that the Pacific slope fauna has retained its primitive charactérs more nearly than the Atlantic slope fauna, which shows signs of degeneration in its fins and teeth. This great variation between the members of the same fam- ilies is not confined to the fin rays. It is equally true of other characters, but can best be demonstrated in characters whose variation can be numerically expressed. The pharyngeal 1 Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 11. ? Results of Explorations in Western Canada and the Northwestern ‘United : States. Bull. U. S. Fish Com. for 1894, pp. 101 to 132. Plates 5 to 8. June, 1894. 1895.] Leuciscus Balteatus, A Study in Variation. 11 od teeth of the Cyprinide offer another striking example of these variations among the Pacific slope species. In a number of cases, the variations of the Pacific slope species extend along definite and parallel lines. I have pointed out some of these in the paper quoted above. These lines are directed towards an increase of rays and towards a modification of rays into spines. \ The following quotations, from Gilbert and Evermann’s re- cent work on the Columbia River Basin,’ illustrate the varia- tion among the different specimens of the same species. “The range of variation seems to be very great, and characters which are of undoubted specific value when applied to Atlantic drain- age species, do not possess any such value for classification of Pacific coast fishes. Each so-called species seems to be in a very unstable state of equilibrium, and not to have yet as- sumed or been able to retain, with any degree of permanence, any set of specific characters.” “'The crosswise series of scales [in Agosia nubila (Girard)]. varies from 47 to 70 in number; the barbel [a generic character] is present or absent; the pharyngeal teeth vary from 1,4-4,0 to 2,4-4,1 ; and the dorsal fin varies much in position and somewhat in size. These characters occur in various combinations, and with some of these are often correlated peculiarities of physiognomy and general appearance, all of which may serve to put a certain stamp upon the individuals from a single stream, or even from one locality in a stream.” These observations, especially those contained in the last sentence, accord exactly with the results obtained by me in Leuciscus, and confirm my statement which will be further reénforced by the present paper, “ that each locality has a variety which, in the aggregate, is different from the variety of every other locality.” The remarkable variation of the Pacific slope species, and more especially the variation in the fin rays, was first noted in preparing my account of the specimens collected in the Colum- 3 Report of the Commisssioner of Fish and Fisheries on havai in the Columbia River Basin in Regard to the Salmon Fisheries. Washington, 1894. A report upon investigations in the Columbia River Basin, with deseription of four new ene of fishes. 12 The American Naturalist. [January, bia and Frazer Basins.‘ This variation was most pronounced in the species of the late genus Richardsonius. Of the species of this genus, I had about 250 specimens, collected in the Fra- zer and Columbia systems, from tidewater to an elevation of 2,786 feet. The later explorations of Gilbert and Evermann have increased this number to 825, and these warrant a re- examination of the points stated by me. For all the data con- cerning the fin rays of the specimens collected by Gilbert and Evermann, I am indebted to them. Their examination of these specimens was made to test certain conclusions reached by me, and their data, therefore, join mine. In counting the anal rays, I counted the rudiments at the beginning of the fin. These were not counted by Gilbert and Evermann, and to bring their data in perfect accord with mine, it is necessary to add 2 to the number of anal rays. While the number of rudimentary rays is not always 2, it is so often that the excep- tions would probably not alter the general results. At the time I began my studies of these forms, they were regarded as two species, forming a peculiar genus, Richardson- ius. They were known to inhabit the Columbia River and the streams about Puget Sound. The compressed belly behind the ventral fins was regarded as the character separating them generically from the related forms. It soon became evident that, while some specimens possessed this, if constant, unques- tionable generic character, others did not show it at all, and the genus was relegated to the limbo of synonymy. The species balteatus and lateralis were distinguished as follows: a. Base of anal, 44 in the length ; A. 17 or 18; teeth, 2,5-4,2. Lower jaw slightly projecting beyond the upper. Coloration plain ; the sides bright silvery; crimson in males in spring. Scales 13-62-6. balteatus. aa. Base of anal 54 in the length; A. 14; teeth 2,5-5,2. Jaws equal; blackish above; a dark lateral band; the inter- spaces and belly pale; crimson in male in summer. Scales 13-55-6. lateralis. 1 This variation in the same species does not seem to be confined to the Fishes. Prof. Ritter, Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., 2d Ser., Vol. IV, p. 37, finds the same in Perophora annectens, a new tunicate described by him. 1895.] Leuciscus Balteatus, A Study in Variation. 13 No better distinguishing marks could be wished by any sys- tematist. These characters were found to be so bridged, that the extremes could not be specifically sustained, and one of them, probably out of deference to the authority of my friends Jordan and Gilbert, from whom the above diagnosis was mod- ified, was retained as a variety of the other. Now I am in- clined to regard lateralis as a synonym of balteatus with Gilbert and Evermann, but I must take exception to the statement attributed to me that I “considered lateralis a subspecies of balteatus occupying the same brook with its parent form.” I found balteatus at the lower Frazer to Kamloops, lateralis at the headwaters of the Thomson River down to Kamloops. I see no reason why a subspecies should not occupy the same “ brook ” with its parent form, for some allied species—between which and subspecies there is, after all, but a mental difference —are, even by Gilbert and Evermann, admitted to live side by side (Agosia falcata and umatilla at Umatilla). Leuciscus balteatus ascends the tributaries of the Frazer and Columbia as high as the falls will permit. No other species is found in the Frazer system nor in the Columbia Basin proper, The specimens from Brown Gulch were described as different from those of the lower Columbia, but a comparison of large numbers from other localities has shown them to be but one of the numerous local variations. Three other species, L. hydro- phlox, lineatus and aliciz, are found in the Snake above the falls. The last two belong to a different section of the genus Leuciscus, and are not closely related to the balteatus. All three have probably entered the Snake River from the Utah Basin. As far as known, the territories of L. balteatus and hy- drophlox do not overlap, unless those specimens of balteatus, with only 13 or 14 anal rays, are, in reality, hydrophlox, and, as far as my experience goes, the number of anal rays is the only ready means of distinguishing the two. L. balteatus ex- tends up to or near to the first falls of the Snake, hydrophlox is found from this point to the headwaters. A comparison of hydrophlox, balteatus and gilli, the specimens from Brown’s Gulch, makes it quite certain that they are all modifications of the same form. 14 The American Naturalist. (January, Below are given a number of tables which show the varia- tion in several characters. specimens. These tables are all from my own From these tables it will be noticed that the number of dor- sal rays is quite constant, being from 10to 13. The variation TABLE OF VARIATION FOR 26 SPECIMENS FROM MISSION. Remarks. Keel scarcely evident. Median keel scarcely evident. Median erate. Moilian keel well developed. Keel typi ci Keel well y hen eel no more than in montants. istinct. Keel typica rel ag Keel well developed. Keel moderate, Do. Do. Keel evident. f pupil. Remarks. Keel indistinct. PEER en. | | | | No. solk pe, a — Anal.) Scales, | Teeth.* Depth. SE aman ae | | En Sar NDH | it |— l 140 1325 18% 59-6} wee | 3 -2 (t) | Q 2| 120 | 1982 | 21% | 11-53-512,54,1| 3 2-5 u be 3| 1o |13% |19% zsa 325| ty | ¢ 4| 105 | 12% | 2082 | 1258-6! 275-42) 3 1-4 i) | 5 | 100 | 12%% | 1924 | 11-57-6| 2,4-4,2) 3 2-5 p) | g 5} 102 | 1212 181 | 1260-6| 254,2! 31-2 () |e 7 1144 | 20% | 12-57-5| 2,4-3,1] 3 3-7 | i} | 9 ; 1142 1982 | 12-5 54,1 3 3-5 | th} ee ) 1244 | 194, | 12-61-6| 2,5-4,2; 323] (1) | 1244 | 2154 | 1263-6 2541| 378| (p) |? 1 12% | 2034 | 11-62-6| 2,5-4,2! 8 8-5 | (8) | i 12%% | 20%% | 13-59-6| 1,5-4,2) 3 3-5 | lg 121% | 2014 | 11-59-7| 2,5-4,1| 3 1-4 | ? |g > | 1284 | 2084 | 12-61-7| 25-41) 3 1-2 | p |a | 1142 | 1982 | 12-61-6| 254,1) 335] } g y | 1242 | 1882 | 13-50-7| 25-42) 31-2 | (o| g 1242 | 1742 | 13-58-7| 2542| 3 2-3 H |? ; ) 11% 1742 | 11-60-7| 254,2 3 1-2 oe ) 12 | 57 | 25-42) 845 $ ? í 7 13-61-7| 25-38,2! 323 4) TEN ; i 54,2 82-3 ) g ‘ E T 61 | E6? 3 4-5 i 23 t 5-4, 2| ‘ 60 AE 5 54,2 3 45 T PE 4 € 24 ! E q 64 os A Bie | | t _— rive aso ag observed that the beet individuals among the minnows usually have abnormal numbers o iteh Anterior aik nt main row on nig side is teed eect ab g con remote from e others, and ints inw gi 2 Equidistant from base of middle caudal rays and upper angle of preopercle. | Equidistant from base of middle caudal rays and posterior margin of eye. TABLE OF VARIATION FOR 8 SPECIMENS FROM SICAMOUS. | ion No.| Length | DOF- | Amal. Scales. | Teeth. | | pets: _| Position | Sex | f aia | : mm. f 1 82 | 12% | P , 11-60-62, 4-3,1, 4— (*) z 92 12% | | 16% | 11-62-6; 2, 54, 2 ...... cote t+ 3 12% | 14% | 14-62-7|2, 5-4,2, 3 3-5 + 4l 87 | 12% | 17% | 12-605 2,54 | 4 REEE 5 85 | 12% | 16% | 10-62-5| 2, 5-5,3, 4 1-5 i 6 80 | 12% | 18% | 11-60-6) 2. 5-4,1 4 1-4 $ 85 | 12% | 16% 11-59-52, 5-4,2 4 t 8 77 |12% |17% | 11-61 |2, 5-4, 1| 415 uidistant base of TRTE rays and upper HSEEE ee { Equidistant from base of middle caudal ra; 1895.] Leuciscus Balteatus, A Study in Variation. 15 TABLE OF VARIATION FOR 18 SPECIMENS FROM THE COLUMBIA AT GOLDEN. y | = | | | | i No. tenet ae Anal.| | Seales. | Teeth. | Depth. | Head ofãorsal. Sex Remarks. oer hike mm. | | | | 1 115 | 12% | 414; (* Keel nil. 2} 104 | 11% | latg] o a? $ | Keel evident. 3 103 | 11% t 1-4 | * Q] Do. 4 103 | 11% 4 2-7 (s g Do. 5 95 | 12% | (41-3) (tł Q | Keel well marked. 6 92 | 11% 4 1-4 (2 ? | Keel well developed. 7 91. | 12% | 4 1-5 (Doo bea | Keel nil. 8 85 | 11%/1 41-5) be hares perce Keel well developed. 9 85 | 12% FEDI A Ee Keel scarcely evident. 10 82 | 11% (41-4 I afisk Keel evident. 11 83 | 11% | oe tey: pa 12 TAU 141-4 EETRI ee Keel evident. 13 W E E oaa auaa E >” ferda (t) |... Keel well developed. 14 72 | 10% $a pe eee | Keel moderate. 15 68 | 11% bd Ree Bes Keel well developed. 16 67 | 12% e tee | 0. 17 65 | 12% | eb Wiis Ps | Keel strong. 18 OR T kr el a Pee ed Do. * pa from = of oe y Staw op eee ag of scaled region). rsal nearer base of middle t Equidistant from aad of middle ma rays and upper ĝ Equidistant from base of middle caudal rays and estar yy margin ofe eye. in the anal is enormous, but this I shall treat in detail. The scales are seen to vary from 10 to 14 above the lateral line; from 55 to 63 along the lateral line, and from 5 to 7 below the lateral line. There is nothing unusual in these variations, they are surpassed or equalled by other members of the same family. The variation in the teeth is great. With one excep- tion, there are two teeth in the lesser row of the left side. The major row on the left side contains 4 or 5 teeth in the propor- tion of 1 to 6. In the right side, 3, 4 and 5 teeth were found in 4,30, and 2 specimens respectively. In the lesser row of the right side, 13 specimens had 1 tooth, 20 had 2 teeth and one had 3. This last specimen, with dental formula 2,5-5,3, exceeds the dental formula of all the 175 Atlantic slope species of this family. Among these dental formule we find variations, the extremes of which have been taken as generic characters in other members of the Cyprinide. The different combinations of teeth and the number of speci- mens having each number are as follows: One with 1,5-4,1 ; -one with 1,5-4,2 ; two with 2,4-3,1; one with 2,4-3,2; one with 2,4-4,2 ; one with 2,4-5,2 ; one with 2,5-3,2 ; eleven with 2,5—4,1; sixteen with 2,5-4,2; one with 2,5-5,3. The usual or normal 16 The American Naturalist. [January,, formula is 2,5-4,1 or 2. The variation through ten different. combinations is exceptional. The proportions, while varying considerably, do not show any wider fluctuation than usual. The position of the dorsal, on the other hand, varies considerably. In the development of the keel behind the ventral fins we- find again a great fluctuation in specimens from the same locality. In some, the keel is very sharp; in others, it is en- tirely absent, and between these forms, we have all shades of variation. If uniform, it would be of generic value. Now, as to the variation of the anal rays. The lowest num- ber recorded is 13 (after adding 2 to Gilbert and Evermann’s lowest number), and the highest is 24. This gives a total variation of 12 rays. This would be a large variation for any fish but ,becomes phenomenal when it is considered that the variation in the number of anal rays of the 175 Atlantic slope species extends only from 6 to 14, a total variation of but 9 for 175 species as compared with the variation of 12 for a single species. The high number of rays reached is also phenom- enal, for, leaving out of consideration the two rudimentary spines, the highest number of anal rays—22—is ten more than the number found in any other Pacific Cyprinoid, and 8 more than the number found in any Atlantic species. The average number of rays is 17. The variation to lower numbers extends through 4 rays to13. The variation to higher numbers is much greater, extending through 7 rays to 24. Not only is the extent of variation greater towards higher numbers, but the number of specimens varying in that direction is much greater. Of 825 specimens, but 22.3 per cent. have the aver- age number of rays. This is the largest per cent. for any given number of rays. Thirty-four per cent. of all the specimens have fewer than the average number of rays, while 42.9 per cent. have more than the average number. A more striking illustration of determinate variation could not be wished. Fig. 1 graphic- ally represents the variation of the species as shown by the 825 specimens examined. The total height of the vertical lines represents the greatest possible number—100 per cent— that could have the given number of anal rays indicated at the “OI snynaypng enasionarT g Z T RRR E af o Vz £2 22 12 02 61 8 : Bo ezez zz 120286! BI zi pst + TS 4 Sy “I \ Ni NY ‘ | LAS NS b| TEA eos NS / | Í À : \ x \ ES ek SU a BP 1 ALV'Id "ITY engnayng snosona'T 6 8 \ | j TTT \ vA ry J iii \ y i V V | V LLUN ‘Il ALVId “PONT 8nynaq7nq snosronarT ee ee eee 41 a 9 o 42 E2 Z2 12 02 GI BI Zi BI SI bi € ez WOE 495 2 22 12 02 Gi Pi Zi St st vi El h ; \ ay $2 £2 22 12 O2 GI Bi 21 9! SI HI E #2 £2 22 12 02 GI Sl Li 9 Si +! El Il A.LV'Id —_— ‘PLY srpoayng snasionay~—z “DIT ‘AI GLV'Id PLATE V yy Py) Fic. 91. Frc. 22. hydrophlow. uciseus Fro, 22. Le Fic. 21. Leuciscus gillii. 1895.] Leuciscus Balteatus, A Study in Variation. 17 bottom of the lines. The curve shows the actual per cent. of specimens having each particular number of rays. Were the variation promiscuous, the curve would be symmetrical. The asymmetry shows the inherent tendency to higher numbers of rays in this fish. It may be well to bear in mind that no other species has a higher number of rays, that no other species joins this curve on the right, while at least one, probably two, re- lated species living in the headwaters of the Snake River have fewer rays, i. e., joins this curve on the left. The curve of Leuciscus hydrophlox not only joins this curve, but overlaps it, showing that in the number of anal rays L.“balteatus and L. hydrophlox intergrade. To facilitate the study of the local variations, I give below all the data concerning the 825 specimens of this fish. The first column gives the name of the stream and locality; the second column gives the elevation of the locality ; the third the number of specimens collected at the given place; the fourth the extent of variation in the anal rays in the specimens from the locality, and the sueceeding columns the number of speci- mens having the particular number of anal rays indicated at _ the head of the columns. The figures in the column represent- ing the average number of rays for the specimens of the local- ity are in heavy face type. After a detailed examination of the specimens collected by myself, I found that every locality has a variety peculiar to itself. - The number of localities has been trebled by the ex- plorations of Gilbert and Evermann, and the number of speci- mens raised from 250 to 825, and their detailed examination of these specimens bears out the above statement for every locality examined by them. Unfortunately, they allowed themselves to be side-tracked by minor issues, and did not. mention this fact of local variation except in connection with other species. I collected at three localities in the Frazer Basin. At Mis- sion, B. C., I obtained 79 specimens in water which is affected by the high tides. At Sicamous, at an elevation of 1300 feet, I collected 58 specimens. At Griffin Lake, at an elevation of 2 The American Naturalist. (January, DETAILS OF THE VARIATIONS IN THE ANAL RAYS. Locality. | y |8 | 2 | ibn ie River, Payette 2150 Boise River, Caldwell 2372 ean ete MGR wie E i: Little Spokane Riv oe Diet rts Mik iai 1850 Small Chak. at Sand Point, Idaho...... 2100 Shuswap Lak , Sicamous 1300 ake Washington, Seattle 1 Umatilla River, Pendleton 1070 ( Ronde, ande 2786 Umatilla River, Umatilla 300 Colville River, Meyers Falls 1200 Columbia River, Golden, B. C.........+... 2550 Clear Water River, Lewiston 750 G Take 1990 Brown Gulch, Silver Bow........... ...++6 344 Skookumchuck River. TEES gi venden ses | 204) Spokane River, Spokane..........+.++ 1910, Hangman Creek, Spokane... sé beccdeoes UTOTO) Flathead I 3100 ~ River, ay (2150 Natchess River, North Yakima........ .../1078) Pend d’Oreille River, Newport 2000 Walla Walla River, Wallula 326 Post Creek, Flathead Lake. 3100. Potlatch Creek, Lewiston.-.... 1200) ‘Thompson River, Kamloops...... 204 Newaukum River, Chehalis 375 Columbia River, Pasco 1158 Columbia River, Revilstoke... soveeeeee 1475, S | Poa i Ei Number of | Q | Sl | Anal Rays. LS he 4 ERTE A Ž 18 1415 16 1718 19 20 21 99:98 24 154 9 "895 29 a7 28 25 12 3 2 99 9 2 ae oie 3 | 79 9 7 132518 8 2 2 2 70 5 1114180119 6 | | 716) | | 2/19/36 3 6 Bitten | 5816|. «61 31328 8 5| FaR | amir] | 1161113) 4| 1) 1) | | | | 261:5 150.9 1 ot td | 23| 4 ys ie a a ee ad be 22 Gy et ; 2} 6) 3) 4) 6 1 | 27| | | 76) oR | | 18/5] | 1) 7/6 4/1) | | | 64 | | 3| 5) 4 4 14/4 3} 7.3} 1 | | itai | | 2:10) 1) 1) | 136. i 1 Ba 21 1116; | 1,1 6113) | wi4) }°} 2) 2) 6a) 4 11;4)..|..4,2, 1) 6 3), We Ye el a aa Ore PS Lie og cepts 4 FIRS OR ee T ae 6/4) 1 | be Be BL A 6) 3 | | PANI} | 4Bi | bd Mel? SSPE Pera Boers 88) pte] 1} 3-1) 4 43 o eaa 11 Bag or oss | 1900 feet, I secured 14 specimens. Four others were secured at Kamloops, but these are too few to aid us in our study. The variation for these localities is represented by the three curves of figure two. The vertical lines stand for fin rays to total height of the figure for 100 per cent. The various heights of these curves represent the per cent of specimens hav- ing the given number of rays. much the greatest at Mission, a fact which is largely to be at- tributed to the greater number of specimens secured at this The variation is seen to be 1895.] Leuciscus Balieatus, A Study in Variation. 19 place. The variation from the normal, which is 19 rays, to a higher number of rays, is as great as the entire variation for the next locality. At Sicamous, a much larger per cent. has the normal number of rays, but the normal number has been decreased to 17. The curve for Griffin Lake is interesting, because the normal number of rays has again been decreased by two. In other words, the higher the altitude the fewer the number of rays and the narrower the limit of variation.’ Moreover, the curves are not symmetrical for any of the three localities, but, in the aggregate, the more gradual slope is on the side of an increase in the number of rays, a condition, which, considering the general variation of rays on the Pacific slope, seems to indicate that the number of rays of this species in the Frazer system is increasing, and that the increase is progressing from lower to higher altitudes. A glance at the remaining curves will be sufficient to show that no two curves are alike, that the per cent. of specimens having a given number of rays differs with each locality. Naturally, the curves constructed from a large number of specimens represent the true conditions better than the curves constructed from but few. The extent of the variation varies largely with the number of specimens examined ; that is, the probability of securing extremes becomes greater with an in- crease in the number of specimens collected. The greatest extent of variation for any locality, as far as known, is through 9 rays. This has been found only when over 70 specimens have been compared. It decreases to about 5 rays with 10 specimens. The total variation for the species has not been found at any one place. The question of variation, with elevation, is an interesting one, and may be taken up in some detail. In the following table, all the localities are grouped, accord- ing to their average number of rays. 5 In their recent paper, Gilbert and Evermann have raised this specific state- ment, which occurs in my paper quoted above, into the dignity of a “theory ” and “generalization” which it was never intended to be, and their arguments against it as a “theory” and ‘‘ generalization ” are, therefore, not appropriate. 20 The American Naturalist, [January, Average num- | Number of ber of rays. localittes. | | Localities with their elevations in feet. io) 15 | Little Spokane River, 1850; ee Lake, 1990; , | Revelstoke on the Columbia a, 16 8 | Lake Washington, 1; Umatilla River, Pendleton, U Grand Ronde River, La Grande, 2786; i Ow, rown’s Gulch, 5344; Pen Oreille River, Newport, 2 17 7 Newaucum River, Chehalis, 204 ; ‘Natchess River, North Yakima, 1078; Sicamous, 1300; Hang- Saacleats chuck sting Chehalis, 19 5 Mission, 1. Umatilla, 300; Walla Walla River, 326; Po Tew Deak 1200; Kamloops, 1158. 20 3 Clear Water, Lewiston, 750; Snake River, Pay- ette, 2150; Columbia Hive, Pasco, 375 The lowest average, 15, is found in but three localities, the lowest of which is at an elevation of 1475 feet. This last is of no value, since only one specimen was obtained and the chances are against an average specimen if only one is taken. The second average is found all the way from tidewater to an elevation of 5344 feet. Itis, however, notable that only one of the localities, Lake Washington, which does not belong to one of the two large water systems, is at a low elevation. The lowest of the other seven, all of which belong to the Columbia system, is at an elevation of 1070 feet. he third average, which is also the general average for all the specimens, is found in seven localities, the lowest of which is at an elevation of 204, the highest at 3100. All but the first, which again does not belong to one of the larger river systems, are at an elevation above 1000 feet. The fourth average ranges from 204 to 2372 feet. The fifth average, 19 rays, is found in five localities, three of _ which are below 1000 feet and the highest is at 1200. The sixth average, of 20 rays, varies from 375 to 2150 feet ; two of them are at an elevation of less than 1000 feet. This grouping does not show any uniform variation with the altitude. It may be emphasized that the lowest average is 1895.] Leuciscus Balteatus, A Study in Variation. 21 not found below 1475 feet, that only one of the seven having an average of 16 rays is found below 1000 feet, and that but one of the eight having an average of 17 rays is found below 1000 feet. From the last but three specimens are known. It may be further emphasized that three of the five localities having an average of 19 rays, are found below 1000 feet, and that two of the three having an average of 20 rays are found below 1000 feet. Generally, the lower localities have the larger number of rays, to which there are several notable exceptions —Lake Washington and Snake River at Payette. These facts can be presented in curves for groups of localities. Taking the specimens from the different groups of localities we obtain the following : : | | r Number of Number of Extentof | General aver- TRO localities. specimens. variation. age of anal rays | | | Feet. 1 to 750 8 | 189 11 | 18.4 -1078 to 2000 12 234 10 Boe 2001 to 3100 8 388 10 17.5 5000 to —— 1 10 16. Whether we consider the number of localities having a high average of rays, or whether we consider the average of all the specimens from a similar horizon, we find that the largest number of rays is found in the lower horizon. Furthermore, the extent of variation for the 189 specimens, from 1 to 750 feet, is greater than the variation for 234 and 388 specimens of the higher horizons. The variation for these three horizons is given in the three curves of figure 3. In the above we have considered the localities regardless of the system to which they belong. Lake Washington and the Newaukum and Skookumchuck Rivers belong to separate short water courses. Eliminating these and considering the localities of the Frazer and Columbia systems separately, we get the conditions described for the Frazer system. above and for the Columbia system the following, arranging t the localities in the order of elevation : i 22° The American Naturalist. [January Locality. — Elevation. Average number of anal rays. Umatilla, 300 19 Wallula, 326 9 Pasco, 375 20 Lewiston, 750 20 Pendleton, 1070 16 Yakima, 1078 17 Colville, — 1200 16 Potlatch, _ 1200 19 Revelstoke, 1475 15 (only one specimen). Little Spokane, 1850 15 Spokane, 1910 16 Hangman Creek, 1910 17 Pend d’Oreille, 2000 16 Small Creek, 2100 17 Payette, 2150 18 Snake River, 2150 20 Caldwell, 2812 18 Golden, 2550 16 La Grande, 2550 16 Flathead, 3100 17 . Brown’s Gulch, 5344 16 Summarizing this: Below 1000 feet the averages are 19 and 20; above 1000 feet only one averages 20, only one reaches 19, two reach 18, four have 17, seven have 16, and two have 15. These figures “ are not so unanimous in their indications” of a decrease of rays with an increase of altitude as those for the Frazer system. But the lower locality generally possesses a high number of rays. Here, where we have data from many widely separated branches, a close variation of rays, with altitude, is not found. Local issues have modified national tendencies among these fishes in the Columbia system. Among the locality curves (figures 4 and following) the ideal curve is most nearly approached at Caldwell. The variation from the average is here equally great in both directions; and the curve of the ascending variation is almost identical with the curve of the descending variation. Nearly as ideal condi- 1895.] Leuciscus Balteatus, A Study in Variation. 23 tions are found at Little Spokane, where the extent of varia- tion is much smaller. A priori such symmetry or approach to symmetry is to be expected for each locality, but the devia- tions from it are many and great. The many shoulders and peaks in localities PA which but few specimens have been collected, indicate probably nothing so much as the lack of a sufficient number of specimens. When but ten specimens are examined, each specimen, more or less, makes such a vast difference in the character of the curve that the localities with less than 20 specimens may be dismissed without further notice. Aside from curves, such as that of Little Spokane, where a certain number of rays is the predominant one, we have curves such as that of the Payette River, where the number of speci- mens having 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 rays, is nearly equal. Still another type of curve is represented by the curves for Lake Washington, Colville and Umatilla, in which two numbers predominate, with the intervening numbers in minority. The conditions are most marked at Umatilla, where we have two incipient varieties with 18 and 21 as the predominating num- ber of rays. I have given, at the outset, the probable causes which have - brought about the great differences between the Pacific slope fishes. We must look to other causes for the great variation betweem species of undoubted Atlantic origin, and especially the varia- tion in the same species, which reaches its culmination in Leuciscus balteatus and Agosia nubila. The climatic, altitudinal — and geological differences in the different streams, and even in the length of the same stream, are very great on the Pacific slope. To these different environments we must attribute the conditions set forth in the present paper for Leuciscus balteatus. These differences in different localities in the same stream can only become established in nonmigratory species. No such differences are to be expected for a migratory species. To a migratory species, such as the species of Salmo, different rivers bear the same relation as different localities on the same river to a non-migratory. Isolation for the specimens of 24 The American Naturalist. [January, any locality, when free intermigration is possible, seems strange. An analgous condition is to be found on the Galapagoes Islands. Dr. Baur tells me that islands within plain sight of each other harbor distinct varieties of the same species of birds which could readily intermigrate, but do not. This raises the question of the sort of influence exerted by the environment. Is it merely selective, or is it directive? Is the variation promiscuous and inherent in the species, or is it determinate and forced in certain directions by the environ- ment? The latter seems to me the better way of reading such conditions as are represented by the many curves which show a greater variation towards an increased number of rays than towards a decrease of rays. Here the variation is not promis- cuous, but definitely determinate. See, in this connection, the curve for all the specimens. The origin of new varieties is admirably illustrated by the curves for Lake Washington and Umatilla. In these, two dis- tinct peaks are found. While no varietal value is claimed for these peaks, isolation of members of such peaks, either physio- logically or locally, would tend to establish such incipient varieties. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. The vertical lines, in all cases, stand for a definite number of anal rays. The total height of the figures represent 100 per cent., and the height of the curves, at any point, the per cent. of specimens having the particular number of rays in the anal. Fig. 1. Curve of variation for 217 specimens of Leuciscus hydro- phlox from the upper Snake, and for 825 specimens of Leuciscus balteatus from many localities, varying from 1 to over 5000 feet in elevation. a, the two series of specimens are combined in the broken line curve. Fig. 2. Three curves showing the variation of the three locali- ties represented from the Frazer system : Griffin Lake, 1900 feet, 17 specimens. Sicamous, 1300 feet, 58 specimens. Mission, 1 foot, 79 specimens. 1895.] Leuciscus Balteatus, A Study in Variation. 25 Fig. 3. Three curves showing the variation: a, of 234 specimens from 1000 to 2000 feet elevation, b (broken line), 388 specimens from 2000 to 3000 feet elevation. c, 189 specimens from 1 to 1000 feet elevation. Fig. 4. Variation of 99 specimens from Caldwell, 2372 feet. Fig. 5. Variation of 23 specimens from La Grande, 2786 feet. Fig. 6. Variation of 70 specimens from Little Spokane, 1850 feet. Fig. 7. Variation of 79 specimens from Mission, 1 foot. Fig. 8. Variation of 154 specimens from Payette River, 2150 feet. Fig. 9. Variation of 26 specimens from Pendleton, 1070 feet. Fig. 10. Variation of 16 specimens from Clearwater, 750 feet. Fig. 11. Variation of 14 specimens from Brown’s Gulch, 5344 feet. Fig. 12. Variation of 67 specimens from Small Creek, 2100 feet. Fig. 13. Variation of 47 specimens from Lake Washington, 1 foot. Fig. 14. Variation of 22 specimens from Umatilla, 300 feet. Fig. 15. Variation of 21 specimens from Colville, 1200 feet. Fig. 16. Variation of 18 specimens from Golden, 2550 feet. Fig. 17. Variation of 13 specimens from Skookumchuck, 204 feet. Fig. 18. Variation of 11 specimens from Hangmans Creek, 1900 feet. Fig. 19. Variation of 12 specimens from Flathead Lake, 3100 feet. i Fig. 20. Leuciscus balteatus from Mission, the specimen now in the British Museum. ; Fig. 21. Leuciscus gilli from Brown’s Gulch. Fig. 22. Leuciscus hydrophloz. The last two cuts are reproduced by permission of Hon. Marshall McDonald, U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. 26 . The American Naturalist. [January, ON THE EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF WORKING IN STONE. By J. D. MCGUIRE. A REPLY TO MR. CHARLES H. READ. There appeared in the AMERIcAN NatuRAList for Decem- ber, 1894, a communication by Mr. Read, one of the keepers. of the British Museum, in reply to my paper on working in stone. Mr. Read having “given attention to the problem. itself” thinks it “necessary to point out the danger that lies in the use of improper or irrelevant evidence ;” he thinks the paper “so persistent in its pursuit of will-o’the- wisps that a better text could scarcely be found.” As Mr. Read represents the typical European believer in a paleolithic period, as distinguished from the neolithic, and as the writer calls in question the correctness of this distinction,. it may be well that the public shall have an opportunity to- decide who is chasing phantoms. Mr. Read himself calls the question a “puzzle,” the writer considers it a plain subject having little difficulty of solution. The original paper discussed the matter chiefly from a techni- cal standpoint and showed, that among European writers on the subject there was absolute contradiction, and the greatest uncertainty. There is nothing in the writer’s paper calculated to mislead any one, for where experiment showed a condition, it was- stated ; and where an author was quoted, his name was given. A great many American archeologists deny that the ques- tion is a “ puzzle” as alleged by Mr. Read, although they con- fine their expressions to American conditions. The writer has- not hesitated after a most thorough investigation to say that European authors do not agree even among themselves on the: subject. In the original paper it was stated “that a person capable of chipping out a paleolith after at most, a year or two spent- 1895.] On the Evolution of the Art of Working in Stone. 27 ` in such manipulation, would have acquired the skill requisite to batter an implement into shape, and subsequently, if neces- sary, to grind a blade toit.” The expression was thought to be considerate of the feelings of those who advance the untena- ble theory that man lived through centuries upon centuries of time, chipping stones, and never battering them into shape, nor even learning the process by which it was done; when as a fact, the art of chipping, if attempted upon a granular, igneous or metamorphic stone, of which implements are com- monly made, would by that very act become a battering pro- cess; for such stones do not chip when struck an ordinary ow. This is not a “theory” nor is it “based upon the writers own experience as an amateur maker of stone implements.” Mr. Read has not been particular in the selection of the terms used, so it may be appropriate to say here that the writer has made few stone implements, and those few are exhibited in cases in the U. S. National Museum along with the tools with which they were made, and all are numbered and labeled. In doing the work, much material was necessarily destroyed, but the results appear fully to justify the expenditure, and are considered as valuable by those who have given them careful scrutiny. Mr. Read is unfortunate in asking if the writer has ever seen a specimen of Kafir or Polynesian carpentry, and says “both cut everything from the solid,” and because the Brit- ish Museum possesses specimens of chairs, with legs and backs similar to European furniture, but cut from solid blocks, asks “ Are we to think that they began with joining, without doubt the easier method, and finally came to the more difficult, the cutting from the solid?” “Surely not.” Mr. Read says “the natural explanation is the best, simply that the easier method did not oceur to them.” Let us answer this fally:. The writer has seen Polynesian and African carpentry, in both of which the U. S. National Museum is rich, but these people do not differ in that respect from most, if not all other savage races of the world in cutting” almost everything from the solid. Mr. Read’s assertion that 28 À The American Naturalist. [January, joiner work is simpler than working from the solid, will not be accepted on this side of the Atlantic, and any farmer’s boy would laugh at such a suggestion even in England if he believed it to be seriously made. ` It is difficult to imagine how Mr. Read can suppose a chair with back and legs could be made out of wood by joining more easily than from the solid, if he thinks for one moment of the boring and mortising necessary in joiner work. Not only the operation but also the tools used in joiner work are more complicated than in carving from the solid. It is a pleasure to hear Mr. Read express his preference to speak of paleolithic man in Europe, for in America the friends of paleolithic man have with few exceptions deserted the proposition as an unsupportable theory. Mr. Read asserts that the writer’s “ views ” are ata variance with that of others, and says: “ Paleolithic implements are made chiefly of flint and quartz;” this is one of the great troubles, for if an igneous, granular or metamorphic stone is found ground into an implement, European archeologists insist that the article is neolithic, apparently not appreciating that the stones enumerated cannot be chipped. Flint imple- ments require chipping; cliorite, on the other hand, requires battering. The writer advisedly speaks of “stone” for the subject of the paper is stone and not flint as Mr. Read would have it. The writer’s assertion is plain and is repeated, the process of batter- ing a material is simpler than the process of chipping a material. The writer regrets that “it sebms inconceivable that such a statement could be calmly made, seeing how entirely contrary it is not only to the experience of all who have tried the experiment, with the single exception of Mr. McGuire, but also in direct opposition to all the evidence on the subject.” Mr. Read is here again decidedly confused in his mechanical methods and information, for until the writer demonstrated the process of battering, and showed it to be common to the whole world, it was declared to be a problem in archeology that was unsolved and not demonstrable, there- 1895,] On the Evolution of the Art of Working in Stone. 29 fore, except the writer’s paper on the subject, there does not. appear to be any evidence one way or the other. Again, Mr. Read asks “ Can Mr. McGuire point out a single instance of a polished implement being found on an admitted palzolithic site?” If a palaeolithic site is oneon which no battered or polished stones are found, No! In compliance, however, the writer will cite the upper cave of Wierszchow in which a polished celt of diorite was found; in this cave were also Ursus spelaeus, Hyaena spelaea, etc., according to Dr. Ferd. Rémer, nor is this the only cave by any méans. For fear, however, lest the advocates of paleolithic man may say this is not an admitted site, we will refer to the bone caves of France, admittedly of the paleolithic period. In them carved antlers are vonly found, and ivory tusks worked into plates ; to shape which required sawing and grinding, work similar to that on the typical neolithic implements. The caves. of England have produced bone needles ground into shape. Many caves of the continent have produced whistles and vari- ous other objects of stone, shell, bone and ivory having holes bored through them. These articles are all found in Quaternary strata, and are referred to by most all archeologists as paleo- ithic. To work such material (it being harder than much of that of the neolithic period, requiring similar treatment to that requisite to produce the neolith) certainly required a similar mechanical ability in the people of the earlier when compared with that possessed by those of the later period, yet if this be admitted, the paleeolithic period thereby collapses. It does not savor of fairness for Mr. Read to say the writer “is fighting air, to bring a long array of his own experiments to prove that palæolithic man ought to have found out what he considers the easiest way of making his tools.” If the articles quoted above were found where their Europeon authors say they were, of which too there appears no doubt, is there not something more substantial than “ air” in the argument? The statement that “ the fact that paleolithic man overlooked the polishing of his implements is a mere accident, a subsidi- © ary and incidental peculiarity, and possesses no right to the importance it has obtained ” is choice verbiage, but is not argu- 80 The American Naturalist. [January, ment calculated to support the theory of the correctness of paleeolithic man or of such a period. American archeologists are unwilling to rely upon the soundness of arguments that appear to be intended to charge, that those who do not blindly follow European dicta, are incapable of expressing opinions of value. Sir John Lubbock’s definition of “ palolithic” and “neolithic” broadly given, is a distinction of the intelligence of the peoples of the two periods as evidenced by ~~ articles of their handiwork, and yet holds good. The reputation gained = that patient French archeologist, Boucher-de-Perthes in his investigations in the valley of the Somme, was well deserved, but the same cannot be said of those others who are endeavoring to discover new eras of man’s existence, extending over eons of time, and through gradations of chipping their tools in periods christened “ pre-paleeolithic,” “eolithic,” “ mesolithic” and the various cave periods, the names alone of which, are sufficient to con- vince thoughtful persons that they are on doubtful ground. The history of these newly christened eras has been that, by - the time their sponsors become familiar with the names, they abandon them, until now the structure has crumbled so abso- lutely that a geological stratum alone decides the question, and if specimens are found in it, no matter how finished they be, whether chipped or polished, they will be accepted. The libra- ries of America are well stocked in archeological literature. American students have done some good work; they are wil- ling to welcome intelligent inquirers to the fold, as there is abundance of room. Yet Americans are fast recognizing a rule, that where assertions are made archeologically, they demand a reference to the locality or the author or the speci- men, and they are unwilling to accept a guess. Paleolithic man has been a fad for years, a myth and phantom, who whether he will or no, must give way to man a reasoning being, an intelligent and implement using creature. 1895.] | Recent Books and Pamphlets. 31 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. ALLEN, J. A.—Notes on Mammals from Ke Brunswick, with Description of a New Species of Evotomys. Extr. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1894. From the author. AMEGHINO, F.—Enumération synoptique des espéces de ae sean forse des formations Eocènes de Patagonie. Buenos Aires, 1894. From the R. M e Dynamics " ine Extr. Proceeds. Amer. pate Soc., Vol. XXXIII, 1894. From the a see No. 22, 1893, Iowa ences College Experiment Station R, W. H.—Proof that William Shakespeare could not write. W ahiúgton, 188¢ Carte Géologique de la Russie d’Europe. St. Petersbourg, 18 Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the University y Pennsylvania. Vol. I, No. 1, 1893. Cox, U. O. sidjesdhiptiók of a new species of Pipilo from Mt. Orizaba, Mexico, Extr. The Auk, 1894. From the author Darton, N. H.—Artesian Well Prsa in Eastern Virginia, Maryland and Delaware. Extr. Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, 1894. From the author. DILLER, J. S. AnD D. W. Stanton.—The Shasta-Chico Series. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the authors. Ers, R. W.—Mica deposits in the Laurentian of s Ottawa District. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Societ, Emmons, S. F. AND G. P. MERRILL. Geological Sketch of Lower California. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Society. Fett, E. P.—On Certain Grass-eating Insects. Bull. 64, 1894, Cornell Univ. Agric. Exper. Station, Entomol. Div. Fenner, C.—The Old Telegraph Mine, Bingham Cañon, Utah. Extr. School Mines Quart., J i 1893. From the author. AY. _—Some Destructive Potato Diseases. What they are and How , No. 15, U. S. Dept. Agric., Washington, 1894. From the Dept. GEGENEAUR, C.—Zur Phylogenese der Zunge. Separat-Abdruck aus Morph. Jahrb., XXI, Bd. 1. Leipzig, 1894. From the author. }UNTHER, A.—Second Report on the Reptiles and Batrachians and Fishes trans- mitted by Mr. H. H. Johnson from British Central Africa. Extr. Proceeds Lon- don Zool. Soc., 1893. From the author Hayes, ©. W. —Geology of a portion of the Coosa Valley in a and Ala- bama. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Hyatt, A.—Trias and Jura in ‘the Western States. Extr. om Geol. Soc. From the Society ciel Ti on Reports. Bipa on Typhoid Fever. Vol. IV, No. 1. Baltimore, 1894. 32 The American Naturalist. [January,. Kemp, J. F—Additional Note on Leucite in Sussex Co., N. J. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLVII, 1894.——On Orbicular Granite from Quonochontogue Beach. Extr. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII, 1894. From the author. LÖNNBERG, E.—Cambarids from Florida, a new blind species. Separat-Ab- druck aus dem Zool. Anz., 1894..—List of Fishes observed and collected in South Florida. —Kurze Notizen über die höhere Fauna Floridas. Extrs. Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Férhandl., 1894. From the author Mitsukur1, K.—Preliminary Note on the Process of Gastrulation in Chelonia. n Mesoblast Formation in Gecko, Aus Anat. Anz., 1893, Nr. 12 und 13 From ine author Moreay, T. H.—The Formation of the Embryo of the Frog. Extr. Anat. Anz., IX, Bd., Nr. 23. RATHBUN, M. J.—Descriptions of a new Genus and four new Species of Crabs- from the Antillean Region. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the Smithsonian Institution. Rigs, H.—A Pleistocene Lake-Bed at Elizabethtown, Essex Ca. N. Y. DAN. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII. From the author ScHLOSsER, M.—Bemerkungen zu Riitimeyers eocaene Saugethierwelt von Egerkingen. Separat-Abdruck aus dem Zool, Anz., No. 446, 1894. From the author. Scupper.—S. H.—The Effect of Glaciation and of the Glacial Period on the present Fauna of North America. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLVIII, 1894. From the author. Scott, W. B.-—Notes on the Osteology of Agriocherus Leidy [ Artionyx O. & W.] Extr. Proc. Amer. Phil. Sec., Vol. XX XIII, 1894. SHUFELDT, R. W.—Random Notes on some of the Parasites of Birds——Notes on photographing a live specimen of Gambel’s Partridge. Extrs. The Auk, April, 1894. From the author. SIEBENROCK, F.—Das Skelet der Lacerta simonyi Steind., und der Lacertiden- familie überhaupt. Aus den Sitzungsb. der k. Akad. der Wissen. in Wien, Math.- naturw. Classe; Bd. CIII, Abth. I, 1894. From the author SPENCER, J. W. —Deformation of the Lundy Beach and ‘Birth of Lake Erie. Extr. Am. Touts. Sci., Vol. XLVII, 1894..—Terrestrial Submergence South- east of "a niem Continent. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1893. From the Blasen yin 1594 of the Board of Directors of the Am. Soc. Extension of University Teach Summons, O. L. D of the Lungs of Spiders. Tufts Coll. Studies, No. 2, 1894. From the author TownsEnD, C. H. T.—So: ——The Peach and Apricot Borer of Southern New Mexico. Extr. West Amer. ‘Scientist, 1893.—— The North American Genera of Calyptrate Muscidae. Extr. _ Trans. Amer. Entmol. Soc., XIX, 1892.——Note on a New Antlion allied to Myrmeleon blandus (Hagen).——-A Nycteribid from a New Mexico Bat. No source or date-——The Mesilla Valley Cottonwood Leaf-Miner Determined. — On some Lepidopterous Larvae on Alfalfa——Some Notes on Michigan Insects, principally a affecting Forest Trees. —Note on the proposed new 1895,] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 33 Genus Calostarsa.———A very remarkable and imate pand with pecu- liarly developed hind tarsi. Extrs. Canadian date. —On Fleshy Leaf-gall on Scrub Oak. Note on a aleli srid on Native Ati’ in Arizona. Description of the Pupa of TTS virgata O. 8.—A Cocks- comb gall on Rhus microphylla Extrs. Psyche, —Stem gall on Ephedra nevadense. Extr. Entomol. News. No date. nae the geographic range and distribution of fhs genus Trichopoda.—The Puparium and Pupa of Subula pallipes Lw. Extrs. Entomological News, 1894.——Notes on the occurrence of the Puma (Felis concolor L.) in Southern New Mexico. Extr. Zoe, 1892.—— Notes on Lepidopterous Larvae. ——A Mesquite Tineid which constructs a bag- like case from the leaves.——Description of a luminous Larva found near Hol- brook, Arizona.— Note on Termopsis augusticollis Hgen. Extrs. Zoe, 1894. -—— Notes on certain Cecidomyiidous Galls on Cornus.——Notes on some Cecidomyii- dae of the vicinity of Washington, D. C. Extrs. Proceeds. Entomol. Soc. Wash- ington, Vol. II, 1893.—-On the Life Zones of the Organ Mountains and adjacent region in southern New Mexico, with notes on the Fauna of the Range. Extr. Science, 1893..——Lycaenid Larva on Atriplex. Extr. Am. Nat., 1893——A Tachinid reared from cells of a Mud-dauber Wasp., Art. 13, Tech. Series, ng Agric, Exper. Station. No date given——Ticks in the Ears of Horses. Ext Journ. Entomol. Soc., 1893.——A Scorpion Parasite. Extr. Journ. ae meai ica, 1892. From the ie Traquair, R. H.—A Further Description of Palaeospondylus gunnii Traquair. Extr. Proceeds. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, 1892-93, July.——A still further Contribution to our Knowledge of Palaeospondylus gunnii Traquair. Ibid, March, 1894. From the author. Tufts College Studies, Nos. I and II, 1894. Warre, M. B.—The Pollination of Pear Flowers. Bull. No. 5, U. S. Dept. of Agric. Div. Veg. Path., Washington, 1894. From the Dept. Agric. WınsLow, A.—Notes on the Lead and Zinc Deposits of the eee Males and the Origin of the Ores——Geological Surveys in Misso . Jou Geol. No date given.——The Coal Measures of Missouri. Ani: Min. Res. U- S. Calendar Year, 1892. From the author WOLTERSTORFF, W.—Weitere Mittheilungen über Alytes obstetricans und Triton palmatus in Thüringen. Aus den Zool. Anz., 1893. From the author. Worrman, J. L.—Osteology of Patriofelis, a Middle Eocene Creodont. Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. VI, 1894. From the author : ZITTEL, K. A.—Handbuch der Palaeontologie. I Abth. Puluasanolonte: IV Bd. 2 Lief. Miinchen und Leipzig, 1893. From the author. 34 The American Naturalist. [January, RECENT LITERATURE. Packard, on the Inheritance of Acquired Characters.'— The time has not yet come for deciding the question which is the nearer right, the neo-Lamarckian or the neo-Darwinian school. Both have their arguments to advance and both find facts not easily to be ex- plained by theories of the other. Yet, to us, it seems that a portion of the difficulties seem to lie in language rather than in views, and that not a little of the confusion is one of words. What Professor Packard has to say must necessarily attract attention, and, while not attempting to criticise his article as a whole, the reviewer would point out that apparently our author has been troubled by Weismann’s terminology, _ and does not clearly appreciate the limitations placed by the Freiburg zoologist upon the expressions acquired characters, congenital varia- tion and the like. Thus (p. 345) Packard quotes the experiments of Paul Bert upon Daphniz, in which the adults were killed with salt water while the eggs in the brood-sae survived, as “a case in favor of the neo-Lamarckian principle,” by which we suppose him to mean that the young inherited an acquired character before the parents had ac- quired it! Again (p. 339), we read, “ If congenital characters are the only ones which can be inherited, they must have, in the beginning, originated from those acquired during the lifetime of the individual, or, if not in the first, in the second or third, or a later generation.” Here the answer is easy, the word “ acquired ” is used with a significance totally different from its limitation by Weismann, and it is upon this misuse of terms that our author is led into this later inquiry, “ If there were no such thing as the transmission of characters, either anatomical, physiological or mental, originating during the lifetime of an organism, — how should we have any evolution resulting in the different groups of organisms?” It is, it seems to us, this confusion of words which is at the bottom of Professor Packard’s trouble. We think that a careful reading of Weismann’s “Ueber die Zahl der Richtungskérper und iiber ihre Bedeutung fiir die Vererbung (1887),” will show one easy way out of this difficulty ; whether it be the right one or not, we are not ready to say. ‘On the inheritance of acquired characters in animals with a complete meta- morphosis. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sciences, XXIX, pp. 331-370, 1894. 1895.] -Recent Literature. 35 In another place, Dr. Packard quotes the fact that Bacteria can be altered by changed environment, but-has not Weismann pointed out that the unicellular forms: stand upon an entirely different basis- from the many-celled species, and that acquired characters must be trans- mitted among them? Aside from some features like this, Professor ` Packard’s paper must be regarded as a strong presentation of the neo- Lamarckian position. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science for 1893.— Among the foremost of the State scientific organizations is the Indiana Academy of Science, the third volume of whose Proceedings is before us. Of its 274 pages, 70 are occupied by the papers read at the annual meet- ing in the holidays a year ago, among which especially noticeable are the presidential address of Dr. J: C.. Arthur upon “ The Special Senses of Plants ;” E. W. Olives paper on the “ Histology of the Ponteder- iaceae,” and Professor Eigenmann’s “ Effect of Environment on the mass of Local Species.” More important than these is the account of the work outlined and that already done towards a Natural History’ Survey of the State. Necessarily, the matter presented is preliminary ; a getting together of bibliographies and lists of species, but so enthu- siastically has the beginning been made, that we doubt not that in a “few years the whole Natural History of the State will be adequately understood. For many years Indiana has maintained a so-called geo- logical and natural history survey, but so thoroughly has this been dominated by politics that but little good has been accomplished by it. -One geologist would scarcely get the harness on when a new election would put a new person in the office, a condition which has been fatal to any definite policy. But worst of all has been the fact that nomi- nations, for many years past, have been controlled by party pull, fitness for the position not being at all essential. The result has been that since the days of Cox and Collett, the office has been occupied by per- sons who, no matter how estimable they may,be, are unknown to the world of science, and their reports have been scarcely more than a waste of so much good paper. This year it is true, the standard has again been raised, but this is but one of the accidents of a thoroughly pernicious method. The next election is apt to replace the present incumbent by one as ill adapted for the place as some of his pre- | -decessors. 2 Although it includes Geology, the Survey is throughout spoken of as the “ Bi ee logical Survey.” 36 The American Naturalist. [January, Now the Academy comes forward with its plans for a complete sur- vey, and in this laudable undertaking it should have every encourage- ment. With a resident membership of over 100, there is a chance for more thorough and more careful work than can ever be attained in any other way, while, naturally, as long as the Academy has such leaders as- Arthur, Butler, the Coulter brothers, Eigenmann, Hay, Mottier, Under- » wood, etc., we may be sure that fitness, rather than any other qualifica- tion, will determine the assignment of special work. With these con- ditions, would it not be well for the next Legislature to do away with its comparatively useless State Geological Survey and turn over to the Academy, of course with proper restrictions, the funds which are now annually given to the former organization. At any rate, the people of the State should encourage the Academy in its endeavors, and the State itself should be willing to defray at least the expense of publishing results as valuable as these will undoubtedly be. 1895.] Mineralogy. 37 eneral Notes. MINERALOGY. Identity of Rhabdite and Schreibersite.—The fine needles of phosphide of iron and nickel which in many meteorites accompany or take the place of the larger crystals or lenses of schreibersite, go under the name of rhabdite. Whether rhabdite is identical with schreiber- site has long been in question. After carefully separating the material from the matrix, Cohen? has made analyses of rhabdite from five local- ities with the following results : Fe Ni Co r 1. Seeläsgen, Prussia 49.76 36.17 0.46 13.61 2. Lime Creek, Ala. 51.10 32.99 0.42 15.49 3. Bolson de Mapimi, Mexico. . 52.54 81.71 0.72 15.03 4. Sancha Estate, Cape Colony. 55.30 28.78 0.60 15.382 5. Hex River Mts., Cape Colony. a) needles 56.71 27.36 O47 15.46 b) plates 62.45 21.71 0.85 : These analyses show the formula of rhabdite to be (Fe Ni Co), P or identical with that of schreibersite. Kamazite is found to be like taenite, an alloy with narrow limits for the variation of cobalt and nickel. Wiilfing’ has published a handy list of the meteorites in. the world’s collections. English’s New Catalogue of Minerals.‘—The average trade catalogue of minerals is unsatisfactory because it fails to supply desired information concerning crystallography, occurrence, locality, etc. The recent catalogues of English and Company have shown a great advance over this type of catalogue, in, that beside the needed informa- tion concerning the locality, there.has been added, in the case of recently described occurrences, a reference to the original description. Another valuable feature is the insertion of miniature cuts indicating the devel- 1Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 2 Ann. k. k. naturhist. Hofmuseums, ix; Heft 1, pp. 97-118, 1894. 3 Jahresheft d. Verein f. vaterl. Natyrkunde i. Wurtemberg, Jahrg. 1894, pp. pe of Minerals, Geo. L. English & Co., 16th ed., pp. 124, New York, June, 1 38 The American Naturalist. [ January, opment of crystallized specimens. This mode of illustration can hardly be carried too far to suit the taste of the professional mineralo- gist, but as it involves expense and time in the preparation of the cata- logue, we would suggest that the particular combination exhibited by a crystal might nearly as well be indicated by the use of form sym- bols. The sixteenth edition of English’s catalogue contains a classified list of mineral species arranged like that in Dana’s “System” (6th Ed.), in which is given after each species the symmetry, hardness, spe- cific gravity, and chemical composition. A supplement to the list includes the species mentioned in Dana’s supplement as well as min- erals of more recent description. The book is quite free from errors and contains an alphabetical index. Only about one-third of the book is devoted to advertising. . Leadhillite from near Granby, Missouri.—The rare mineral leadhillite occurs near Granby, Mo.,in part in good crystals associated with massive cerussite. As studied by Pirsson and Wells’ these crys- tals are either prisms or plates having dimensions of one or more cen- timeters. The symmetry is monoclinic and pseudo-hexagonal, and the combinations are simple, usually (001), (110) and (100), more rarely also (201), (414) and (418). -Twinning parallel to the unit prism is common and the basal cleavage is perfect. The physical and optical properties agree in the main with those of the already known leadhill- ite. The etched figures on the base (dilute nitric acid) closely resem- ble those of the micas. An analysis gave the following results: SO, CO, FO BO Total 733 814 8244 1.68 - 99.59 The formula for the mineral is therefore Pb SO, 2Pb CO,. Pb (OH),, which does not agree with any of the other published analyses of the mineral but is the formula which has been suggested by Groth. Two New Instruments for Mineral Study.—Tutton® has published a brief preliminary notice of two important instruments which he has deyised, full descriptions of which will be printed in the Philosophical Transactions. One of these is a delicate instrument for grinding very accurately in any desired direction, prisms and sections of minerals for optical study. In half an hour the two surfaces of the section may be pripara. The method is specially cay diet to cut- 5 Am. Jour. Sci., xlviii, pp. “219-226, Sept., 1894. ¢ Proc. Roy. Bas ly, (1894), pp. 108-113. 1895.] Mineralogy. 39 ting the fragile crystals of artificial compounds. It is possible to grind and polish a truly plane surface in any desired direction accu- rate to within ten minutes of arc. The second device is likewise a some- what elaborate one for securing monochromatic light of any desired wave-length. This apparatus, which is specially adapted to axial angle instruments, goniometers, spectrometers, stauroscopes and micro- scopes, secures for the whole field even and bright illumination by monochromatic light of any desired wave-length. Miscellaneous Notes.—Moses’ describes a simplified method of obtaining the projection of the crystallographic axes in clinographic projections of crystals.—Luquer* gives in concise form, characters for the optical recognition of the common minerals found in building stones. The form is a convenient one for use, but some quite mislead- ing statements are included, such as the differentiation of quartz from nephelene and apatite “by absence of hexagonal crystals.” Apatite and orthoclase are both said to have low relief.—George Otis Smith? describes two very large scapolites from Eel Lake, six miles from Kingston, Ontario, on which the third order pyramid (*f*) (131) is developed at both ends of the crystals. The larger crystal exhibits all the known forms of scapolite except the base. Smith in the same paper examines the monster gypsum crystals of the South Wash, Utah, and a prism thought to be one described by Moses" as a new form (450), is found to be the known form (340).—Penfield and Kreider" show that hydrofranklinite and chalcophanite are identical. Hydrofranklinite is not isometric as supposed by Roepper, but rhom- bohedral, the combination shown in the crystals being rhombohedron and base Penfield” has found a crystal of octahedrite among brookites from Magnet Cove, Ark. Penfieldite” is described in detail. The mineral has holohedral hexagonal symmetry, distinct basal cleavage, and strong, pos- itive double refraction. A study is made of the cleavage of albito and oligoclase™ in which it is shown that the oligoclase from Bakersville, N. C., exhibits two varieties; the one twinned polsynthetically accord- 1 School of Mines Quarterly, xv, pp. 214-218. 8 Ibidem, pp. 285-336. ° Johns Hopkins Univ. Circulars, No. 112, May, 1894. 10 School of Mines Quaterly, xiv, p. 325; Giani xxi, p. 230. 11 Am. Jour. Sci., xlviii, pp. 141-143. Aug,, 18 12 Am. Jour. Sci., xlviii, pp. 113-118, August, 1894. 13 Penfield, ibidem. 14 Penfield, ibidem. 40 The American Naturalist. [January, ing to the albite law and cleaving well parallel to (010), the other being without twinning or brachy-pinacoidal cleavage, but separating well parallel to (121). This suggests that the common cleaving of plagioclase parallel to (010) may be only parting. In an albite from Amelia County, Va., a few parting planes parallel to m (110) and o (111) were observed. Lehmann’s experiment of producing the pris- matic parting in normal albite by throwing heated albite fragments into water, was repeated, but no tendency to develop the pyramidal parting under these circumstances was apparent. By holding in a vise and subjecting to a pressure in the direction of the b axis, both the partings (110) and (111) were produced in the Amelia albite. Hurlburt” describes alunite filling pockets and seams in the ore body at the National Belle mine at Red Mountain, Ouray County, Col. Analysis furnished the following results : SO, ,.ALO,. KO. . Na,O.. BO dnaol. Toa Seog PO. 4% 1i 3685, be dua This furnishes the formula (K Na) (Al [OH],), (SO,),, sodium and potassium being present in the proportions 4:7 as in the alunite de- scribed by Cross from the Rosita Hills.°.—Cerussite is described by Pratt" from the Judge Mine, Black Hawk, Meager County, Mont., in crystals having the forms b (010), e (001), m (110), x (012), v (031), i (021) and p (111). Inthe same paper are described the zircons from the nepheline syenite of Dungannan.and Farady, Ont. These are sometimes so distorted as to resemble the combination of a flat rhombohedron with a second order prism. Other crystals are almost ideally developed and exhibit the forms p (111), a (100), m (110) and v (221).—Ingersoll"* describes hemimorphiec wulfenite crystals from the turquoise mines in the Jarilla Mts., N. M. The hemimorphic charac- ter is indicated by the general habit and by the occurrence of the sec- ond order pyramid (201) only in the lower portion of the crystal. The pyramidal hemihedrism is indicated by the occurrence of the pyramid of the third order, = (313). 15 Am. Jour. Sci., xlviii, pp- sa 16 Am. Jour. Sci., xlviii, p. 466, 1 1 Ibidem, xlviii, pp. 212-215. Seog 1894. 18 Ibidem, pp. 193-195. 1895.]. Petrography. 41 PETROGRAPHY:' The Serpentines of San Francisco.—The serpentine of the Protero, a district within the limits of the city of San Francisco, is an eruptive rock intrusive in sandstone. .It was originally a lherzolite, which by the usual processes of alteration has been changed to ser- pentine. Two varieties of the rock are noticed by Palache.? One is a massive form, while the other is slickensided along so many planes close together that the rock has became schistose. Between the slick- ensided surfaces are often spheroidal masses of the massive rock. The massive serpentine is of the usual character. It consists now of a felt of serpentine fibres in which are imbedded numerous crystal-like areas of enstatite and diallage, and grains of olivine, magnetite and chromite. The crystal-like particles of the pyroxenes are remnants of larger grains that were shattered by dynamic action. The pyrox- enes and the olivine have yielded the serpentine. Intrusive into the serpentine is a hypersthene diabase, composed of labradorite, mono- clinic and orthorhombic pyroxenes and green hornblende, supposed to be derived from the pyroxene. Its structure is ophitic. A second variety of the rock consists essentially of plagioclase and hornblende. Portions of it are schistose. Its structure is sometimes granitic and sometimes ophitic, and in the latter case it contains small quantities of pyroxene. Hence it is regarded as an altered form of the diabase. An analysis of the hornblende variety follows : SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MnO CaO MgO K,O Na,O PO TiO, H,O Total 47.41 16.03 2.66 7.05 tr 12.33 5.81 4.47 tr 1.29 9.19—99. 24 Density = 2.96. i The Blue Hornblende in the California Schists.—In many of the schists of the Coast Range, Cal., isa blue amphibole that has for some years past gone under the name of glaucophane. Palache* has recently found it in large quantities and in well developed column- ar crystals in aschist-boulder near Berkely. The matrix of the schist is a granular aggregate of clear, fresh albite, containing numerous liquid and solid inclusions. The latter consist largely of small grains 1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Maine. — 2 Bull. Geol. Dept. Univ. of Cal., Vol. 1, p. 161. Tb, Vol. 1, p. 181. £ 42 The American Naturalist. [January,. and needles of the blue amphibole. In addition to these are tiny crystals of magnetite, sphene and zircon. In this matrix lie sheaves of the blue amphibole, which are formed of small needles or of large columnar crystals, sometimes measuring as much as 20 mm. in length. The crystals are well developed in the prismatic zone, where they ex- hibit clearly the cross section of amphibole. The plane of their opti- cal axes is the clinopinacoid. The extinction of the mineral is about 13° to ¢, along the axis of greatest elasticity. The mineral must be closely related to riebeckite. A characteristic feature of the new am- phibole is its strong pleochoism, which is stronger even than that of glaucophane. =sky blue to dark blue; B= reddish to purplish- violet ; C= yellowish-brown to greenish-yellow. When broken, crys- tals of the blue amphibole are often healed with green actinolite, and often fibres of the latter mineral unite portions of blue crystals on. opposite sides of veins of albite cutting through the rock mass. An analysis of the blue mineral gave: SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO. MnO MgO CaO Na,O K,O -H,O Total 55.02 4.75 10.91 9.46 tr 9.30 2.38 7.62 .27 undet. = 99.70: This indicates a mixture of the three molecules Na, Al, Si,O,,, Na, Fe,” SO, and R”SiO, (where R is Mg: Ee:Ca=6: 2: iji in the pro- ene 1:2:9. The optical properties of the mineral are very simi- lar to those of the blue amphibole described by Cross.‘ Chemically, it lies between riebeckite and glaucophane. The author names it cross- ite. The Diorites, Gabbros and Amphibolites of Argentina.— The basic rocks from Argentine in the collection of Berlin University have been studied petrographically.by Romberg.’ They occur in the easternmost of the Cordilleran chains, associated with crystalline schists and eruptive rocks. The diorites and gabbros form stocks, and some- times sills and dykes, that are closely associated with gneiss and crys- talline limestones. The author divides the rocks studied into a num- ber of groups and sub-groups, recognizing as the two principal groups eruptive rocks, and those associated with the crystalline schists. Among the undoubled eruptives are gabbros and diorites, and of the latter class there are two varieties, the diorites proper and the quartz diorites~ Gabbro-diorites are also recognized among the specie: The gab- Of American Naturalist, 1890, P 1073. _ĉ Neues Jarb. f. Min. etc., B. B., ix, p. 293. 1895.] - | Petrography. 43 bros include olivinitic and non-olivinitic varieties. In the former there is often a bluish-green hornblende, at whose contact with feldspar there is often a fringe of spinel arranged in pseudopodia-like masses with their long directions perpendicular to the bounding surfaces of the amphibole. In other specimens the olivine is separated from feldspar by a band of hypersthene. Norites, with reaction-rims around their olivines, and peridotites containing enstatite are among the other mem- bers of the gabbro family met with. More closely associated with the schists than all the rocks just mentioned, and apparently forming a portion of the schist series, are diorites, often saussuritized, and amphi- bolites among the hornblende rocks, and gabbros, peridotites and ser- pentines among the pyroxene bearing kinds. The basic schistose rocks. in the collection studied are schistose diorites, and rocks com posed essen- tially of epidote and zoisite, and of garnet and scapolite, supposed to be derived from diorite, schistose gabbros and hornblende schists. After describing the characteristic features of the gabbro and diorite structures, the author proceeds to discuss the origin of the Argentine hornblende schists. He finds no evidence that these are squeezed plu- tonic rocks nor metamorphosed sediments, and so he concludes that. they are submarine eruptives. Amphiboles in Russian Rocks.—Federow’ gives some interest- ing notes on the amphiboles in the rocks‘of the northern Urals. The mineral is frequently absent from the freshest rocks. It is most abun- dantly present in those that have been metamorphosed by pressure. The kinds observed were a yellow-green variety, a colorless or very light colored kind, a dark brown variety, a fibrous variety with a blue color, glaucophane and gastaldite. The first is especially common in gneiss, syenite and syenitic gneiss, and it is present also in a diabase, where it is believed to have been derived from chlorite. The second variety is common to highly metamorphic rocks, while the third is lim- ited to diabases and proterobases. The fourth variety is characteristic of the green schists, more particularly those that have undergone chemical alterations. The glaucophane is found in magnetite schists, in a few altered green schists and in gneiss. The sixth variety is also common to the green schists. In a syenite gneiss the author observed a brown augite that along a zone of crushing has been changed to a light green pyroxene, which is regarded as evidence that dark brown amphibole may give rise by pressure to light green hornblende. 6 Minn. u. Petrog. Mitth., xiv, p. 143. 44 The American Naturalist. [January, Basalt Boulders from Thetford, Vt.—A brief description of the material of the peculiar basalt boulders discovered by Hubbard at Thetford, Vt., is given by Hovey’ in a recent paper. The most con- -Spicuous features of the boulders are the large masses of olivine and pyroxene scattered through them. The former are in rounded aggre- gates with a granular structure. Their composition is SiO, = 40.75, FeO = 9.36; MgO = 50.28. The pyroxene nodules consist of the remnants of single crystals of a pale green color, and with an extinct- ion of 44°. These nodules are in a groundmass composed of augite, plagioclase, hornblende and several accessory substances. The augite -of the groundmass is brownish-violet in color, and it has the peculiari- ties of basaltic augite. Maryland Granites.—Keyes® argues the original character of much of the epidote in Maryland granites from its close association with allanite, which is believed to be an original component of the rocks, since it occurs in them as sharply defined crystals completely mantled by fresh biotite. It is found also included in crystals of -sphene of whose primary nature there can be no doubt. Finally its grains are idiomorphic with respect to many of the original rock com- ponents with which they are in contact. * Trans. N, Y. Acad. Sciences, xiii, p. 161. 8 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 4, p. 305. 1895,] Geography and Travels, 45- GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. Zoological Explorations in the Far North.—Thereis rejoic-- ing at the State University of Iowa over the safe return of Mr. Frank Russell, after two and a half years’ absence in the far north, where he has been engaged in zoological explorations. Mr. Russell undertook to secure series of specimens of the larger mammals, besides birds, ethnological material, etc., from the less acces- sible parts of North America embraced in the region between Lake Winnipeg and the Arctic Coast. His explorations were made under the auspices of the State University of Iowa, from which institution he- graduated in 1892. Arriving in August, of 1892, at the mouth of the Saskatchewan. River, on the northwest shore of Lake Winnipeg, he spent the first winter in securing series of moose, northern hare, ptarmigan, etc., and also became accustomed to the management of dog-sleds and snow-- shoes, thus securing the necessary training and experience for the more serious work of the succeeding year. Voluminous notes were taken of the fauna of the region, and much information secured concerning the- folk-lore and religious customs of the Swampy Cree Indians, In February, of that year, Mr. Russell traversed the length of Lake- Winnipeg, some three hundred miles, on snow-shoes, experiencing some of the coldest weather met with during his entire trip. From Winni-- peg he went to Fort McLeod, near the foot-hills of the Rocky Mount- ains, just north of the boundary line, where six weeks were spent in, collecting mammals and birds. Returning by rail to Edmonton, he- traveled overland to Athabasca Landing and then descended the Atha-- basca River in a York-boat, with some officers of the Hudson Bay Company, reaching Fort Chippewyan, on Lake Athabasca, May 15th.. A month was spent on the shores of the lake in securing a series of the- birds of that region, the collector camping out alone during the entire- time, living in a little “A” tent, and seeing but one man-—a Cree In-- dian. Early in July, our explorer proceeded down the Slave River to- Great Slave Lake, reaching Fort Rae, on the northwest extension of the lake, early in August. This point was his base of operations until) May of the succeeding year. During his various hunting trips from this center, he explored the vast and little-known territory around the Great Slave Lake, in some cases reaching points at least four hundred -46 The American Naturalist. [January, miles from the Fort. During the winter, he traveled between twenty- one and twenty-two hundred miles on snow-shoes, driving his own dog- team and living, in almost all respects, the life of an Indian. He found it necessary to depend on himself alone, the natives being entirely un- reliable. His more important excursions from Fort Rae were as fol- lows: A trip up the Yellow-Knife River to learn, if possible, incite of the summer fauna of Barren Ground, and to secure the services of an Indian who had been recommended as trustworthy, but proved more of a hindrance than an aid. Next, about five hundred miles were traveled in hunting for the Bar- ren Ground caribou. A sufficient number were killed to secure a large supply of meat, and eleven skins and skulls of selected specimens were added to the collection, which has since arrived safely at Iowa City. In midwinter, December and January, a long and arduous trip was taken in the hope of securing specimens of the wood buffalo, a variety of the American buffalo which still inhabits the region lying to the south and southwest of the Great Slave Lake. During this trip, Mr. Russell swung around a circle in which the whole of the Great Slave Lake was included, and also the territory for one hundred miles or _more to the southwest. No wood buffalo were seen, nor even traces of them, although the very heart of their supposed range was traversed. Mr. Russell heard that two specimens had been killed that winter by the Indians, but they were apparently all that had been seen. He con- -siders the race as almost exterminated, as their range is = by the Indian hunters, as very limited. During March and April our explorer accomplished the main purpose for which he went north, i. e.,the capture of a series of musk-ox. The difficulties overcome at this time were such as to demonstrate the fact that Mr. Russell must take rank among the very foremost of plucky and persevering explorers in the far north. The musk-ox were four hundred miles from Fort Rae and two hundred miles from the edge of the woods. The Indians were unwilling to aid the explorer, having a firm belief that if a musk-ox were taken from the Barren Ground, and mounted in some distant country, all the others would go to join it. “Those who have had to do with Indian superstition know the hopeless- ness of arguments, bribes or threats in such cases. Undismayed by this unforseen and seemingly fatal obstacle; Mr. Russell allowed the Indians to depart without him, well knowing that it is their custom to -camp on the edge of the Barren Ground for some time for the purpose -of killing caribou before going on the long musk-ox hunt, and know- 1895.] Geography and Travels. 47 ing also that they would get out of ammunition and send a man two hundred miles back to the Fort for a new supply. When this messen- ger made his appearance as expected, Mr. Russell announced his deter- mination to accompany him back to the Barren Ground, no/ens volens. He persuaded him to make the best of the inevitable and accept pay for the enforced service. This was finally agreed to. Mr. Russell joined a band of the Indians at the edge of the Barren Ground, and accompanied them, driving his own dog-team and running behind the loaded sled until the “ Musk-Ox Hills,” two hundred miles distant on the treeless Barren Ground, were reached. These “ Hills,” by the way, he found to be mountains, several thousand feet high, and not far from Bathurst Inlet. The band of Indians separated into two squads, and succeeded in killing about one hundred of the musk-ox, including every one that was seen. ‘The animals were found in comparatively small herds, rounded up by the dogs and mercilessly slaughtered. Mr. Rus- sell killed four that had escaped from the main group as they were running off, and several others at another time. He was allowed five skins by the Indians, although he had killed a much larger number with his Winchester. These were all superb specimens—four males and a female, and, with the heavy horns and massive skulls, they made a sled load of such dimensions that the dog-team, although the strongest of the lot, became so weak before the woods were reached that Mr. Russell had to aid them almost constantly by pushing the sled from behind. Twenty-two days, in all, were passed on the Barren Ground. The explorer thought that about one thousand musk-ox were killed that season by the various bands of Indians who enter the Barren Ground from the south. The Esquimaux also penetrate the same re- gion from the Arctic Coast, and, on one occasion, the Indians and Esquimaux have met. It is therefore evident that the musk-ox of the Barren Ground is doomed to follow the bison of the Plains, and join the rapidly growing list of “ mammals recently exterminated.” On May 10th, Mr. Russell left Fort Rae, where he had received the kindest treatment and invaluable aid from the Hudson Bay officer: in charge, Mr, Hodgson, and proceeded around the north shore of Great Slave Lake to Fort Providence, which he reached after unusual suffer- ing from hunger and exposure. He found that the north shore of the lake was very inaccurately represented on the maps. At this time he was compelled to leave his faithful dogs with the Indians, although he exceedingly regretted the necessity. On May 25th, he succeeded in reaching a steamer, which had wintered about twenty miles below Fort Providence on the Mackenzie River, and proceeded down as far as 48 The American Naturalist. [January Fort Good Hope, which is almost exactly under the Arctic Circle. From here he paddled alone in a small canoe to Fort McPherson,- two hundred and eighty miles farther north. Here he was joined by the celebrated French explorer, Count de Sainville, with whom he kept company for the remainder of his trip. While going to the mouth of the Mackenzie, some hundred and sixty miles below, he killed a grizzly bear as it was swimming the river. From the mouth of the Mackenzie he paddled his canoe through the ice-floes in the Arctic Sea to Herschel Island, a distance of one hundred miles, this being, in all probability,. the first time a one-man canoe has ever gone over these waters. Several American whaling vessels had passed the previous winter at Herschel Island, and left two days after Mr. Russel reached that point. He made arrangements with Captain Newth, of the steam-whaler “ Jean- ette,” for transportation to San Francisco, at the end of the whaling season. Two months were spent in making ornithological and ethno- logical collections on this island and the adjacent mainland, a remark- ably fine series being secured. August 30th, the “Jeanette” returned to Herschel Island and took on board Mr. Russell and his collections. The vessel then sailed to the region north of Wrangel Land, and here the passenger had the pleasure of seeing the process of killing and cutting up a large whale. Turning southward, the “Jeanette” touched at two points on the Siberian Coast, where Mr. Russell secured a monster Polar bear skin and skull, numerous ethnological specimens, and a unique collection of Esquimaux ivory work, graved, etched and colored, besides a pair of enormous walrus tusks. After a very rough voyage, the vessel en- tered the Golden Gate on October 27th, bearing the two passengers who had been the first men to traverse the vast length of the Atha- basca, Slave and Mackenzie basins to the coast, returning to civiliza- tion by way of the Arctic Sea, Behring Straits and California. Mr. Russell’s collections have all been received in excellent. condi- tion, and constitute probably the finest series of zoological and ethno- logical specimens which have thus far been brought from the far north by any one explorer. C. C. Nurrine. 1895.] Botany. 49 BOTANY. The Wild Flowers of America.’ —When Dr. Goodale and Isaac Sprague gave to the world, a dozen or more years ago, their magnificent work entitled the “ Wild Flowers of America” no one then supposed that within a few years the title would be disgraced by such a work as we have now before us. In spite of the extravagant claims upon the title page, as to the “ special artists and botanists” who are said to have prepared it, and the “ leading artists of America and Europe who are said to have approved it, as well as the “ univer- sity botanists of both continents” whose “ endorsement” is alleged, we ` venture to affirm that no-one with any artistic ability whatever, or even the slightest knowledge of the science of botany, could “ approve ” or “endorse” the hideously inartistic monstrosities here gathered to- gether. We are not told who the “special artists” are, nor is the identity of the “ botanists” revealed to us, but the publishers assure us that these unknown persons gave “ years of unwearied toil, careful research and immense expenditure” to the gathering of the material! The publishers further state that the work was originally intended for “public institutions, universities and laboratories,” but that “ at the solicitation of some of the principal educators of the country” they have brought out an edition on “a popular basis.” They speak of its “enormous educational value,” and urge that school teachers and school children should be supplied with it. Finally, they connect the name of the American Association for the Advancement of Science with the work in a most unwarranted way. Now what is the work so loudly praised by its publishers? It is a collection of very poorly drawn pictures of flowers, very badly colored. They have no botanical value, and to the non-botanical they are mis- leading, both in form and color. When one attempts to read the so- called descriptions, the extreme illiteracy of the author is as evident to the ear as the lack of artistic ability in the “artists” was plain to the eye. There is nothing like it anywhere. It is positively the worst. piece of work all around that we have ever seen offered to the Ameri- can people.—CHARLES E. BEssry. 1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. 2 Botanical Fine Art Weekly.—Wild Flowers of America, published by G. H. Buek & Co, New York. Flowers of every state in the American _Union, by a corps of speil artists and botanists; Approved by the leading artis ica and Europe, and endorsed by university botanists of both continents. 4 50 The American Naturalist. [January, Willis’ Practical Flora.’—We are told in the preface of this well printed, and rather attractive book that “to engage the interest and enthusiasm of such students [elsewhere stated to be those without a scientific mind] it is necessary to show the practical aspects of the vegetable world, and its relations to the needs of everyday life,” etc., and that there has been a long felt want for a work of such practical character, and this book has been prepared to meet the demand.” This assigns the work to a peculiar class, and practically takes it out of the domain of scientific botany. If other teachers find it necessary to use devices such as the author suggests in his preface, perhaps no one but the friends of the unfortunate pupils need make objection. It may be well to say here, however, that such matter as is here pre- sented is not botany, at any rate not the botany of this last decade of the nineteenth century. On looking over it one is carried back fifty years or more to the time when botany was little more than the hand- maid of materia medica, horticulture and agriculture. Instead of bringing out a new book, the author has given to the American pub- lic a very old kind of book, including a very old kind of botany. Pos- sibly in some of the ultra “ practical” agricultural schools of the country it may supply “a long felt want,” but it is scarcely probable that it will find a place in schools in which any pretence is made of teaching the science of botany. Passing to details, one is puzzled to make out the principle upon which the plants described were selected. We find ten species of Anemone (all wild), nineteen of Ranunculus (sixteen wild), six of Clematis (wild), etc., etc., and yet there are no Water Lilies, Basswoods (Tilia), Rue, Hollies or Virginia Creepers. Yet, seven species of Rhus are given, in spite of the fact that but one Maple (the Sugar Maple) is given. The student might well ask also why the author omitted from the species of Prunus all mention of P. americana, the more commonly cultivated plum in the central United States. The cactuses are unnoticed, while of coffee ( Coffea) thirty-five “ species ” ! But five genera of Composite are given, viz.: Inula, Anthemis, Chrys- anthemum, Tanacetum and Carthamus. Nota word is said about As- ters, or Golden Rods, Dahlias or Thistles, nor is there anything about Artichokes, or Arnica even. The Olive is described, but not the Ash 3 A Practical Flora for Schools and Colleges, by Oliver R. Willis, A. M., Ph. D., Instructor in Botany, Physics and Chemistry in the New York Military Academy. k York, Cincinnati, Chicago. American Book Company [1894]. pp. xvi, 349, 8vo. 1895.] Botany. 51 trees, yet we find the Tomato, Tobacco, Pepper and Potato. It is odd, too, to say the least, that in a treatment of the Conifers which includes Pinus monophylla (which, by the way, the anthor confuses with other nut pines ”)no mention is made of Pinus ponderosa, P. lambertiana or Pseudotsuga taxifolia. Of the illustrations little need be said, more than that many of them are “ trade cuts” from the catalogues of seeds- men, many of them possessing the characteristic exaggeration of such cuts. The figure of Indian Corn on page 287, with fourteen ears, will not tend to give one confidence in the truthfulness of the illustrations. —CHARLES E. Bessey. 52 The American Naturalist. (January, ZOOLOGY. The Sensory Canal System of Chondrosteans—Collinge has studied especially Polydon, Psephurus and Acipenser. He cannot as- sent to naming every branch a canal but prefers to consider sensory organs, pits, pores, canals, ete., as parts of one sensory canal system.. In this we have to distinguish the canals, the parts of which are named, The term cluster pores (=peripheral organs of allis) is given to the pores of fine dermal canals running from the main canals or -branches; the pinhole pores of many authors are called primitive pores from the fact that they occur on the most generalized forms. Unbranched canals radiating from certain centres on the head, and with an ampulla near the proximal end are called ampullary canals. All of the different kinds of sensory organs are grouped under that name. The system in Polyodon is described for the first time. It contains all the structures except the ampullary canals, which have not been found except in Elasmobranchs. The parts are described with some detail, as is also their innervation. In the matter of the cranial nerves many corrections and additions are made to Van Wijhe’s well- known description, especially in regard to the ramus oticus of the tri- geminal and the ramus mandibularis of the facial. Psephurus agrees pretty well with’ Polyodon but Acipenser is very different. The first two show marked 'Elasmobranch features while the latter has Teleostean tendencies. Collinge is inclined to support the validity of the group Ganoids and to accept its division into Sel- achioid and Teleostoid groups, the Acipenserids serving to connect the two. While the canal system in its broader features seems to con- firm, in this respect, the evidence obtained from other organs, Col- linge doubts if it can be employed in any except the most general manner. The Hypophysis.—Lundborg has studied the hypophysis in tele- osts and batrachians and concludes' that it arises as a paired structure from the deeper or nervous layer of the ectoderm, its two halves later fusing. At first there is an hypophysial stalk, short and solid, which later disappears. The future growth is one of folding, ete. The glan- dula infundibuli are later in arising from the infundibulum and a ver- tical communication always exists between infundibulum and gland. 1 Zool. Jahrbücher, Abth. Anat. u. Ont., vii, 1894. 1895.] Zoology. 53 At first the gland consists of a single layer of round embryonic cells but it later becomes differentiated into two cell layers, the one of large capsular cells, the other of smaller triangular cells which lie be- tween the apices of the others. Nothing new is given regarding the phylogeny of the organ. The Species of Bothriocephalus.—From a recent article by R. Blanchard’ the following key may be compiled as an index to the species of the collective genus Bothriocephalus : 1 Genital organs single : : : ; ; 2 Genital organs double P š 4 2 Genital openings lateral (marginal), Bothriotenia Railliet, 1894. Genital openings ventral or. dorsal, 3 Penis, vulva and uterus open ventro- 34 median, Bothriocephalus Bremser, 1819. Penis and vulva ventro-median ; uterus | opens dorso-median, Ptychobothrium Lönnberg, 1889. Penis and vulva ventral; uterus open Penis, vulva an uterus open ventrally, Krabbea R.Bl., 1894. dorsally, : Diokoo pita Lönnberg, 1892. Bothriotænia, type species B. “longicolli (Molin), contains besides the type species, B. fragilis, B. infundibuliformis, B. rugosus and B. suecicus. Bothriocephalus (type B. latus) contains B. latus, B. cordatus and B. cristatus found in man; a large number of species found in mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes. Ptychobothrium contains Pt. belonis, claviceps and punctatus found _ in fishes. Krabbea is founded upon a large 10 m. tapeworm recently found by Ijima and Kurimoto (Journ. Coll. Sc., Tokyo, 1894, IV, pp 371-385, Pl. XVIII) and contains besides this type Kr. fasciata, Kr. variabilis and probably Bothriocephalus tetrapterus and B. antarcticus. Diplogonoporus Lönnberg, 1892 (=-Amphitretus R.Bl., 1894) con- tains A. wagneri (Monticelli) and A. lonehinobothrins (Monticelli). —C. W. Srites, Washington, D. C. Batrachia of Vincennes, Indiana.—The following list of the Urodela found in the vicinity of Vincennes, Ind., includes only such 2Notices sur les Parasites de- VY Homme : iv, Sur le Krabbea grandis, et l markes sur la classification des Bothriocéphalinés ; Compt. rend. Soc. Biol, 1804, ae i ASASTA 54 The American Naturalist. [January, as I have captured myself. I have often assisted in draining ponds and clearing swamps and have secured many specimens in that way. I have also been a laborer for many years in a sawmill and often find eggs, larvæ, and even adult animals in the cracks and hollows and under the bark of logs drawn into the mill from the Wabash. I have at various times kept, or attempted to keep almost all the animals named here in captivity. Siren lacertina (Linn.). Has no local name, being rare. The only specimen I have found was taken in midwinter from the hollow of a log that was rather rotten and filled with mud. I kept it in a barrel partly filled with mud and water. Being neglected, this was frozen over and had to be transferred to the cellar. When it finally thawed out the Siren appeared in no ways injured, but uttered a whistling hiss when touched and ate scraps of meat voraciously. It would eat earth- worms and putrid meat, and on one occasion ate a lizard. I once put two laths down in the barrel and on the next day found my pet squirming about on the cellar floor, demonstrating that it could climb a little. It spent most of its time buried in the mud and I rarely saw it without first digging it up. In the eight months that I kept it it made no perceptible growth, yet it ate readily whenever it was dug up and fed. My last experiment was feeding it rancid bacon which it ate with a relish, but it died that night and I concluded that the salt had killed it. Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis (Daudin). Probably rare in this lo- cality. The only one that I have seen was 17 inches long, of dark slate color. Its bite left severe scratches. Necturus maculatus (Raf.). Our commonest salamander. It will eat any kind of animal food. I have read of their biting but could. never induce them to do so. Their eggs, laid about the middle of July, are about the size of peas and are quite transparent, offering the best possible material for the study of batrachian embryology. I have found them with their gills missing, apparently bitten off, but have met with no explanation and have none to offer. Amblystoma microstomum (Cope). Common in stagnant pools. A gentle little creature that likes to be scratched or stroked with a feather, and soon learns to take earthworms from the fingers. Its legs. are apparently weak, yet it can climb out of an empty tub or bucket. I have seen the larve leave the water. Amblystoma tigrinum (Green). Repulsive and bloated in appear- ance. Adults of livid blue-black color with back covered with yellow spots which blend upon the belly, almost covering the surface. I have 1895.] Loology. 55 seen the newly hatched young, scarcely more than half an inch in length, feeding upon aquatic animals and even eating coleopterous in- sects with their hard wing cases. Amblystoma punctatum (Linn.). Slate color, with a row of 7 or 8 yellow spots on each side of body and similar rows on the tail. I kept a female that ate larve and earthworms and grew to over 7 inches. She deposited a large number of eggs imbedded in a mass of rather hard jelly, but they did not hatch, not having been fertilized by the male. She swam with her tail alone, holding her legs motionless by her side. When not disturbed she spent much of her time floating on the surface of the water. Her tail was prehensile. Amblystoma opacum (Gravenborst). A sluggish animal. I have never seen the adult enter the water. Hemidactylium scutatum (Schlegel). Brown colored, and rough- skinned. I have seen small ones, but never any with gill slits and have never seen it inthe water. Like A. punctatum it has a prehensile tail. Plethodon cinereus (Green). Black-backed. Numerous in swampy ground. Plethodon erythronotus. Straight red stripe on back. Quick and active. I have seen them climb the glass sides of a show case in which they were confined. Plethodon glutinosus (Green). Wet, stony ground. Apparently terrestrial, though it isa good swimmer. The prehensile power of its tail is the most highly developed of all of our native Salamanders. Spelerpes longicaudus (Green). It makes an entertaining pet, for it is beautiful and active, takes food readily and moves with an ab- surd series of wriggles and jerks. The only specimens I have seen were found under logs on the top of a hill, far from water. I kept them in a box of wet moss and they flourished, but some kept by a friend in a dry box, supplied with a little pan of water, soon died. Spelerpes maculicaudus (Cope). Rare, found beneath overhanging rocks. Spelerpes bilineatus (Green). They are active, are good climbers and can jump. Diemyctylus viridescens (Raf.). Common, easily domesticated. Ac- tive all the year, even when their ponds are frozen over. They have prehensile tails. . Desmognathus fusea (Raf.). Some years ago they were common under stones in Kelso Creek, near Vincennes, but now, with better 56 The American Naturalist. (January, drainage, that creek goes entirely dry in the summer and they are, I think, entirely extinct.—ANoaus GAINES. List of Snakes Observed at Raleigh, N. C.—1. Ancistrodon contortrix. Copperhead. Rather common here in the wet meadows, although universally known and recognized as the “ Highland Mocca- 2. Ancistrodon piscivorus. Our only specimen of the “ Cotton- mouth ” was killed on Neuse River in the summer of 1891, and in bulk was one of the largest snakes we ever killed here. The length was, I think, 40 inches, although I have unfortunately lost the data connected with it. 3. Heterodon platyrhinus. “Spreading Adder.” Common; the black variety is quite rare. 4. Ophibolus getulus. “King Snake.’ Common; feeds largely and I think usually, on other snakes, even its own species. I forced one to disgorge a meadow mouse a few weeks ago, otherwise its record of snakes for food is unbroken in my experience. It is popularly sup- posed to be excessively venomous and is also alleged by some to have a sting in its tail which it uses when angry. 5. Ophibolus doliatus. Rather rare; the specimens we get here agree in color with vars. syspilus and coccineus. 6. Ophibolus rhombomaculatus. Rather rare. Feeds on rats and mice judging from the few stomachs examined. Large specimens have the markings very obscure, being nearly uniform in color above. Our largest recorded specimen measures 42 inches. 7. Cemophora coccinea. Rare. 8. Bascanium constrictor, the Black Snake, is quite common here and isthe most courageous of our snakes, freqnently standing its ground and fiercely striking at an intruder. It occasionally, at least, eats other snakes. 9. Coluber obsoletus. “Chicken Snake.” Not very common. This is the snake most frequently found ascending trees here and so it pre- sumably feeds more on birds than any other. It is also the largest. (longest) of our snakes, our largest recorded specimen measuring 74 inches. : 10. Coluber guttatus. Quite rare here, only two specimens so far collected. 11. Cyelophis estivus. Quite common, particularly in bushes in the low grounds. For some unexplained reason it is popularly consid- — ered as extremely venomous. 1895.) ° Zoology. 57 12. Diadophis punctatus. Rather scarce. The few I have person- ally taken have usually been near the water. 13. Natrix sipedon. Our commonest and in bulk our largest snake. Commonly known as “ Water Mocassin.” We sometimes get speci- mens uniform dusky above, uniform reddish below. 14. Regina leberis. Rather rare. We kept a female this summer for some time, till at last she gave birth to 13 young ones from 7} to 8 inches long. 15. Storeria occipitomaculata. Rather rare. 16. Storeria dekayi. Quite common. 17. Eutainia sirtalis. Common. Eats frogs, toads and sometimes, -at least, small snakes. 18. Eutainia saurita. Common. Lives on small frogs and sala- manders to some extent. 19. Haldea striatula. Common. 20. Virginia valerie. Quite rare, only seven specimens taken so far. 21. Carphophiops amenus. Common. This and the two preceding -are found under logs in the woods and are also sometimes ploughed up.—C. S. BRIMLEY. An Abnormal Pes of Columba livia.—During the winter of 1893 I came across a half-bred fantail pigeon whose left pes (Fig. 3) showed a pentadactylous condition. The right pes (Fig. 4), though apparently normal, revealed on dissection, in addition to the free hal- lux metatarsal element, an extra free metatarsal-like element which was placed median to the hallux metatarsal (Fig. 2). In the left pes (Fg. 1) there are instead of a normal hallux two sepa- rate claws, two parallel phalanges with free ends but fused in the mid- dle region, the proximal free ends articulating with a bilobed metatar- sal which is ankylosed to the median surface of the proximal half of the conjoint metatarsals. In a left pes of a common pigeon given to me by Mr. G. S. Miller, Jr., there were instead of the hallux, two closely appressed clawed - phalanges articulating with a metatarsal which was not ankylosed with the conjoint metatarsals. Between this metatarsal and the second digit was apparently a small sixth digit with a well developed phalanx and claw. S. D. Jupp, Peterboro, N. ms EXPLANATION OF Pano P Puiate I (COLUMBA LIVIA). Fia. 1. Ventral view of the skeleton of the left pes, XI. Fig. 2. Ventral view of the skeleton of the right pes in part, XI. 58 The American Naturalist. [January, Fre. 3. Ventral view of the left pes, XI. Fic. 4. Ventral view of the right pes, XI. Zoological News. INveRTEBRATA.—-Students of American forms will find much of interest in Garstang’s “ Fuanistic Notes at Plymouth.” Especially interesting are the notes on the synonymy of the Medusæ, the existence of budding in the Lucernarians, and the notes on the floating fauna, as obtained in the skimming net. Ecutnoperms.—A fter a zoological silence of several years, Prof. A. E. Verrill takes up the Starfishes and Brittle Stars, describing’ some of the species obtained by the U. S. Fish Commission and revising some of the previously described forms. Two new sub-families, two new genera and 15 new species are characterized; some pertinent criticisms are made on some of Sladen’s family characters and a con- sistent revision is given of the ossicles commonly called paxille and pseudopaxille. Worms.—Andrews describes’ some abnormal annelids, in which the caudal extremity of the body is forked, supplementing a previous pa- per (this journal, p. 725, 1892). The ten cases described agree in that in all the main axis of the body and all appendages are duplicated. As to the cause of such monsters little definite can be said. It seems probable, however, that they may be produced from adults. After some remarks on regeneration, Dr. Andrews concludes that “ here we may suppose that injuries and other external agents affect the regen- erative tissue so that the same cells that else had formed one normal terminal now form two more or less separate ones.” Crustacea.—C. D. Marsh describes’ two new species of Diaptomus,. one from Mississippi, the other from Wisconsin. Mr. Edgar J. Allen has just published’ three of the most careful pieces of work as yet done on the histology and physiology of the ner- vous system of the Crustacea. The work was carried out on the lob- ster by means of the Methelyne blue and the rapid Golgi methods. Among the points brought out are the recognition of these nerve ele- * Journ. Biol. Assoc. United Kingkom, iii, 210, 1894. t Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, 245, 1894 s ee Jour. Micros. Sci., xxxvi, 435, 1894. . Wise. Acad. Sci. and Arts, x, 1894. Som Jour. Micros. Soc., xxxvi, 461, 1894. 1895.] Zoology. 59 ments: 1. Co-ordinating elements which lie entirely in the ganglionic chain. 2. Motor elements in which the ganglion cell is in the chain, the fibre running out at a lateral root. 3. Sensory elements, consist- ing of cells outside the chain and fibres running from them to the chain. The stomatogastric nerve is also studied and the beading of nerve fibres, ete., is discussed. ARACHNIDA.—Emerton has gathered several collecetiens of Cana- dian spiders and publishes* a list with annotations and descriptions of new species. The close similarity of the Canadian fauna with that of New England is noted. “Out of 61 species, from Labrador to Mani- toba, 56 species live in New England ; and out of 48 species from the Rocky Mountains, 27 have been found in New England.” Hrxapopa.—M. H. Wellman has studied the prothorax of Butter- flies’ and finds that four different types of structure, corresponding to the four recognized families, exist. In the first (Nymphalid) the chitinized dorsal lobes of the prothorax are large, almost filling the space between the head and mesothorax. In the second class (Papili- onidæ) the dorsal lobes are smaller while the scutellum has increased in size. This class is capable of division into three groups. In the Lycenide, the third class, the prothorax is very narrow, and the parts inconspicuous. In the last (Hesperiidz) the lobes are scale-like. W. A. Snow publishes’ a synopsis of the American Platypezide. This Dipterous family is rare in America, but in an expedition to New Mexico the University obtained seven species, six of which are re- garded as new. Fisnes.—Eigenmann and Beeson publish” a revision of the Pacific coast species of the Sebastine. The outline of the classification adopted was published in this journal for July, 1893. E. W. L. Holt continues” his North Sea investigations. The sub- jects treated are (I) the destruction of immature fish, especially of plaice, haddock, and cod. He shows that great injury is being done. (IIL) A differentiation of a new species of ray (Raia blanda). (IV) 8 Trans. Conn. Acad. Science, ix, p- 400, 1894. ® Kansas Univ. Quarterly, iii, 137, 1894. 10 Kansas Univ. Quarterly, i iii, 1893. 11 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, 37 1 Jour. Biol. Association United Tingle iii, p. 169, 1894. 60 The American Naturalist. [January, The recessus orbitalis, an accessory visual apparatus in flat fishes. This consists of a diverticulum of the orbital cavity, innervated by the facialis, and is supposed to play a part in the protraction and retrac- tion of the eye. (V) A description of a sole with symmetrical eyes. (VI) The reproduction of the Scad (Carang trachurus) which ovipos- its in May, the eggs being pelagic and containing an oil globule, the yolk being broken up into spherules. (VII) A dwarf variety of the Plaice in which it appears that the forms with ciliated scales are males, those with smooth scales females. J. T. Cunningham describes” the young stages of Zeugopterus punc- -tatus in which he discusses the relation of various Pleuronected young. He also describes the experiments carried on in the Plymouth labora- tory in rearing fish larvæ. Evermann has been studying the salmon fisheries of the Columbia River basin and clearly shows that extensive damage has already been done by over fishing and especially by fishing throughout the whole of the run. The commissioner suggests the stoppage of fishing -during September and October, by laws passed by all of the states in- terested. A valuable annotated list of all the fishes collectedfis given in which several new species are described. Barracata.—Groénberg and von Klinckowstrém publish? an ac- -count of the structure of the Surinam Toad, Pipa americana. Integu- ment, including the pouches for the young, digestive, respiratory, uro- genital, nervous and vascular systems are described. Repriiia.—As a result of an osteological investigation Baur con- -cludes that the genus Anniella must be placed in a separate family, very close to the Anguide, and has its closest relative in Anguis itself. Figures are promised in a forthcoming paper on the morphology of Amphisbeenia. Dr. Einar Leenberg of the University of Upsala, spent nearly a year collecting in Florida. A list of Reptiles and Batrachians col- 18 Jour. Biol. Assoc., iii, 202, 1894 14 Rept. Commiss. of Fish and Fishorise on Investigations in the Columbia River Basin, W: 1894. 15 Zool. Jahrbücher. Abth. Anat., vii, 1894. 16 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xviii, 348, 1894. 1895.] Zoology. 61 lected has now been published.” No new species are described. The- notes on the poisonous character of Elaps fulvius are interesting. Brrps.—Menke catalogues’ the birds of Finney Co., Western Kan- sas. Three species are added to the fauna of the State: Carpodacus frontalis, Piranga ludoviciana and Hesperocichla nevia. Ridgway describes” Zosteropes aldabarensis, Z. gloriose, Cinnyris aldabarensis, C. abbotti, Centropus insularis and Caprimulgus aldaba- rensis, from Islands of the Malagassy region. In the same volume” he adds twenty-two new species to the Avian fauna of the Galapagos Islands. MammMats.—True describes” as new species of North American mammals, Sciurus aberti concolor, Scapanus dilatus, Myodes nigripes and Mictomys (n. g.)innuitus. Parascalops isa new genus proposed for Scalops breweri. The same author also describes” Sminthus flavus as new from Kashmir, and from North America” four new species of wood rats (Neotoma). 17 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, 317, 1894. 18 Kansas Univ. Quarterly, iii, 127, 1894. 19 Proc a S. Nat. Mus., xvii, 371, 1894. t, e p., 357. - bien U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, 241, 1894. tom. cit., p. 341. tom, cit., p. 353. 62 The American Naturalist. [January, EMBRYOLOGY. Optimum Temperature for Incubation.—M. Féré contributes to the Journal de l Anatomie for July, 1894, the results of some ex- periments upon hen’s eggs incubated at 34°-41°. These seem to have been made with caution and to warrant the author’s conclusion that 38° is the temperature at which the smallest number of abnormal de- velopments take place, at least during the first few days of incubation. By exposing eggs to fumes of alcohol the author finds also that the injurious effects are overcome afterwards, in a larger percentage of cases, if the eggs are incubated at this optimum temperature, 38°, than at any other. Cell Lineage.—Mr. A. D. Mead has made a comparative study of the cleavage in the polychetous annelids, Amphitrite, Lepidonotus, Clymenella and Scolecolepsis, along the lines marked out by E. B. Wilson in his noted paper upon Nereis. From the preliminary re- sults,’ those who are especially interested in this group may gather much of i importance regarding the exact fate of cells of equal origin in the different species. It will be of general interest to compare the results, when published in full, with those obtained upon Nereis, for in spite of the resemblances that are so close in this group there seem to be some marked differ- ences, in the axial relations especially. We note that the median plane of Amphitrite corresponds to a plane bisecting two of the first four cells in place of passing between two cells, right and left, as in Nereis. Fertilization in the Earthworm.’—A preliminary account of what promises to be a most valuable contribution is the result of the detailed study of the eggs of the striped earthworm, Allolobophora fetida. The author, Katherine Foot, has studied the processes of maturation and fertilization in some two hundred eggs taken from the cocoons in which they are laid. It seems that the sperm grows very rapidly just before the eggs are laid, so that one sperm may more than double its length within two 1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and _ preliminary notes may be sent. -~ 2 Journal of Morphology, ix, Sept., 1894. 3 Journal of Morphology, ix, Sept., 1894. 1895.] Embryology. 63 hours. These sperms have a long head with a spine at its lip, a mid- dle piece of some length and a long tail. They are found free in the cocoons for some ten minutes after laying and then penetrate the eggs. Several sperms may penetrate a single egg and all act alike in giving rise to peculiar conical areas of disturbance. These are more readily understood from the very interesting diagrammatic figures than from any verbal description. These figures seem to show much that the author does not emphasize regarding the minute protoplasmic phe- nomena concerned. The egg gives off two polar bodies after the cocoon is deposited. The first divides into two ; the three thus formed subsequently break up into spherical bodies that lie irregularly between the egg and its mem- brane, as many as ten being found by the time the pronuclei are formed. The number of chromosomes is eleven, in the first matura- tion spindle, in the first polar body, in the second maturation spindle, in the second polar body, and in the egg after this has been constricted off. The pronuclei are usually only two and do not present discovered differences. It is claimed that the nuclei are seen distributed through the cyto- plasm of the egg during the formation of the first maturation spindle. The remarkable structures known as “ polar rings” in the eggs of Clepsine are recognized again in this earthworm as peculiar and dis- similar appearances seen at opposite poles when the pronuclei are formed. Cleavage in Batrachia—A study of the phenomena that actu- ally take place in the cleavage of Amblystoma, Diemyctylus, Rana palustris, and Bufo variabilis has led Messrs. Jordan and Eycleshymer* to views that militate against much of the definiteness regarding the cleavage process that still remains in the text books. They find that “each egg, as a rule, possesses an individual rhythm of celi-division and the time intervals between the different sets of furrows are substantially the same in the same egg. There is, how- ever, considerable variation between these rhythms in different eggs.” Great variations occur in the way and in the relative time that cells divide, that cleavage planes appear, in fact, they state—“ we have found irregularity to be the rule, regularity the exception.” No importance can be attached to any agreement between the first plane of cleavage and the median plane of the resulting embryo, since, ‘Idem. 64 The American Naturalist. [January, owing to extensive torsions and cell shifting, material is brought from one side to the other. Again, from these studies it seems evident that in these Bratachia there is no such definite cell homology to be traced as in the Annelids. The tendency of the paper is decidedly iconoclastic; what new gen- eralizations may be built up from such data remains for the future to reveal. Development of Sponges.—An important but much delayed paper by H. V. Wilson has at length been published.’ The author studied the marine sponges, Esperella, Tedania and other genera, in the Bahamas and on the New England coast. The main body of this monograph of one hundred pages and twelve plates is an account of the formation and metamorphosis of the “ gem- mules” in the above named sponges. These gemmules in Esperella are masses of cells that contain yolk and may appear anywhere in the mesoderm; they are formed by a col- lecting of cells to make a central mass or gemmule surrounded by a follicle. As the cells multiply other small gemmules may be added on to make a compound mass that ultimately undergoes a process of sep- aration into the component cells. A free swimming larva is formed by this mass of cells that then escapes from the mother tissue. The outer- most cells form an ectodermal layer that is ciliated except at the poste- rior pole where the cells are flattened and not pigmented as are the ciliated cells. The inner cells are connected by processes and form a parenchyma mass. This active larva attaches itself obliquely by the posterior pole and undergoes a metamorphosis in which the ectoderm changes into a layer of simple flat cells and the loose cells of the mesodermal parenchyma arrange themselves about inter-cellular spaces, that at first are all alike, but subsequently become the various sponge cavities, subdermal spaces, afferent and efferent canals, These spaces are at first independent and only later become connected. The flaggellated chambers also arise in- dependent of one another and of the other spaces and by a similar pro- cess of cell arrangement about intercellular spaces. These remarkable gemmules closely resemble larvæ derived from eggs and have “ germ” layers and the same specialization of the poste- rior end as is found in the egg larva. This noteworthy resemblance, the author thinks is due to inheritance from a common source and that : thus the non-sexual gemmule has retained ancestral traits. No other 5 Journal of Morphology, ix, Sept., 1894. PLATE VI. Abnormal foot of Columba livia. 1895.] Embryology. 65 such case is known, unless it be the anomalous mode of hydroid forma- ` tion in Epenthesis MeCradyi as described by W. K. Brooks. n an important discussion of the morphology of sponges, the author, basing his conceptions provisionally upon the generalizations of Haeckel and of Schultze, infers from the comparative anatomy of the group that there was a common ancestor, the Olynthus, which passed into the Sycon state by the outgrowth of radial tubes and this again into the Leucon by the growth of the radial tubes into flagellate chambers and by the growth of new entodermic diverticula, The non- calcareous have come from Leucon-like types. The afferent system of canals is ectodermic; the efferent entodermic. In the embryology, on the other hand, many abbreviations and’ other coenogenetic changes have obscured the record of the past. The- entoderm and mesoderm must be regarded as not as yet sharply differ- entiated from one another. Both sponges and coelenterates probably had a common solid ancestor, the Parenchymella. The blastopore cannot be regarded as an ancestral mouth and so its position is not of much weight in decid- ing how far the cavities of sponges and coelenterates are homologous. 66 The American Naturalist. (January, ENTOMOLOGY.’ * Sight in Insects.—In his recent address as President of the Bio- logical Society of Washington, Dr. C. V. Riley? said: “Of the five ordinary senses recognized in ourselves and most higher animals, insects have, beyond all doubt, the sense of sight, and there can be as little question that they possess the sense of touch, taste, smell and hearing. Yet, save, perhaps, that of touch, none of these senses, as possessed by insects, can be strictly compared with our own, while there is the best of evidence that insects possess other senses which we do not, and that they havesense organs with which we have none to com- pare. He who tries to comprehend the mechanism of our own senses —the manner in which the subtler sensations are conveyed to the brain—will realize how little we know thereof after all that has been written. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that authors should differ as to the nature of many of the sense organs of insects, or that there should be little or no absolute knowledge of the manner in which the senses act upon them. The solution of psychical problems may never, indeed, be obtained, so infinitely minute are the ultimate atoms of matter; and those who have given most attention to the subject must echo the sentiment of Lubbock, that the principal impression which the more recent works on the intelligence and senses of animals leave on the mind is that we know very little, indeed, on the subject. We can but empirically observe and experiment and draw conclusions from well attested results. Sight.—Taking first the sense of sight, much has been written as to the picture which the compound eye of insects produces upon the brain or upon the nerve centers. Mostinsects which undergo complete meta- morphoses possess in their adolescent states simple eyes or ocelli, and sometimes groups of them of varying size and in varying situations. It is difficult, if not impossible, to demonstrate experimentally their efficiency as organs of sight; the probabilities are that they give but the faintest impressions, but otherwise act as do our own. The fact that they are possessed only by larve which are exposed more or less fully to the light, while those larve which are endophytous, or other- wise hidden from light, generally lack them, is in itself proof that they perform the ordinary functions of sight, however, low in degree. In 1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H. 2 Insect Life, VII, p. 33. 1895.] Entomology. 67 the imago state the great majority of insects have their simple eyes in addition to the compound eyes. In many cases, however, the former are more or less covered with vestiture, which is another evidence that their function is of a low order, and lends weight to the view that they are useful chiefly for near vision and in dark places. The compound eyes are prominent and adjustable in proportion as they are of service to the species, as witness those of the common house-fly and of the Libellulide or dragon flies. It is obvious from the structure of these compound eyes that impressions through them must be very different from those received through our own, and, in point of fact, the late experimental researches of Hickson, Plateau, Tocke and Lemmer- mann, Pankrath, Exner and Viallanes, practically established the fact, that while insects are shortsighted and perceive stationary objects im- perfectly, yet their compound eyes are better fitted than the vertebrate eye for apprehending objects set in relief or in motion, and are like- wise keenly sensitive to color. So far as experiments have gone isa show that insects have a keen color sense, though here again their sensations of color are different from those produced upon us. Thus, as Lubbock has shown, ants are very sensitive to the ultra violet rays of the spectrum, which we can- not perceive, though he was led to conclude that to the ant the general aspect of nature is presented in an aspect very different from that in which it appears to us. In reference to bees, the experiments of the same author prove clearly that they have this sense of color highly developed, as indeed might be expected when we consider the part they have played in the development of flowers. While these experi- ments seem to show that blue is the bee’s favorite color, this does not accord with Albert Miiller’s experience in nature, nor with the general experience of apiarians, who, if asked, would very generally agree that bees show a preference for white flowers.” Origin of Reproductive Cells in Insects.—J. W. Tutt dis- cussing the life history of a lepidopterous insect says of this subject :° “The earliest development of the ovum and spermatozoon in the embryo of insects is very obscure, but it would appear that the primi- tive ovaries are composed of a mass of cells, produced by an infolding of the ectoderm; but whilst some writers assert that they arise from the ectoderm, others consider them to be derived from the mesoderm, whilst still others trace their origin back to certain so-called pole cells, which originate even before the blastoderm is formed. However, this 3 Entomologists Record, V, 246. 68 The American Naturalist. [January, may be, it would appear, that they are in that early stage quite indis- tinguishable from other blastoderm cells. “ Therefore, it would appear, that whilst the great mass of cells become differentiated into various structures which subserve a special purpose, or perform their several functions, certain cells in the ovary retain their primitive condition, and with it the power, under suitable condi- tions, of forming another individual of the same species. On this subject Mr. Woodworth writes: ‘About the time of the completion of the blastoderm, the already differentiated ventral plate infolds at a point on the median line about two-thirds from the upper end, and forms a very narrow pocket. The cells composing it look like the rest of the cells of the ventral plate at this time, they are almost round, and have a lining on one side made of the grey matter which originally bordered the whole egg, but which became a part of the blastoderm cells. The pocket remains open but a short time, but there is a long depresssion of the upper end of the bunch of cells ; the mass of cells is soon cut off from the ventral plate and they are then free in the body cavity, but remain in contact with the ventral plate at the point where they were produced. Later stages show that these cells. produce the generative organs; the generative organs thus appear to be produced by an infolding of the ectoderm, or possibly of the blasto- derm, before the ectoderm is produced, but from a portion which is later to become ectoderm.’ Alimentary Canal in Orthoptera.—Dr. F. Werner has com- pared‘ the relative length of the intestine in vegetarian and insectivo- rous Orthoptera. The result was unexpected. The plant-eating Acridiidæ have a short, almost straight gut, rarely larger than the body ; while the Locustide have a longer gut usually spirally coiled,. especially in Barbitistes and Phaneroptera. Werner believes that the length and coiling of the intestine have nothing to do with the diet, ` but are correlated with the shape of the body and the habits of life.— Journal Royal Microscopical Society. North American Jassoidea.—Mr. Edward P. Van Duzee has panned an excellent Catalogue of the Described Jassoidea of North America.’ It covers more than fifty pages, and is especially full in bibliography and synonymy. “The classification and arrangement here adopted is substantially that proposed by the author in his ‘Synop- * Biolog. Centralbl., XIV, (1894), pp. 116-9. 5 Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., XXI, July, 1894. 1895.] Entomology. 69 sis’ published in these Transactions, Vol. XIX, pp. 296-300, Decem- ber, 1892. The superfamily term there suggested includes those fami- lies in which the hind tibiz are multispinose. These in our North American fauna are Ulopide, Ledridæ, Bythoscopide, Tettigoniidx and Jasside. The first of these might perhaps be removed from this series, and the second united with the Tettigoniide as a subfamily of equal value with Gyponinaand Tettigoniina. The position assigned to the family Bythoscopide is purely arbitrary, as it strictly parallels the Jasside, to which it is allied by Macropsis, and in a linear arrange- ment might with equal propriety follow the Tettigoniidz.” The Use of Parasitic and Predaceous Insects.—There has recently been much discussion concerning the utilization of parasites and predaceous insects in destroying injurious species. A knowledge of the conditions under which such insects act would render it evident that we cannot hope to exterminate any species of noxious insect by means of its parasites alone; and many too sanguine expectations have been aroused. But, on the whole, parasitic and predaceous insects are of immense service to man. Without them many plant feeding species would multiply to such an extent that the production of certain crops would require vastly more effort than it does now. To say, as has been said, that parasitic and predaceous insects have no economic value, is to put the case too strongly. Take, forexample, two crop pests of the first class—the army worm and the hessian fly. The history of a century shows that these insects fluctuate in numbers; that there are periods of immunity from their attacks followed by seasons when they are overwhelmingly abundant. It is universally acknowledged that in the case of the hessian fly, this periodicity is due almost entirely to the attacks of parasites, and in the case of the army worm to the attacks of parasites, predaceous enemies and infec- tious diseases. Remove these checks and what would be the result? The pests would keep up to the limits of their food supply and would necessitate the abandonment of the culture of the crops on which they feed. Take another case: Professor J. B. Smith has argued that “under ordinary conditions neither parasites nor predaceous insects advantage the farmer in the least,” and to prove it he cites this instance: “ Fifty per cent of the cutworms found in a field early in the season may prove to be infected with parasites, and none of the specimens so infested will ever change to moths that will reproduce their kind. Half of the entire brood has been practically destroyed and sometimes even a much larger proportion; but—and the ‘ but’ deserves to be spelled with capitals—these cutworms will not be 70 The American Naturalist. [January,. destroyed until they have reached their full growth and have done all the damage to the farmer that they could have done had they not been parasitized at all. In other words, the fact that fifty per cent of the- cutworms in his field are infested by parasites does not help the far- mer in the least.” But obviously it does help the farmer very greatly the neat season, for it reduces by half the number of cutworms he will have- to contend with. As a matter of fact cutworms fluctuate in numbers in a way quite similar to the army worm, and the fluctuations are largely due to parasitic enemies. I have seen regions where cutworms were so abundant that grain fields were literally cut off by them as by a mow- ing machine, and the following season the worms were so scarce as to do practically no damage. Even the plum curculio and the Colorado potato bettle are sometimes so scarce as to require no protection against them, and presumption is in favor of parasites as a cause of their scarcity. But Professor Smith is right in saying that as a general rule there is- too great a tendency to rely on natural enemies to subdue insect attack. Itis nearly always safer to adopt effective measures in keep- ing pests in check than to trust to the chanceof their natural enemies- subduing them. As Dr. C. V. Riley has pointed out, “there are but two methods by which these insect friends of the farmer can be effect- ually utilized or encouraged, as for the most part they perform their work unseen and unheeded by him, and are practically beyond his- control. These methods consist in the intelligent protection of those species which already exist in a given Tocality and in the introduction of desirable species which do not already exist there.” CLARENCE M. WEED. Oviposition in Acridiidæ.—M. J. Kiinckel d’ Herculais describes? the means by which these Orthoptera bury their abdomen in the ground ; there is no perforation of the ground, the hinder part of the body is merely forced into it; as the Arabs say the female “ plantent.” On dissecting females whose abdomen had reached the maximum of distension, the author was surprised to find that the abdomen was filled with air; on the air being withdrawn, the abdomen was reduced from 8 to 5 cm, in length. When the position is firmly taken up the females of the migratory locust maintain the parts of their genital armor as widely separated as possible, and secrete a viscous material which agglutinates the grains of sand, or the particles of earth at the bottom of the cavity, and they then begin to lay their eggs. These 1895.] Entomology. 71 and the viscous material are emitted simultaneously, but the latter is peripheral and so consolidates the walls of the cavity which has the curved form of the abdomen. When the eggs are laid the viscous material continues to be shed, and on drying forms a stopper which protects the cavity.-—Journal Royal Microscopical Society. The Use of Chinch Bug Diseases.—In Bulletin No. 5 from the office of the State Entomologist of Illinois, Professor S. A. Forbes summarizes the results of years of careful experiment with the white muscardine disease of the Chinch Bug as follows: 1. The white muscardine will not spread among vigerous chinch bugs in the field in very dry weather to an extent to give this disease any practical value as a means of promptly arresting serious chinch bug injury under such conditions. It may be added that chinch bugs are usually vigorous in dry weather. 2. It is most likely to “ catch” in low spots, where the soil is kept somewhat moist by dense vegetation, a mat of fallen herbage, or the like. Shocks of corn, especially when the crop is cut early, furnish excellent places for the development of this disease. 3. If decidedly wet weather follows upon its introduction, even after an interval of several weeks, it is likely to start up and take visible effect ; but continuous rains, depressing the vital energies of the insect, are commonly requisite to its efficient action. 4. It is always so generally prevalent, in a more or less latent state, among the chinch bugs of Illinois, both north and south, that it is very likely to appear and spread, as if spontaneously, whenever conditions favorable to its development long prevail, whether it has been purposely introduced or not. 5. The time elapsing between the establishment of such favorable conditions and the full development of the disease among the chinch bugs of any locality, may possibly be shortened if the infection has previously been introduced by any artificial means. 6. Whatever weakens the insect favors its spread, asa rule. It is consequently much more likely to attack adults than young, especially spent males and females which have laid their eggs, and which are soon to die of old age; but it nevertheless often kills young of all ages. In agreement with the above, we have noticed that the fall generation of adults is less subject to it, other things being equal, than the generation which- matures in midsummer. As this fall brood is to live or winter before laying its eggs, it contains no worn-out adults. 72 The American Naturalist. [January, 7. We have lately ascertained that it may destroy the eggs of the chinch bug, and as these are commonly laid where they are kept more or less moist, this fact contains a suggestion of increased usefulness and a valuable hint as to the best time for introducing the infection into the field. 8. The fungus preducing this disease will not start to grow on dead chinch bugs, if we may judge from the results of several experiments made this summer. Wherever a dead chinch bug shows its presence, consequently, it has made its attack on the living insect. 9. The resistant power of healthy chinch bugs exposed to infection is well shown by the fact that thousands of bugs, young and old, have commonly lived for many days, and even for several weeks, moulting, maturing, copulating, and laying their eggs, when shut up in infection boxes which had been heavily stocked with fungus spores from dead insects and had been made in every way as favorable as possible to the development of the disease. The percentage of those that would suc- cumb from day to day was often ridiculously small. 10. The growth of the fungus in such boxes is sometimes checked and the whole experiment brought to astandstill by the appearance in ‘the boxes of minute mites (apparently brought in with the food sup- plied to the bugs), which multiply in the boxes and greedily devour the fungus of white muscardine as fast as it grows. 11. Comparative experiments with fungus spores from diseased chinch bugs and with those derived from artificial cultures on corn meal moistened with beef broth, show that the latter are nearly, if not quite, as efficient agents of infection as the former. We have used only cultivated spores one or two removes from the growth on the insect, and consequently are not prepared to say that continued cultivation on an inanimate medium might not finally diminish the virulence of the fungus parasite ; but, on the other hand, we have no very good reason to suppose that this will prove to be the case. I have no doubt, how- ever, that by a properly guarded procedure, these artificial cultures, which can easily be made in almost unlimited quantity, may be util- ized for a dissemination of the spores of these insect diseases, with great advantage in convenience, expedition, and economy of opera- tion, From all our experimental work thus far completed, I draw the gen- eral conclusion that infection with the fungus of the white muscardine of the chinch bug is an uncertain measure, largely dependent-for its practical value upon conditions beyond the inftuence of the experi- menter, and whose occurrence or prevalence it is impossible for him to 1895.] Entomology. 73 foresee. It appears, on the other hand, to be so powerful an agency for the destruction of chinch bugs en masse when the weather favors its development and spread, and can be made by proper organization so inexpensive to the individual and the State, that it is well worthy of the most thoroughgoing scientific study and practical field experimen- tation. 74 The American Naturalist. [January; PSYCHOLOGY. The Burrowing Habits of Snakes.—In my snake enclosure I have kept a wooden box filled with loose cotton and crumpled paper, and having holes in its sides for the accommodation of the reptiles. Throughout the heated term the snakes spent a large part of their time in this box, but as the weather grew cooler they abandoned it and found new hiding places under their bath tub, or under loose boards, digging down as much as possible into the thin layer of earth which covered the floor of their enclosure. I then lined their box and covered it with cloth to make it warmer and they would occupy it in fine weather, but on stormy or frosty nights they would come out, crawl under it, and lie there torpid with cold. It was evident that their instinct led them astray in this instance by prompting them to get as close to the ground as possible to avoid cold. One fine day when they were all in their box I took it out and put it down beside the garden walk, giving them their liberty that I might watch them seek their own winter quarters. Some of the Eutæniæ burrowed beneath the mudsills of a shed and disappeared, while others found hiding places under the house and do not come out even on warm days. Of the water snakes, (N. sipedon),. 7 in number, three have left me, but the others remain in the yard and have not yet found permanent homes for the winter. On fine days I see them darting about or basking in the sun beside a puddle which I have prepared for them. At night, or on cool days, they may be found’ coiled up under a water bucket or leaky rain barrel, but none of them re-enter their box. I have often been surprised at the amount of cold — snakes of this species can endure. One Ophibolus getulus searched about a little while and then crawled under an empty barrel beside the walk. A short time after- wards I tilted the barrel to see what he was doing and found that he was trying to make a burrow, but the ground was hard and it wasslow work. Used to being watched he paid no attention to me but continued to scrape the ground with his rostral. When at length he had excav- ated a hole deep enough to hide his head he gave himself a rotary mo- tion, turning half around then back again, boring the hole a little deeper and throwing out a little dirt with the projecting backs of his jaws. Sinking still deeper he would draw himself down, filling the hole tightly, and then drawing back a little would throw out fine dirt with 1895.] Psychology. 75 his scales and abdominal plates. At length he disappeared entirely, leaving a large handful of dry dirt on the surface and completely filling the burrow behind him with loose dirt. Another O. getulus burrowed out of sight in a garden bed, but the ground was loose and he did not throw back the dirt but seemed to press it aside, leaving his burrow open behind him. I have seen the Phyllophilophis œstivus dig its burrows with its broad rostral, the Heterodon platyrhinus turn up the soil with its trihedral rostral with as much facility as a rooting pig, and have watched the Carphophis amæna working its way through loose ground like the earth worms on which it feeds, but the O. getulus digging in hard ground and throwing out the dirt behind it was an unexpected sight— ANGUS GAINES. Habits of Heterodon platyrhinus at Raleigh, N. C.—This snake which is quite common here, has a habit when interfered with of first flattening its head and body and violently hissing; more interfer- ence causes the snake to writhe about violently opening its jaws to the fullest extent, it then finally turns on its back and simulates death but still keeps its mouth wide open. After “dying” it becomes per- fectly limp and may be carried in the hand a mile or more without show- ing signs of life, usually, however, still keeping the mouth open. One peculiarity alone shows life; if placed on the ground belly down, it at once turns on its back again nor can it be persuaded, however, “ dead ”, to lie on its belly. This snake, although perfectly well-known to every one here, seems to be frequently confounded with the copperhead ; only two months ago a colored boy came to us to find a remedy for snake bite as he had been bitten (as his badly swollen hand attested) by a “Spreading Add.” Another snake also confounded with the Spreading Adder is Natrix sipedon, on account of the habit sometimes indulged in by the latter species, particularly by young specimens, of flattening the body in a manner similar to that of Heterodon. The favorite food of Heterodon platyrhinus in this locality is the common toad, and they will sometimes take as many as three at a meal. If interfered with after a meal they frequently disgorge one or more toads. Personally I have never known them to eat anything else, but a friend who kept one for sometime said it would also eat young specimens of its own species. The wholly black variety of this species is very rare here, so far I have only seen three specimens.—C. S. BRIMLEY. 76 The American Naturalist. [January, ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. Certain Sand Mounds of the St. John’s River, Florida, by Clarence B. Moore.—The mounds of North America are docu- ments which, to be read, must be destroyed, and the only excuse for their destroyer is that he has translated their meaning. If he has not —if he has not scrupulously recorded the depth and tint of each super- posed layer and the position of each human trace, if he has not even gone farther and chronicled, for the sake of the future questioner, things that he sees no reason for chronicling, so much the worse for science. If, on the other hand, interested not in relics, but their mean- ing, he has carefully transcribed the facts observed he deserves the sin- -cerest thanks of the student. These should be given to Mr. Clarence B. Moore, for his recent exploration of mounds and shell heaps in Florida. His book (Certain Sand Mounds of the St. John’s River, Florida), is on the one hand an encouraging lesson to the investigator, while on the other it is a silent protest against much of the “ relic hunting” that goes by the name of exploration. Each chapter con- -demns by inference, the treasure of the collecting enthusiast who, for the sake of his card boarded specimens, obliterates the pages of the book no less hopelessly than did Spanish priests when they threw Mayo Codices into the fire, and the value’of specimens with a record, against the cheapness of those without one, increases as we read. An account of 75 mounds of shell and sand faithfully explored by Mr. Moore on the St. John’s River, Florida, catches the attention of the student at once, and he looks with particular interest for the re- sult. What does it all mean? What have these painstaking label- lings of specimens, fresh from the earth, these reiterated measurements, detailed minutiae, and laborious analyses, to tell us of the story of man? Are some explored sites older than others, so that we can prove -a series of epochs in time? Do older sites yield a different class of remains from the younger, so that we may infer a sequence in culture, and suppose that the maker of mounds had a pred in Florida or, at least, developed there through a lower stage of culture into a higher ? How long ago was it? Indians still live in Florida, Were these mound-makers’ Indians? The white man came in the sixteenth cen- tury—which mounds were built before, which after, his coming? Which Indian arts were derived from him, and which preceeded his suggestion ? ‘This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania. 1895.] : Archeology and Ethnology. (eg Mr. Moore’s results bearing upon some of these questions might be- summed up thus: (a) THE FLORIDA MOUNDS LIKE OTHER MOUNDS. The Floridan builders of sand mounds and shell heaps were like. other pre-Columbian mound building tribes known to archaeology. They had certain peculiar customs, such as nicking arrow-head outlines from pottery (Mulberry Mound and Tick Island) to bury with the dead,. depositing great numbers of Fulgur shells in mounds (1307 from one trench in Mount Royal), and cutting out fragments of pottery with sharp instruments to inter in graves, but neither these facts nor the scattered charcoal and random hearths of the mounds, the catlinite, the cache of 53 arrow-heads (Mount Royal), the sheets of mica (Tick Island and Mt. Royal), the perforated mussel pearls, the stone tube (Bluffton) or the gouge (Mount Royal), could disconnect these tumuli from the life and habits of the Indian as the white man knows him. The mound- makers cached an extraordinary batch of little baked earthen shapes in Volusia Mound mimicking the bear, turtle, puma, wildcat, tapir,. possibly ; the bud of the water-lily, the acorn, gourd, and ear of maize,. but there was nothing in the ornamented fragment of human skull (Bluffton), the sharpened fragment of human bone (Tick Island), the- copper-sheeted animal jaw (Tick Island), the bits of Galena (Mt. Royal), or the copper (Mt. Royal) to set aside these structures as a. class unique in themselves or apart from other mounds in the United States. Like the Indians of Maine, the Floridians spread layers of hematite reddened sand near interred human bones (Mount Royal) or with de- posited relics (Grant’s Mound at Dunn’s Creek). Some mounds, levelled to the ground, were empty, some contained only a few pot- sherds (St. John’s Landing), and the irregular construction of many defied any practical theory of explanation. Sometimes relics were scattered broadcast about the mound, out of all relation to its shape, and not associated with any burial. There were cutting-tools of soft rock that use would have destroyed, “ ceremonial ” shapes of stone and pottery, caches of intractable and useless hornstone chips, and inex- plicable arrangements of shells, betokening the doings of men who harkened habitually to the echoes of an invisible world, and, like Congo savages, drew half their life’s inspiration from demonology and spirit worship. Here again, science is invited to explain the motive traits of humanity’s childhood, and account for facts before it, not alone by the promptings of five senses, but by motives wild as the veering wind, 78 The American Naturalist. [January, —motives to understand which is to half reveal the scheme of primitive existence, whose features, faintly suggested by archeology, elude the im- agination. He best knows them who, searching deep, dares, like Mr. Cushing, the dreadful initiation of the Indian Priest. When the mound-makers buried pots with the dead, they often knocked holes in them, not to render them worthless for grave robbers, since valuables often lay close by, but inferably for a religious reason. Sometimes they made the holes before the pottery was baked. Like the Nanticokes, of Maryland, it appeared that they had dried the flesh of corpses off the bones, stored the latter in charnel houses, and, at given times, buried the store, for, though the interred skeletons found lay sometimes in anatomical order, as if they had been buried with the flesh on the bones, or before the ligaments had rotted, at other times (Duval’s) the bones lay scattered in disorder or in bundles (Gunn’s Grove), when, occasionally, the remains of one man (Orange- dale) got mixed with those of another. But, in all this, there was nothing extra Indian. Other mound- building tribes had been known to do all or most of these things, and we come to the second question— (b) DIFFERENCE IN AGE OF THE SITES. Following the rivers’ course, there were two kinds of sites exam- ined—sand mounds built deliberately by piling up loads of sand and earth on one spot, for burial or other pnrpose, and shell heaps (which, by the way, occur on the river only from its source half way down) made by people eating fresh water mollusks on one spot and throwing the shells under foot. At Tick Island, Bluffton, Thursby’s, Thornhill Lake, Mulberry Mound, Gunn’s Grove, Fort Taylor, and Raulerzon’s, the sand mounds were later than the shell heaps, for they were built directly upon the shell heaps. On the other hand, at Orange, the shell heap is later than the sand mound, for it rests upon the sand mound. If we go by the comparative test of contents, some of the sand mounds and shell heaps must have been contemporaneous, as where, at Mulberry Mound, there were the same kind of tobacco pipes in the sand mound as in the shell heap. A few shell heaps contained plenty of pottery, though, as a general rule, they contained none, and we are left to infer that the art of pottery was unknown at their date, or, more reasonably, as I venture to suggest, (having examined several small sherdless shell heaps at York Harbour, Maine,) that some heaps may have been made entirely of roasted clams, where the cooking process (unlike boiling) required no pot. On the other hand, some sand 1895.] Archeology and Ethnology. 79 mounds contained no pottery, and none ever contained a certain kind of earthenware that seemed to have been tempered with small fibrous roots. This, when found at all, was found in the sheli heaps. Pro- fessor W. H. Holmes, in an appended paper (The Earthenware of Florida), argues that this fibre tempered pottery may, nevertheless, be no older than the other sand mound wares, since often in form (identical with those of the best days of the art) and in design (the scroll pattern), it appears to be up to the finer models of the sand tumuli. Less still does he find characteristics in any of the other earthen specimens, whether from sand mounds or shell heaps and which he describes as paddle-stamped Cherokee fashion, extemporized by amateurs, often coiled, and never made in baskets or nets; chalky often, or gray coated and black within, to warrant the setting aside of any pattern of them all as older than the rest, or the use of any make as a test of age for the mounds or heaps. Notwithstanding this and the fact that rarely the shell heaps (Per- simmon Mound) were used like the sand mounds for burial, Mr. Moore thinks for the reasons aflove given, that the shell heaps, as a general rule, belong to an older time than the mounds. (c) MOUNDS BEFORE AND AFTER WHITE CONTACT. Though there can be no doubt that some of the tumuli were built before the coming of white men, there seems to be no reason for sup- posing that these mounds of Florida are any older than any other class of mounds or shell heaps in the United States. The mammoth’s molar (Gunn’s Grove) appears to have been picked up by a curiosity- loving Indian and used as a trinket. But there is nothing in the ani- mal bones mentioned to suggest that the mound-maker was the con- temporary of an extinct fauna, though the clay model of a tapir-like snouted animal (Volusia Mound) may mean that these people, like the Indians of Tennesee, saw the tapir. Some of the mounds were built after the.coming of the whites. There is no question about that, for glass beads and iron were found in the bases of them with disassociated bones, complete skeletons and bunched burials (Ranlerson’s). There wasa silver ornament and an iron axe at the bottom of Dunn’s Creek Mound, and two skeletons were buried with flint-lock muskets and glass beads at Bayard’s Point. Some mounds, really pre-Columbian, and, in their original bedding, showing no white man’s trace, had been notched on their sides and top with comparatively recent Indian graves containing European trink- ets, and glass beads were found about the surface of some others ( Volu- 80 The American Naturalist. [January, sia, Thursby’s, Gunn’s Grove and Cook’s Ferry). But many others again (Mount Royal, etc., etc.), which showed, from top to bottom, no trace of the white man, must, inferably, have been built before the com- ing of Europeans. (d) MOUND COPPER NOT OF EUROPEAN ORIGIN. To find an object of European make in a mound, is to date the mound after white contact, that is certain. But when we ask which objects were and which were not of European make or snggestion, and set aside a number of things easily in one category or the other, we soon come to the doubtful case of copper—copper which was mined by the Indians on Lake Superior to be pounded cold into trinkets; cop- per which the Spaniards found Indians casting in moulds in Mexico, and which, on the other hand, was traded to Indians by Europeans in the sixteenth century, to be again worked into trinkets. The copper in these mounds (Tick Island and Mount Royal), as in Ohio, (Hope- well’s) appears in such smooth and extremely thin discs and plates, that, spite of its position at the mound’s base, with no associated trace of Europe; spite of the aboriginal pattern, certain archaeologists would not believe itof American manufacture. Until Mr. F. H. Cush- ing succeeded in reproducing the specimens in cold hammered native cop- per, with Indian tools, the opinion held its own that the mound-makers had cut the shapes out of machine-rolled sheets brought from Europe. To settle this question, Mr. Moore has employed, at great pains and with great credit to his energy, the test of analysis. That a component alloy should occur in European copper of the time in question, which never occurs in these mound specimens, and which likewise never occurs in the pure native material found in America, was a lucky chance. But such was proved, in a reasonable number of analyses, to be the case, and it settled the question. The tell-tale alloy is lead. The mound copper examined always had fewer impurities (sometimes only,silver and iron) than the European, anti- mony and arsenic were from 19 to 45 times less abundant in mound copper than in European, but lead was always present in the Euro- pean and never in the mound specimens analyzed. It was only making assurance doubly sure to urge, after this, that. the mound designs were aboriginal; that the objects of the same kind differed in size and shape, which, inferably, machine-made specimens would not do; that the Mount Royal breast-plate, though symmetri- _ eal, was not mechanically so; that the large plates were not originally made from single sheets, such as European mechanics would have fur- 1895.] Archeology and Ethnology. 81 nished, but from ragged-edged fragments rivetted together; and, finally, that the copper specimens were never found associated with objects of white man’s make. But the main point had been already reasonably proved. The absence of lead had settled the question, and wherever the mound-building Floridans got their raw material, whether from the ancient diggings at Lake Superior, from Mexico, or from Cuba, where lead is equally absent in the native deposits, it never came from Europe. H. C. MERCER. 82 The American Naturalist. [January, MICROSCOPY." Formol as a Preserving Fluid.’—If the four atoms of hydro- gen in the simple organic combination, swamp gas or methan, be replaced by a hydroxyl group there may be formed, one after the other, partly by the separation of water, (1) methylalcohol, (2) methylenglycol, (3) formic acid, and (4) carbon dioxide. The process may be illustrated in the following manner : H | H—C—H = CH, = methan. OH | H—C—H = CH,O = methylalcohol. | H OH | H—C—OH = CH,O, = methylenglycol ; and CH,O,—H,0 = | H CH,O = formaldehyde. OH | H—C—OH = CH,0, ; and CH,O,—H,0 = CH,0, —formie acid. | OH OH | OH—C—H = CH,0,; and CH,O,—2H,0 = CO, =carbon dioxide. | OH Of these five combinations it is formaldehyde that concerns us. It was discovered in 1863 by A. W. Hoffmann while passing wood spirit (methylaleohol) and air over a red hot platinum spiral. If the vapor 1Edited by C. O. Whitman, University of Chicago. 2? The first half of this paper is a free translation of a paper by Prof. T. Blum in the Bericht. über d. senckenbergische naturf. Gesell. in Frankf. a. M., 1894, p- 195.—F. C. K. 1895.] Microscopy. 83 is brought into water to its point of saturation, a 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde is obtained, which has long been known under the name of formol. The use of the termination “ol,” here has been ob- jected to as belonging especially to alcohols, but since we have to do not with the vapory formaldehyde of the discoverer, but with the hy- drate, methylenglycol, an alcohol, this objection is not well founded. The first experiments as to the value of an aqueous solution of formal- dehyde for the purposes of disinfection, hardening and preservation, were made with the solution under the name of formol; therefore, the general custom of priority giving the honor, I shall use the term for- mol. Formol is a clear, slightly opalescent fluid with a sharp odor. By dilution of the fluid the odor is lessened and the liquid remains as clear as water.. Itis best kept in glass vessels. In metal ones it often be- comes of dark brown color and must then be allowed to stand quietly in a glass vessel before diluting for use. From the quiet liquid there settles a light cloudy precipitate leaving the liquid clear. A change of formaldehyde to an insoluable paraformaldehyde, that has here and there been noted, I have never met with. After my son, Dr. F. Blum, made the discovery that formaldehyde posessed besides its known antiseptic action, the noteworthy property of hardening animal tissues without their shrinking and without alter- ing their microscopic structure or staining properties, formol appeared to me to be the preservative fluid for which I had long sought. With- out loss of time, I began my experiments upon anima] and plant ob- jects. These gave within the short space of a few months such encour- aging results that I did not hesitate to publish them in a preliminary paper. Since then the experiments have been continued at the Museum der Senckenbergischen naturforchenden Gesellschaft, and in different places others have likewise tested the preservative properties of the fluid. Among my experiments those that follow are the most important. To begin with, several human embryos were placed according to age in formol diluted with 10 and with 20 parts of water and were finely pre- served. Even a foetus of 8 months in which the placenta and egg mem- branes were left intact, had taken up so much formol that it was hard- ened in spite of the resistance of the chorion to the diffusion of the liquid. The amniotic fluid was darkened, but the surrounding liquid remained clear. Somewhat finer results were obtained with smaller embryos. In one about 14 em. long with uninjured amnion, this being thinner, — 3 Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1893, No. 434. 84 The American Naturalist. [January,. the amniotic fluid did not become turbid. Through it each structural particular of the embryo and navel cord is easily recognized. The temporal artery shows through the transparent skin as a dark brown streak, while beneath it is seen the brain through its capsule. In an embryo a little larger (30 cm.), the fine hair and hair follicles are finely preserved. This last embryo was in a 1:20 solution. Experiments with a corpse have not been made, yet the possibility of one keeping, may be with safety assumed. In order not to be obliged to inject the fluid, it might be necessary to employ the stronger, at least 1:10 solution. Of the Mammalia, mouse, hamster and porpoise have been left in a 1:10 solution for over three-fourths of a year. The fluid has not been changed and yet remains perfectly clear, while the animals are well hardened, unaltered in form and color, and with the hair firmly in place. The mammalian eye as well as that of other vertebrates keeps better in formol than in alcohol. Still after a time a turbidness appears —more in the lens than in the cornea. Reptilia and Amphibia preserve well. Frogs, in consequence of the . entrance of the fluid into the subdermal space, appear swollen, but in other respects are unchanged. For fishes, formol especially recommends itself. The mucous and slime remain clearly transparent, never forming .the white, stringy mass arising in alcoholic preparations. Most fishes retain their colors more or lesscompletely. Gold fish, to be sure, loose their color in very weak solutions, and the red spots of the trout become white with time. A solution diluted 1:10, 1:20, or 1:30, according to the size of the ani- mals may be used. In a short time the animals are very nicely har- dened. From a number of invertebrates I may mention that snails, espe- cially slugs, show their form and colors through the transparent slime. Insects, spiders and Crustacea preserve at least as well in for- mol as in alcohol. Living Hiradinea are contracted more in formol than in alcohol; at least the contracted specimens are numerous and the extended ones few. Thestraw-yellow colors disappear sooner, while, on the other hand, orange-yellow, green, brown and black remain unchanged. Two jelly fish (Aurelia aurita) killed in a 1:20 solution and kept one in a 1:30, the other in a 1:50 solution, were hardened without an alteration of form, color, ortransparency. That kept in the 1:30 solu- tion is the better, but neither have been long in the fluid. 1895.] Microscopy. 85 Single organs or pieces of muscle are quickly hardened in formol. It is notable, as pointed out by my son,‘ that the coloring matter of the blogd is distinctly retained. The blood courses, it is true, fade and finally to all appearances disappear, but if the preparation be placed in alcohol of not too great a strength (60-90 per cent.)—the stronger the quicker the reaction—the characteristic blood color returns and there is obtained an excellent representation of the branching of the ves- sels. The change from formol to alcohol and vice versa may be repeated always the same results. Brain hardened in formol gives very fine results.’ Pieces and even the entire brain are hardened very quickly and show the white and gray matter sharply differentiated from one another. Sections are said to be much better than those of chromic acid preparations. As has been mentioned, neither the microscopic structure nor the staining properties of tissuesare destroyed by formol. Almost all the organs and staining methods have been tried. In the preparations, cell body and cell structure, as well as the nucleus caught both in the resting state and in process of division are fixed, while the blood sio cles are sharply marked off from their surroundings. Hens’ eggs have been tried and have in many ways led to very interesting results. An unbroken fresh egg in a 1:15 solution showed, after 8 days, the white forming about the yolk a mantle of an outer fluid and an inner slimy consistance. The yolk was hard, remaining fluid only in the middle. The hardening process here then is the reverse of that of cooking. On the day following, the yolk had become much hard- er, while the white was changed only after a long time and never neared the hardness of the yolk. Upon opening an egg after 38 days a faint odor of formol was perceived. The yolk was hard, sectionable, and showed an outer zone of 14 mm. breadth and an inner beautiful yel- low mass. The yolk was surrounded by a grayish, scarcely sectionable, gelatinous mantle in which the chalazea and germinal-spot were plainly visible. About the mantle was a very slightly opalescent albuminous fluid. A fresh egg with a small hole in it showed under like conditions the same phenomena, but within a shorter time, or about 17 days. After 68 days such an egg was noticeably harder., The firm white clung to * Anatomischer Anzeiger, m = No. 7. 5 See Born, D r Anzahl in F idehyd (Form Tirehirtatar menschlicher Gehirne.” Meas Sektion d. schlesisch. Gesell. £ vaterl. Kultur. A 1894. 86 The American Naturalist. [January, the shell so that it shelled like a cooked egg. The white had the appearance of gelatin, was firm, and whitish-gray. The yolk was very hard and breakable. Similar results to those with the unbroken eggs were obtainéd with uninjured eggs in formol vapor (a very few drops). cooked egg kept in formol vapor after 30 days appeared as fresh as though newly cooked, smelled of formol on the inside and had a sharp taste. A fresh, unbroken egg that had been for 75 days in a 1:5 solution of formol was placed for 15 minutes in boiling water. Both yolk and white had the same appearance as in an uncooked egg that had been for asimilar length of time in formol. In spite of the long cooking the white had not taken on that beautiful porcelain white appearance common to cooked eggs, and had not changed its firm gellatinous con- dition. Hence through the action of formol the white of an egg looses the property of coagulating by heat. If, as now assumed, egg- white bodies are those substances that are changed in chemical consti- tution by the action of formol, then the difference in the action upon the white and the yolk of the hen’s egg offers a most worthy test for the study of different albuminous substances. Experiments with plants were made in considerable number. In general the preservative action of formol upon the colors of flowers is less than the first experiments had led me to hope. Nevertheless, this- means of preservation is a step in advance. Many flowers placed in formol during the summer were usable as demonstration preparations during the following winter. A passion flower in a 1:20 solution after nearly ten months, is still a beautiful preparation. Further, many composites, viz., such as had a yellow color, like Helianthus argyro- phyllum, Calendula officinalis, etc., have been well preserved. Also a rhododendron flower (in 1:20), a rose (in 1:50), Akebia quinata (1:20), Cornus mas (1:20) and so on, have been changed in form and color but little. Fragant flowers and fruits turn the formol to an agreeably odiferous fluid. Chloropyll is not drawn out by the fluid, but the green color of tender leaves become pale with time. A Dieffenbachia with a bulb grown upon the spathe is almost faded, but forms never the less a fine preparation. Firm leaves like those of Rhododendron are. altered but little. Fruits are well preserved. Blue grapes, currants, medlars, several species of Crategus, Cephalotaxus, banana, different species of Solanum, Magnolia tripetala, strawberries, and Mangifera- indica, that have been in formol ever since the fall of 1893, are nicely preserved. Ina very few fruits the action of the preservative is injurious. 1895.] Microscopy. 87 The use of a very dilute solution of formol works badly for the reason that from such a fluid the water is absorbed very decidedly. At least fruits became swollen more often than plants in the dilute solutions. Cherries, for instance, keep well in a 1:30 solution, but in one of 1:60 or 1:80 they burst open. The entrance of the fluid into the colored envelopes of flowers is also very noticeable. How dilute the solution may be for the different plants is difficult to say. It must be deter- mined by experiment. Of Cryptogamous plants I have till now experimented only with truffles (1:10) and young Phallus impudicus (1:30). This last was cut in two and forms an excellent preparation. Cohn declares that formaldehyde forms an excellent means of pre- serving Leuconostoc and chromogenous bacteria since the jelly and color are not changed.° The value of the fluid for preserving bacteria has been noticed by Hauser.’ He shows that gelatin in which micro-organisms are grown is changed by formaldehyde vapor so that it will not become fluid, and that gelatin already peptonized becomes hard again in the vapor. Neither the gelatin nor the micro-organisms suffer a noticeable change, and the preparations can be kept for demonstration or museum pur- poses. In microscopic sections of plants that have been in the preserva- tive (1:20) for several months the cell wall, protoplasm and chlorophyll bodies appear as in fresh specimens. I have not yet undertaken to determine the freezing point of the formol solution, but will remark that during the past cold winter in an unheated store room the diluted solution was not frozen, and that even in the open air at a temperature of—18° C the concentrated solu- tion remained fluid. In conclusion the properties of formol as a preservative medium may be summed up as follows: Animal objects are hardened with shrinking, and without losing their microscopic structure or staining properties. The natural form and color is preserved. The eye remains much clearer than in alcohol. The mucous of slime producing animals is not coagulated and re- mains transparent. The coloring matter of blood in tissues apparently disappears, but may be quickly restored by a high per cent alcohol. 6 Bot. Centralbl., Vol. lvii, No. 1, 1894 7 Münchener med, Wochenschrift, 1893, Nos, 30 & 35. 88 The American Naturalist. [January, Plant structures are more or less well preserved ; most fruits keep well. Chlorophyll is not extracted, but after a long action of the fluid del- icate leaves may be changed. The duration of the retention of other coloring matters is different with individual plants. Microscopic sections of plants that have been a long time in formol give fine preparations. Dilute formol is not combustible and is much cheaper than alcohol. To the above experiments described by Blum may be added those of Dr. Th. Pintner, Dr. C. Krückmann, and a few notes of my own. Dr. Pintner used a 1 per cent. solution of formaldehyde iu sea water. for Discomedusæ, Æquorea and Aurelia without their form being affected.” The same solution was used with sponges such as Suberites dominicula and massa, Clathria coralloides, Aplysina aérophobia, ete., with equally good results. But animals that contract much in killing must first be treated with Lo Bianco’s Naples methods, and then trans- ferred to the solution of formaldehyde. He found that all animals do not retain their color, as for instance, the red coloring matter of acti- nia and of Comatula is extracted. Dr. Kriickmann working with bacteria used stronger solutions and obtained the best results by combining corrosive sublimate with forma- lin” To begin with, a formalin solution of moderate strength was used and this gradually increased until the specimens were in pure formalin. Bacterial cultures were fixed by placing them in an excic- eator containing formalin instead of sulphuric acid, and in order to tan the surface of the medium, it was covered with a 1:10 solution of formalin containing 1 per cent of sublimate. This was later changed to astronger solution of formalin and the tube hermetically sealed. By following this process he found that colors were much better pre- served and the more or less inevitable crumpling very much dimin- ished. The solution worked well with all media except potato. The few experiments that have been performed by myself seem to indicate that too weak solutions of formalin have hitherto been used except in the bacterial experiments of Kriickmann. The material used was what came nearest to hand, and consisted of a tree-frog, sala- manders, earth worms, sow-bugs, myriapods, plant-lice, slugs, cat liver and blood, blood of salamander, nostoc and a pond scum. The solu- tions used varied from ł per cent. to pure formalin. Two species of 8 Ver. zool. bot. Ges. Wien, xliv, (1894), p ? Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u, Parasiteuk., aS ab pp. 851-7. 1895]. Microscopy. 89 Plethodon placed in a 4 per cent. solution of formaldehyde (10 per cent. of the commercial formalin) were soon killed, and on the day fol- lowing the immersion were thoroughly hardened and after a week or so have not shrunken noticeably further than that the costal furrows are a little more strongly marked than in life. The reddish coloring of one of them is fully as fresh as when the animal was caught. A tree-frog placed in the same solution at the same time became somewhat swollen, but by cutting the skin in the abdominal region, the swelling was then shown to be due to an entrance of the fluid into the subdermal space as pointed out by Blum.- The swollen tongue, which protruded from the mouth a little, would indicate, however, that there had been a swelling of some of the tissues. The same swelling of the head was noticed in the salamanders, but with them it is not so marked. A single adult Amblystoma punctatum, that had been first anesthe- tized with chloroform, was placed in a solution equivalent to about 1 per cent. of formaldehyde, and was found to harden rapidly. There was, however, a very noticeable swelling of the whole body within twenty-four hours, while, at the same time, the costal furrows, as in the Plethodon specimens, became more marked. After about a week’s immersion in the 1 per cent. solution, it was found that the bright orange-yellow spots of the live animal had very noticeably faded to light yellow. The specimen was then changed to a 4 per cent. solution and after an equal length of time the fading appeared to have gone no further, while the swelling was somewhat reduced. As it is the speci- men is much better preserved than it would have been in alcohol. Earthworms and the Arthropods were tried in all solutions. The former swell but slightly in the weaker solutions and contract very much less in the stronger ones than they would in alcohol, chromic acid or the other hardening agents. They harden in a } per cent. solution as well as in the stronger ones or in pure formalin, the differ- ence being one of time. In the Arthropods—sow-bugs and myriapods —the fluid in some of the experiments entered the body to such an extent as to stretch the animals out, leaving broad gaps between the harder parts of the segments. This stretching or swelling was first seen in the specimens in the J and 2 per cent. solutions, but sometime later those in all the solutions below 1 per cent. were fully as badly swollen, if not more so. Besides this the brownish colors of the animals became more faint, while the fluid became very much colored. This extraction of color is most noticeable with the } per cent. solution. Slugs placed in }, 3, 3, 1, 2, 4, 8, 10 and 20 per cent. solutions seem equally well preserved. In the 1 and2 per cent. solutions the head is _ 90 The American Naturalist. [January, a little more distended than in the others. When first placed in the solution they gave off considerable slime, but this became perfectly transparent so, as noted by Blum, the form and colors of the animals were not obscured. With salamander blood some startling effects were obtained. A few drops of blood were placed on a slide in a 1 per cent. solution of for- maldehyde and watched under the microscope. The corpuscles and especially the nuclei were seen to swell rapidly. The nuclei became as large almost as the original corpuscles and were seen to pop out of the corpuscle like a grape from its skin. The envelopes then became very pale and finally disappeared from view, the nuclei, however, remained very distinct. Staining with Erlich-Biondi mixture showed that the body of the corpuscles had simply been rendered very trans- parent by the solution, while immersion in alcohol coagulated the fibrin into an opaque, straw-yellow mass, and brought the corpuscles faintly back into view. This explains the phenomenon of the return of the color of blood vessels noted by Blum as due to the coagulation of the fibrin which may also be stained somewhat by the color drawn from the corpuscles. The same experiment was performed with a 4 per cent. formaldehyde solution in place of the weaker one and the swelling effect found to be very much lessened, none of the nuclei becoming as large as the corpuscle nor escaping, otherwise the results were the same. After this an earthworm was anesthetized with chloroform, placed ina 1 per cent solution of formaldehyde for several hours and after- wards removed toa 2 per cent. solution. There it remained for an equal length of time, when it seemed perfectly hardened and was re- moved to Czoker’s alum cochineal. On the following day pieces were rapidly dehydrated in 70 per cent. and 95 percent. alcohol and imbed- ded in paraffin. Sections made from them showed all micro-anatomi- cal details perfectly preserved. Nothing had stained but the nuclei which had all become very much swollen, giving the whole section a bright red-purple appearance. So decidedly had they swollen that in both series of the muscular system, and in the septa where they are not ordinarily visible, nuclei were shown very distinctly and in large numbers. Careful observation showed the nucleolus a little more deeply colored than the rest, while the chromatic filaments seemed swollen and less distinct. Sections were also made of an earthworm hardened in pure formalin and no swelling whatever was to be noticed, while all cytological. detail was remarkably well preserved. 1895.] Microscopy. 91 To counteract the swelling effect of the weak solutions alcohol was employed. A 5 per cent. solution of formaldehyde in 50 per cent. alco- hol hardened pieces of earthworm and cat liver very rapidly, so that on the day following their immersion, sections could be obtained by the paraffin method. Here the nuclei were found not to have swollen noticeably, if at all, while nuclear detail was plainly brought out by staining. In the pieces asa whole, there was neither swelling nor shrinkage, while the liver did not become as pale as it would have in alcohol. For stains alum cochineal, Erlich-Biondi, Orth’s picro-carminate of lithium, Erlich’s acid hematoxylin, picric acid, fuchsin and saffranin were tried and their action found not to be very much if at all inter- ferred with by the formaldehyde. In oneinstance a piece of an earth- worm was placed in equal parts of 2 per cent. formaldehyde and alum cochineal. On the following day it had been little more than super- ficially reddened, while a piece that had been removed from the same solution (2 per cent.) of formaldehyde and left for the same length of* time in undiluted alum cochineal had stained perfectly. In Nostoc the dark yellowish-green has been extracted in 4 per cent formaldehyde leaving the filaments as seen with the naked eye of a whitish or very light green, while a dark green pond scum after immersion in the fluid for nearly two weeks has changed slightly to brownish-green. Still it is not unlike old specimens of the same and similar material that one often finds in ponds. In conclusion it may be said that for general purposes, solutions of at least more than 2 per cent. must be used in order to avoid the swell- ing and decolorization of specimens, that from 4-8 per cent. will give the best results. For histological purposes formalin combined with alcohol will give better results than either used alone; while the weak (1-2 per cent.) solutions by swelling nuclei may serve the very important special purpose of demonstrating the presence of cells not. otherwise readily distinguished. F. C. Kenyon. 92 Ths American Naturalist. [January, SCIENTIFIC NEWS. Bibliographical Reform.—The pressing need of an improvement in the methods of indexing scientific literature is admitted on all sides, Especially a young and growing science like zoology feels this want. Present bibliographical aids are inadequate in three principal re- respects: First, they are incomplete; second, they are tardy in fur- nishing notices of papers; and third, they do not enable one to find quickly all references to any subject of which one desires the litera- ture. Although at various times attention has been called to the exisiting imperfections in our bibliographical service, it is only lately that active steps have been taken to improve that service radically. Over a yearago Dr. H. H. Field began to agitate the matter of reform in the bibliography of zoological literature by a letter, printed in Na- ture (Vol. xlvii, p. 607, Apr. 27,1893). Last spring the Royal Society of London, whose Catalogue of Scientific Periodicals is well known, sent a circular to scientific men and institutions asking for suggestions con- cerning the compilation through international coöperation, beginning with the year 1900, of a complete catalogue of scientific literature, giv- ing not only titles arranged according to authors’s names, but also an index to subject matter. This request has already excited earnest at- tention and seems certain to elicit a cordial response. Dr. Field’s plan in no wise conflicts with the Royal Society’s purpose ; it may, indeed, be said to codperate in it. He believes that the reform on the zoological side ought not and need not wait half a decade. It should begin at once. Ifthe plan proposed by Field should be suc- cessful it would show the probability of success of the larger undertak- ing mentioned in the Royal Society’s circular. If that undertaking should be begun in 1900 the zoological part of the work, already organized would be easily absorbed by it. Field has already drawn up the outlines of a definite plan after con- sultation with prominent zoological bibliographers in Europe. These he has already published. Besides the printed letter in Nature, refer- red to above, a statement of his plan can be found in the Biologisches Centralblatt, Bd. xiv, pp. 269-272; Verhandl. Deutschen Zool. Gesell. iv Jahresversammlung, 1894; and Mém. Soc. Zoologique de France, Tome vii, pp. 259-263. 1895.] Scientific News. 93 The essential points of his plan are these: First a single international bureau, situated at some great library centrein Europe, which shall re- ceive all zoological papers. It shall make such arrangements as are necessary with governments, publishers and directors of zoological institutions for obtaining all zoological publications, and it shall have agents in every country or province to see that the literature of that region is sent to the bureau. This bureau will obtain synopses of the contents of all papers and books, through authors, publishers and paid agents. The central bureau will, moreover, superintend the printing and distribution of its publications. This bureau will also naturally acquire, in time, an invaluable collec- tion of the entire zoological literature from the time of its foundation. Second, publications in two forms: Ist, a pamphlet of titles and books with short synopses, resembling, but somewhat more extended than the various more or less incomplete bibliographical lists now pub- lished in different periodicals. This pamphlet to be issued at brief in- tervals. 2nd., the same titles including synopsis printed either on one side of a narrow sheet or on separate cards of standard size. The synopses to give a clue to the contents of the papers and to serve as a basis for the arrangement of the cards according to subjects. At suit- able intervals a subject index to the literature, based on these synopses to be published. Field had the intention of submitting his plan to the American Society of Naturalists at their New Haven meeting, last year, in order that they might be the first to appoint a committees to confer with similar foreign committees in the further elaboration and the inaugura- tion of the undertaking. He believed that, owing to the friendly rela- tions existing between this country and all European nations, America could best take the initiative in this work. Owing to an unfortunate delay in the mails, however, Field’s paper, presenting the subject, came too late for presentation to the American Society. Since that time Field has submitted his plan to the zoological Socie- ties of Germany, France, and Russia and these have appointed com- mittees to act together in considering the details of the plan and methods of supporting it. Besides the recognition by societies, numer- ous individual zoologists of Germany, France, Russia and England— among them y. Bardeleben, Bouvier, Dohrn, Hoyer, Paul Mayer, Min- chin, Mitrophanow, and Schimkewitsch—have signified their interest in the plan and many of these their willingness to codperate.| 94 The American Naturalist. [January, Although American zoologists cannot be the first to make a definite move in the direction of bibliographical reform their hearty codpera- tion at the present critical time will help to; make it an accomplished fact. Besides codperating with the committees from other countries, American zoologists can contribute to the success of the plan in two ways. ‘They can see that copies of their own and others’ publications are forwarded to the central bureau and they can make synopses of their own papers and others dealing with their specialities. Those who are willing to aid in these directions should communicate with Dr. H. H FIELD, 67 RUE DE BuFrron, Paris, FRANCE. An Academy of Sciences for Michigan.—At a meeting of about 25 persons, held in Ann Arbor, June 27, 1894, it was unani- mously agreed that it was desirable to form a society for the purpose of scientific research in the State of Michigan. At this meeting, the officers whose names are appended were elected to serve until a permanent organization should be effected, and were _ instructed to act as an advisory board with the duty of recommending a constitution and by-laws for adoption by the society, and of prepar- ing a program for the next meeting. At a meeting of the advisory board it was unamiously agreed to re- commend that the name of the society be the “ Michigan Academy of Sciences,” and that it have for its principal object the study of the agri- culture, archeology, botany, geography, geology, mineral resources, zoology. etc., etc., of the State of Michigan, and the diffusion of the knowledge thus gained among them. It is not the opinion of the advisory board, however, that the work of the society should be re- stricted to the subjects named but should be enlarged from time to time as occasion may require. W. J. Beal, President, Agri. College; J. B. Steere, Vice-President, Ann Arbor; F. C. Newcomb, Secretary, Ann Arbor; W. B. Barrows, Agr. College ; I. C. Russel, Ann Arbor. The Journal of the Biological Association of the United Kingdom (Vol. iii, No. 3, 1894) contains, besides special articles noticed else- where, the report of the director, from which we learn that 12 persons occupied tables during the year 1893-4, and that 9 articles were pub- lished as results of work done there. The expenses of the year amounted to about $11,000. We regret to see that the regular re- ceipts are not sufficient to meet the outlay. An interesting fact is that over $350 was received from entrances to the aquarium room. 1895.] Scientific News. 95 Dr. H. Solereder has been appointed custodian of the botanical col- dacthnt at Munich. Dr. Zimmermann has been made professor extraordinarius of bot- any at Tübingen. Dr. Filhol is the professor of comparative anatomy at the Museum of Natural History at Paris, succeeding Pouchet Dr. A. Oppel has been AISNE extraordinarius in embryology and microscopy at Freiburg, i. Dr. E. Stolley has been-appointed docent in Geology at Kiel. Major C. L. Griesbach, for twenty years connected with the survey, has been appointed director of the Geological Survey of India. A new biological journal has appeared in Germany, the “ Archiv für Entwichlungsmechanik ” edited ‘by Prof. Wilhelm Roux of Innsbruck and issued by the house of Engelmann in Leipzig. The first number contains the following papers. Roux, Cytotropismus of the blastomeres of Rana fusca; Ribbert, compensational hypertrophy and regeneration ; Barfurth, experimental regeneration of superfluous limbs in Amphibia ; Barfurth, are the limbs of frogs capable of regeneration? Tournier, origin of joint forms. The first number is illustrated by 7 plates and costs 10 marks. Each volume will contain about 650 pages. An appreciative sketch of the late Dr. H. A. Hagen by Samuel Henshaw appears in vol. xxix of the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Dr. Altmann has been made professor extraordinarius of Botany at Freiburg iB. Dr. Ed. Holzapfel has been appointed professor of Geology and Paleontology in the technical school at Aix la Chapelle Dr. Rudolf Burckhardt, formerly of Berlin, is now extraordinary pro- fessor of comparative anatomy at Basel. Dr. Erich Haase, the well-known student of myriapods, died in Siam, in the last of May. Prof. J. Jiigge, director of the botanical museum at Ziirich, died June 21, 1894. a Dr. O. Th. Sandahl, the physiologist, died at Stockholm, June 22. Dr. Paul Albrecht, of Hamburg, is dead. 96 The American Naturalist. [January,. Dr. Carl von Heider, formerly of Berlin, has been called as ordi- nary professor of zoology, and Dr. M. von Leuhossek of Würzburg as- professor of anatomy, at Innsbruch. Dr. R. von Lendenfeld becomes ordinary professor of zoology in Czernowitz. Dr. Schewiakoff of Heidelberg goes as assistant in the Zoological Institute of St. Petersburg. A. C. Gill has been appointed assistant professor of mineralogy and petrology at Cornell University, and Gilbert D. Harris assistant pro- fessor of Paleontology at the same institution. Miss L. C. Deane has been appointed instructor in biology at Vassar College. At Wellesley College the following appointments have been made: Edith J. Claypole and Miss Hubbard, instructors in physiology ; Eliz- abeth F. Fisher, instructor in geology and mineralogy. Charles S. Prosser, formerly instructor at Cornell University, has been called to the chair of geology in Union College. Dr. W. S. Nickerson is occupying (ad interim) the chair of biology and histology in the University of Colorado at Boulder. Recent Deaths.—Prof. Paul Albrecht, vertebrate anatomist, of Hamburg, Sept. 15, 1894. Dr.C. M. von Bauernfeind, Director of the Technical School of Munich, August 2, 1894. Prof. Friedrich Bidder, physiologist, of Dorpat, August 31, 1894, aged 84 years. G. Cotteau, student of Echinoderms, of Auxiere, at Paris, August 10,1894. Prof. A. Hannover, anatomist, at Copenhagen, July 8, 1894, aged 80. Sal- omon Herzenstein, Conservator of the Zoological Museum of St. Pe- tersburg, ichthyologist, August 19, 1894, aged 40. A.F. Kuwert, coleopterist, at Wernsdorf in Prussia, August 15,1894. Prof. Michele Lessona, zoologist, at Turin, July 20, 1894, aged 71. F. E. Mallard, mineralogist and crystallographer, at Paris, July 6, 1894. Prof. Natanael Pringsheim, the well-known botanist, at Berlin, October 6, 1894, aged 70. Baron Gerhard-Maydell-Stenhusen, botanist and Si- berian explorer, at Bad Ems, August 18, 1894. W. Topley, geologist, at London, Sept. 30, 1894, aged 53. ADVERTISEMENTS. 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MANAGING EDITORS: Prors. E. D. COPE, Philadelphia, AND J. S.. KINGSLEY, Tufts College, College Hill, Mass. ASSOCIATE ee : Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Chicago Dr. C. E, B ProF. C. M. WEED, Durham, X. TE Pror. W. S. BA seh Linco C.-M ae Philadelphia. ND , Neb., P EY, ia igor Pror, E. A Wi PROF. W. H. iee Madison, No. 338 _ Vol. XXIX. FEBRUARY, 1895. CONTENES. PAGE, PAGE, THE PHILOSOPHY OF FLOWER SEASONS, AND THE P E ENTO- MOPHILOUS FLORA A THE ANTHOPHILOUS Insect Fauna. (Illustrated.) Ch INSANITY IN RoYAL FAMILIES. A STUDY IN Herepity. Alice Bodington. . ... . . 118 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ANOMALIES, Thomas. Dwight, M. D., LL. D. 130 EGStOR’S TABLÈE = * ¿186 RECENT LITERATURE—The Mesozoic Echinoder- mata of the United States—Tertiary Rhyn- _ chophorous Coleoptera of the United States -—The Fishes of Pennsylvania. . 188 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. es GENERAL NoTES Geography äna Travels—An Expedition to ~ zabrador. - 140 inindlagiy — Minerals fess the Chromite - Deposits of Lower Silicia—Artificial Repro- ` duction of Anhydrite from Evaporation of - Balt Solutions—Artificial Crystals of Zine Ox- - ide—Artificial esd SAES in phien Glass—New M - 148 Petrography A of POS Teland, ban _ Francisco Bay—A New en Macnee mite Trachytes from Montana—P Fraa arles Robertson. 9T - | Mounds in Chira Valley, Peru—The Neande Geology—Meunier on Meteorites—The Ori- gin of Bitumens—Changes in Ore Deposi Dean on Coprolites—New Molluscan Forms from the Dakota Formation—Glacial Lakes in Western New York—Geological News, Gen- eral — Archean—Paleozoic— Mesozoic — Ceno- e San Bot sanity Sills Systematic “Polny of North g America—Botanical Ne ' Zoology—The Influence of shaped Taine ge ment on Mollusea—The genus Leptophidium —The Habitat of the Salamander Linguelapsus annulatus—The White Headed Eagle in North- ern Ohio—The Paludicola—Mexican Glires Zoological ete Satna —Pisces—R ptili thal Man in die we a i a New ‘Method « of Microtome (Illustrated.) 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The writer’s determination to discuss the subject of flower seasons at the present time is owing to the publication, by Mr. Henry L. Clarke, of an interesting and suggestive paper on the same topic in the Narura.ist for September, 1893. Hav- ing been engaged since 1886 in the investigation of the mutual relations of flowers and insects, he has been led in a very nat- ural way to consider the time of blooming of flowers adapted to insects and the time of flight of the insects which depend more or less upon a floral diet. In 1890 a tabulation of both groups was begun, based upon the data then at hand, and since that time the author has had lying before him lines indicating the periods of the separate species and curves indi- cating the periods of the families of entomophilous plants and of the genera of bees, and the families of the principal remain- ing anthophilous insects; all, however, in the process of being modified by the accumulation of data. As a result, certain views have been arrived at regarding the relations of the 1 98 The American Naturalist. [February, periods of particular flowers to particular species of insects, of families of plants to certain groups of insects, and the rel- ative positions of different groups. Under these circumstances, Mr. Clarke’s paper was read with particular interest, though it has not seemed to justify an abandonment of theoretical con- clusions previously held. The factors admitted by Mr. Clarke to have an influence in determining the blooming time of flowers are as follows: 1. “The blooming period may sometimes vary from the general rule to better bring the flowers among the most favor- able conditions for cross-fertilization.” 2. “Again, plants that are frontiersmen from the character- istic vegetation of a hotter clime may be expected in the hot- test of the seasons—e. g., the Cactaceae.” 3. “There is an evident limitation of the flowering of our trees and shrubs to spring and earliest summer.” “The blossoming of so many trees, especially the Diclinae, in earliest spring, before leaf-budding, must evidently have at least partial connection with anemophilous cross-fertilization.” 4. “Again, there is a determining function in the character of the flower’s habitat—the spring flowers seek largely the protection of the woodlands; marsh plants reach perfection mainly in latest spring and through the summer, though some, like Caltha, are early ; the aquatics of ponds and river glory in the summer sun; and the flowers of meadow and prairie and thicket margin luxuriate from midsummer to the end of autumn.” But the principal deductions of Mr. Clarke are these: “From early spring to late autumn there is a progression in the general character of the flower groups, from the lower to the higher—success- ive groups succeeding each other in time, parallel groups coming synchronously. And the later in order may be types of a higher character of development, or they may be specializations of a group whose normal forms belonged to an earlier season. In their blooming season, the more perfect succeed the more simple; the aberrant, the normal; the specialized, the g ral- ized.” | ze 1895.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 99 In the solution of the problem of the flower seasons of a given flora I think that the period of no plant should enter as a factor, if it is so far removed geographically that at its blooming time it does not become a competitor of any plant of that flora. Any number of flowers adapted to the same conditions may bloom at the same time if they are so widely separated that they do not interfere with one another, but it would be an obvious disadvantage for very many of them to bloom at the same time in the same locality. In the latter case a separation of the blooming times would be advantage- ous. On the other hand, there are some objections to the use of data derived from a local flora’, though I think they are not so serious. Phenomena which seem to find an explanation in a limited field may in fact find their true explanation in con- ditions outside of that field. Even in the case of a local flora the time of blooming is likely to be indicated as too long, since it is based upon the early dates of early seasons, and the late dates of late ones. Such data give rise to error by making it appear that the period of an early species overlaps with that of a later one when in fact the two species never have flowers in bloom at the same time in any season. It is hardly practicable to avoid this, since observations confined to a single season are liable to be too fragmentary. To note that a given family of plants is highly specialized and that it agrees with Mr. Clarke’s generalization by reaching its maximum in summer, does not help one to understand either the general position of the family or the blooming time of a single species, and the difficulty remains the same whether the species blooms before or after the bulk of the family, or whether its season coincides with the maximum. The main fault that may be found with his elucidation of the subject is that it is implied that the general principle of the late blooming of highly specialized flowers is an explanation of the blooming phenomena; for, whenever a flower agrees with the general- ization, it is left as if it were thus explained, while, if it is an exception, its period is accounted for under the considerations which we have numbered. And it must have been a striking fact to the readers of the paper that the exceptions yielded so 100 The American Naturalist. [February, = readily to these considerations that they remained the only cases which were clearly elucidated: But it is hardly fair to dwell too strongly upon this point, for towards the close of the article, Mr. Clarke has expressly said: “ Here the question rises, why should there be a correspondence between the course of the flower seasons and the system of floral evolution? Solve this and the ‘ Philosophy of flower seasons’ is an open riddle.” Stated in this way, as a very interesting and important fact to be explained, I see little in the paper to which objection can be made. Otherwise, it might not unfairly be considered as an attempted refutation of the Darwinian flower theory, for what becomes of that theory if it can be shown that the time of blooming of insect-pollinated flowers is not ree with the time of flight of flower-loving insects? The object of this paper will be to attempt a preliminary contribution to the subject from the standpoint of data derived from the indigenous local flora near Carlinville, Illinois (lat. 39° 21’), to test Mr. Clarke’s main proposition, to undertake to account for flower seasons asa result of the competition of plants for the services of various pollinating agencies, and those of insect-loving flowers as also correlated with the flight of flower-loving insects, and to attempt an explanation of the fact of the general preponderance of the most highly special- ized flowers in late summer. When a plant in a plastic condition succeeds in establishing itself in a highly favorable position, it throws off a number of closely allied forms which finally become more or less well marked incipient species. Asa result we find a number of nearly related forms in competition for a similar position in the soil,for a favorable position in the sunlight, and for the aid of the same pollinating agency. The process of producing similar forms may go on until the competition becomes so severe that it becomes disadvantageous. Then it becomes advantageous for some of the forms to avoid competition’ with the dominant group by migrating to a different region, or to a different kind 1[n the interaction of organisms in the struggle for existence it strikes me that a law of avoidance of competition is more obvious than that of the survival of the fittest. 1895.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 10i of soil, to modify their floral characters so as to attract a dif- ferent set of visitors, or to separate their times of blooming so that they may not have to compete with a great many similar flowers for the attention of the same kinds of insects. As a consequence we find the forms separating their blooming times so as to come, some before, and some after, the maximum of . the group, though the maximum of the whole will probably coincide with the position of the maximum of the dominant forms. The maximum point, then as a rule, at least, marks the point of origin of the group, but the struggle for exist- ence requires a departure from it. Instead, therefore, of indi- cating a point of convergence for the group, the maximum point is the place of divergence, so that there is no law * accord- ing to which the forms tend to concentrate at this point. If one of the forms which has departed from the maximum point comes to filla much more favorable position, it may finally give rise to so numerous a progeny of forms that the maximum of the group will change position and no longer coincide with the point of origin. In looking over my tabulations with these considerations in mind I note that, as a rule, incipient and closely allied species bloom synchronously, while more distinct species, and species of different genera are more likely to be widely separated. In large genera containing numerous closely allied species, which indicates a more recent origin, most of the species bloom to- gether, and it is a notable fact that such genera have a potent influence in determining the maximum point of the groups to which they belong. Thus the species of buttercups (Ran- unculus),violets (Viola), St. John’s wort (Hypericum), tick-tre- foil (Desmodium), golden-rods (Solidago), boneset ( Eupatorium), sunflower (Helianthus), aster, milkweed (Asclepias), verbena, and smartweed (Polygonum), with rare exceptions, bloom sim- ultaneously. The maximum of the buttercup family (Ranun- culaceae) coincides with that of Ranunculus, that of Legumi- nosae with the position of Desmodium, while the maximum 2 In the migration of some highly — groups which MacMillan calls ‘north bound,” I think there has been a retardation of the blooming seasons which has tended to concentrate the poi and thus form late maxima. 102 The American Naturalist. [February, of Compositae is determined by the position of the asters, Eupatorium, golden-rods and sunflowers. AS a result of the divergence of the blooming periods from the maximum point of the group we find that plants come into competition with species of other groups, but as a rule they can stand this better than competition with their own allies. Trees have such a remarkable influence upon one another and upon the herbaceous flora that they should properly, it seems, be considered separately. The fact that most of them agree in being wind-pollinated is an additional reason for this course. Of 488 indigenous insect-pollinated plants, upon which my observations are based, only 18 are trees. On ex- amining the curve for the insect-loving flora (Fig 1, Plate VIII, 5 species to the millimetre), it will be observed that the max- imum is reached in August. At this time 187 species are in bloom, but not a single tree is among them. The flowers of trees are so interfered with by their own leaves and the leaves of other trees that it is disadvantageous for them to bloom after the leaves are fully developed. In the case of wind- pollinated trees it is obvious that, if the leaves were developed before the flowers, the process of pollination would be greatly impeded by the leaves interfering with the free circulation of the wind and catching the pollen which is intended for the stigmas. This fact makes trees an evident exception to Mr. Clarke’s generalization, though they are frequently less specialized than their later flowering allies. In the anem- ophilous nettle family (Urticaceae) there is a marked con- trast between the blooming times of the trees and herbaceous species, as stated by Mr. Clarke. Thus the elm, hackberry and mulberry are early, while the hop, hemp and wood- nettle (Laportea) are late. In the case of insect-pollinated trees the conditions are similar to those of wind-pollinated ones, and they generally 3 Unless otherwise specified, the curves given in this paper are on the scale of one species to the millimetre, i, e., the height of the curve in millimetres in- dicates the number of insects flying, or flowers in bloom at a giventime. The details on which the curves are based will be given elsewhere. 1895.) The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 103 bloom before the leaves are developed, the witch-hazel notably after the leaves have fallen. The leaves act in an equally disadvantageous way, by concealing the flowers so that insects do not easily find them. Before the leaves have appeared in the woods, the trees which depend upon insects for pol- lination are very conspicuous and have a good chance of being attended by the insects which are attracted by their own flowers and by the flowers of the herbaceous plants which grow under their protection. Later, when the woods become shady, there are few herbaceous flowers, and few insects to at- tend the trees if they should bear flowers dependent upon them. The rose family (Rosaceae) is of particular interest, since of the larger families it contains the greatest number of trees., and as its maximum is early (Fig. 14, Plate VIII), it is the only one of the entomophilous tree-producing families, which is in a favorable position for giving rise to aborescent forms. The first to bloom is the service-berry (Amelanchier), and the trees, e.g.,the plum, cherry, apple and hawthorn, coin- cide pretty nearly with the maximum of the family, though it is significant that the latest species are herbaceous. As the season advances, the flowering of trees and of herbaceous plants which grow under them is evidently cut short in corre- lation with the appearance of the overshadowing leaves.‘ While it is not my intention to discuss wind-pollinated plants specially at this time, I think that their blooming sea- sons may be explained by reference to their competition among themselves and with the insect-pollinated flora. Even in herbaceous plants it seems that the spring might reasonably be expected to be the most favorable for pollination, since they would be less likely to be overtopped by the later plants which become increasingly more luxuriant. But at different seasons they can readily occupy positions unfavorable to ento- mophilous plants, and in summer they may endure the com- petition of the entomophilous flora better than that of an in- definite number of plants depending upon the wind, or better * One of my favorite botanizing grounds shows a great variety of vernal flowers, but after the appearance of the leaves is covered by a uniform growth of the anemophilous wood-nettle (Laportea canadensis). 104 The American Naturalist. (February, than to resort to insect-pollination. In the cases of anemoph- ilous Ranunculaceae, such as meadow-rue (Thalictrum), and Compositae, such as rag-weed (Ambrosia), it is probable that wind -pollination has been resorted to by way of avoiding competition with their allies, and it is notable that these plants bloom near the maximum points of the —e to which they belong. A comparison of the insect-pollinated Motoboy ideó (Fig. 7, Plate VIII) with the general entomophilous flora (Fig. 1, Plate VIII) yields a more striking contrast than would re- sult from a comparison of the two groups in general, for the former loses the large wind-loving families of sedges and grasses, the latter blooming late, and the general flora loses the early blooming wind-loving trees. In this group we observe that the terrestrial species, without regard to spec- ialization, bloom early, while the aquatic ones are late. This I think is largely a result of the severe competition of the former with the highly specialized terrestrial flora, a competi- tion from which the aquatics have been largely relieved by their position. As regards those of the Liliiflorae having the carpels separate (apocarpal) and those having them united (syncarpal) I am unable to agree that the former are more highly spec- ialized, and so must consider that their blooming time is op- posed to the proposition that the more highly specialized flow- ers bloom later. The curve for the Choripetalae TOA and Apetalae, Fig. 2, Plate VIII.—5 spp. per mm.) shows a maximum in August of 73 species, and a secondary maximum in April of 71 species, and the curve diminishes from both to about the middle of June, when there are 49 species in bloom. Of the Hypogynae (Fig. 3, Plate VIII.—2 spp. per mm.) 48 species bloom simultaneously in May, after which they pretty regu- larly decline. With the addition of the hypogynous Apet- alae, the maximum remains the same, but there is a secon- dary elevation in August. The Perigynae (Fig. 5, Plate VIII. —2 spp. per mm.) show an August maximum on account of the strong preponderance of the Leguminosae. Among the 1895.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 105 Epigynae (Fig. 4, Plate VIII) the ginsengs (Araliaceae), dog- woods (Cornaceae), wild ginger and | pipe-vine (Aristolochia- ceae), as Mr. Clarke observes, come early. In regard to the Umbelliferae (Fig. 18, Plate VIII), however, my observations do not show them “in fullest sovereignty in July and August,” for at that time only four species bloom together, while there are 11 species in flower in May. Contrary to Mr.Clarke’s theory, the more highly specialized Epigynae (Fig. 4, Plate VIII) show a stronger tendency than the Perigynae (Fig. 5, Plate VIII to form an early maximum. Even the less specialized of the two dominant families of Perigynae (the Rosaceae, 14) does not equal the Umbelliferae in the formation of an early maximum, i. e., it does not decline -so rapidly from the early elevation. I think that the Umbel- liferae are more highly specialized than the Myrtales (Lythra- ceae and Onagraceae) and so reverse the order of Mr. Clarke’s theory. But the maximum of the Myrtales (17) anticipates that of the Leguminosae (15). be Of the hypogynous Sympetalae (Gamopetalae), the phloxes (Polemoniaceae), water-leaf family (Hydrophyllaceae) and borage family (Borraginaceae) are early; of 12 species all but one begin to bloom before June, and only two are in bloom after July 1st (Fig. 20, Plate VIII). The more numerous mint family (Labiatae, Fig. 13, Plate VU and Scropulari- aceae (Fig. 19, Plate VIII) predominate in the summer. Ob- servations on the Epigynae indicate that the flowers of the honeysuckle and madder families (Caprifoliaceae and Rubi- aceae) are most abundant in the last of May and first of June. The lobelias and campanulas are most abundant in August. Of all the dominant families, the, Compositae (Fig. 21, Plate IX.—2 spp. per mm.) show the latest maximum. The tendency of the more highly specialized Sympetalae to form a strong late maximum is more marked than in the case of the more simple Choripetalae. In order to illustrate to what extent the time of blooming of plants is correlated with the time of flight of insects, curves are reproduced showing the periods of the principal flower- loving insects, e. g., the bees (Fig, 24, Plate IX), the other 106 The American Naturalist. [February, Aculeate Hymenoptera (Fig. 25, Plate IX), the butterflies (Fig. 23, Plate IX), and the flies (Fig. 22, Plate [X)—all on the scale of five species to the millimetre. No curve is made out for the whole because these curves agree in showing a maximum for July, which, of course, would determine the position of the general maximum.’ The bees are by far the most important, since they depend upon flowers both for their own food and for that of their young. Asa rule, except in the case of the cuckoo bees, which lay their eggs upon food deposited by the host bees, the female bees are provided with brushes of hair upon which they carry pollen, the essen- tial part of the bee-bread, upon which the larve feed. In a previous examination of the curve for the Choripetalae (Fig. 2, Plate VIII) there was observed a maximum in Au- gust, a secondary elevation in May, and an intervening depres- sion in June. With the principal exception of the Leguminosae (Fig. 15, plate VIII), these plants have horizontally expanded regular flowers, with readily accessible nectar and stamens exposed so that the pollen is easily collected or eaten. The Leguminosae generally have lateral irregular flowers, with the nectar con- cealed and deep-seated, and intricately concealed pollen, for which reason they will be separated for special consideration.. Now, since the maximum for the Choripetalae coincides with that of the Leguminosae, the separation of this family will change the maximum of the group to the secondary point. There are two families of insects which are particularly fond of simple flowers with easily accessible nectar and pollen—the less specialized bees (Andrenidae, Fig. 26, Plate IX.—2 spp. per mm.) and the flower-flies (Syrphidae, Fig. 36, Plate X.—2 spp. per mm.)—and they both have more species flying in early spring. There is no question but that the strong pre- dominance of the more simple Choripetalae is, to a great ex- tent, correlated with the early predominance of the Andreni- dae and Syrphidae. The flowers of the buttercup family : (Ranunculaceae, Fig. 9, Plate VIII) and of the Rosaceae (Fig. 5 My phaenological observations are most defective for August. I expect to find the maximum of the general anthophilous insect fauna a little later. 1895.) The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 107 14, Plate VIII) with their numerous stamens are the particular favorites of the less specialized bees, and it would be fairly impossible for them to be so efficiently attended late in the season. No flowers are more convenient for the imper- fectly adapted flower insects than those of the parsley family (Umbelliferae, Fig. 18, Plate VIII). While the later blooming species are visited by a more numerous set of insects, the visitors are less efficient. . The flowers are somewhat neglected by the higher bees (Apidae, Fig. 27, Plate IX.—2 spp. per mm.). so that in order to secure the most useful set of visitors it is desirable to bloom early, under the maximum of the An- drenidae. I have shown that the harbinger of spring (Eri- genia), the earliest spring flower, has a larger percentage of bees among its visitors than any other plant of the family,and that the early blooming species with simply concealed nectar show more bees as visitors than those with deep-seated nectar but blooming late. On consulting the curves for bees (24) and other Aculeate Hymenoptera (25) and flies (22), it will be ob- served that early in the season the predominant insects are bees and flies, so that by early blooming the less specialized flowers gain an advantage similar to that secured by the more highly specialized in a later season in concealing their nectar, i. e. they acquire a higher proportion of the more efficient flower insects. The pond lilies (Nymphaeaceae) come in bloom late, probably on account of their aquatic habitat and have a long period, probably on account of occupying a position free from the competition of overshadowing form, but they are pollinated by late-flying bees and flower flies; and I have named two species of bees (Halictus nelumbonis and Prosopis nelumbonis) on account of their close economic relation to these flowers. The violets (Fig. 16, Plate VIII) are spring fiowers, there being no normal late-blooming indigenous spe- cies. Those with the lateral petals bearded are adapted to the mason bees (Osmia, Fig. 31, Plate IX), small greenish species with pollen-collecting brushes on the ventral surface of the abdomen, which fly early apparently to avoid compe- tition with the large allied genus of leaf-cutter bees (Mega- chile, Fig. 32, Plate IX). When visiting the violets these 108 The American Naturalist. [February, bees turn head downwards and hang upon the beards of the lateral petals while they collect the falling pollen. The violets also have an important pollinator in Andrena viole of the spring group of Andrena (Fig. 35, Plate X). The swamp rose- mallow (Hibiscus lasiocarpus, Fig. 6a, Plate VIII) has a bloom- ing time correlated with the time of flight of a characteristic American beé (Emphor bombiformis, Fig. 6b, Plate VIII), its principal pollinator ; the bee in turn depending on the Hibiscus for its pollen. Another interesting case of correlation in appear- ance and mutual dependence is, that of an alum-root (Heuchera hispida Fig. 11a, Plate VIII) and a little bee (Colletes aestivalis, Fig. 11b; Plate VIII). Returning to the Leguminosae (Fig. 15, Plate VIII) we observe that of the species which form the August maximum all are adapted to the most intelligent of the highest specialized genera of bees. Quitea number are bumble-bee flowers. The ordinary flowers have the stamens declined to the lower side and are best fitted to be pollinated by the leaf-cutter bees (Fig. 32, Plate IX), which have abdominal brushes for collecting pollen, and I think that the position of the family in general should be regarded as associated with the flight of these bees. Two species adapted to bumble-bees, a ground plum (Astraga- lus mexicanus) and a false indigo (Baptisia leucophaea), occur early, which they may do without going out of the range of bumble-bees (Fig. 30, Plate IX) and they each gain an advan- tage by avoiding competition with a late blooming congener also depending upon bumble-bees. But no other ordinary papilionaceous flower blooms out of the flying time of the leaf- cutter bees. The very earliest of the family, the red-bud (Cercis canadensis) has the stamens declined to the lower side of the flower, so that the pollen is easily gathered by the mason bees (Fig. 31, Plate IX), which we have already mentioned as having abdominal brushes, like the leaf-cutters (Fig. 32, Plate IX), but fly early. The early appearance of the red-bud seems to be influenced by the early flight of these bees, though it is not exclusively visited by them. Finally, therefore, with regard to the blooming phenomena of the Choripetalae, we close with the propositions that the early preponderafice of the 1895.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 109 more simple open flowers is determined by the early predomi- nance of the less specialized bees, and that the late preponder- ance of the more complicated closed flowers is correlated with the flight of the most specialized bees, leaf-cutters, bumble- bees, etc.° The Sympetalae (Gamopetalae) consist of flowers with more or less deepseated nectar and often with closed complicated flowers. They are adapted to bumble-bees or to the more highly specialized bees in general, to butterflies or to miscel- laneous more or less long-tongued insects. An interesting case is that of flowers of Stetronema which are associated with the flight of Macropis steironematis, a bee which as far as observed depends exclusively upon these flowers for its pollen. The wild potato vine (Ipomoea pandurata) is dependent mainly upon two bees (Entechnia taurea and Xenoglossa ipomoeae). The flowers of ground cherry (Physalis) bloom during the flight of two species of Colletes (C. willistonii and C. latitarsis), upon which they depend almost exclusively for pollination, the little bees on the other hand, obtaining all of their pollen from these flowers. The dominant mint family (Labiatae, Fig. 18, Plate VII] )is principally adaptedto the higher bees, although some having degraded irregular flowers with exposed stamens are adapted to miscellaneous insects. The figwort family (Scrophulariaceae, Fig. 19, Plate VII1)is an evenmoreexclusive bee-flower family, most of them being adapted to bumble-bees, and appearing late. The earliest species, Collinsia verna, is one of the most highly specialized and looks like a papiliona- ceous flower. The upper lip and the lateral lobes of the lower lip represent banner and wings, while the middle lobe repre- sents the keel, and it performs the same function for it con- tains the stamens, which instead of lying against the upper wall of the corolla, as is usual in the family, are declined across the tube. We have observed that most of the Leguminosae with declined stamens are adapted to bees with abdominal 6 The early blooming of the dominant families of Choripetalae, as well as the Liliiflorae, must also be explained in part as correlaféd with their woodland — their decline being influenced by the appearance of the leaves on the 110 The American Naturalist. [February, pollen brushes (Megachile, Fig. 32, Plate IX), and now in the case of this flower we find the principal visitors to be bees of the genus Osmia (Fig. 31, Plate IX) ; so thatit joins the red-bud and violet in appearing dusting the flight of these bees. The figwort (Scrophularia) and Symphoricarpus come late in adjust- ment to the flight of the wasp workers and Eumenidae to which they are specially adapted. The late position of the lobelias is what might be expected, since they are dependent upon the visits of the higher bees (Fig. 27, Plate IX). Wecome finally to consider the great highly specialized family of sun- flowers, nigger-heads, thistles, ete., (Compositae, Fig. 21,-2 spp. per mm. Plate IX) which shows a conspicuous late maximum and is the best example of Mr. Clarke’s theory, though I think one of the easiest to explain without it. The composite heads, which give the name to the family, are composed of florets arranged generally in a flat-topped horizontal layer which forms a convenient resting place for all kinds of insects. There is abundant nectar for the longer tongues and abundant pollen exposed for the least specialized to feed upon or to collect. From these peculiarities and from their great numbers we find this family to be of more impor- tance to the general insect fauna than any other. The most important visitors are the higher bees, especially bumble-bees (Fig. 30, Plate IX), the leaf-cutters (Fig. 32, Plate IX) and Melis- sodes (Fig. 29, Plate IX), and lower Aculeate Hymenoptera in general (Fig. 25, Plate IX), the butterflies (Fig. 23, Plate IX), the flies, including many flower-flies (Fig. 36, Plate X), the tachi- nids (Fig. 37, Plate I), the conopids (Fig. 38, Plate X), and the bombylids (Fig. 39, Plate X). The occurrence of the maximum of the family after that of the general flower-loving insect fauna, I think, is largely due to the abundance of the golden- rods, asters, etc., which have rather small heads and less-deeply concealed nectar. The position of these flowers is accounted for in correlation with the position of the usually smaller insects by which they are attended, viz.; the little bees belong- ing to the genera Calliopsis (Fig. 34, Plate IX), the late Colletes (Fig. 33, Plate IX), the autumnal group of Andrena (Fig. 35, Plate X) and the Bombylidae(Fig. 39, Plate X)—all important guests 1895.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 111 and all having late maxima. These late Compositae have few competitors outside of their family and so are favorably situ- ated, although the insect fauna has begun to decline. We will now leave the Sympetalae with the general statement that the late preponderance of the irregular flowers is explained in connection with the late preponderance of the higher bees, and that of the regular flowers is accounted for in the late maxima of the highly specialized long-tongued insects. We have reviewed the principal groups of insect-pollinated plants and have noted a correspondence, more or less well marked, between their blooming seasons and the seasons of the insects upon which they depend. In different positions we find bumble-bee flowers and, although they all occur within the time of flight of these insects, it is not easy to explain why one of these flowers comes at one time and another at another time. Under the maximum of the buttercup family (Fig. 9, Plate VII) we find a bumble-bee flower in the larkspur (Delphinium tri- corne) and under the maximum of Leguminosae (Fig. 15, Plate VIII) another in a tick-trefoil (Desmodium canadense). We may say that the larkspur comes earlier because it had its origin in an earlier group. The flight of the bumble-bees, however, can- not be left out of consideration. It is obvious that a bumble- bee flower cannot arise at a time when the attentions of bumble-bees cannot be secured, so that the flight of the bees determines the time within which these flowers may have their origin. When a flower undergoing modification to suit bumble-bees changes its characters so that it no longer comes in competition with its allies, it becomes a competitor of other bumble-bee flowers. A point at which many of these are in bloom simultaneously would naturally be an unfavorable time, unless the new form should early offer more inviting attrac- tions. Ifthe blooming time were long, the attentions of the bees would be likely to be most constant at the point where there were the fewest competitors, and so finally the blooming time would tend to be limited to this point. Or if the earlier flowers were better tended, so that they became the most effect- ually fertilized, the blooming time would tend to become earlier. Some flowers we find far from the “tension” points 112 The American Naturalist. [February, of their groups, having no doubt shifted to: take a more favor- able position under the competition of other flowers. Thus the earliest member of the mint family (Fig. 13, Plate VIII), is a bumble-bee flower, and some of the earliest of the figwort family (Fig. 19, Plate VIII) are adapted to these insects. The larkspur itself is anticipated by four bumble-bee flowers be- longing to more highly specialized families. We would, there- fore, expect to find bumble-bee flowers at favorable points of origin or shifted to favorable positions, and the whole group of flowers so disposed as to share the services of these long- tongues with as little interference among themselves as pos- sible. Of the sixty-four species on which the curve (Fig. 41, Plate X) is based the different forms succeed one another from the first of April until the middle of October in such a way that not more than twenty-five species are in bloom at the same time. Twenty-six have completed their flowering by the last of June. We will compare this curve with that for bumble-bees. The first bumble-bees which fly in the spring are the females; in May, June and July the workers appear ; and finally in July, the males. The workers are more abundant and even more industrious than the females, and the males are frequently quite numerous and efficient flower visitors. In making a curve for bumble-bees (Fig. 30, Plate IX), therefore, I have introduced each sex as an elementso that the maximum coincides with the flight of the three forms, and I think this is the only way to indicate in a curve the function of the genus as a pollinating agency. Now if we compare the curve for bumble-bees (Fig. 30, Plate IX) with the curve for the bumble-bee flowers (Fig. 41, Plate X) we find a well marked coincidence. The curve for the other flowers adapted to the higher bees (Fig. 44, Plate X) indicates a more pronounced maximum, evi- dently because the higher bees in general show a more marked preponderance in summer. Of sixty-nine species on which the curve is based, thirty are in bloom simultaneously at the maximum point. Now as observed above, the lower bees (Andrenidae, Fig. 26 PlateIX) prefer erect simple flowers with easily accessible nectar PLATE VIII. May | June | Suly August | September|\o°'- April PLATE, IX. Apri/ May Sure Auty August September pat ee 20 pee eens aE T Fern a ee Bee Es er, SoS ee fe 24 pe 25 ed T toes 26 27 oe Penta eer 28 F- Enem B ee eee 30 ee maoe e Ee 31 a o VESTENS N 33 - Zy eae ae ee T NE PLATE X. Apri! May | June | July | August | September a o ae Ae La ———] 36 ee 37 it... os ” Å- 40? A d REE ~ EOI BERENS 4i 42 43 A 1895.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasovis. 1138 and exposed pollen, especially flowers with numerous stamens. There are many flowers which havea structure of this kind and on which these bees actually preponderate over every other family of flower-loving insects. But since they do nothold a clear preponderance over the total of the other groups, it is hardly safe to call the flowers “ Andrenid-flowers.” The large family of flower-flies (Syrphidae, Fig. 36, Plate X) has the proboscis _ adapted for eating pollen and for sucking, though as a suctor- ial organ it is not so highly specialized as in many other flies. For this reason the flowers which are best fitted to supply the Andrenidae with nectar and pollen are also the most favorable for the nectar and pollen-eating Syrphidae, and when these two families are taken together they generally show a prepon- derance over all other visitors, or so many that the flower may be properly regarded as adapted to them. Putting such flowers together, I find that the ensemble of their blooming periods forms a curve like Fig. 48, Plate X, with a strong early maximum. There are few evident butterfly-flowers. The best marked of them are commonly visited by long-tongued bees and flies. The species which are referred to this category forma long low curve, which we will compare with the curve for butterflies (Fig. 23, Plate IX). Fig. 40, Plate X shows the time of flight of the ruby-throated humming bird (f) and the time of blooming of the flowers specially pollinated by it—a. the painted cup (Castilleia coc- cinea); b. the wild columbine (Aquilegia canadensis); c. the trumpet creeper (Tecoma radicans); d. the spotted touch-me- not (Impatiens fulva); è. the cardinal flower (Lobelia cardin- alis). There are two early species blooming together and going out about the time that the trumpet creeper (c) comes in, and three late species. The position of painted cup (a) is peculiar, but is much more favorable than in competition with the three late species. It will be noted that two species are in competi- tion most of the time, while it is only a short time that one is alone or three are together. The spring and autumn migra- tion of the bird may account for the tendency of these bird flowers to form an early and a late group. 114 The American Naturalist. [February, The insects which contain what may properly be called flow- er-loving groups, viz.; the Hymenoptera, Diptera and Lepi- doptera, are the most highly specialized orders of insects. The particular anthophilous groups we have observed to have their maxima in the late summer. With the exception of the bees, which are true flower-insects, depending upon flowers and showing true mutual correlations, the flight of these insects may be more properly regarded as determined by conditions favorable for their young. Flowers and flower-groups bloom- ing at times favorable for utilizing them should be regarded as correlated with the time of flight of the insects, and not visa versa. Of the bees we have observed that the highest special- _ ized (Apidae) show a late maximum while the less specialized (Andrenidae) show an early maximum, which is explained largely as a result of competition of the former. In view of the fact, therefore, that the most highly specialized flower- insects are most abundant in late summer it is but natural that there should also be a preponderance at the same time of the most highly specialized flowers whose development has been simultaneous with them. In so farasit applies to insect- pollinated flowers I think we have here the answer to Mr. Clarke’s question “ Why should there be a correspondence be- tween the course of the flower seasons and the system of floral evolution?” We have observed that the group in which the fact of the correlation of a high specialization and late flowering is very conspicuous is the Sympetalae, and it must be admitted that the proposition of Mr. Clarke in regard to the late blooming of plants of southern derivation, must enter as an explanation. In his admirable work on the Metaspermae of the Minnesota Valley, Mr. MacMillan has shown that the Sympetalae (Meta- chlamydeae) are especially characterized by a north-bound movement. Throughout this paper it has been implied that the time of blooming was determined by the flight of the pollinating insects and also determined and limited by the competition of plants one with another. In verification of this view turn to the case of introduced plants. It is well-known that intro- 1895.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 115 duced plants seem to flourish much more prosperously than the natives, and this is explained as owing to the fact that in a new country they escape the competition of forms which have been constantly undergoing modification to hold them in check. Many of our introduced plants, however, are not char- acterized so much by: the facility with which they crowd out native species as by their habit of adjusting themselves to con- ditions induced by man, and of filling places rendered by him unoccupied; and in this work many of them no doubt have undergone a course of selective training in older lands. But it is sufficient for our purpose to start with the fact that intro-. duced plants are to a great extent relieved from the pressure of competition which holds among the indigenous plants, and, therefore, as regards blooming, would be expected to flower longer. And this isin fact the rule. In those generain which we have both indigenous and introduced species the formér bloom for a short time (Sisymbrium canescens, Stellaria longi- Jolia, Cerastium nutans, sunflowers, “thistles) while their intro- duced congeners bloom much longer (Sisymbrium officinale, Stellaria media, Cerastium vulgatum, Helianthus annuus, Cnicus lanceolatus). The introduced species of Cruciferae, Caryophylla- ceae, Portulacaceae, Malvaceae, Leguminosae, Umbelliferae, Compositae, Scrophulariaceae, Labiatae and Polygonaceae present cases of long blooming which are not cs by any ‘native species of the respective families. Some native plants which have a strong tendency to occupy waste grounds also show a tendency to bloom for a long time. A similar disposition is manifested in the cases of plants hav- ing small flowers infrequently visited by insects and often self- pollinating. Many originally aquatic plants and others which have been forced to take to the water are, like introduced plants and the degraded entomophilous flowers, relieved from the severer competition of terrestrial plants and in a similar way show a tendency to prolong their blooming periods. In the case of the indigenons flora there is a well marked disposition to limit the blooming period in anticipation of the advancing winter. The direct effect of cold is not obvious, but there is an evident tendency not to prolong the period 116 The American Naturadist. [February, until the conditions should become unfavorable for the per- fection of the fruit. In the case of the north bound groups (Sympetalae especially) we might infer that the northward movement would retard the blooming time so as to make it later in beginning, and to prolong itfar into the autumn. I have thought that this might have something to do with the late preponderance of these groups. The curves for Labiatae (Fig. 13, Plate VIII) Compositae (Fig. 21, Plate IX) and Legum- inosae (Fig. 15, Plate VIII) seem to show the influence of the ap- proaching cold to an unusual degree, for they fall off quite sud- denly from the late maxima. In the case of introduced plants we have observed that they show in a low degree the limitations which beset the indigenous species and so tend to prolong their periods. The advancing winter brings conditions, how- ever, which they cannot escape, and it is but natural that they should show the direct effect of cold more than the indigenous plants. They form a low curve which is relatively higher at the 15th of October than any other curve. Although only about one-tenth of the entomophilous species, the introduced species show two-fifths of the flowers in bloom at the middle of October. Their blooming time is actually cut short by the co An interesting fact in regard to the curves for the dominant _ groups of flowers is that they decline towards June. In the curves for the general flora and the Choripetalae and its groups (1-5) it will also be observed that there is a depression in June. The same occurs in Scrophulariaceae (Fig. 19, Plate VIII), while the Leguminosae (Fig. 15, Plate VIII) show an act- ual gap, as far as I have observed. This results mainly I think from the appearance of the dense shade in the woodlands, which limits the blooming seasons of the vernal woodland species. No plant can become a strong competitor of the vernal species unless it blooms early enough to fill out its season before the shade appears. The late species are thus required to modify their seasons so greatly before they are prepared to enter the vernal woodlands that the trees finally become as effectual a barrier against them as against the late blooming of the early species. Suppose that the Compositae should give rise to an 1895.] The Philosophy of Flower Seasons. 117 early flowering group which should enter the woodlands and become competitors of the spring flora, as Antennaria and some species of Erigeron now do. ‘The curve for Compositae would finally show a Junedepression. These conditions must always keep the groups from taking the positions required by Mr. Clarke’s theory. 118 The American Naturalist. [February, INSANITY IN ROYAL FAMILIES. A STUDY IN HEREDITY. By Auice BopineTon. In the Section of Psychology at the annual meeting of the British Medical Association, 1894, a most interesting and sug- gestive paper was read by Dr. W. Lloyd Andriezen, on the steady increase of the whole group of neuroses. In this paper the following sentence occurs; “ Nature stamps out the in- sanities herself; they end in sterile idiocy. But before such a consumation can be reached, a vast and interesting progeny has to be gone through, exhibiting all the intermediate phases of the insanities and the criminalities.” Dr. Andriezen speaks of the conclusions to be drawn from the history of the notor- ious “ Jukes family ” in America, and promises to enlarge on this subject in a forthcoming paper. Now, it is doubtless almost impossible to overestimate the importance of the study of the Jukes family as an example of inherited degeneration and vice amongst the dregs of society. But, as I read Dr. Andriezen’s paper, a subject for a study of hereditary insanity at the opposite pole of the social system, suggested itself to me; namely its effects in the royal families of Modern Europe. For many hundred years the problem of hereditary insanity has been worked out in some of these fam- ilies, and under circumstances which enable a student to fol- low out all its intricacies, since the connection of members of royal houses can, for obvious reasons, be more readily traced than those of private individuals. The subject has interested me ever since I saw, many years. ago, the great grandchild of a king suffering from the most violent form of mania I ever beheld. In this case the hered- itary taint had passed through two generations without devel- opment, whilst the ancestor, in whom insanity can first be traced, was a contemporary of Henry the Eighth! Moreover the insanity of this ancestor partook of exactly the same char- 1895.] Insanity in Royal Families. 119 acter as that of his descendant in Windsor Castle two hundred years later. Itis written of the “ good Duke William” of Celle that when“ in old age he was deprived of both sight and reason, he had occasional glimpses of mental light, when he would bid his musicians play the psalm tunes which he loved.” In this article I will speak chiefly of the Spanish and Aus- trian branches of the house of Hapsburg; and of the Russian house of Romanoff. The Spanish Hapsburgs. In the year 1496 Joanna, second daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon, and Isabella of Castile, was married to Philip the Handsome, Son of Maximilian, Empe- ror of Germany, and Mary of Burgundy, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold. It is to be doubted if any marriage in the whole course of history has been attended with more di- rect consequences than this, since Mary of Burgundy brought with her the fairest provinces of the Netherlands as her dow- er, which were thus exposed to the diabolical cruelty and bi- gotry of Spanish rule. In 1506 Philip the Handsome died, as lately discovered historical documents appear to prove, from poison adminis- tered by his wife. Joanna, who had always been weak-minded, was possessed by an insane jealously of her husband, and after his death she became completely mad. Fits of fury alternated with melancholy, and the sad life of this ancestress of long lines of kings ended in complete dementia. Joanna’s jealously of her husband did not cease with his death, but for years she persisted in carrying his body about with her, and violent ac- cesses of fury occurred if any woman approached the corpse. It is not likely that the insanity in the royal family of Spain began with Joanna, and it would be peculiarly interesting in this and other cases to trace the taint from its very beginning. Joanna’s sister Catherine was the mother of the “ Bloody” Queen May of English History, who showed the characteristic moral insanity and ferocious bigotry of so many of the Spanish Hapsburgs. A granddaughter of Joanna’s married to Duke William V. of Juliers and Cleves, went mad, and her husband shared the same fate. Her son, who was demented, died, and 120 The American Naturalist. [February, so “ Nature” in this instance, quickly “stamped out insanity and idiocy”; the double taint being peculiarly fatal. Another sister of Joanna’s married into the Portuguese House of Braganza and in Napoleon’s time one of her de- scendants—queen in her own right—died raving mad. Nu- merous children of Ferdinand and Isabella were sickly and died young, and one is inclined to think it would have been a “crowning mercy” if all the others had shared the same fate. But we must return to the descendants of Joanna who wore the Spanish crown. Her son, the Emperor Charles V. of Ger- many, was a sovereign of unusual ability, distinguished in war and still more in diplomacy. On his father’s side it must be remembered that he came of a singularly healthy stock ; his grandfather Maximilian had been in his youth a veritable hero of romance, brave and chivalrous to a fault, and in the guise of a simple knight errant had won the heart and hand of his bride, the richest heiress of Europe. We shall meet with a great grandson of Maximilian’s who inherited all his brilliant qualities; but not in the legitimate line of descent. But let us turn our eyes from the potentate who held the balance of power in Europe in his hands, to the man who, hardly past the prime of life, voluntarily laid down his power, and retired to spend his last years in the Convent of Yuste. Here, the melancholia which had remained latent during the earlier life of Charles V., gradually took possession of him. He insisted that his funeral obsequies should be performed, and the prayers for the dead read for him as he lay in sackcloth and ashes in his coffin in the convent chapel. From the shock of this ghastly ceremony the once powerful Emperor never recovered ; a fever took possession of him and in a few days he breathed his last. His successor, Philip II, was one of the most gloomy and ferocious bigots the world has ever seen. Like a poisonous spider in its web, so from the palace prison to the Escurial, did this cruel and treacherous despot devise blackest ruin and death, with one stroke of his pen condemning a whole nation to death. A determined attempt was made to carry out this incredible sentence, which was only frustrated by the most 1895.] ; Insanity in Royal Families. 121 heroic bravery on the part of the doomed people. The case of Philip II may perhaps justly be considered one of moral in- sanity, for to the very end of his career he never showed the slightest consciousness of having done evil. Dying by inches in the slow torture of a most horrible disease, he displayed the utmost patience, fortitude and resignation to the will of God; his end was that of a saint and a martyr as he fixed his last expiring glances on the image of his crucified Saviour. This man who had caused rivers of blood to shed, who had brought fire, famine, torture and death in its most hideous forms to countless thousands of his fellow-creatures; who was treacherous to friends and foes alike; who was privy to the death of his own son; died in absolute peace with his con- science and his God! Those who ascribe infallible and di- vinely instilled instincts to conscience would do well to study the career of Philip IT. The career of Don John of Austria, half-brother to Philip II, may be noticed here, as illustrating the advantages of change of environment and of fresh blood where insanity is latent in a family. He was the son of Charles V by Barbara Blomberg, daughter of a respectful citizen of Ratisbon, and in his moral and mental qualities closely resembled his great grandfather, Maximilian, whose romantic early career earned him the title of the last of the knights-errant. His singularly brilliant career was ended by his too early death at the age of 33; the victim indirectly, if not directly, of the cold and cruel policy of his half-brother Philip II. As a mere youth, Don John of Austria had gained one of the decisive battles of the world, in the naval victory of Lepanto which rolled back that advance of Turkish power which was threatening the destruction of Europe. But this brilliant success raised the sleepless jealousy of his brother, and Don John was sent to the Netherlands, there to eat his heart out with repeated vexations and disappoint- ments, purposely inflicted by the cold, crafty tyrant of the Es- curial. No trace of the influence of his mad grandmother appeared in the buoyant spirits, the trusting, generous dis- position, and brilliant courage of this illfated young hero. 122 The American Naturalist. . [ February, The career of the wretched Don Carlos, eldest son of Philip II, may fitly be mentioned here. At an early age he showed a furious and wholly ungovernable temper, a delight in cruelty _ for its own sake and a propensity to ignoble vices; in short he displayed every characteristic of moral insanity. Thrown into prison by his brother, fits of fury, and of exhaustion from his. vices were till lately judged to be the cause of his death, but modern researches show that he was one of the many secret victims of his merciless parent. During the lives of the two sovereigns who succeeded Philip II, the sword of Damocles which hung over the royal house of Spain remained suspended, only to fall with crushing weight. on the pitiable Charles II, in whom “ Nature stamped out in- sanity in sterile idiocy.” It must, however, be remarked that. Nature took nearly two hundred years in accomplishing this process, even in conditions of the most unfavorable environ- ment, and after repeated alliances with the tainted blood of Austria and Portugal. Charles II showed all the signs of the final stages of race degeneracy. Until his sixth or seventh year he was unable to stand, and was nursed on the knees of the ladies of the Court; his prognathous misshapen jaw could not be closed and he was constantly slavering; moreover his impotence, whilst it did not prevent the immolation of two young princessess as his nominal wives, was so well-known in Europe that intrigues, with regard to the succession to the Crown of Spain, went on throughout his miserable life Semi- idiotic as was his mental condition, he was capable of suffering all the mental tortures that superstition could inflict, and his dying bed was surrounded by venal priests who threatened eternal damnation if his successor were not named according to their desires. So ended the direct male line of the Spanish Hapsburgs, descendants of the mad Joanna through her eldest. son. The Austrian Hapsburgs. The history of the Austrian Hapsburgs, descended from Joanna through her second son Ferdinand, presents much brighter features than those of the Spanish house. It is difficult, if not impossible, to apportion the share which the pernicious teaching of the Jesuits and the 1895.] Insanity in Royal Families. 123 gloomy traditions of the Spanish Court had in forming the characters of the two Monarchs of the Austrian line, who re- mind one respectively of Don Carlos and Philip II; or how large a share might be ascribed to hereditary taint. Rudolf II (1576—1612) was the son of Maximilian II, one of the most enlightened and honorable princes of his time, and one who, strange to say, held the balance scrupulously even between his Protestant and Roman Catholic subjects. But Rudolf, unfortunately for himself and Germany, had been trained in the gloomy Court of Spain, and was a mere tool of the Jesuits. His temper was moody and variable, and he was subject to outbursts of uncontrollable passion, followed by ab- ject submission to his advisers, the Jesuits, who had gained complete ascendancy over him. If in Rudolf II we meet with many salient characteristics of Don Carlos, so in Ferdinand II. we have a type of character as inexpressibly odious as that of Philip II. To the ferocious bigotry of Ferdinand II, more than to any other cause, may be ascribed the Thirty Year’s War, one of the most hideous wars that history has ever recorded. More than twelve million of people, at a moderate estimate, perished in this fratricidal strife; wolves ravened through the burnt and de- serted villages; men killed their children and dug up the bodies of the dead for food; and, before its close, Germany lay bleeding and exhausted at the feet of France, and has only in this century recovered her strength. To ferocious bigotry Ferdinand added the blackest treachery and a cold blooded and diabolical cruelty. But atrocious as was his character we must remember that he, like Rudolf II was a tool of the Jesuits, then at the zenith of their power, and numbering in their ranks the most highly trained intellects of their time; whereas the cruelties and treacheries perpetrated by Philip II were spun out of his own brain. The immediate predecessor of the present distinguished wearer of the Austrian crown was certainly of weak intellect, weeping when his physicians forbade him a favorite dish “ Kaiser bin ich, und Nudeln muss ich haben” he sobbed. On another occasion his Minister hoped that the Emperor, who 124 The American Naturalist. [February, was unusually silent at a cabinet council, was for once intent on affairs of state, when he suddenly exclaimed “I have sat at this window for an hour, and so many cabs, carriages and wagons have passed in that time.” Not one word had he heard of the affairs of State! Yet Ferdinand was not so weak minded but that in calm times he could officiate as a crowned puppet. I think therefore we may say that the Austrain Hapsburgs have almost entirely escaped the taint of insanity ; the line has produced numerous sovereigns distinguished by exceptional abilities and virtues such as Maximilian IT, Maria Theresa, Joseph II, and the present Emperor Francis Joseph. On the abdication of his uncle, who wept for the dumplings, Francis Joseph, in most troublous times, was placed at the helm of State, and up to the present time, by the personal af- fection and the confidence he inspires, and by marvellous political tact, he has kept his heterogeneous dominions under his rule; perhaps the only man living who could have held such jarring elements together. The House of Romanoff. Peter the Great, the founder of . his family’s greatness, presented a strange admixture of oppo- site qualities. One of Peter’s brothers was imbecile, and the history of the Romanoff family leaves little doubt that there goes in them a tendency to insanity, latent or declared. In Peter the Great we see on the one hand a man of extra- ordinary and commanding genius, whose ideas made, and still rule, modern Russia: a man who by sheer force dragged bar- barous, semi-Asiatic Muscovy into the comity of European nations; and who with far seeing glance recognizing the vital necessity of a navy for Russia, did not disdain with that end in view to work as a common shipwright. On the other hand we see a drunken boor; subject to paroxyms of ungovernable fury ; ferociously cruel; in a word showing the worst attributes of an utter savage. Truly here we see the “beast within the man.” But it seems as though his very superiority of brain makes the beast in man to so transcend all evil qualities of a beast of prey tha one can hardly wonder that the human imagination conceived devils as the moving agents of such horrors. No wild beast’s 1895.] Insanity in Royal Families. 125 brain could conceive or execute the prodigies of cruelty, de- bauchery and lust that characterize the beast within the man where it has gained the upper hand. There is no doubt that Peter the Great, like other great ge- niuses, as for instance Mahomet and Napoleon, suffered from epileptiform attacks, and in his fits of frenzy was not respon- sible for his acts. Another factor may be taken into account in estimating the character of Peter the Great, namely his prolonged bouts of drunkenness, during which he would swal- low incredible quantities of brandy. In these orgies Peter would find pleasure in pouring brandy through a funnel down the throat of some wretched courtier who had succumbed sooner than himself; a practical joke ending in the death of the victim. But the most gruesome incident in the life of Peter the Great was the death of his son Alexis. Alexis much resembled the ill-fated Don Carlos; his wife, a German prin- cess, after five years of misery refused medicine and food, and was glad to find an esċapein death ; he was violently reaction- ary in his opinions, and Peter honestly believed that his hard- ly won reforms would be utterly undone if Alexis were his successor. But after the discovery of a formidable plot on the part of his son, Peter, determined to extort the whole truth, ordered Alexis to be flogged. Finding no one who would venture to execute his commands, Peter, mad with rage, pro- ceeded to flog Alexis, (as he used formerly to flog his first wife,) till he left the wretched prince for dead on the floor; when he stalked out exclaiming “ You need not alarm your- selves, the devil is not ready for him yet.” During the next twenty-four hours the miserable sufferer was again twice flog- ged, and under the third application of the knout he died. The father’s repentance was terrible and lasting; as chief mourner he followed his mangled son to the grave, crying as David did for Absalom, that he would willingly have died for his son. And when he again lashed himself into insane fury, it was to wash out his son’s death in the blood of those who had tempted him to crime. The next sovereign who calls for remark, Peter III, was grandson of Peter the Great through his daughter Anna. If 126 The American Naturalist. [February, we say that Peter III repeated every vice of his grandfather's without any of his virtues we shall have said almost enough ; he was a drunken, madly vain, dissolute savage, and after be- ing dethroned, was assassinated by the orders of his wife, Catharine II. Paul I was not unlike Peter III in his general characteris- tics, and he too was assassinated. Alexander I, the rival of Napoleon, presents the greatest of contrasts to the Romanoffs we have hitherto seen; he inherited the excellent qualities of his mother, Catherine the Great, whilst he was a stranger to her vices. Like Joseph II of Austria, he was too enlightened for his environment; his schemes for good were frustrated ; his noblest hopes for his country disappointed ; a deep melan- choly settled on his spirits, and like Joseph II he welcomed death.? The character of Alexander I was nearly repeated in that of Alexander II, his nephew, the “Tzar Liberator.” As we survey the men of the Romanoff family in the present century, though we find many of its collateral members showing an undesirable atavism, yet the actual wearers of the Russian crown, with all their mistakes, must be credited with the honest intention of doing their best for their people. In short the final result shows that a ruling family may have a worse ancester than a drunken epileptic, who was at the same time a man of supreme genius! Unfortunately the race, once so strong, has been tainted through the female side with con- sumption, which promises to play worse havoc in two genera- tions than epilepsy or drunkenness in two hundred years. I can offer here only a slight and imperfect sketch of the lives on which a more fortunately situated enquirer might work. I have alluded only to the best known direct lines of succession, but a wide field of interest lies before the student who will follow the ramifications of European royal families through the female side. There have been constant inter- marriages between the Hapsburgs and the Bourbons. Per- haps it is not too far-fetched to ascribe the superior abilities of 1«¢T am dying,” said Joseph II, when his benevolent schemes for the good of Hungary had beea utterly frustrated, ‘‘My heart must be made of stone not to break.” 1895.] Insanity in Royal Families. 127 the House of Orleans to marriages which brought fresh blood into the family; whereas the alliances of the elder branch of ey House of France wene of the nature, known to stock raisers “ breedings-in-and-in.’ pe any case it would be worth while to trace carefully—so far as possible—the origin of the characteristics of the French, Spanish and Neapolitan Bourbons, as compared with those of the House of Orleans: the three former bigoted, unprogressive, unable to assimilate the advanced ideas of their age; having after the French Revolution “learned nothing and forgot- ten nothing,” and the House of Orleans descended from the younger brother of Louis XIV, abreast of all the ideas of their time, highly intelligent, cultivated and progressive. In the house of Orleans we are watching a rising family; in the other branches of Bourbons, families mentally and morally sinking. Another interesting branch of enquiry, would be to trace the origin of the insanity in the Danish, Bavarian and Belgian royal families. The curious coincidence between the form of insanity which characterized the good Duke of Celle in the sixteenth century, and that from which his descendant, George IIl, suffered two hundred years later, I have already alluded to. But why did the taint of insanity remain latent for so many years, and can some marriage be traced which caused its recrudescence? I think it might be found in the family of the Princess of Wales, mother of George III; but I have no means here of tracing the lineage of that princess. But having started this train of enquiry with the intention of cursing the whole group of Neuroses, as productive of in- 2Phillippe brother of Louis XIV married Charlotte — of Bavaria; one of the "e M minded and ia Rea pararem of her l daughter of TPAR de Montespan’s; and had his ears RR Do by his mother whee she heard of the engagement. Louis- Puppe -Joseph 1747—1793, married the only daughter of the Duc de Penthievre, mother of the late Comte de Paris was a Princess of Meckle $ On the other hand Louis XIV, elder brother of Philippe, first k of Orleans, married the only daughter of Philip IV of Spain; Louis XVI Marie Antoinette of the Austrian House of Hapsburgs, and the direct male line became extinct with the intensely narrow and bigoted Comte de Chambord, whose mother ‘belonged to the Neapolitan branch of the Bourbons, 128 The American Naturalist. [February,, calculable hereditary evils, I find myself by no means, Balaam- like, “ blessing them altogether” but arriving at the conclusion that with ordinary care and discretion the tendency to mental instability is not more mischievous, than the taint of strumous disease, of syphilis, of cancer,—in short of any of the other Pro- tean ills with which civilized society is permeated. Fortunate indeed is the family which comes of a good, hearty, gouty stock ; amidst a choice of evils this tendency to gout seems one of the least! It also appears to me that the attempt to “stamp out” in- sanity, though it may seem easy on paper, would prove impos- sible in practice. There is an unfortunate correlation between various forms of disease which would oblige society to stamp out the greater part of the civilized portion of the human race, if a serious effort were made to stamp out insanity, one member of a strumous family may develop disease of the lung; another succumb to cerebral meningitis; a third become insane. The child of a drunken father may become insane or be a habitual drunkard, but he may also, if the drunken father be Philip of Macedon, prove an Alexander the Great. The child of syphili- tic parents may develop a train of illsof which insanity may be one; or the hereditary taint may leave one generation un- touched and destroy the next, as in the case of the House of Valois. You can drown the weakest puppy or kitten in a litter, but if you destroy your physically weak human beings, you may put an end to a Newton, a Voltaire or a Walter Scott. What human being, unendowed with supernaturel discern- ment, could tell where the stamping out was necessary ? One line of action only appears safe and practicable, and. it is one which find an increasing number of advocates; namely the Sterilization of the Unfit. I do not use this expres- sion in the sense of surgical interference, though this course is also often advocated ; inevitably injustices would be done, mis- takes would occur, ending perhaps in death; public opinion would be aroused, and no one would be allowed to interfere with the marriages of criminals and imbeciles for some gener- ations to come. But what must necessarily be done if society is not to be swamped with the criminals, the idiots, the imbe- 1895.] Insanity in Royal Families. 129 ciles, the congenitally defective, which she now so sedulously cares for, is that the unfit should be kept under kindly but strict supervision ; the sexes strictly separated, and a life long surveillance kept up. And for practical purposes no cognizance can be taken of the Unfit till they are or become chargeable to the State. An expensive and troublesome course, it may be said, but what is the expense of the life-long care and surveil- lance of the present generation of the Unfit, compared to the incaleulable expense and mischief of allowing them to propa- gate their species without check ? For conclnsion I hope any readers who may be interested in the subject of this paper, will read an article in the Arena for November 1894, entitled “The Relation of Imbecility to Crime,” by Martha Louise Clerk. This lady speaks from a. wide practical experience of the care of imbeciles, and she eloquently expresses opinions, much like those I have arrived. at, upon more theoretical grounds. 130 The American Naturalist. [February, THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ANOMALIES: By Tuomas Dwiaeut, M. D., LL. D? This subject, which after consultation has been chosen for our discussion this year, is one which for a long time has in- terested and puzzled me extremely. I look forward with great pleasure to the light which I hope will be thrown upon it by distinguished members of this Association. For my part I propose merely to state some of the difficulties which it seems to present and suggest one or two general conclusions which seem to me to be justified. Probably no biological phenomena have been more con- fidently explained by heredity and atavism than rudimentary organs and anomalies. The former, of constant occurrence, though perhaps of transitory existence, have been happily compared by Darwin to letters in words which are no longer sounded, but which were pronounced at an earlier stage of the language. Anomalies are the occasional appearance of structures normal in other animals. That these are found very com- monly in man everyone knows. Whether they are found equally commonly in animals is a matter of uncertainty. Mr. Dobson believes that man as the type of a domesticated animal is particularly liable to them and that in wild animals they are extremely uncommon. ‘To this may be opposed the great frequency of anomalies in negroes. If I am not mistaken, other rebutting evidence is furnished by comparative anatomy. _ The same explanation has held for these; but as their grad- ually increasing numbers have brought more accurate study, serious difficulties have arisen. It is clear that if an anomaly in man is to be called a reversion, either the species in which it is normal must have been in the direct line of ancestry, or there must have been a common progenitor. Evident as this 1Read at the meeting of the Association in New York on December 29th, 1894, to open the discussion. *President of the Association of American Anatomists. 1895.] The Significance of Anomalies. 131 is it has been grossly disregarded, not only by popular scien- tists, but by some from whom better might be expected. To point out the animal in which a certain anomaly is normal has been too often offered as an explanation. Critical study makes many difficulties apparent. These are vastly increased when we consider that a satisfactory explanation must account not only for certain anomalies, but for all. At the very least there must be no case clearly at variance with the explanation. All anomalies have not the same significance. Certain ones represent structures widespread throughout mammals, some of them even in other classes of vertebrates. Three of these may be mentioned: the supra-condyloid process, the third trochan- ter, the para-mastoid process. Of the first there is usually no trace in man. The second is represented at most by a rough- ness of doubtful interpretation, in my opinion it is usually wholly absent. The third is wanting, or a mere point. The occurrence in man of a third trochanter is very common, that of the supra-condyloid process uncommon and a really large para-mastoid process is a great rarity. None of them occur normally in the Simiidee (the anthropoid apes). Of these structures the most general is the supra-condyloid foramen. In the primates it is practically universal among the Lemu- roide, but among the Anthropoide it occurs only among some of the smaller monkeys,—some of the Cebide. The third trochanter also is almost universal among the Lemuroids as a rudiment, and in some species reaches a mod- erate development. There are traces of it in some of the smaller monkeys, and it is occasionally seen in the gibbons and the chimpanzee. I have tried to maintain that the true third trochanter in man, occurring very often on delicate bones, is different from the rough line for the insertion of the gluteus maximus. The para-mastoid process is, if I am not much mistaken, rudimentary or wanting throughout the primates. When therefore, we find a supra-condyloid process which with the completing ligament, represents the supra-condyloid foramen, to account for it atavistically the shortest leap is to Journal of Anat. and Phys. Vol, XXIV. 132 The American Naturalist. . [February, the Cebide. In the case of the third trochanter we can hard- ly stop short of the lemuroide in spite of the probability that ‘they and the anthropoide came from a common stem. Fora really large para-mastoid process we must go beyond the pri- mates altogether. There would be some comfort to be gained from the insectivora were we in the least justified in putting them among the ancestors of the primates, for several genera -have a well-developed para-mastoid process, the supra-condy- loid process is general, and the third trochanter is frequently represented, still it is neither general nor very prominent. For its greatest development we must turn to the odd-toed ungulata, and now descent is out of the question. It may be opposed to this that we have no right to assume that a certain well developed anomalous process in man must necessarily be accounted for by inheritance from a form pos- sessing an equal large one; that it is enough to show the existence of a clearly marked process in a common ancestor and to assume that its great-development in the anomaly is an accident of no significance. I am quite willing to grant that this objection has weight. Still when we account by atavism for the supra-condyloid process we must admit that the gulf between the structure of man’s body and that of one. of the Cebide is so great that this explanation would hardly serve were it not absolutely necessary for a theory. Another class of anomalies are those, which far from being general features, are found in certain highly specialized ani- mals which can be included in no possible scheme of descent. An instance is the fossa praenasalis, not to be confounded with the rounding of the border of the nares which is practically universal. It occurs in human skulls of a low order and pre- sents a development which is seen in no animal. It is usually more or less distinctly marked in the seal tribe. I have seen -it poorly marked in the gorilla. Here atavism is wholly at fault. The Pronator Quadratus muscle in man very rarely ‘sends a prolongation downwards to one or more carpal bones on the radial side of the wrist. Iam not aware that this is normal in any mammal. Whence then does it come? Testut would have it the homologue of a muscle which Humphry 1895.] The Significance of Anomalies. 133 describes as pronator manus is Cryptobranchus Japonicus and’ of one described by Meckel in chelonians. It is curious that Macalister has found this arrangement in a tiger and I have found it in both arms of a chimpanzee, which I believe is an unique observation. This shows a tendency i in’ the carnivora and primates to similar variation which is not inherited. Some of these anomalies present a likeness that is very probably accidental, possessing no significance whatever. Such is the peculiar union of the different pieces of the ster- num by which the manubrium fuses with what should be the first piece of the meso-sternum. Is the fact that this frequent- ly occurs in the gibbons to be looked upon as anything but a coincidence? Does the occasional perforation of the thyroid cartilage by the superior laryngeal nerve in man derive any significance from the fact that this is found in the seal? Again, when we find in man some anomaly of the aortic arch or of the great arteries springing from it, we know that the usual course of development of the branchial arches has been disturbed. Need we look further than to sortie accident in the individual? Has the fact that the ab tis nor- mal in some animal any significance? These ‘are questions which admit of no certain answer. The second class of anomalies are those of most difficult explanation. They naturally suggest an analogy with the cases of the occurrence of similar structures in widely separ- ated animals, such as the bill of a duck and of the Ornitho- rhyncus, the paddle of the cetacean and of the ichthyosaurus. The obvious retort is that these resemblances are superficial ; but they are none the less true. Indeed, similar arrangements for a similar purpose are found which can in no way be called superficial Avery good’ example is furnished by Mr. Dobson.* cha! The Pyrenean water mole (Myogale) of the Insectivora, which has very elongated digits, has an enormously devel- oped fibular flexor and a rudimentary tibial flexor. On the true moles the tibial flexor ` is larger, but the arrangement is be Colsigaeative Variability of bäi and Muscles, etc. Journal of Anat. and Pin. T. XIX. p. 20. 134 The American Naturalist. [February, ‘the same. Now the Bathyergus martimus of South America which has the habits of moles, but is really a rodent, has a precisely similar disposition of the parts. “Here the larger fibular flexor, as in Myogale, has forced the tibial flexor in- wards, so that the latter is attached to the head of the tibia internal to the attachment of the popliteus; and its tendon being separated in the foot from that of the fibular flexor, is attached, precisely as in the true insectivorous moles, to the tibial margin of the basil phalanx of the hallox, developing, as it crosses the ento-cuneiform articulation, a broad sesamoid ossicle.” Mr. Dobson then asks: “How happens it that in certain widely separated species, in no way connected by de- scent from a common ancestor having similar peculiarities, separation of this tendon from that of the fibular flexor and attachment to a different part of the foot has occurred in a perfectly similar manner?” He finds this very difficult to answer and can only suggest that the arrangement in question being the best, it has been reached independently in both species by natural selection. Those of us who look upon natural selection pure and simple as quite inadequate to what is already required of it, will not be disposed to call upon it to do double duty. Those who like myself, believe in design and ina limited evolution founded on law, while they may explain by teleology such instances as the last mentioned, can by no means apply that doctrine to anom alies. The mechanical theory that the action of certain muscles should account for certain processes, such as the third tro- chanter, is not admissable. I have shown that this anomaly occurs in savage races in which presumably all live pretty much the same life, and that further it occurs at too early an age to be caused by any strain in the individual.’ Even were this not so there are many anomalies which obviously can have no connection with mechanics. It is easier to destroy than to build. I can offer no substitute for the theories I reject which would itself stand criticism. I will merely offer the following as justifiable conclusions. 5Loc. cit. 1895.] The Significance of Anomalies. 135 First, similarity of structure, either in the ordinary animal or in the one showing variations, is not necessarily a proof of descent. Second, those very irregularities, which we call ab- normal, point to a law in accordance with which very diverse animals have a tendency to develop according to a common plan. This be it noted, in no way denies the possible in- fluence of surroundings. 136 The American Naturalist. (February, EDITOR’S TABLE., ss ; : WEL A ' { Tur Societies of Naturalists, Morphologists, Physiologists and Geologists met together during the late holidays in the ample halls of the Johns Hopkins University, in Baltimore. The Geologists had met previously independently of the other societies. Their presence at Johns Hopkins added much to the interest of the meetings, and permitted some exchanges of hours on occasions of especial interest. The Naturalists listened to an excellent address from the retiring president, Dr. Minot, and had an instructive debate on the influence of the environment on animal life, conducted by Messrs. Osborn, Hyatt, Brooks and Merriam. Impressive papers were read before the Morphologists by Drs. Wilson and Hyatt; the former embryo- logical, the latter paleontological. Three of the societies sat down to dinner at the Stafford House on Friday evening, and did jus- tice to the exceptional hospitality of the host, Mr. Moale, himself a graduate of Johns Hopkins. The place of next meeting has not been decided on, but it is hoped that it will be such as will suit the conveni- ence of several societies additional to those that met at Baltimore. These are the Anatomists, who met this year in New York; and the newly organized societies of Botanists and Psychologists. These bodies all consist of actual workers in their respective fields, and they are, therefore, with a few others, the only scientific societies in this country in which strict qualifications are requisite for member- — ship. Ourcontemporary, the American Geologist, in a recent editorial “article, advocates the establishment of academies of science in the several States of the Union, as was done by the NATURALIST many years ago. It points to Indiana as furnishing an example worthy of imitation, since the legislature has made an appropriation for a biologi- cal survey of the State, to be conducted by its Academy of Science. The prime condition of prosperity for an academy of science must always be the effective character of its membership. This will always be especially important where State aid is granted. Some practical test of fitness for membership is necessary. One such test would be membership in one of the affiliated societies referred to above. A State Academy of Science composed of all the members of these societies resident within its borders, would be a very effective body. Screntiric exploration is becoming popular in the United States as the desire to extend knowledge increases. Apart from Government 1895.] _ Editors Table. 137 expeditions, Philadelphia was for a long time the centre of activity of this work, as the Arctic expeditions of Kane, Hays and Peary and the South American expeditions of Orton and Smith testify. Abbott and Donaldson Smith the African explorers, are Philadelphians, as is also Rockhill, who traversed Thibet and China a few years ago. Ann Arbor University has sent two expeditions to the Philippine Islands, and Iowa University sent one to Central America, and oneto the Arc- tic regions northof Mackenzie’s River, of which we gave an account in the last number of the Naruratist. New York sent Rusby to Bolivia -nd Peru, and more recently Weberto Java. There have been several expeditions nearer home, as to the West Indies and Labrador and Central America. We do not refer to Government expeditions, which were more frequent formerly than of recent years. 138 The American Naturalist. [February, RECENT LITERATURE. The Mesozoic Echinodermata of the United States.'—This memoir, issued as Bulletin No. 97 of the U.S. Geol. Survey, is the | first of a series of reports on the American fossil radiates. A com- plete bibliography of the subject is followed by a systematic review of the various forms, in which brief descriptions, giving merely the char- acteristics necessary for accurate determination of species, is the rule. The geological range of the American Mesozoic species is shown in tabular form, and, in conclusion, there is an index to the various terms employed by those who have written upon the Mesozoic Echinodermata of the United States. The memoir is profusely illustrated, the plates, 50 in number, occu- pying over half the volume. Many details of structure not given in the text are shown in the drawings. This book fills a need, as no gen- eral work on the subject exists, but students were compelled to search through a much scattered literature for information and identification. Tertiary Rhynchophorous Coleoptera of the United States.’—This monograph is the first of a series upon the fossil insects of this country by Dr. S. H.Scudder. In its preparation, besides a number of specimens which could not be definitely placed, the author has examined 753 Rhynchophora, of which 431 come from Florissant and 320 from the Gosiute fauna. In the introduction Dr. Scudder gives in tabular statements (1) a comparative view of recent and fossil Rhynchophora ; (2) the relative importance of the families of group ; (3) the relative abundance of the orders of insects in different Western. deposits. _ In conclusion the author ‘makes the following statements regarding the Rhynchophorous fauna of the American Tertiaries in general : “(1) The general facies of the fauna is American, and somewhat more southern than its geographical position would indicate. “ (2) All the species are extinct, and though the Gosiute Lake and the ancient lacustrine basin of Florissant were but little removed from 1 The Mesozoic Echinodermata of the United States, by W. B. Clark. Bull. No. 97, U. S. Geol. Survey, Washington, 1893. 2 Monographs of the United States Geological Survey, Vol. xxi. Tertiar Rhynchophorous Coleoptera of the United States, by Samuel Hubbard Scudder, Washington, 1893 1895.] Recent Literature. 139 each other, and the deposits of both are presumably of Oligocene age, not a single instance is known of the occurrence of the same species in the two basins. “ (3) No species is identical with any European Tertiary form. “(4) A very considerable number of genera are extinct, often in- cluding a number of species. *‘(5) Existing genera which are represented in the American Terti- aries are mostly American, not infrequently subtropical or tropical American, and where found also in the Old World are mostly those which are common to the North Temperate Zone. A warmer climate than at present is indicated. (6) There are no extinct families, but in one instance an extinct subfamily with numerous representatives. “(7) The Tertiary European fauna is nearer than our own Tertiary fauna in the relative preponderance of its families, subfamilies and tribes.” “ These conclusions are almost identical, word for word, with those reached from a study of the Teytiary Hemiptera of the United States, although in that study a far more meagre representation of the Gosiute fauna was at hand.” The Fishes of Pennsylvania.’—In an octavo volume of 139 pages Dr. Tarleton Bean gives in a concise form descriptions of all the species of fishes found in the State of Pennsylvania, with notes upon their common name, distribution, size, habits, reproduction, rate of growth and mode of capture. The descriptions are based upon speci- mens contained in the collection of the United States National Mu- seum, and the popular notes have been obtained by personal investiga- tion and, in part, by compilation from.the writings of Goode, Gill, Cope and Jordan. The most important fishes are represented on 35 plates, of which 15 are handsomely colored. Dr. Bean’s well-known reputation as an ichthyologist is fully sustained by this work, and it fully justifies the State in incurring the expense necessary to its publication. Its value is both utilitarian and educational. 3 The Fishes of Pennsylvania, by Tarleton H. Bean, M. D.., Harrisburg, Pa., 1893. 140 The American Naturalist. [February, RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. ALLEN, J. A.—On the Mammals of Arkansas Co., Texas, with descriptions of New Forms of Lepus : and Oryzomys. Extr. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1894. From the author BELL, A. G. —Utility of Signs. Extr. Educator, May, 1894. From the author. BLEICHER, M.—Le Minerai de Fer de Meurthe-et-Moselle. Extr. Bull. Soc. Indust. de l’ Est, Naucy, 1894. From the author. Bou eg, M. Tete sur des Restes de Glouton et de Lion fossils de la Caverne de V Herm (Ariége BOULENGER, E A.—On Vipera renardi, Christoph. Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London, Dec. 1893 ——List of Reptiles and Batrachians collected by Dr. J. Bohle, near Ascencion, Paraguay.——Description of new Fresh-water Fishes from Borneo. Extrs. Am Mag. Nat. Hist. 1894. From the author. Bulletin No. 27, 1894, Agricultural Experiment Station, Rhode Island College Agric. and Mech. Arts Bulletin No. 52. 1894, Massachusetts gina Agricultural Experiment racers Bulletin No. 54, Massachusetts State Agricultural Experiment Statio Bulletin No. 31, 1894, Oregon Agricultural soe ore From Mr. F. L. Washburn. CaLL, R. E.—On hs: Geographic and Hypsometric distribution of North American Viviparide.. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLVIII, 1894. From the author. Coss, N. A. —Contributions to an Economic Knowledge of Australian Rusts. Improving Wheat by Selection. Miscellaneous Pub. No. 18, 1893, Dept. Agric: N.S. W. Plant Diseases and their Remedies. Published by the Dept. Agric., Sydney, N. S. W., 1893. From the author. Cracin, F. W.—New and little-known Invertebrata from the Neocomian of Kansas. Extr. Amer. Geol. Vol. XIV, 1894. From the author CRAMER, F.—Description of a little-known Agonoid shea PAARE ET japon- icus. Extr. Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Sci. Ser. 2, Vol. IV, 1894. From the author. Davið, T. W. E. —Report of the Research Committee appointed to collect evi- dence as to Glacial Action in Australia in Tertiary or Post-tertiary time. Aus- tralia and Tasmania. Extr. Proceeds. Austral. Assoc. Ady. Sci., Adelaide Meet- ing. From the Society. Davison, A.—The Arrangement of Muscular Fibres in Amphiuma tridactyla. Abdruck ans. Anat. Anz. IX. Bd. Nr. 11. From the author De Vis, C. W.—A Thylacine of the earlier Nototherian Period in Queensland. Extr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc. New South Wales; Vol. VIII, 1893. Dreyrus, L.—Zu J. Krassilstschik’s Mittheilungen über “die vergleichende Anatomie und Systematiks der Phytophthires” mit besonderer Bezugnahmen auf die Phylloxeriden. Extr. Zool. Anz. June 1894. From the author. 1895.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 141 EIGENMANN, C. H. AND W. L. Bray.—A revision of the American Cichlidae. Extr. Am. N. Y. Acad. Sci. VIL; 1894. From the authors Fifth Weekly Weather Crop Bulletin issued by the North Carolina State Weather Service GAUDRY, eat, ’*Eléphant de Durfort. Paris, 1893. From the author. GUNTHER, A—Descriptions of the Reptiles and Fishes collected by Mr. E. ‘Coode-Hore on Lake Tanganyika. Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London, Nov. Hare, E.—Découverte d’ossements d’Hyénes rayées dans la grotte de Montsaunés (Haute-Garoune.) Extr. Bull. de la Soc. Geol. de France, Tome XXII, 1894. From the author Hart ey, F.—Description of a new species of Wood rat from Arizona. Extr. ES. è Appalachians. Extr. Natl. Geog. Mag. 1894. From the author Hutton, F. W.—On a new Plesiosaur from the Waipara Hiva Extr. Trans. New Zealand ase: 1893. From the author JENNINGS, H. S.—A list of the Rotatoria of the Great Lakes and of some of the Inland Lakes of Michigan. Bull. No. 3, Mich. Fish Comm., 1894. From the author. JORDAN, D. S. AND C. H. GILBERT.—Description of a new species of Ribbon Fish, Trachypterus rex salmonorum from San Francisco. Extr. Proceeds. Cal. Acad, Sci. Ser. 2, Vol. TV, 1894. From the authors, Know _ton, F. H.—Fossil Flora of Alaska. Extra. Bull. Geol. Soc. America, Vol. 5, 1893. From the author. Library Bulletin U. S. Dept. Agriculture, June, 1894. Lupin, D.—A new political Issue. Protection to Agriculture. Extr. Ameri- can Federalist, no date. From the author. URIN, D.—Protection to Staple Agriculture. Plan to equalize the burdens and benefits of Protection, and ve the amelioration of the condition of labor i in manufacturing centers. Sacramento. 1894. From the author. McGuire, J. D.—The 5 hesaseeueek of Sculpture. Extr. Amer. Anthropol, 1894. fie the author. Mitts, W.—Hibernation and Allied States in Animals. Extr. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Sect. IV, 1892. From the author Mork, R. R. anD F. W. Uricu —A preliminary list of the Reptiles and Bat- rachians of the Island of Trinidad. Extr. Journ. Trinidad Field Naturalists Club, Vol. II, 1894. From the authors. Ossorn, H. F. AND J. L. WorTMAN.—Fossil Mammals of the Lower Miocene White River Beds. Collection of 1892. Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. VI, 1894. From the authors Price, W. W. a-Desdription of a new Wood-rat from the Coast Range of Cali- fornia. Extr. Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Sci. Ser. 2, Vol. 4, 1894. From the author. Simonps, F. W.—A Reply to some statements in Prof. Tarr’s “Lake Cayuga a Rock Basin.” Am. Geol. Vol. XIV, 1894. From the author. Suuretpt, R. W.—On the Osteology of Cranes, Rails, ete. Extr. Proceeds, London Zool. Soc. March, 1894. From the author. 142 The American Naturalist. [February, STEWART, W. A E for thc Standing Committee on the Deaf. Read Jan. 10, 1894. or, T.—Twelve Edible Mushrooms of the U. S. with directions for their identification and their preparation as Food. Washington, 1894. From the Dept. gric. - The Tariff and Administrative Customs Acts of 1890, and the Bill H. R. 4864, as reported to the Senate from the Financial Committee March 20, 1894, Indexed. THILENIUs, G.—Die “überzähligen” Carpuselemente menschlicher Embryonen, Abdruck aus: Anat. Anz. IX Bd. Nr. 22. From the author. Tarr, R. S.—Lake Cayuga a Rock Basin. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soe. Am. Vol. 5, 1894. From the Society. TROUESSART, E.—Sur la Parthénogenése des ed Sh ae plumicoles. Extr. Comptes rendus des séances Soc. Biol., 1894. —Le Mimétism et l’instinct protecteurs des Syringobies ( Acariens). Extr. Bull. des Séances Soc. Entomol. da France, 1894. Revision des Acariens régions arctiques et description d’ espéces nouvelles. Extr. Mém. de la Soc. Nat. et Math. de Chesbourg, 1894. —Sur les Grands Trombidiens des pays chauds. Extr. Ann. Soc. Entomol. de France, Vol. LXII, 1894——Sur la ‘‘ Crete” des Trombidiens.——La Parthén- ogenése chez les Sarcoptides. Extrs. Bull. des Séances de la Soc. Entomol. de France, Paris, 1894. From the author. Veeper, M. V.—The Hills of Wayne. Their Story of Tidal Waves aud Glacial action. ——The Clue to Geological Time. Extr. Lyons, (N. Y.) Repub- lican, May, 25, 1894. From the author. ED, H. E.—The Horn-Fly. Bull. No. 28, Miss. Agric. and Mech. College Exper. Station, 1894. From the author. Weir, J.—Prophecy and Insanity. Extr. Amer. Pract. and News, 1894. From the author. Wuite, C. A.—The Relation of Biology to Geological Investigation. Extr. Rept. U. S. Natl. Mus. for 1892. Washington, 1894. From the author. 1895.] Geography and Travels. 143 General Wotes. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. AN EXPEDITION TO LABRADOR. Some scientists and explorers have devoted considerable time and attention to the exploration of certain sections of Labrador, notably Prof. Packard, Mr. Stearns, Prof. Lee, Henry G. Bryant and Mr. A. P. Low, of the Dominion Geological Survey. The reports and writings of these men interested me so deeply that I resolved to devote a summer to exploring in Labrador, and so I organized a small party last June; with the intention of visiting the interior table-lands of the peninsula by way of Hamilton or Grand River, already explored by Mr. Bryant to the Grand Falls. The party, besides myself, consisted of Mr. Howard Bucknell, ornithologist ; Mr. G: H. Perkins, geographer, and Mr. G. M. Coates, botanist. We got together a complete canip outfit, two Rushton canoes for use on the rivers, a set of surveying instruments, collecting materials, etc., and thus equipped we took passage with “ Dr. Cook’s Arctic Expedi- tion of 1894,” on the steamship Miranda, since famous on account of the numerous accidents which befell’ it; and its final abandonment in Arctic seas. We left New York on July 7th last, and enjoyed a pleasant voyage to North Sydney, Cape Breton, where we stopped to take in a supply of coal. Here we visited the copper mines and the great coal mines, which extend for miles beneath the sea. From Sydney we went on to St. Johns, N. F.; where we stopped for a few hours in order to repair one of our compasses. . Two days after leaving St. Johns, a quarter after eight o’clock on the morning of July 17th, the steamer, being surrounded by a heavy fog, collided with an iceberg. Great commo- tion arose among the passengers, which, however, quickly abated, for it was discovered that no serious damage had been inflicted: It was decided to put into Cape Charles, on the southern coast of Labra- dor, for repairs. Here we remained for several days, and devoted our- selves to making collections of the flora and fauna of this section. The country about Cape Charles is composed of low hills formed of granite, syenite and hornblende. The student of geology will find here trap- dykes and veins of various kinds, also remarkable examples of anti- clinal and synclinal strata exhibited on the eroded surfaces of the 144 The American Naturalist. [February, almost perpendicular cliffs along the shore.. The country is almost destitute of trees, but there is a great profusion of mosses, principally sphagnum, and reindeer moss abounds. We procured here a beautiful specimen of the Canadian lynx (Lyns canadensis), but saw no evi- dences of small mammals other than the rabbit (Lepus americanus), of which two specimens were procured. We saw several seals, but did not have the good fortune to capture any. As the Miranda was obliged to return to St. John’s for further re- pairs, we embarked from Cape Charles on the regular mail boat for Independent Harbor, the entrance to Sandwich Bay, about sixty miles south of Hamilton Bay, where I had originally intended to begin my explorations. I was obliged to change my plans on account of the accident to the Miranda, and the illness of Mr. Bucknell, who had been taken sick shortly after leaving New York. When we arrived at Independent Harbor we secured passage in a small boat to Separa- tion Point, a narrow point of land separating the White Bear from the Eagle River. Here we made a cache of our provisions, and, with our two small boats, started to explore the White Bear River. On the second day out from Separation Point we came to a considerable cataract, sixty feet in height. Mr. Bucknell’s condition was now so serious that I deemed it unwise for him to proceed any further, and so I pitched camp at the foot of the falls, and left him in charge of Mr. Coates, to collect ornithological and botanical specimens, while Mr. Perkins and myself took the smaller boat, and provisions for ten days, and went around to explore the river. Weascended it to a distance of ‘about one hundred and ninety miles from its mouth. We found the streams at this season of the year very shallow, with numerous rapids, which rendered its ascent extremely difficult. Frequently we were compelled to remove our trousers and boots and push the boat along, the water not being deep enough to float the boat while we remained in it. After passing a rapid, or rattle, as it is called by the half-breed Labradorians, there was usually quite an expanse of water extending for some distance ; this is called by the natives a “stiddy.” Our pro- gress along these “stiddies” was comparatively easy. About fifty miles from the coast, and on either side of the river, rose hills and peaks from 1400 to 1600 feet in height. These were covered with a dense primeval growth of spruce and tamarack, with an occasional clump of birch-trees, and great beds of moss from a foot to three feet in depth. Great numbers of dwarf cornel (Cornus canadensis) abounded. We came across numberless erratic boulders of labradorite, as well as other boulders of all sizes, which lined the bed and sides of the stream. 1895.] Geography and Travels. 145 As we penetrated into the interior of the country and neared the source of the river, the physical aspect was entirely changed, owing to the absence of forests and the less variety and abundance of moss. The boulders increased in numbers, and were covered with lichens of various kinds. After we had made the first fifty miles we saw no evi- dences of animal life whatever. The river terminated in a chain of - small lakes. On either bank we found vegetation, principally willows, all bent down stream, and the bark scarred and scratched, indicating that the water in the spring of the year had risen to a height of eigh- teen or twenty feet. At the lower portion of the river we found pecu- liar semicircles of boulders, ranging in size from the dimensions of a hen’s-egg to two and three feet in diameter. We learned that this fantastic arrangement of the boulders was due to the peculiar action of the ice during the spring, the boulders being transported by the ice and dropped in this position by eddies. At first we thought that these peculiar circles of stones might have been arranged by the early in- habitants of Labrador. When we returned to camp we found that Mr. Bucknell’s condition had not improvod, though he and Mr. Coates had managed to make a very creditable collection of birds and plants. After a day’s excursion on the south fork of the White Bear River we returned to Separation Point. I sent Mr. Bucknell over to Cartwright, the most southern and eastern Hudson Bay trading-post on the Labrador shore, and, with Mr. Perkins and Mr. Coates, continued the exploration of the Eagle and Paradise Rivers. We found the Eagle River much deeper, narrower and more rapid than the White Bear, and only about half as long. The Paradise River was very broad in comparison with the other two, as it flows through a more level section of the country. Here we found an abundance of plants which did not grow in the more mountainous districts, and we came across a number of large lakes, upon which were a great many species of water-birds not before ` seen on the trip. We ascended this river only about forty miles. Lining the banks of the river were dense growths of willows; but these did not show in any way the effects of high water. We found seals all along the river as fur as we went, and procured about twenty skins, principally of the Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), though we also captured specimens of the Phoca fotida, Phoca hispida, Phoca græn- andica and Cistophora eristata. . This river, like the Paradise and Eagle, abounded with trout and salmon, which afforded us rare sport and kept our table well supplied. 10 146 The American Naturalist. [February, On the north side of Sandwich Bay is a mountain 1900 feet high, on which caribous (Rangifer caribou) are very abundant. We ascended this mountain and shot several specimens of caribous, and also found here a vein of labradorite outcropping on the surface that measured forty-two feet in length and three feet in width, with a dip of 47° east of south. We also found small veins of mica and great quantities of iron ore, also copper in the form of malachite. Hornblende, gneiss, syenite and granite were the principal rocks. We also came across great quantities of small crystals of garnet, some of them very pretty. In several places surrounding Sandwich Bay, and on each of the rivers we discovered glacial striations running southeast in direction. Some of these were ten or twelve feet long, and were distinctly cut in the smooth, polished surface of the rocks. At Cartwright, and, in fact, throughout the section that we explored, we found but few full- blooded Eskimos. The inhabitants of southern Labrador are a mixed breed of people, Eskimo mixed with various nationalities, mainly Eng- lish and Danish. The Labrador waters are noted as among the greatest fisheries in the world for cod and salmon. There are about 25,000 fishermen along these shores, who come chiefly from Newfoundland, and depend wholly upon fish for their living. This past year the fisheries have been a total failure, both in Labrador and off the coast of Newfound- land. Great suffering has been reported from Newfoundland, but from the condition of affairs we saw in Labrador the sufferings of the New- foundland fishermen must be slight in comparison to those of the desti- tute Labrador people. Just before we left Cartwright on our return voyage, a severe storm took place, and nearly three hundred shipwrecked fishermen were brought to Newfoundland by the Labrador mail steamer. The relationship of the Eskimos of Labrador to those of Greenland has been a matter of some controversy. I wish to call attention to a little fact in regard to the clothing of these two peoples, which may have some bearing upon the question of their relationship. On the lower edge of the timiak, or coat, of the Labrador Eskimo, in front and behind, are two ornamental appendages in the form of flaps; the anterior one is but a few inches in length, while the posterior flap reaches in some instances below the knee, being narrow at the top and gradually broadening out like a beaver’s tail. This is highly decorated on the back with various colored pieces of seal-skin from which the hair has been removed, and with a border of another color from which the hair has not been removed. These flaps are 1895.] Geography and Travels. 147 to be found among the Eskimos of Greenland, especially among those above Cape Cook. Among them, however, the posterior flap is but a few inches in length, and during the severe Arctic winters the Greenland Eskimos tie these flaps together between the legs, outside and over the nanookies, or trousers, and so make of them a support and a protection against the cold. The Eskimos of Labrador are more or less given to ornamentation of various kinds, while those of North Greenland are intensely practical and display no ornamentation in their dress. The idea occurred to me that the Eskimos, in travelling northward along the American side, conceived the idea of tying these flaps be- tween their legs, and as the people parted company and split into sec- tions, one section retained the flaps for ornamental purposes, while another section, going still further north into Greenland, preserved the flaps for practical purposes only. The Eskimos and Indians of Alaska, as far as I have been able to ascertain, have neither the front nor the back appendage on their timiaks. However trivial this suggestion may seem, I wish that men concerned in tracing the relationship and origin of the Eskimo tribes would give this matter some attention. As regards our natural history collections, we obtained thirty-nine species of mammals and seventy-seven species of birds, all of which, with the exception of two species of birds, are listed by Prof. Packard in his work, entitled “ The Labrador Coast.” Mr. Coates made a large collection of plants, but as yet these have not been identified. Five butterflies not given by Prof. Packard were procured. We were not prepared for marine collections, but, never- theless, we secured a number of echinoderms, one of which was a magnificent twelve-rayed star-fish. Of batrachia two species were procured, Rana septentrionalis and Bufo americanus. We saw nothing of the salamander, Plethodon glutinosus, of which Packard speaks, nor did we see that peculiar jumping-mouse, Zapus hudsonius, which Mr. Bryant mentions as being so abundant along the Hamilton or Grand River. Any naturalist in search of specimens of the mosquito and black fly will find a most prolific field in Labrador. Such numbers of these pests did we encounter that I have come to look upon Labrador as the fatherland of these torments. We left Cartwright on September 14th for Pilley’s Island, off the Newfoundland coast, and here we caught the steamer Sylvia for New York. We arrived in New York on September 30th, very nearly three months from the date of our start. CHARLES E. Hire. 148 The American Naturalist. [February, MINERALOGY. Minerals from the Chromite Deposits of Lower Silicia.— Traube? describes serpentine, albite, chromite, kämmererite and rutile from the chrome deposits of Tampadel in the Zobtengebirge in lower Silicia. The kämmererite is found to some extent in crystals a centi- meter across of greenish, reddish, or violet color, and either in hex- agonal plates or in combinations of hexagonal pyramid and base. In transmitted light thin cleavage plates show a division of the field into a central uniaxial portion, and six marginal biaxial areas. The mar- ginal areas have an optical angle of 20°-30° with the plane of the axes parallel to the marginal edge. In the same paper cerussite, Igle- siasite, Tarnowitzite, hemimorphite, pyrrhosiderite and sulphur are described from the upper Silician ore region. The cerussite is inter- esting because of the wealth of the crystals in forms. A crystal from the Friedrichsgrube showed nine forms including the new form a=4P (441). Another crystal exhibited eighteen forms including the two new forms f =% P7 (170) and g = 7P7 (171). Iglesiasite, the zine-bearing cerussite, which has been known from but the one locality of Monti Poni near Iglesias in Sardinia, is found on smithsonite in good crystals at Radzionkau. The forms x (012), i (021), y (102), e (101), i (210), m (110), r (130), p. (111), and o (112), were observed and measured, the form i =æ P2 (210) being new to cerussite. Chemica] analysis showed the mineral to contain 5.47 per cent. ZnCO,, while that from Iglesias contains 7.02 per cent. Tarnowitzite, the isomor- phous mixture of calcium and lead carbonates is studied in the origi- nal locality of Tarnowitz. The mineral is sometimes clear and color- less, but is also green, reddish-brown, or yellowish. Lead carbonate is present up to 9 per cent in some specimens. All of the four analyses made from specimens differently colored, showed the presence of a small per cent (up to 0.35) of Sr O. A number of brachydomes were observed which have not before been described upon this mineral, viz : (031), (051), (061) and (071). Artificial Reproduction of Anhydrite from Evaporation of Salt Solutions.—Brauns’ has produced anhydrite in r 1Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, ? Zeitschrift d. deutsch. geologischen Gesellschaft, xlvi, pp. 50-67, abe 3 Neues Jahrbuch, f. Min., etc., 1894, (II), pp. 257-264. 1895.] Mineralogy. 149 crystals by bringing upon an object glass a large drop of a saturated solution of sodium or potassium chloride or a mixture of the two salts, and placing to one side of this a drop of calcium chloride solution, and on the other side a drop of Epsom salt solution. The three drops are joined to one another by narrow paths and evaporated. During the diffusion of the liquids which takes place, calcium sulphate is formed and appears in crystals of both gypsum and anhydrite along with the crystals of the chlorides. When a little water is added to a group of anhydrite crystals they are dissolved to recrystallize as gypsum. By properly regulating the amount of water added, Knatiel of gypsum may be formed with a corroded core of anhydrite. Although anhy- drite has been frequently produced artificially, none of the methods heretofore used have simulated its production in nature from the evap- oration of sea water. Artificial Crystals of Zinc Oxide.—Ries* has examined artifi- cial crystals of zinc oxide from the New Jersey Zine Works and found them to possess the combinations (110), (225); (110), (112); and (110), (124): the form (124) being new. The crystals examined were colorless, transparent, holohedral, and devoid of basal cleavage. Artificial Copper Crystals in Aventurine Glass.— W ashing- ton’ has made a microscopical study of the aventurine glass from the famous Murano near Venice. The spangles of copper appear in large and small phenocrysts and in microlites. The large phenocrysts are .05-.12 mm. in diameter, of tabular habit, and not over .002 mm. thick They are generally hexagonal in outline, but some are equilateral tri- angles with the angles somewhat truncated. Distinct skeleton forms appear among the commoner individuals with plane faces. These erystals are all doubtless octahedra flattened parallel to an octahedral face, a habit which Dana has shown to be common in the case of cop- per crystals. Some individuals exhibited the distorted combination of cube and octahedron, while others were cyclic twins parallel to an octahedral face and either vierlings or fiinflings, the latter poneo a closed form. New Minerals, Neptunite and Epididymite.—Flink® describes in detail two new minerals associated with egerine from Greenland. The exact locality is not certainly known, but it is thought to be near *Am. Jour. Sci., xlviii, p. 256, Sept., 1894. 5 Am. Jour. Sci., xlviii, pp. 411-418, N 1894. ê Zeitsch. f. Kryst., xxiii, pp. 344-367, 1894. 150 The American Naturalist. [February, Narsisik. Neptunite is a black titano-silicate of iron, manganese, soda, and potash, which is found on the surface and in fissures in eegerine crystals, in crystals varying from microscopic dimensions to five centi- meters. These crystals, which are monoclinic, exhibit the following forms : (100), (010), (001), (110), (301), (201), (111), (221), (512) and (111) ; the forms (001), (110), and the pyramid (512) proio Rina. The axial ratio is a:b:c:= 1.31639: 1: 0.8075 and @= 64° 2%. Twinning is very rare with the base the Siiniing plane. Cleavage is distinct parallel to the prism, the cracks meeting at 80° in sections normal to ¢. The specific gravity is 3.234 and the hardness 5-6. The plane of the optical axes is normal to the plane of symmetry and the acute bisectrix makes 18° with the vertical axis in the obtuse angle £. The absorption is ¢ deep red brown, + yellow red, and a bright red, with e>s>«a. Written empirically the formula of the mineral is (¢Fe+3Mn) ({Na’+iK,)Si, Ti O. The interfacial angles never vary more than 10° from the corresponding angles of titanite, which leads Flink to think that neptunite and titanite are isomorphous. Epididymite is dimorphous with the eudidymite of Brogger, the empirical formula of both minerals being H Na Be SiO, Epididy- mite is orthorhombic in symmetry, whereas eudidymite is monoclinic. The axial ratio of epididymite is a:b:c¢ = 1.7367 : 1 : 0.9274. The forms observed were (100), (010), (001), (110), (810), (210), (201), (403), (401), (101), (804), (203), and (221). The crystals are col- umnar parallel to b, and the cleavage is perfect parallel to the base and less perfect parallel to the macro-pinacoid. H==6. G=2.548. The mineral is colorless. The plane of the optical axes is the base with a coincident with a the acute bisectrix. The optical angle calcu- lated from measurements of the indices of refraction is 2V,—31° 4’. The relation between epididymite and eudidymite would seem to be somewhat similar to that existing between the monoclinic and triclinic feldspars of the same composition. Other minerals described from the locality are Xatapleite (hereto- fore found only at Langesund), sgerine, Arfedsonite, quartz, ortho- clase, albite, eudialite, zircon, epidote, Zinnwaldite, microlite, and el pidite. Crossite. Palache’ has examined the “ glaucophane” of some rocks from the Coast Ranges and finds it to differ so much from the known occurrences of glaucophane, that he proposes to call it crossite. The occurrence specially studied is in a boulder from the west slope of the Contra Costa Hills near Berkeley, Cal. Crystals of the mineral show 7 Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. of California, i; pp. 181-191, pl. 11, 1894. 1895.] Mineralogy. 151 the prism and clinal pinacoid, the prism angle being 126° 6’. The axis of greatest elasticity a makes an angle of 11°-13° with ¢, prob- ably in the obtuse angle. The pleochroism is very strong with « sky blue to dark blue,» reddish to purplish violet, and « yellowish-brown to greenish-yellow. The absorption formula is «>>>. The strea is pale blue. G==3.126-3.16. Below are quoted the analyses of glau- cophane (I), Riebeckite (II), and the Berkeley amphibole (IID) for comparison : SiO, AlO, Fe,0, FeO MnO MgO CaO Na,O K,O Total I. 55.64 15.11 3.08 6.85 .56 7.80 2.40 934 —— 100.78 i 500i -—-— 9820 087, 68, 84. 182.879 .72 99.98 III. 55.02 4.75 10.91 9.45 trace 9.30 2.38 7.62 .27 99.70 Optically the mineral is almost identical with the amphibole de- scribed by Cross from Custer Co., Colorado, and it is closely related to Riebeckite. Chemically it is intermediate between Riebeckite and glaucophane. Willyamite. Pittman? gives the name Willyamite to a sulphantimo- nide of cobalt and nickel from the Broken Hill mining district of New South Wales, having the formula (NiCo) S (Co Ni) Sb, cobalt and nickel being present in nearly equal amounts. Kylindrite. Frenzel’ describes a new mineral from Mina Santa Cruz at Poopó, Bolivia, which is notable as well for its unusual chemical composition as for its crystal form. Analysis furnished the following results : Pb Ag Fe Sb Sn S Total 35.41 0.62 3.00 8.73 26.37 24.50 98.63 which correspond to the formula Pb,Sb,Sn,8, or 6PbS, Sb,S, 6SnS,, the silver and iron replacing the lead. The mineral receives its name from the remarkable cylindrical rods in which it appears. On grinding these in the mortar they separate into concentric cylin- - drical shells. A few minute needles which were found in a cavity show the symmetry of the mineral to be orthorhombic, The lustre is metallic, the color dark leaden, and the streak black. H—2.5 and G—5.42. The mineral is soluble in hot hydrochloric and nitric acids, and melts in the closed tube with the separation of sulphur. Wm. H. Hoss. 8 Rec. Geol. Surv., New South Wales, iv, pt. i; pp. 21-22, 1894. * Neues Jahrbuch f. Mineralogie, ete., 1893, II, pp. 125-128. 152 The American Naturalist. [February, PETROGRAPHY. Geology of Angel Island, San Francisco Bay.— Angel Island in San Francisco Bay, Cal., consists essentially of a syncline of sand- stone interbedded with an intrusive sheet of fourchite and cut by a serpentine dyke and a second mass of fourchite. A radiolarian chert is associated with the sandstone.. The most interesting feature con- nected with the rocks is the discovery by Ransome? that both the four- chite and the serpentine have effected metamorphic changes in the sandstone and in the chert, and that in all cases the resulting product is the same, viz., a glaucophane schist. The serpentine and the four- chite are thus true eruptive rocks, neither being, as supposed by Becker, a metamorphosed sediment. The glaucophane schists are true contact rocks, and are not the result of a general oregional metamor- phism of pre-existing rocks. Not only do they occur as contact facies of the sandstones and cherts, but the former rock often contains peb- bles of schists, in their essential features similar to the contact schists’ The sandstone is made up of quartz, plagioclase and fragments of various rocks. The fourchite consists almost entirely of nearly color- less augite in rounded or irregular grains, and a small quantity of an interstitial substance composed of smaller granules of augite and a fine grained neatrix, which under high powers resolves itself into small, stout colorless crystals imbedded in a yellowish-green substance that is nearly isotropic. The crystals are thought to be zoisite, which may be an alteration product of plagioclase, although the author thinks this origin not probable. Often the augite is changed peripherally into glaucophane, which either replaces the pyroxenes, fills cracks in them, or occurs in the spaces between adjacent grains. A few of the speci- mens examined possess a glassy groundmass and others are porphyritic. Brecciated and spheroidal facies were also observed. The schist pro- duced by the alteration of the sandstones and cherts is sometimes com- posed of aggregates of glaucophane in a matrix of colorless albite. Brown mica, garnets and sphene are also present to some extent in the rock. Other varieties of the schist are essentially aggregates of quartz and glaucophane. Occasionally the glaucophane is in falrly well de- fined crystals, but usually it is in sheaf-like bundles of fine needles. The altered cherts now consist of spherules of cryptocrystalline silica ! Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Maine. ? Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. of Cal., Vol. 1, p. 198. 1895.] Petrography. 153 or grains of recrystallized quartz and microlites and bundles of nearly ` colorless augite. The serpentine on the island is nodular as the result of shearing. It was derived in all probability from a rock made up almost exclusively of diallage. It contains granules of chromite. This serpentine has effected the same alterations in the chert and sandstone through which it cuts, as has the fourchite. Some peculiar inclusions of a dark rock in the serpentine are supposed to be the remnants of a dyke that formerly occupied the fissure, which the serpentine subse- quently filled. These fragments now consist of a holocrystalline aggre- gate of augite and albite, of which the first mineral is sometimes alter- ed to green and brown hornblende. Analyses of the fourchite (I) and of a fresh nodule of serpentine (II) follow: SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO CaO MgO K,O Na,O P,O, Loss Total I. 46.98 17.07 1.85 7.02 1215 829 53 2.54 .09 4.86—101.38 Il. 42.06 2.72 2.88 39.53 not estimated 12.04— 99.23 A New Rock-Volcanite.—In an abstract of a paper to appear in a German periodical, Hobbs’ gives an account of an anorthoclase- augite rock which he calls voleanite. It occurs as bombs projected from Volcano in 1888-89. Phenocrysts of anorthoclase, andesine, an acmitic augite and olivine are imbedded in a groundmass containing two generations of the first named*of these minerals in a glassy base. The augite phenocrysts in many instances have been resorbed by the rock’s magma and have thus given rise to pseudomorphs of colorless pyroxene, ‘magnetite, and plagioclase. The structure of the rock is trachytic. Its chemical composition corresponds with that of the -dacites, while its mineralogical composition is that of an augite pan- tellerite. Analyses of the anorthoclase (II) and of the rock mass (I) ollow: SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MnO CaO MgO Na,O K,O H,O P,O, Total I. 66.99 17.56 141 3.39 tr 4.25 93 335 34 153 tr—99.75 TI. 60.01 20.12 2.82 515 23 6433.67 .77 =99.20 Acmite Trachytes from Montana.—Among the eruptive rocks occurring as dykes, sheets and laccolitic masses in the Cretaceous of the Crazy Mts. are acmite trachytes and eleolite syenites. The for- mer, according to Wolff is present in small sheets and dykes and in 3 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 5, p. 598. * Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xvi, p. 227. 154 The American Naturalist. (February, apophyses from laccolitic masses. It is a rock made up of phenocrysts of anorthoclase, sodalite and augite in a groundmass of lath-shaped feldspars and acicular aegirines and acmites imbedded in a colorless interstitial matter, composed in all probability of nepheline and anal- cite. The augite phenocrysts are provided with an outer zone of aegerine. Needles of this mineral are included in all the colorless constituents. The eleolite syenite is from the laccolites. It is panidio- morphic, with fresh onorthoclase phenocrysts in a fine grained mass of feldspar, augite, aegerine, acmite, the angular spaces between which are occupied by nepheline. Analyses of the syenite and of one variety of the trachyte gave: . SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MnO CaO MgO Na,O K,O TiO, P,O, Ign. Loss Total 59.66 16.97 3.18 1.15 .19 232 .80 8.38 4.17 tr .14 2.53 .07 99.56 62.17 18.58 215 105 tr- 157 73: 756.888 ti 1T “1.63.07 98.08 Petrographical Notes.—In a glassy rock from near Harrismith, in the Orange Free States, Molengraff® finds small crystals of twinned cordierite, little octahedra of magnetite and skeleton crystals of augite. The cordierite is slightly pleochroic. Its crystals are well defined and possess all the peculiarities of the niijerak: An analysis of the rock shows: MO T a Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MgO CaO K,O Na,O Loss Total 64.54 .T 19. 16 7.238 339 247 57 1.18 2.25—101.53 The large percentage of SiO, present as compared with the small per- centages of the alkalies suggests to the author that the rock is an abnormal type. After a critical discussion of the literature of cordie- rite as a rock component, the conclusion is reached that, in all proba- bility, the specimens studied represent foreign inclusions fused in a basic rock. A very brief account of the lavas and ashes of the old volcano Rhobell Fawr near Dolgelley in Wales, is given us by Cole.’ The greater portion of the products are ashes containing hornblende and augite. The lavas are augite, aphanites and basaltic and andesitic andesites. 5 Neues Jarb. f. Min. etc., 1894, I, p. 79. ê Geol. Magazine, x, 1893, p. 337. 1895,] Petrography. 155 Rutley’ gives a few illustrations in proof of his statement that the production of spherulites is sometimes a devitrification process subse- quent in point of time to the development of perlitic cracks in the volcanic rocks in which they occur. In a recent number of Science Blake’ suggests the notion that many of the quartz veins, ‘ reefs’ and boss-like masses in ancient rocks are the result of deposition from old thermal springs. The rock of Saint Sardoux, Puy-de-Dame, France, is composed’ of ilmenite and soda-augite in a groundmass consisting largely of nephe- line crystals cemented by a matrix of feldspar and glass. Sometimes the augite and nepheline are intergrown like the constituents of a peg- matite and at other times they form an ophitic aggregate, with the — nepheline the older component. The rock penetrates the peperites of the region in the form of dykes and veins. New Books.—Granites and Greenstones” is the title of a new series of tables for the determination of rocks and their essential components. The author, Mr. Rutley, divides rocks into Volcanic rocks, Dykes and Sills and Plutonic masses, and then subdivides each group into four series as follows: Ultra-basic with SiO,-—-39-45 per cent; basic, with silica 45-55 per cent, intermediate, with SiO,—-55-66 per cent; and acid, with silica over 66 per cent. The ultra-basic series is divided into the non-feldspathic and the potentially feldspathic, including nepheline and leucite non-feldspathic rocks. The basic rocks are all plagioclastic. They include a nephelinic or leucitic and a non-nephelinie group. In the dyke and sill division of this series are included the diabases. In the intermediate series we find again two groups—the orthoclastic and the plagioclastic, and in each of these nepheline and non-nepheline sub-groups. The acid series includes a division whose feldspars are plagioclase or anorthoclase, and one in which the feldspar is orthoclase. Definitions and notes are abundant and are so given as to really explain the tables. The elvans are described as the apophyses of deep seated granitic masses. They include micro-granites, aplites, quartz-porphyries and greisens. The mineralogy tables contain no startling novelties. They are good and the book itself is well worth study. It will serve as a useful companion to the student. 7 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Feb. 1894, p. 10. ê Science, Vol. xxiii, 1894, p. 141. ° Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min. xvii, p. 43. 10 Granites and Greenstones, a series of Tables and Notes for Students of Pet- rology. By Frank Rutley. London, Thos. Murby, 1894, pp. 48. i56 The American Naturalist. [February, ln an article of 52 pages on the optical recognition and economic importance of the common minerals found in building stones, Luquer” mentions the principal microscopic characteristics of the most import- ant minerals with sufficient fullness to enable the technical student to determine them inthe thin section. He also notes the effect of pres- ence of each upon the value of the various building stones in which they occur. He, moreover, describes the usual associates of each dif- ferent mineral, and so incidentally gives the composition of the prin- cipal rocks used in constructions. The article in pamphlet form is simple and useful. 1 School of Mines Quart. xv, p. 285-336. 1895.] Geology. 157 GEOLOGY. Meunier on Meteorites.—The collection of meteorites in the Na- tural History Museum of Paris is unexcelled to-day in respect to variety and quantity of material amassed. To m ona wei natural meteorites has been added the products of Iting from at- tempts to solve the problem of the origin of meteorites. Further facility in the study of this extramundane material is afforded by bringing together the meteoric minerals and types of analogous earth minerals for the purpose of comparison. It has been thought possible by M. Stanislas Meunier to arrive at some definite conclusion as to the origin and possibly the past history of meteorites by a close study of their composition and a comparison of their mineral constituents with simi- lar minerals occurring in our own earth formations. Such a study, embracing as it does both geological and astronomical facts, he calls comparative geology. M. Meunier takes for a starting-point the meteorites of Chili, which, for convenience, are classified under special types. Each type is de- scribed in detail, its particular lithological characters discussed, and their significance given. In the course of the examination M. Meu- nier finds true breccias, metamorphic rocks and volcanic rocks so simi- lar to terrestrial eruptions that the closest attention is necessary to detect the difference. The conclusion from these facts is that the original source of these meteors has been the theatre of geological phenomena comparable with those occurring on the earth. M. Meunier does not hold with the theory that meteors and shooting- stars have a common origin. The chief objections to the theory are: (1) Shooting-stars are never accompanied by noise; meteors always are. (2) Shooting-stars are periodical in appearance; meteors are irregular. He is of the opinion that meteors are fragments of a single star which was constructed on the same general plan as our planet, and notes that it is possible that the fragmentary stage is the last phase of a truesidereal evolution. (Actes Soc. Scien. du Chili, Tome III.) The Origin of Bitumens.—In a recent number of the American Journal of Science, S. F. Peckham gives a short account of how he was led to adopt Newberry’s “ distillation ” theory to account for the origin of bitumens. The heat required for distillation results from metamor- phic action. In regard to the oils of eastern Ohio and western Pennsyl- 158 The American Naturalist. [February, vania, the agent for their production was found in the gradual dying out of the heated area which involved the Appalachian system. Begin- ning at the Palisades and following a northwesterly line, Mr. Peckham notes the following facts in proof of his theory: Through eastern Pennsylvania the coal is metaphosed into anthracite. At St. Mary’s, on the summit of the Alleghanies, the coal is semi-anthracite. In the most easterly county of Pennsylvania in which petroleum is obtained, McKean, the petroleum occurs at a depth of two thousand feet, under a pressure estimated at four thousand pounds to the square inch, and filled with paraffine, just as it ought to be if produced by meta- morphism. Further west the petroleum becomes lighter. The pro- ducts of distillation are present in proper sequence along the entire line from Point Gaspé to Lookout Mountain, and the porous sand-bars and pebbly ripples formed by the currents of the primeval ocean are not filled with the oil, because they afford a receptacle adequate to receive and store the vast accumulations of distillate. (Amer. Jour. Sei., Dec., 1894.) Changes in Ore Deposits.—The chemical and physical changes that take place in ore deposits exposed to surface influences has been made the subject of study by Mr. R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., and the results of his investigations embodied in the following summary : The process of alteration is primarily one of oxidation, and generally of hydration, and both of these actions may go on alone, but generally both have their effect upon the same material. The action of surface influencesis in rare cases one of reduction. ‘The process of alteration frequently causes leaching of certain ingredients of the ore deposit. A worthless material may be made valuable by the introduction of a new constituent, as in Sige na ofa carbonate of lime bya phosphate oflime. D trated by capillary action in soils. The phy sical effect of superficial alteration is to make the deposit more open and porous, and to cause it to shrink. If, however, hydra- tion is active, expansion may be caused. The depth of alteration varies from a fraction of a foot to 1500 feet, and possibly more. The accumulation of soluble saline materials on the surface has an important effect in converting certain materials in underlying ore de- posits to chlorides, ete. This explains the abundance of haloid com- pounds in ore deposits of the arid regions of the western part of North America, and in certain parts of Chili and Peru. (Jour. Geol., Vol. II, 1894.) _ 1895.] Geology. 159 Dean on Coprolites.—In the description of a new Cladodont shark, C. newberryi, from the Ohio Waverly, Mr. Bashford Dean refers to a coprolite found with the specimen, as follows: “Tt (the coprolite) is especially interesting, since it furnishes a cast of the intestinal wall, and gives definite evidence as to the presence of aspiral valve. This structure accordingly maintained in the general- ized Cladodont, and that the intestinal septa were here low and numer- ous is most significant phylogenetically. Its condition in this form, as the nearest known ancestor of Selachians, would, moreover, give an ad- ditional reason for emphasizing the most ancient origin of Dipnoan, Teleostome, and even Chimeroid.” This discovery of Dr. Dean throws a light upon certain sorew-like fossils described under the names Spiraxis, Spirangium, etc. Newber- ry’s descriptions and figures of Spiraxis major and S. randallii, from the Chemung sandstone, are identical with the coprolite figured by Dr. Dean from the intestine ofthe shark. The inference, then, is that many of these screw-like forms from geological horizons, in which sharks are numerous, and which have been referred by different investigators to Algæ, are in reality coprolites. (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII, 1894.) New Molluscan Forms from the Dakota Formation.—So little is known of the fauna of the Dakota formation that great interest is attached to the discovery by Dr. Hicks of some invertebrate remains in Jefferson County, Nebraska. The Dakota strata in this locality consist of ferruginous limestone, the fossiliferous layers being impure limonite. The fossils are all either vegetal or molluscan, and are in the condition of natural casts, molds or imprints. The mollusca were referred for identification to Dr. Charles A. White, who describes and figures them in the Proceedings of the National Museum. The col- lection comprises five new species and two doubtful ones, all indicat- ing unmistakably, in the author’s opinion, a purely fresh-water fauna. In his concluding remarks, Dr. White refers to the unusual inter- est attached to these new forms by reason of the following facts: “Tt is one of only three collections of invertebrate remains from the Dakota formation. It indicates, more distinctly than any previ- ously discovered facts have done, the nonmarine character of that formation. It embraces four genera which have never before been recognized in collections from its strata. Lastly, although this forma- tion lies at the base of the Upper Cretaceous series, a majority of the species which this collection contains belong to genera representatives 160 The American Naturalist. [February, of which are among the characteristic members of the molluscan fauna now living in the waters of the Mississippi drainage system. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. X VII, 1894.) Glacial Lakes in Western New York.—This subject is treated in two papers which describe briefly the glacial lacustrine his- tory of Western New York, introductory to fuller treatment hereafter. The author shows, with the aid of specially prepared maps, how the remarkable valleys of the “ finger lakes” terminate abruptly at their southern ends in the high land which forms the divide between the St. Lawrence and the Susquehanna—Ohio waters. The deep pre- glacial valleys, cut to some unknown depth through the divide, have been partly filled with frontal moraine drift-making cols, which were the waste-weirs for the glacial waters. As the ice-sheet slowly retreated northward, it was a barrier to the waters which were poured in the south ends of these deep valleys and forced to overflow into the Susquehanna. In all the valleys a well- marked abandoned stream channel is found south of the col, while north of the col are found the delta deposits of the streams which emptied into the glacial lakes at their maximum and later levels. The author described with some detail several of those local glacial lakes, among which were the Watkins (glacial Seneca) Lake, which at its maximum was about thirty miles long, some four to eight miles wide and one thousand feet deep. The Ithaca (glacial Cayuga) was even larger and deeper than the Watkins Lake. The deltas and shore inscriptions of all the glacial lakes are well marked, and in this lies proof of the power of ice to act as barrier to deep water. Glacial lakes also occupied valleys in which to-day there are no lakes, but free northward-flowing streams, as the Tonawanda, Canaseraga, Genesee, Onondaga and others. Professor Fairchild named eighteen of the local glacial lakes from Attica on the west to Tully Valley on the east. -~ As the ice-lobe damming each of the several glacial lakes melted, the waters were lowered into the level of the great water body which buried all of Western New York north of the divide and most of the area of theGreat Lakes. At first this water had its outlet at Chicago, and has been named by Mr. Spencer, Lake Warren. But when the ice by its retreat finally uncovered the Seneca Valley, the outlet of the Watkins Lake at Horseheads became, owing to the depression of the “ Finger” lakes region, the outlet of the Continental lake, and this remained the outlet until the ice, by its further retreat, uncovered the 1895.] Geology. 161 Mohawk Valley and differentiated the waters, the lake then covering the Ontario depression, being known as Lake Iroquois. For the lake having its outlet at Horseheads, and lying both in geographical horizon and in time between lakes Warren and Iroquois, Professor Fairchild proposed the name Lake Newberry. —H. L. Farrcutp. Geological News, General.—An excellent geological map of Alabama has just been issued by the Geological Survey of that State. For the exact determination of the limits of the geological formations as shown in the map, its chief responsibility and credit are as follows: Formations of the coastal plain, Smith, Langdon and Johnson; coal measures, McCalley, Squire and Gibson; other Paleozoic formations, McCalley, Gibson and Hayes; crystalline rocks, Smith, Phillips and McCalley. The colors chosen are distinct, so that the different hori- zons are well defined. An explanatory chart accompanies the text. According to F. Leslie Ransome, Angel Island, in San Fran- cisco Bay, affords an example of a pronounced contact meta- morphism effected by the rock of which serpentine is a derivative, and by the fourchite, upon cherts and sandstones through which they have forced their way. The resulting rocks consist almost wholly of holocrystalline schists, which present no essential differences when derived from sandstone from those formed by the metamorphism of the chert ; also, the schist produced by contact metamorphism alongside the serpentine has no distinct feature differentiating it from that adja- cent to the fourchite. This leads to the generalization that the attempt to assign all of the glaucophene schists of the coast ranges to a general regional metamorphism must be abandoned. (Bull. Dept. Geol. Cul. University., Vol. I, 1894.) Archean.—The so-called Lower Laurentian rocks, near St. John, N. B., are found by W. D. Matthew to consist in large part of intru- sives of two types, Granite-diorite and Olivine-gabbaro. The age of the first of these is later than the Upper Laurentian limestone, and may be Devonian, but is probably pre-Cambrian. The age of the gabbro is not given. (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII, 1894.) Paleozoic.—The fossils from the Trenton limestones of New York, - referred by Prof. Hall to the Graptolitide under the names of Buthograptus laxus and Oldhamia fruticosa, are shown by Prof. Whit- field to be true marine Alge of the articulate type. The form of the Buthograptus when living was probably plumose, with a cylindrical 11 162 The American Naturalist. [February, axis, from which a series of pinnules arose on two opposite sides, not quite opposite to each other at their origin, but slightly alternating. These pinnules were probably cylindrical, somewhat club-shaped, and attached to the axis by the knob-like inner end. Since the name Buthograptus is misleading, the author suggests Bythocladus as more appropriate. Of the so-called Oldhamia, Prof. Whitfield has found three forms which he describes and figures in the Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat Hist., Vol. VI, 1894. A new fossil fish, Psammosteus taylorii, from the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Morayshire, Scotland, is reported by Dr. Traquair. The new species is based on detached plates thick and smooth internally, and as to contour are gently hollowed in boat-like fashion. The microscopic structure of the remains suggests that they were Selachian in their nature. (Ann. Scottish Nat. Hist., 1894.) Bulletin No. 4 of the Illinois State Museum of Natural History contains descriptions by Miller and Gurley of thirteen new Crinoids from the Upper Devonian and Niagara of Indiana, Kentucky and Illi- nois. Three plates accompany the descriptions. r. E.O. Hovey regards the Lower Magnesian and Lower Car- boniferous cherts of southern Missouri due to chemical precipitation at the time of the deposition of the strata in which they occur or before their consolidation. (Amer. Jour. Sci., 1894.) Mesozoic.—The study of new material by Prof. Seeley confirms Huxley’s: conclusions concerning Fuskelesaurus brownii, a fossil Dinosaurian from South Africa. The jaw is formed on the type of Megalosaurus, but the pubis resembles that of Massospondylus. Prof. Seeley places it in the Saurischia in near association with the latter genus and Zanclodon, though with a near approximation to Megalo- saurus. The evidences for these conclusions are given in the account to the several bones. (Amer. Mag. Nat. Hist., Nov., 1894.) M. H. E. Sauvage calls attention to some reptiles found in the upper part of the Jurassic beds of Boulonnais. A list of the species deter- mined by the author comprises four Ichthyopteryians, eleven Saurop- terygians, one Pterodactyle, four Dinosaurians, eight Crocodiles and seven Chelonians. (Revue Scientifique, Dec., 1894.) According to Capt. H. G. Lyons, the Nubian sandstone of Egypt and Nubia is of Cretaceous age, and is probably an estuarine deposit. In the Lybian Desert this sandstone forms an immense table-land, weathered into flat-topped masses and truncated pyramids, witnesses of the amount of erosion that has taken place. Upper Cretaceous rocks 1895.] Geology. 163 overlie the sandstone near Esna, and are exposed over a large area forming the floors of the oases of Kharga, Dakhla and Tarafra. ( Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Nov., 1894.) Cenozoic.—Mr. Barbour presents some additional notes on the new fossil, Dæmonelix, from the Pine Ridge table-lands in Nebraska. Further examination of the locality in which the fossil occurs shows that the whole deposit is undoubtedly aqueousin origin, and the author gives his reasons for believing the fossils to be contemporaneous with the sediment. A singular fact revealed by the microscope is that every section, no matter from what specimen or from what portion of each individual specimen the section is made, shows perfectly defi- nite and unmistakable plant-structure. (Univ. Studies, Vol. II, 1894.) A fine specimen of Cervus (Eurycerus) hiberninæ Owen belonging to Dr. Krantz Museum affords Dr. Pohlig an opportunity for studying the relation of thië species to others of the same group. He shows that the deer ( Cervus dama), and not the elk (C. alces), is the nearest ally of Eurycerus, and that these two species are closely united by transi- tional forms in both types. Dr. Pohlig bases these relations between the different species of the Cervide upon the development of the antlers. (Bull. Soc. Belge de Geol., Tome VIII, 1894.) Numerous small displacements produced since the glacial period in the rocks about St. John, N. B., are noticed by G. F. Matthew. The faults vary from one-quarter ot an inch to five inches, and in almost every case the downthrow was on the north side, and the leade of the fault was to the southwest. (Amer. Jour. Sci., Dec., 1894.) 164 The American Naturalist. [February, BOTANY. The Systematic Botany of North America.—Under this title a work of great importance to science is now in preparation for early publication. Following the suggestion of Rabenhorst’s “ Kryp- togamen Flora,” and Engler and Prantl’s “ Natiirliche Pflanzenfamil- ien,” the originators of the project have sought to bring to their aid as many as possible of the working botanists of North America. Ac- cordingly we find the names of Professor G. F. Atkinson, of Cornell ; Professor N. L. Britton, of Columbia; President J. M. Coulter, of Lake Forest; Chief Botanist F. V. Coville, of the National Herbarium ; Professor E. L. Greene, of California; Professor B. D. Halsted, of Rutgers, and Professor L. M. Underwood, of De Pauw, upon the board of editors, with such as the following in the list of those who have assured the editors of their coöperation : Professor T. C. Porter, of Lafayette; Professor C. R. Barnes, of Wisconsin; Director Wm. Trelease, of the Missouri Botanical Garden; Professor L. H. Bailey, of Cornell; Professor C. S. Sargent, of Harvard; Professor T. J. Burrill, of Illinois, and many others equally well known. In the mode of publication the German plan will be followed also, the work to appear in parts of about one hundred pages each, published at intervals, five of these parts usually constituting a volume. The sequence will be that of Engler and Prantl’s “ Natiirliche Pflanzen- familien,” and will include all plants from the Protophyta to the Composite. It is estimated that it will require about seventeen vol- umes fur the whole work, or about eighty-five parts, and that it will take fifteen years to complete it. According to the present plan, Volume I will contain the Myxomycetes, Schizomycetes, Cyanophycee and Diatomacee; Volume II, the alge; Volumes III to VIII, the fungi; (Vol. IV, the lichens); Volume IX, the Bryophyta, Pterido- phyta and Gymnosperme ; Volumes X and XI, the Monocotyledons ; Volumes XII to XVII, the Dicotyledons. Itis announced that the following parts are to appear during 1895: Pyrenomycetes (two parts), by J. B. Ellis and B. M. Everhart ; Hepa- tice, by L. M. Underwood; Typhacew, Sparganiacea, Naiadacee, Juneaginacee, Alismacee and Hydrocharitacee, by Thomas Morong; Cyperacee (two parts), by N. L. Britton and L. H. Bailey. The parts may be obtained as issued of Professor N. L. Britton, of Columbia College, New York, the chairman of the board of editors. CHARLES E. Bessey. 1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. 1895.] Botany. 165 Botanical News.—Botanists everywhere will be glad to learn that the veteran collector, A. H. Curtiss, of Jacksonville, Florida, has resumed the collection and distribution of herbarium specimens. All who have seen the fine specimens which Mr. Curtiss prepared in bis sets of North American plants distributed ten or more years ago need not be told of their superior quality. He now offers in this “Second Distribution of Plants of the Southern United States” two “ series” of two hundred species each, at sixteen dollars per series. It is to be hoped that this distribution will be given the encouragement it deserves. The experiment of publishing monthly the cards for the card-index to the Bibliography of American Botany has been most successful so far as the work itself is concerned. The printing has been excellent, and avery good quality of card has been used. We trust that bota- nists who have not already done so will enter their subscriptions soon for this most useful help in the botanical library. The annual sub- scription is five dollars, and the cards are supplied by the Cambridge Botanical Supply Company, Cambridge, Mass. Among the excellent text-books of botany which have recently ap- peared in Germany, two deserve especial mention, viz.: Dr. K. Giesen- hagen’s Lehrbuch der Botanik, a pretty volume of 335 octavo pages, from the publishing house of E. Wolf, of Munich, and Dr. K. Schu- mann’s Lehrbuch der Systematischen Botanik, of 705 octavo pages, published by F. Enke, of Stuttgart. Both are freely illustrated with good engravings. They will be helpful to those engaged in teaching botany in colleges and universities. Oels’s Experimental Plant Physiology, as translated by D. T. Mac- Dougal, of the University of Minnesota, is a most useful little book. A somewhat extended trial with students in physiological botany shows it to be well adapted for laboratory use. We would like to commend to the botanists of this country, espe- cially to those who are engaged in teaching in the better class of col- leges and universities, that most excellent journal, Garden and Forest, edited by Professor Charles S. Sargent, of Harvard University. Coming as it does every week, it brings fresh matter to the reader at frequent intervals, and there is not a number in the whole year which does not contain much botanical matter. Our three strictly botanical journals, The Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club (now entering its twenty-second volume), The Botan- ical Gazette (entering its twentieth year), and Erythea (in its third year), have continued their steady ways the past year, in spite of 166 The American Naturalist. [February, panics and general business depression. They are journals of which American science has no cause to be ashamed. The two older journals include the record of a period of remarkable activity in American botany, and it is fair to say that from them has largely come the impulse to this activity. We doubt not that a score of years hence we may say the same for the much younger journal upon the Pacific coast. Professor A. S. Hitchcock brought out two handy little books during the past year, viz., A Key to the Spring Flora of Manhattan (Kansas), and A Key to the Genera of Manhattan Plants Based on Fruit Characters. They are full of suggestions to teachers, and must be very helpful to students of botany in Eastern Kansas. The sequence of families is that of Engler and Prantl. Professor L. H. Bailey brought out in the August bulletin of the Cornell University Agricultural Experimental Station another of his numerous contributions to botany. This one is devoted to The Culti- vated Poplars, and with the illustrations and descriptions of the leaves, twigs and buds, must prove useful to those who wish to distinguish the cultivated species of this interesting genus. From the Bulletin of the Michigan Fish Commission (No. 2) we have “ The Plants of Lake St. Clair,” by A. J. Pieters, containing eleven pages of text and a map. Lists of aquatic plants are given, and these are accompanied by a discussion of their distribution at dif- ferent depths and under varying conditions. E. B. 1895.] Zoology. 167 ZOOLOGY. The Influence of changed Environment on Mollusca.— The experiments made by Professor Semper with specimens of snails in order to ascertain the causes of dwarfing have recently been repeated by M. H. de Varigny who arrives at somewhat different conclusions from those of Prof. Semper. The experiments consisted in isolating young individuals from the same mass of ova in vessels containing dif- ferent amounts of water, but placed under the same conditions of food, temperature and light. It was found that the size of the individual varies with the volume of water, and Dr. Semper’s conclusion is that there is present some substance, as yet unknown, was necessary to the growth of the snail. M. de Varigny observed that while the size does vary with the volume of water, the dimensions vary more with amount of water surface than with volume alone, and increase in size persists when the superfices was increased while the volume was diminished. M. de Varigny suggests that dwarfing is due to lack of room in which to move about. (Journ. del "Anatomie et de la Physiologie, 1894.) The genus Leptophidium.—In 1863 I established the genus Leptophidium for ophidiids having a slender form and regularly em- bricated scales. Having had occasion recently to refer to Hallowell’s “ Report upon the Reptilia of the North Pacific Exploring Expedition ” (Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Phila., 1860) 1 found that he had used the same name previously for a genusof snakes. After endeavoring in vain to identify Dr. Hallowell’s genus, I asked Dr. Stejneger and he informed me that he had also vainly attempted to identify the same snake and that no specimens answering to Hallowell’s diagnosis were in the Na- tional Museum. Prof. Cope has not mentioned the name as that of a valid genus or as a synonym in his Catalogue of Genera of Snakes. (Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 32, 1887). But, whatever, may be ascertained to be the value of Hallowell’s genus, there is no doubt that Leptophidium cannot be retained as the name of the Ophidioid genus. Lepophidiuwm (scale, and Ophidium) may be given as a substitute and to recall the regular squamation characteristic of the genus. Lepophidium has proved to be one of great interest and to be repre- sented by a number of species in moderately deep seas. In eadivion oe (1) L. profundorum and (2) L. brevibarbe, the fe o 168 The American Naturalist. [February, by Jordan and Bollman (1889) and Goode and Bean. (Proe. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1890, pp. 108-110). 3. Lepophidium prorates. 4. Lepophidium pardale, 29 fathoms. 5. Lepophidium microlepis, 76 fathoms. 6. Lepophidium stigmatistium, 112 fathoms. 7. Lepophidium emmelas, 306-362 fathoms. It will be for the future to determine whether these species are char- acteristic of different horizons or whether they inhabit indifferently various depths. Tueo. GILL. The Habitat of the Salamander Linguelapsus annulatus Cope.— A single specimen only of unknown habitat has hitherto repre- sented this species in the U. S. National Museum. It is, therefore, of interest that we are able to describe a second specimen as identified by Dr. L. Stejneger from Hot Springs, Arkansas. The specimen is 165 mm. in total length with a comparatively long tail as compared with any of the Amblystomz we have seen. The specimen is still in Dr. Stejneger’s hands, so we cannot give an exact description of it, but we observed the following facts with regard to it as compared with the de- scription of the type in your “ Batrachia of North America.” The general color was brown above, crossed by narrow bands of gray, and paler below, the first gray band was between the orbits, the second on the occiput, the third on the shoulders; between the shoulder and rump there were one or two less bands than in the type, those on the tail we did not count, two of the bands on the tail united on one side forming a loop. The head seemed small and the body bulky compared with any other salamanders we have seen. The fore and hind limbs when appressed to the sides were separated by 3 and parts of 2 other costal interspaces asin the type. Taken at Hot Springs, Ark., Nov. 1, 1894. —H. H. & C. S. BRImLEY. The White Headed Eagle Ate Tonnan. ER = Fhe White Headed Eagle is a resident bird on t Bay on the north. For more than fifty years Rene ie been a nest on the farm now owned by Mrs. Lammers, about half a mile north of the Danbury Post-Office. The present one has stood only nine years but it was made from the material of another belonging to the same pair 1895.] Zoology. 169 of birds and removed by them to the tree it now occupies after the one which held their old nest had been blown down. Both birds rarely if ever leave their nest at the same time in the course of the whole year. While one goes to the bay for fish the other remains at the nest or at least in the same small piece of woods awaiting the return of her mate or sometimes starting out when she sees him coming. No wonder they feel some solicitude for the home where they have reared so many broods of young and where their abode has been winter and summer for so many years. Occasionally they are visited by a third whom we may suppose to be one of their grown up children re- ‘turning after long absence to his parents for advice. At any rate he is so well received that he is apt to stay several months. At this nest two new eaglets, or sometimes only one, are reared each year, but they wander far away from home before they are old enough to find mates and start a new family, for these are only one or two new nests within many miles around. ‘There is another old one about three miles east of this, not far from Piccolo station; another between Port ‘Clinton and Peachton, and one 26 or 27 years old on Kelly’s Island. There is also one nest on Put-in-Bay, one on Middle Bass, on North Bass and on Sugar Island. So far as I can learn all the nests are believed by the people that live near them to have been occupied con- tinuously by the same pair of birds for many years. At each nest one bird remains while the other goes in search of food. The pair on Kelly’s Island commenced a new nest, near their old one, about two years ago, and have worked on it a number of times since, but have not yet used it. They are supposed to be getting ready to move, on account of the tree containing the old nest being dead. Most of the nests are about 50 feet from the ground and appear to be five or six feet high and four or five across. The birds raise only one brood a year, and rarely, if ever, more than two in a brood, but these two they usually succeed in bringing up, and as eagles are rarely killed in this region, many that are raised here must go elsewhere to live. Quite likely they go farther north, yet it would seem as if the American Eagle were disinclined to make a permanent home beyond the limits of the republic that has adopted it. Perhaps the freezing of the Canadian streams and lakes from which they draw their supply of fish in mild weather drives them south to the Great Lakes. At any rate there are many more eagles on the peninsula in winter than in summer. Two years ago more than fifty were seen at one time on the ice covering what 170 The American Naturalist. [ February, is called the west harbor, and about seventy-five on the east harbor, feeding on the fish offal thrown away by the fishermen. As the major- ity of these winter visitors lack the white on head and tail that char- acterizes the old birds it may be that they are birds that have not mated or built nests. The eagles at all times of the year subsist on fish, eating but little else. They take them alive from the water and dead from the shore, and here as well as on the Atlantic coast they occasionally take them from the osprey. When an eagle captures a live fish it is sometimes: pursued by another eagle which succeeds after a spirited struggle in getting it away. Among the farmers they are not considered beneficial nor very harmful, though they occasionally take tame ducks and, it is said, lambs. On Kelly’s Island and Put-in-Bay they are less numerous than formerly, but on the peninsula the number is increasing. —E. L. Mose.ey. The Paludicolæ.—Dr. Shufeldt offers the following scheme to show the divisions of the suborder, Paludicolæ, of the Uniteđ States : Suborder. Superfamilies. Families. Genera. ( : Gruidae, Grus. Gruoidea Aramidae, Aramus. rae i | Cre Paludicolae < P | Ralloidae Rallidae) Yono aes ana. | Gallin ula. 4 Fulica. In regard to the connection of the Paludicolae with other avaim groups, the author notes that the Jacanidae link this suborder with the Limicolae, through certain species in the Plover-Sandpiper line; Pod- ica and Heliornis lead towards the Pygopodes; and such ancestral types as Chionis connect them with the Longipennes ; by various links they are connected also with the Herodiones, through Rhinochetus and. Eurypyga. Professor Fiirbringer believes that the Apteryges are far more closely related to the Rallidae than has been, heretofore, realized. If this be true, it forms a line toward the Struthious types—with all the Gallinae likewise only a little more remotely related. (Proceeds. Zool. Soc- London, March, 1894.) 1895.] Zoology. 171 Mexican Glires.—In studying the series of Mexican Rodents col- lected by Mr. E. W. Nelson, Dr. C. H. Merriam finds that a wood rat described by him sometime ago under the name Neotoma alleni repre- sents a new genus for which he proposes the name Hodomys. ‘This genus is characterized by having the crown of the last molar shaped like the letter S, and also by important cranial distinctions. Associated with Hodomys, by reason of dental characters are Ptysso- phorus, Tretomys (both fossil) Xenomys and Neotoma. These five genera form a group presenting, according to Dr. Merriam, nearly every important step in the evolution of the modern genus Neotoma from the Cricetine series, Ptyssophorus is the more primitive type; Tretomys and Hodomys seem to represent more advanced stages in the evolution of the group, while Xenomys and Neotoma are more special- ized. The five genera above enumerated are classed together by the author, as a subfamily, the Neotominae, and it seems to be an independent off- shoot, as is also the Arvicolinae, from the half-tuberculate crowned Cricetinae. Dr. Merriam redefines the genera Ptyssophorus and Tretomys, and characterizes the new genus Hodomys with reference to the more specialized genera Xenomys and Neotoma, and adds descriptions of all the known species. (Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., Sept., 1894.) Zoological News,—Spongiz.—lIn a paper on the anatomy and relationships of Lelapia australis, Mr. Arthur Dendy calls attention to the peculiar reticulated fibrous character of the skeleton, which has pre- viously escaped notice. This character is unknown in any other living calcareous sponge, while it forms a prominent feature in the fossil group Pharetrones of Zittel. The author accordingly regards Lelapia aus- tralis as a living representative of Pharetrones which family must now be classed with recent Calcarea. (Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci. June, 1894.) Pisces.—A new species of Ribbon Fish, Trachypterus rex-salmono- rum is described and figured by Dr. Jordan and Prof. Gilbert. Accord- ing to the authors, this species bears some resemblance to L. altivelis described by Kner from Valparaiso. ‘The latter species has, however, the nuchal crest much lower and farther back, the first dorsal and the ventrals much lower, the second dorsal fin higher, the skin rougher, the four black spots different in size and position from those found in T. rex-salmonorum, and the caudal rays divided near the base. 172 The American Naturalist. [February, The type of the new species was obtained in the open sea outside the bay of San Francisco. (Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Sci. Ser. 2, Vol. IV, 1894.) Reptilia.—In the Proceedings of the Rochester Academy of Sci- ences Vol. II, 1892 is published a paper, by F. W. Warner, on the Ophidians of the Southern States which contains numerous inaccurac- ies, and which should have been excluded or corrected by the editors of that volume. Aves.—In a paper entitled “ The Origin of certain North Amer- ican Birds as Determined by their Routes of Migration,” Dr. Chapman points out that the Bobolinks which nest west of the Rocky Mts. do not migrate southward with the birds of the Western Province, but re- trace their steps and leave the United States by way of Florida, thus furnishing evidence of gradual extension of range westward and of the stability of routes of migration. (Abstr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc. New York, 1893-94.) Mammalia.—tThe three complete skeletons and two skulls of Por- poises collected by Dr. Abbot during his recent cruise among islands north of Madagascar are identified by Mr. F. W. True with Prode/ph- inus attenuatus Gray. Dr. Abbot’s notes concerning these specimens include a description of the coloration of each animal when captured so that it is now possible to correlate the external characters with those of the skeleton of this genus. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. xvii, 1894.) ; Professor J. T. Wilson regards the dumb-bell-shaped bone in Orni- thorhynchus as a true “ anterior vomer ” formed by the fusion of bilater- ally symmetrical halves; and both in its nasal and in its palatine rela- tions it resembles the palatine lobe of the vomer in the alligator Caiman niger. (Proceeds Linn. Soc. N. S. W., March, 1894.) A collection of Mammals from the Island of Trinidad referred to Dr. J. A. Allen and Prof. Chapman for identification adds one species to the list of Bats of that Island, raises the number of known Trinidad Rodents from 7 to 19, and of indigenous Muridae from one to eight, six of which are described as new.. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, 1893.) | After a critical survey of the dental and cranial characters of Ursus cinnamomeus, U. arctos. U. horribilis and U. americanus Mr. A. E, Brown reaches the conclusion expressed some years ago by J. A. Allen, 1895.] Zoology. 173 but subsequently abandoned by him, viz. : that leaving out maritimus, none of the North American bears can be accorded a higher rank than that of subspecies of arctos. This conclusion was reached after a full study of specimens of skins and skeletons preserved in the museums. of America and Europe. (Proceeds. Phila. Acad. 1894.) Eight new Pocket-Mice, described by Dr. Merriam are commented on.as follows by the author. “ P. baileyi is a type very different from any heretofore described. It is a large animal with a peculiar skull, which suggests affinities with P. paradozus on one hand, and with P. formosus on the other, though much nearer the latter than the former. P, columbianus is a peculiar local form of the olivaceus group. P. nevadensis, P. panamintinus and P. mexicanus are small forms with much swollen mastoids, belonging to the flavus-longimembris group. P. nelsonii, P. stephensii and P. canes- ceus belong to the penicillatus group of the subgenus Chetodipus.” (Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1894.) 174 The American Naturalist. [February, ENTOMOLOGY.’ Two New Species of Lecanium from Brazil.—Lecanium reticulatum, n.sp., 2 scale long. 11, lat. 5, alt.3 mm. Smooth, ridge- less, shiny, dark brown, rather inconspicuously spotted with whitish. These whitish spots are not dermal, but consist of small patches of waxy secretion, which can easily be scraped off. Posterior incision 3 mm. long. Derm very strongly reticulate, reticulations large, 3,4, 5 or 6-sided, each with a large oval gland-spot, placed more or less to one side. Walls of reticulations very thick. This reticulation of the derm is easily seen with a lens. Legs brown, ordinary. Coxa with two hairs at one end,one very long ; tibia a little less than one-third shorter than femur; tarsus about one-quarter shorter than tibia. Tarsal digitules very long, slender, with only moderate knobs, which dilate rather gradually. Claw short, stout, curved. Digitules of claw small, but extending considerably beyond tip of claw, one larger than the other, stout, with only moderate knobs. Removed from the bark the insect leaves a patch of white secre- tion. .A parasitised specimen is only 8 mm. long, and is yellowish-brown, with the reticulation black, very conspicuous with a lens; margin blackish. The parasite must have been a large one, the single hole being over 1 mm. diameter. Hab., on twigs of an unidentified woody plant, Sao Paulo, Brazil (Dr. H. Von Ihering). Three were sent, one spoiled by a parasite, the other two in good condition. One of the latter I boiled in caustic alkali, but was not able to obtain all the desirable details from it. The imperfection of the description does not particularly matter, since the species is very easily recognized. Itis closely allied to L. depressum, Targ., but differs in its very much greater size. Lecanium baccharidis, n.sp., 2 scale long. 44, lat. 24, alt. 1} mm. Dark brown, becoming eventually whitish-brown froma waxy or cot- tony material scattered over the surface. Where one scale overlapped another, the portion covered is bright orange-yellow with a greenish 1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H. 1395.] Entomology. 175 tinge. Surface wrinkled, but this no doubt largely due to contraction in drying. Dorsum slightly ridged. Posterior cleft fairly short. Derm with large gland-pits; not at all reticulate. The pits are strikingly large and numerous. Legs pale brown, ordinary. Troċhanter with a long hair; tibia about one-third longer than tarsus. Claw stout, not very long, curved. Tarsal digitules filiform, not unusually long. Digitules of claw very stout, with large knobs. Margin with long straight spines. Rostral loop short, not reaching to insertion of middle legs. Anal plates broad, when flattened not far from equilateral, but as ordinarily observed in situ with the posterior external side considerably longer than the anterior external side, the two meeting at about a tight- angle. Anal ring with very numerous hairs, which cannot be counted separately. Antennæ pale brown, 8-jointed, the joints all very distinct. 3 longest., Formula 3 (24) (18) 567. 7 only a little shorter than 6. 4 about 4 shorter than 3. 8 only a little shorter than 4, tapering. The larger specimens seem quite adult, though they contain neither eggs nor larvæ Hab.: Sao Paulo, Brazil, on bark of twigs of Baccharis sp., two or more scales sometimes overlapping. (Dr. H. Von Ihering.) This has the general form and size of L. hesperidum (L.), but is a rougher, more opaque form. I do not think it is nearly related to kes- peridum, such resemblance as exists being merely superficial. T. D. A. COCKERELL, Experiment Station, Las Cruces, N. M. The Wood Leopard Moth.—There have been frequent reference during the last two years to the ravages of Zeuzera pyrina L., a lepidopterous borer of shade-trees, which has been introduced from Europe, and is doing great damage in the parks of New York, Brooklyn and adjacent cities. The various stages of the insect are shown in the accompanying psp er Insect Life. Its life-history has recently been summarized by Prof. J. B. Smith, as follows: “The moths make their rie in May or June, continuing through July and into August, and are readily attracted to light. It has become the most common species seen around the electric lights in the cities named, and each moth represents a larva that has fed for at least two years in the wood of a neighhoring tree, while every female represents the possibility of hundreds of other larvæ to follow the same life history. 176 The American Naturalist. [February, The Wood Leopard Moth.—a, b, larvæ; c, male moth; d, female moth; e, larval burrow. All natural size. “ The eggs are laid by the female moth on the branches, probably placed just into the bark, and the young larve bore at once into the wood, usually at the crotch of a small branch, or at a node, and work downward, sometimes just under the bark, sometimes in the solid wood. They grow apace and get into larger branches, still working downward as a whole, but often varying in course; sometimes making it circular, so as to girdle the stick they feed in. For at least two years they feed, rarely emerging from the burrow, though they do occasionally come out for the purpose of changing their quarters and beginning their destructive work elsewhere. Then they change to somewhat slender, brown pups, and these wriggle themselves through the bark in due season, and soon after the moths emerge.” The moths, fortunately, are attracted to electric lights, and large numbers of them are thus destroyed. The larvæ may be destroyed by pouring a little bisulphide of carbon in the burrows and then plugging the outer openings of the latter with putty. Relaxing Insects.—J. P. Mutch writes in The Entomologists Record that “rectified wood naphtha, obtainable from any chemist, containing a trace of white shellac, say ten grains to the ounce, applied 1895.) Entomology. 177 to the under side of the extreme base of the wings by means of a very fine sable brush, within a few seconds renders the wings quite pliable; the insect is then placed on the setting-board and set to the required position, braces being used if necessary. In from twelve to twenty-four hours the specimen is ready for the cabinet, showing no trace of the manipulation it has undergone. The shellac is recommended to pre- vent any possible future springing or drooping, but the pure naphtha produces an equally satisfactory effect so far as relaxing goes. The old, tedious process of damping may thus be obviated, and the most delicate colors left uninjured.” Eyes of Phalangiide.’—Herr F. Purcell finds two types differ- ing in the structure of the rhabdome—the Liobunum type and the Acantholophus type, and describes these in detail. We can only cite a few outstanding results. One of the most important characteristics of the retina is the con- stant arrangement of its elements in groups (retinulæ), each of four cells, and the union of the optic rods of these four cells into a rhab- dome, which, though single, is composed of four rhabdomeres. There are no pigment or other cells between the retinule. In all the species examined the rhabdome consists of two chemically different parts. The one part includes the whole central rhabdomere, and in the Acantholophus group the distal portion of the peripheral rhabdomeres. The other part includes in the Liobunum group the whole of the peripheral rhabdomeres ; in the Acantholophus group only the proximal part of the same. The eyes of the Phalangiide are three-layered inverse eyes of ecto- dermic origin. The anterior median eyes of spiders, the eyes of Pha- langiide, the median eyes of scorpions, and at any rate the median eyes of the king-crab, form a series of homologous structures, characterized by an inverted retina with retinule or at least rhabdomeres. As a chief result of his investigation the author claims to have definitely proved that a retina composed of retinule, or of a modification of these, occnrs in the higher Arachnid orders—Phalangiide and spiders. (Journal Royal Microscopical Society.) Spread of Otiorhynchus ovatus.—Mr. H. F. Wickham pub- lishes in Societas Entomologica (Dec., 1894) a short paper on the distribution of O. ovatus of such interest that we reprint it entire: “ This Euro-Asiatic species has been for some time known as an in- habitant of the United States, but has hitherto been supposed to be 2 Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Zool., LVIII., pp. 1-53. 178 The American Naturalist. [February, restricted to that portion east of the Mississippi River and north of the thirty-ninth or fortieth parallel. I have lately become possessed of additional data regarding its range, which I herewith record, adding also a number of already published but scattered notes—the whole giving a tolerably complete idea of the American distribution of the insect. “When known, the year of first capture is also given, though often we can only tell from the date of a given reference that the species was known in that locality previous to that time ; hence no exact generali- zations as to the path or rate of westward progression can be based thereon. A considerable portion of the matter, however, has been gathered directly by correspondence with entomologists in various parts of the country, who have kindly responded to my requests for information, and whose names will be found appended thereto. “In a recent number of Insect Life it is stated by Messrs. Riley and Howard that it was first recorded from the United States in 1873. Not being able to find the reference, I wrote to Mr. Samuel Henshaw, asking help of his unsurpassed knowledge of the bibliogra- phy of American beetles. He kindly replied as follows: “ PENN MUTUAL BUILDING 9 25 iCHESTNUT STREET PHILADELPHIA viii ADVERTISEMENT. COMMENCED JANUARY, 1888. TWO VOLUMES PER YEAR. === THES AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, LoS. The Oldest Exclusively Geological Magazine Published in America. EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS: CHARLES E. BEECHER, Ph. D., F. G. S. A., Yale University, New Haven, Con AMUEL CALV yai Phy: D, F. g. B A; State a er ee ‘University, Towa Cit y, Ia. oun M. CLARKE, M. A., Deut. Geol. Gessell., Soc. Imp. M hee York Geol. Saves: Albany, N.Y. Epwarp W. Tiere OLE, B, A., D. Se. (London), F. G. 5S., L., E, and A., Buchtel College: hanes Dhio FRANCIS W. Craain, B, Se., F. G.S. A "eg hme of Geology and Palxontology, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo. 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The ‘awk e hiis received a c cordial y welcome and a generous support from leading geologists enayi and it is n 0 “sig exponen e rapid geological progress that is taking place n = e Bebe ~ geologic emis exhibited on a more extensive scale and nowhere else ined of greater economic and scientific importance. Se AMERICAN “GEOLOGIST lays aie its readers from month to month the latest res cal work. In addition to the longer papers it — synopses of recent pasei y sage ete and brief notes on current geological even IT IS NOT THE ORGAN OF ANY INSTITUTION, NOR OF ANY SECTION OF THE COUNTRY, NOR OF ANY PARTY. numbers for 1888 will hereafter be sent to how s ubscribers for $3.50, or bound in cloth ot oll ge 50 ; janr e risso 1890 a _ 1893, and beg for $2. h, or bound for $3.50 each. New si who 50e will receive all back numbers and the subscription for 1895. Fifty cents per year postage ng sr added to these rates oe subscribers not living in North America. 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Bank, SITTINGBOURNE, KENT, ENG. per. ee Ne Xog W SLN309 Se 39lHðd 'VHOVNVd s.WIVAS ‘ q pamo SBM əƏyS JUULI) [VPU {[B Pajsisat asvo 1əy_ :sjeydsoy OM} jo a}eulul UY ‘SIVÁ XIS 10} BWƏZHA tuo1y pasayns ‘erydpeyd +99 yong itoz 'VMHO'I SIW JO JovySnep y tds A E Mi g = £7, S6G8- - JHL YaaGW3aWsay aum sana IW M “ST8VLS9FA ATAYNd JYV ASHL ‘VSN “Bd “eped “IS YI Cll UMADVNYW LLanOvVr ANYANA ‘ssoippy ‘poo[d et} jo səseəsıq UO ƏLA, SUEIO syjydwegq 10} IMIM ‘TILLO B 00°29 1B ‘FIUBHI 40 3344 ‘SSIUAXI AG CAHAANA 'poojg ey} jo A} -andu ug woz SUISUE NOSIOd A0018 jo swo} Te pue ‘SYAO1IN OINOYHOD ‘VINAOYOS ‘WSILVANNAHY ‘VIWAZOF wer" SFd/f19 LI ‘JI posn SABY OYA BSOY} JO SUO!JEPUSUIWOIEI IJ PUB SMI [nj -JSPuUOM SPI JO ouIvy oy} UOdN sə SZ JO} p3}S1x9 Sey yyy AGAWA VW AO - JN3S3IYd PU? LSWd AHL - SNOILVLIWI AO FAYVM3Aa "V3JOVNVd JHL HLIM ST1id VIOVNVd s.WIVMS asn ‘VHOVNVd sJAIVMS Jo saq}}0q xis Aq GHunD sem əy SuLayns JOSIBIA JAaIJV 'ƏAOQE SL ‘VOR SIY PA “Jae yor yurejdwos snopnjoios e Aq poppe sem OYA ‘9JEUIS 'S N IYJ UT IEPyo ue ‘q’IVNOGOW ‘DS NHOL g ozel LIHAN JO LSAL AHL SI SINIL QCOOQOOQOOQGOOQO®DOODO ‘wyems wem Ag ozgi u; p2}eə349 VAOVNVd sWIYVMS NO MORE BED BU NO MORE ROACHES 9 “Dead Stuck” m FOR BUGS TRADE MARK FO This product is powder in liquid form; bright red and of a pungent, healthful, tar odor; on drying a silvery-white insect powder 1s precipitated. ' It will positively kill, not only every insect, such as Bed Bugs, Roaches, Ants, Moths, Mosquitoes, Black Beetles, but the very germs of these pests, in fact every conceivable kind of vermin which infest human habitation. Dealers are authorized to refund money if not found as rep- resented. 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A NEW SERIES was begit with the first number of its 200th Volume, January Ist, 1894. With it were begun entirely new S, ape acl embracing three Copyrighted Serials, from the pens of noted French and German nov ieee ; and shorter stories by prominent foreign authors. Below are named some of the many eminent authors already represented in this, the sixth, series. Rt. Hon. W. E. wl aap Sets Sus HUXLEY,F.R.S. Gen’lSir Saite pr pe Bee as R.S. Prof. VAMBERY e PAUL KROPOTKIN, Sir RO T BALL W. MALLOCK, Brae PERRET, (French) DER h D B. BRE e Countess COWPER, FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.R.S. ERNST Race eee (German.) LESLIE STEPHEN BEATRICE HARRADEN, WM. CONNOR SYDNEY, FRELERIC HARRISON, Mrs. AND CROSSE, W. : J. P. MAHAFFY, MULJI DEVJI VEDANT, Sir BENJ. BAKER, K C. MG. mete nck = ahd CHARLES EDWARDES, Sir HERBERT MAXW Bis ALT J. NOR R, nt IEO TO Dr. FRIDTJOF TANAN Seer G. 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Monarch Cycle Company, si Retail Salesroom, 280 Wabash Ave. Lake ana Halsted Sts., CHICAGO, ILL. | OOOO OOOO $4.00 per Year. $4.60 per Year (Foreign). 35 cts. per Copy. THE AMERICAN ; NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. ANAGING EDIT M Prors. E. D. COPE; Philadelphia, AND J. S. ip natant ate ese te eset Linco C. O: WHITMAN, Chic cago, Pror. C. M. WEE z Durham ROF. W. PRO =a, 8. a Be NW: B: owes: "Matson, Wis pit tit Tufts College, College Hill, Mass. H a MERCER, Philadelphia. a EY; an pii Mai ANDREWS, Baltimore, TEA he WM. ROM AIRE NE Aasi ag Philadelphia. Vol. XXIX. MARCH, 1895. CONTENTIS PAGE. IN THE REGION OF THE NEW FossIL, DÆMONELIX. ae ) Frederick C. Kenyon. THE COLD SPRING HARBOR BIOLOGICAL LABORA- pntactrated: ae H. W. Conn. MINOR TIME DIVISIONS OF THE ICE AGE Warren Upham. THE SKUNK AS A SOURCE OF RABIES.. W. Wade. - THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA, (Illus- trated.) ernon DL. Ke ellogg. RECENT Creak irons The Glacial Nightmare and The Flood—Life Histories of North - American Birds—Geology of the Coastal Plain of Alabama—Thirteenth Annual Report of the U. 8. Geological Survey for 1891-92. Part II—Reports of the Geologi- cal Survey of Arkansas for 1891 and 1892. 258 RECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS. . . in a ZER GENERAL NOTES. 235 242 248 Geography and Troni AAi Vileahoue. 264- Mineral ; ; —New Instruments. Goniometer with two Üiutnstöd: Circles—Universal Gonio- meter—Miers’s Inverted Goniometer — New - Goniometer Lamp— Darkening Attachment — for the Goniometer — Lecture Mier croscope— Ooni age se R AF | malia. : | in a Mammal — Development of Scyphome-— ‘| Archeology and Ethnology—The Contention of 4 MEd. D.. McGuire—The Results of Cave Ez- ploration in Germany. or - P. Czapski’s Ocular—Klein’s Lens with Micro- meter... Geology Sa Paleontology. Relations of Hes vonian and Carboniferou haracters of aa eri Geel ger of the West Indies—Fossil Mammals of the Lower | Mioeene White River Beds—Geological News. 270 Botany.—Some Botanical Collections—Some_ Recent Botanical Papers. . . Zoology—The. Central Nexvoue System em at EE TER D Produced pee iim Maternal Characters?—Double Mon- sters—Fusion of Blastomeres — Temperature — and Development—A Problematical Structure dusæ—Blastomeres of Me a in Rarified Air. . . . 2 Psychology—The eni tat of Peyeh ou: PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. THE EDWARDS & DOCKER C co., : Keigyosha Natural History Store Supplies Museums and Private Purchasers with Zoological, Botanical, Paleontological and Mineralogical Specimens, native to Japan and surrounding seas, on lowest possible terms. We employ only scientifically trained collectors under the guidance of specialists, and especially recommend the services of Messrs M. Kikuchi and Y. Nawa on our staff. The former, until lately assistant in the Science College, is familiar with the best modern methods of morphological work, and the latter, a well known entomologist, is an expert i in his branch as his beautiful exhibits in the late Chicago Fair well attest. — For application and information, communicate to M. KIKUCHI, Keigyosha, Urajimbocho, Kanda, Tokyo, Japan. For Sale: a First Six Volumes of the American Naturalist | 1868-1873] bound in half Morocco, in good condition. The Edwards & Docker Go., 518-520 Minor Street, i PHILADELPHIA. e e Wanted: è # <- June issue of The American Naturalist 1889, or Volume XXIII [1889] complete. THE EDWARDS & DOCKER CO., 518-520 Minor Street, PHILADELPHIA. PLATE XI. SSS = Be RBS Re aes ts CT ay a, ed Cae, Us, MYGEN wf Mi PES BERRA r, E: nenen Miz Cree — O Gn a, Ul ae tino gO "tu PA TA vit m "R, Braa Witte Vp Hy) Cie r f, Ned iy YAN iim Cn”. ae F a A Ja ac is? phil jer Demoneliz in the Museum at Lincoln, Nebraska. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST Ver 2 Stk: March, 1895. 339 IN THE REGION OF THE NEW FOSSIL, DAEMONELIX. By FREDERICK C. KENYON. As important as they have been to the paleontologist in yielding perfect remains of the strange looking mammals of Miocene times, the Bad-lands of Nebraska and South Dakota with the neighboring region have received very little atten- tion outside of some of the early government surveys. From the common geological text books one learns that they are in the bed of a Miocene lake, which like several others of the same times on the other side of the Rocky Mountains, received the bones of the animals living on the surrounding shores and buried them under a great mass of sediment. Nearly all of what little has been written has been taken from the writings of Hayden and the notes of Dr. Evans, neither of whom pos- sessed a camera to enable them to give their readers an ade- quate pictorial idea of the wonderful region that they describe in a few glowing words. During the summer of 1893 it was my good fortune to spend several weeks in this region in a party that, in consequence of the generosity of the president of the board of regents of the University of Nebraska, had become known as the “ Morrill Geological Expedition.” Our main object was to study and collect sy strange new fossil made known to science during 214 The American Naturalist. [March, the previous spring by Professor E. H. Barbour as Dæmon- elix, but known for some time to the cowboys and ranchmen of the region where it occurs as “the devil’s corkscrew” and “ fossil worm.” About noon of the day following our departure from Lin- oln we found ourselves in the little town of Harrison, near which Professor Barbour had obtained the one specimen that he had brought back to the University the year before. This is the county seat of Sioux County, which forms the north- western corner of Nebraska. It is not different from the many small towns that one finds on the prairies of the far west. We found a brick court house, a church, a school-house, a hotel, the almost invariable liquor saloon, several stores, and some two dozen or more dwellings. During Harrison’s administration the town had received its name and had had its western boom as the chief and only commercial center of some 300 square miles of territory, constituting Sioux County and supporting, ac- cording to the last census, less than 2500 inhabitants. During the summer of 1890 Sioux County, in common with a large number of other Nebraska counties, suffered terribly from drouth. Many of the settlers were compelled to abandon their newly made homes to save themselves from ruin. Among those left behind unable to get away, there was intense suffer- ing. During the succeeding winter many private donations of coal and provisions were sent them by the more favored farmers of the eastern counties. In this work of charity even the State was called upon to lend a hand. But this year the few inches of rain that had fallen had put an entirely different aspect upon everything. Many of the deserted homes that might have been seen in the western counties during the spring of 1891 were now reoccupied and everything looked hopeful. About Harrison the landscape was enlivened by in- numerable bright colored flowers. Chief among these were many species of Astragalus and related genera of leguminous plants. Here and there could be seen the bright colored spikes of the “ loco-weed,” rendered famous on western prairies by the baneful effect it has upon every horse unlucky enough toeatit. The animals are not killed, but are made so crazy 1895.] In the Region of the new Fossil, Demonelix. 215 that they become unmanageable. Throughout the spring and early summer months there is a wonderful profusion of flowers. As fast as one species finishes its blooming period another takes its place; in fact, whatever one sees is but an earnest of what might be, were rain less uncertain, or could the land be irri- gated. But for irrigation, since the greater part of the county is so high above the three small streams that drain it, depend- ence must be placed upon artesian wells, which would cost more than the average ranchman can afford to pay. The conse- quence is that one seldom meets with a settler anywhere in the county except in the cafions, where water may be obtained with little trouble. In early times there may have been over a broad strip of country, west of the Missouri River, a dearth of vegetation that made the name of Great American Desert much more appro- priate than at present. It is not unlikely, in fact, it is very probable, that Fremont, when he gave origin to the term, was deceived by the aspect produced by the low creeping buffalo = grass. In the eastern part of Nebraska the buffalo grass had almost entirely given place to the blue-stem grasses when the state was admitted into the Union. There has been a constant westward movement of vegetation, though it is doubtful whether, outside of man’s influence, it has been as rapid as some of the early writers would have us believe Still, there is an impression constantly met with among the older settlers that there has been a great change in both climate and vege- tation. The territory north of the Platte River, known as the “ Sand-hills,” is said to have been once entirely bare, but it is now covered with grasses. The yearly amount of moisture precipitated is believed to be, on the whole, steadily increasing. In the extreme western part of the state, in early territorial times, one might sleep in the open air without one’s blankets being dampened by a single drop of dew. , Now heavy dews fall all over the state. This constant change of climate is commonly accounted for by the western settler by the breaking up of the prairie sod and the cultivation of the soil, which certainly has enabled much of the rain that has fallen to be retained instead of run- 216 The American Naturalist. [March, ning off through the creeks to the Missouri River. Occasion- ally one meets with a very ludicrous explanation; and not the least among the ludicrous is the idea of electrical disturbances produced by iron rails and barbed wire fences. When there were few fences, and the Union Pacific was about the only railroad in the state, the disturbances were said to be produced by the rails, later the barbed wire fences played the chief part in precipitating atmospheric moisture. In reply to such ignorance and credulity, which, by the way, makes it possible for the early lightning rod swindler or his kind to turn rain maker, about all that need be said is that judging from reports from the various prairie states during the present summer, a great many fences must have been taken down. Near Harrison and southward the surface of the country rises and falls in long, sometimes “rolling hills.” From an altitude of 4871 feet at Harrison it rises to considerably over 5000 on the highest point of Pine Ridge northwest of the town and on the western edge of the state. Through this high table land deep cafions have been worn by the White and Ni- — obrara Rivers on the south, while on the north, the deep, broad valley of Hat Creek has been cut out by an insignificant tribu- tary of the south fork of the Cheyenne. Along the northern edge of this table land and along the edges of that forming the divide further eastward between the White and Niobrara Rivers, may be seen numerous clumps of the western or yel- low pine which have given the name to the ridge. Back into the ridge have cut numerous deep cafions the branches of Hat Creek. In these, cottonwoods, box elders, ash, elms, wil- lows, and other trees find enough moisture and protection to flourish. In their upper courses they sometimes break up into numerous deep and precipitous ravines, and at the extreme heads of these are found those eroded places that present the appearance of, and are known as “ blow outs.” In some cases their lack of connection with the ravines leaves no room for doubt that they can be anything else than wind-formed exca- vations. It is in these “blow outs” and ravines that the peculiar “ cork-screw ” fossil is found. In some cases they may be seen 1895.] In the Region of the new Fossil, Demoneliz. 217 so thickly strewed about as to give the idea of their having formed a veritable forest. Very few other fossils are found with them. The celebrated fossiliferous or Bad-land forma- tion, is far below. The more perfect of these corkscrew-like fossils consist of an invariably perpendicular spiral, and, running away and’ upward from its base, a great, log-like stem. The greatest number of whorls that we found in a single specimen was thirteen, which rose to a height of more than eight feet. The stem of this specimen was some thirteen feet long. Some- times “screws” may be found without a stem, sometimes the _ spiral, turning either to the right or left, may be broad and open, at others it may be very close. Now and then a specimen may be found in which there is a central pole-like portion around which the spiral turns. More frequently there is found only a few whorls and a short stem. At a little lower level than that at which we found the finest specimens, very irregular and prostrate forms are com- mon. In the banks of the ravines they look likeso many large tree roots exposed by erosion. In one instance a screw with about three whorls was found at this lower level, which, unlike any other that we had seen, ended below in two roots that branched off from one another at a broad angle. These strange fossils consist of a white substance a little harder than the semi-petrified calcareous sandstone in which they occur, and, when exposed by wind or water, stand out in bold relief against the cliffs or walls of the ravines and “ blow outs.” In’some cases they project like tree stumps, and, strewn about among these, fragments from a few inches to several feet inlength are common. The surface of both spiral and stem may vary from fairly smooth to rough and knotty. Often small filaments are broken off in digging, but as sheet-like layers of similar hardness and appearance are frequently broken through, it may be doubtful whether they really belong to the fossil. Sometimes the knots, or even the whole surface, made up of innumerably fine filaments, may look like that of a hard and compact sponge. In the broken cross section an external whitish ring is presented, surrounding a 218 The American Naturalist. [March, great core of a color similar to that of the surrounding rock. ‘This is not quite as hard as the external white ring and often shows sections of large white tubular structures. What this so-called “corkscrew” may be may remain in mystery for some time to come. The sponge-like appearance of some of the specimens seemed to proclaim it a gigantic fresh water sponge. But microscopic examination brought forth no evidence of the spicules that one would expect. All that could be found of an organic nature was in one or two instances a few plant cells. The presence of these, however, might be ex- plained as living cells of rootlets that had worked into the fos- sil and in no way belonged to it. In one instance a nearly entire skeleton was found in a stem near its junction with its spiral and suggested the idea that our fossil might be nothing more than the core of a rodent hole. Still another supposition was that it is only a concretionary formation. The peculiar and regular form, lack of concretionary structure, and wide- spread occurrence at once throws aside the last supposition. The regularity of the spiral, the “ pole ’-like structure in some of the spirals, the fact that the spiral tapers from top to base, and sometimes may have tapering root-like ends, and finally the presence of tubular structures within the spiral and stem, demonstrate the untenability of the “burrow” idea. If the “cork screw” was the underground stem and root of some aquatic plant it becomes very difficult to explain the presence of the skeleton. If it is supposed to be of a sponge-like nature and growing above the lake bed, the presence of the skeleton may readily be accounted for. It might become entangled in the growing sponge mass and surrounded, just as any pebble or shell may be found to be covered by some existing sponges.’ The uniformity with which the “stem” occurs points to a mode of growth that finds its analogy among some of the 1 Since this paper was written, I have seen a paper by Prof. Barbour giving the last results of his studies. Sections have been made from all parts of the fossil and from numerous specimens with the uniform result of demonstrating the pres- ence of plant cells. These have an average size of 35 to 50 by 16 microns and an evidently parenchemyous nature. Since no others are found, the structure must have been very low in the scale of life. See University Studies, University of Nebraska, July, 1894. 1895.] In the Region of ‘the new Fossil, Demonelizx. 219 lower plants and the grasses. This would suppose that a stem starts out from the side, or perhaps the top of a screw and de- scending downward after awhile sends up anew screw. Then if the connection with the parent screw should be lost through decay, or if the parent screw itself should decay, each “screw ” would be left independent. The fact that the distal end of the stem is invariably very rotten lends some weight to this sup- position. As yet, no two specimens have been found with any other connection than that produced by crowding. After three weeks of corkscrew digging in the vicinity of Harrison, we decided to make a short trip southward to the Niobrara, where, we were informed, screws of enormous size, some with tree-like tops, might be found. With the two teams that we had managed to hire in the town, we followed the trail over the prairie to the southeast. Once or twice we passed a lonely “claim,” but when these and Harrison had be- come hidden by the hills behind us, we could look for miles around without seeing asign of human life. From time to time a jack rabbit would be started and be seen bounding away from our path. The only sounds that we heard, not made by ourselves, were the songs of the black finch (Calamospiza bicolor) which was, in fact, very musical. Late in the afternoon we sighted the high hills south of the Niobrara Valley, and to- wards evening came upon what appeared to be the head of a cañon running down into it. On the lower banks of this a great number of concretions of varying shapes and sizes were strewn about. In general they were oval, and from an inch to several inches through. With the aid of a sledge a number of these were broken off and packed in the wagons. On breaking them they were found to be made up of a great num- ber of thin lamelle of sandstone, which were alternately dark and light. They lay on the ground as they had been exposed by the erosion of the banks, and were attached to the rock and to one another by small necks. While busy cracking concretions we were surprised by the ominous aspect of a cloud that had seemed a little while be- fore to be going by, but now was fast coming straight over us. We had barely spread the canvas wagon-covers over the 220 The American Naturalist. [March, bows before great drops of rain began to pelt us. In amoment the rain fairly poured down, and we were alternately blinded and deafened by the sharp crackling lightning and the heavy claps of thunder. If our ribby horses had needed a whip before, they now set off most willingly before the storm. Soon we found ourselves at the edge of the bluff bordering the Niobrara Valley on the north. The valley presented a fine spectacle in the storm. It is not wide, not more than a mile. On the opposite side we could see the steep high bordering hills, and near them the small stream winding through the nearly level valley. By its side the log house of James Cook and his spacious red barns appeared through the misty veil. This was the Agate Springs ranch, whither we had been requested to come to see the giant corkscrews with tree-like tops. Down the declivity before us we went with tightened brakes, which were now and then ren- dered nearly useless by the slipperiness of the road. We finally reached the level below without mishap, and a little later pulled up before the friendly shelter of the red barns. Shortly after our arrival the rain ceased and we found our- selves in the presence of Mrs. Cook. Mr. Cook was absent, but during that evening and that of the day following we were most agreeably entertained by Mrs. Cook and Mr. Cook, her brother-in-law. There could have been no greater surprise for us than this finding of so much eastern comfort and refinement so far away from the railroad and civilization. During our entire stay we were most hos- pitably entertained. The valley afforded very different scenery from what we had met with farther north. On the south high steep hills rose up from the valley, on the north were high bluffs. Back through these northern bluffs numerous narrow cafions had been cut in times long passed. In none of them was there found a spring or a drop of water. The floor was level and covered with grass. The walls often rose up by a series of great steps which were not infrequently covered with vegeta- tion so that they presented a line of green against the light colored perpendicular walls. On top of some of the bluffs 1895.] In the Region of the new Fossil, Demoneliz. ee were outcrops of a thin stratum of siliceous limestone similar to what had been found on some of the hills north of Harrison. Here, however, the siliceous matter was in the form of moss agate and made up by far the larger part of the rock. In the upper courses of these cafions we found the “ cork- screws.” We certainly had not been deceived as to their size ; the largest that we had seen in the neighborhood of Har- rison were pigmies beside some that now presented themselves to view. Few of them were small. Stems and spirals nearly three feet in diameter were not uncommon, but they were not quite so regular and smooth as the smaller ones to which we had become accustomed during our three weeks digging. Many of them were found in which the great spiral seemed to end in a broad top, but in no instance did we see any evidence of the tree-like tops that we had been told were to be found here. The one specimen that was pointed out to us, illustrat- ing this feature, proved to be nothing more than an irregular mass of nodules that had been exposed by the wind and rain in the bank above a “ corkscrew.” Between the nodules and “corkscrew ” there was no connection whatever. These irreg- ular structures of a more or less calcareous nature are very common in the formation in which the corkscrews occur, and may no doubt be found throughout the whole Niobrara form- ation. They seem to be mentioned by Hayden and others, and it seems strange that the same observers never saw the “ corkscrew. At Agate Springs there were no wash-outs on the south side of the river so as to enable one to say definitely whether the “corkscrew ” area extends south of the river. But without doubt they may be found there. During the past year speci- mens have been found in Dakota, thus extending greatly the large area in which we found them in 1892. As in the beds near Harrison, fragments were common. ‘One, which came near being left in the field, was turned over and disclosed to view, imbedded in its mass, the legs and sev- eral vertebree of an animal about the size of a large deer. The bones were clamped into the side of the stem just as a ‘222 The American Naturalist. [March, shell might be by a low coe sponge. This seemed to give additional evidence for the “sponge ” idea. The only other bones that were found on the north side of the river was an Oreodon skull. This was dug out a few inches above the upper end of a “screw.” On the hills of the other sideof the river, however, fragments of Rhinoceros were not uncommon. Nearly all the specimens were so large that we were obliged to content ourselves with a few of such small ones as could be readily dug out. These we carefully packed in hay in the wagons, and after a stay at Agate Springs of only a few days, set about our return for Harrison. After spending a day in packing up, depositing our precious corkscrews in the store room of the depot where they made a goodly pile of boxes, we left Harrison for the Bad-lands and, eventually, the Black Hills. From the Hills, at the head of Sowbelly Cafion, we caught a glimpse of the great Hat Creek Valley to the northeastward. But the view from here is not nearly as striking as that obtained from the buttes further west and north.. One can ride up to the edge of these until the broad expanse of the valley, from seven hundred to a thousand feet below, bursts upon him without warning. These views cannot fail to call forth an exclamation of wonder and admiration. At one’s feet it seems as though the valley has been formed by a great fault; eastward and northeast it stretches as far as the eye can reach, on the west it rises into the hills of Wyoming, while on the north it seems bounded by the low-lying dark colored hills, the Black Hills, some sev- enty miles away. If the atmosphere is favorable, Harney’s Peak, the highest point of the dark colored range, may be seen. Through the apparently smooth and floor-like valley mean- ders Hat Creek, gathering up the waters of its various tribu- taries as it flows along. Scattered along these tributaries, which run back into the ridge from which the view is taken, may be seen small clumps of cottonwoods, so far away as to appear like brushwood. Nearer by and along the foot of the ridge, fields of grain wave in the breeze, while here and there may be seen herds of cattle, moving specks that recall the 1895.] In the Region of the new Fossil, Demonelizx. 223 cowboy and the ranchman that but a few years ago held en- tire control of the region. Scattered about the valley, some near, some far off, appear light colored patches sparkling in the sunlight. In the midst of some of them conical mounds rise up like lonely beacons. These are the Bad-lands of Sioux County, the Mauvaises terres of the French Canadian traders, and the Ma-koo-tscha of the Dakotas. These bare looking spots one finds upon nearer approach to be great “ wash-outs” at the head of the numerous branches of the streams flowing into Hat Creek. In some cases they may be five or six square miles in extent or more, and offer some of the finest erosion scenery, perhaps, to be found anywhere. The whole extent of country covered by them is cut up into numerous and intricately branching pre- cipitous ravines. The tops of the divides between the branches are worn down to knife-like edges, but not infre- quently a large plot may be entirely cut off from the upland and present the appearance of a small table-land. It is nearly impossible for a traveller to pass through the labyrinth of ravines with a team ; even to one on foot they present innumer- able difficulties. They illustrate vividly the method by which nature may level the largest of continents. From the high ridge bordering the valley on the south a descent can be made only through some of the large ‘cafions cutting back into it. One of these is Sowbelly Cafion, which received its euphonious name from the fact that in the time of Indian troubles a body of troops became surrounded while passing through it, and were kept there so long before assist- ance came that they had nothing to eat but bacon, or, as it is called by the soldiers, sowbelly. Like the other large cafions it has a small stream of clear and good water, and on its sides is covered by trees and underbrush. ‘The walls rise often perpendicularly, their whitish surfaces glistening in the bright sunlight. In some places they are broken through by branch- ing cafions, and the isolated head- lands form buttes of strik- ing beauty. Sometimes they simulate the works of man. One in particular, near the lower course of the cañon, looks like a gigantic castle in ruins. Here and there great breaches — 224 The American Naturalist. [March, appeared to have been made in the walls, while below were the great mounds of debris. At one corner appears a great ruined tower, while adding to the effect may be seen scattered patches of green where trees and grasses have caught root, and perhaps an inaccessible eyrie on the side of the cliff. When we saw it there were a pair of bald eagles soaring far above. This structure had been not inappropriately named Castle Butte. Before the advent of the white man they were really used as vantage points of defence as is abundantly attested by the large number of arrow heads that one may pick up at the bases of the cliffs. This butte formation is characteristic of the White River country. It consists of a fine semi-petrified caleareous sand- stone, often containing irregular branching and _ rootlike concretionary formations such as we found abundantly near Harrison and on the Niobrara. In it also are found the the “corkscrews.” Below it is the bed of the Miocene lake consisting of strata of clays, marls, and sandstone, the erosion of which has formed the Bad-lands rendered famous by the paleontological discoveries of Cope, Marsh, and others. Leaving Sowbelly Cafion behind we drove several miles down into the valley to escape the worst of the ravines near the ridge, and then turned eastward to hunt over a “ patch” of Bad-lands where we were certain of finding Menodus remains. About six o’clock, after winding about nearly all day in order to pass the ravines that we could not escape in, in spite of our long detour, we finally reached the railroad near the “ patch” of Bad-lands. This we followed to the watering station, Adele. Here we found a depot, a section house, and an artesian well. All through the long hot day’s drive after leaving the cafion, we had found no water that did not have considerably more than the chemist’s “trace” of alkali. To be sure we carried water, but this could not last long and could not be kept cool. Imagine our disgust when going to the artesian well to quench our thirst to find water so heavily charged with sulphur as to smell perhaps not quite as badly as more or less ancient eggs. We learned that the people at the section house had their water shipped to them from Craw- 1895.] In the Region of the new Fossil, Demonelix. 225 ford, about fourteen miles south of Adele. From them we “ borrowed ” a little water for present use, and learned of a farm house about a mile away, where we might fill our kegs. Hither we went the next day and every day during our stay in the neighborhood and found water not undrinkable, though slightly alkaline. Our horses were compelled to put up with the sulphur water, but strange to say, they did not seem to ob- ject. Perhaps they were better acquainted with the vicissi- tudes of the Bad-lands than we, and were philosophically wil- ling to appreciate what they could get. Near the depot we made our camp, sleeping on the ground, which, after pulling up a few of the cacti that were very com- mon, did not make an unendurable bed, after a little experi- ence. In the morning we awoke to gaze at the play of the light on the wall of the Bad-lands to the west of us. They pre- sent a beautiful appearance, which cannot be appreciated until one gets into them. Then the apparent wall becomes broken into precipitous ravines and narrow cafions with walls rising at so steep an angle as to make climbing very difficult and often impossible. The bare white surface is worn by innu- merable gullies, and the inch or so of cracked, sun-baked, and friable clay rattles down the banks beneath one’s feet. Nota sign of vegetation can be seen save from time to time in the cafion beds a single plant, an Astragalus perhaps, washed down from above and blooming here in loneliness. On some of the “tables” above, among the grasses, may be found a species of (Enothera and several of Phlox, closely hugging the ground like mountain plants. Beneath the superficial friable layer the clay forms a soft rock that has become cracked and broken into irregular lumps. Now and then a thin seam of gypsum appears, jutting above the surface, while at some of the lower levels calcedony is very common, often affording fine speci- mens. At one place appeared an outcrop of sandstone which had been worn into fantastically rounded forms. Almost everywhere may be seen the remains of turtles, some on their backs, some right side up, some projecting from the walls of the ravines, others on the level spots, as heaps of fragments. Few of them are small, and some may be found that will ap- 226 The American Naturalist. [March, proach three feet in length. Besides the turtles, Oreodon frag- ments are scattered about. Among the several fine skulls of these animals that we found was one that was entirely perfect and had attached to it some four or five of the cervical verte- bre. On the levels below the three- to four-foot bed of sand- stone the scattered remains of that strange looking ungulate, Menodus are frequently met with. Careful search will usu- ally reveal an exposed piece that, when carefully followed with pick and chisels, will prove to be an invaluable speci- men. During our short stay in the region a perfect lower jaw of Menodus was found. It was lying upside down with only one angle exposed. The rest was buried in the lumps of clay, which, from their hardness and tendency to slip upon one another, made digging very difficult. But by dint of much work with chisels, much paste, glue, many strips of cloth and paper, and much more patience, the jaw was finally freed and turned over. It was a fine specimen, all the teeth were pres- ent and perfect, and it was not noticably distorted. In none of the large museums of the east has the author seen a speci- men as perfect. The pasted and glued jaw was left in the field that night which, to our anxiety, brought with it a thunder storm. We feared that we should see no more of specimen, or, that it would be totally ruined. Storms severe enough to be cloud-bursts are not unheard of in the region and when they break on the ridge they sweep with terrific force down the gullies and cafions, carrying everything before them to the valley below. Such storms explain the great amount of erosion that has been done, for in none of the cafions, save those that run far back into the ridge and have a growth of trees, can there be found a running stream of water that ever reaches Hat Creek. In some of the larger Bad-land ravines a small stream of water may be found, but such streams are usually swallowed up, leaving a perfectly dry bed before they reach the open plain or have run very far in it. Most of the ravines are completely dry. But the cloud-bursts would carry off the loose, friable, sun-baked earth on the surface of the walls, exposing the indurated age beneath to be burnt and cracked in its turn. 1895.] In the Region of the new Fossil, Demonelix. — 227 The following morning we hurried to the scene of our labor and found that the storm had not been very severe. There was the jaw, but horrors, the sound teeth of the day before were all cracked and widely gaping, the glue and paste had been washed off and the whole jaw looked as though the lightest touch would knock it into a mass of useless fragments. - But not a piece had fallen. Very carefully we went to work, gently pressed the yawning cracks together, and with rags, glue and melted paraffine, made the specimen as good as new. After packing the jaw and a number of other specimens they were left at the depot to be shipped later on to Lincoln; then we bade adieu to Adele and its bad-smelling water for the more extensive Bad-lands of South Dakota. Supposed manner of growth of Demonelix. 228 : The American Naturalist. [March, THE COLD SPRING HARBOR BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY. By H. W. Conn. As elsewhere stated in these pages the American Associa- ` tion for the Advancement of Science at its recent meeting ap- propriated a sum of money to pay for an investigator’s table at the Biological Laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor. This laboratory is little known to most readers of the AMERICAN NaTuRALIst and a brief account of its history and arr are, therefore, here given. The last fifteen years has seen established upon our coast a number of stations designed for the purpose of studying marine biology. The various stations have been quite differ- ent in their aims and in theircharacter. Some of them have been purely private institutions where a few students are invited to the sea shore to make use of a private laboratory. In other cases certain universities have established marine laboratories designed primarily for their own students, al- though receiving students from elsewhere, should they choose to attend. In some cases the laboratories thus organized have been ‘public institutions, and designed from the outset to attract all classes of students interested in biology, and to furnish to students and teachers in general a place where they may come for the purpose of pursuing summer work at the sea shore. Some of them have been planned wholly or almost wholly, for advanced work of investigation, others entirely for elementary work of instruction. Of the various laboratories above desig- nated as public institutions only two have continued to exist for any length of time. One of these, well known to every biologist in the country, is the excellent school, stationed at Woods Holl, Massachusetts. The second one, not so well known, but rapidly coming into notice, is located at Cold Sprińg Harbor, Long Island. The laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor is, in some respects, especially favorably located. At a distance of an hour’s ride ee ee Neale 2 oS AB a ike E V ‘haoprsoqury oy) fo und punoipy cme L h) ‘vata VILLE, eaa Lh Pe MNS TIPES EEN a a ATE la Se ARP Lie Dc Mit tr htc aR NG ANAS A St A paneer aan a j O S 4 Rivyeroqe apenas f preg yore $a4njoa} 404 woje aqeno)y € Kiajeaoge T Aea Kaojesoqeq aera | AAM 11°C Aysa UNO —ViuwAn — X i Aen IPS V YSes4 | ~ sajeueddy | aor SARL \ | 5 9 mna ee G t eT eng QET enay i t re SLISO1) kaojesoq A aoje. Ka Oye40 IOS 091)40d] UX ALV'Id ‘burppng isomaoqoT TIX ALVId ‘munnby woop MO pun ÄLIYNOFT worssrvmuoy ys YLA MIN “AIX GLV'Id ‘yoop unpor pun hsoynsogn'T ay) bumoys ‘ing soq bured p19 “AX GALVId "hiojn.ognry fo mar sowopur IAX ALVId 1895.] The Cold Spring Harbor Biological Laboratory 229 from New York, the great centre of travel, it is most easy of access to students in any of the eastern states. It is situated on the north shore of Long Island at the head of one of its most beautiful bays. A more charming location for a marine laboratory could hardly be chosen. At this place Long Island is somewhat hilly and wooded, in marked contrast to the general flatness which characterizes the greater part of its sur- face. Here the wooded hills are close to the shore and the forests extend almost to the very water’s edge, giving the un- usual appearance of a wooded sea shore. The beauty of the place is enhanced by the presence of numerous fresh water springs which have given rise to the name of Cold Spring Harbor, and which pour an undiminished current of the clear- est, coldest fresh water into the bay at all seasons of the year, unaffected in amount or in temperature, winter and summer alike. Three beautiful ponds produced by these springs give a fresh water fauna and flora which, added to the marine life of the bay, make the location of the Cold Spring Harbor in some respects unique and especially favorable for biological work. The biological laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor was organ- ized as a branch of Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. The excellent work of this institution of public instruction is widely known in educational circles. In the year 1889 Pro- fessor F. W. Hooper, its secretary, conceived the desirability of establishing as a branch department of the work of the Insti- tute, a summer school of biology. With the coöperation of the New York State Fish Commission and a number of gentle- men who became interested in the undertaking, the Brooklyn Institute organized such a summer school of Biology, which was located in the building of the New York Fish Hatchery at Cold Spring Harbor and held its first session in July and August, 1890. The school has continued at the same place until the present time, holding a session each summer, and has been constantly growing in size and in the value of the work that „it carries on. The laboratory still retains its connection with, “and has been partly supported by the Brooklyn Institute, although it is drawing its students from a larger and larger 16 230 The American Naturalist. [March, -range of territory. At the present time it receives its patron- age from a large number of educational institutions and from many of our eastern states. The school has been supported by the Brooklyn Institute aided by the generosity of many friends who have recognized the value of the work. During the first summer the direction of the school was in the hands of Dr. Bashford Bean, now of Columbia College, but during subsequent years of its history and at the present time it is under the direction of Professor H. W. Conn of Wesleyan Uni- versity. Associated in the work of carrying on instruction have been a number of professors and instructors from our colleges and schools, and each year a competent board of teachers is present to assist the director in carrying on the work of the school. When the school was organized, it, of course, had no labora- tory orequipment. Except for the generosity of the New York Fish Commissioners the school would scarcely have been pos- sible. This board kindly offered to the Institute the use of their hatchery at Cold Spring Harbor, which is very little used during the summer. For three years this building was occupied by the school. Necessary collecting and laboratory apparatus were purchased and with these inadequate conveniences three successful sessions were held. It became evident during the third year that if the school were to succeed it would need a building of its own. The laboratory had by this time made warm friends at Cold Spring Harbor and they generously offered to erect a laboratory building for the purposes of the school. The building was erected in 1893 at an expense of $10,000 and was occupied in completeness for the first time in 1894. The new laboratory is capable of accommodating 50 students, and being especially designed for the school, is admi- rably adapted to its needs. It contains a general laboratory for general students; private laboratories for investigators; a library ; bacteriological laboratory ; aquaria furnished with run- ning water, both salt and fresh. In addition, the institution owns boats and collecting apparatus; has a lecture hall and a dark room for photographing, in a separate building; and has the use of a large building devoted to boarding the members of the 1895.] The Cold Spring Harbor Biological Laboratory. 231 laboratory party. During the coming Spring a dormitory building for lodging the students is to be erected, which will add greatly to the conveniences of the students. The equip- ment of the laboratory in the way of microscopes, small appa- ratus, chemicals, etc., is excellent, and embraces everything needed to make profitable a summer at the sea shore. While the object of marine laboratories on our coast has been varied, at the outset most of them were started almost solely for the purpose of encouraging research. In several cases they consisted at first in the collection of a small number of advanced students from special universities who came to the sea shore for the purpose of carrying on work that they could not carry on at home. These little nuclei, in some cases, have grown into large schools and in other cases have remained small collections of investigators. These early students have everywhere taken their places in our institutions of learning and, appreciating their own debt to sea shore work, they are ever encouraging others in the same line of study. As the small laboratory has grown into the school its object has some- what changed, but in most of the marine schools, that are at present in existence on our coasts, the primal object is that of original research and investigation. In recent years more attention has been given to courses of instruction, but all of the schools, except that at Cold Spring Harbor, aim primarily at encouraging investigation. The biological laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor was organ- ized, however, with a somewhat different purpose. The Brooklyn Institute itself is a school of public instruction, and the biological school which it organized naturally assumed from the very outset more of the character of a school of in- struction than one of research. From the first the aim of the Cold Spring Harbor school has been to furnish a place where instruction in biology of the highest character could be given. For this purpose regular courses of lectures accompanied by courses of laboratory work have been given each year, and, while inviting and encouraging research, its first aim has been instruction. The ordinary student needs guidance the first one or two years at the sea shore. To give him laboratory 232 The American Naturalist. [March,, facilities without systematic instruction results in much mis- directed work. Without systematic courses of instruction many of those desiring the advantages of marine work will spend the summer in desultory work to little profit. To avoid this result the management ofthe school have planned regular courses of lectures accompanied by laboratory work of the same character as the biological courses in our colleges. The courses which are given at the present time are the following = 1. Elementary Zoology ; a course of lectures with laboratory work upon zoological types. 2. Comparative Embryology; this consists of thirty lectures upon embryology, accompanied by practical work with illustrative embryological types. 3. Elementary Botany; including instruction in the study of flowering plants. 4. Cryptogamic Botany; a course of lectures with laboratory work upon the chief types of cryptogams. 5. A course in bacteriology ; including 15 lectures upon the his- tory of bacteriology and practical work upon bacteriological methods. All regular courses last six weeks, although the laboratory is open for a longer period. The work done in these courses is of the highest character. Those engaged in in- struction are from our best colleges, and the nature of the courses which they give is almost identical with the courses given in the colleges themselves. Indeed, in some respects, the work in these courses at the summer schools is consider- ably in advance of the work that is done in the collegesin the same departments. The student at the laboratory has several weeks of uninterrupted work upon one subject, and his thoughts are not distracted by numerous other branches of learning which he is pursuing at the same time. This makes it possible for the instruction to be even more thorough and of a higher character than is possible in our colleges. The work in biology done in the school at Cold Spring Harbor is, therefore, of exactly thesame character and in some respects more thorough than the biological work in the colleges. Of course not so- many branches are taught as may be found in our colleges, but the branches that are taught, which are those especially re- quiring living specimens at the sea shore for study, are pur- sued with thoroughness. 1895.] The Cold Spring Harbor Biological Laboratory. 233 The laboratory proposes further to increase its usefulness by furnishing material for class work to our schools. Marine specimens for school purposes have been difficult and expen- sive to obtain. The Cold Spring Laboratory, therefore, will furnish common types of marine animals at low prices to such schools as need them for work with classes. For these reasons the school at Cold Spring Harbor offers itself as an especially favorable place for certain classes of students. Students in our colleges who wish to complete the biological work of the inland schools by practical study with animals at the sea shore will find the systematic courses here given of great use to them. Public school teachers who need a practical knowledge of animals and plants to enable them to teach the subjects of zoology and botany in an interesting manner to their students; advanced college students who have taken elementary work and desire a practical knowledge of comparative embryology or advanced zoology; medical students whose regular work in the medical school is so crowded as to leave them little time for general reading; all of these will find the training to be obtained at the summer schools, in general biology, of the utmost value. College pro- fessors, too, who desire to make collections for their classes and to obtain material for their own original work will find a place here. All of these classes of students are among the attend- ants of the school at Cold Spring Harbor and all find much of interest and value in the work at the school. While, at the beginning, the object of the school at Cold Spring Harbor was to furnish a place of instruction, the more _.advanced side of biological work has been by no means neglected. The laboratory now in use contains private rooms for investigators. The instructors in the school and the college professors who have been present with the school in past years have been carrying on investigations of original character. Every facility is afforded to those advanced workers who desire to carry on research, and it is the aim of the manage- ment of the school to increase rather than to diminish the facilities for investigation, and thus to attract a large number of students engaged in research. During the last summer the 234 The American Naturalist. [March, school at Cold Spring Harbor received its first public scientific recognition by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. This Association, on one of the excursions taken by it during its session at Brooklyn the past summer, went to Cold Spring Harbor, and a large party interested in biological work visited the laboratory. The appreciation of the Asso- ciation for the character of the work done was shown by an appropriation to the school for aiding in original investiga- tions. This money is to be used to pay for the rental of two private rooms to be known as American Association tables, and, as announced elsewhere in this magazine, these tables are open for application to all students of American biology. 9 The school of Cold Spring Harbor has a field foritself. The growing importance of biological work in our schools is creat- ing yearly an increasing demand for facilities for summer work. The modern teacher is fast learning that he cannot hold his own in zoological or botanical lines without op- portunities of practical work with living animals and plants; and these opportunities can be had only at the sea shore itself. ` There is, therefore, a growing number of teachers who are desirous of spending their summers in adding to their equip- ment for such work. A growing number of students are re- cognizing, that, in order to take their stand in the front ranks in our educational communities, a summer or two or more at a marine laboratory is becoming as inevitable a necessity as a college education itself. This growing demand is not to be met by one or two schools, but will necessitate in the future the establishment of many institutions of public instruction. The school at Cold Spring Harbor, by placing emphasis upon this matter of public instruction to teachers and students, has obtained a place for itself. Its continued success and its con- stant growth during its history prophecies well for its future and promises that it will remain as one of the permanent institutions of public education in America. : 1895.] Minor Time Divisions of the Ice Age. 235 MINOR TIME DIVISIONS OF THE ICE AGE. By Warren UPHAM. The following study, forming the conclusion of Part VI in the Twenty-third (1894) Annual Report of the Minnesota Geo- logical Survey, may be regarded as a continuation or supple- ment of my paper, on the periods of the Quaternary era, given in the AMERICAN NATURALIST last December. It seems to sup- ply a compromise between the doctrine of unity of the Glacial period as held by Dana, Wright, and others, and the alterna- . tive doctrine of its duality or greater complexity as held, among American glacialists, by Chamberlin, Salisbury, McGee, and others. Unity or continuity of our Plistocene glaciation, with moderate fluctuations of the ice margin, ap- pears to the present writer the more acceptable view and ex- pression, when the whole period and the whole drift-bearing area are considered. This time was long as measured by centuries or thousands of years, but was in a geologic sense brief as compared with all other geologic periods or epochs, excepting only the shorter, unfinished Recent or Present period. Seeking to subdivide the Ice age with reference to its dy- namic causes and secular fluctuations in climatic conditions, we find, first, a long epoch of general snow and ice accumulation. In its early part the growth of the ice-sheet was interrupted, at least locally and temporarily, by moderate oscillations of its boundary, as shown by layers of lignite between deposits of till observed by Dr. Robert Bell on branches of the Moose and Albany rivers tributary to the southwest side of James bay.’ Later, after the ice-sheet attained its maximum stage in the Mississippi basin, reaching south to northeastern Kansas, central Missouri and southern Illinois, this epoch included a long interval of extensive retreat of that part of the ice-sheet, followed by renewal of its growth until it again reached far 1 Geol. Survey of Canada, Report of “Viegas for 1877-78, p. 4C; and Annual Report, new series, vol. ii, 1886, p. 38 G 230 The American Naturalist. [March, south toward its former limits. This part of the Ice age is well denominated, from its envelopment of the land by ice-sheets, the Glacial epoch. Its chief cause I think to have been uplifts of the glaciated regions thousands of feet above their present height. Forest beds and other fossiliferous deposits of the interglacial stage in this epoch are found frequently, and on some large tracts almost continuously, occurring between deposits of the till or glacial drift penetrated by wells, from southeastern Ohio, through Indiana and Illinois, to northeastern Iowa and to Mower county in southern Minnesota.” Less frequent, but still sometimes occupying considerable tracts as shown by several wells near together, these interglacial beds are recorded by my notes of wells in Lyon, Renville, and McLeod counties, Minn., 60 to 90 miles north from the south line of this state. More rare instances of their observation are noted as far north as in Mitchell township, Wilkin county, and Barnesville in the south edge of Clay county, Minn.; and these most north- ern localities are situated within the area of the glacial lake Agassiz, respectively about 100 feet and 75 feet below its high- est and earliest or Herman beach. If the altitude and slopes of the land had been then the same as now, an interglacial lake, held by the barrier of the receding ice-sheet, must have forbidden the growth of forests or formation of swamp deposits there, until the outlet was deeply eroded or much farther glacial recession permitted that lake to be drained away north- ward. Under those conditions an interglacial forest at Barnes- ville would imply probably three to six times more glacial melting and recession than otherwise would suffice to account * Charles Whittlesey, Smithsonian Contributions, No. 197,in vol. xv, 1864, pp- 13-15. J. S. Newberry, Geology of Ohio, vol. ii, 1874, pp. 30-33. G. F. Wright, The Ice Age in North America, 1889, pp. 475-496. Frank Leverett, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxiv, pp. 455-459, Jan. 1, 1890; Journal of Geology, vol. i, pp. 129-146, with map, Feb.—March, 1893. W J McGee, Eleventh An. Rep., U. S. Geol. Survey, for 1889-’90, Part I, pp- 486-496. N. H. Winchell, Proc. A. A. A. S., vol. xxiv, for 1875, Part II, pp. 43-56; Geology of Minnesota, Final Report, vol. i, 1884, pp. 313, 363, 390. 1895.) Minor Time Divisions of the Ice Age. 237 for the most northern of these observed interglacial deposits. It therefore seems to me more likely that during this glacial retreat the present basin of the Red river of the North, which was later occupied by lake Agassiz, had a considerably greater altitude than now, retaining a part, probably a large part, of its preglacial elevation, and that it was thus a land surface with southward descent and free drainage along the Minnesota river valley to the Mississippi. The recession of the ice-sheet, before its renewed growth, may then have reached only to the southern part of the Red river valley, instead of the great far- ther distance to Hudson bay, which I formerly supposed in writing of these interglacial beds in Minnesota.’ The erosion of numerous and large interglacial stream courses in the early drift sheet of southern Minnesota and northern Iowa, including the Minnesota river valley and its continuation past Brown’s Valley and above the bed of lake ‘Traverse, channeled then apparently about 50 feet (or more) below the general surface of the adjoining country to the level of the Herman beach of lake Agassiz,‘ finds full explanation in this retreat of the ice-sheet to the vicinity of Mitchell and, Barnesville, 200 to 250 miles inward from its farthest limits in North Dakota and on the northern boundaries of the Wiscon- sin driftless area, but 500 miles north from its limits in Kansas and Missouri. During the ensuing stage of its renewed accumulation and growth, the ice-sheet reached from Barnesville about 200 miles westward into North Dakota, an equal distance eastward into northwestern Wisconsin and southeastern Minnesota, and some 350 miles or more south-southeastward in Iowa. Not only were the interglacial forest beds thus covered, but a marginal moraine, which had been formed probably during a slight pause or readvance interrupting the later part of the intermediate - glacial retreat, was likewise buried and is now indicated by exceptionally abundant boulders in a stratum of the drift 3 Geology of Minn., Final Report, vol. i, 1884, pp. 402, 406, 466, 479-485, 507, 511, 552, 580, 581, 585-6, 609, 625; vol. ii, 1888, pp. 138, 186, 187, 199, 456, 529, 555, 662, 668 *Proc. A. À A. S., vol. xxxii, for 1883, pp. 222-227. Geology of Minn., vol. i, pp. 479-485, 507, 580; vol. ii, 134, 172, 216, 519-525. 238 * The American Naturalist. [Mareh, shown in the bluffs of the upper part of the Minnesota river valley and by its tributaries, overspread by 25 to 50 feet of the later deposits of till.’ The two stages of growth of the ice-sheet may have been due, aside from their principal dependence on the high eleva- tion of the land, to the climatic effects of the last two passages in the precession of the equinoxes, with accompanying nuta- tion, bringing the winters of the northern hemisphere in aphe- lion about 30,000 years ago and again about 10,000 years ago. The intermediate time of the earth’s northern winters in peri- helion would be the stage of great retreat of the ice margin in the upper Mississippi region ; but eastward, from Ohio to the Atlantic coast, there appears to have been little glacial oscilla- tion’ This explanation accords with Prof. N. H. Winchell’s computations from the rate of recession of the falls of St. An- thony for the Postglacial or Recent period’ and with his estimate of the duration of the interglacial stage from the now buried channel which appears to have been then eroded by the Mississippi river a few miles west of the present gorge below these falls.® The chief cause of the Ice age is here thought to have been a high epeirogenic uplift; but the very noteworthy sub- division of the Glacial epoch in the upper Mississippi basin is ascribed to climatic conditions resulting from the same astronomic cycle of 21,000 years which Croll supposed to have been efficient, during the remote time of maximum eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, to produce alternating glacial and inter- glacial epochs. Wallace, in his discussion of this subject in “Island Life,” thinks that great altitude of the glaciated countries coincided with the last stage of maximum eccen- tricity, from 240,000 to 80,000 years ago, to cause the Ice age, 5 Geology of Minn., vol. i, p. 626. €J. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. xlvi, pp. 327-330, Nov., 1893. * Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minnesota, Fifth An. Rep., for 1876, pp. 175- 189; Final Report, vol. ii, 1888, pp. 313-341, with fifteen plates (views showing re- ant changes of the falls of St. Anthony, gad maps). Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London, vol. xxxiv, 1878, pp. 886--901. . Geo s Am logist, vol. x, pp- 69-80, with three plates (sections and a map), August, 1892. 1895,] Minor Time Divisions of the Ice Age. 239 altitude and eccentricity being thought perhaps of nearly equal influence. The view here presented looks on the Glacial period as occurring in a much later time of low eccentricity, and for its causation regards altitude as far more efficient than any astronomic conditions. The effects of varying astronomic conditions have been recently considered by Dr George F. Becker, who thinks, altogether differently from Croll, Geikie, and Ball, that the combination of minimum eccentricity of the earth’s orbit and maximum obliquity of the ecliptic is most favorable for snow and ice accumulation; and he states that these conditions have existed within the past 40,000 years, until 8,000 years ago, but he apparently would attribute a larger share of the causes of glaciation to geographic con- ditions, as land elevation. In Europe a very remarkable parallelism of the history of the Ice age with that in America” indicates dependence on similar causes, chiefly geographic, as epeirogenic movements, with changes of ocean currents, and subordinately astronomic. If the Glacial period extended through 30,000 or 50,000 years, depending principally on epeirogenic uplifts and in less degree on the cycles of precession of the equinoxes, it would agree well with Geikie’s and Chamberlin’s complex history of wavering glaciation, and also with its essential geologic unity and brevity which have been insisted on by Dana, Wright, Hitchcock, Lamplugh, Kendall, Falsan, Holst, Nickitin, and other glacialists. To my mind the diversity and the unity of this period seem like the opposite gold and silver sides of the proverbial shield, concerning which two knights, each having seen only one side, valiantly contended. Widely extended depression of the ice-burdened land, until mostly it had somewhat less altitude than now, initiated the comparatively short final epoch of the Glacial period. Tem- perate and warm climatic conditions on the ice border, nearly as now on the same latitudes, then melted away the ice Am. Jour. Sci., IH, vol. xlviii, pp. A Aug., 1893. James Geikie, The Great Ice Age, three editions, 1873, 1877, and 1894, notably pp. 774, 775, in the third edition ; Journal of Geology, vol. ii, p. 739, Oct.-Nov., 1894; Am. Geologist, vol. xv, p. 54, Jan., 1895. ‘240 The American Naturalist. — [March, rapidly ; its chief stage of loess deposition attended the early part of this glacial retreat; the partially unburdened land began to rise by a moderate uplift, approximately proportion- al to the glacial melting and nearly keeping pace with it ;" and conspicuous belts of morainic drift were amassed whenever the steep waning ice-front slackened its departure, or halted, or for any short time reidvanced. The general but fluctuat- ing retreat of the ice-sheet at length uncovered all the country and constituted the closing or Champlain epoch of the Ice age, so named from the marine beds of that time overlying the till in the basin of lake Champlain and along the St. Lawrence and Ottawa valleys, by which the vertical extent of the subsidence terminating the Glacial period and of the succeeding reéleva- tion is measured. ; Adopting the helpful new nomenclature proposed by Chamberlin,” we may provisionally formulate the minor time divisions of the Glacial and Champlain epochs as follows. The order of this table, as of the former more comprehensive one on page 988 of the last December AMERICAN NATURALIST, iS stratigraphic, so that for the advancing sequence in time it should be read upward. Nore.—If we seek to compare this table with the Glacial series in Europe, it should be remarked that in the Alps there were three chief stages of growth of the glaciers far beyond their present limits, the second being the maximum advance, doubtless contemporaneous, as shown by Geikie, with the maximum extension of the ice-sheet upon northern Europe. The first glacial stage of the Alps, which also appears to have left traces in southern Sweden not wholly obliterated by the next and greater glaciation, may be represented in America by the till beneath the interglacial lignite in the basin of James bay, and these may belong to the time of northern winters in aphelion some 50,000 years ago. The second, third, and fourth glacial stages of the European Ice age, as tabulated by Geikie, are then seen to be wholly analogous in characteristics of ice extension and drift deposition, and they were probably also time equivalents, respectively, with the Kansan, Iowa, and Wisconsin stages in the United States and Canada. In each continent the interglacial time between the Kansan and Iowan stages had " Journal of Geology, vol. ii, pp. 383--395, May-June, 1894. 12 In two chapters (pages 724-775, with maps forming plates xiv and xv) of J. Geikie’s “The Great Ice Age,” third edition, 1894, Prof. T. C. Chamberlin pro- poses a chronologic classification of the North American drift under three forma- tions, named in the order of their age, beginning with the earliest, the Kansan, East Iowan, and East Wisconsin formations. 1895,] Minor Time Divisions of the Ice Age. 244 great subaérial erosion because of the continuing high elevation 7 the land; and the latest or moraine-forming stage of the glaciation seems, n Europe a ali America, to have belonged to the mainly rapid but fluctuating ia retreat of a ice, showing, as I think, that each ice-sheet had in its lower part much englacial rift. a and Rikija of the Glacial period. (Land depres- sion; disap- | w,.consin st earance of (Progressing "reale- | the ice-sheet; ` yatio n.) partial reéle- vation of the IoWANSTAGE...... GLACIAL EPOCH Ice accumula- ( INTERGLACIAL STAGE . eirogenic UP- | Kansaxstace ....- lift. ) TJNDETER MINED STAG of fluctuation in general eve | the ice-shee | CHAMPLAIN SUBSIDENCE j j gr ea parae a the land, advanc- as a perm ave from south to anden ga paprati retreat of the ice along most of its ie tion of prominent moraines; great gla- cial lakes on the northern borders of the States; slight glacial oscil- lations, with temperate climate nearl ow, at Toronto and Scarboro’, Ont. the sea finally admitted to the St. Law- s and Ottawa valleys ; epart e great Baltie glacier, and Euro pean marginal m es.) l forest beds and extending yerel to its early boun uro- pean glacial sta Extensive glacial recession in the upper art o ississippi basin ; cool tem- < perate climate and coniferous fereala up to the waning ice uch erosion | of the early drift. | Maximum extent of the ice-sheet in the- } interior of North America, and also. eastw in northe ew Jersey. (Maximum Ea = Europe. Including al recession and. reiidvance in the on of the Moose and Albany rivers. (First glacial stage- in the Alps.) 242 The American Naturalist. [March, THE SKUNK AS A SOURCE OF RABIES. By W. WADE. Doubtless many of the readers of the NATURALIST have heard the story that the bite of a skunk can convey rabies. I first heard it some years since in the form of an inquiry from a distinguished physician in London; and to an old fox-hunter, who has known of hounds by the dozens being skunk-bitten with no subsequent ill-effects, the story was exceedingly ridiculous. But when my friend stated that Dr. John H. Jane- way, a surgeon in the U. S. Army, was said to have given the story his endorsement in a New York medical journal, the matter became immediately worthy of most serious considera- tion, my friend suggesting that there might have been some- thing in the environments of the skunk, at the time Dr. Jane- way wrote, to account for the marvelous exception, and I at once set to work to investigate what was known on the matter. . Immediately I was involved in a maze of contradictions, no two stories agreeing. No belief of the story could be found anywhere but in Texas, the Indian Territory, and adjacent districts. Even in southern Kansas no such belief was found. Then in some cases it was the skunk, Sui generis, that had this power, while again it was only one particular variety of the skunk, the “ hydrophobia cat.” The vulgar idea was that any skunk, rabid or non-rabid, was capable of conveying in- fection of rabies, while more intelligent observers held that only a rabid skunk had this power, but even these seemed to hold that there was special danger of skunks being rabid, or that the virus conveyed by their bite was more potent than that from any other rabid animal. Again, instances were cited of men dying as the result of a skunk bite; in one case after many months of lingering illness, which most certainly could not he rabies, or another case of a man exhibiting rabic symp- toms after a skunk bite but recovering on copious bleeding, and evidently there was no rabies there. Again, the New 1895.] The Skunk as a Source of Rabies. 243 York Sun, about six months since, had a most blood-curdling story of many soldiers in Mississippi dying from the bite of a skunk, and the deaths spread over a period of several months, a marvelously long-lived skunk to live a month after rabies had developed to the stage of being communicable, and in- quiries in Mississippi showed that no fatal case of skunk bite was ever known there, although skunks were BOID UENMA kept as vermin killers. Now remember that this story drew all the weight it could have from the allegation that Dr. Janeway had endorsed it, and remember further, that the belief was that the skunk, at pres- ent, had this power. At last I was able to get Dr. Janeway’s paper, which was published in The Medical Record of New York, March 13, 1875, and a more ridiculous breaking down of a ridiculous myth I never saw. It appears that Dr. Janeway was stationed at Fort Hays, Kansas, when an epidemic of rabies broke out in the sur- rounding country, and his paper in the Medical Record was based on his report to the Surgeon-General of the U.S. Army ; and in a letter to me he says that after writing this paper to ' the Medical Record, he endeavored to trace the origin of the epidemic, and if he remembers aright, found by inquiries that it was first noticed in the northern tier of Texas counties, and travelled north by west to the Fort Hays reservation. So far from Dr. Janeway stating that any skunk could con- vey rabies, he distinctly refuted the assertions of some clergy- man to this effect, citing instances of dogs and men being bit- ten by a skunk without injury (and one case wherein one person died and two escaped unhurt from the bite of the same rabid wolf). Dr. Janeway gives a very qualified adhesion to the belief that the bite of a rabid. skunk was fatal in a larger proportion of instances than the bite of other animals, and thus explains it: “ That more cases, proportionally, may result fatally from the bite of this animal than from the bite of rabid dogs and wolves, is probably, if not actually, the case; still there are obvious reasons for it to be so. An animal, nocturnal in its habits, generally timid, but armed with a powerful battery to 244 The American Naturalist. [March, resist any injury or affront; one that will not bite in defence until the secretion provided for it by nature is exhausted, loses that secretion by the disease. It is a well authenticated fact that rabid skunks are entirely free from the odor so char- acteristic of these animals, which could not occur if the secre- tion were not exhausted; and forgetting its normal timidity, will attack any person or animal it may come in contact with,. biting the most exposed parts of the body, the ale of the nose,. the lobe of the ear, the thumb or one of the fingers, and passes. on. Here is probably the reason these bites are more fatal than those of other animals—always in a vascular part not protected by clothing—which prevents by wiping away the poisonous saliva, from the fierce attacks of the mad dog or wolf and thus saves the life of the one bitten.” This is very intelligible and reasonable. Then, even those who believe that only the rabid skunk conveys rabies by its bite, and that the skunk is more suscep- tible to rabies than other animals, seem to believe that this is the present state of affairs, that skunk bites are now peculiarly dangerous. Now Dr. Janeway expressly says that rabies was. epidemic in Texas when he made his observations on the dis- ease in skunks and other animals, thus: “ Rabies Mephitica, like Rabies Canina, is evidently epidemical, no cases of it having been reported previous to 1870 in this region ;” and in his letter to me of December 15th, he says: “ The epidemic was short-lived, no cases that I heard of occurring the next year. A great number of skunks must have succumbed to ‘the disease, as they were less plentiful after that season; ” and further, a surgeon in the U.S. Army, now stationed at Fort Bliss, writes me: “I have served five years in Texas, four in the Indian Territory, four in Dakota and other places where- skunks abound; during this time, I have never known any- ` one to be bitten by the animal referred to. The bite of a rabid skunk will, of course, produce the disease, and in other instances where serious trouble has followed this occurrence, I am of the opinion that the symptoms are due to septic poi- soning. The bite or scratch of almost any animal is more or less poisonous from the bacteria always present on the teeth. 1895.] The Skunk as a Source of Rabies. 245 and claws. Even human saliva is poisonous when injected into certain animals, as has been conclusively proved by our pres- ent Surgeon-General.” Now I have never been able to get hold of anybody, in Texas or elsewhere (of course, other than Dr. Janeway), that had ever seen a case of skunk rabies, or who had anything like definite evidence on the matter; “I have heard it,” “It is gen- erally believed,” etc., has been the utmost limit of ‘statements on this point. Some believe it themselves, but are completely “out of reasons for it.” One well-known naturalist puts his views on the question in this form: “Ist. The bite of the skunk often communicates rabies and death. “2nd. Skunk rabies kills more people than dog or wolf rabies. “3rd. To be bitten by a skunk is to risk a terrible death. “Ath. Beware of all skunks, for one can never tell when a rabid skunk will come along.” And perhaps this expresses intelligent, but incorrect, belief on the subject as well and accurately as it can be done. Therefore let us examine what the actual evidence on the matter is. Dr. Janeway, like any intelligent physician would do, refutes the self-originating idea of rabies in the skunk (and parenthetically, a physician with all the light of recent knowl- edge as to rabies, tells me that Dr. Janeway’s conclusions are singularly sound and conclusive, when the deficency of exact knowledge on the disease, then the case, is taken into consid- eration). That idea is such utter nonsense that only the erro- neous assertion of Dr. Janeway’s endorsement entitled it to a second thought. Then Dr. Janeway positively says in his paper in The Medical Record that rabies was epidemic when he made his observations, and he adds in his letter to me that this epidemic was so transient that in one year it had passed away. (Scientific men have suggested, as the probable ex- planation of such epidemics wearing themselves out, that the subjects die off faster than they can communicate the disease to fresh victims). A surgeon in what is now the central seat of belief in the “skunk-rabies” delusion has not heard of a 17 246 The American Naturalist. [March, case in the nine years he has been in this district. A physi- cian in Southern Kansas, not remote from Fort Hays, wrote me that he had never heard of the skunk-rabies belief, that skunks were not uncommon as pets in his neighborhood (de- prived of their scent powers, I believe). From Southern Col- orado to North Dakota, I can find no belief prevailing in this myth. Then it all amounts to this: Dr. Janeway made care- ful observations twenty years ago, during an epidemic, he says this epidemic lasted only a year. A surgeon in the U. S. Army tells us that the ill effects that do sometimes follow skunk bites may readily be accounted for as septic poisoning, just as might result from the bite of a fly or the scratch of a tiger’s claws. Therefore, my answers to the points I quote from a well known naturalist are: lst. The bite of a non-rabid skunk can communicate no rabies, and it is beyond question that rabid skunks are exceed- ingly rare, if found at all. Inno part of this country were rabid skunks ever reported save during a short period of epi- demic rabies in Texas and Kansas. 2nd. Skunk rabies perhaps killed more people in Texas, etc., during a certain period than canine rabies, but because sleeping in the open air (“camping ”) was common there and the skunks readily encountered men. I think that statistics would show that dog and wolf rabies has caused twenty times the deaths that skunk rabies has. 8rd. To be bitten by a skunk is to risk contracting septic poisoning, I believe a terrible death, and the bite of a fly is said to have produced the same disease, and I think a butcher cutting himself with his butchering knife is in the same danger, but none of them risk rabies. 4th. Well, yes, “beware of all skunks” on “smelling” grounds, but it might as well be said “ beware of all dogs, for one can never tell when a rabid dog may come along.” Minimizing dangers that are real is most dangerous and reprehensible, but making spooks of mist is but little less so. Some boy reads or hears that skunk-bite “ will make a man go mad,” some foy $ ag does get a skunk bite, and we can easily pes ry £ imagine e ,and all from the veriest bosh. 1895.] s The Skunk as a Source of Rabies. 247 The subject of rabies is now loaded down with quite enough rubbish, such as the absurd notion that if a healthy dog bites aman and subsequently becomes rabid, the man will “go mad ” also, and adding another piece of bosh is more than we ought to be afflicted with. I fear I may just now be venturing beyond my depth, and therefore, I wish the following to be taken entirely as sugges- tive: Must itnot have been under very exceptional circum- stances that rabies was first introduced among skunks in Texas? It surely is true that rabies is especially a disease of the canide, dogs, wolves and? foxes. Now a rabid dog (and I suppose, a rabid wolf), in the stage of the disease in which communication of infection is possible, is about destitute of intelligence. It runs blindly, wildly, and without purpose. The skunk is both nocturnal and retiring, and would easily and naturally get out of the way of a rabid dog “ on the run.” In Europe where rabies is more prevalent than in this country, the polecat and other animals, relatives and of similar habits to the skunk, are never known to be rabid. So how in the world did the first rabid skunk become so? Unquestionably there were rabid skunks, and almost certainly there was a first one who communicated the disease to its fellows, and does it not seem certain that this first victim became infected under most peculiar and exceptional circumstances, and that these are not likely to be be repeated? And, asa final wind-up, What is all this pother about? There is not a particle of evidence that skunk bites are particularly dangerous, and while nobody need wish for such a bite, if he does get it he need not worry himself about any danger of rabies. 248 The American Naturalist. ° [March, THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. By Vernon L. KELLOGG. The new provisional classification of the Lepidoptera by Professor J. H. Comstock,’ based on characters drawn from the wing-structure, presents as its most radical departure from earlier arrangements, the erection within the order of two sub- orders. One of these groups, the Jugate, is thus defined by Professor Comstock: “This suborder includes those moths in which the two wings of each side are united by a membranous lobe, the jugum, borne at the base of the inner margin of the fore wings, and in which the anal area of the hind wings is reduced while the radial is not. The most available recogni- tion character is the similarity in venation of the two pairs of wings; radius being five-branched in the hind wings as well as in the fore wings.” This suborder comprises but two fami- lies, the Hepialidee and the Micropterygide, each family con- taining but one genus, Hepialus and Micropteryx respectively. The suborder Frenate is characterized as follows: ‘This suborder includes those moths and butterflies in which the two wings of each side are united by a frenulum, borne at the base of the costal margin of the hind wings, or by a substitute | for a frenulum, a large humeral area of the hind wings ; and in which radius of the hind wings is reduced to an unbranched condition, while in the more generalized forms the anal area is not reduced. The most available recognition character is the dissimilarity in venation of the two pairs of wings, due to the unbranched condition of radius of the hind wings, while this vein in the fore wings separates into several branches.” The Frenate includes all the families of Lepidoptera except the Hepialide and the Micropterygide. 1 Comstock, John Henry. Evolution and Taxonomy : An Essay on the applica- tion of the Theory of Natural Selection in the Classification of Animals and Plants, illustrated by a study of the evolution of the wings of insects and by a contribution to the Classification of the Lepidoptera, pp. 37-113, with 33 figs. and 3 plates, in the Wilder Quarter-Century Book, 1893, Ithaca, N. Y. 1895.] The Classification of the Lepidoptera. 249 Properly to estimate the value of these subordinal charac- ters it may be necessary for systematists to acquaint them- selves with the position of Professor Comstock regarding sys- tematic work. His point of view may differ from that of some. The essential feature of it is the insistence upon the constant recognition of the theory of descent in systematic work, no matter how circumscribed the group which is being studied. “ The description of a species, genus, family or order will be considered incomplete,” says Professor Comstock, “until its phylogeny has been determined so far as is possible with the data at hand.” The purpose of this paper, which is merely to add a few notes of observations which seem to be confirmatory of the most conspicuous feature of this new classification of the Lepi- doptera, makes it impracticable to refer at all adequately to the method proposed by Professor Comstock for phylogenetic studies, but it is necessary to call attention here to the follow- ing paragraph from the essay referred to. “Tn attempting to work out the phylogeny of a group of organisms, there will arise, I believe, the necessity of distin- guishing between two kinds of characters: first, characters in- dicating differences in kind of specialization; and second, characters indicating differences in degree of specialization of the same kind. The former will indicate dichotomous divis- ions of lines of descent; the latter will merely indicate degrees of divergence from a primitive type. Thus, to draw an illus- tration from the following pages, it is shown that there are two distinct ways of uniting the two wings of each side in the Lepidoptera ; they may be united by a frenulum, or they may be united by a jugum. These are differences in kind of speci- alization, and indicate two distinct lines of descent or a dicho- tomous division of the order. Among those Lepidoptera in which the wings are united by a frenulum, great differences occur in the degree to which this organ or a substitute for it is developed ; such differences may merely indicate the degree of divergence from a primitive type and may need to be corre- lated with other characters to indicate dichotomous divisions.” 250 The American Naturalist. [March, In a study of the scales of the Lepidoptera (the results of which have been elsewhere recorded’), a careful examination of the wing-membranes of Micropteryx revealed on them, in addition to the numerous specialized scales arranged in regu- lar rows or tiers over the membrane, a covering of very-fine hairs, differing radically from the scales in size, arrangement, and mode of attachment to the membrane. These minute hairs are present in all the species of Micropteryx I have exam- ined, viz.: wunimaculella, mansuetella, clathrata, anderschella, chrysolepidella, thunbergella, sparmanella, aruncella, fastuosella, seppella, semipurpurella. And further, are present in all species of Hepialus yet examined by me, viz.: sylvinus, gracilis, humuli, argentata, haydenii, hecta, purpurascens, argenteomaculatus, meg- lashani, behrensii and its variety, montanus. On the other hand, I have yet to discover these minute hairs in any one of the Frenatæ, though I have examined a large number of forms distributed widely over the group. I am convinced that the presence of this clothing of minute hairs on the wing-membranes of the Jugate is a subordinal character. This clothing may be more specifically described as fol- lows: in Micropteryx unimaculella, the foreand hind wings on their upper and lower sides are sparsely covered with fine, curving, pointed, short hairs, not inserted in sockets or “ in- sertion cups,” as are the scales, and not easily rubbed off. These hairs average .005 millimeters in length, and are dis- tant from each other at their bases a length approximately equal to the length of the hairs. The scales of unimaculella average from .1 to .15 millimeters in length. In Hepialus sylvinus the wings are similarly covered with fine hairs, averaging from .02 to .03 millimeters in length. The scales of sylvinus are from .2 to .3 millimeters long, or about ten times the length of the fine hairs, which I shall hereafter refer to as the “ fine hairs” or the “ fixed hairs.” ? Kellogg, V. L., The Taxonomic Value of the Scales in the Lepidoptera, pp- 45-89, with 17 figs. and plates IX and X, Kansas University Quarterly, Vol. III, No. 1, July, 1894. $ This paragraph and two or three succeeding ones referring to wing-clothing are mostly quoted from my paper on the lepidopterous scales before referred to. 1895.] The Classification of the Lepidoptera. 251 Beyond the availability of the presence of the fine hairs in in the Jugate and their absence in the Frenatz, as a recogni- tion character, the phylogenetic significance of this character seems to me of interest, and if I interpret it aright, especially interesting in the light of Professor Comstock’s recognition of two main branches of the Lepidoptera. The Jugate, accord- ing to Professor Comstock, are the more generalized group of the two. The venation indicates this strongly; Micropteryx possesses the most generalized mouthparts to be found among Lepidoptera; and, lastly, the mode of tying the wings to- gether is the same as obtains in many of the Trichoptera, a a group of neuropteroid insects offering many indications of affinity with the Lepidoptera. In addition to these indica- tions, or, indeed demonstrations, of the generalized condition of the group Jugate, the clothing of the wings is essentially that of the ‘Trichoptera, only in more specialized state. On the wings of the Trichoptera there is a distinct clothing of fixed hairs, unstriated, not set in sockets, and not easily re- moved. In addition there is a sparse covering of specialized hairs, striated, set in sockets, easily rubbed off, very long and large compared with the much more numerous fixed hairs, and evidently the lepidopterous scale in generalized state. The wing-clothing of the Jugatæ is more specialized than that of the Trichoptera in two ways: first, by the degradation of the fine hairs, tending toward that total disappearance which is characteristic of the Frenatz ; and second, by a spe- cialization by addition, in the case of the scales, which have, indeed, reached almost as high a degree of development as is to be found among the Heterocera. This high specialization of the scales in Micropteryx and Hepialus does not at all indi- cate a high rank for them among Lepidoptera, but merely is confirmative of the presumption that they are the existing tips of branches whose lower members have disappeared. Nor, in- tI have described and compared the clothing of the wings of the Trichoptera and Lepidoptera, in some detail, in the paper on the taxonomic value of the scales of Lepidoptera (Joc. cit.). 5 The beginnings of this kind of wing-clothing h t in the Pan- orpide. 252 The American Naturalist. [March, deed, is it necessary to believe that these branches have been long ones, for, as I have elsewhere shown", the specialization of scales can come about very rapidly. It seems probable that the stem- form of the Lepidoptera possessed a wing-clothing much like that now exhibited by the Trichoptera, and that the Jugate branched off before the cov- ering of fine hairs had been lost, although the tendency of specialization had already become manifest. The phylogen- etic position of the Jugate, indicated by their wing-clothing, quite corresponds with that indicated by the wing venation as shown by Professor Comstock. Another characteristic of the Jugate, not so distinctly avail- able as a recognition character, but of considerable phylogen- etic significance, is presented by the structure of the thorax. The thoracic structure of the common, wingless, racial form of the Hexapoda is probably pretty fairly shown by the living Campodeas. With the appearance of wings the musculature of the two hinder segments of the thorax was necessarily largely increased, and those segments increased in size and strength. The chitinous exoskeleton became especially firm and strong for the attachment of the muscles, and the two segments ac- quired a bulk and form proportional to the extra development of the musculature. In the more generalized of winged insects the two pairs of wings are subequal in size and importance, and are quite independent of each other. Correspondingly, the meso- and metathoracic segments are subequal in size and form. The Paleodictyoptera of Scudder, including all the Paleozoic insects, are credited by him with the following char- acters (among others): “ thoracic segments subequally devel- oped; both wings closely similar in shape and with a simple neuration.” The condition of wings and thorax in many of the living generalized neuropteroid insects well illustrates this state. (See fig. 1, plate X VII.) But the parachute-like function which these broad sub- equal wings subserved began to give way to a more effective aerial locomotion. A tying together of the fore and hind wings of each side to secure synchronous action, and a ê See paper on scales referred to. 1895.] The Classification of the Lepidoptera. 253 cephalization of the flight function, manifested by a reduction of the hind wings and a specialization of the fore wings as strongly supported firm plates for rapidly beating the air ob- tained. This synchronity of action by the two pairs of wings and the cephalization of the fight function, was accompanied by coincident structural changes in the segments containing the wing musculature. . With the loss of independence by the two pairs of wings, and the development of their united action, the meso- and metathoraces became more and more combined until in some cases they are so nearly fused as to form a single strong box for the wing musculature. The cephalization of ‘flight or the reduction of the hind wings and the specialization of the fore wings is accompanied by a corresponding reduction in size and importance of the metathorax, and a marked in- crease in size of the mesothorax. The musculature of the legs is also, of course, contained in the thoracic segments, but where, as in the Lepidoptera, the functions of the legs are so largely reduced, so overshadowed by the flight function that the anatomy of the thorax depends almost entirely on the specialization of the wings, and where, as is also the case in the Lepidoptera, the flight function and consequent condition of the wings is of somuch ‘importance in the economy of the organisms, it is evident that the testimony borne by the thoracic anatomy should be a contribution of real importance towards a comprehension of the phylogeny of the group. Asa fair example of the lepidopterous thorax in a species certainly not among the more highly specialized Lepidoptera, and admittedly not belonging to the most generalized forms, I have taken the thorax of Actias luna. As our interest lies in the meso- and metasegments, being the ones directly connected with the function of flight, I may omit reference to the pro- thorax. The scutum of the mesothorax in luna (See fig. 2, plate XVII) is the largest sclerite of the dorsum, and presents a greater surface than all the rest of the dorsal sclerites of the meso- and metathorax combined. It is longer than broad, is traversed ‘T See Comstock, Joc. cit., p. 51. 254 The American Naturalist. [March, by a faint longitudinal median carina, and its posterior border presents a reéntrant angle into which the forward-projecting apex of the scutellum fits. The scutellum of the mesothorax is subtriangular in outline with rounding angles. The dor- sum of the metathorax is less than one-third as long as the meso-notum. The scutum is chiefly apparent in its two lateral portions, the median portion being reduced to a narrow trans- — verse bar; the scutellum is a small transversal sclerite with a curving anterior margin. The pleural aspect of the meso- thorax is markedly greater than that of the metathorax, but the relation between them does not show such a preponderance of the mesothorax as is shown on the dorsum. With the specialization of the flight function indicated by a cephalization of flight, including a specialization of the fore- wings and a reduction of the hind-wings, there comes a cor- relative change in thoracic structure. This may be shown in Hemaris thysbe, one of the swift-flying sphinges, with a highly specialized venation. The mesonotum (see fig. 3, plate XVII) constitutes almost the entire dorsal aspect of the thorax, the metanotum being limited to a very narrow transverse bar, dilating laterally to more conspicuous dimensions. The scutum of the mesothorax is almost as broad as long. ' Turning now to the Jugate, the venation of whose wings, according to Professor Comstock, is the most generalized of any among the Lepidoptera, an examination of the thorax reveals a distinctly generalized condition. In Micropteryx unimaculella (see fig. 4, plate XVII) the mesonotum does not exceed the metanotum in length by more than one-half the length of the latter. The general outlines of the dorsum of both seg- ments are much alike, and the scutum and scutellum of the mesonotum resemble the equivalent sclerites of the meta- ‘notum in shape. In each segment the scutellum projects for- ward into an angular emargination of the hind border of the scutum. In the morespecialized forms of the Lepidoptera the reduction of the metanotum is accompanied by the narrowing of the median portion of the scutum, until, in many cases, the scutum is divided, apparently, by the scutellum into two lateral pieces. 1895.] | The Classification of the Lepidoptera. 255 In Hepialus humuli (see fig. 5, plate XVII) the mesonotum is relatively larger, compared with the metanotum, than in Micropteryx, and there is correspondingly more of a difference of outline between the two segments, but the thorax is still dis- tinctly a generalized one. The metanotum is about one-half as long as the mesonotum. Nowhere else among Lepidoptera have I found so general- ized a condition of the thorax, as shown by the Jugate, unless it be in the Tineina, where, indeed, among all Frenate, it would be expected. In Tinea vestitella the thoracic structure appears to be in a very generalized state, although the shape of the sclerites differs much from that in the Jugate. An additional point of interest is adduced by a comparison of the thorax of the Jugate with that of the Trichoptera. A striking resemblance is apparent, as is illustrated in figures 4 and 6, one being the dorsal aspect of the thorax of Micropteryzx unimaculella, and the other that of Hydropsyche phalerata. This suggests again the affinity of the Lepidoptera, through the Jugate, with the Trichoptera. ` The patagia of the mesothorax exhibit an interesting specialization following closely the development of the flight function as indicated by the wing venation and the thoracic structure. The patagia probably function as shields or pro- tective coverings for the insertions of the front wings, the thin lobe curving around the base of the fore-wing in a way well calculated to protect this unchitinized and vulnerable portion of the moth’s body. In the swift-flying sphinges the patagia acquire a remarkable development, extending posteriorly almost to the hinder margin of the mesoscutum. In the more generalized luna the patagia are much less developed, and in the Jugate the patagia are very small and inconspicuous. The patagia are present also in the Trichoptera, and are strik- ingly like the equivalent processes on the Jugatæ. A careful study of the thorax of the Lepidoptera must cer- tainly be rewarded by suggestive results. As to the kind of characters which these drawn from the wing-clothing and thoracic structure are, I refer to the para- graph at the beginning of this paper quoted from Professor 256 The American Naturalist. [March, Comstock’s essay, relating to two kinds of characters ; first, char- acters indicating dichotomous divisions of lines of descent; second, characters indicating degrees of divergence from a prim- itive type. It is evident that either one of these kinds of char- acters may be subordinate to the other, although, at first glance, perhaps, it might seem that characters indicating differences in kind of specialization, or dichotomous divisions of descent lines, must always be superior to characters indicating differ- ences in degree of the same kind of specialization. For ex- ample, given a dichotomous branching according to characters of the first kind, the forms along either line will be ranged according to characters of the second kind, i. e., differences in degree of specialization along that line. But,ina larger view, there is, in the development of any considerable group of or- ganism, as, for example, the class Insecta, a general tendency of specialization along some pretty distinct main line, or more or less nearly parallel lines. For example, in the Insecta may be adduced the development of the flight function accompan- ied, in the Lepidoptera, by a cephalization of flight indicated by the specialization of the front wings and a reduction of the hind wings and accompanied also by the specialization of the thorax in the manner pointed out in this paper. Subordinate to any general tendency, such as the development of the flight function, there will appear characters indicating dichotomous _ divisions of lines of descent, the methods of advance along the line of the general tendency differing in two branches of the _ group. An example of this is afforded by the Odonata and the Diptera; in one group the specialization of fore and hind- wings has followed the same lines, in the other the specializa- tion has resulted in the loss of the hindwings. In both in- stances a fine development of the flight function has been reached. Of the kind of characters indicating in a general and large way degrees of divergence from a primitive type, these char- acters drawn from the wing-clothing and thoracic structures may be looked on. 1895.] The Classification of the Lepidoptera. 257 EXPLANATION OF PLATE, XVII. Fig. 1—Meso- and metanotum of Corydalis cornuta. Fig. 2.—Meso- and metanotum of Actias luna, Fig. 3.-Meso- and metanotum of Hemaris thysbe. Fig. 4—Meso- and metanotum of Micropteryx unimaculella. Fig. 5——Meso- and metanotum of Hepialus humuli. Fig. 6.—Meso- and metanotum of Hydropsyche phalerata. In all the figures : a = scutum of mesonotum ; b = scutellum of mesonotum; c = scutum of metanotum ; |d = scutellum of metanotum ; p = patagia = paratera of mesonotum. Stanford University, California. 258 The American Naturalist. [March, RECENT LITERATURE. The Glacial Nightmare and The Flood.'—-In these two volumes Sir Henry Howorth undertakes to show how the Glacial Theory, as usually taught, is not sound, that it is based upon hypotheses, some of which cannot be verified, while others can be shown to be false. In facing the solution of the Drift problem be postulates a catastrophe, viz., a widespread flood, to explain the geological phenomena of the Plistocene period, and to account for the extinction of the fauna of that time. The work is limited to a consideration of the so-called drift beds and frequent reference to the literature of the subject is made. The opening chapters are compilations of the arguments advanced and conclusions reached by all authorities of the present century upon the subject, and many who date from the middle of the last. The second volume discusses the inadequacy of ice to meet the calls made upon its working power by the glacialists, with a concluding chapter in which the author claims that the only explanation of the distribution of the drift is a great diluvial catastrophe, and he points out in detail how the many facts of the drift are in accord with this theory. Examples are cited of the distribution by rapidly moving water of erratics, and also of the production of striæ by the latter. In some cases these strix are seen on the blocks transported by the water, and again upon the surfaces over which the detritus has been impelled An important omission in the chain of evidence presented by Mr. Howorth, in favor of his theory, is the cause of the flood. Save for a brief reference in his preface to “the rapid and perhaps sudden up- heaval of some of the largest mountain chains in the world, accom- panied probably by great subsidences of land elsewhere,” there is no reference to this point, upon which the whole theory seems to rest. Life Histories of North American Birds.’—This work is one of a series in quarto form intended to illustrate the collections in the U. S. National Museum. The present volume relates only to land birds, and while the main object is to make it a systematic and com- ! The Glacial Nightmare and The Flood. 2vols. By Sir Henry H. Howorth. London, 1893. Sampson Low, Marston and Co. Publishers ? Life Histories of Birds, with special reference to their Breeding Habits and Eggs. By Charles Bendire, Captain, U.S. A. Special Bulletin No.1, U. 8. Natl. Mus. Washington, 1892. 1895.] Recent Literature. 259 prehensive work on the odlogy of North America there is incorporated in the text the latest information as to the life history, the migratory and breeding ranges, and the food of each species. The classification given in the Code and Check List of the American Ornithologists’ Union has been followed. The illustrations comprise 12 chromolithographic plates, reproduced from water-color drawings of eggs belonging to the collections in the U. S. Natl. Museum The long residence of Capt. Bendire in the far west, has given him exceptional opportunities for observing the habits of the birds. He describes them in a most interesting manner, and he weaves into his narratives some glimpses of military life, and frontier adventure, which add an especial flavor to the book. Geology of the Coastal Plain of Alabama.’—Under this title Mr. E. A. Smith presents a report which embodies the results of a thor- ough study of the Cenozoic formations of the Coastal Plain of Alabama. Part I is substantially a republication of Bull. 43 U. S. Geol. Surv. with some additions and slight alterations, followed by a full report by D. W. Langdon of the variations of the Eocene and Cretaceous forma- tions in the territory between the Alabama and Chattahoochee rivers, together with a account of his discoveries of the Marine Miocene forma- tions at Chattahoochee and Alum Bluff in Florida. Part II, deals with the various phosphatic marls, green sands, etc., occurring in this part of the state. Part III, includes county descriptions in detail. The series of Marine Eocene and Cretaceous formations is exposed along the Alabama rivers more fully than anywhere else in the East- ern States, and the scale here illustrated will serve as a standard for other regions. Thirteenth Annual Report ofthe U. S. Geological Survey for 1891-92. Part II.‘—The report of the Director for 1891-92 is published in three parts, of which Part II is devoted to Geology and ‘comprises the following papers: Second Expedition to Mt. St. Elias including an account of the Malaspina Glacier, by Israel Cook Russell ; The Geological History of Harbors, by N. S. Shaler; The Mechanics Report on the Geology of the Coastal Plain of Alabama by E. A. Smith, L. C. Johnson and D. W. Langdon, Jr. With Contributions to its Paleontology by T. H. Aldrich and K. M. Cunningham. Montgomery, Alabam 94. t Thirteenth Annual Report ofthe United States Geological Survey, 1891--’92, Pt. II, Geology; Pt. III, Irrigation. By J. W. Powell. Washington, 1893. 260 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, of Appalachian Structure, Bailey Willis; The Average Elevation of the United States, by Henry Gannett; The Renssela r Grit Plateau in New York, by T. Nelson Dale; The American Tertiary Aphide, by Samuel Hubbard Scudder. The same report, Part III, constitutes the fourth in the series of re- ports of the Irrigation Survey. The water supply for irrigation is dis- cussed by Mr. E. H. Newell, special attention being given to the drain- age basins of the Missouri, the Yellowstone and the Platte rivers. The principal features distinguishing American irrigation engineering are described by Mr. H. W. Wilson, together with the engineering results obtained by the Irrigation Survey. Two topographic reports relating to the location and survey of reservior sites are contributed by Mr. A. H. Thompson. The various reports are abundantly illustrated. Reports of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1891 and 1892.°—These two Reports representing Vol. II of the Survey are bound in two separate books. The report for 1891 comprises papers on the work accomplished by the Survey by Branner, Simonds, Hop- kins, and Siebenthal. In addition are Miscellaneous Reports on the fauna of the state, magnetic observations and bibliography of the Geology of Arkansas to date. The report for 1892° embraces the work undertaken by the Survey for the purpose of distinguishing the subdivisions of the Cenozoic forma- tion of Arkansas and for determining their areal distribution in the southern part of the state. This work was accomplished by Prof. G. D. Harris. Both Reports are illustrated with a number of well exe- cuted plates. 5 Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 189]. Miscellaneous Reports, 1894 ® Annual Report of the oo ae Survey of Arkansas for 1892. Tertiary Geology of Southern Arkansas, PLATE XVII. Kellogg on Lepidoptera. 1895.) | Recent Books and Pamphlets. 261 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. Atcacio, D. C.—Apunter bioldicos acerca del ece phillipsi Gray. Extr. ILa Naturaleza, 2* Ser., T. 29,1894. From the a LLEN, J. A Ades Progress in the Study pe North American cs gee Extr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc. New York, for the year ending March 27, 1894. On the Seasonal Change of Colorin the Varying Hare (Lepus americanus Erxl.) Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, 1894. From the author. ALLEN, H.—The Changes which take place in the Skull, — with Shortening of the Faceaxis. Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Sci., 18 e Objects of the Wistar Institute. Extr. Univ. Med. pe 1894. From the page ANDREWS, C. W. No on anew species of Æpyornis (Æ. titan). Extr. Geol. Mag., Vol. I, 1894. From the author. Bryant, H. G.—A Journey to the Grand Falls of Labrador. Bull. Geog. Club of Phila., Vol. I, 1894. From the author CLARK, E.—The Silver Mines of Lake Valley, New Mexico. Extr. Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, 1894. From the author CREDNER, H.—Die Stegocephalen und Saurier aus -_ Rothliegenden des Planentschest Grundes bei Dresden, X Theil, Sclerocephalus labyrinthicus H. B. Geinitz species. Abdruck a. d. Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geol. Gesellsch. Jahrg., 1893. From the author. Darton, N. H.—Geologic Relations from Green Pond, N. J., to Skunnemunk Mountain, New York. Extr. Bull. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Society. Davenport, C. B.—Regeneration in Obelia and its Bearing on Differentiation in the Germ Plasma. Extr. Anat. Anz. IX, Bd. Nr. 9. From the author. Dot1o, L.—Les Lois de l’Evolution. Extr. Bull. de la Soc. Belge de Geol., Paleon. & d’Hydrol., 7, vii, 1893. From the author. Dreyrus, L.—Zu Krassilstschik’s Mittheilungen über “die vergleichende die Phylloxeriden. Extr. Zool. Anz., 1894. From the author. _ Eccıes, R. C.—The Study of Applied Sociology. Evolution Series, No. 19. 1891. From the author. Evermann, B. AND Kenpatt, W. C.—The Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Basin, considered chiefly with reference to their Geographic Distribu- tion. Extr. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1892. From the authors. FarrcuiLp, H. L.—Proceeds. of the Sixth Annual Meeting, held at Boston, Dec. 27, 28 and 29, 1898. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Society. Hit, R. T.—Geology of Parts of Texas, Indian Territory, and Arkansas ad- a to the Red River. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Soc ib W. H.—Ueber den Voleanit, ein Anorthoklas-Augit Gestein von der chemischen Zusammensetzung der Dacite. Abdruck a. d. Zeitscher. d. Deutsch. geolog. Gesellschaft, Jahrg., 1893. From the author. 18 262 The American Naturalist. [March, Kemp, J. F.—Notes on the Lower Coal Measures of Western Clearfield Co., Penna. “eae: School of Mines Quarterly, July, 1893. From the author. Miter, G. S. AND Bancs, O.—A New Rabbit from western Florida. Extr. ‘Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Wash., 1894. From the authors. Mésius, K.—Ueber den Sang und die Derwerthung der Walfische in Japan. _ Sonder-Abdruck aus den Mittheil. der Sektion fiir Küsten- und hochsee-fische- rei, 1894. : Muyeripcr, K.—Descriptive Zoopraxography. Philadelphia, 1893. From Newton, E. T.—Reptiles from the Elgin Sandstone. Description of Two New Genera. Extr. Proceeds. Roy. Soc., Vol. 54, 1893. From the author PACKARD, R. L.—Note on a blue mineral supposed to be Ultramarine, from Silver mis New Mexico. Extr. Proceeds. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. From the uthor Aver K.—Die iNet ncaa der Gymnophionen, Inaugural Dissertation, Pralbiing 1894. From the a Pinkus, F.—Ueber einer nek nicht beschriebenen Hirnnerven des Protopterus annectens. Aus dem Anat. Inst. zu Freiburg; Abdruck aus Anat. Anz. IX, Bd. Nr. 18. From the author. RATHBUN, M. J.—Deseriptions of a new Genus and two new species of African Freshwater Crabs. | —— Descriptions of two new Crabs from the Western Indian Ocean, presented to the National Museum by Dr. W. L Abbott. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. From the author. Ricuarps, R. H.—A new Prismatic Stadia. Extr. Journ. Ass. Engineer. Soc., Vol. XII, 1894. From the author Ries, H.—On some New Forms of Wollastonite from New York State. Extr. Trans. New York Acad. Sci., 1894. From the author Rocer, O.—Verzeichniss der bischer bekannten fossilen Saugethiere. Separat- Abdruck aus dem 31 Ber. des Naturwissenschaftl. Ver. f. Schwaben und Neuburg, 1893. From the author. Russet, H. L.—The Bacterial Flora of the Atlantic Ocean in the Vicinity of Wood’s Holl. Extr. Botanical Gazette, Vol. XVIII. SHUFELDT, R. W.—Scientific Taxidermy for Museums. — Comparative Odlogy of North American Birds. Extrs. Rept. U. 8. Natl. Mus. for 1892; Washington, 1894. From the author STEARNS, W. A.—Contribution to the History of the Great Auk. Reprint of an article published in the American Field, May 26, 1888. ——The Natural History of Labrador. Amberst, 1884. From the author. . author. Tayor, W. C.—The Holy Catholic Church, The Communion of the Saints. Tacoma, 1894. From the author THompson, A. H.—A Lesson in s Alsolia Topeka, 1894. From the author. TROUESSART, DR.—Note sur une grande espace de bdelle maritime ori ‘d'Islande. Extr. Journ. I’ Anat. Physiol., Pouchet et Duval, 1894. From the author. 1895.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 263 True, F. W.—Diagnosis of some undescribed Wood Rats (Neotoma) in the U.S. Natl. Mus. Notes on Mammals of Balistan and the Vale of Kashmir, presented to the Natl. Mus. by Dr. W. L. Abbott. Extrs. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII. From the author. TULBERG, T.—Ueber einige Muriden aus chee use der Konigl. Gesell. der Wiseth zu Upsala, 1893. From the Uppen, J. A.—Erosion, Transportation and dothtaeaneiin performed by the ‘Atmosplien’. Extr. Journ. Geol., Vol. II, 1894. From the author LREY, A. B.—Preliminary Descriptions of some New South Amerie Chara- cinidae. Extr. Am. Nat., 1894. From the author. VASSEUR, M. G.—Note preliminaire sur les Terrains Tertiaires de 1 Albigeois Avec la collaboration de M. M. Blayac et Repelin. Extr. Bull. des Services de la Carte Geol. de la France, No. 37, T. V, 1893-1894. Wakeman, T. B.—Sketch of the Life, Works, Career and Prophecy of Ernst aeckel. Evolution Series No. 2, 1891. From the Brooklyn Ethical Ass Watcott, C. D.—On the Oveurrenvs of Olenellus in the Green Pond Mai ain series of Northern New Jersey, with a note on the Conglomerates. Extr. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLVII, 1894.—— Paleozoic Intra-formational Conglome- rates. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. Notes on the Cambrian orks of Pennsylvania, from the Susquehanna to the Delaware. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLVII, 1894.——Geologic Time as indicated by the Sedimentary Rocks of North America. Extr. Journ. Geol., Vol. I, 1893. From the author. WILLISTON, S. W.--On Various Vertebrate Remains from the Lowermost Cret- aceous of Kansas. Extr. Kansas University Quart., July, 1894. From the author. 264 The American Naturalist. [March, General Wotes. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. AFRICAN VoLcaNnors—In 1891, when Emin Pasha started west from Victoria Nyanza on the journey that ended in his violent death, he and his comrade, Dr. Stuhlman, were the first white men to see the big mountain Mfumbiro, 120 miles from the lake which Captain Speke, many years before, had placed on his map on native informa- tion. They found that the Mfumbiro was not an isolated cone, but the most eastern of a hitherto unknown range of volcanic origin. Their first purpose was to determine the outlines of Lake Albert Edward, and they did not stop to explore these mountains; but Dr. Stuh]man sent home an interesting report of the natives that Virunga, the most western summit of the chain, was a fire mountain, from whose top smoke was often seen to issue, and from which noises were heard like the bellowing of cattle. On December 8th a cablegram reached Europe from Count von Gotzen, the German explorer, announcing his arrival on the lower Congo, after crossing Africa from east to west. About the same time a letter he had written in Central Africa, in June last, arrived. It contained brief but interesting detail of his visit to Mount Virunga. There have been reports of plutonic activity among the Rif Mountains in northwestern Morocco, but the hostile natives have prevented inves- tigation. The subterranean forces that formed the great trough and piled up mountains of lava and ashes east of the great lakes show, by solfataras, hot springs and other phenomena, that they are not yet entirely spent. But until the discovery of Mount Virunga, no active volcano was known to exist in Africa. While still far away Count von Gotzen saw a thin column of smoke ascending from the principal crater, and later he found that the rim of this orifice is 11,400 feet above the sea. The volcano, therefore, is not a snow mountain, and is not so tall as its nearest neighbor on the east, which, according to Stuhlman, is about 13,000 feet high. It took von Gotzen several days to force a passage through the dense forest and to scale the steep mountain side. At last he stood upon the edge of the crater and looked down upon a most interesting spectacle. 1895.] Geography and Travels. 265 The crater is about a mile in diameter, and the top of the encircling wall on which the explorer stood, is about 160 feet above the crater floor. The inner side of the wall was too steep for comfortable descent, and, in view of what was going on at the bottom, there was absolutely no temptation to make the journey. The yellow-hued bottom of the crater floor was as smooth as the sur- face of a lake, and the explorer believes he was looking down upon an expanse of molten lava. Above this smooth surface rose the walls of two orifices, which was over 300 feet in diameter ; a small volume of smoke was issuing accompanied by a noise that sounded like the roll of distant thunder. There were unmistakable indications that outside of this crater another center of eruption exists on the west side of the mountain, but the explorer was unable to push through the woods to reach it. For some years a little lake has appeared on the maps some distance south of the place this volcano has been found to occupy. It is Lake Kivu, seen by no white man until von Gotzen stood on its shores soon after he had looked down in the smoking crater. He says the lake stretched away before him like a sea, and, though it was a clear day, he could not see its southern shores. He believes the lake is almost as large as Lake Albert Edward. Its outlet is supposed to be the Rusisi River, which enters the north end of Lake Tanganyika. It is too early to regard the large prizes of African discovery as all won when such interesting and important results reward research, as those attained by the latest traveler across Africa. (From N. Y. Sun in Scientific American, Jan. 5, 1895). 266 The American Naturalist. [March, MINERALOGY! NEW INSTRUMENTS. Goniometer with two Graduated Circles.—Goldschmidt’ has devised a new form of goniometer which he has called Goniometer mit zwei Kreisen. Besides the horizontal graduated circle there is in this instrument a vertical graduated circle, and it is this circle which | is fitted with the usual centering and adjusting support for the crystal. The vertical circle and its attachments are supported by an arm which revolves about the axis of the horizontal circle. The collimator and telescope are constructed as in the goniometer with horizontal circle, and for measurement are so placed that their axes make equal angles with the zero position of the revolving arm and movable axis. The crystal is adjusted for the prism zone and brought into the unmovable axis of the instrument. The pole of any face of a crystal is located in the same manner as a point of the earth’s surface by latitude or longi- tude, or a star by right ascension or declination. To determine a- plane by reflection the adjusted crystal is revolved about the movable axis (vertical circle) till the face is perpendicular tothe plane of the horizontal circle (y). The movable arm is then revolved about the un- movable axis until the face is normal to the zero position of the arm— makes equal angles with the axes of collimator and telescope (s)— when the image of the signal will appear on the cross hairs of the telescope. The position of a plane can also be determined by the angles through which it is necessary to turn it to make it appear as a line parallel to one of the cross hairs of the telescope. The inventor claims for the instrument, among other advantages over the forms in use, that measurements are more quickly and conveniently made, and that the calculation of crystallographical constants and symbols and the making of projections are much simpler. It is necessary to mount the crystals but once for the entire measurement, and pyramid planes require but a single adjustment. The position of a face is determined without reference to the perfection of its neighbors. Angle tables can be constructed corresponding to a definite setting of the crystal which allow the symbol to be obtained at once from the angles ¢ and s, and thus comparison of differently developed crystals can be easily made. 1 Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. ? Zeitsch. f. Kryst., xxi, pp. 210-232, 1893. 1895.] Mineralogy. 267 Universal Goniometer.—A very similar instrument to the Gold- schmidt goniometer just described is the Universal goniometer invented by von Federow.’ In this instrument the telescope is also the collima- tor, the signal being located in the side of the telescope and its image reflected to the crystal face by means of a prism. When the face is normal to the axis of the telescope the image is reflected back over its own path and brought to a focus on the cross hairs which are located just behind the prism. The credit for priority in the important inven- tion of the goniometer with two circles, and the method of measuring crystals by the location of the poles of their faces, clearly belongs to v. Federow, as a short description of his instrument was published in the Russian language in 1889.4 It is impossible in this space to re- view so important a paper as the one under consideration. It isa treatise. of some 140 pages on the calculation and projection of crystals from measurements with the universal goniometer. It contains suggestions for the renaming of crystal forms and the modification of the Miller’s symbols in the interests of greater uniformity in the system. Miers’s Inverted Goniometer.—Miers® has modified the Fuess goniometer with horizontal circle in such a way as to have the crystal held at the lower instead of the upper end of the axis of the instru- ment, and hence below the disc. The crystal may be measured im- mersed in a liquid which is contained in a rectangular trough with plate glass sides. The collimator and telescope tubes are placed at right angles to one another, their axes being also normal to adjacent sides of the trough. The liquid in the trough may be a concentrated solution of the crystal’s substance, so that changes in the form of the crystal during growth may be observed and measured. The trough is supported on a small table which can be raised or lowered at will. Some very important observations which Miers has made with this instrument will be reviewed in another place. New Goniometer Lamp.—Goldschmidt® describes a new gonio- meter lamp which he has found useful also for photo-micrographic work. The burner is an Auer or Welsbach burner (Auer’sche Gliih- licht) which is specially suited to the purpose because of its strong and 3 Zeitsch. f. Kryst., xxi, pp. 574-714, 1893 t Verhandl. k. mineral. Gesellsch. St. Petersburg, xxvi, pp. 458--460, Novem- ber, 1889. Nea pp. 411--412, Aug. 23, 1894 6 Zeitsch. f. Kryst., xxiii, pp. 149-151, 1894. 268 The American Naturalist. [March, steady character and its low temperature. The burner with its glass chimney is enclosed in a cylindrical mantel constructed of brass and. sheet iron, in which are inserted two horizontal tubes perpendicular to one another and at the level of the brightest part of the light. One of these tubes serves to illumine the signal, while through the medium of an arm carrying a mirror on a universal joint the light from the other tube may be thrown at will on the crystal, the vernier, or the paper. Darkening Attachment for the Goniometer.—Traube’ has devised a very simple attachment for the Fuess goniometer with hori- zontal circle by means of which the crystal under measurement is pro- tected from all light except that which comes from the collimator. The attachment is easily adjusted and quickly removed, and is so effective that measurements may be made at any hour of the day in an undarkened room. The frequent alternation of light and darkness which is so trying to the eye can thus be avoided. Lecture Microscope.—Fuess® has designed a simple form of petrographical microscope adapted to the lecture room, where it can be passed from hand to hand by the students. With full set of acces- sories the instrument costs in Germany 158 marks. Czapski’s Ocular.—Czapski’ considers the attachments on petro- graphical microscopes which have been devised for quickly changing from parallel to convergent polarized light, as quite unnecessary com- plications of the instrument, since the same results can be obtained by the use of the modern iris diaphragm below the condenser. To observe the interference figure of a very small crystal which only partially covers the field of the microscope, Czapski’s method is to bring the crystal as near as possible to the middle of the field, remove the ocular, and place a diaphragm with small aperture over the microscope tube. With the aid of a weak lens one sees within this aperture the real image of the crystal. The crystal is now brought more accurately to the centre so that it occupies all of the now diminished field. Remov- ing the lens one sees the best possible interference figure from the erys- tal. He has devised specially for this work an ocular with an iris dia- phragm at its lower end and an easily removable lens or a Ramsden’s ocular above. T Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral., etc., 1894, (ii), pp. 1-2. 5 Neues. Jahrb. f. Misesl, ete., 1894, (ii). * Zeitsch. f. Kryst., xxii, pp. 158-162, 1894. 1895,] Mineralogy. ; 269 Klein’s Lens with Micrometer.—Becke” has designed an attachment to fit over the Czapski ocular like the common form of analyzer, to determine the size of the optical angle in very small crys- tals when the section is approximately normal to a bisectrix (Mallard’s method). This device has fitted into its upper part, so as to be adjust- able by friction, an aplanatic lens magnifying eight times. Below this is an ocular micrometer which can be raised or lowered by means of two heads on the outside of the attachment. The interference figure observed with this instrument is not the one obtained by the objective alone but the one formed in the upper eye point of the microscope above the Ramsden’s ocular. Before using the attachment the minute crystal is centered and the diaphragm of the Czapski ocular closed until the crystal alone is visible. The Klein lens is now adjusted over the ocular till the objective diaphragm is visible, when the interference figure may be distinctly seen. The micrometeris now adjusted to read without parallax. The constant K of the combination (in Mallard’s formula sind=4. d) for a given length of tube is obtained by measur- ing d in the case of several sections normal to a bisectric whose optical angle has been determined by an axial angle apparatus. The attach- ment can also be used to measure the azimuth of any point in the inter- ference figure with reference to cleavage or twinning line, etc. The long middle line of the micrometer is placed in the azimuth of the point to bedetermined. On introducing the Bertrand lens and slightly altering the length of the tube the image of the section appears. The stage is now revolved until any direction desired is brought parallel to the micrometer line and the angle measured. This device is useful to determine the changes in optical orientation in different parts of a erystal individual and to determine the position of the optic axes in the twinned lamellæ of the plagioclases. Wm. H. Hosss, Min. u. petrog. Mittheil., xiv, pp- 375-378, 1894. 270 The American Naturalist. [March, GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. Relations of Devonian and Carboniferous Faunæ.— Prof. H. S. Williams calls attention to the recurrence of Devonian fossils in strata of Carboniferous age in northwestern Arkansas. The fossils occur in a limestone formatida; about the equivalent of the Warsaw or St. Louis formations of Missouri, and referred to the lower third of the Carboniferous. Among the undoubted carboniferous forms occur numerousspecimens of Liorhynchus quadricostatum Vanuxem and Pro- ductella lachrymosa var. stigmata, onusta, etc., Hall. The entire fauna is closely allied to that of the Eureka District, Nevada, and of Shasta County, California, and the author accounts for the appearance of these Devonian species in the Arkansas Carboniferous rocks as a case of migration from the region where they had been living unchanged. This migration was brought about by an elevation of the western area sufficient to cause a diversion of ocean currents and the shifting of such species as endured the transport into the Mississippi Valley. In conclusion, Prof. Williams points out that during late Devonian and early Carboniferous time in the Appalachian province, diversity and alteration of deposits is marked by numerous successive and dis- tinct faunas, in the western continental province uniformity of prevail- ing calcareous sedimentation for long periods is marked by an abnor- mally long continuance of many of the Devonian species, while the central continental province, midway between the two, is marked by the recurrence of Devonian species far up in the midst of Carbonifer- ous sediments. This series of observations is confirmatory of the hy- pothesis that persistence of species without modification is associated with continuance of uniformity of conditions of environment, and that change in the successive faunas of geological time is associated with the change and rearrangement of the conditions of environment to which the fauna is subjected. (Am. Journ. Sci., Feb., 1895.) Characters of Glossopteris.— A fortunate discovery of a speci- men of Glossopteris, a fossil plant associated with the coal-bearing rocks of the southern hemisphere, near Mudgee, N. S. W., shows the attachment of the fronds to the caudex, bringing to light the following fi . The leaves were successively developed along the whole course of the stalk and were deciduous. They were both petiolate and sessile. 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 271 The leaf scars were ovo-rhomboidal, and to each there appear to have been three bundles of vessels. In consequence of this discovery, Mr. Etheridge reviews the history and structure of Glossopteris, giving its range in Australia, and points out its relation to allied genera. (Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N. S. W., Vol. ix, 1894.). Geological History of the West Indies.—Mr. Charles T Simpson gives a brief history of the West Indian archipelago since Eocene times, basing it upon a study of the molluscan fauna of that region. He premises his remarks with the statement that a consider- able portion of the land snail fauna of the Greater Antilles seems to’ be ancient and to have developed on the islands where it is now found, while that of the Lesser Antilles has resulted from migration mostly from South America. The distribution of the terrestrial and fluvia- tile molluscan fauna is carefully worked out and presented in tabular form. From the facts collated the author deduces several interesting conclusions which he recapitulates in the following form. “ There appears to be good evidence of a general elevation of the Greater Antillean region, probably some time during the Eocene, after most of the more important groups of snails had come into ex- istence, at which time the larger islands were united, and there was land connection with Central America by way of Jamaica and possi- bly across the Yucatan Channel, and there was then a considerable exchange of species between the two regions. At some time during this elevation there was probably a landway from Cuba across the Bahama plateau to the Floridian area, over which certain groups of Antillean land molluscs crossed. At this time it is likely that the more northern isles of the Lesser Antilles, which seem to be volcanoes of later Tertiary and Post-Pliocene date, were not yet elevated above the sea, or, if so, they have probably been submerged since. After the period of elevation there followed one of general subsidence. “During this the island of Jamaica, as the character of its land snail fauna shows, as well as the depth of the channel between it and Haiti, was first to be isolated, then Cuba, and afterwards Haiti and Puerto Rico were separted. The connection between the Antilles: and the mainland was broken, and the Bahama region, if it had been: previously elevated above the sea, was submerged, the subsidence con- tinuing until only the summits of the mountains of the four Greater Antillean islands remained above water. Then followed another period of elevation, which has lasted, no doubt, until the present time; 272 The American Naturalist. [Mareh, and the large areas of limestone uncovered (of Miocene, Pliocene and Plistocene age) in the Greater Antilles have furnished an admira- ble field for the groups of land snails that survived on the summits of the islands. The Bahamas have appeared above the surface of the sea, either by elevation or growth, and have been peopled by forms drifted from Cuba and Haiti, and a number of land and fresh-water species have been recently colonized in South Florida, probably since the Glacial epoch. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. xvii, 1894.) Fossil Mammals of the Lower Miocene White River Beds.—A part of the collection made in 1892 for the American Museum at New York by Dr. Wortman, has been made the subject of a paper by the collector in conjunction with Prof. Osborn of Columbia College. The novel points presented are : 1. New characters of the Lower Miocene Rhinoceroses, including two new types, A.trigonodum and A. platycephalum. 2. The osteology of Metamynodon. 3. The basioccipital characters of Oreodon as developed in succes- sive horizons. 4. The determination of two species of Anthracotherium, and addit- ional characters of the American Hyopotamus. An importantant adjunct to the paper is a tabular statement of the succession of species in the White River Miocene. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1894.) Geological News.—Arcurean.—According to Prof. H. P. Wood- ward, the Archean rocks are more largely developed in Western Australia than in any other portion of the world. The series is highly contorted, being folded into a number of parallel folds striking north and south. These folds form naturally six distinct belts which differ in the character of the rocks. Beginning at the west, the first belt is composed of comparatively soft rocks, intersected by dikes of diorite and granite, and veins containing lead, copper, zinc and iron. The second belt is of hard, crystalline rocks also intersected by granite dikes, and but few mineral bearing veins. The third is a granite belt, absolutely destitute of mineral veins. The fourth, fifth and sixth are rich in gold, iron and copper. (Geol. Mag. Dec., 1894.) _ Paxeozorc.—According to Mr. Walcott, the oldest Cambrian fauna known in western United States is found in the White Moun- tain range of Inyo County, California, where the author traced a coral 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 273 reef (Archzocythine) for nearly thirty miles. (Am. Journ. Sci., Feb., 1895.) Prof. N. H. Winchell considers the Galena limestone only a phase of the Trenton, intensified in the typical locality, and fading out in all directions. The physical break and faunal change which follow it in the northeast are the probable parallels of those which mark the tran- sition from the Trenton to the Hudson River. (Am. Geol., Jan., 1895.) A specimen of the new fossil shark, Cladodus clarkii, recently fonnd in the Cleveland shale of northern Ohio shows the dentition in a re- markable manner by reason of some fortunate fractures. The new specimen confirms most of the characters previously published, and adds a few not discoverable in former fossils. It is described and fig- ured by Prof. Claypole. (Am. Geol., Jan., 1895.) Recent examinations of the “elephant rock,” occurring in various parts of the Transvaal prove it to be a dolomite. Mr. Draper, to whom the rocks were submitted, states that this dolomite is of great ex- tent in the Transvaal and Namaqualand, and he is of the opinion that the limestone tufa, now occupying large areas in the drainage basin of the Vaal and Orange Rivers, are derived from the dolomite. (Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., Nov., 1894.) 274 The American Naturalist. [March, BOTANY. Some Botanical Collections. —That most valuable distribution, Ellis and Everhart’s “ North American Fungi” has recently com- pleted its thirty-second century, carrying the total number of specimens up to 3200. On looking over the alphabetical index one notes espe- cially that this century includes of Cercospora, 8 species; Cylindrospor- ium, 3; Gleosporium, 3; Microsphera, 2; Phyllosticta, 5; Puecinia, 5; Septoria, 6; Uredo, 3; Uromyces, 2; Ustilago, 1. The uniform, and well-known excellence of the specimens in this dis- tribution, needs no further words of commendation here. Those who can not obtain this set should hasten to secure the second edition which bears the name of “ Fungi Columbiani.” F. S. Collins, Isaac Holden and W. A. Setchell propose soon to begin the publication of North American alge under the title of “ Phycotheca Boreali-Americana.” The first fascicle of 50 speci- mens will contain species of Oscilliaria, Lyngbya, Calothriz, Monos- troma, Ulothriz, Drapanaldia, Rhizoclonium, Caulerpa, Lemanea, Chondria, Polysiphonia, Microcladia, ete. It is intended “ to include all families of alg, both fresh-water and marine, except that no pro- vision has yet been made for diatoms, desmids or charads,” but the authors state that these “may be included later.” This work will be truly North American, including the whole continent and its adjacent seas from the Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus of Panama, and the West India Islands. The low price (five dollars per fascicle) places it within reach of every college botanical department. Those interested should apply to Frank S. Collins, Malden, Mass. Josephine E. Tilden of the University of Minnesota has begun the distribution of the fresh-water alge of the upper Mississippi Valley. It will be important as supplying for the first time a series of these plants from a new region. For century I the price is ten dollars. The Flora of Amador, Calaveras and Alpine counties, California, is offered to the public in sets of prepared specimens at seven dollars per hundred by George Hansen of the Experiment Station at Jackson, California. The sets are said to contain many varieties and novelties. Professor F. L. Harvey, of Orono, Me. proposes to issue sets of the Weeds and Forage Plants of Maine, embracing about 300 species. They are intended especially for the use of schools and “ granges ”, and are sent out mounted and labeled. The moderate price (ten dollars per 1895.] Botany. 275 hundred) should place them in every high school in Maine, as well as in the herbaria of many of the agricultural colleges in other states. Professor Penhallow, of Montreal, Canada, has prepared a “ Type Series of North American Conifers,” consisting of microscopical sec- tions of the wood, stained, and mounted in balsam. Each species is represented by transverse, radial and tangential sections. The series contains 264 slides and is sold at $120.00. It is the outgrowth of studies made by Professor Penhallow upon North American Conifers looking to a classification based upon the anatomy of the wood. The results of these studies are to be published shortly, and will add to the interest of the prepared specimens. We have already noticed A. H. Curtiss’s “Second Distribution of Plants of the Southern United States,” of which Series I and II are now ready. (February NATURALIST). Fascicle I of Arthur and Holway’s “ Uredinez Exsiccatze et Icones ” gives promise of being a most valuable addition to the carefully studied sets of plants now offered to botanists. The specimens are excellent and the drawings very carefully made. A feature which is to be com- mended is the uniform magnification throughout the series. In the pre- sent fascicle seventeen species, are represented by thirty-one specimens and one hundred and thirty-five figures. When supplied in loose packets the cost is to be three dollars per fasicle, when in bound vol- umes, fifty-cents more. Many botanists have in the past few years received the neatly pre- pared sets of lichens sent out by ©. E. Cummings and A. B. Seymour under the title of “ Lichenes Boreali-Americani,” of which about 150 numbers have been received. Hereafter T. A. Williams will aid the editors named above. This distribution has been so well patronized that a second edition has been prepared. Professor Underwood’s “ Hepatice Americanz,” constitutes the only recent set of North American liverworts. Although no specimens of this distribution have been received for some time we trust that it isto continue. The distribution of North American Characez (“ Characeæ Amer- icanæ Exsiccate”) by Dr. T. F. Allen, of New York City (No. 10 East 36 St.) possesses unusual value, since it probably represents more than any other the immediate results of a critical revision of the species. A recent fascicle contains twelve species mainly of the genus Nitella. With these American species there were distributed seventeen Japanese species and varieties under the title of “ Characeæ Japonice Exsiccat,” 976 The American Naturalist. [March, among which were several of the new species recently described in the Torrey Bulletin. All mycologists who are familiar with the excellent specimens of Sydow’s “ Uredineen,” (published in Berlin), which has now reached its eighteenth fascicle, (900 specimens) will welcome the beginning of a new set by the same author devoted to the Ustilaginee. Fascicle I of this new set “ Ustilagineen,” containing fifty specimens appeared within a few months. We should not overlook here the two centuries of “ New York Fungi” published by C. L. Shear, heretofore noticed in this journal. The excellence of the specimens commends this collection, especially to those who are beginning the study of the larger fungi (Hymenomycete) to which it is mainly devoted. We understand that Century III is nearly ready for distribution. Nor must we omit the useful “ Economic Fungi” published by A. B. Seymour and F. S. Earle, of which seven fascicles (of about 50 species each) have appeared. The work deserves to be successful. We do not know whether the “ Uredineæ Americane,” of which one fascicle was issued a year or so ago by M. A. Carleton, is to continue or not. It certainly made a good beginning. We may add to the fovopring the distribution of “ Canadian Lichens,” and “ Canadian Mosses” by John Macoun of the Canadian Geological Survey, which contain good specimens, neatly prepared and often of much interest on account of the region from which they were obtained. Verily the tribe of makers of exsiccati is a numerous one, and were we to include all those devoting themselves to supplying plants of particular regions, it would be increased three or four fold—CHARLES E. Bessey. Some Recent Botanical Papers.—Dr. T. F. Allen’s valuable work, ‘‘ The Characex of America,” has made progress by the issuance of another fascicle containing descriptions and illustrations of nine species of Nitella of which three are new to science. Too much praise can not be given to the industrious author, who for love of Science, brings out, from time to time, the successive parts of this first work ona group. hitherto little studied in this country. and Everhart have added a convenient Analytical Key to their North American Pyrenomycetes, which has hitherto lacked that useful portion. The same authors have recently distributed a reprint from the proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- 1895.] Botany. 277 delphia (65 pp.) containing descriptions of new species of fungi from various localities. Of these there are Hymenomycetes, 10 species; Pyrenomycetes, 72 ; Discomycetes, 22; Sphaeropsideæ, 91 ; Hyphomy- cetes, 46; or a total of 241. “The Special Senses of Plants” is the title of a thoughtful and sug- gestive paper by Dr. J. C. Arthur, published in the Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sciences. The author discusses gravity sense, light sense, moisture sense, heat sense, and contact sense. The paper should be read by every teacher, whether he teach botany or not. Professor Penhallow’s paper, “ Observations upon Some Structural Variations in Certain Canadian Conifer” in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, contains histological discussions pertaining to Pseudotsuga douglasii, Larix occidentalis, Pinus ponderosa and Pinus albicaulis. It is illustrated by four plates containing nineteen figures. The always welcome Annual Report of the State Botanist of the State of New York has recently been received. As usual it shows that the flora of a region as well worked as that of New York contains many hitherto undescribed species, mostly of the lower plants, ea one flower- ing plant (a Carex) proves to be new.—CHARLES E. Bess bo =] i 2) The American Naturalist. [March, ZOOLOGY. The Central Nervous System of Teleosts.—In the last number of La Cellule, a preliminary paper by Van Gehuchten on the central nervous system of the trout' adds several points of considerable interest to our already large stock of knowledge of the structure of the nervous system of vertebrates as determined by the epoch-making Golgi methods. Its value, and that of other papers by competent students, lies not only in adding so much to the known facts con- cerning the lower vertebrates, but more especially in the light that it throws upon obscure points in the cerebral structure of the higher animals and of man, where the central organs are so large and complex as to render investigation very difficult and even impossible. The older writers, Stieda, Fritsch, Rabl-Riickhardt, Edinger and others, concerned themselves almost wholly with the homologies of the brain of Teleosts. It was not until 1887 that the Golgi method was first em- ployed with them by Fusari. Since then, Schaper, P. Ramon and Retzius have used it. And, if to their work we add that of Nansen and Retzius on the nervous system of Petromyzon and that of v. Lenhossek on that of Pristivrus, the list will be almost complete for fishes in gen- eral. Van Gehuchten takes up (1) the structure of the anterior lobes, which, by the way, are homologous, as shown by Rabl-Riickhardt, with the caudate and lenticular nuclei only of the human brain; (2) the origin of the fibres of the cerebral peduncle; (3) the origin and termi- nation of the fascicle of Meynert ; (4) some of the constituent elements of the optic lobes ; (5) the origin and termination of the olfactory fibres ; (6) the origin of the oculomotor communis ; (7) origin of the facial nerve ; (8) the origin and the peripheral and central terminations of the audi- tory nerve; (9 and 10) the elements of the Gasserian ganglion, of the trigeminal nerve and of the large ganglion in the course of the pneu- mogastric, as also of the arrangement of the fibres of these in the cere- bral trunk. Regarding the anterior lobes and the cerebral peduncle, the most important fact brought out is that the latter is composed of both as- cending and descending fibres, or, to use the terminology recently pro- posed by Fish, neurites. The former cannot therefore be regarded with 1 Le System nerveux des Téléeostéens, La Cellule, Vol. X, pp. 255-95, with 3 pls. 1895.] Zoology. 279 Edinger as merely ganglia for the origin of the peduncular neurites. The interlobular commissures are shown not to be compared with the anterior commissure of human anatomy where merely two opposite lobes are connected. Each of the commissures is composed of neurites that branch off from the basal peduncle and branching cross to and terminate among the protoplasmic processes, or dendrites, of the opposite lobe The fascicle of Meynert, which has hitherto been a great puzzle, i is explained as being composed of neurites arising from cells in the ganglia habenule and terminating near the lower surface of the brain in the so-called interpedunculary body. Here they branch profusely, KENYON ON BRAIN STRUCTURE. Fig. 1. Longitudinal section of a trout brain passing to one side of the median line.—l.ant., anterior lobes; l.op., optic lobe ; f. b., basal fascicle; c. p., cerebral peduncle ; f. M., fascicle of Meynert arising from the cells in the ganglion habenu- læ; op. ch., optic chiasma, behind which is the commissure of Gudden, and in front of which are the interlobular commissures. Near the fascicle of Meynert is the ansiform commissure Fig. 2. The fascicles of Meynert viewed from above, each ending in the inter- lobular body. Fig. 3. Transverse section through the nucleus of origin of the facial nerve VII, neurite of the facial nerve; d. r. v., descending root of the fifth with its short collaterals. i 280 The American Naturalist. [March, mingling with one another, and come in contact with the dendrites and ‘cells of the body. While this explains that the fascicles are composed of fibres of but one kind, nothing is known of the fibres that go to the ganglia habenulæ to complete the circuit. Hence the function of the fascicles is still an open question. The most interesting point, besides the solution of the structure, origin and termination of the fascicles of Meynert, that appears in the paper, concerns the conductive function of the dendrites. Such a function has been denied them by Kölliker, who still maintains his original ground. His objections are based on the fact, as he states it, of there being proto- plasmic processes in certain parts of the white matter of the human brain where they cannot come in contact with nerve endings. Now van Gehuchten shows that in the anterior lobes the ascending or sensory fibres from the basal peduncle terminate freely among the processes or dendrites of the cells of the descending fibres, and that there is no third cellular element between them. And, what is more to the point and of greater weight, he finds that the extremely lengthened den- drites of the cells giving rise to the facial nerve penetrate the descending root of the trigeminal from the neurites of which are given off short, fine collaterals. It has been that shown among Batrachia and elsewhere such means of completing the nervous circuit exists, but Kölliker has persisted in denying any value to these facts when man is considered. The nervous circuit may, he says, be more easily explained without the dendrites. To this van Gehuchten adds that the matter would be still more simple were the collaterals left out. But dendrites and col- laterals exist and it is our business to explain them. Moreover, fur- ther study of the brain of the higher animals and of man may, and probably will, show that in those places in which Kölliker sup- poses none to exist, collaterals really occur; and that their not being seen hitherto is to be explained by the difficulties that beset the path of the investigator when he takes up so complex and highly-developed a structure as the human and mammalian brain. It is with considerable force that van Gehuchten finishes his consid- eration of the question. From the moment, he says, that any one admits, as one must, the conductive function of the dendrites of the mitral cells of the olfactory bulb, of the cells of Perkinje in the cerebellum, of the cells of the optic lobes in birds, of the ganglionic cells of the re- -tilia, of the pyramidal cells of the cerebral cortex, one may demand upon what decisive grounds any one can find support for a denial of the same function in the dendrites of the medulla. —F. C. Kenyon. 1895.] Zoology. 281 New Deep Sea Fishes.—A preliminary account of new types of deep water fishes from the northwestern Atlantic is given (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Museum, Vol. XVII, 1894) by Dr. G. Brown Goode and Tarleton H. Bean. Two new families, Cetonimidae and Rondeletiidae, represented by C. storeri, C. gillii and R. bicolor. The second family is distinguished from the first by the presence of ventral fins, and the incompleteness of the opercular apparatus. Both are Malacopterygian fishes, belonging to the group set aside by Gill under the name Iniomi. Only a single specimen of each species was obtained from depths rang- ing from 1,043 to 1,641 fathoms. Another remarkable type belongs to the Chimaeroid group, from the existing forms of which it differs in the extremely elongate, muzzle, and the feeble claspers. Four specimens were obtained, two of them young, and with proportions shorter than those of the adults. The habitat of this genus is given as off the coasts of Virginia, Maryland and Delaware, 707 to 1,080 fathoms. It is described under the name Harriotta raleig hana. All the types are figured, and in the next number of the Natural- ist, we will reproduce them. Preliminary Notes on the Osteology of the North Ameri- can Crotalidae.—I desire to present a preliminary paper giving some characters of the osteology of the Crotalidae. I have to thank Dr. O. P. Hay and Mr. M.S. Farr, Fellows in the University of Chicago, for furnishing me specimens for this work. Also, I am under obligations to Dr. George Baur, Assistant Professor in the University of Chicago for special favors and suggestions. I am able to give both specific and generic characters of the genus Ancistrodon. The species A. contortrix was obtaind near Johnstown, Pa., while A. piscivorus was secured at Enterprise, Miss. Of the genus Sistrurus I have examined two species, namely, S, miliarus from Florida and S. catenatus from Indiana. Also I have examined two species of Crotalus, namely, C. Aorridus from Tuscarora Mountain, Pa., and also one specimen from near Johnstown, Pa., and C. confluentus collected in Kansas.! In addition, we have examined one individual each of C. horridus and of S. catenatus now in the Museum of Monmouth College. The locality of these specimens is not known. = LI have also examined a skeleton in the collection of the Field Colum- bian Museum, and labelled “Crotalus durissus Texas.” The identification of this specimen is not at all certain, but it seems to be C. adamanteus atrox or C. mo- lossus. ; 282 The American Naturalist. [March, Since I have undertaken a more detailed study of these snakes, I omit from this article extended remarks on geographical distribution and specific characters. Neither have I, at this stage of my work, thought best to adopt any system of classification’. I desire to make a few general statements. The upper surface of the skull of Crotalidae, in comparison with the skulls of other snakes, is quadrate in outline. The interobital region, owing to the elevation of the outer edges of the frontals and outer anterior angles of the parietals, is concave. The nasal bones are loosely attached. The prefrontals are quadrate in outline, movable, and are between the frontals and maxillaries. The maxillaries occupy a vertical position in front of the orbit and are attached above to the prefrontals and behind to the ectopterygoids. Each possesses a well-developed poisonous fang, and, in its outer sur- face, a conspicuous and characteristic pit. The parasphenoidal sur- face is concave and divided by a longitudinal median ridge-like process. Well-developed ventral processes are present on all the vertebree of the body. The latter never exceed 200, the combined number of body and caudal vertebrae not commonly reaching this number. Of the family Crotalidae the Ancistrodon shows the least specializa- tion while the highest development is found in the Crotalus. The de- velopment of the family is shown in the following ways: . By the expansion and flattening of the anterior portion of the skull. "This, also, takes place to a less extent in the petrosal region. 2. By the development of the maxillary fang and consequent change in the position and shape of the maxillaries and prefrontals. 3. As specialization proceeds there is a decrease in the number of teeth. Besides the fangs, no teeth are found on the maxillaries, and, except in Ancistrodon, none exist on the pterygoids posterior to their junction with the ectopterygoids. 4. The freedom and mechanical arrangement of the nasals, prefront- als, maxillaries, palatines, pterygoids and ectopterygoids is quite nota- ble. 2 In this brief article we shall not attempt to refer to the numerous authorities consulted However, it should be stated, perhaps, that the general osteology of the Crotalidae has been worked out and discussed by various naturalists. ‘The results of their works have appeared in many publications and under various dates. Also, we wish to state that Peters, as early as 1862, briefly mentions the craniology of the genus Ancistrodon Hr. W. Peters hielt einen Vortrag uber die craniologischen Verschieden- heiten der Grubenottern (Trigonocephali) und uber eine neue Art der Gattung Bothriechis. Monatsberichte der Koniglichen Preufs. Akademie der Wissen- schaften zu Berlin, 1862, p. 670. 1895.} Zoology. 283 5. The various vertebral processes increase in length and the ribs of the median portion of the body show a decided tendency to become longer, thus giving the body a spindle-shape. he vertebree of the body increase in number from Ancistrodon to Cxvialas while the caudal vertebre show a reverse tendency. In Ancistrodon, the ratio of the body and caudal vertebre is approxi- mately as 4 to 1, in Sistrurus 5 to 1, and in Crotalus 7 to 1. Ancistrodon Beauvois, 1799. Upper surface of the petrosal region convex and not unusually ex- tended to form a support for the squamosals. Post-orbital portion of the parietals without lateral expansions. Pterygoids toothed posterior to their junction with the ectopterygoids. Posterior ends of the ecto- pterygoids grooved and notched and placed in a socket formed in the upper surface of the pterygoids. Palatines either triangular or club- shaped ; in the latter case, attached to the pterygoids by their more expanded ends. Post-frontals rudimentary if present. Posterior caudal vertebre not coossified, i. e., end ossicle absent.’ Number of vertebre of the body from 140 to 154; tail 40 to 54. Eastern and southern United States and Mexico. Ancistrodon piscivorus La Cepede, 1787. Outer opening of the lachrymal foramen slit-like and on the anterior margin of the prefrontal. Palatines club-shaped and their more ex- panded ends attached to the pterygoids. Number of vertebrx of the body from 138 to 145; tail 30 to 48. Ancistrodon contortrix Linne, 1766. Outer opening of the lachrymal foramen on the anterior upper sur- face of the prefrontal and situated just beneath a small pointed process. Palatines small and triangular in outline, with the obtuse angle point- ing upwards. According to Peters, A. contortrix pugnux possesses a palatine bone equiangular in outline.‘ Number of vertebre of the body from 150 to 155; tail 25 to 40. 3In the Rattlesnake, some seven or eight posterior caudal vertebre coossify, in the process of the growth of the animal, and the bone thus formed has been variously named. J. Czermak speaks of these coossified vertebree as ‘“‘ Endkorper der Wirbelsaule”’: see Ueber den Schallenzeugenden Apparat von Crotalus zeitschrift fur wiss. Zoologie. Bd., VIII, p. 294, 1857. Hoffman accepts the name given by Czermak : see Dr. H. G. Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier reichs. Sechster Band. III, Abtheilung. Reptilien, III, p. 1417, 1890. Garman calls this bone the Shaker: see On the Evolution of the Rattlesnake. Proc, Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXIV, 1889. * Loc. cit., p. 673. 284 The American Naturalist. [March, Systrurus Garman, 1883. Lateral expansion of the petrosal region slight. Squamosal short and its posterior end widened into a hook-like process for the attach- ment of the quadrate. Pterygoids not toothed posterior to their junc- tion with the ectopterygoids and their posterior expanded portions more curved than in other genera. The ectopterygoids are grooved for the reception of the pterygoids. However, their posterior ends are not notched, as in Ancistrodon, but are attached to the pterygoids for a much greater length than in either of the remaining genera. The pal- atines are triangular and attached to the pterygoids at the acute angle, the obtuse angle being nearer the anterior end of the palatines. Post- frontals rudimentary. Posterior caudal vertebre céossified, i.e., end- ossicle present. Number of vertebree of the body from 130 to 153; caudal vertebra from 20 to 35. United States and Mexico. I omit the specific characters until opportunity is offered for the study of a wider range of specimens. Crotalus Linne, 1758. Petrosal region expanded and the outer edge of the petrosal slightly upturned so as to form a support for the squamosal. The parietals possess clearly marked lateral expansions which connect with the an- terior ends of the petrosals. Squamosals relatively more curved than in other genera, not hooked, but their posterior ends expanded. Ptery- goids not toothed posterior to their junction with the ectopterygoids.* Posterior ends of the ectopterygoids grooved but not notched, and the pterygoids not notched for the reception of the ectopterygoids. The palatines are club-shaped and attached to the pterygoids by their more pointed ends. The postfrontals are well-developed, border the orbital surface of the parietals, and connect with the frontals. The posterior caudal vertebre are coossified, i. e., possess a well-developed end-ossicle. Number of vertebre of the body from 165 to 187; tail from 19 to 32. United States, Mexico and Brazil. EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES. Fig. 1—Squamosal of A. piscivorus. Fig. 2.—Squamosal of A. contortriz. > Fig. 3.—Squamosal of S. catenatus. ° If Dumeril's plates be correct, C. durissus does not agree in this respect : see Prodrome de Classification des Ophidiens, 1852. Planche 2, Figs. 14 and 15. 1895.] Zoology. 285 Fig. 4.—Squamosal of C. confluentus. Fig. 5.—Squamosal of C. horridus. Fig. 6.—A. piscivorus. a, Pterygoid; b, Ectopterygoid ; c, Palatine. Fig. 7.—A. contortrix. Fig. 8.—S. catenatus. Fig. 9.— C. confluentus. —W. EDGAR TAYLOR. Acting Professor of Biology, Monmouth College, Monmouth, Illinois. Zoological News.—Pisces.—The little-known Agonoid Fish, Hippocephalus japonicus, is described by F. Cramer. The description is based on an alcoholic specimen presented to the California Academy of Sciences by Dr. Krause, of Berlin. The specimen is 360 mm. long, and was obtained in the Okhotsk Sea. (Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Sci., Ser. 2, Vol. IV, 1894.) Mammalia.—The Price collection of mammals from southeastern Arizona, and the Granger collection from South Dakota, recently ac- quired by the American Museum of New York, include a number of new forms, ten of which are described by Dr. J. A. Allen. The collec- tions and the observations of the collectors greatly extend the recorded range of many species of mammals. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1894.) A collection of mammals sent to the American Museum from New Brunswick, numbers about 250 specimens, and contains representa- tives of several species worthy of note, among which are two specimens of Synaptomys cooperii Baird. This is the first record of the genus Synaptomys from New Brunswick. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1894.) In the annotated list of Florida Mammals prepared by Dr. F. M. Chapman, four orders are represented, as follows : Glires, 27 ; Chirop- tera, 10; Insectivora, 4; Carnivora, 12. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1894.) 286 The American Naturalist. [March, EMBRYOLOGY.’ Sexually Produced Organisms without Maternal Charac- ters ?— When it was announced by Boveri’ than an organism might be formed from a fragment of an egg fertilized by sperm of another species and then possess only the characters of that latter paternal spe- cies, this fact naturally gave rise to much speculative application, and was welcomed as evidence of the great value to be set upon the nucleus in the processes of heredity. Boveri stated that bastard larve formed by sperm of Echinus microtuberculatus and eggs of Sphaerechinus granularis were in all respects middle forms between the species. He also stated that when the eggs of the latter species were shaken so that they broke and lost their nuclei and were then fertilized by the sperm of the former, dwarf larvz were formed that had the characters of the male parent, Echinus, only, and not those of the female parent, Spheer- echinus. Thus, he concluded, the male sperm nucleus transmitted paternal characters, while the egg protoplasm, deprived of its nucleus, gave none of the maternal characters to the offspring. Oswald Seeliger’ has repeated these experiments with the same spe- cies and has shown that Boveri’s conclusions are not the necessary ones to be drawn from the evidence, but only interpretations that ignore most weighty factors. In two plates he gives careful figures of the larve of both species at the same stages and also figures of the bastard larve. An examina- tion of these convinces one that the normal bastards, or those from whole eggs, are not by any means exactly intermediate between the two parents in all cases. Many do combine the parental characters in this way, but many are much like the father and others more like the mother. This holds both for the general shape and for the structure of the larval skeleton. Since then, many bastards from whole eggs resemble the father, there is no proof that the bastards from broken eggs were not also from nucleated pieces, for it must be borne in mind, that Boveri failed to get larvee from isolated fragments, and obtained his dwarf larve from the 1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and preliminary notes pmd be sent. ? See American Naturalist, March 1, 1893. 3 Roux Archiv. $ P EPAPER I, 2, Dec. 11, ’94. 1895.] Embryology. 287 general mixture of nucleated and non-nucleated fragments that are to be found when the eggs are shaken in a test tube. Boveri also observed that the dwarf larve had small nuclei, coming as he supposed from the male nucleus only, not from two fused nuclei as in ordinary fertilization. This reason is also fallacious since Seeli- ger finds a great deal of variation in the size of the nuclei in the nor- mal bastards from whole eggs. The small nuclei may come, then, from eggs with nuclei and do not give any evidence as to the absence of a nucleus in the egg fragment. Again the bastards from the whole eggs vary much in size. In shaken eggs, however, Seeliger finds dwarf larve much more numerous than in the case of whole or unshaken eggs He concludes that though the fertilization of non-nucleated egg fragments may not be impossible, it is probable that the dwarf larve obtained by Boveri were merely the results of fertilization of broken eggs or egg fragments still retaining their nuclei. Double Monsters.—To the same number of Roux’s new periodi- cal, Professor O. Schultze, of Würzburg, contributes some interesting results that he obtained by keeping frog’s eggs in a forced position. The eggs of Rana fusca were fastened to glass slides and then fertilized and fixed between slides so that they could not revolve when turned upside down. They were allowed to develop right side up till divided into two cells and then inverted and kept upside down till towards the begin- ning of gastrulation. A detailed account of the methods and of the results of individual experiments is given. It appears that a considerable number of the eggs thus exposed to the disturbing effects of gravitation developed into double monsters of various characters as shown in the two plates. Some developed two heads and two sets of gills on each The formation of these double individuals in place of the normal single one, isin some way due to the rearrangement of the substance of the cells when inverted and acted upon by gravity, so that the heavier part is drawn down and the lighter rises, as may be readily seen since it is dark colored. There is thus a modification of the egg substance that acts like a partial division of the egg and allows each of the two cells to develop somewhat as if isolated. In a discussion of the general question of the formation of double monsters in nature, the author rejects the idea that abnormal or mul- 288 The American Naturalist. [March, tiple fertilization is concerned or that subsequent events are the cause. The cause of double monsters lies in some abnormal state of the ova- rianegg. This state of the egg may be like that that has in recent experiments produced double formations from half eggs; that is, the abnormality may be its division into more or less separate halves, each of which would form a complete individual if separated from the other. Double individuals are thus to be regarded as coming from imper- fectly divided ovarian cells ; eggs similar to the somatic cells that are found with two nuclei. A complete division of the germ material pro- duces separate individuals, a very slight division, double monsters ; between these extremes are identical twins. The formation of double monsters would be, in this speculation, a process of arrested development! Fusion of Blastomeres.—Dr. Arnold Graf‘ briefly describes a remarkable case of retrogressive cleavage in the eggs of the sea-urchin Arbacia. Some eggs compressed under a cover-glass after the method of Driesch, divided into flat plates of 16 cells that quickly passed into 32 (here some abnormal conditions may be suspected). When the pressure was removed by adding more water, the cells began to fuse so that their number became reduced to 15 and then 14! At first each has two or three nuclei according as it is made by the fusion of two or of three cells, but later the nuclei fuse and the cells change their posi- tions and shapes. The same phenomenon was seen ina plate of 8 cells. It is claimed that only those cells unite that are closely related: the daughter cells of one mother cell fuse together. Unfortunately nothing is known of the possible future of such em- bryos nor of the effective causes at work in producing them, and so this notice serves more as a stimulus to work than as a contribution to our knowledge of the mechanics of embryology. - Temperature and Development.—Professor O. Schultze’ finds that the eggs of Rana fusca may be kept in water at 0° C for 14 days when in the gastrula stage without losing the power to form normal embryos. During this period there is a complete cessation of develop- ment. ‘Zool. Anz., XVII, Dec., 1894. 5 Anat. Anz., X, Dec. 19, 1894. 1895] ; Embryology. 289 These results are opposed to those of O. Hertwig who found that exposure to 0° C injured the eggs so much that they would not de- velop. ` A Problematical Structure in a Mammal.—Dr. A. W. Weysse® in a very careful and well oe Doel of | some pow | blastodermic vesicles of the pig, finds a remarka arching over the germinal disk. The cavity beneath this “ sf is never closed, and is eventually obliterated by the fusion of the “ bridge” cells with the subjacent ectoderm. The author thinks this structure has no homology in any thing as yet known among mammals, but may, perhaps, be compared to the dorsal growth in Amphioxus that forms the medullary canal, since they both agree in time of formation and in relations to the neurenteric canal and neuropore! Development of Scyphomedusz.—Ida H. Hyde has pub- lished the results of a most careful examination of the cleavage, gas- trulation and the formation of the scyphistoma stage in several meduse. The paper is illustrated by more than one hundred very careful and true figures and bids fair to clear up some much disputed points upon which the most noted investigators have held different views. The material was obtained at Annisquam, Mass., at Eastport, Maine and from Johns Hopkins Marine Station in Jamaica, and was studied at Bryn Mawr, Woods Hole and Heidelberg. - The embryology of Aurelia marginalis from Jamaica had never before been studied ; that of A. fluvidula and Cyanea arctica had been, imperfectly. he gastrulation of A. marginalis differs from that of all known Scyphomeduse in that it is a process of delamination, that is, the blastula becomes converted into a closed two-layered larva by the division of some cells in such a way that their inner ends form an inner layer. In A. flavidula the germ layers are formed in two different ways : eggs from Eastport, Maine, gave rise to the entoderm by a process of delamination combined with inwandering of cells from various parts of the blastula wall; eggs from Annisquam formed invaginate gastru- las. In C. artica the gastrulation is a modified invagination in which some cells break loose from the pole that is invaginating ; there is, however, * Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts & Sci., XXX, 1894. 290 The American Naturalist. [March, no trace of the multipolar inwandering of cells as described by MeMurrich. In the formation of the Scyphistoma it is found that the planula of A. marginalis settles down by the aboral pole which is peculiarly mod- ified. In all the species examined the mantle is a new formation and not a reopening of a gastrula mouth. The inrolled part of the ectoderm remains as the esophagus, and is not invaginated again, so that there is no doubt of the correctness of the views held by Goette regarding the ectodermal nature of this part of the digestive cavity. . The first pair of gastric pouches arises as a pair of outgrowths from the entoderm, but the second pair comes from the ectoderm. The ectoderm thus takes part in the formation of the esophagus, the septa and the gastral filaments as well as the second pair of the four original pouches. Goette’s views as to the relation of the Hydromeduse and Anthozoa are thus strengthened by these observations. Blastomeres of Medusz.—Raffaello Zoja, of Pavia, has pub- lished a preliminary notice’ of some most interesting work upon the development of isolated blastomeres of Medusz and of other non-ver- tebrates. He finds that even ys of an egg, that is, one of the isolated cells when the eggs has divided into 16, is able to develop by itself into a perfect organism; it develops in the same way as a complete egg and forms as perfect an individual. In Clytia flavidula }, ł, $ or rs when isolated develops into a hollow blastula in which entoderm arises by migration. A larva results that differs from the normal whole-egg-larva only in size. In the case of } or } egg the hydroid form was ultimately obtained. The larva prob- ably has half as many cells as in the normal case. In Laodice cruciata also 3, 3, $ or rs of the egg will grow into a perfect, but small swimming larva. In Mitrocoma anne } or ł of the egg gives rise to a perfect larva. In Liriogie micronata one of the first two or the first four blastomeres may form by delamination a larva with ectoderm and entoderm. In the former case a medusa with the symmetrically arranged tentacles of the adult may result! The isolated pieces of meduse eggs develop like the whole egg and not like parts regenerating the rest. 7 Anatomischer Anzeiger X, Oct., 1894. 1895.] Embryology. 291 Cleavage in the eggs of medusz thus seems to be a quantitative and not a qualitative process. Development in Rarified Air.—Professor C. Giacomini’ has devised an apparatus by which hen’s eggs can be subjected to dimin- ished pressure during incubation. The results presented in this pre- liminary communication are that a pressure of 16 to 17 cm. prevents the normal formation of the vascular organs and incites various mon- strosities in the early days of development besides much retarding all the processes of growth. In later stages embryos are killed by air at that low pressure. These effects seem due to the state of oxygen in the air as they are counter- acted by the addition of oxygen to the rarefied air. The author hopes to have discovered a valuable new aid in the in- vestigation of experimental teratology. 8 Archiv. Ital. de Biologie, XXIL, Dec. 11, 1894. 292 The American Naturalist. [March, PSYCHOLOGY.’ The Present State of Psychology.—At a meeting of the American Psychological Association, held at Princeton during the Christmas holidays just past, Dr. Patton, the eminent President of Princeton University, made an address of welcome to the assembled psychologists in course of which he reminded them that psychology was originally a branch of philosophy as distinguished from science, and urged them never to forget this fact and not to reduce psychology to the level of a mere science. i One, at least, of Dr. Patton’s hearers, found his doctrine hard to ac- cept. That psychology has been a part of philosophy all will admit, and, in whatever sense we take that much misused word, it is hard to believe that the time will ever come when the philosophical signifi- cance of the facts which it isthe province of psychology to observe, and of the laws which she is bringing to light, will be ignored by the thought- ful. There is probably no psychologist so devoted to what Professor James wittily calls “the pendulum and chronoscope philosophy,” or so sceptical as to the value of current philosophical theories, as to deny that psychology is to be an important part of the coming philosophy. But this is not, I think, what Dr. Patton had in mind. For some generations “science” and “ philosophy” have been re- garded as distinct branches of human activity, and there has been little friendly commerce between their representatives. “Science” is that organized body of knowledge got by observation, experiment and demonstration. The spirit of pure curiosity to which we owe it, is a comparatively new momentum in man’s intellectual life. Only in the last three centuries have its greatest discoveries been made. By “ philosophy ” we commonly understand those ancient disciplines in which the methods of the newer knowledge have been, as yet, but little used. Such are the sciences that deal with the facts of consciousness as such—the “sciences” of Logic, Psychology, Ethics and Meta- physics. These are commonly termed philosophical. Up to very re- cent times, these branches of learning have been but little affected by the scientific spirit. Their representatives have been, for the most part, men learned in the wisdom of the ancients, but ignorant of that of the moderns, and but little versed in the methods which have been This department is edited by Dr. Wm. Romaine Newbold, University of Penn- sylvania. PLATE XVII Taylor on Crotalidae. ae : ! 1895.] Psychology. 998 found necessary to the successful prosecution of research. Many con- fine themselves to working over and over again all that the thinkers of the past have said, and are ambitious of nothing more. Others, having trained themselves with care in the methods which, after more than two thousand years’ trial, have been found wanting, laboriously evolve volume after volume, the contents of which is destined to be forgotten before the printer’s ink is dry. Their only instrument is introspection ; _ what the observer sees in his own consciousness he ascribes to his fel- low, and if his fellow, using a similar method, maintains the contrary, assuredly, thinks he, his fellow is either a liar or a fool. Psychology was one of the first of the mental sciences to feel the in- fluence of the new spirit. Descartes and Leibniz, Hobbes, Locke, Hume and Hartley and many others, have faithfully endeavored to record the facts of mental life as they saw them, and to give a satis- factory explanation of them. Nor has their work proved fruitless, although its results are far from satisfactory. In the first place, all used introspection as their chief, or only, method. In thesecond place, the hypostatizing method of the old Greek psychology still persisted. Instead of recognizing that mental facts, like all facts, must be supposed to conform to laws the discovery of which is the chief end of science, we find a tendency to refer the facts observed to half personified “ faculties.” In the third place, the kindred science of physiology was, and indeed still is, in an imperfect condition, and it was not possible for the psychologist to bring his results into harmony with it. Until this js done, it is safe to say, the foundations of the science of psychol- ogy have not been firmly laid. Within the last twenty years, psychology has entered upon a new era. Fechner, Weber and Wundt, and a host of followers, have under- taken a thorough examination into the simplest phenomena of mental life, especially into the relation of stimulus to sensation. This school , uses, wherever possible, the method of direct experiment, and its ideal is to make psychology a science of determinate quantities. ‘These are the psychophysicists in the narrower sense, and the psychophysical laboratory, with its elaborate apparatus for the regulation of stimulus- intensities and measurement of time-intervals, has come, within the last ten years, to be regarded as a necessary part of every great University. Yet it is openly claimed that the net result to the science of psychol- ogy of all this outlay is very small; that the analogy between physi- cal and mental facts and laws has been pressed too far; that the results obtained are, for the most part, of physiological significance only ; and, in some quarters the cry is heard, “ Back to introspection.” But we 10 294 The American Naturalist. [March, must remember that psychophysics is itself in the experimental stage, and, until methods of experiment in these new fields have been devised and perfected, we cannot expect definite results. There has recently been developed, also within the limits of psy- chology proper, another discipline known as physiological psychology. It endeavors to determine the physiological conditions of consciousness, and, more particularly, the relation of the different qualities of con- sciousness to the several cortical areas. Much light has been thrown upon these problems, and, as one chief result, it is possible to introduce into introspection a precision before unknown. The English associa- tionists have taught us, for example, on the basis of purely introspec- tive evidence, that our ideas of physical things are complexes, contain- ing visual, auditory, tactual and other elements—-that what we call “ knowledge” is a mass of dim, subconscious associations. Researches into the physiology of the brain have shown that color, sound and mo- tion certainly, and probably touch, are related to different cortical areas—that lesions of portions of the cortex will destroy knowledge without impairing sensation. This at once supports the conclusions of introspection and enables us to form more accurate conceptions of the complex processes involved. In England, the home par excellence of introspective psychology, Mr. Francis Galton, in his epoch-making book, “ Inquiries into Human Faculty,” has called attention to the mental idiosyncrasies of individ- uals. More recent workers in the same line have shown conclusively that introspection cannot give results that will be, in all cases, true. It is impossible to overestimate the importance of this discovery, and there is nothing more surprising than that a fact at once so important and so easily ascertained, should have escaped notice for more than two thousand years. Since the early days of Greek philosophy, for exam- ple, the Nominalists and the Conceptualists have waged unending war- fare; the Conceptualists maintain that the name of a class awakens an idea or mental state that is not representative of any member of that class; the Nominalists, on the contrary, hold that the class name either awakens a concrete image of a particular member of the class, or else it awakens no mental state whatever—it is a mere flatus vocis. And now we know that both are right. Each was describing what intro- spection revealed to him, and abusing his fellow-student for doing like- wise. Mr. Galton’s discovery of the idiosyncrasies of the individual has not only showed the limitations within which alone introspection can be used, but has served to call attention to other forms of comparative 1895,] Psychology. 295 psychology. Researches into the mental life of children, of the lower animals, of the congenitally blind and deaf, of criminals and the insane, have been eagerly prosecuted. It is not easy to estimate the value of this work to psychology proper. It is difficult to get accurate infor- mation as to the mental life of even an intelligent and educated man. When I question him, I can have no security that my question is un- derstood, nor can I know that he attaches to the words of his reply exactly the meaning that I do. In inquiring into forms of conscious- ness still more widely removed from my own, I encounter greater diffi- culties. Not only does the danger of misunderstanding language in- crease, but, in most cases, it is impossible to use language at all, and we are compelled to rely upon analogies based upon movements and expression for our knowledge as to what passes in these lower forms of consciousness. It is not, I think, likely that the science of psychology proper will be much the gainer by this work, except in the case of some special problems. But, on the other hand, it is likely that as our knowledge of human psychology increases, we shall find ourselves more and more able to interpret these divergent forms of consciousness. There is yet another line of psychological inquiry that has been opened within the last twenty years. Thisis the study of hypnosis and allied “automatic” states. It has been prosecuted, for the most part, in France, and, as the work has been done rather by physicians than by psychologists, the value of the inquiry to the pure science is, as yet, undetermined. Several attempts have been made, however, to bring these facts to bear upon the general theory of psychology. The most comprehensive and, in my opinion, the most important, is that made by Pierre Janet in his work on “ Mental Automatism” (“ L’Auto- matisme Psychologique ”) published in Paris about five years ago. Yet another “Richtung” is that commonly known as “Psychical Research.” Its object is the investigation of phenomena supposed to be “supernatural” or “supernormal.” Although not necessarily psycho- logical, it so happens that the great majority of such phenomena have been found to be explicable by simple psychological laws, and it seems, therefore, proper to include it in an enumeration of the chief forms of contemporary psychology. Moreover, many of the phenomena which have not, as yet, been explained by known laws, such as those of tele- pathy and clairvoyance, would seem to require the assumption of new distinctively psychological principles. The conception of evolution in psychology, as in all other branches of science, exerts a controlling influence. Itis clearly recognized that man’s mind, like his hody, is what it is by virtue of the environment in 296 The American Naturalist. [ March, which it exists. The law of preservation has determined the develop- ment of the special senses, the emotions, the impulses, and even of the aspects of consciousness which we are accustomed to regard as distinct- ively human—discursive thought, reasoning and volition. In some cases it is possible to classify mental phenomena teleologically where other bases of classification prove inapplicable, and phenomena form- erly unintelligible sometimes become intelligible from this point of view. Yet it must be admitted that genetic psychology is yet to be. The history of some forms of consciousness, it is true, has been fairly well ascertained. We may be said, I think, to know something of the origin of the emotions, of the “ recept ” and concept, of many impulses and, perhaps, of the simpler types of volition. But no systematic and comprehensive genetic theory has yet been propounded that has met with any considerable acceptance. It is too late, then, for those who are addicted to philosophy, as dis- tinguished from science, to lament the introduction of scientific methods into psychology. Little by little those methods of exact and pains- taking research will make their way into every department of human thought. We are apt to talk much of Logic, Psychology, Ethics and Metaphysics as being the mental “sciences.” We forget that, as sci- ences, they do not yet exist. They exist only as rather ill-coordinated tendencies. Each has a subject matter which is sufficiently well-defined for practical purposes, and each has a few well-worn generalizations that meet with some acceptance. But the very facts with which they deal are still, in large measure, subjects of dispute ; the conceptions under which it is proposed to systematize those facts are rough hewn from the vulgar common sense of the community ; ill-defined and crude, much labor must be expended upon them before we can hope to make our facts intelligible. . This is the work to which the student of mental phenomena must address himself. If we draw a distinction between science and philosophy, even though we cannot, as yet, claim for psy- chology the proud name of a science, let it be once for all understood that she is to be regarded as a scientific rather than a philosophical discipline. ` But why should any such distinction be drawn? The word “ phil- osophy ” is, as I have said, frequently applied to those branches of learning which we have inherited from the ancients, which still pre- serve, on the whole, their ancient form. And the usage is not without justification. For the “ philosopher ” was originally a man who pur- sued knowledge for its own sake, and the knowledge which he acquired constituted his philosophy. But this is what we mean to-day by “ sci- 1895.] Psychology. 297 ence.” Mathematics, physics, astronomy and psychology were all alike parts of the Greek “ philosophy,” and it is not surprising that we have retained the old name for the older science while we have coined a new word for the newer. In course of time, however, all branches of human knowledge will certainly be brought within the domain of sci- ence, and the older word will be free for a new sense. Now there re- mains a science, as yet undeveloped, for whose designation this term should be reserved. When the other sciences have been brought to higher perfection, and we have obtained a more exact conception of the cosmos, we shall desire to understand that cosmos in its relations to the human being as such. This science, to which all other sciences will contribute, which will formulate the laws under which the human con- sciousness stands in its relation to the totality of existence and deduce therefrom the principles by which the life of the individual is to be guided, may justly be termed by that ancient and revered name, Phil- osophy,—The Science.—W. RomArne NEWBOLD. 298 The American Naturalist. [March, ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. The Contention of Mr. J. D. McGuire that stone polishing must be and is as old as stone chipping, and that we have no evidence of a time when man did not know how to polish stone and make pot- tery, induced me when in Europe last summer (1894) to ask several explorers of caves and drift beds in Italy, England and Germany, whether, like Mr. McGuire, they had come to suspect the presence of pottery or polished stone in these oldest human culture layers. Professor Dr. Johannes Ranke, of Munich, has been kind enough to send me the following very interesting series of notes upon the subject, and I hereby print them subjoined to my questions (in italics) as ori- ginally propounded to him.—H. C. Mercer. The Results of Cave Exploration in Germany.—I. Have you found proof in German (Austria-Hungary, ete.) caves, of a time when man was in a Paleolithic state—chipped but could not polish stone—and make pottery ? Ans. My observations and investigations of prehistoric man are given in full in my book “ Der Mensch,” Vol. II, (II edition, 1894, Leipzig, Sibleoz Institute), where answers to all your questions may be found. Further, I would say, that the objects found in one layer of a cave are only in very rare cases proved to be contemporaneous, for exam- ple, the case of the celebrated excavations of Dr. Niicsch, Schaffhausen, Switzerland, in “ Schweizerbild,” (1. Der Mensch, II, p. 454); in other caves many objects of different epochs, some even modern, are found in the same layer. It ison these grounds that I can give no complete proof regarding the cave finds in the district referred to by you, Aus- tria-Hungary, Germany, Switzerland. On the contrary, we have in Germany, Austria-Hungary, places of discovery, not properly caves, in undisturbed diluvial layers, in which objecis found in one layer are entirely proved to be of contemporary date. The place of discovery near Schaffhausen is not a veritable cave, but a shelter under over-hanging rocks, where a layer has been found, layer No. 4, with many remains of the reindeer period, cave bear, diluvial horse, ete. No polished, but only chipped stone; no pottery, no dog. The place of discovery by Saubach offered undisturbed 1 This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania. 1895.] Archeology and Ethnology. 299 diluvial layers with bones of mammoths, rhinoceros, cave lion, and cave tiger, only chipped; no polished stone implements, no pottery, no g- The best examined diluvial places of discovery (reindeer period) in Germany, on the Schasteu Quelle, gives only chipped, no polished stone implements, no pottery, no dog. In the celebrated caves, Ofnet, Hohlefels, Raubershohle, in the layer of discovery of the diluvial man, chipped stone implements were found with pottery, but the pottery is much later and belongs mostly to the Hallstate period. From the Kesslerloch I have myself found a frag- ment of pottery, but it is much more recent. Where fragments of pottery have been found in Germany together with remains of diluvial man, the fragments of pottery are, in my opinion, decidedly much later. All clean places of discovery in undisturbed diluvial layers yield no pottery. Fragments of pottery are wanting also in the station lately so much talked of, containing mammoth, etc., in Piedmont (v. my book, II, p. 493). II. Has pottery been found in layers with mammoth, rhinoceros and cave bear, ete., in German caves ? As above mentioned mammoth, rhinoceros, cave bear, have been found with pottery in the same layer, but not contemporaneously, the potsherds are undoubtedly of much more recent date. The layers in question were not undisturbed ; in the undisturbed layers at Schaff- hausen, no fragments of pottery are found. III. Has polished stone been found in similar layers ? Where polished stone implements have been found in the same layer with diluvial remains, the layer has not been undisturbed. Fragments of pottery and other things were found of the Neolithic period or a still later period. In undisturbed diluvial layers, in our investigated districts, neither polished stone implements nor fragments of pottery have been found. IV. Is there any evidence in German caves or gravel beds to prove or disprove subdivisions of the oldest stone period (Paleolithic) into river drift, Mousterien, Solutrien and Magdalenien (of Mortillet) ? For this kind of discovery we are without the necessary ground. The richest discoveries made up to this time, at least in Germany, have been of the Reindeer period. V. From excavation of German caves do you think that where very prominent and conspicuous, they contain in layers one above another, traces of all savage people who have inhabited the region, i. e., that they 300 The American Naturalist. [March, were places of temporary resort used at all times in man’s history, or that they were only at one age, the fixed habitations of a race of Cave Men? Our caves in Germany point out in their contents a now almost un- interrupted chain of discoveries from the diluvial period, through all the centuries to modern times. Besides bones of diluvial animals, I have found in the same layer pieces of or example of a cooking-pot, also fragments of the Hallstate period. An exact division of layers is almost impossible to accomplish. An exception is offered in the above referred to station of Dr. Nücsch in Schaffhausen (v. my book) where the different layers are distinctly divided. There one finds layers of the different periods one above the other, of all peoples who lived in that region. The caves are like towns, periodical refuges, which were used in all ages of man, and still are to-day. In the cave region of the Franconian Jura, in Bavaria, in the so- called Franconian Switzerland, where you have already excavated yourself, a people in the Neolithic period have been proved to have lived in many grottoes and caves. Our Neolithic people were also cave dwellers there, as well as the diluvial man who lived there, whose traces, mixed with more recent, have been proved to lie there. “Cave Men” were also there before our Neoliths (v. my book, p. 545). VI. Have you noticed any lines of direction of migration in the cave evidence for all Europe? Do the layers get thicker and the remains older as you advance geographically in any given direction, so as to indi- cate that man of that time came to or from any direction ? I have been unable to find any traces of the wandering of diluvial man (v. in my book in map of diluvial discoveries on page 418). JOHANNES RANKE. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST CLUBBING LIST. ee oe regular subscribers and others may, by ordering through us the periodicals for which they desire to subscribe for the year 1895, obtain THE NATURALIST at rey reduced price, if not without cost, as will be noticed by a comparison of the prices give seal Price Our Price Regular Price. of both. r both. 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No. 340 wen CONTEN IS: PAGE, ON THE PRESENCE OF FLUORINE AS A TEST FOR ` THE FossiLizATION OF ANIMAL BONES. Thomas Wilson. 301 EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION AMONGST ngs H. Bailey. 318 ‘OBSERVATIONS ON A SO-CALLED ETER MAN -sM Sedma. 326 _ ON THE VALIDITY OF THE GENUS ES TANA, Chas. T. Simpson. 336 _Epitor’s TABLE.—Moder n Spain Writers. —The Endowment of Original Research — Antarctic Exploration.—W00d’s Holl ; a Cor- 7 ee The xasleselpies Academy an kes Peary. : ECENT LITER Jeeta Ha ger a s—The New Check-List of Plants— Bulletin of the U. 8. Fish Commission Vol. XII—Paleonto y of Missouri, | ~ 348 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. . . . . . <. 353 Comparative Psycho Wane ‘ Pee nd The Antiquity _ GENERAL gee =o | Man at Petit Anse (Avery’s Island), Low Geography and Travels. — Where i is the great- | —Net a a aoc of Arcel olap ee and -est torent Hu the World? - 356 | Geological Specimens na Trip Mineralogy—Symmetry of eghaling aaa Davyne—The inerals of the Emery Deposits of Te es and Cumengeite—The bt eron Soak: eT iN = of jie: -in the Secondary ._ | Avery’s Island ( Petit Aerie Feb. “Ist, ie > S Pe OF Screxrinc Societes. i Doe EWS. Ta Petrography—Some Basalts of Asia ince D The Igneous Rocks of the Eureka District— Notes from Minnesota—The Geology of Dart- moor, Pnglarid Misell keo Notes. er e Geology = Paleontology—Origin of the Cont nental Area of Australia—The Car ararte System of Brazil The Alinities of Agri rus—-The Mastodons ` ea ssia Geological | News, Paleozoic—Mesozoic. Botany— pee Fixation i in Age Rules fot: Citation. . 371 —The Senses of Pikin Make Deep ; (illustrated. )——Destruction of — Entomology—Two o more new | aps! new Trombidian. (1 iustrated.) : 'ytotropism | 335 sychology. Sabi d Morgan's Introduction t to logy. et SOP Mi aoip rerasan of amie, Ma: Ani SRE PHILADELPHIA, Uz. Sk. THE EDWARDS & £ DOCKER co., * 518 AND 520 MINOR STREET. = Philly in Post Office as second-class matter. oe Keigyosha Natural History Store Supplies Museums and Private Purchasers with Zoological, Botanical, Paleontological and Mineralogical Specimens, native to Japan and surrotinding seas, on lowest possible terms. We employ only scientifically trained collectors under the guidance of specialists, and especially recommend the services of Messrs M. Kikuchi and Y. Nawa on our staff. The former, until lately assistant.in the Science College, is familiar with the best modern methods of morphological work, and the latter, a well known entomologist, is an expert in his branch as his beautiful exhibits in the late Chicago Fair well attest. For application and information, communicate to M. KIKUCHI, Keigyosha, Urajimbocho, Kanda, Tokyo, Japan. For cale: First Six Volumes of the American Naturalist [1868=1873] bound in half Morocco, in good condition. The Edwards & Docker Co., 518-520 Minor Street, PHILADELPHIA. e e Wanted: © ¢ Back Numbers “ne American Naturalist In Your Communication Name Price June issue, 1889 ~ Volume XXIII, (1889) complete May issue, 1887 | 386 October issue, 1879 ; June issue, 1881 THE EDWARDS & DOCKER CO., 518-520 Minor Street, , PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST Vou. X XIX. April, 1895. 340 ON THE PRESENCE OF FLUORINE AS A TEST FOR THE FOSSILIZATION OF ANIMAL BONES. By Dr. THomas WILson. The discovery of the existence of fluorine in animal bones was made by Morichini in the early years of the nineteenth century, and was soon thereafter confirmed by the leading chemists, although there were considerable discussions and some disputes in regard to its presence. Berzelius in his Trait? de chimie, Vol. VII, page 473, 1833, reports having cer- tainly found it in animal bones, but says it was less than two per cent. About the same time, Gay Lussac, in his lectures -before the Faculty of Science, says that the fluoride of cal- cium exists in the proportion of about one one-hundredth in the composition of bone and the enamel of teeth. On the contrary, in 1843, Girardin and Priesser, in their Memoire sur les os anciens et fossiles, in the Annales de physique et de chimie, 1843, Vol. III, page 370, declare that they have not been cable to find the least trace of fluoride of calcium in ancient human bones, and that the existence of this salt in recent animal bones is more than doubtful. But this difference was all put to rest and beyond doubt by the investigations of Mons. Fremy in his Recherches chimiques sur les os, Annales de physique et de chimie, 1855, Vol. I, page 47. But it was, as they 11 302 The American Naturalist. [April, say, in a quantity so small that the most delicate mechanism and operation were required to find it, and emphasizing this on page 70, he declines to give any analytic method by which he can determine the exact quantity of this salt in the bones tested. The results of analyses of Von Bibra were to the same effect. Heintz believes that he had found in the ash of the human femur from three to five per cent of the fluoride of cal- cium; while Zaleski made it less than one per cent. The discoveries of prehistoric man in later times has ren- ‘dered this investigation of greater interest than ever before. No prehistoric anthropologist of serious application, but has greatly desired some test which might even, in a measure, de- termine the relative, if not the actual, antiquity of bones found in prehistoric graves. To these persons it will be welcome news that the discoveries of the existence of fluorine in differ- ent proportions in recent bones and those of antiquity will furnish a test of their respective ages, however slight and un- certain it may be. It may be only partial, cannot be de- pended upon in all cases, but will be, nevertheless, a source of gratification if it be a step towards the solution of a contro- verted point. It may be freely conceded that animal bones deposited in one locality may possess a greater quantity of flourine than they would have if deposited in another. The condition of their surroundings, the presence and association of different salts may produce a decided effect upon the results. But there may be cases in which these differences do not exist, and hence, this test may be invoked with considerable benefit. A deposit of human and animal bones may be mingled to- gether, the fossilization of the latter may be determined from other knowledge of their antiquity, while the deposit, being in the same locality, subjected to the same conditions, having the presence of the same chemical constituents, the difference in fluorine of the various bones may afford in some degree, possibly slight, a test as to the antiquity of human bones. Such a test and comparison was sought to be made by the writer in the case of the deposit of animal bones found at Natchez by Dr. Dickeson. Along with them was a fragment of a human pelvis. While they were not actually touching 1895.) Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 303 each other, they were practically so—they were in the same position, same deposit, and, so far as is possible to determine, subject to the same chemical influences: therefore, a compari- son between the two = to give an idea of their compara- tive ages. These bones are shown in one of the alcoves of the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. ‘They are fossil bones of extinct animals of the plistocene period. In color, texture and general outward appearance they have a re- markable similarity as though they belonged together. They are well preserved, firm in texture, and of a dark choco- late-brown color which has been attributed to ferruginous infiltration. They consist of a nearly entire skull of Mega- lonyx jeffersonii, teeth of the Megalonyx dissimilis and the’ Erep- todon priscus, bones of the Mylodon harlanii, bones and teeth of the Mastodon americanus, and teeth of Equus major and Bison latifrons. Along with them is the os innominatum of a human subject. The question affecting the antiquity of man is whether these subjects, the bones of which were found together, were, when alive, contemporaneous, and whether the evidence of age in one is evidence of age in the other. They were all presented to the Academy by Dr. Dickeson at the meeting in October, 1846; description thereof is to be found in the Proceedings of the Society for that year, vol. iii, p. 106. Dr. Dickeson reported at that time that they were discovered by him in a single deposit. at the foot of the bluff in the vicinity of Natchez, Mississippi. He says, “ The stratum that contained these organic remains is a tenacious blue clay that underlies the diluvial drift east of Natchez, and which diluvial deposit abounds in bones and teeth of the Mastodon giganteum ; that they could not have drifted into the position in which they were found is manifest from several facts, first that the plateau of blue clay is not appreciably acted on by those causes that produce ravines in the superincumbent dilu- vium; second, that the human bone was found at least two feet below the three associated skeletons of the Megalonyz, all of which, judging from the position or proximity of their sev- ‘eral parts, had been quietly deposited in this locality; inde- 304 The American Naturalist. [April, pendent of any active current or other displacing powers; and lastly, because there is no mixture of diluvial drift with the blue clay, which latter retains its homogenous character equally in the higher parts which furnished the extinct quad- rupeds and in its lower part which contained the remains of man.” These specimens thus found associated were made the subject of investigation by Sir Charles Lyell, and afterwards by Dr. Joseph Leidy, the latter having published a memoir with illustrations of the human bone in the Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of Science, vol. ii, p. 9. He says, “It differs in no respects from an ordinary average specimen of the corresponding recent bone of man.” Dr. Leidy says Lyell expressed the opinion that, although the human bones may have been contemporaneous with those of the extinct animals with which it has been found, he thought it more probable that it had fallen from one of the In- dian graves and had become mingled with the older fossils which were dislodged from the deeper part of the cliff, and Dr. Leidy adds: “In the wear of the cliff the upper portion, with the Indian graves and human bones, would be likely to fall first, and the deeper portions with the older fossils, subse- quently on the latter.” Although Dr. Leidy testifies to the general similarity of ap- pearance of the human with the other bones, it does not séem to have occurred to him to have them analyzed and compared. Remembering the story told by the analysis and consequent comparison of the Calaveras skull with that of the rhinoceros teeth found in a formation corresponding in age, though in a different locality ; and of the fact apparent therefrom that the Calaveras skull was in an equally advanced stage of fossiliza- tion as the rhinoceros teeth, I deemed it wise to make an ex- amination and test by analysis. To this end I applied to Prof. Angelo Heilprin, and through him to the authorities of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, so a few months since specimens certified by Prof. Heilprin have been taken, one from.the bone of the man and the other from one of the bones of thé mylodon, choosing those which, for size, texture and general appearance, bore the greatest likeness one 1395.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 305 to the other. These were submitted by me to Mr. Hildebrand, a Chemist of the United States Geological Survey, on duty at the National Museum, who furnishes the following result of his analysis. Two Fossirt Bonss. Man. Mylodon. Per cent. Per cent. eee eee GS as, 4.55 6.77 Loss on estar coe See SIO Re 21.18 Silica. = Oe : < 2209 3.71 Phosphoric na e GF e vee 23.24 Ree Sw ALOJ. 3.21 4.02 trom protoxide . . . (FeQ) .., 5.65 4.44 Manganese pon oi Cee OPS. 1.65 3.40 lame na n oe (EQ) Soe 2038 30.48 Magnesia py a ME Oye © 0.95 0.78 98.41 97.02 “Alkalies, carbonic acid and fluorine were not looked for, owing to the small amount of available material, hence the low summation.” The failure to test for fluorine is much to be regretted, and was the cause of a second application for a greater quantity with which to make another analysis. It will be reported further on in this paper. The importance of this analysis will be apparent at a glance. The human bone is in a higher state of fossilization than is that of the Mylodon. It has less lime and more silica. In their other chemical constituents they are without any great difference. Of lime the bone of the Mylodon has 30.48%, while that of man has but 25.88%. Of silica the Mylodon has 3.71%, while man has 22.59%. Iam well aware of the ordi- nary uncertainty of this test when applied to specimens from different localities and subjected to different conditions; but in the present case no such differences exist. - The bones were all encased in the same stratum of blue clay, and were subjected 306 , c&n. The American Naturalist. [April, practically to the same conditions and surroundings. As one swallow does not make a summer so the discovery of one spec- imen does not prove the antiquity of man; but it is to be re- marked that upon each discovery and in almost every investi- gation the evidence found points towards higher antiquity of man and tends to show the occupation of the earth by prehis- toric: man to be more and more extensive. This discovery is simply a fact to be put down to the credit of the high antiq- uity of man. We should proceed in the same direction to dis- cover other evidences, to investigate the value of those already found; and as they accumulate, each one, or all together, should be given. their fair value, in the endeavor to arrive at a truthful conclusion, independent of a priori theory or pre- conceived idea. The possibility of the determination of the relative antiquity of human bones found in prehistoric graves has set the chem- ists and prehistoric anthropolgists to an investigation of the fluorine test. Mons. Zaborowski presented a paper before the Academy of Sciences at Paris on the 1st of May, 1893, upon the differences in the chemical composition between two skel- etons alleged to be prehistoric, those of Thiail and of Villejuif. ‘These analyses were made by Mons. Adolphe Carnot, En- gineer-in-Chief of Mines, and a professor of the Superior School of Mines, Paris. The result of these analyses was to show that the skeleton of Villejuif was much the oldest of the two and that it accorded well with other ancient bones which, from their surroundings and associations, were definitely de- termined. In the Bulletins de la Societe d’Anthropologie of Paris, Vol. IV, No. 6, the Seance of 18th of May, page 309, Mons. Emile Riviére gave the results of his investigations, comparisons and analyzations of alleged prehistoric bones belonging to the deposit of Billancourt. The excavations of this deposit have been pursued by Mons. Riviére during the seven years from 1875 to 1882, and the extinct fauna which he ` had obtained therefrom consisted of Elephas primigenius, Rhi- noceros tichorinus, Cervus megaceros, Tarandus rangifer, Bos primigenius, etc. There were also found in one of the river drifts in the immediate neighborhood of Billancourt, the re- 1895.] Fluorine as a Text for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 307 mains or fragments of two human skeletons. These human bones were transmitted to the museum with the suggestion that they belong to the same epoch and, consequently, were of the same antiquity as the deposit of Billancourt, although MM. Riviére and Gaudry, judging from the aspect, texture, density and, in fact, in all their physical characters, were of a contrary opinion. "This last proposition was combatted by several members of the Congress, and it was insisted that the human bones were contemporaneous with the ancient animal bones. These bones were afterwards, and for the purpose of settling or aiding at least in settling the disputed question, submitted to Mons. Carnot, who reported in his analysis that fluorine in the human tibia was but rvs of one per cent, while in the animal bones it was found in quantities of one per centand x. Mons. Carnot reports that, taking the average of the specimens, the presence of fluorine in the animal was from seven to nine times greater than that in the human skeleton, and that the human skeleton contains nothing or but slightly more than was to be found in modern bones; and his conclusion was that the human bones were much more recent. Mons. Carnot has given the results of his investigation, the manner of the con- duct of his experiments, his method of analysis, and his-opin- ion of the whole matter in a recent paper in the Annales des Mines, 2nd Bulletin of 1890, page 155. The remainder of this paper is, for the most part, a transla- tion of that of Mons. Carnot which, made by the present writer, has very kindly been revised for correction of chemical terms and formule by Prof. R. L. Packard. Process of Analysis pursued and recommended by M. Carnot.— Bones are composed partly of mineral and partly of organic matter. We are to deal only with the mineral, but must first determine the amount or proportion of the organic matter, and to this end the specimen to be operated upon is calcined at a moderate temperature, in such way as to preserve only the ashes or burnt bones. The caustic lime produced by calcina- tion is converted into carbonate of lime by the addition of car- bonate of ammonia, evaporation and calcination near 200 de- grees before weighing the ashes. By taking the weight of WE The American Naturalist. . 63% [April, fragments of bone well washed and dried, then the weight of the ashes, the difference may be consislered as representing the the weight of organic matter. The ash of modern bones is el of the following ele- ments: tribasic phosphate of lime in the largest proportion, with asmall quantity of phosphate of magnesia, very little, fluoride and chloride of calcium, carbonate of lime, very little peroxide of iron and of aluminum and, finally, an extremely small proportion of alkaline salts, as chlorides, sulphates and, possibly phosphates. In the fossil bones we will see that the proportions of phos- phate and of carbonate of lime vary, that those of magnesia and of chlorine change very slightly, while the fluoride of cal- cium is in a greater and more important quantity. There is often much more oxide of iron and sometimes phosphate of iron, sometimes crystallized silica, frequently a little sand or clay, and finally, in certain cases, sulphate of lime and pyrites. Complete Analysis. —This operation, performed upon modern bones, comprises the following : 1.—Determination of fluorine. 2.—Determination of chlorine. 3.—Determination of carbonic acid. 4.—Determination of phosphoric acid and the bases (lime, magnesia, alumina, and oxide of iron). 1. Fluorine——The determination of fluorine is performed in the method described in detail in the Annales des Mines, 1st number; 1893, page 130; the general features of which, how- ever, are as follows: The decomposition of the fluoride in pres- ence of a great excess of silica by concentrated sulphuric acid, in an apparatus entirely dry, with a slow current of dry gas running through it; the transformation of gaseous fluoride of silicon into fluosilicate of potassium, which is collected, washed, dried and weighed. If the chlorine is in a quantity not to be neglected, it is absorbed by passing the current of gas through pumice impregnated with sulphate of copper and heated until the dehydration is complete, The same reagent 1895.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 309 will arrest sulphuretted hydrogen when the calcined matter contains a sulphide which is decomposed by sulphuric acid. If there be organic matter which can evolve sulphurous acid, the latter can be retained by the use of caustic lime freshly calcined. In the case of substances containing iodine, it is moved by means of the copper turnings placed before the sul- phate of copper. In determining fluorine, 5 grams of the ash of modern bones to 2 grams of fossil bones are employed in such way as to always have a convenient quantity of fluosili- cate of potassium to determine on the balance. 2. Chlorine—For the determination of chlorine a special operation is performed, treating one or two grams of ash by cold nitric acid slightly diluted. When the solution is com- plete, we add water and nitrate of silver. The weight of chlo- ride of silver dried, will give the proportion of chlorine. 3. Carbonic Acid—The proportion of carbonic acid enabling us to calculate the carbonate of lime is obtained by attacking from two to four grams of ash by nitric acid in a small flask exactly weighed and provided with a tube containing pumice saturated with sulphuric acid (pawnce) to retain humidity. At the end of the operation, the carbonic acid is replaced by dry air by aspiration, and the apparatus is weighed. The loss of weight represents the carbonic acid disengaged. 4. Phosphoric Acid, Lime, Magnesia, Alumina, and Oxide of Iron.—Two grams of ash are used in this operation. Dissolve in hydrochloric acid and heat in a capsule of platinum a suffi- cient length of time to drive out the fluorine. The solution di- luted with water, is then filtered, afterwards saturated by am- monia until the commencement of precipitation of phosphate of lime, then redissolved by acetic acid added little by little in slight excess in such a manner as not to produce a noticeable heating of the liquid. Phosphate of iron is precipitated in this way alone or with phosphate of aluminum. If this precipitate is almost insig- nificant, we take the weight after washing and ignition and according as (1) the absence or (2) the presence of aluminum is observed, we calculate by the following formula the weight 310 -The American Naturalist. [April, of the different elements (without separating the iron and aluminum): (1.) P,O,Fe,0,=p, P,0,=0,47p, Fe,0,—0,58p. (2.) P,O;(4§28!)=p, P,O,=0, 50p, (49262) =0,50 p. If the precipitation is somewhat voluminous, the elements are determined by separating the phosphoric acid by mol- ybdate of ammonia. The acetic liquid, from which phosphate of iron and aluminum has been removed, is diluted to 200 cubic centimetres. Exactly the half is then taken to deter- mine the lime, the magnesia and the phosphoric acid; the other half is put in reserve to verify the result in case of need. The addition of oxalate of ammonia, neutral and pure, will determine the precipitation of lime, which is separated as ox- alate and is determined as caustic lime, carbonate or sulphate of lime. The filtered liquid, supersaturated with ammonia, is left in repose during 24 hours and gives a precipitate of am- moniomagnesium phosphate, of which the weight, after igni- tion, enables us to calculate the magnesia and a part of the phosphoric acid. : P,0,2MgO—p,, 2MgO=0,36p,, P,0,—0,64p, The rest of the phosphoric acid is precipitated in the final solution by the magnesia mixture, and is determined as P,O,2Mg0. Rapid Methods.—In the large series of modern and fossil bones which have been examined, it would have taken a long time and been, perhaps, without penefit to make the complete analysis. In most cases it is sufficient to make, along with the qualitative analysis, the exact determination of fluorine as fluosilicate of potassium and the rapid determination of phos- phorie acid by means of a standard solution of uranium. This operation is executed in the following manner: 2 grams of the ash are dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the liquid is neutralized and the phosphate of iron or iron and aluminum separated as before described, of which we take 47 or 50 per cent. to represent the weight of the phosphoric acid. Almost 1895.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 311. all the phosphoric acid is found in the acetic solution with which we proceed to a volumetric test. It is unadvisable to pour into the acetic solution the standard solution of ura- nium, because the latter will cause some phosphate of lime to precipitate with the phosphate of uranium and we should, in consequence, find too small a proportion by measuring the volume of uranium solution employed. We arrive at a more exact result by making the determina- tion by the indirect method: We dilute the liquid to 200 cubic centimetres, then pour it, with the aid of a graduated burette, into a measured volume of a standard solution of nitrate of uranium, to which is added a little acetate of soda ‘slightly acidified by acetic acid and the solution is heated to near 80 degrees. We stop when one drop of the liquid, placed on a porcelain saucer, in contact with a little ferrocyanide of potassium in powder, will cease to give a brown color. In order to standardize the solution of uranium, we operate in the same manner, starting with an exactly known weight of phosphate of lime. : By taking phosphate of lime exactly analyzed, we succeed better than by taking pure phosphate of soda, because ~ we standardize and make the determination in conditions which are identical. We add pure water to such extent that 40 cubic centimetres correspond exactly to 0.200gr. of phos- phorie acid (or 1 cubic centimetre to 0,005gr. of P,O,). The operation should be performed a second time for verification. In the assay of a phosphate, if one operates on 2 grams and makes the acetic solution up to 200 cubic centimetres, we can calculate the proportion of phosphoric acid from the volume V of thefliquid which will have saturated the 40 cubic centi- metres of the solution of uranium. The volume contained 0.200gr. of phosphoric acid. As a consequence, in 1 gram of phosphate, or 100 cubic centimetres of the liquid, there would be Ogr, 200+" (V being expressed in cubic centimetres). The following table gives the results of analyses for a certain number of bones of varied origin. These analyses confirm at nearly all points the conclusions that M. Fremy has drawn from his numerous analyses. We remark with him as to the constancy in the proportions of 3i? The American Naturalist. [April, phosphate and carbonate of lime in genuine bones, whether we compare the different parts of the same bone, the different | s |3 TET L pi » |3 ilaa 14 la 1.3 EE S$.) €/8 3188/18 3/8 EOIS Sz] ¢ 153 E fie! & te hiro wie Ble a we S a joo FAR = 23s Bliss ie ria o 4 H g as | El g A Sieg legal! Rojo p bi es av eo|g lee ve be © La D a 5 5 dals Keele sigaqie isa) 2 S 5 Sg Ee Snr te ET Sieg ssla |H |A wok gaja Š g 2 Jok PE ev V. dV) Wa | Ve | oe | XI. 87,45 6er a 81,82 | 90,03 | 86,87 | 82,08 | 89,80 | 80,37 | 81,87 | 87,67 | 87,32 1,57 | 1,75| 1,53| 262) 1,96| 3,82] 15,72] 1,91] 1,46] 1,49] 1,05| 1,69 0,35! 0,87} 0,45| 0,63; 0,47| 0,43| 0,20} 0,43) 0,27] 0,35 0,33 | 0,57 sesesees] 0,23 | 0,30] 0,30) 0,36| 0,20] 0,20 traces) 0,20| 0,10] 0,16} 0,34| 0,24 ef 10,18] 9,28 11,96 | 14,25 727 | T7] 2, 7,41 | 16,58 | 15,80 10,69 | 9,88 0,10 | . 0,13 | 0,13 | 0,15 | 0,15 | 0,15 |. 0,08 | 0,15 |_1,09 | 0,13) 0,17 | 0,12 Y 99.98 | 99,65 | 100,09! 99,83 | 100,08 100,11 100,12" 99,90 | 99,87 | 99,80 | 100,25! 99,82 bones of the same individual, or the bones of animals of differ- ent species. The same observation can be made for the pro- portion of fluoride of calcium which appears always to fall within the limit from 4 to } per cent. Chloride of calcium is almost always in less quantity than fluoride; it is the same with the oxide of iron except in the shell of the turtle trionyx (IX). It is necessary, nevertheless, to notice some exception in this constancy of proportion in bony substances of special nature, like the teeth or tusk of the elephant and the shell of the turtle. The phosphate of magnesia, almost always less than 2 per cent, is raised to near 4 per cent in the tooth of the elephant (VI) and passes 15 per cent in the tusk of the ele- phant (VII) of which it contributes, possibly, to augment the compactness and resistance. At the same time the carbonate of lime which often forms more than 9 per cent of the sub- stance of bone, drops to 2 per cent in the ivory. The carbonate of lime is sensibly in superior proportion in the average of bones of herbivorous animals, and above all, in those that live in water, the manatee and the turtle (IV, IX, X). The principal object of this paper has been to compare mod- ern bones with fossil bones of similar species in order to dis- cover the relative amount of fluorine and phosphoric acid, and to that end numerous analyses have been made, the results of which can better be given in the form of a table. 1895.]; Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 318 The first column of figures gives the proportion of phos- phoric acid, the second the proportion of fluorine, the third gives the calculated ratio of this proportion of fluorine to that of an apatite having an equal amount of phosphoric acid. gr) | ; g | © 8 | S > e | < Q a = ie = z= Bones of Modern Animals. E B Z eae 3 E 3 Fs li A : = | > A S sc eat ; | Human Femur—Body | 40,91 0,17 0,05 Human Femur— Head | 41,20 0,18-.| - 0,06 Human rib 36,80 0,22 | 0,06 Bone of Ox 40,10 0,25 | 0,07 Boné. OF OR ys oci us se soesvaesale. Gisiasss-vosess 40,32 0,238 | 0,06 Bone of Elephant 41,24 0,23 | - 0,06 Tooth of Elephant—Dentine.... csee ........es0066/ 41,77 0,21 0,05 Modern Ivory 46,12 0,10 0,02 Bone of Manatee 38,93 0,31 0,09 Bone os 38,03 0,27 0,08 ne ytina giga 39,52 0,24 0,07 ne of White Swan 38,20 0,19 05 Shell of the Trionyx . essees] | 37,54 0,13 0,04 ne of Testudo radiata 38, 0,17 ,05 Bone of-large Serpent...............cseceeee sesseesesenees 42,16 0,21 0,05 ile 40,88 0,16 0,04 Bone of TB eciine. Sedvcctevesteccobeteicansneseccececs 40,91 0, 0,07 n pine ‘ur cane 40,96 0,11 0,05 Bone and Spine of Codfish....... 41,27 0,24 0,06 Bone and Spine of Pike. 38,26 | . 0,16 -0,05 It can be seen from this table that the amount or quantity of Fluorine in these modern bones is always between 0,16 and 0,31 p. 100, while the amount of phosphoric acid in the same is between the limits of 37 and 42 p. 100 (the ivory being an exception). The relation between the amount of fluorine with that of phosphoric acid in the normal apatite is found to be between 0,05 and 0,07 per cent, the exact average for the 20 analyses being 0,058. T 314 _ The American Naturalist. [April, Fossil Bones.—The following tables give the result of corre- sponding tests upon fossil bones, for comparison and to ob- serve the modification produced by fossilization : 2 g TA Ə 8 = S p 3 3 E ae n D m Ee ee lec S cles | pe aS » Ò Ba b> 2 ne a on S A : Bs B= g a £ 2 3° page) g ge G3 E r e | £ aa 431388 E R pen 23 ae |=) 2 te oo; | G gO E H a g FA 4 GEIE = vajag] a? jas | ee | ae ; Sg siesis? EA «8 Complete Analysis. 3 8 ae daro 3o ae > Q Oo; Set os ge | =| 8885 | $9 | es Qa 08} eee | oe | ab aq v SR g Se . 13 88 S lees\ ce | es a3 È S Sah 23 48 sel Sei sPlioeo; St | os op o8,| og EDE SS 2 os| 2A | 2% PSs! Sul BS Sdi gn] os Peal a2 | 4 ag Ag Re 25/4) A8 AD aig | oo BEE) 62 | oa 3 | 5 | Me) 2 3 osphate of Lime... . | 64,63. | 79,05 | 68,53 | 12,90 |... 67,70 Phosphate of Magnesia 1,97 | 0,65 27 Phosphate of Iron (P,0°F*e0')......... 9,63 | 1,84 68 | 4,98 |: 0,62 iini Peroxide of Iron 7,10 Fluoride of Calcium 0,88 | 1,70 | 3,82 | 3,42 traces| 5,31 Chloride of Calcium.. ............sss00+, 0,44 | 0,48 0,3 Carbonate of Lime............0se0++++ -+| 21,20 | 15,98 | 15,68 | 51,56 |...-.-+5 15,01 ilica.. 0,75 | 0,10) 0, Sulphide of Iron (FeS?) 24,92 Sulphate of Lime ,23 Silica and Clay 1,57 Quartz seetecsone | 98,45 |....ceece Organic matter. | 5,67 Loss on ignition | .... 0,88 s.sseseso TOt aes evscscces| 99,50 ‘99,30 99,63 99,83 99,95 100,79 *Note.—There remained of this only a thin crust of phosphate of iron, the central part was formed of crystals of quartz enveloped in a gray-blue quartz- “ mass, traversed by gray veins that served to bind together the phosphated en- .velope. rg j t á : p . | It is to be remarked that the first four analyses report only the mineral portion of the substance, the organic matters hav- ing first been abstracted; while in the last two, the organic 1395.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 315 matter has been reported. - The relative proportions between the fluorine and phosphoric acid will be set forth further on in these tests or assays and are classed according to their geo- logic deposits. It is deemed proper to cite other tables made by other chem- ists and reported from standard works. This for the purpose of comparison : Fossil Bones after Girardin and Preisser, reported in the Annales de Physique et de Chimie, 1843, Vol. 3, p. 370. | z Pai § Pret ee reo G f = 80 E Erg | RE E A S Be N Foote ee E 4 >] z rA e © o T =} a a 2 z Ba Errr a = S 2 = 2 3 = | 2 7 E etait eialei2iss < o oe f] 3 oe o = © a A a» © | = P| | k ~ | | Metacarpal o “of Fossil | | | | } | News Cavern of Mialet, | | | | | j | PEER EAO A O S Turia 1.80 | 7.17. | 75.45 | BBE eic] TEAS TOORN ia nT 100 2. f Fossil Ele- | } | | | phan “Alluvial deposit at | | | } | Baiat ' Pierre sur Dives. | | i | | | (Calvados. ) n.se ss ssssssrs retas Riki traces | 75.91 | 3.15 |........ 198.40 ELR aias 100 3. t jos | | | | saurus erred | | | | p Oxfordian food T | | | Maps me eet ides 2.20 | 4.80 | 54.20} 4.61) 6 40| 10.17) 2.11 | 9.21 | 6.30 100 "E rge bone of the Poe- | | | kilopleuron bucklandii | | quarries of Maladrerie,cal- | Asa Ju ae "E URRAS PASARE EN FTIA poai 0.12 | 25.31 | 0.86 | 1.29 i.n. 100 j. Jchthyosaurus-——. bone fo the Dives rg pate Weve 1.34 | 46.00 | 1.00 | 16.11 | 31.09} 1.02} 3.21 ).......2./} 100 5; ‘ pacaesenbne bone, from the chalk chlo- n pee Scull, 8.19 | 76.00} 1.08! 0.70} 10.00; 0.12; 3.01%......... 100 C. OSAUT HUS from the urasi, EENE 0.60 | 7.07 | 70.11 | 1.45 aa 17.12 | 1.65] 2.00 |2........ 100 3. Bone 0: na! : aa] ear Val- À ogani | 76.40 meisit Oti | O08 |) + S421 TOOT 200 Sone agg gira ao, Straits of Magellan, S 5 ETA A LIT POLIS) O86 ioi 14.48 po RS Ras eee At 100 It is to be noted that the last number given for the fluoride of calcium shows that the exactitude of these analyses are not always to be es phone } 316 . The American Naturalist. : [April, Fossil Bones after Mons. Fremy. Annales de Physique et de Chimie, 1858, Vol. I, p. 88. Í E | = | fz | EAE ate te | e EE | a 2 |H |@s| 3 igo 2 eet a re Teal a DA Q 3 Q aS) o + 5 | = su = a 3 ey ae ihe ote a = a: | Ro» z a E E R a aE E e = = | © | S Mada d | : 1. A fossil Ox from Caverns of d’Oreston: the meta- | near hias exterior = having the aspect KA wood........ 80.4] 71.1) 1.5 | 11.8 10.3 2. The same—interio re ome friable............... O06 a6 bodied: ELS [ccs 11.0 3. The baii 84.2 | 6.33| 1.2 | 5.2) 17.2 8.0 4 h patay of e of fost Saineseros from Sansan, (Gers.)..| 834| 5.90 |.........| 41.3| 2.6 |traces 83.1} 6.68 }......... | 27.5] 1.4 |traces A ot Bone of fossil Hyzna from Cavern of Kirk- | dale 75.5 | 72.0 Bi Aali 20.0 7. Dorsal Vertebra of fossil Rhinoceros........-.....-..-..--. 69.5 | 25.7 .4 |} 57.6 „E 8. Humerus of s: 73.0 | 32.4| 0.4 | 64.0 ʻi 9. Teeth of same....... 90.4 | 65.2| 0.7 | 13.8 | 14. 10. Tusk of the fossil Mastodon 90.4| 565| 0.7 | 13.1 | 24.8 11. Bone of fossil Bear—solid part 83.9 | 59.7 4 | 23.6 i 12. The same—spongy part............. 76.7 | 28.1 .2 | 67.5 | 14.0 13. — Armadillo scales 80.7 | 55.0 A | 28.8 | 12.4 14. Anoplotherium, fossil rteb f the tail 84.0 | 53.1 4 | 20.4| 19.4 15. Vertebra of the fossil Turtle 87.0) 61.1 Ne | 10.6 | 18. cer ij Observations.—The present composition of these fossil bones results both from their initial composition at the epoch when they belonged to the living animals, and the alterations inci- dent to the diverse influences of atmosphere, soil and water during a long’ series of centuries. Comparing the results of these analyses of different modern animal bones, results with but feeble divergencies, we are authorized to believe that it was the same in past time and that the initial composition of the bone was practically uniform. The influences which have operated upon the fossil bones since they were buried in sedi- mentary deposits have produced modifications which are more or less important and quite varied. The proportion of organic matter has always been much diminished; from 35 to 40, which seemed to be the original proportion, it has descended in the process of fossilization from 6 to 12 percent. These differ- ences testify at the same time to the permeability of the earth by air and water, of infiltration and to the degree of com- pactness or porosity of the different bones or to the different parts of the same bone. The modification in the organic mat- 1895.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 317 ter of the bones has not been examined, but the reader is rec- ommended to an interesting study upon that subject by Mons. Scheurer-Kestner in the Bulletin de la Societe chimique, 1870, Vol. I, page 199, and Vol. II, page 11. As for the mineral substances of these bones, the differ- ence is sometimes small, but other times large from the initial composition. The proportion of carbonate of lime is generally increased, although in a measure extremely variable. The amount of phosphate of lime has frequently diminished, whether by reason of solution and infiltration of water or by the formation of phosphate of iron. The magnesia is found in pro- portion nearly identical to those which existin the bones of liv- ing animals. The boneshave always retained a notable quantity of iron, whether in the state of hydrate of peroxide which col- ors them a reddish-brown, or in the state of phosphate of per- oxide, rarely in the state of ferrous phosphate. The reducing actions have sometimes determined the deposit of sulphide of iron under the form of pyrites inattackable by hydrochloric acid. This has taken place notably in the vertebra of the ichthyosaurus from the Kimmeridgian clays of Havre. There is sometimes found in these bones, a certain quantity of sul- phate of lime. The calcination with organic matter could give rise to the sulphur. The bones contain frequently a small quantity of clay or of silica in the form of quartz. They are also, though rarely, almost entirely transformed into crys- talline or crystallized quartz; such is the case with the speci- men from the trias at Bayreuth. The chlorine is almost always in slight proportion in the fossil bones as well as in the modern, especially if one has taken care to eliminate by washing the soluble chlor- ides, and to leave only the chloride of calcium combined with the phosphate of lime. Fluorine is found always in a greater and more important quantity corresponding to several hun- dredths of fluoride of calcium. This salt forms with the phos- phate of lime a nearly insoluble compound comparable to ap- atite; it appears to augment, in a certain measure, with the antiquity of the bones, so that one is able, up to a certain point, to find in the relative proportion of phosphoric acid and of fluorine, an index to the degree of fossilization. 12 (To be continued.) 318 The American Naturalist. | [April, EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION AMONGST PLANTS! By L. H. Barrry. De Varigny has written a most suggestive book upon Ex- perimental Evolution, in which he contends for the establish- ment of an institution where experiments can be definitely un- dertaken for the purpose of transforming a species into a new species. “In experimental transformism,” he writes, “ lies the only test which we can apply to the evolutionary theory. We must use all the methods we are acquainted with, and also those, yet unknown, which cannot fail to disclose themselves when we begin a thorough investigation of the matter, and do our utmost to bring about the transmutation of any species. We do not specially desire to transform any one species into another known at present ; we wish to transform it into a new species. . . . Experimental transformism is what we need now, and therein lies the only method we can use.” This is a most commendable object, and I hope that the at- tempt will be made to create a new species before our very eyes. This is what most people demand as a proof of evolu- tion, and they are sometimes impatient that it has not been done; and it would seem, upon the face of it, that nothing more could be desired. When I reflect, however, upon the fact that this very thing has occurred time and again with the horticulturist, and consider that botanists and philoso- phers persist in refusing to see it, I am constrained to offer some suggestions upon De Varigny’s excellent ambition. If I show a botanist a horticultural type of recent or even con- temporaneous origin which I consider to be specifically dis- tinct from its ancestors, he at once exclaims that is not a spe- cies but a horticultural variety. If I ask him why, he re- plies, “ Because it is an artificial production!” If Ishow him that the type is just as distinct from the species from which it 1Abstract of an address before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Boston, Feb. 23, 1895. 1395.] Experimental Evolution Amongst Plants. 319 sprung as that species is from its related species, and that it reproduces its kind with just as much certainty, he still replies that, because it is a horticultural production it cannot be a species. In what, then, does an accidental horticultural origin differ from any other origin? Simply in the fact that one takes place under the eye of man and the other occurs somewhere else! It isimpossible at the present day to make a definition of a species which shall exclude many horticultural types, un- less an arbitrary exception is made of them. The old defini- tions assumed that species are special creative acts, and the method of origin is therefore stated or implied in all of them. The definition itself, therefore, was essentially a statement of the impossibility of evolution. We have now revised our defini- tions so as to exclude the matter of origin, and thereby allow free course to evolution studies; and yet here is a great class of natural objects which is practically eliminated from our consideration because, unhappily, we know whence the forms came! Or, to state the case differently, these types cannot be accepted as proofs of the transformation of species because we know certainly that they are the result of transformation ! Now, just this state of things would be sure to occur if De Varigny were to transform one species into another. People would say that the new form is not really a species, because it is the result of cultivation, domestication and definite breed- ing by man. He could never hope to secure more remarkable transformations than have occurred a thousand times in the garden; and his scheme—so far as it applies to plants—is es- sentially that followed by all good gardeners. Or, if the preju- dices of critics respecting the so-called artificial production of species could be overcome, he could just as well draw his proofs of evolution from what has already been done with cul- tivated plants and domesticated animals, as from similar re- sults which might arise in the future from his independent ef- forts. Iam'not arguing against the scheme to create a species before our eyes, but I am simply stating what has been and is the insurmountable difficulty in just this line of endeavor— the inability of the experimentor to satisfy some scientific men that he has really produced a species; for it is a singular thing 320 The American Naturalist. [April, that whilst all biologists now agree in defining a species upon its tangible and present characters, many of them nevertheless act upon the old notion that a species must have its origin somewhere beyond the domain of exact history. This notion that a species, to be a species, must have origi- nated in nature’s garden and not in man’s, has been left over to us from the last generation—it is the inheritance of an ac- quired character. John Ray, towards the close of the seven- teenth century, appears to have been the first to use the word species in its technical natural history sense, and the matter of origin was an important factor in his conception of what a species is. Linneus’ phrase is familiar: “ We reckon as many species as there were forms created in ‘the beginning.” Dar- win elaborated the new conception—that a species is simply a congregation of individuals which are more like each other than they are like any other congregation—and with a freedom from prejudice which is rarely attained even by his most de- voted adherents, he declared that “ one new variety raised by man will be a more important and interesting subject for study, than one more species added to the infinitude of already recorded species.” The old naturalists threw the origin of the species back beyond known causes; Darwin endeavored to discover the “ Origin of Species,” and it is significant that he set out without giving any definition of what a species is. I have said this much for the purpose of showing that it is important, when we demand that a new species be created as a proof of evolution, that we are ourselves open to the conviction that the thing can be done. I have said that no modern naturalist would define a spe- cies in such terms that some horticultural types could be ex- cluded, even if he desired that they should be omitted. -Haeckel’s excellent definition admits many of them. In his view, the word species “serves as the common designation of all individual animals or plants, which are equal in all essen- tial matters of form, and are only distinguished by quite sub- ordinate characters.” It is impossible, however, to actually determine if one has a species in hand by applying a defini- tion, One must show that his new type—if it is a plant—has 1895.] Experimental Evolution Amongst Plants. 321 botanical characters as well marked as similar accepted spe- cies have, and these characters must show, as a whole, a gen- eral tendency towards permanency when the plant is normally propagated by seeds. He must measure his type by the rule of accepted botanical practice. Ifthe same plant were found wild, so that all prejudice might be removed, would the bot- anist unhesitatingly describe it asa new species? If yes, then we should say that a new species had been created under the hand of man; and this rule I wish now to apply to a very few familiar plants. In doing so, I do not wish to be understood as saying that I consider it advisable to describe these plants as species under the existing methods of botanical description and nomenclature, for, merely as a matter of convenience and perspicuity, I do not; but I wish to show that they really are, in every essential character, just as much species as very many other universally accepted species are. [The speaker then produced numerous instances of the evo- lution of forms of garden plants, in various genera, which are as distinct from their parents and from each other as accepted species of the same genus are; and these forms are as perman- ent, when multiplied extensively through many years by means of the seeds, as these wild species are. “Here we have absolutely new and unique types, as De Varigny demands, and they are as distinct from each other and from their parents, in accepted botanical characters, as ‘ good species’ in the same genus are from each other, and they perpetuate these characters as unequivocally as those species do. Moreover, we know definitely what their origins were, and they therefore answer all the purposes of experimental evolution. “ All this is but another illustration of how tenaciously bot- anists still hold to the Linneean idea of species, whilst they profess the Darwinian idea.’ I have now brought to your attention a few familiar plants for the purpose of showing that what are, to all intents and purposes, good species have originated in recent years; and that, whilst botanists demand that the origination of species within historic times shall constitute the only indisputable proof of organic evolution, they nevertheless refuse to accept 322 The American Naturalist. [April, as species those forms which have thus originated and which answer every demand of their definitions and practice. The proofs of the evolution of species, drawn from the accepted practice of the best botanists themselves, could be indefinitely extended. We need only recall the botanical confusion in which most cultivated plants now lie, to find abundant proof of the evolution of hundreds of types so distinct that the best botanists have considered them to be species; but other bot- anists, basing their estimate of species upon origins, have re- duced them or reincluded them into the form or type first described. Consider the number of species which have been made in the genus Citrus, comprising the various oranges, lemons, limes and the like. Recall the roses. The moss-rose and others would be regarded as distinct species by any bot- anist if they were found wild and if they held their characters as tenaciously as they do under cultivation. In fact, the moss-rose was long regarded as a good species, and it was only when its origin began to be understood that this opinion was given up. The earlier botanists, who were less critical about origins than the present botanists are, made species largely upon apparent features of plants, although their furidamental conception of a species was one which was created, as we find it,in the beginning. Yet, strangely enough, we at the present day profess to regard species as nothing more than loose and conventional aggregations of similar individuals and which we conceive to have sprung from a common ancestor at some more or less late epoch in the world’s history,—we make our species upon premises which we deny, by giving greater weight to obscurity of origin than we do to similari- ties of individuals. The fact is that much of the practice of systematic or de- scriptive botany is at variance with the teachings of evolution. Every naturalist now knows that nature does not set out to make species. She makes a multitude of forms which we, merely for purposes of convenience in classifying our knowl- edge of them, combine into more or less marked aggregations to which we have given the name species. Now and then we find in nature an aggregation of successive individuals which 1895.] Experimental Evolution Amongst Plants. 323 is so well marked and set off from its associated groups, that we think nature to have made an out and out distinct spe- cies; but a closer acquaintance with such species shows that, in many cases, the intermediate or outlying forms have been lost and that the type which we now know is the remainder in a continuous problem of subtraction. In other cases, it ap- pears to have arisen without intermediate forms, as a distinct offshoot from an older type. This is well illustrated in many remarkably distinct garden forms, which originated all at once with characters new to the species or even to the genus. I have mentioned such a case in the Upright tomato. Even the sudden appearance of these strange forms is proof that species may originate at any time and that it can be no part of our fundamental conception of a species that it shall have originated in some remote epoch. Species-making forever en- forces the idea of the distinctness and immutability of organic forms, but study of organisms themselves forever enforces an opposite conception. The intermediate and variable forms are perplexities to one who attempts to describe species as so many entities which have distinct and personal attributes, So the garden has always been the bugbear of the botanist. Even our lamented Asa Gray declared that the modern gar- den roses are “too much mixed by crossing and changed by variation to be subjects of botanical study.” He meant to say that the roses are too much modified to allow of species-mak- ing. The despair of systematic botanists is the proof of evo- lution ! I repeat that mere species-making, in the old or conven- tional sense, is an incubus to the study of nature. One who now describes a species should feel that he is simply describ- ing a variable and plastic group of individuals for mere con- venience’ sake. He should not attempt to draw the boundary lines hard and fast, nor should he be annoyed if he is obliged to modify his description every year. This loose group may con- tain some forms which seem to be aberrant to the idea which he has in mind; and it would seem as if he should be ready to call them new or distinct species whenever, from whatever cause, they become so much modified that it is convenient, for purposes 324 _ - Lhe American Naturalist. [April, of identification and description, to separate them from the general type. Just as soon as botanists come to feel that all so-called species of plants are transitory and artificial groups maintained for convenience in the study of nature, they will not ask whether they are modified outside the garden or in- side it, but will consider groups of equal distinctness and per- manence to be of equal value in the classification of knowl- edge, wholly aside from the mere place of their origin. At the present time, the garden fence is the only distinction be- tween many accepted species and many discarded ones. The cultivation of man differs from the methods of nature only in degree, not in kind; and if man secures results sooner than nature does it is only another and indubitable proof of the evolution of organic forms. It is certainly a wholly un- scientific attitude to demand that forms originating by one of nature’s methods are species, while similar forms originating by another method are beneath notice. If species are not original entities in nature, then it is use- less to quarrel over the origination of them by experiment. All we want to know, as a proof of evolution, is whether plants and animals can become profoundly modified under different conditions, and if these modifications tend to persist. Every man before me knows, as a matter of common observa- tion and practice, that this is true of plants. He knows that varieties with the most marked features are passing before him like a moving panorama. He knows that nearly every plant which has been long cultivated, has become so pro- foundly and irrevocably modified that people are disputing as to what wild species it came from. Consider that we cannot certainly identify the original species of the apple, peach, plum, cherry, orange, lemon, wine grape, sweet potato, Indian corn, melon, bean, pumpkin, wheat, tobacco, chrysanthemum, and nearly or quite a hundred other common cultivated plants. It is immaterial whether they are called species or varieties. They are new forms. Some of them are so distinct that they have been regarded as belonging to distinct genera. Here is the experiment to prove that evolution is true, worked out upon a scale and with a definiteness of detail which the 1895.] Experimental Evolution Amongst Plants. 325 boldest experimenter could not hope to attain, were he to live a thousand years. The horticulturist is the only man in the world whose distinct business and profession is evolution. He, of all other men, has the experimental proof that species come and go. 326 The American Naturalist. [ April, OBSERVATIONS ON A SO-CALLED PETRIFIED MAN. By J. M. STEDMAN.’ Wits A REPORT ON THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. By J. T. ANDERSON.” On the 28th day of August, 1894, a human so-called petri- fied body was found by some workmen while repairing a pub- lic country road about one mile south of Tuskegee, Macon Co., Alabama. A few days later I heard of the find, and imme- diately proceeded to Tuskegee to make an investigation of the body and of the locality where it was found, and to obtain samples of the water, earth and body. Through the kindness of Mr. J. S. Webb, who had the body in charge, I was enabled to make an examination on, and to procure portions of the body from the several places as sam- ples. As Mr. Webb was trying to sell the body as a curiosity, he did not wish me to mutilate it any more than was neces- sary. I obtained, however, portions of the intestine, a section 75 x 25 mm. through the ventral abdominal wall, several pieces of muscle with tendon from the ankle, and a section 100 x 100 mm. was cut out from the dorsal region of the thigh and extending to the bone in thickness. Mr. Webb, by the way, offered me the body for the college museum for $75, but, as I hoped to be able to procure it later as a donation, I refused. He sold the body in a few days for $150, and it is now being exhibited in the villages and cities of the country, much to my regret. The body is that of a Negro woman who was evidently rather fat. From two elderly gentlemen, who are now hving in Tuskegee, and who remember the circumstances of the bur- ial, I learned that the body was buried in 1837 in what was 1 Professor of Biology in Alabama Polytechnic Institute, and Biologist of Ex- periment Station. ? First Assistant Chemist of Experiment Station. 1895.] Observations on a So-called Petrified Man. 327 then a small neglected country or family burying-ground, sit- uated a few rods from the road. They also remember the burial, at about the same time, of an Indian but a few feet from this Negro; and I am trying to have the Indian dug up to ascertain whether it is likewise preserved or not. In company with several citizens of Tuskegee I drove to the scene of the find. The burial ground is near the top of a very large flat hill or plateau, and a few rods south of the grave is a small marshy or swampy bog, while some seven meters to the east there is aspring. Several years ago the public road was moved a few rods to the south in order to give it a better grade up the hill, and as the small, neglected burial ground had not been and was not worth keeping up, and was no longer used as such, the road was cut through a portion of it; and most people had now forgotten about its existence. The road was cut about one meter below the surface, and the ditch at the side was directly over the Negro woman’s body, and served to carry off the water from the spring just above. The result was that the body lay but about one-third of a meter below the ditch, and the water from the spring kept it continually wet, even when no water appeared on the surface. While the work- men were repairing the road and picking in the ditch, they hit something that proved to be a pine board. On removing it they came upon others, which they removed, and thus ex- posed a plain pine coffin in a remarkable state of preservation. The soil where the body was found is sandy, with enough fine, light-colored clay and moisture to give it the appearance of mortar. When a portion of the soil was dried, it held to- gether with great tenacity, and the dirt left on one’s hands be- came nearly white on drying, and felt smooth and slippery ` like powdered talc; in fact, I could detect no difference as re- gards looks or feeling. Portions of the soil had streaks of red color, probably due to iron. The hole left by the removal of the coffin soon filled with water, the soil being extremely wet, although very little moisture appeared on the surface on ac- count of excessive dry weather. The water had a decided milky appearance. I obtained samples of the soil from the bottom. of the hole, from the sides, and from the earth just 328 The American Naturalist. [April, above; and also samples of the water from the hole. These were placed in thoroughly clean jars brought for the purpose. The first thing to be noted is the fact that the boards that covered the coffin, as well as the coffin itself, were in a perfect state of preservation—not a sign of decay was to be found. ` They looked like newly-planed boards that had been exposed to the weather for about six months; just long enough to par- tially color the wood gray. The nails in the coffin had all rusted away. On opening the coffin, the body of the Negro woman was found to be in a remarkably good state of preservation. Of course it was saturated with water, but, nevertheless, it was firm like hard cheese, so that the workmen pronounced it pet- rified when they touched it, and found it would not give or bend. In general, the body at first glance has very much the appearance of sheet asbestos, being dirty-white in color, with a certain grain in places, due to the connective tissue in the fat where the skin is wanting. The abdomen and to a certain extent the thorax is swollen and bloated, so that part of the abdomen pressed tight against the top of the coffin, thus show- ing that decomposition had started when the body was first buried, and had continued for a short time. It is to be noted that no part of the body was decomposing when found, and it has shown no signs of doing so since; neither does it smell— all decomposition that had taken place was now checked. The head is not well preserved, part of the cranium having been decomposed, and other parts partially so, and more or less sep- arated. All the hair, with part of the scalp is, however, well- preserved, while the face had been partially decomposed. One wrist and both ankles had been badly decomposed, and part of the feet and one hand slightly decayed. Some of the toe and finger-nails were perfect, others partially or wholly decayed, The rest of the body is practically intact and well-preserved, except that in places the skin is wanting; but this does not make itself apparent to the ordinary observer. With a scalpel I cut through the ventral abdominal wall from right to left, and then cephalad at the two ends. The body at this place cuts very much like dense cheese. The cut 1895.] Observations on æ So-called Petrified Man. 329 portion was then lifted up and turned back, thus exposing the viscera beneath. The intestines, and in fact all the viscera, were only partially preserved. They had become more or less decomposed, and had then been checked in their decomposi- tion and preserved in that state from further change. There was no particular smell from the abdominal cavity, and no decomposition was in progress. The intestines were moist, . loose and pliable, and the fceces still preserved in them. All the viscera were light in color, due to the partial deposition in them of the finely-suspended, and perhaps more or less solu- ble, mineral matter in the water that filled and covered the body. The deposit of this mineral matter was not in sufficient quantity to give the tissue much firmness. The abdominal wall which was cut through in order to ex- amine the viscera, was 30 mm. thick, and owed its dense, cheese-like consistency and firmness to the deposition in it of the finely suspended mineral matter contained in the water that constantly saturated the body. The abdominal wall was practic- ally completely charged with the mineral matter, while the process of filling the viscera had but nicely commenced. The mineral matter was extremely fine and of a light or almost white color, and thus it was that the body appeared light. So far as I was able to determine, this mineral matter in the tis- sues of the body is the same as that held in suspension in the water, and which gave it the milky appearance; and also that which in the soil or sand gave it the appearance of mortar, and that when dry, looked and felt exactly like powdered tale. With the exception of the fat, the tissues of the abdominal wall were practically intact, the mineral matter simply saturating them and filling up all thespaces; in the fatty tissue, however, which composed a large part of the abdominal wall at this point, there had been more or less substitution of the mineral matter for the fat. This substitution was, roughly speaking, about half and half. Hence it was that where the skin was wanting, there appeared a grain, due to the connective tissue remaining, while the fat was partially substituted. Wherever the skin was preserved, the black pigment could be distinctly seen in a cross-section. 330 : The American Naturalist. [April, In cutting and then removing the 100 x 100 mm. piece from the back of the thigh, I was surprised to find that the deposi- tion of mineral matter had taken place to the extent of 25 mm. in depth, and that from this point inward the muscular, con- nective and other tissues were in such a perfect state of preser- vation, that they looked and felt exactly like fresh corn-beef. The flesh or muscle was of a dark red color, and of a perfectly natural and fresh consistency, showing no signs whatever of having undergone the slightest decomposition ; it did not emit any more odor than fresh meat. The perimyseum appeared perfectly natural, the tendons glistened as well as the perimy- seum near them, and the connective tissue was, to all appear- ances, as strong and well preserved as one could expect to find it in a body dead but twenty-four hours. On teasing the mus- cles, the fasciculi held together perfectly naturally, and the only difference besides color that I could then detect between this muscle and a perfectly fresh one was that this appeared to have a little more firmness, but it was very slight, and if compared with fresh corn-beef this difference disappears. It is also to be noted that the external layer, averaging 25 mm. in thickness, where the deposit and substitution of mineral matter had taken place so completly, and which covered the entire body and gave it its consistency, that this region was quite sharply marked off from the region below. In other words, the deposi- tion and substitution of mineral matter had taken place to the extent of about 25 to 30 mm. in depth all over the body (wherever examined it was of this depth), and rendered this portion very dense, tough and firm; and, instead of gradually merging into the soft almost unchanged inner portion, the change was quite abrupt. From an examination of the ab- dominal wall, I at first supposed this abrupt and sudden change to indicate and be due to the region of fatty tissue, but I found, on further examination, that the abrupt change took place in the muscular tissues of the thigh, where little or no fat was to be found. _ On reaching my laboratory, I made a microscopical exami- nation of the samples of tissue by means of sections and teased preparations, in order to determine the extent of the preserva- 1895.] Observations on a So-called Petrified Man. 331 tion of the histological structures. I found that the skin was nearly substituted by mineral matter in most places, and in some wholly substituted. The fatty tissue was also substituted by mineral matter to the extent of about 50%. The muscular tissue, where the deposit of mineral matter was greatest, did not seem to have been replaced to any considerable extent, but was simply saturated with the deposit. Where the muscles were still soft, the fasciculi, and even the fiber cells with their striæ, were remarkably well preserved and easily demonstrated. The perimyseum and tendons were practically perfect. The connective tissue was surprisingly perfect, the only change being the loss of the connective tissue corpuscles in many places; but even these were found in the better preserved soft muscular tissue. The nerves were not well preserved histo- logically. The blood-vessels in the soft muscles were fairly well preserved ; the blood-corpuscles were not to be found. The periosteum and the bone was perfect, except in those regions like the head and ankles where decomposition had taken place. I then examined, by the agar-agar plate culture method, the muscular tissue for bacteria, and found none. The water taken from the hole, left by the removal of the coffin, also failed to reveal the presence of bacteria on an agar-agar plate culture of 1 ec. of the water. A piece of the soft muscular tissue from the thigh was then placed in a museum jar of water from the grave. This jar was opened every few days for more than a month, and the muscle taken out to show it to visitors. The water, jar or muscle had not been sterilized ; no caution was taken, in opening the jar, to close it for some minutes, nor to protect the piece of flesh. I did this in order to determine how long it would keep under those conditions, and I therefore watched it and made exami- nations from time to time. To my surprise, the piece of mus- cle is this day, the 15th of December, 1894, of a reddish color and looks quite natural, but I now find, on examination, that it is becoming softer, and that bacteria have made their ap- 332 The American Naturalist. [April, pearance, so that the tissue will ultimately decompose’. It was this test that I wished to finish that prevented me from pub- lishing this article just as soon as the chemical analysis was completed. The large piece cut from the thigh was placed in an empty museum jar in order to keep it as moist and natural as possi- ble, and to observe how long it would thus resist decomposi- tion. The piece was frequently taken out of the jar to allow visitors to examine it. I found, in about two weeks, that a small mould was making its appearance on the surface, and I then cut it in halves, and placed one in alcohol and the other on my table and allowed it to dry. Of course the specimen in alcohol is preserved, although it does not look natural; it has become darker colored, and the flesh has shrunken and become harder, while the hard external region of greatest deposition of mineral matter has become much softer. The specimen exposed on the table dried in a few days with the usual changes, and is now preserved in that state, and shows no signs of moulding or decaying. The entire body is now dry, and will keep, no doubt, indefinitely in that condition. Of course the greatest interest attaches itself to the question of the cause that checked decay and preserved this body for 57 years, with the certainty, I might say, of doing so indefi- nitely, and, perhaps, of ultimately converting it into a hard fossil by substitution. It was with this object in view that I obtained samples of the water and earth from the grave, and gave them to Dr. Anderson for chemical analysis, and also portions of the body itself for chemical analysis. And, now that the analysis of all these has been made, I must confess I do not see my way clear. I cannot understand why decom- position should not have continued on the inside until the viscera and muscles were obliterated. The body seems to have acted like a filter, and to have taken out and held in itself the finely suspended, and perhaps also some soluble mineral sub- stances in the water. This filtration naturally saturated the 3 Since writing the above the proof has just reached me (llth of March, 1895), and as nearly three months have elapsed since the observation was made, it may be of interest to note that I have kept the sample of flesh on my desk ever since, and that it is to-day only partially decayed. 1895.] Observations on a So-called Petrified Man. 333 external layers of tissue first, and, when found, had not ex- tended far inside. I think I can understand, then, why it is that the external tissues are preserved, but I do not understand the preservation of the inner tissues. I do not believe that the small amount of lead found in some portions of the body itself can account for the preservation. Can it be that the silica, alumina and oxide of iron held in suspension, and the silica, lime and magnesia in solution in the water could have pre- vented decomposition? The three ingredients, silica, alumina and magnesia constituted the bulk of the mineral substances deposited in the tissues, and that near the periphery, was in - sufficient quantities to give it a firm consistency. The soil contained nearly 3% soluble silica, and the water contained a large percentage; but can this account for the preservation? The observed tact is that the body was preserved and decay completely checked, and I can only account for it by saying that the combined action of all the ingredients of the water— silica in suspension and in solution, alumina and oxide of iron in suspension, and lime and magnesia in solution—is to be looked upon as the cause. And, what is still more obscure, is the fact that the body was buried with a shroud (or some clothes), while all that now re- mains of it is the imprint nicely stamped on that part of the abdomen that had swollen and pressed closely against the lid of the coffin, and also on the lid of the coffin where some of the mineral matter is adhering. Every thread of the cloth is as plainly visible in the impression as it is possible to make them with plaster casts. It appears to have been a cotton sheet, but not a fiber of the original cloth isto be found. Now, why was this cloth not preserved? If it was cotton cloth, its chemical composition was practically the same as that of the pine coffin which was perfectly preserved; if the cloth was woolen (there can be but little doubt that it was cotton), its chemical composition was practically that of the hair which was also perfectly preserved. I cannot account for this to my own. satisfaction, and will offer no suggestions; to me, this is more difficult of explanation than the preservation of the body. 13 334 The American Naturalist. [April, Through the kindness of Dr. Anderson, First Assistant Chemist on the Experiment Station, who made the chemical analysis of the water, soil and body, I am enabled to submit herewith his report on the same: With a view of determining the agency by which the body was kept in so excellent a state of preservation, the soil in which the body was buried, the water which percolates through the soil from the spring above, and the flesh from the body itself were all subjected to chemical analysis. The soil presents no peculiarity in its composition, further ' than it is a highly silicious soil. It contains 95.91% of insolu- ble residue, and 2.94% of soluble silica, thus giving nearly 99% of silicious matter. Next in importance as regards quan- tity comes alumina and oxide of iron—nearly 1#—and then lime, magnesia, and the alkalies in minute quantities. When found, the coffin containing the body was submerged in water, and when the coffin was removed, the hole soon filled with water. A sample of this water was taken for analysis. After remaining in the bottle undisturbed for four or five weeks, a considerable sediment, chiefly of sand, formed in the bottom, but the supernatant liquid remained decidedly milky in appearance. The suspended matter which caused this milkiness was found to be silica and alumina, with oxide of iron. The water presented no other peculiarity, but contained lime and magnesia. Naturally, the chief interest attaches to the chemical exam- ination of the flesh itself. To preserve the specimen in the condition in which it was found, it was kept in a bottle witha ground glass stopper. Determinations were made of water, fat, organic matter other than fat, and ash. From a number of determinations the following averages are taken: Water, 55% ; organic matter, 44%, 32% of which was fat; and ash, 1.22%. The least amount of mineral matter found was 0.33% — and the largest, 2.10%. It was found to contain silica, alu- mina, oxide of iron, lime and magnesia. But, in my estima- tion, the most important find was lead. This was not found uniformly distributed throughout the specimen. From two to three grams of the flesh were used in each determination. In 1895.) Observations on a So-called Petrified Man. 335 two of these samples not a trace of lead could be found; in three or four others a perceptible quantity was obtained, while in one a sufficient quantity was gotten to make a metallic bead. There can be no doubt, therefore, that lead in some form exists in the body. It was found in a part of the speci- men which had been kept several weeks in alcohol, and hence must have been incorporated with the tissues of the body. Whether lead was the sole agency in the preservation from decay, I cannot say; but that it exerts an influence in that direction cannot, I think, be doubted. It is recorded that a solution of sugar of lead, among other things, were used as an embalming fluid during the Civil War. It is hardly probable that the body in question was embalmed, as it is that of a Negro; but some salt of lead may have been administered as a medicine. It is well-known that lead is a ‘‘ cumulative” in its nature—that is, when taken into the system from time to _ time, even in small quantities, it is not thrown off as is usual, but is retained in the system and thereby accumulates. May not the presence of lead in the body under examination be accounted for in this way? It is a matter of regret that reli- able facts relating to the history of the case before us are un- attainable. 336 The American Naturalist. [April, ON THE VALIDITY OF THE GENUS MARGARITANA. By Cuas. T. SIMPSON. In 1817, Schumacher founded the genus Margaritana' for the Mya margaritifera of Linnaeus, the Unio margaritifera of subse- quent authors, on account of the fact that, whereas the shells of the latter genus had both cardinal and lateral hinge teeth, this species had only the cardinals. Say’s Alasmodonta, applied in 1818’ to other Naiads having similar teeth, is synonymous. A number of forms have since been added to the groups, mostly by Dr. Lea, and, as it stands to-day, it includes some 26 or 27 species, all confined to North America, with the exception of the type, which is circumboreal. The soft parts of the different members of this assemblage do not differ generically from those of Unio, and any separa- tion from that genus can only be founded on the character of the teeth which I have mentioned. The Margaritanas do not, taken as a whole, form a natural group, but are, undoubtedly, polyphyletic in their origin, several of them being evidently much more nearly related to certain Unios than they are among themselves; and it is only reasonable to suppose, when the facts are all carefully considered, that most, if not all the species, have sprung from different groups of Unios.’ The genus Unio may be divided into a large number of sec- tions, which are, I think, unworthy of subgeneric rank, but which consist of species that are shown to be closely related by characters of the animal and shell, by habits and the facts of their distribution. In a majority of these groups, though cer- tain species may be considered fairly typical, a close relation- ship is shown to other groups by species which seem to stand | Essai d'un Noveau Syst. des Habits, des vers Testaces, p. 137, 1817. ? Journ. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci. I, p. 459, 1818. * The earliest recorded species referred to Margaritana is, I believe, the M. nebrascensis Meek (Rep. of the U. S. Geol. Surv. of the Territories, Vol. IX, p- 114, 1876), from the Upper Missouri Cretaceous. The genus Unio is now believed to date back into the Triassic. 1895.] On the Validity of the Genus Margaritana. 337 between and partake of the characters of two or more assem- blages ; sometimes to that degree that they might, with equal propriety, be placed in either of two or three sections. The same thing is true of the Margaritanas to some extent, and, while a few of the divisions of this so-called genus do not seem to be very closely related to anything else, others show such strong affinities to certain groups of Unios, that they will have to be placed with them in anything like anatural arrange- ment. In the Mississippi Malley and on the Atlantic Slope, there is found a small group‘ of Unios fairly typified by U. pressus, which consists of compressed, rather quadrate or rhomboidal shells, with strongly undulate beaks, and faintly rayed green epidermis. In the right valve of all these forms, the hinge plate is cut away directly under the beak, and there is a long, curved lateral, and a tolerably perfect, compressed cardinal, the latter separated from the edge of the shell by a deep, parallel sided socket. In the left valve is a somewhat triang- ular, recurved cardinal, which exactly fits into and fills up this missing area in the hinge plate of the opposite valve; another cardinal fills the parallel sided socket, and there are a couple of usually somewhat blurred laterals. In this group I should place Unio pressus, tappanianus, charlottensis, neglectus, and possibly one or two others. , Now Margaritana rugosa bears so strong an external resem- blance to Unio pressus, that one is often taken for the other by persons familiar with the species; the principal difference being that the former is generally somewhat corrugated on the posterior slope, while the latter is without this sculpture, though this distinction does not always hold perfectly good. The arrangement of the teeth is precisely the same in both, but in the Margaritana the hinge plate is a little heavier, and the laterals are more blurred or imperfect. Dr. Lea carefully examined specimens of the animals of both, and it will be seen that they are very much alike by the descriptions which I give in his own language. Recently, Dr. V. Sterki, a careful anato- mist of New Philadelphia, Ohio, who has dissected these spe- cies, has reached the conclusion that they are very nearly re- lated. 338 The American Naturalist. [April, LEA’S DESCRIPTION OF Unio pressus AND Margaritana rugosa. Unio pressus Lea. Branchial uterus occupies the whole of the outer branchie. Branchiz large, rounded be- low, free nearly the whole length of the abdominal sac. Palpi small, subangular, united half way down the pos- terior edges. Mantle thin, slightly thick- ened on the margins. Branchial opening large, blackish on the edge, and with numerous papille. Anal opening rather small, blackish, and without pa- pillæ*. Superanal opening rather large, united for some distance below, blackish on the edges. Color of the mass dirty white. Embryonic shell subtrian- gular, light brown, has hooks. Margaritana rugosa Bar. Branchial uterus occupies the whole of the outer branchie; brownish, forming a large, massive lobe which extends below the margin. Branchie very large, round- ed below, the inner ones much the larger, free nearly the whole length of the abdominal sack. Palpi rather small, subtri- angular, united nearly one- half way down the posterior es. Mantle rather thin, much thicker at the margin, black- ish on posterier basal edge. Branchial opening rather large, with small, brown pa- pillee. Anal opening rather large, without papille. Superanal opening very large, with a dark brown line within, united below. Color of the mass salmon. Embryonic shell triangular, brown, has hooks. * Agassiz claimed that two distinguishing characters of the genus Margaritana were (Archiv. fur Naturgeschichte, 1852, I, p. 41) that certain species had gills free from the mantle at their posterior extremities, and that the anal region was not fringed, while in the typical Unios the branchie and mantle were united pos- teriorly, and that both siphonal openings had papillae. According to this, Unio pressus and its allies, though having lateral teeth, would be Margaritanas. 1895.] On the Validity of the Genus Margaritana. 339 It is probable that when Dr. Lea described these two ani- mals, he never thought of their being closely related, yet, with a few trifling exceptions the description of one would answer for the other. In Margaritana complanata, which is a some- what solider, more rounded species, there is essentially the same arrangement of the teeth, the beak sculpture is exactly like that of the group, and specimens are occasionally found which approach Unio pressus in form. Unio charlottensis, a member of this section, is shaped much like Margaritana complanata, and the characters of the animal of the latter show that it is closely related to the other species of the group. In the section typified by Margaritana margaritifera, we have a set of Naiads all having elongated, usually arcuate shells, with black, rayless epidermis. They have commonly two more or less perfectly developed cardinals in the left valve, and one in the right; the hinge plate is elongated, narrow just behind the cardinals, but becoming heavier near the pos- terior end, and generally rounded on its inner face. All the species which I place in this group have a rather wide border of the prismatic outer layer of the shell:projecting beyond the nacre, and which is plainly visible from the inside, and all occasionally have dark-colored blotches on the nacre. Iin- clude in it Margaritana margaritifera Linn., having a circum- boreal distribution ; M. hildrethiana Lea, of the central Missis- sippi region ; Unio monodontus, found in the same territory as the last ; Unio decumbens Lea, of Tennessee and Northern Ala- bama ; Unio hembelii Con., of Louisiana; Unio crassus Retz., of Southern Europe, and U. laosensis Lea, of Southeastern Asia. In Margaritana hildrethiana, there are seldom any laterals, while M. margaritifera often has them more or less perfectly developed. A lot of the latter in the National Museum (Mu- seum No. 60,878) from the State of Washington, have a single, well-developed lateral in each valve, while two specimens in the Lea collection, one from Maine (Mus. No. 86,285) and another from Massachusetts (Mus. No. 86,286) have as perfect cardinals and laterals as any Unio. Unio monodontus usually has the cardinals more or less blurred, and sometimes in old specimens they are reduced to mere tubercles or are even ob- 340 The American Naturalist. [April, solete, while a good series of shells will show every variation from those with no laterals at all, to others in which they are perfect. The latter species has been placed by some authors in Unio and by others in Margaritana. In Unio decumbens and hembelii there is a somewhat better development of laterals, though they are often not quite perfect, while in U. crassus and laosen- sis both cardinals and laterals are like those of ordinary Unios. Here then in a group of Naiads, which at least by the shell characters appear to be closely related, we have every variation from species which occasionally have neither cardi- nals or laterals to those in which they are perfect. So far as is known the animals of these different species do not greatly differ, and Lea’s description of that of Margaritana margaritifera would almost exactly answer for that of Unio monodontus. ; Margaritana confragosa, a species found sparingly through- out a considerable part of the Mississippi drainage basin can- not be referred, I think, to any group of Unios, but it evidently has a much closer relation to the Asperrimus and Plicatus groups than to any Margaritanas. This relation is shown in the form of the shell, which is like that of the species of both of these groups, and by its sculpture, there being two rows of tubercles radiating from the beaks after the manner of those of Unio asperrimus, and the body of the shell being plicate as are all the members of the Plicate group. The hinge of this species seems to have become somewhat degenerated or weak- ened, as it is of unusually light structure for so heavy a shell, and such teeth as appear are generally somewhat compressed. In some specimens the posterior cardinal of the left valve is recurved and cut into serrations on its edge, and fits into a somewhat open space under the beak of the right valve, some- thing after the manner of the Pressus group. It will be found in occasional specimens of the Asperrimus group that this pos- terior cardinal though much heavier, is recurved and serrate on its edge, and that there is a partial corresponding break in the usually wide hinge plate of the right valve. But in a large series of M. confragosa almost every variation may be 1895.] On the Validity of the Genus Margaritana. 341 found from a narrow to a heavy hinge plate, and the same is true among the Unios I have just mentioned.’ Margaritana holstonia and. M. georgiana, the latter being per- haps synonymous with the former, so closely resemble some of the Unios of the group typified by U. nashvillensis that Dr. Lea himself sometimes referred specimens of them to some of these species, and their only essential difference is that they are generally destitute of the lateral teeth which are present in the Unios. Such species as Margaritanar liana, spillmanii and related forms have no laterals, and only partially developed cardinals. In most of the specimens the hinge line is incurved in the region of the rudimentary cardinal teeth, exactly as in the so- called Anodonta edentula and its allies, all of which bear close relationship to them, and I believe that they should all be placed in the genus Unio, since their animals, so far as is known, agree well with those of that genus. 1! Lea’s description of the soft parts of Margaritana confragosa agrees very closely with that of Unio lachrymosus, which is synonymous with U. asperrimus Unio lachrymosus Lea. | Margaritana confragosa Say. Branchiæ very large, inner ones | Branchix very large, nearly semi- very much the larger, rather thick, circular, inner ones much the larger, very much rounded below, free nearly | free the whole length of the abdominal an whole length of the abdominal | sac me | T Pipi very large, transverse, rather Palpi very large, pendant, mney thin, subelliptical, united half way | united half way down the poste down the posterior ed edges Mantle rather thin, with a broad | Mantle rather thin, with a thickened thickened margin. broad margin Branchial opening very large, with Branchial opening rather large, with numerous rather small, branched | numerous small, brown papillz. papille. Anal opening rather small, without Anal oa very small, with very papille. minute papill Super-anal opening very large, Gupeanat be opening large and united slightly colored on the edges, united | below, with a dark line on the inner for asmall distance below, color of the | edges. Color of the mass whitish. mass whitish. The above are Lea’s descriptions of the two species. 342 The American Naturalist. [April, It would be very interesting indeed to know the exact cause of the obliteration of the teeth of these so-called Margaritanas. The teeth of the Naiads seém to be peculiarly susceptible to injurious influences, and many cases among them somewhat similar to that of the Margaritanas might be cited. In Oris- taria, a Chinese and Japanese group, the cardinals are gener- ally though not always obsolete, while the laterals in young or merely adult shells are developed. Old specimens are fre- quently without teeth, like the Anodontas, in which case they are probably absorbed in the process of growth. There is a group of peculiar Naiads found in the East Indian Archipelago, typified by Unio bengalensis Lea, of thin structure and lurid purplish or reddish color throughout, having a wide, internal prismatic border visible. In all of them the teeth when present are greatly compressed, and they occur in various stages from a perfect condition to almost complete obliteration, so that the species have been divided up between Unio and Anodonta. The fact that certain specimens of a given species in the group may have well developed teeth, while in others they may be almost completely wanting leads me to place all the species, which seem to form a very natural group, in Unio. Pseudodon is another genus in which it is quite probable the teeth have degenerated from some cause until in most cases only a single, rounded tubercle, answering to a cardinal, re- mains in each valve, and one of the Chinese Naiads Unio biasianus is a perfect Margaritana with blurred laterals like M. rugosa, though the species probably groups with the well known Unio sinensis. And it is likely that Bowrguignat’s genus Cameronia, in which the shell is only toothed behind the beaks, is a depauperate state of Pleiodon, a genus in which the teeth are found throughout the entire length of the hinge plate. It is a fact that those species of Unios which seem most closely related to the Margaritanas usually have more or less imperfect laterals, and sometimes feeble or blurred cardinals. In many localities a large proportion of the specimens of one or more species of Unio, especially adult or old shells, while apparently healthy in every other way show diseased hinges in which the epidermis is folded in and greatly pro- 1895.] On the Validity of the Genus Margaritana. 343 duced, and the teeth and plate are badly injured. And the erosion of the beaks so common to Naiads in many streams usually damages the teeth. There seem to be two forms of hinges among the so-called Margaritanas, the one like that of M. margaritifera and holstonia, in whichthe area occupied in the Unios by the laterals is smooth and destitute of teeth, the other like that of M. com- planata and calceola in which the laterals are badly blurred and broken up as if by disease; the plate being covered with long, low, irregular ridges which run somewhat diagonally across it from the region of the beaks towards the interior of the shell. I would suggest that different causes may have operated to produce these different conditions. Dr. Dall holds, and I believe with good reason, that the teeth of bivalve shells are developed for the purpose of keeping the valves in their proper place. In such cases as they interlock it is well-nigh impossible that one valve should be twisted out of place with- out injuring the animal or its shell. Nearly all Unios which have strong, perfectly developed teeth live in running water, often in rapid currents, in fact it is well known that the Unios are more generally inhabitants of streams and rivers while the Anodontas, which have no teeth, live as a rule in ponds or other still waters. The different species of Cristaria, in which the teeth are reduced to mere rudiments, live in ponds and the ditches of rice fields, in the mud. Unio hembelii, with very faint laterals is found in the sluggish bayous of Louisiana. Margaritana monodonta, which is often nearly destitute of teeth, though living in rivers is almost invariably found under stones in mud, as is M. hildrethiana; both of them therefore being protected from currents. I think that the want of teeth in such forms can be explained by supposing that they have degener- ated on account of their being no longer needed. Such species as Margaritana confragosa, rugosa, complanata and the like, which have blurred or distorted teeth usually are found in running water, often in rapid streams, and I am inclined to believe that they are forms which are peculiarly susceptible to injurious influences, and that their teeth have become diseased on account of these influences. And it seems 344 The American Naturalist. [April, to me not improbable in certain cases, where water and other elements of environment appear to be favorable for producing normal conditions of the hinge, that the fact of this part of the shell being nearly always blurred and distorted goes to show that the diseased condition has become more or less fixed and is inherited. Be this as it may the evidence of the shells and soft paté seems to show clearly that Margaritana is not a valid genus, but that the name merely stands for certain groups or parts of groups of Unios of polyphyletic origin, and that all the species will have to be relegated to the genus Unio. 1895.] Editor’s Table. 345 EDITOR’S TABLE. —TueE evolutionary doctrine leads us to expect that definitions of natural divisions as genera, families, orders, etc., will be ultimately rendered inapplicable through the discovery of intermediate forms. This result has, to some extent, followed paleontologic discovery. The abolition of definitions, however, can never be complete, and many will remain in accordance with the doctrine of “expression points.” Evolution of characters, while gradual at bottom, ceases to be so in expression, when two or more stimuli coincide to produce something ‘more than the arithmetical sum of the two might lead one to expect. Moreover, there are many “ expressions” which only become apparent at a definite stage of development. The eruption of a tooth, for in- stance, is only accomplished when the line of the alveolar border is passed by the base of the crown as it rises. Yet the growth was, per- haps, uniform throughout. Especially has the “law of release ” of en- ergy probably often operated to render the immediate appearance of a structure possible, although the approach to the point of release may have been uniform and gradual. These facts are opposed to the view that systematic divisions are phylogenetic lines. The former run transverse to the latter, and are generally polyphyletic. ; These remarks are apropos to the frequent carelessness exhibited by some modern writers in tħe use of systematic terms, family sub- family, ordinal names, etc., who use without reference to their relation to the divisions which have long borne, and must necessarily bear, those names. New names are used for divisions already named, or so nearly covered by old names that the creation of new ones is inexcusable. In the hands of some authors, almost every conspicuous genus becomes the type of a new family. Such authors are frequently at no pains to define the divisions thus proposed. The chief sinners in this direction appear to be the paleontologists and embryologists, who are sometimes unfamiliar with systematic biology. In the midst of this carelessness, it is pleasant to refer to the Catalogues of the British Museum issued of recent years. So far as regards the Vertebrata, while we cannot praise their treatment of the North American species, in their syste- matic work there is conservatism and conscientiousness, which is worthy of imitation everywhere.—C. —Tuerk is still a lack of appreciation on the part of the benefac- tors of their fellow citizens of the importance of original research. 346 The American Naturalist. [April, Although many facts of detail are known, few general laws are fully established, and fewer are fully understood. Before we shall grasp the laws of nature, much research will be necessary. The unexpected character of some modern discoveries furnishes ample evidence that - research is the only key to knowledge, and that until our hypotheses have the support of abundant facts we must not value them too highly. An illustration of the failure of speculation to anticipate discovery, is the knowledge that various growth functions are carried on by free and wandering cells, who act as carriers of substances to and from tissues. Research in all directions in fact, meets with such reward that it should be sustained by all persons who desire to encourage the progress of knowledge. But the rich men of our country do not dis- criminate between this function or that of teaching. They found Uni- versities with praiseworthy and princely liberality, but research has to struggle with poverty of means and deficiency of time. Great libra- ries are founded, but the work in the laboratory from which issue the books which create libraries, receives comparatively little substantial encouragement. It is also the fact that the general public does not discriminate between the distributor and the producer of knowledge The compiler is often mistaken for the discoverer. The education offered in our Universities will correct this in many minds, and then later other facts will have to be understood. This is, that the mental peculiarity which belongs tothe discoverer, is not a general one. Every naturalist of long experience will recall the numbers of men who have entered this field to leave it. Men who take a course in a foreign University and write an original thesis for a degree, frequently never make another contribution to science. These are not the men to endow as original investigators. The combination of good sense-percep- tion with memory and systematic skill, along with perseverance and the comprehension of ways and means, with an idealism which justi- fies the end in view, is not very common ; and presumably, when pres- ent, is often suppressed by adverse circumstances of life. Initiative and discovery are the condition of progress, and no better service could be rendered to humanity than the creation of opportunities for their activity. One of the principal fields of future discovery is the Antarctic con- tinent. No one has approached nearer to the South Pole than 65° S. so that the unexplored region is at its narrowest point greater in width than the continent of North America. While the possibilities of botani- cal and zoological discovery in such a region, under the rigorous 1895.] Editor’s Table. 347 climatic conditions that prevail there, is less than on any equal area of the arii s quias, they must be nevertheless considerable. But the which will accrue to geology and the climatic history of the oak in past ages cannot be overestimated, and the probability of important additions to our knowledge of ancient life is great. It is to be hoped that the projects now on foot in this country and else- where for Antarctic exploration will be sustained in such a way as to insure their success. An Antarctic expedition should be furnished with every facility for collecting on land and sea, including apparatus for deep sea dredging. In his account of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, published in the last number of the NaruraList, Professor Conn seems to mistake the field and purpose of the Marine Biological Laboratory at Wood’s Holl. From the first, instruction has been encouraged as much as investigation, and in any year the number of students receiving instruc- tion will far exceed those carrying on independent research. The Marine Biological Laboratory is for the diffusion as well as for the in- crease of knowledge, and the fact that it trains many of those who come to it for elementary instruction, to become, eventually, investigators, does not in the least invalidate its claim to be considered an institution for instruction. In the editorial columns of the Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, of March 21st, appeared a quotation of remarks made by the Secretary of the Academy of Natural Sciences with reference to the Peary Relief Expedition. These remarks are to the effect that the Academy will not subscribe to the expedition which is to start shortly to bring Lieutenant Peary back from the Arctic regions; and the reason given is that the results obtained by the Peary Expeditions are not of sufficient scientific importance to warrant the Academy in making the subscription. As this is the second time within the last few months that persons in au- thority in that institution have expressed such sentiments regarding the Peary Expeditions, there is probably some truth in the statement that the Academy will not subscribe to this enterprise. It is to be hoped, however, that the real reason for this action is financial inability, rather than that which has been given by these self-constituted mouth- pieces of the Academy. It should not be necessary to repeat, at this day the importance of such expeditions to science. There is no doubt that if the Academy can stand this kind of talk, Lieutenant Peary can- 348 The American Naturalist. April [ d: ’ RECENT LITERATURE. Botany in the Secondary Schools.'—We have before us a most excellent guide to plant study, bearing the marks of faithful, con- scientious effort from title page to finish. No one who has had experi- ence in conducting courses in botany with college students will deny that a great deal of the instruction given in this science in secondary schools is loose, unscientific and crude to the last degree. Notwith- standing the recent attention given to this fact in scientific journals the evils have not yet by any means been entirely remedied. Indeed they frequently extend beyond the lower schools, even into the colleges and universities themselves. The author of this Guide is well-known as a thoroughly successful botanical teacher of many years experience, and all the statements which he makes have been subjected to practical laboratory tests. Two things are to be especially guarded against in a manual of this kind: Telling the student too much, and giving too meagre assistance. In the latter case, either discouragement results or undue attention is paid to minor points while important matters are either entirely overlooked, or studied without reference to their proportionate significance. Some teachers in their eagerness to avoid the first blunder fall into the second which is even worse. Professor Spalding has, in most cases, satis- factorily avoided both errors. The introduction contains timely suggestions to students and teach- ers, together with a well selected list of books of reference and labora- tory material. We wish, however, to take emphatic exception to the statement that “in every case the pupil is to be provided with the mate- rial used.” One of the principal objects in the study of any natural science should be to encourage the student to become acquainted with nature in its broadest sense, a knowledge to be obtained only by personal ex- ploration in woods and fields. As has been previously pointed out in various journals the modern tendency of scientific study is to lose sight of the naturalist in the almost exclusive attention given to laboratory work. The benefit to be gained from the study of a flower or plant brought by the teacher to his classes is one-sided and very incomplete, and should by all means be supplemented by the personal investiga- . 1 Guide to the Study of Common Plants, an Introduction to Botany. Volney M. Spalding, Professor of Botany in the University of Michigan. Second edit- tion, xxiii, 294 pp. Published by D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, 90 cents, postpaid. 1895.] Recent Literature. 349 tions of the students in its native habitat. Asa matter of fact, however, the author does not adhere strictly to the advice above given but generally takes it for granted that the plant has also been observed while growing. Chapters are given on seeds, germination, the root, stem, leaf, flower and fruit. Then the so-called flowerless plants are taken up, and the sea weeds and their allies, molds and rusts, mosses and liverworts, ferns and horsetails are studied. The conifers and leading families of mono- cotyledons and dicotyledons follow in their natural order. Each chapter begins with a list of material needed for study, con- tains minute and practical directions to the student and closes with an admirable summary. Copious references to the literature of the sub- jects are given in foot notes. One of the most valuable features of the work are the numerous questions asked and the special topics for study which the author suggests under each group. Simple physiological ex- periments, such as any student working alone, or teacher even in our district schools can easily perform, are described. Such subjects as seed dispersion and protection, fertilization, assimilation, respiration, and transpiration, adaptation of various plant organs to their environment as well as plant relationships are treated in afresh and interesting manner quite different from the ordinary laboratory guides. When one considers the great diversity and looseness of terminology employed by many prominent botanical writers, the difficulty as well as the necessity is apparent of having accurate definitions and plant descriptions. The glossary at the close of Professor Spalding’s Guide is most commendable, and constitutes one of the many admirable char- acters of work which we heartily commend to all lovers of plant life. Not only secondary schools, but also students working by them- selves will find it exceedingly helpful. We know of nothing better adapted to the short winter courses given by some of our Agricultural Colleges, and for use in University Extension instruction. GıLBERT H. Hicks. The New Check-List of Plants.”—-The recent considerable changes in botanical nomenclature have made necessary such a book - as the one here noticed. We have had in various monographs and scattered notes in botanical journals so many records of changes, and notices of others which should be made, that any one doing critical work has been compelled to make a catalogue for himself, or lose much time whenever he worked over a new lot of species. One does not have to “etd to everything done by the committee to feel that the 1 350 The American Naturalist. [April, work will be a useful one. Take a couple of cases from Papaveracee ; all remember something of the discussion as to the proper generic name for the “ Dutchman’s Breeches,” given in our manuals as Dicentra. Here we find that Dicentra was proposed by Bernhardi in 1833, and that he was anticipated by Borckhausen who published the name Diclytra in 1797, but who was himself preceded by Adanson who in 1763 first used the name Bikukulla, which in its corrected from Bicu- culla is, therefore, the name we should cite in this instance. Again we have the genus Corydalis in our manuals; but if we look up its history we find that this name was proposed by Ventenat in 1803; but Scopoli’s name Neckeria precedes this by more than a quar- ter of a century (1777), while Adanson’s name Capnoides is earlier still (1763). We are becoming so democratic, even in science, that it is desirable that the reasons for changes and modifications should be laid before the public. Even the most obscure botanist is nowadays entitled to know why an old plant comes out under a new name. It may vulgar- ize science somewhat and take from it that element of the mysterious which it formerly possessed, if we lay these things before the world. When the world learns that the pronouncements of “ Science ” are after all only the judgments of, say, Professor Britton, Professor Coulter, Professor Scribner, or some other mortal, it may not stand in such ignorant, open-mouthed wonder as it formerly was wont to do. Itmay even cry out against them, and demand that the golden calf be set up again. But if these professors set forth plainly that their work is plain work, the plain and straightforward statement of facts, the world will eventually cease to be the blind idolaters of that which they do not un- derstand. This book is quite likely to be railed at by some people who are themselves botanists. In one respect it is a revolutionary work, or rather, it is the mark of a revolution, and in all revolutions there are some who fear the consequences. This book is the sign that the day of “ authority ” as such, is ended, and the day of “law” has begun. The day of botanical “equality before the law” has come, and the humblest botanist now may lawfully correct the greatest. What, now, is this work? It includes the names of about 4350 species, each of which has been critically examined, and as far as pos- * List of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta growing without cultivation in Northeastern North America. Prepared by a committee of the Botanical Club, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1893--1894. Price a” 00 (Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. V.) 1895.] Recent Literature. 351 sible, its synonymy adjusted in accordance with the Paris Code of 1867, as interpreted by the botanists at Rochester in 1892 (“ Rochester Rules”). Thus the point of beginning for generic and specific names is 1753, the date of the first edition of the Species Plantarum of Lin- næus, and in all cases “ priority of publication ” has been regarded as of prime importance in the determination of the name to be employed. Thus we have here given that name for each plant which these botanical laws indicate, and in the list of synonyms we find the names which these same laws compel us to reject. The treatment may be better understood by a couple of examples, as follows: 1953. Cleome serrulata Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept. 441 (1814). Cleoma integrifolia T. & G., Fl. N. A. I: 122 (1838). 4303. Taraxacum taraxacum (L.). Karst. Deutsch. Fl. 1138 (1880-83). Leontodon taraxacum L., Sp. Pl. 798 (1753). Taraxacum officinale Weber., Prim. Fl. Holst. 56 (1780). Taraxacum dens-leonis Desf., Fl. Atlant. 2: 228 (1800). What more could be asked? The whole history of the species is here given so plainly that any one may verify each step for himself. That the work will be found to contain errors and omissions goes with- out saying. The committee did not expect to present a faultless work, but they did set before themselves the task of making an honest, plain list in which they record their findings, and for this the botanists of all sects and schools, in all parts of the world owe them a deep debt of gratitude. CHARLES E. Bessry. Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission Vol. XII.*—This quarto volume contains eleven important papers on fishes of the United States, prepared by specialists, together with a report on the Oyster Industry of Maryland, by C. H. Stevenson. Much of the in- formation imparted in these papers is new, and valuable either from an economic, or a purely scientific standpoint. All are splendidly illustrated with page plates, making in all 118 plates accompanying the text. The following table of contents shows the range of subjects treated. Bean, T. H. Bibliography of the Salmon of Alaska and adjacent Regions.—Life History of the Salmon.—Eigenmann, ©. H. On the 3 Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission. Vol. XII for 1892. Wash- ington, 1894. 352. The American Naturalist. [April, Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast of North America.—Evermann, B. W. Description of New Sucker (Pantosteus jordanii) from the Upper Missouri Basin ——Evermann, B. W. and W. C. Kendall; The Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Basin, considered with reference to their Geographic Distribution McDonald, M. Report. on the Salmon Fisheries of Alaska—Moore, H. F. List of Fishes collected at Sea Isle City during the Summer for 1892.—Rathbun, R. Sum- mary of Fishery Investigations conducted in thé North Pacific Ocean and Behring Sea from July 1, 1888 to July 1, 1892, by the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer A/batross.—Smith, H. M. The Fyke Nets and Fyke-Net Fisheries of the United States, with Notes on the Fyke Nets of Other Countries.—Economic and Natural-History Notes on Fishes of the Northern Coast of New Jersey.—Stevenson, ©. H. The Oyster Industry of Maryland.—Ulrey, A. B. and C. H. Eigenmann; A Review of the Embiotocide. Paleontology of Missouri, Part I.‘—This memoir is a concise account of the fossil invertebrate fauna of Missouri prepared by the State Geologist, C. R. Keyes with reference to the distinct economic importance that organic remains have in determining the age of rocks and hence aiding to develop the mineral wealth of the state. Follow- ing the introductory chapter is a brief sketch of the stratigraphy of the state and an explanation of the biological relations of fossils. The re- maining pages are devoted to descriptions of the invertebrate fossils of the state which have passed under the personal observation of the author. For illustration the leading Missouri species of each genus has been figured, and also some forms heretofore described but not figured, mak- ing in all 20 plates. In addition many typical exposures of rocks are well represented. * Missouri Geological Survey Vol. IV. Paleontology of Missouri, Part I. By Charles R. Keyes. {395.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 353 RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. Agriculture of Pennsylvania. Containing Reports for 1893 of the State Board of Agric., State Agric. Soc., State Dairyman’s Assoc., State Horticul. Soe. ,and the State College. From Thos. J. Edge. Annual Reports of the Academy of Natural Sciences of PENER for 1893. Annual Report of the Arkansas Geological a Vol. I, 1 a Report of the Yorkshire Society for 189 LEY, J. H.—A Paper on Electricity and Piait-Givwing. Extr. Trans. Mass. Pane Soc., 1894. BARBER, H. G.—A List of Nebraska Butterflies. Extr. Proceeds. Nebr. Acad. Sci., IV, A From the author Barzour, E. H.—Additional Notes on the New Fossil, Demonelix. Its Mode of Occurrence, Its Gross and Minute Structure. Extr. Univ. Studies, Vol. I, 1894. From the author. BEAN, T. H.—The Fossils of Pennsylvania. Harrisburg, 1893. From the author. BEECHER, C. E.—On the mode of etn and the structure and develop- ment of Triarthrus becki. Extr. Am. Geol., 1894..—-The Appendages of the Pygidum of Triarthrus. Extr. Am. Journ. ed, ., Vol. XLVII, 1894.. From the author. Biennial Report of the Alabama sp te Insane Hospital for 1893 and 1894. Book of the Tariff as prepared by the U. S. Senate of 1893-94. Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission, Vol. XII, for 1892. Washing- ton, 1894. Butter, A. W.—The range of the Crossbill in the Ohio Valley, with notes on their unusual occurrence in Summer. Extr. Proceeds. Brookville Academy, 1892. From the author. Cueney, E. P.—Translations and Reprints from Original Sources of European History. The Early Reformation Period in England. Wolsey, Henry VIII, and Sir Thomas More. Philadelphia, 1894. From the author. Dawson, G. M.—The Progress and Trend of Scientific Investigation in Canada. Extr. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1894. From the author EIGENMANN, C. H.—Results of Explorations in Western Canada and the North- western United States. Extr. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1894. From the author. EYERMAN, J.—On a Collection of Tertiary Mammals from southern France and Italy, with brief descriptions thereof. Extr. Am. Geol., Vol. XII, 1893. From the author. Geological Map of Alabama, with Explanatory Chart. Montgomery, 1894. From Eugene A. Smith. Horss W. H.—On a Recent Diamond Find in Wisconsin, and on the probable Source of this and other Wisconsin Diamonds. Extr. Amer. Geol., Vol. XIV, 1894. From the author. 354 The American Naturalist. [April, Homes, W. H.—An Ancient Quarry in Indian Territory. Published by the ureau Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution, 1894. From the Smithsonian Institution. Horn, G. H.—The Coleoptera of Baja, California. Extr. Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Sci., va IV, 1894. From the author JUNGERSEN, H. F. E—Die age bie von Amia calva. Separat-Abdruck aus dem Zool, Anz., 1894. From the au Keyser, L. oth Bird-Land. Gee “1604 From the Pub., A. C. McClurg Co. Keyes, C. R.—Paleontology of Missouri (Part I). Missouri Geol. Surv. Vol. IV, 1894. From the author. LAMBORN, R. H.—Some Italian “Survivals.’—A “ Longhouse” in the Tiber Delta. Extr. Science, March, 1894. From the author Lawson, A, G.—The Geomorphegeny of the Cred: i Northern California. Extr. Bull. Univ. Cal., Vol. I, 1894. From the Univers Mason, O. T—Woman’s Share in Primitive Culture. il York, 1894. From the aothor, MILLER, G. S.—On a collection of small Mammals from the New Hampshire Mountains. Extr. Proceeds. Bost. Soc, Nat. Hist., Vol. XX VI, 1894. From the author. Murray, Aaron E.—The Butterfly Hunters in the Caribbees. New York, 1894. From the Pub., Charles Scribner’s Sons. Owen, Rev. 0.—The Life of Richard Owen. Vols. I and II. New York, 1894. From the Pub., D. Appleton & Co. Proceedings of the International Congress at Zurich, 1894. From Dr. P. Frazer. . RYDER, J. A——Dynamical Evolution. A Lecture delivered at the Marine Laboratory at Woods Holl. Boston, 1894. From the author Satmon, D. E.—Investigations Concerning Bovine Tuberculosis, with Special Reference to Diagnosis and Prevention. Bull. No. 7, 1894, U. S. Dept. Agric., Bureau Animal Industry. ScuucHERT, C.—A Revised Classification of the Spire-Bearing Brachipods and empa Ay Genera of the Paleozoic Brachipoda. Extr. Am. Geol., Vol. XII, 1894. age the author. SEELEY, H. G.—On Euskelesaurus brownii Huxley. Extr. Am. Mag. Nat. Hist., vd XIV, 1894. From the author. SMITH, E. A., L. C. JOHNSON, AND D. W. LANGDON, Jx.—Report on the Costal Plain of Alabama, with Contributions to its Paleontology by T. H. Aldrich and K. M. Cunningham. Montgomery, Alabama, 1894. From E. A. Smith. Srencer, J. W.—The Duration of Niagara Falls. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLVIII, 1894. Review of McGee’s Lafayette Formation. Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. From the author. Suess, M. E. pania zur Stratigraphie Centralasiens. Extr. Sitzung der Math-natur. Classe Kaiserliche Akad. der Wissenschaften in Wien, 1894. From the author. 1895.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 355 Thirteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secre- tary of the Interior, 1891-92, by J. W. Powell. Part II, Geology ; Part II, Irri- gation. From the Geol. Survey. TOPINARD, P.—Quelques conclusions et applications de Anthropologie. L’homme Animal. L’homme social. Extr. de L’ Anthropologie, Vol. TV, 1893 From the author. VaRIGNY, H. pE.—Recherches sur le Nauism Experimental. Contributions à T étude de l influence du milieu sur les organismes. Extr. Journ. L’ Anatomie et de la Physiologie, 1894. From the author. Watcortt, C. D.—Note on some Appendages of the Trilobites. Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Washington, 1894. From the aut Wiuiams, E. H.—Extramorainic Drift between the Delaware and the Schuyl- ill. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. V, 1894. From the Society Winstow, A.—The Coal Measures of Missouri. Extr. Min. Resources U. S., 1892. Washington, 1893.——Geological Surveys in Missouri. Notes on the Lead and Zinc Deposits of the Mississippi Valley and the Origin of the Ores. Extr. Journ. Geol. No date given. From the author. 356 - - The American Naturalist. [April, General Notes. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. Where is the greatest forest in the world ?—The question was asked in the Forestry section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at its last annual meeting. | The impor- _ tance of forests for equalizing the climate and the rainfall of the globe was under discussion, and the purpose of the question was to show where the great forest tracts of the world are situated. One member replying off hand, was inclined to maintain that the greatest continuous tract of forest lies north of the St. Lawrence River, in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario, extending northward to Hud- son Bay and Labrador; a region measuring about 1,700 miles in length from east to west, and 1,000 miles in width north and south. A professor from the Smithsonian Institution rejoined that a much larger continuous area of timber lands was to be found, reckoning from those in the State of Washington northward through British Columbia and Alaska. But he limited his statement to North America, for he added that, in his opinion, the largest forest in the world occupied the valley of the Amazon, embracing much of northern Brazil, eastern Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, and Guiana; a region at least 2,100 miles in length by 1,300 in breadth. Exception was immediately taken to this statement by several mem- bers who, in the light of recent explorations, have computed the forest area of Central Africa in the valley of the Congo, including the head waters of the Nile to the northeast, and those of Zambesi on the south. According to their estimates, Central Africa contains a forest region not less than 3,000 miles in length from north to south, and of vast, although not fully known width, from east to west. Discussion, in which the evidence afforded by travels and surveys was freely cited, seemed favorable to the defender of the Amazonian forests. _ Later in the day the entire question was placed in another light by a member who was so fortunate as to be able to speak from some knowl- edge of still another great forest region of the globe. This gentleman gave a vivid picture of the vast, solemn taigas and urmans, the pine, larch and cedar forests of Siberia. It appears that Siberia, from the plain of the Obi River on the west to the valley of the Indighirka on the east, embracing the great plains, 1895.] Geography and Travels. 357 or river valleys, of the Yenisei, Olenek, Lena and Yana rivers, is one great timber belt, averaging more than 1,000 miles in breadth from north to south—being fully 1,700 miles wide in the Yenisei district— and having a length from east to west of not less than 4,600 versts, about 3,000 miles. Unlike equatorial forests, the trees of the Siberian taigas are mainly conifers, comprising pines of several varieties, firs and larches. In the Yenisei, Lena and Olensk regions there are thou- sands of square miles where no human being hasever been. The long- stemmed conifers rise to a height of 150 feet or more and stand so closely together that walking among them is difficult. The dense, lofty tops exclude the pale Arctic sunshine, and the straight, pale trunks, all looking exactly alike, so bewild the obscurity that all sense of direction is lost. Even the most ex- perienced trappers of sable dare not venture into the dense taigas with- out taking the precaution of “blazing” the trees constantly with hatchets as they walk forward. If lost there the hunter rarely finds his way out, but perishes miserably from starvation or cold. The na- tives avoid the taigas, and have a name for them which signifies “ places where the mind is lost.” The discussion closed very appropriately by Prof. Fernow, of Wash- ington, with an illustrated lecture, which showed how in the earlier ages forests had covered all the continental areas, and had rendered the climate equable to a degree now unknown. At first human beings battled with the forest in a fitful manner, mak- ing small clearings for themselves; but, gradually, by the aid of fire, and of their own increasing numbers, they have so far prevailed in the struggle for supremacy that the forests are hopelessly conquered. But grave evils follow their extermination ; and now the question is how to foster, protect and preserve them. (Quoted from Youth’s Companion, Scientific American, March, 1895.) 358 The American Naturalist. [April, MINERALOGY. Symmetry of Nepheline and Davyne.—Baumhauer’s studies of the etched figures of nepheline produced by hydrofluoric and hy- drochloric acids, have shown that the mineral belongs in that division of the hexagonal system in which trapezohedral or pyramidal hemi- hedrism is combined with hemimorphism—the first hemimorphic tetartohedrism of Liebisch—and that apparently simple individuals are usually compound twins, the twinning planes being the base and the second order prism. As more recent studies of Tenne seemed to lead to a different conclusion, Traube? has repeated Baumhauer’s studies on excellent material from Vesuvius, with the result of con- firming the latter in every particular. He has also obtained excellent figures on the prism planes by use of concentrated or warm dilute hydro- chloric acid, the figures having the same symmetry but not the same form as those produced by hydrofluoric acid. He has observed one twinning law in addition to the two described by Baumhauer. The examination of a twinned section 5 mm. in thickness cut normal to the principal axis gave no evidence of circular polarization. He has investigated for the first time the etched figures of the closely related mineral Davyne, which may be easily etched with nitric acid. On the prism planes these figures possess two lines of symmetry, normal to one another, showing that the mineral is holohedral hexagonal. As nepheline is not attacked by nitric acid this affords a ready means of distinguishing the two minerals from one another. It is especially valuable because Traube finds that Davyne is not always optically positive as has been supposed. The Minerals of the Emery Deposits of Naxos.—Except for a paper by Smith on the paragenesis of these deposits and one by Zirkel on the two chief minerals (corundum and magnetite), no scien- tific mineralogical study of the deposits has heretofore been made. Tschermak® contributes to the Mittheilungen the results of a detailed study of a large number of specimens from the locality. The island of Naxos is composed of fine grained gneisses and marbles resting On a basement of coarse grained gneisses. The emery occurs in numerous 1 Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min. etc., Beil. Bd. ix, pp. 466-479, 1894. 3 Min. u. petrog. Mittheil., xiv, pp. 311-342, 1894. 1895.] Mineralogy. 359 lenticular masses of great extent and having a thickness of 5 to 50 meters, enclosed in the granular limestone. It is chiefly a mixture of corundum and magnetite with hematite and limonite as alteration pro- ducts. The only accessory mineral usually apparent to the naked eye is margarite, but Tschermak shows that there are often present in small quantities both the common micas, chlorotoid, Vesuvianite, dias- pore, kyanite, staurolite, rutile, spinel, and pyrite. Thin sections were prepared and detailed descriptions are furnished of the optical’ proper- ties of the different constituents. The corundum is part crystallized and part in grains. The crystals show zonal distribution of the pig- ment and optical anomalies, and are frequently filled with magnetite and rutile inclusions. The margarite yields in lath-shaped sections a positive bisetrix with axial plane normal to the cleavage. Basal sec- tions afford a negative bisectrix with small optical angle. The double refraction is lower than that of muscovite. The structure of the emery is quite schistose, due chiefly to the distribution of the magnetite ` grains which form layers of variable thickness. Tschermak thinks that the original condition was a compact and homogeneous mass, and that the accessory minerals were separated out when the corundum and magnetite were crystallized. Analyses of the emery from Kremné and Renidi were made by Ludwig with the following results: Kremné. SiO, 5.64, B,O, 1.15, Al,O, 57.67, Fe,O, 33.36, MgO 0.83, CaO 0.43, K „Ô 0.31, "Lies on ignition, 0. 70, Total 100.09. Renidi. SiO, 5.45, B,O, 0.88, Al,O, 56.52, Fe,O, 34.65, MgO 0.43, CaO 0.90, Na i) 0.60, K 0 0. 40, Loss on ignition 0. 42, Total 100.25, A lengthy detailed description of specimens of emery from the dif- ferent localities closes the paper. Boleite and Cumengeite.—In a separate publication Cumenge‘ has given a more complete description than has heretofore been made of the interesting minerals Boleite and Cumengeite, which were recently found in the copper mining district of Boleo in Lower Cali- fornia. Boleite occurs in apparently cubic crystals of a deep indigo blue color in an argillaceous gangue locally known as Jaboneillo. They t Note sur deux espèces minérales nouvelles la Boléite et la Cumengéite, par M. E. Cumenge, Paris, 1893. 360 The American Naturalist. [April, fuse readily in a candle flame, have a hardness of 3, and a specific gravity of 5.08. The index of refraction is very high, approximately 2.07. The composition of the mineral is expressed in the formula PbCl,+-CuOH,O+ %AgCl or as it was written by Mallard, 3 4 PCbl (HO). CuCl(HO){+AgCl. The crystals are apparently cubes which are sometimes truncated by the octahedron or the dodecahe- ‘dron. Cleavage is perfect parallel to (100) and less perfect parallel to -(111). The optical properties show clearly that the apparent cubic form is caused by the twinning of three tetragonal individuals so that their axes are all normal to one another. Cumengeite is much like Boleite but occurs in pyramidal crystals, is more violet in tone, and has hardness and specific gravity somewhat inferior to those of Boleite. Chemically it differs from that mineral in the absence of 15 AgCl, the formula being given as PbC2 (Index) +CuOH,O. The symmetry is tetragonal, the crystals being usually bounded by á (011) and m (110) and rarely also by p (001). In con- nection with the simple individuals of Boleite and Cumengeite are found very interesting twinned individuals which usually give the appearance which would result from attaching by its square face to each of the six faces of a cube the half ofasymmetrically developed octahedron. The face of this particular pyramid (2) has not been observed on any of the individuals of either mineral. Sometimes the solid angles of the projecting pyramids formed by / are symmetrically truncated, so that an apparent cube with reentrant or grooved edges is the result. The composition of these interesting trillings has not been fully determined, but they are found to be intermediate between Boleite and Cumengeite in their content of silver. Mallard has applied to them the name Per- cylite which had before been used for an undetermined cubic mineral of somewhat allied characters. Friedel has succeeded in producing artificial crystals of both Boleite aud Cumengeite by the action of copper chloride on lead hydrate. The Formula of Pseudobrookite.— The chemical composition of pseudobrookite has been determined by Cedarstrém on material from Havredal in Norway and by Rimbach on selected material from the Aranyerberg in Siebenbiirgen, to be represented by the formula '2Fe,0, 3TiO,, the two analyses agreeing very closely. The analysis of ‘an artificial pseudobrookite from Schönebeck on the Elbe yielded Doss the formula Fe,O, TiO,, and led the analyst to suppose that the min- -eral is. isomorphous with andalusite. Frenzel’ has undertaken an analysis of the material from the Aranyerberg and obtained results 5 Min. u. petrog. Mittheil., xiv, pp. 126-130, 1894. 1895.] Mineralogy. 361 | which agree perfectly with those of Cedarstrém and Rimbach. Traube has contributed to the same paper the almost identical results of an analysis of the same material, so that there can be little doubt that 2Fe,O, 3TiO, is the correct formula of the mineral. Frenzel points out the absurdity of the supposed isomorphous relation with andalu- site. Neglecting the earlier analyses by Koch and by Lattermann on imperfectly purified material, the analyses that have been nade of pseudobrookite are as follows: I Il opal IV V VI TiO, 44.26 42.49 33.59 42.89 42.35 42.896 Fe,O, 56.42 58.20 66.42 56.37 57.65 57.104 Total 100.68 100.69 100.01 99.26 100.00 100.000 I. Cedarstrém, II. Rimbach, III. Doss, IV. Frenzel, V. Traube, VI. theory from formula 2Fe,O, 3TiO, Formula of Staurolite.—Rammelsberg® takes exception to the formula for staurolite recently proposed by Penfield’ (HAI,Fe Si,O,,). He claims that the analyses of staurolite show the mineral to repre- sent chemically three varieties, as follows ey A, where R: R, = 1:2; Ir I B, where R: R, =1:2.5; and C, where R: R,=1: 3. Penfield’s for- mula, he states, is nota general one because it only represents the analy- ses which fall in group B. ® Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral., etc. Beil. Bd., ix, pp. 480-484, 1894. ï Am. Jour. Sci., (3) xlvii, pp. 81-89, 1894. Wm. H. Hosss. 362 The American Naturalist. [April, PETROGRAPHY- Some Basalts of Asia Minor.—The rocks near Kula, Asia Minor, are basalts in sheets and lava streams, the latter emanating from a number of old volcanic centers whose cores may still be dis- tinguished. These basalts, according to Washington,’ are hornblende- plagioclase basalts, characterized especially by the abundance of their hornblendic component. This mineral, augite and olivine are present as phenocrysts in a groundmass made up of plagioclase, magnetite and glass, the latter being lighter in color as the magnetite in it increases in quantity, thus indicating that this mineral was one of the latest separations from the magma. Leucite was discovered in two of the streams. It presents no unusual features. The mineral is rare in hornblendic basalts elsewhere. None of the components of the rocks merit special mention but the hornblende. This is always porphyritic and is present in large quantity. Its color is yellow, brown or green- ish-yellow, and its extinction varies from 4° to 23°. The chemical alterations effected in the mineral by magmatic resorption are inter- esting. One effect is the replacement of the hornblende by a reddish- brown mineral associated with colorless augite and opacite, and another is its partial or complete alteration into augite and opacite. The brown mineral is referred to hypersthene, although the analysis of a portion of the rock containing a large quantity. of it was rather against this theory. The author thinks that the formation of the mineral was probably due to the reducing action of hydrogen (from dissociated water included in the lava) upon the ferric iron of the hornblende. In structure the basalts are normal, hyalopilitic, semi-vitreous and tachylitic. An analysis of a leucite variety gave: SiO, ALO, FeO, FeO CaO MgO Na,O K,O P,O, H,O Total 47.74 20.95 329 632 7.56 5.16 7.12 121 18 .04—99.52 Since the hornblende is of primary importance in the basalts of Kula, it is proposed to call them, and other basalts in which hornblende pre- dominates over augite and olivine, by the name of Kulaites. The Igneous Rocks of the Eureka District.—In an appendix to the Geology of the Eureka District, Iddings’ gives an account of 1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, nape University, Waterville, Maine. 2 Amer. Jour. Sci., Feb., 1894, p 3 Monograph XX U. S. ‘Geol E p- 337. 1895.] Petrograp hy. 363 the igneous rocks of the region with special reference to the lavas whose studies led Hague to the proposal of the theory that the various types of rocks in the Eureka district are differentiated portions of one magma, which split up into two, one yielding feldspathic acid rocks and the other pyroxene basic ones. Among the intrusive rocks of the regiou Iddings mentions only granites, granite-porphyries and quartz- porphyries. The volcanic rocks include hornblende-andesite, horn- blende-mica-andesite, dacite and rhyolite, which are the types derived from the more acid portion of the original magma, and pyroxene- andesites and basalts derived from the basic portion. The pyroxene- andesite contains anorthite, hypersthene, augite, hornblende, a little biotite and an occasional quartz grain, in a glassy groundmass with a felt-like structure produced by labradorite and augite-microlites. The hornblende-mica-andesites are more acid. They contain labradorite, hornblende, biotite and a little quartz as porphyritic crystals in a micro-crystalline groundmass of lath-shaped plagioclases and inter- growths of feldspar and quartz. The dacites are rare. They possess macroscopic quartz-phenocrysts together with hornblende, hypersthene, a little augite, biotite, labradorite, anorthite, and possibly orthoclase in a pumiceous glass base, which also often contains many beautifully crystallized zircons. The rhyolites met with present few characters of special interest. They vary in the texture of their groundmass from micro-crystalline to glassy varieties. Their sanidine phenocrysts have the plane of their optical axes sometimes in the plane of symmetry and sometimes perpendicular thereto. Occasionally the rock possesses also phenocrysts of hypersthene. The basalts are poor in olivine, and this mineral when present is often changed into serpentine or into the reddish-brown substance to which Lawson has given the name iddings- ite. Hypersthene is present in some of the sections, and in others are a few grains of quartz surrounded by augite borders. Notes from Minnesota.—In a preliminary report of a season’s field work in northeastern Minnesota, Elftman‘ refers to the gabbro of the region as producing contact metamorphism in the slates and schists to the north of it. He describes more particularly the actinolite-mag- netite slates, from near Birch Lake, that are believed to have origina- ted in a fragmental rock whose nature, however, is not fully set forth. The gabbro is an olivinitic variety. In it are great masses of anorth- osite regarded by the author as phases of the gabbro. This is the rock 492d Ann. Rep. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Survey of Minn., p. 141. 364 The American Naturalist. [April,, which was reported by Lawson’ as representing an old basement lying unconformable beneath the gabbro. The Geology of Dartmoor, England.—McMahon‘* gives a few brief descriptive notes on some trachytes, felsites, mica-diorites, dole- rites, tuffs and hornblende-schists from the western flank of Dartmoor. The trachytes and felsites are more or less altered, and the tuffs always very much so. The tuffs contain fragments of several kinds of lavas and of altered sedimentary rocks. The cementing material is “ like the microgranular base of some rhyolites and porphyries.” The most interesting rocks are the hornblende schists, which are thought by the author to be altered basic tuffs. They are marked by a fine grained parallelism of their constituents, producing a structure which the author designates the “corduroy structure.” The rocks consist of angite, secondary hornblende and feldspar, the first two of which are often well crystallized. Their alteration is thought to be due to the intrusion of the tuffs by the great mass of epidiorite of the Cock’s Tor. The basic schists of the Lizards that have been so repeatedly discussed, are believed to have had a similar origin. Miscellaneous Notes.—The study of a series of nepheline rocks leads Gentil’ to the conclusion that the peg structure so characteristic of this mineral is an effect of alteration. The alteration product is often a hydrated pleochroic substance with a yellowish tinge. The ‘ pegs’ are produced by the extension of this substance along directions of feeble cohension in the original mineral (solution planes ?) The rock by whose decomposition the apophyllite® of Callo in Algeria was formed, is a biotite-augite-andesite, whose groundmass is usually more altered than the phenocrysts. The inclusions found in the rock are of cordierite gneiss, fragments of andalusite and of sillimanite and large segregations of plagioclase a little more basic than the feldspar of the phenocrysts. On account of the similarity in crystalline structure between flint and Arkansas whetstone, Rutley’ is inclined to regard the latter rock as derived by the replacement of limestone or dolomite by silica. The rhombohedral cavities noted by Griswold are thought to have been ë Bull. No. 8, Geol. & Nat. Hist. Survey of Minn. * Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1894, p. 338. 1 Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., xvii, p. 108. "ib, p Ir ? Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1894, p. 377. 1895.] . Petrography. 365 produced by the solution of some crystals of calcite or dolomite that remained for a time in the midst of the replacing silica after all the rest of the carbonate had been removed. Pearce” gives a series of analyses to sustain his theory that the free gold of the Cripple Creek District, Colorado, has been mainly derived from the oxidation of tellurides. In a preliminary report on the Rainy Lake Gold Region in Minne- sota and Manitoba, H. V. Winchell and U. S. Grant" give some brief notes descriptive of the Laurentian, Coutchiching and Keewatin rocks of the district. 1 Golo. Scient. Soc., April 5, 1894. u 23d Geol. & Nat. Hist. Sur. of Minn., p. 36. 366 The American Naturalist. [April, GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. Origin of the Continental Area of Australia.—The follow- ing account of the probable origin of the Australian Continent is given by Professor David in a presidential address before the Linnean Society of New South Wales : “ That the movements of the earth’s crust which laid the foundations of the Australian Continent commenced in Pre-Cambrian time is con- clusively proved by the vast amount of folding to which the Archean rocks at Androssan and in the Mount Macdonnell Ranges were sub- jected before the deposition of the earliest Cambrian sediments. “In Tasmania the crumpling of the crust took place between E. N. E. and W. S. W. directions, so that the axes of the fold trend N. N. W. and S. S. E. ‘At St. Vincent’s Gulf, near Adelaide, the folds run chiefly N. E. and S. W.,and N. N. E. and S.S. W., so as to meet, if produced, a pro- longation of the Tasmanian axes toward the N. W., nearly at right angles. In the Macdonnell and Musgrave Ranges, the trend is E. and W., and in the Kimberly District of West Australia, N. W. and S. E., with a secondary folding S. W. and N. E “ It is not certain whether, either in Australia or Tasmania, there was any land surface in Archean time, but the conglomerates in the Archean and in the succeeding Cambrian, and the ripple-marked flaggy quartzites (if they are Archean or Cambrian and not Lower Silurian) imply shallow seas, with probably a neighboring land sur- face. It is improbable, too, that the Archean strata should have been as powerfully folded, as observation shows them to have been, in Pre- Cambrian time, without some areas being elevated sufficiently to form land. “In Australia, therefore, there was probably land and probably con- temporaneous life, at all events, in the seas, in Pre-Cambrian time, the latter assumption being rendered probable by the occurrence of the beds of limestone and contemporaneous (?) iron-ores and graphite in the Archean rocks of South Australia, and of limestone and contem- poraneous (?) ironstone in the Archean rocks of Tasmania, and also by the great diversity of forms of animal life met with in the succeed- ing Lower.Cambrian rocks. “ The earliest known folding of the Australian region took place in Pre-Cambrian time in Australia and Tasmania, and, at least, as far 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 367 back as Pre-Silurian time in New Zealand. In Victoria, South Aus- tralia and Tasmania, the original lines of folding along the Tasmanian and Adelaide axes continued to be developed all through the Cam- brian, Silurian and part of Devonian time, and along the Tasmanian axis during a portion, at least, of the Carboniferous Period. The Kosciusko axis, however, would appear to be of somewhat later origin than the Tasmanian and Adelaide and New Zealand axes. Possibly, an extension northwards of the Kosciusko axis in Carboniferous time reclaimed for the Australian Continent an area in New England, part of which had formed the floor of an ocean of moderate depth. “At least five important foldings have taken place in the Australasian region between Pre-Cambrian and Carboniferous time inclusive, and each has had an important influence on the evolution of the continental area of Australia, but the last extensive folding, that of the Gympie, which took place in-Carboniferous time, has been the chief factor in the evolution of the Main Dividing Range of Eastern Australia in the northern portion of New South Wales and in the greater part of Queensland. “The folding along the New Zealand axis which commenced in Pre-Silurian time, was continued up to the close of the Mesozoic Era.” (Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N. S. W., 2d Series, Vol. VIII, 1894.) The Carboniferous System of Brazil.—In view of the recent discussions of correlation of the Upper Carboniferous formations of Brazil, Professor Derby has published a description of material collected from Amazonian localities. The list includes 122 species from Upper Carboniferous strata. The descriptions are prefaced with remarks on the geology of the localities in which this fauna is represented, and a comparison between the fauna of Lower Amazons and that of Southern Brazil is given as follows: “Although there is, on the Lower Amazons, a considerable thick- ness, probably from 1000 to 2000 feet, of supposed Upper Carbonifer- ous rocks, all the known fossils are marine and form a single, or two closely related horizons. As stated in my paper on the Brachiopods, the Andean Carboniferous fauna is about of the same horizon. In southern Brazil, where there is an extensive Carboniferous area, fresh- water conditions seem to have prevailed and marine fossils have thus far proved to be rare and unsatisfactory. So far as their characters have been made out, they agree with the prevailing vegetable and reptilian types in presenting a decided Permian, or, perhaps, early Secondary facies. Both in its physical and in its paleontological 368 The American Naturalist. [April, characteristics this formation of southern Brazil offers considerable analogies with those of South Africa, India, and Australia, containing the Glossopteris flora (see Waagen, Neues Jahrbuch, 1888, II, pp. 172-177). If, on further study, this analogy is found to hold good, we shall have at, or near, the close of the Paleozoic, two strongly con- trasted chains of similar formations extending from east to west across the whole present land area of the globe. The one with an abundant and characteristic marine fauna reaches from China to Bolivia with the Salt Range and the Lower Amazons (also the Pichis River locality in Peru) as intermediate links; the other, with predominant freshwater and terrestrial conditions, reaches from Australia through India and Africa to southern central South America.” (Journ. Geol., Vol. II, 1894.) The Affinities of Agriochaerus.—In determining the relation- ship of Agriochaerus to the Oreodontidae, Dr. Scott briefly recapitu- lates the resemblances and differences of the two families, and gives, as a conclusion, that Agriochaerus is the last term in a succession of species which form a curiously specialized offshoot of the Oreodontidae, its divergencies from that family being principally the results of a change in the functions and uses of the feet. The separation of the two series was probably already established in the Uinta Eocene, for, in spite of its somewhat intermediate character, Protoreodon can be a forerunner only of the oreodonts. The Bridger beds may be expected to yield the common ancestor of the two series, and this animal will probably turn out to be a pentadacty] form, with buno-selenodont den- tition and quinquetuberculate upper molars, the unpaired lobe in the anterior half of the crown. (Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soe., Vol. XXXIII, 1894.) The Mastodons of Russia.—The conclusions reached by Mme. Marie Pavlov in her study of the Mastodons of Russia and their rela- tions to the Mastodons of other regions, are as follows: (1) It is the group of Mastodon called Zygolophodon represented by M. borsonii, M. americanus, and their varieties, which had a very great a in southwest Russia during the Miocene and Pliocene aie Mime of these forms is specific to Russia, all having been widely spread in West Europe and North America. (3) The group of Mastodon called Bunolophodon i is known only till now through a very limited number of specimens of M. arvernensis, 1395.] | Geology and Paleontology. 369 while this group is widely represented in West Europe, Asia and America. (4) The close resemblance between the Mastodons of Eur-Asia and America confirms once more the connection which exists between the two continents during the Tertiary period. (Bull. Soc. des Naturl. Moscou, 1894, No. 2.) Geological News.—Paleozoic.—In a paper on the Potsdam and calciferous formations of Quebec and Eastern Ontario, Mr. R. W.. Ells submits evidence to show that the real line of division between the Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian systems should be placed at the close of the Georgia slate and red sandrock divisions, and that the ser- ies from the base of the typical Potsdam sandstone to the summit of the Utica and Hudson River formations should constitute the system known as the Cambrian-Silurian or Ordovician, in view of the fact that there is no stratigraphical break in the sequence of these formations, nor any want of harmony in the succession of organic life as furnished by the evidence of the contained fossils. (Trans. Roy.Soc. Canada, Section IV, 1894.) The report on the Insect Fauna of the Rhode Island Coal Field, by Dr. Scudder, is published as Bulletin No. 101 of the U. S. Geol. Sur- vey. The collection is an unusually interesting one, as all the species, without exception, are new to science and unknown elsewhere. They consist of Anthracomartus, the first discovered Arachnid in the Car- boniferous deposits in the eastern United States; a new genus of Neu- ropteroidea and one of Protophasmida allied to some from the Carbon- iferous beds of Commentry, in France ; and a number of cockroaches, represented only by their wings. These last show great variety of form. The two subfamilies of Palaeoblattariae are represented by ` three genera, including nearly a dozen species. Mesozoic.—Various offices have been attributed to the Aptychus, but the recent discovery of an Ammonite (Oppelia subradiata Sow.), from Dundry, now in the British Museum, with the Aptychus in situ closing the orifice, would seem to disclose the true nature of that body, viz. that of an operculum. In view of this fact, Professor E. H. L. Schwarz shows how all the theories against its use as an operculum can be met with equally plausible ones in favor of that view, and throws the weight of his opinion in favor of such use. (Geol. Mag., Oct., 1894.) A large Clypeastrid is reported from the Cretaceous formation near Colorado Springs, Colorado. Upon examination, Mr. F. W. Cragin 370 The American Naturalist. [April, pronounces it not only the type of a new species, but a new genus also, which he calls Scutellaster. He believes that this genus may be re- garded as a synthetic or generalized type from which have been evolved Seutella on the one hand and Clypeaster on the other. (Am. Geol., Feb., 1895.) Recent collections from the Cretaceous Formation on Long Island have yielded forty-six additions to the previously recognized cretaceous flora of that region, nine of which are new species. They are described and figured by Mr. Hollick. (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. 21, 1894.) The presence of silicified paleozoic fossils in the Long Island gravel at Lloyd’s Neck, and in the vicinity of Glen Cove, establishes its identity, in Mr. Hollick’s opinion, with the “yellow gravel” of New Jersey. The author is inclined to refer some of the gravels on Mar- tha’s Vineyard to the same horizon. In the same paper the author dis- cusses the Cretaceous clays of Long Island, and in view of the evidence of the fossil flora he correlates them wiih the Amboy clays of New Jer- sey, the Dakota group of the west, and the Lower Atane beds of Green- land. (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XIII, 1894.) 1895.] Botany. 371 BOTANY! Nitrogen Fixation in Algz.—The following results of research on this subject since 1892 are thus summarily stated in a recent num- ber of Nature. They are chiefly derived from the papers of Grosso- witsch, Schloessing, Laurent and Koch. Their observations shed much light upon the question of the relations exisiting between Algæ, micro- organisms, and atmospheric nitrogen. They show :— (1) That at least two Algee—C d Stick possess no “ fixing ” powers in themselves. (2) That many Algæ, taken together with certain microörganisms of the soil, do possess the power of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen. (3) That this power is much increased by the addition of such organic substances as sugar. It should be noticed that among the ten cultures used in the second set of experiments, only two contained definitely isolated algal species, viz. the cases of the two cultures of Cystococcus and soil-bacteria. It was just in this instance, moreover, that it had been shown that the Alga itself had no capacity for fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Ac- cordingly there could be little doubt that it was through the agency of the mieroorgan)eys that the “fixation” had taken place in these latter cultures. The experiments of Laurent and Schloesing had shown that if in a culture of Algæ and bacteria endowed with “ fixing ” powers, the Algæ were destroyed, the bacteria lost partly, if not entirely, this capacity, which the mixture had possessed. This pointed clearly to the fact that there was some close relationship’existing between the Algæ and micro- organisms. There are many facts which seem to indicate the nature of this rela- tionship. Berthelot found that the nitrification of the soil only took place as long as organic compounds were present; if these were exhausted, the nitrifying process ceased. Gautier and Dronin also showed the im- portance which organic compounds have with respect to nitrification. Kossowitsch’s own experiments, in which the advantage of adding sugar to the culture was shown, also point in the same direction From such observations as these, Kossowitsch concludes that the relationship which the Algæ bear to the microérganisms is one con- 1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. 372 The American Naturalist. [April, nected with the organic food supply of these latter; he thinks that the Algæ, furnished with nitrogen by the bacteria, assimilate the carbo- hydrate material, part of which goes to their own maintenance, but part also to that of the microérganisms. It is, therefore, in his belief, an instance of symbiosis in which each supplies the wants of the other. There are many facts, partly the result of his own observations, partly the result of those of others, which uphold this view. Ifthe mixed culture be placed in the light, there is a far more noticeable nitrogen increase than when in darkness. Again, if a rich supply of carbon dioxide gas be provided, this is marked by a decided rise in nitrogen- fixing powers. Both these conditions are such as are known to influ- ence carbohydrate assimilation in chlorophyll-containing organisms ; but all experience is antagonistic to the view that light should be bene- ficial to the vital activity of the bacteria, and there are only one or two exceptional instances (Nitromonas, ete.) in which carbon dioxide can be directly assimilated by these microérganisms. Moreover, in the cases where the bacteria are bought into immediate contact with the Alga, as in those species of Algze which are enveloped in a gelatinous covering wherein the microorganisms become imbedded, nitrogen fixation appears to be greatly aided, and the addition of sugar to the culture has no such marked effect as in the instances where non- gelatinous Algæ are employed. The explanation of this seems to be that the bacteria embedded in the gelatinous sheath are amply pro- vided with carbohydrate food without the addition of sugar, which, therefore, comes more or less as a superfluity. All this seems to justify Kosswitsch’s view of the part played by the Algæ in the fixation of nitrogen ; it appears to show that they have an indirect, but none the less important, influence upon the process. (Nature, Jan. 24, 1895.) 1395.] Botany. 373 RULES FOR CITATION Adopted by the Madison Botanical Congress and Section G, A. A. A. Ss. Writers and publishers of botanical matter are earnestly requested ty adopt the forms here recommended. Examples of various cita- tions illustrating the application of the rules in specific cases are given. Correspondence may be addressed to Secretary of the Com- mittee on Bibliography, 1284 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, Mass. In each complete citation there should be given the following items: a. Author's surname in full, followed by a comma. b. Exact title, verbatim, following the capitalization required by the usage of the language in which the title is written, but not necessarily the capitalization employed. c. Name of periodical or work, abbreviated in accordance with list of journals and catalogue of authors under recommendation 1. a. DE d. Series, if any, in Roman capitals. e. Volume number in bold face Arabic numerals, followed by colon. In case there is no volume number, the number of the part, heft, lieferung, or fascicle is to occupy this place but is to be printed in Arabic numerals of ordinary face. When a volume is composed of parts separately paged the number of the part shall be written as an index figure to the volume number. Vol- umes in parts with continuous paging require no designation of - parts. f. Page, in Arabic numerals of ordinary face. In case paging of the paper is in Roman numerals these should be used, prefer- ably small caps. Re-paging in reprints and separates is to be in- dicated by enclosing the numerals in parentheses. In case the original paging is unknown an em dash should occupy its place, the reprint paging being given in accordance with the foregoing *See Proc. Mad. Bot. Cong. 45. Je 1894. 374 The American Naturalist. [ April, rule. No individual or unique paging is to be cited under any circumstances. g. Figures, plates and exsiccatz are to be printed in Italic Arabic numerals, the number designating the figure or plate to be preceded by the abbreviations f. and l., respectively, in Ital- ics. d. following a page number may be used, when desired, to ree description of a species. . Exact date must be given if possible, written in the mode ae with the abbreviations for months used by Library Bureau.* bles year at least must be given. . Punctuation. Except the comma following the author’s name, and the colon following the volume number all the items are to be separated by periods. If another citation follows in the same line it is to be separated from the first by an en dash. Spe- cific, generic and varietal names are to be written and punctuated in the method used in the ‘‘List of Pteridophyta and Spermato- phyta’’ issued under the direction of the Botanical Club, A. A. n- j. If it is considered desirable to give other data than series number (if any), volume number, page and date, these should be added in brackets after the date. But useless or unnecessary data should be avoided. k. Citations of reviews, abstracts, and all such secondary refer- ences should be enclosed in parentheses. Examples. I. Lagerheim, G. von. Ueber das Vorkommen von Eu- ropæischen Uredineen auf der Hochebene von Quito. Bot. Centralb. 54: 324-331. 1893. 2. Trelease, W. A revision of the American species of Epilobium occurring north of Mexico. Rept: Mo. Bot. Gard. 2: 69-117. pl. I-48. 22 Ap18ọ91. a Sargent, C. S., Editor. Populus monticola. Gard. and For. 7:313. f. 56. 8Ag1894. *Those abbreviations are as follows: Ja, F, Mr, Ap, My, J>, Jl, Ag, S,O. N, ; i.e, the initial of the month followed by the first distinctive letter. 1895.] €. e. Se. Botany. 375 Dietel, P. Die Gattung Ravenelia. Hedw. 33: 22-48. pl. 1-5. 30Ja. 49-69. 15Ap 1894. The foregoing are correct forms for catalogue by author. The following illustrate cases arising under the rules indicated by the letter preceding. Ell. and Everh. Pyren. 491. My 1892. Proc. Phil. Acad. 1894:53-59. 1894. The year number, 1894, is the volume number, and not neces- sarily the year cf publication. E. g., Bessey, Am. Pomol. Soc. 1885: 42. 1886. Mez, C. Bromeliaceze. III. Flora Brasiliensis 115: 425-634. pl. 81-114. IF 1894. Not Fasc. CXV, 425-634, t. 81-114. Saccardo, P. A. Syll. Fung. 77:481. N 1890. e E j. Bull. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn. 9:39-42. 2Mr 1894. Not 9?; nor 9 part 2; nor 1894 [part 2]. e.j. Linn. Sp. Plant. 6?:125. 1852. [ed. Willd.] e.j. Gray, A. Man. Bot. 225. 1890. [6th ed.] É; g. g. L hs k. Peck, C. F. Rep. N. Y. Mus. 47:— (18). N 1894. Ell. and Everh. N. A. F.. 7642. F 1889. Rept. Mo. Bot. Gard. 2:98. d. pl. 28. 22Ap 1891. Beringer, Am. Jour. Pharm. 66:220. My 1894.— Tu- lasne, Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. Mi. 7:85.54. plo 2 fi 3. 1847. Bailey, The Japanese plums in North America. Bull. Cornell Exp. Sta. 62: 3-36. Ja1894. [Illust.] The figures are not numbered Ell. and Kell. Jour. ek: 1:12. d. Jat885.—(Hedw. 24: 45 d. Jer1885.) Peck, (Grev. 22: 111. Je1894.) 376 The American Naturalist. [April, ZOOLOGY. The Senses of Pilumnus.—-The observations of M. Emile Racovitza prove that the otocyst of Pilumnus hirtellus, a small crab living in the rocks off Cape Abeille, near Banyuls, is an organ for feel- ing vibrations rather than for hearing. The crab feeds on small bivalves which live in holes in the rocks. When the bivalve moves its shell serapes the rock and the vibration is communicated to the crab in his hole, whereupon he promptly sallies forth and proceeds in the direction of his prey, feeling for it with his claws. He appears to recognize his food by the sense of touch rather than sight, since any object used to scratch the rock will attract the crab and be seized by him as readily as if it were his favorite bivalve food. (Comptes ren- dus de l’Acad. d. Sci., CX VIII). More Deep-Sea Fishes.—In the last number of the NATURAL- IST, we referred to the publication by Messrs Goode & Bean, of the U. S. Fish Commission, of some remarkable forms of deep-sea fishes dredged by the U. S. steamer Albatross. These were Hariotta, a new genus of Chimeroidei, at depths varying from 700 to 1000 fathoms ; Rondletia, a new genus of Iniomi, from 1600 fathoms; and Cetomimus, also of the Iniomi, at from 1000 to 1500 fathoms. In the present num- ber of the NATURALIST, we give figures of these remarkable forms, thanks to the Hon. Marshall MacDonald, U. S. Commissioner of Fish- eries. We add to these, figures of three remarkable forms of the order Opisthomi, belonging to the families Notacanthidae and Lipogenyidae, the latter a new family defined by Prof. Gill. Two new genera of the former are called Gigliola and Macdonaldia respectively, and they are quite distinct from Notacanthus.. Lipogenys possesses a peculiar suc- torial mouth structure. The mandibular bones are said to be attached to the extremities of the maxillary, and to be “free behind.” The lips are thick, rugose and contractile, and there are no teeth. The spinous dorsal fin is very short, and the eye is rather small. The only species is the L. gillii, which was taken at a depth of 865 fathoms. We should have preferred seeing some more-conspicuous zodlogists commemorated by these discoveries than Harriott and Rondelet ; and we have a feeling that gentlemen who have passed over to the majority like these two and Sir Walter Raleigh, do not appreciate the compli- ment as much as they would have done had they been still with us. PLATE XIX. r a ithe sds aie te Hariotta raleighana G. & B; adult and young. PLATE XX. 1. Rondeletia bicolor G. & B. 2. Cetomimus gillii G. & B. 3. Cetomimus storerii G. & B. PLATE XXI. { TESCA TRETI] TEAN EPEE SE Ceres eye Rares Ke o, PO te Nowe, ps Ree e ors ; reed S A yO» E TT R DIS RA IERI Vere RERIT Paes Baty, x» i wD % er AT 3585. ErP S 7È CATR ean y EN AITEAS OO A Perey Insana lanes DSE 3 ny os s a X; 2 ee, A AA ERA OS CSAS FES AGS A SRS ogo; ae: SAL TACs os e Stee ef SESE i rose s3 St IER Kes ee PRP antes ery Ts EER PREDANY Ses aie be o s h Pe satay Oh 3949 son 1333 è StS y rae oxo: A oR: ates £ = $S SESS IRA frato, aeS SH pas = aaa ERRAN, Fe AS aA. RIITA aoscaanne Ra es a FARA aane 9 A dH mae, 7 agree R aa vts aas A CRON setae” ote gy fa! 22, K aSo +, <2 Tar Ge Be aay ase ; Ne pa DEY oe sh PeR a re 4 SS x vP FA a v i) feza ER ye eats z 25% RTIRA 3 tS Vas PR llii G. & B. ipogenys gi liolia moselyi G. & B. 2. Macdonaldia rostrata G. & B. 3. Li 9 1. 1895.] Zoology. 377 Destruction of Food Fishes.—A gradual diminution of salt- water food fishes is reported all along the eastern coast of the United States. This destruction is caused by willful violation of game laws. The fish phosphate factories cause the disappearance of immense quantities of bluefish, bass and scup. The gill nets at the entrance to bays and harbors have almost exterminated the striped bass, which was once very plentiful, while early every spring pound nets are set for alewives, flatfish, smelts and flounders, and these are caught by the ton and spread upon the land as a fertilizer. The most destructive nets probably are the pounds, since they are made of fine meshed net- ting and cover an immense area. In some instances these nets are 4000 feet in length, and naturally catch immense quantities of cunners, kil- lies, butterfish, white perch and young fry of the blackfish and sea bass which frequent our waters. It is to be hoped that stringent game laws will be adopted and that they will be stringently enforced. (Sci- entific American, Jan. 12, 1895). A Swallow Roost at Waterville, Maine.—The following interesting account of a Swallow Roost is given by A. F. C. Bates in the January number of The Auk. Not far from where a small stream called the Messalonskee joins the Kennebec River, one may see at evening, from the middle of July to about the third week in September, an interesting sight in the bird line. The willow trees along the banks of this stream, particularly a close row some five or six hundred feet in length, form the roosting place of vast numbers of swallows. During the forenoon and early afternoon very few swallows are to be seen in the sky—indeed they are conspicu- ous by their absence—but a little before sunset the birds begin to arrive in the vicinity, flying, sailing, chasing each other around in the upper air, everywhere within the eye’s reach. From north and south, east and west, in they come out of the distance till one thinks the barns, banks, martin-houses and swallow nests of whatever description all over Maine must have yielded up their inmates. Shortly after sun- set they gather more nearly in the region directly above the trees, in- comers from every point of the horizon still joining them, and toward the last exhibiting great hurry and intentness, as if fearful of being “ late to meeting.” Then begin movements that are the most interesting fiktion of this gathering. At intervals clouds of swallows will evolve something like order out of their numbers and perform en masse some of the most 378 The American Naturalist. [April, fantastic curves, spirals, counter-marches, snakelike twists and turns, with the sky for a background, that ever a company of genus Homo executed on a finely polished floor. For instance, one evening they separated into two parts, one going to the right, the other to the left, each division making a grand circle outward, then joining again for a forward movement. There were some stragglers, but the figure was distinct and was twice performed, with other evolutions interspersed. Then a long, snake-like movement from the upper air down, very slightly inclined from the vertical, with two twists in it, a loop around a tall tree farther down the stream and back, brought them into the tree-tops for roosting. That was the cleanest and most astonishing figure I ever saw them perform. Occasionally they drop down into the trees like pieces of paper, but oftener the final alighting is a com- bined movement, sometimes in the shape of an inverted cone—usually in a grand sweep after their most elaborate evolution. Frequently they swoop out from the trees company after company, several times before the last settling, their wings not only making a tremendous whirring, but a perceptible movement of the air. Their chattering keeps up from half to three-quarters of an hour after they settle in the trees, and their dark little bodies against the sunset sky look as numerous as the leaves. Often they weigh down a branch and then a great chattering, scolding and re-adjustment ensues. Sometimes there is a movement through the tree-tops to one spot as if a conference were called, and a more surprising amount of chattering than before. Then in a few minutes back they come till the tree-tops are about equally full. The noise which they make is suggestive of the whirring of looms in a cotton mill, heard through the open windows, or of some kinds of water-falls. They leave the trees in the morning a little before sunrise. August 26th we watched them go out. At 4.15 there were sounds as if of awakening and gradually the noise increased. At 4.25 they began to arise in companies at intervals of two or three minutes. They did not remain long in the locality and by five o’clock not one was to be seen. The Distribution of Seeds by Birds.—I have just sent a MS on The Dissemination of Yucca aloifolia to Professor Trelease for pub- lication in the Missouri Botanical Garden Reports. My attention has been called to certain observations therein of a zoological nature that seem rather remarkable. Iam convinced that the observations are correct, but am not informed on the literature of the subject and thus 1895.] Zoology. 379 do not know whether to consider the facts novel or not. Probably you may be able to inform me in regard to the subject. In connection with my work on dissemination, I was led to feed a captured mocking-bird on various fleshy fruits. I found that they apparently digest their material with what would seem to me great rapidity. As illustrations, I fed the bird with some 15 seeds of Yucca aloifolia, noting the time when they were swallowed. One of these seeds, and there could be no mistake, was evacuated in slightly over 15 minutes after the first seed was swallowed, and the majority of the seeds were evacuated by the end of half an hour. At another time ‘some 15 seeds were given to the bird and the majority were evacuated in half an hour and all in an hour. The bird was given access to an entire Yucca fruit and ate and evacuated 51 seeds in about 4 hours. I tested the bird also with poke berries (Phytolacca decandra) and found that all excrement became stained in a very few minutes, while the seeds usually began to be evacuated in considerable numbers in half an hour and the majority had passed in three-quarters of an hour. The same held true with the seeds of Durantia plumeri and Melia azederach. The question then is whether the evacuation of seeds in from 15 minutes to half an hour, making the entire passage of the alimentary canal in that time, would be considered at all uncommon. It may be that such fruits have a purgative effect on the bird and hasten matters somewhat. I would be greatly obliged for your opinion on this sub- ject. I merely mention the thing incidentally in my paper, but my observations were carefully made. H. J. WEBBER. The Effects of Cold.—L’Eleveur reports that the wild boars, which are very numerous in the forests of Luxembourg, driven by cold and hunger, roam through the streets of the villages. Also that the wolves have come down from the Vosges Mountains to the plains in vast numbers. If these animals are experiencing such suffering through cold, it is not surprising to hear that the game birds in the preserves of Marly and of Rambouillet are perishing from the same cause. Each day the guards find great numbers of pheasants and par- tridges frozen to death. In this connection is mentioned a singular fact observed by an English farmer. He owned four peacocks which were in the habit of coming at his call. He noticed that for two days one was missing. The third day he saw two of the peacocks vigor- ously scratching away the snow to the depth of a meter. On going to 380 The American Naturalist. [April, their assistance he found the missing bird buried in the snow and fast- ened down to the ground by his tail, which was frozen in a pool of water. A few hours after his release the peacock had perfectly recov- ered. (Revue Scientifique, Fev., 1895). Zoological News.—A study of the Crista of the large intertropi- cal Trombidiums (T. tinctorium, ete.) leads Dr. Trouessart to the con- clusion that the organ in question is not only an organ of hearing, but that it is also the remnant of the median anterior eye, now atrophied. This example of organs of different senses joined together by growth - is unique among Arthropods, although there are cases among certain insects where antennae are found inserted near the centre of the eyes. (Bull. Soc. Entomol., Paris, 1894). In Chapman’s “ Guide to a Collection of Birds found within 50 miles of New York City,” it is stated that 348 species are known with- in that radius, and these are classified as follows: Permanent resi- dents 35; summer residents 92 ; winter residents 36 ; summer visitants 18; winter visitants 16 ; regular transient visitants 82, irregular 30 ; accidental 39. The collection belongs to the American Museum of Natural History. 1895.] Entomology. : : 381 ENTOMOLOGY. Two more new species of Lecanium.—(1). Lecanium pseud- hesperidum, Ckll., n. sp.— 9 scale of the general shape and appear- ance of L. hesperidum, but (at least in spirit) firm in texture. Length 63, breadth 33, height 1 mm. Color reddish-brown, moderately shiny, pitted but not ridged or grooved; rows of apparently glandular patches on the dorsum. This description is from a 9? packed with eggs; empty 9, from which the eggs have hatched, are sometimes rather larger, and appear whitish or nearly colorless. Derm colorless, very distinctly tessellated, the tessellations not con- taining gland-spot. Rather large gland-pits scattered at irregular intervals. Margin with slender spines, often curved, never branched. Lateral incisions each with a stout blunt brown spine, and a second rudimen- tary or very small. Anal plates small, about 1} mm. from hind end. Anogenital ring with numerous hairs. Mentum 2-pointed, rounded at end. Legs ordinary ; coxa and trochanter each with a hair at end; tarsus searcely if at all shorter than tibia. Claw stout, hooked at tip. Digitules ordinary, well-developed, slender but not filiform. Antenne very pale brownish, well-formed, but the joints indistinct, 6 joints, 3 much longest, about twice as long as 2, and a little longer than 4+5+-6. 4 shortest, then 5 and 1 about or nearly equal. 6 about as long as2. Formula 6(26)(15)4. 1, 2 and 3 each witha long hair near the end ; 6 with many hairs. Hab., on Cattleya in greenhouse at Ottawa, Canada (C.-E. F.), Dee. 15, 1894. Sent by Mr. J. Fletcher. The native country of the species is unknown, but it is most probably neotropical. This interesting species looks very like the common L. hesperidum, but in its tessellated skin more resembles such species as L. depressum. The tessellation is microscopical, so the species could not be taken for L. perforatum as tessellatum. With it were sent (also in alcohol) three or four examples of an Anlacaspis from the same plant. No satis- factory study could be made of this from the material received, but it appears to be A. boisduvalii, (Signoret). (2). Lecanium lintneri, Ckll. and Bennett, n. sp.—¢ scale very flat, practically circular in outline, about 54 mm. long and 5 broad; dark 1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, Durham, N. H. 16 382 The American Naturalist. [April, chestnut brown, shiny, subreticulately wrinkled. Removed from the bark it leaves a rather indistinct white patch. 2 “ Derm orange-yellow, with gland orifices. Marginal hairs short, scattered. “ Antenne seven-pointed, 7th joint about $ longer than 1st, emitting 4 or 5 long hairs. 1, very broad, a little broader than long. 2, about as long as 1 is broad, 3 a little longer than 2 ; 4 a little longer than 3, the point between 3 and 4 being almost indistinguishable, causing 3 and 4 to appear as one long joint. 5, two-thirds as long as 2. 6, a little longer than 5. Formula 4(73)2165. “ Legs: coxa short, broad, has one hair ; trochanter almost as long as coxa; femur 2 times as long as coxa; tibia { as long as femur ; tarsus shorter than tibia. Claw small, not curved. Big knobbed digitule on tarsus larger and thicker than on claw. Anai ring with long hairs, perhaps only 6.” (Joseph Bennett, MS.) Hab.—On Sassfras, Lake Mohonk, Greene Co., N. Y., June 15, 1894. Found by Dr. Lintner, to whom it is dedicated in recognition of his great services to N. Y. Entomology. The material was small in amount, and were the species not so very distinct from anything yet described I should hestitate to publish it. The scale is not very unlike that of some Pulvinaria, but there is no ovisac, though young had been produced by the specimens examined. - Lecanium tulipifere Cook, as figured by its author, looks as if it might possibly be this species; but the figures are bad, and I have received from Mr. L. O. Howard good specimens of tulipifere, from Virginia. These specimens show that tulipifere resembles such forms as tilie and esculi, and has nothing to do with lintneri. Most of the description was written by Mr. Bennett, a former student of mine. T. D. A. CockrrgE.t, N. M. Agr. Exp. Sta. A new Trombidian.’—The accompanying plate XXII shows a new North American trombidian which the writer found on the feath- ers of the black flycatcher (Phenopepla nitus Sev.) from Casa Grande, Arizona. By way of introduction some notes about this species may be outlined before the more detailed description is given, which is left till the last. This mite appeared on the surface of the plumage of two dried skins of the above bird, which had been laid away after separat- ing from the flesh, for a time enclosed in paper cylinders. This fact 2 Read before the ene Section of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, January 18th, 1895. 1395.] Entomology. 383 is mentioned as they proved useful in preserving the mites which had previous to their death made their way to the surface of the feathers. In the uncovered skin, moreover, parasites make an effort to crawl away or are lost in handling. It is not known on what part of the tis- sues of the bird the present species of parasite inhabits, but from the knowledge given to us by the writers mentioned further on, we may infer that either the connective tissue or the feather furnishes its nour- ishment, or, perhaps, as in the case with some other members of trom- bidians (Cheyletinae) they may feed upon the other forms of parasites which frequently live upon the same bird. All thisis speculative with relation to the new species under consideration as we have not had as yet an opportunity of personally examining living specimens. On the shining black back ground of feathers this mite appears as minute whitish specks distributed quite generally over the body of the two birds seen. They are easily removed with the point of a needle to which they can be made to adhere by mere contact, by reason of the long hairs which is such a characteristic feature of the example before us. By reason of this also I have given it the name villosa. Trans- ferred to the slide of the microscope they are seen to be shrivelled and of course lifeless. An immersion in pure glycerine caused the tissues to regain to a striking extent what would apparently be the natural rotund appearance of life. Some twelve specimens of both sexes gathered from the birds were studied, the most of these being matured individuals. Selecting one which was characteristic, I made the draw- ing of the female referred to in the beginning of this paper. While a number of species have been described, from time to time, the literature is not extensive and that which interests us most in the present connec- tion is foreign. In 1878 G. Haller’ found a remarkable vermicular shaped trombidian in the connective tissue of the ash-colored wood- pecker (Picus canus) and described it under the generic and specific appellation Picobia heerit. In the following year 1879, A. Heller of Kiel, found similar forms inside the feathers of poultry, pigeons, and peacocks. To all appearances these Acarina all belong to the same genus Picobia notwithstanding the latter observer described two new species under a newly created genus to which the name Syringophilus was given. We could not pass without mentioning this as we think the new form here described, for the first time, enters into the genus Picobia of Haller, while it resembles, as far as description goes, to some extent the species Picobia (Syringophilus) uncinata Heller.‘ 3 Freyana and Picobia Zutschrift fur wissenschaftliche, Zoologie, XXX, 1878, 8 p. 81. * Die Schmarotzer, 1880, p. 186. 384 The American Naturalist. [ April, Description of Picobia villosa, sp. nov.— Length of body, male .7 mm. breadth .20 mm. The female is slightly larger. Body elongated, rather rotund; palpi abbreviated ; legs strong with five joints; tarsus of all the legs terminating in two chitinous Ctenidium or comb-like structures, the body of the latter thickened, convexed on the outer side straighter on side giving origin to the teeth, at point of attachment to tarsus the diameter is lessened and becomes rounded between the claws, the teeth constituting the comb are graduated in length being longest at free end, becoming shorter toward tbe articulation as shown in Fig. 2, the teeth are also notched at their extremities the last tooth of the fourth pair having six denticles. Within the end of the tarsus, on each side, is inserted, by a stalk, an accessory delicate hyaline vertic- ally flattened appendage, see Fig. 2a, it is split up a part of the way into about nine sharp terminations which divaricate slightly ; they project to the outer side of the claws, their ends overhanging like fringe. At the end of the tarsus, corresponding to a point at the base of the combs, two curved claws are present as shown in Fig. 2. To the naked eye the body of this mite is whitish. Through the microscope it appears almost transparent except where food masses occur in the abdomen. A number of blackish hairs are found, on the legs, body, and especially at the end of the abdomen where some, here, attain an extraordinary length. In the plate these are curved so as not to take up unnecessary room. EXPLANATION oF Prare XXII. Fig. 1. Picobia villosa Hancock, ee greatly magnified, semi- transparent view. Fig. 2. Tarsus seen from the side ovine comb structures, the claws, and accessory stalked appendage (shown at a). Chicago. Josera L. Hancock. PLATE XXII. =. > © > } ——— \ K, if SS} = | Yz ai UREE LS (it Sg A SS Fig.1. Hancock on Picobia. 1395.] Embryology. 385 EMBRYOLOGY.’ EPE ann: EROI W Hoem Roux, the leader of the new school of Embry th al phenomena by the aid of scperinental methods, has: published. j in ka new period- ical some very interesting results obtained on his-often used object, the frog’s egg.” The eggs were teased apart in salt solution, white of egg, or in a mixture of both, and observed under precautions necessary to prevent currents and jars in the liquids. When so treated the isolated cells, for eggs are used in later cleavage and bastula stages when each is divided up into many cells, lie in the liquid at varying distances from one another and quite separate. It is now found that movements may take place that results in the union of some of these isolated cells. These movements are a gliding or creeping, since the cells lie on the glass slide and not suspended in the liquid. In many cases, especially when salt solution is used, the cells throw out pseudopodia that may be all clear protoplasm or else contain a granular axial mass. These may anastomose with pseudo- podia of other cells. The pseudopodia, however, are not concerned in the motions which are actual translations of entire cells without any visible means or cause. : The movements do not take place between all cells and seem to vary in power in the same cells. In the frog Rana fusca eggs from the latter part of the breeding season show no movements. In other species namely R. esculenta, Bombinator igneus and in the fish Telestes agassizii no movement could be detected. In detail these movements are found to be of limited extent but yet capable of resolution into considerable complexity. Only cells having diameters of from 20 to 60 microns show the phenomena and only when not more than their own diameter apart. Weare thus dealing with mi- gration of small amounts of matter along very short distances. The cells move along the shortest distance between them but not without vibra- tions from side to side. The latter part of their course when about to unite is generally more rapidly accomplished than the first. A few minutes to an hour or two may be taken in moving these short dis- tances, e. g. 40 microns. 'Eaitea vy E. A. SRR Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and pona notes ma 2? Archiv f. PLT PE Vol. I. Oct. and Dec., 1894. 386 The American Naturalist. [April, Larger cells may move toward smaller and vice versa, or both to- ward one another. When three cells are concerned one may move toward another directly or may at first move as if in the resultant line of forces proceeding from each of the other two. Mass does not seem concerned in these movements for several cells in a group (not separated from one another in the teasing) do not act as a whole, but one of them may attract or else be attracted by some isolated cell lying near. Many cells may eventually come together and form a firm aggregate out of a scattered collection of isolated cells. It appears that these attractive movements take place between cells ` of separate eggs as well as between the cells of the same egg. More- over, it was found that the cells of later stages, of the gastrula and young tadpole stage, may move. Thus cells that were forming the nervous system may, when isolated, round themselves off, become ameebird and even, in some cases, draw together till they touch. Besides the change of position hitherto mentioned there is a marked change of form. ‘In general two active cells protrude on the side to- wards the other cell so that they may be said to flow out towards one another to a certain extent. There is also considerable change in out- line, elongation and contraction of the cell while moving or while serv- ing as the centre of attraction or of movement for another cell. A cell may even divide while also moving towards another. The explanation of these complex movements of isolated cells in the frog embryo remains for the future, but provisionally the author refers them to the general class of movements brought about as the result of chemical action. That they are not simply physical, but results of life in the cells, the author seems to prove by careful examination of the sources of error and by controlling the conditions of experimentation. He would class these movements with those of sperm cells towards ova and of conjugating infusoria towards one another as cases of Cyrorropism ; he pictures to himself a chemical or chemotactic source for the movements by supposing that the cells secrete chemical sub- tances that effect other cells so as to direct their movement as well as to incite it. This movement under the stimulus of adjoining chemicals would differ from that observed by Pfeffer, in that here the cell does not move towards the region of greatest concentration of substance, but, in that it moves to another cell and thus into the field filled by sub- stances from two cells, towards the region where the substance is least dilute. 1895.] Embryology. 387 Since this cytrotropic state seems to vary in any cell it may play a varying and not unimportant part in the phenomena of ontogeny. ells may, at time unite, at another, remain y separate. Migrations of cells towards oxygen on the surface of the egg, etc., would also be exhibitions of these same cytrotropic powers. 388 The American Naturalist. [April, PSYCHOLOGY." In his “ Introduction to Comparative Psychology,” (Contemporary Science Series, Walter Scott & Sons, London), Professor Lloyd Mor- gan’s central object is, he tells us in his preface, “to discuss the relation of the psychology of man to that of the higher animals...a secondary object...is to consider the place of consciousness in nature, the relation of psychical evolution to physical and biological evolution and the light which comparative psychology throws on certain philosophical problems.” s far as the formal element in his book is concerned, Professor Morgan makes no claim to originality. He has made use, so far as I can see, of three architectonic principles. The first of these is the symbolic conception of consciousness as a “ wave ;” the crest of the wave corresponds to the “ focus of consciousness,” more usually called the centre of attention, while the other portions of the wave represent the “marginal” elements, those of which we are conscious but to which we are not attending. The second is the conception of “ relations ” as “ the momentary feelings accompanying transitions in consciousness.” The first of these conceptions Professor Morgan credits to Professor James, of Harvard; the second to Mr. Spencer. The third principle he does not explicitly mention in his preface, probably because it would be difficult to ascribe it, in the form in which it is stated by himself and others, to any given individual. It is the con- ception of a selective, synthetic activity as characteristic of subject and object alike; this, in the object, is the activity manifested in the ob- jective sequences which are formulated as natural laws; in the subject it is that “to which the term Will is properly applicable” (page 315). In the few pages of Prolegomena the doctrine of monism is briefly outlined, first, as the monistic theory of knowledge, second, as the monistic interpretation of nature, third, as a monistic analysis of nature into mental and material “ aspects,” distinguishable in thought but not separable in existence. The first three chapters preparé the way for the detailed discussion that follows. The conception of con- sciousness as a wave is made plain in chapter I; in chapter II, on the “ Physiological Conditions of Consciousness,” it is shown that it matters little whether we take as our working hypothesis the pure monistic 1! This department is edited by Dr. Wm. Romaine Newbold, University of Penn- sylvania. 1395.] Psychology. 389 identification of the mental and physical series or the empirical dualism commonly known as the doctrine of parallelism. Chapter III inquires into the inevitable limitations of the method of analogy as applied to the interpretation of other minds than ours. In the thirteen chapters following, Professor Morgan applies himself to the purely psychological part of his work, and throughout, after devoting a chapter or two to the analysis of the phenomena of the human mind, he endeavors in the next chapter to determine whether analogous mental states are to be ascribed to animals other than man. He begins his inquiry with the more concrete phenomena of the spe- cifically inner life and concludes that in the lower animals concrete representative ideas are suggested by sense impressions, associated with one another and remembered very much as they are in ourselves. He then takes up the difficult problems of sense experience in the chapter on the “ Analysis of Impressions;” the ultimate elements of impressions are distinguished as sensations of various kinds; the chapter on “ Syn- thesis and Correlation ” then undertakes to show “ how these sensation elements are combined synthetically to form impressions as we know them ; how they enter into correlation with each other; and how they call up through association representations of similar sensation ele- ments.” Under the caption “The Sense Experience of Animals, Professor Morgan gives his reasons for concluding that the sense ex- perience of the higher vertebrates is much the same as our own, while of that of the lower forms of life we probably can form no representa- tive idea whatever. Chapter XI develops in sharp relief the doctrine of lower (i. e. sub- cortical) automatic centers standing under the control of higher (cor- tical) centers whose augmenting or inhibitory activity is in turn deter- mined by sensory (conscious) centers. The activities of these latter centers, again, are determined by the emotional tone associated with their functioning. Professor Morgan also inclines to the belief that special centers exist for the control of these purely sensory centers (pp. 194-5). Chapter XII, entitled ‘Instinct and Intelligence,” applies these principles to the explanation of the conduct of animals, showing that while animals may act instinctively, their habits are for the most part empirically determined by the method of trial and error, and consequently must be regarded as fully conscious. To this method of trial and error Professor Morgan would restrict the term intelligence. Chapters XIII and XV on the “ Perception of Relations” and “ Conceptual Thought,” are perhaps the most suggestive in the book. A relation is the transition between two focal states of consciousness ; 390 The American Naturalist. [April, originally marginal, it in the course of evolution becomes focal. This is probably due to the necessity of intercommunication, which can be carried on in terms of relation only, and language has been the instru- ment by means of which this immense advance in mental evolution has been effected. When a given relation is not only itself focal, but is apprehended without reference to any particular terms related, it is called a concept. Abstraction is a process involving a great relative intensification of the focal element to the greater or less exclusion of the marginal elements—it is, therefore, essential to the development of concepts. There is no evidence to show that the lower animals can perceive relations or form concepts. And if we take “reason” as in- volving an apprehension of similarity of relation in things diverse, we have no evidence for the ascription of reason to animals other than man. The three following chapters are rather metaphysical and philoso- phical than psychological. Chapter XVII expands the conception already outlined in the Prolegomena of subject and object as later differentiations of an originally homogeneous experience, and endeavors to identify that selective, synthetic, orderly and determinate activity which in the object we term the operation of natural law with that similar activity which in the subject we term Will. Self-consciousness in its most highly developed form involves “ first, the conception of the subjective as distinguished from the objective; secondly, the con- centration of the net result of all subjective experience into one gen- eralized concept; and thirdly, the further conception of this net result as due to the determinate working of an activity which is synthetic and selective.” This form of self-consciousness is attained by rela- tively few men; in the lower animals it is not probable that it exists at all. Chapter XVIII takes up what in the Prolegomena is called the monistic interpretation of nature, and develops the conception of con- sciousness as a product of organic evolution. Chapter XIX, on “Selective Synthesis in Evolution,” carries on in like manner the monistic analysis, endeavoring to trace throughout the inorganic and organic world the varying manifestations of that selective, synthetic activity which the monist regards as the ultimate essence of Chapter XX and last, returns to psychology proper and compares the emotional and moral life of men and animals. The emotions of some of the lower animals are probably very like those of man. This is true especially of the offensive and defensive emotions, and to some degree of the sense of the beautiful. But there is no reason for 1895.) Psychology. j 39ł believing that brutes can form an aesthetic judgment or attain to an aesthetic or moral ideal. It is not my intention to enter into any detailed criticism of Profes- sor Morgan’s book, yet there are some points which he will, I hope, make clearer in his forthcoming “ Psychology for Teachers.” I do not clearly see the laws by which the transition from the concrete to the general relation is effected ; I would like to know why the word “ concept” is to be restricted to generalized vector states and denied of analogous static states; I would like to see the doctrine of “ auto- matic” centres and “control” centres brought more into harmony with the results of introspection; and I would like Professor Morgan to show why he identifies the selective, synthetic activity of nature, not only with the intrinsic properties of mental states, such as tendencies to development, to suggestion of ideas, to the production and preven- tion of muscular contraction, ete., which are its true analogues in the inner life, but also with that enigmatic activity of will, which seems at times to run counter to all these momenta and to determine thought and conduct in a fashion diametrically opposed to the provocation of © the immediate environment. Thatthis activity is without determinate laws I do not for a moment believe. It is probable that in it we see the present, conscious representative of our total individual and here- ditary experience in some way brought to bear upon the immediate present. But as I do not think that even descriptive psychology can afford to ignore it, so I would not hastily identify it with any other phenomenon of inner or outer experience. That tendency to identify the energy or activity of the objective world with the “will” of the subjective world which has been more or less noticeable in philosophy since the days of Schopenhauer, is but a more refined form of the animistic theories of our prehistoric ancestors and of their successor, the theistic interpretation of nature which is still current. That there may be truth in such theories I am not prepared to deny, but as they can- not be tested by appeal to experience, nor are essential to the construc- tion of a scientific conception of nature, they have at present no place in a reasoned scheme of knowledge. One other point calls for comment. In his chapter on the physio- logical conditions of consciousness, Professor Morgan has, I think, failed to make use of the suggestive material brought to light by recent researches into what Pierre Janet calls “la désagrégation psy- chologique.” It would, perhaps, be too much to say that the study of mental disorganization has established the possibility of mental states existing in connection with a given brain without forming part of the 392 The American Naturalist. [April, “ consciousness” normally related to that brain. But there is cer- tainly much evidence for this hypothesis, and, if we adopt it, it would obviate all the verbal absurdities of “ unconscious consciousness” and the sundry difficulties that attach to other theories. Moreover, the theory is directly in line with Professor Morgan’s fundamental concep- tions and I am rather surprised that he has not felt inclined to make more direct use of it. Taken as a whole, Professor Morgan’s book is without doubt the best introduction to psychology for mature minds that we possess. Itis admirably clear, coherent and consistent. Notwithstanding his dis- claimer of originality, in so far as regards his architectonic principles, it is not too much to say that he has succeeded in utilizing those prin- ciples for the organization of his bewilderingly complex material with greater success than has attended the efforts of either Professor James or Mr. Spencer. Many of us who are accustomed to use in teaching psychology the synthetic method which Professur James condemns so vigorously, have done so, not because we were especially wedded to the synthetic method as such, but because all attempts hitherto made to present the subject analytically only result in confusing the beginner. Professor Morgan’s book seems to me the first successful attempt to make psychology intelligible by the analytic method, and I intend to try at once the experiment of using it as a text-book with beginners. Furthermore, the book is most refreshingly free from the phraseology of the schools. The old tripartite division of the Englishmen and the “faculties” of popular superstition are conspicuous by their absence, and the reader is brought face to face with the facts. Throughout, the influence of Professor James’ stimulating example seems traceable, but there is a consistency and precision in Professor Morgan’s thought which one misses in Professor James’. It is true that precision and consistency in psychology can be attained, in the present state of the science, only by the sacrifice of much that the candid student would like to know, and a critical reader would doubtless sow Professor Mor- gan’s pages thickly with interrogation points and carets. But the beginner needs most of all clearness, precision and substantial accuracy; the further processes of exception, modification and introduction of alternative theories are best deferred to a later stage. Professor Mor- gan has had the needs of the beginner in mind and has met them bet- ter than any contemporary writer. 1895.) Archeology and Ethnology. 393 ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY! The Antiquity of Man at Petit Anse (Avery’s Island), Louisiana.—In digging fifteen and twenty feet through superficial soil into a very pure deposit of rock-salt, on a low hill at Avery’s Is- land, west of New Orleans, some miners found, on the- authority of Mr. T. F. Cleu (quoted by Professor Henry of the Smithsonian Insitu- tion, Trans. Chic. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I, part 2), a fragment of ancient cane matting near the top of the salt, and fourteen feet below the surface of the soil. What made the discovery noteworthy was Mr. Cleu’s statement (see Foster’s Prehist. Races of the U. S., p. 56, and Nadaillacs Prehist. America, p. 36) that remains of the tusks and bones of a fossil elephant were found in the same soil two feet above the matting. Professor E. W. Hilgard and Dr. E. Fontaine afterwards (1867) said they found incredible quantities of pottery mixed with elephant and other large fossil bones at a depth of 12 feet below the surface. By that time a good deal of digging for salt had been done in the mines by white men, and the investigators of the locality seem to have drawn their deductions from what they saw and what they heard from workmen in these pits. Some of the observers thought that the layer of loam covering the salt had been washed down from the surround- ing hills. But its age would have been best settled by geological data of the bones it contained if the bones were in situ. Whether the fossil bones were part and parcel of the loam or not, the important question is—were the human remains (basket work, pot- tery, etc.) contempory with the fossils, or were they not contemporary ? And this has not been settled, for we do not know whether the com- paratively modern Indians dug pits through the loam down to the salt just as the white men dig them now, and whether, in such case, their pottery and basket work finding a way naturally to the bottom of their pits, had not thus become mingled with an underplaced bed of animal remains already resting on the salt. Comparatively recent peoples in Europe have dug graves and bur- ied skeletons on cave floors so as sometimes to let down their relics into more ancient company when the graves happened to penetrate in- 1 This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania. ` e 394 The American Naturalist. [April, to older geological layers, and thus the most modern object in the world can be intruded into the most ancient stratum known. Until this question of previous salt-pit digging by Indians is clearly settled, we must remain in the dark as to the meaning of the objects thus far found at Petit Anse. The following notes upon a recent examination of the spot by the late Dr. Joseph F. Joor, has been kindly sent me by the President of Tulane University, of New Orleans.—H. C. MERCER. Notes on a Collection of Archeological and Geological Specimens Collected in a Trip to Avery’s Island (Petit Anse), Feb. 1st, 1890. By Joseph F. Joor, M. D.—About the end of January, 1890, President Johnston, of Tulane University, learned that the New Iberia Salt Co., in opening a new shaft, had ex- posed a number of Indian relics and remains of extinct animals. As the Professor of Geology could not then leave, he requested me to pro- ceed at once to the spot, and secure as many specimens as possible for the University Museum; also to learn all I could of the Archaeology, reology, and Natural History of the Island. 3 Accordingly, I left New Orleans, January 31st, reaching the Island the same evening. I was most agreeably and hospitably entertained by Mr. and Mrs. McIlhenny and the Avery brothers, who also gave me valuable assistance during the eighteen days’ of my stay. The officers of the Salt Company also extended many courtesies, without which my work would have been greatly hindered. The excavation formed a rectangle about 50x 90 feet at top, and 30 x 70 at bottom, with sloping sides—the greater length being north and south. The depth to the salt varied from 16 to 25 feet. The lay- ers penetrated at that time, at the northwest corner, were: 1st. Soil, 6 inches. 2d. Yellow clay, with some sand, 4—6 inches. 3rd. Black stiff loam, or swamp muck, 10-12 feet (pottery bed). 4th. Blue clay, with pebbles (bone bed), 2 feet or more. This last was only partly removed at the time of my arrival, and from it came our paleontological specimens. Immediately below was the salt, with a very irregular surface, its hollows filled with the clay, which thus in some spots was nearly ten feet deep. The upper layers varied considerably in different parts, both in relative thickness and character. At the northeast corner, for instance, the yellow clay is partly replaced by sand. But the most important differences were in the loam. At the north end, near the northeast corner, a hollow, 1895.] Archeology and Ethnology. 395 probably the work of human hands, was scooped in the upper part of this layer to a depth of 3 or 4 feet, and completely filled with ashes, containing thousands of bits of pottery. One of the sloping approaches of the shaft was cut through this deposit, exposing a section about 10 or 12 feet long (north and south) by 4 or 5 feet wide, where it abutted on the main excavation. On the east side, 20 or 30 feet from the northern end, was another rounded hollow in the loam, 10 or 15 feet wide, where it was cut across, and 5 or 6 feet deep in the middle. This was filled with sand, mixed with black vegetable mold. At the north side of this, and extending into the adjacent part of the loam, were other bits of pottery, less numerous than in the ash bed, but in larger pieces. Here were found our largest specimens of earthenware. Ten or twelve feet southwest of this last spot, and inside the rectangle of the shaft, was a live-oak stump, over 2 feet in diameter, and 3 or 4 feet high, with its roots still fast in the upper part of the loam on the east side, but tilted over to the west, as if it had been on a caving bank. The upper part of this was broken off as if by a tornado. The wood was still sound, and so tough as to necessitate the use of dynamite for its removal. It was considerably stained, as if by the infiltration of . iron. ‘In the corner was what looked like a gully, 6 or 7 feet deep, hol- lowed in the loam, and filled with a mixture of ashes, sand and vege- table mould, with a few pieces of earthenware. Through this a pretty bold stream of water entered the excavation. All these inequalities in the loam were covered and approximately leveled by the yellow clay. All of the larger pieces of pottery, and most of the smaller bits, were entirely destitute of ornamentation. Some of the lesser pieces, how- ever, are marked with patterns of various kinds. Some show lines, generally oblique, apparently drawn with a pointed stick; others dots, looking as if they might have been made with a bit of cane. But some appear to have been stamped. Our largest specimen represents rather Jess than half the cireumfer- ence (at top) of a jar about 9 inches in diameter, and over a foot deep —the bottom entirely gone. It seems to have been somewhat narrowed | below. This was broken into eight pieces in extricating it from the mud. Many of the other fragments indicate still larger vessels. They are all very thin and exceedingly fragile. Before my arrival the workmen found two or three whole jars, which, however, were immediately smashed, probably from the idea that they contained treasure. Superintendent McCalla, however, rescued a large piece of one of them, which he presented to us. It is about half of the 396 The American Naturalist. [April, lower segment of a jar nearly four inches in diameter, but narrowed at bottom. The fragment is about 5} inches high. ‘These jars were found near the oak stump. Near the southern end of the excavation a piece of cane basket was exhumed. It was taken—still in the lump of mud—to Mr. E. Mc- Uhenny, who still has it. It is of a very coarse make, and about 4 inches square. Mr. McIlhenny has given us the lump of mud with some bits of cane still sticking to it, and the impress of the remainder. It seems to have come from the lower part of the loam, below the level of most of the other human vestiges. Mixed with the pottery everywhere were bones (mostly those of deer) with shells of a small tortoise, and of the same clam now found in Lake Ponchartrain— Gnathodon cuneatus ; also a few mussels (Unio). The loam was generally penetrated by small roots, most of them ap- parently those of marsh grasses or cane, with some of exogenous trees or shrubs. On the east side there were a good many leaves of live oak ( Quercus virens), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) and others not identi- fied. Some of these leaves (oak, myrtle and others) were still green. This phenomenon I can only explain by supposing the freshly fallen leaves to have been buried under a caving bank, and hermetically sealed by the stiff, waxy soil, which had never since become dry enough to admit the air. The leaves began to fade within half an hour, and in three hours had the ordinary brown color of a macerated leaf. They were seen while green by Manager John H. Hamilton and Mr Haus- man of the mining company ; Capt. Jas. Hare, of the U.S. Lighthouse Service, Mr. and Mrs. McIlhenny, Capt. Dudley Avery, and others. We also found, at the same spot, some bent and twisted strips of bark, that were, perhaps, handles of baskets. They are badly decayed, however, and do not prove much. The managers of the mine conjectured that the ash-bed marked the site of a pottery kiln, while the hollow in the loam on the east side was made by digging out material for the ware. But, to my eyes, the hol- low looked more like the work of nature. I rather lean to the opinion that the ash-bed indicates a furnace for boiling down the brine of a salt spring, and that the pots were used for that purpose. Both theories may be correct. I see no reason for assigning any very enormous antiquity to these relics. Most of them were covered by 5 or 6 feet of loam or less, and about the same of yellow, sandy clay and soil. The two last layers ap- ear to be a “wash” from the neighboring bills, and may have been formed within a century, while three or four hundred years would be 1395.] Archeology and Ethnology. 397 enough for the loam, especially if there was a slight gradual subsidence, so as to keep it subject to overflow. The deeper specimens were found near the south end, where there are signs of a gully or hollow of some kind, which would fill more rapidly than the higher ground, if the cause which produced it were removed. It is somewhat remarkable that not an arrow-head, weapon or tool was found in the excavation, although such articles are not rarely found at or near the surface, in the neighborhood. In the blue clay, 16 to 20 feet from the surface, and immediately overlying the salt, were an immense number of bones, Unfortunately, most of these were badly decayed, and the clay very tenacious, so that most of them were destroyed. The Avery brothers, however, secured a good many of them, in the early stages of the work. Most of these they gave to Mr. Mellhenny, the rest to this University. I secured several hundred teeth, bones and (mostly) fragments, after reaching the ground. These represent the following animals : A small Mastodon. One or two species of Equus. Mylodon harlanii. Of these I am pretty certain. It is probable that there are also one, or possibly two, other Giant Sloths, a Deer, and possibly an Elephas. There are other remains which I cannot name, even conjecturally. Of the Mastodon we have two teeth (one badly broken). Here also I place an atlas and a number of other vertebre ; but part or all of these may belong to Elephas. I was shown a tooth of that genus, said to have been found in this shaft. All these remains indicate an animal about 8 or 10 feet high. To the Giant Sloth I have referred a fragment of an upper jaw, with an anterior molar in good order; another fragment of upper jaw much broken, with two molars and parts of two others; twenty-five detached teeth, many of them broken; two claw cores, nearly complete; a humerus, broken in two, with fragments of two other humeri; frag- ments of heads of two femurs; lower end of a tibia, and an astragalus. Here also I would place, very doubtfully, a number of vertebræ, with the visceral face of the body deeply excavated, as if for the lodgment of the aorta, with side channels leading nent and left, as if for the pas- sage of lateral branches. I have referred most of these provisionally to Mylodon harlanii, as most of the teeth seem to belong to that species, while the claw cores are too much curved for Megatherium, and not enough curved for 398 The American Naturalist. [April, Megalonyx. Some of the teeth, however, seem to belong to a different genus. Some years ago, Capt. Dudley Avery found a claw core, which he sent to the Smithsonian Institution, and which was there pronounced to be that of a Megalonyx. This was found near this spot, and in a deposit of the same age. | Part of the antler of a deer was found in the southeast corner of the excavation ; but I am not certain whether it came from the blue clay, or from the much more recent deposit containing human vestiges, which here dips down almost to the level of the salt. In the blue clay, how- ever, near this spot, we found vertebre resembling those of a very large deer, with four molar teeth of some herbivorous animal, probably a ruminant, whose precise affinities are yet undetermined. Among the miscellaneous specimens are water-worn fragments of coniferous wood, from the blue clay. These are in perfect preserva- tion. There is also a soft stercoraceous mass, found about the junction of the blue clay and loam, apparently the dung of some large herbivo- rus animal. 1895.] Microscopy. 399 MICROSCOPY.’ Preservation of some Marine Animals.—In 1891 there ap- eared a paper by T. Tullberg, Veber Konserviering v. Evertebraten in ausgedehnten Zustand, in which a novel use of magnesium sulphate, or Epsom salts, was described. Tullberg was guided in his researches by the a priori ‘edhianeriliah: that, as sea-water contains several salts in definite proportions, it is probable that marine animals would not con- tract if the proportion of one of the salts was increased, for the animal is already accustomed to these substances; and, on the other hand, it might have a toxic effect. Experimenting with Actinia, he finds that: chloride of sodium has no effect, but with sulphate or chloride of magnesium the Actinian expands its tentacles, and after a certain time does not contract at all when its tentacles are pinched. He lets the Actinian expand in a vessel of sea-water, the quantity being deter- mined so that the percentage of the salt added may be known. He then adds to the vessel a thirty-three per cent solution of magnesium chloride or sulphate until the water contains 1% of the salt. The ad- diton is made slowly but is effected within half an hour, at the end of which time the Actinian is found to be anesthetized. As a matter of fact only the exterior of the animal loses its sensibility. It is then necessary to kill the animal which may be done by inun- dating it with some killing fluid, but in this case partial contraction may take place rendering it unfit for museum purposes. A better method is to kill it by slowly adding a 01% solution of chromic acid until the water contains from ‘03% to ‘05% of theacid. The results of this method are very satisfactory save that there is a decrease in the volume of the animal. Sections of the tentacles showed that the cells were not attacked by the substances employed. This method was applied successfully to various fresh-water and salt- water invertebrates including various Actinians Holothurian, Turbel- larians, Nemertines, Cheetopods, Gasteropods, Ciona, ete. ete. Last summer, through the kindness of Commissioner MacDonald, I had the opportunity of spending a few weeks at the U. S. Fish Com- mission laboratory at Wood’s Hole, Mass., and obtained some interest- ing results with Epsom salts in the preservation of many of the marine invertebrates of that vicinity. The method of application requires modification in individual cases but a few experiments will usually en- 1Edited by C. O. Whitman, University of Chicago. 400 The American Naturalist. [April, able one to obtain the desired results and in a much simpler manner than that described by Tullberg. Complete stupification of the organ- ism must be produced, so that when it is removed to a killing fluid, no contraction will take place. Care should be exercised, however, not to carry on the process too slowly as maceration may ensue. Ca@LENTERATES.—The most beautiful results were obtained with sea- anemones which ordinarily are so difficult to preserve in a well expanded condition. These were allowed to expand in a dish with as little water as possible. Then crystals of magnesium sulphate were placed in the bottom of the dish and allowed to dissolve slowly until a saturated solu- tion was obtained. The process of dissolving may be hastened if neces- sary by stirring up the water gently from time to time with a pipette. Several hours were required to completely stupify large specimens. When narcotization was complete, a few crystals placed in the mouth of the sea-anemone had no effect but if the process had not gone far enough the lips of the animal would slowly spread open and then would follow sometimes a violent contraction of the whole animal. This method was tried upon Metridium marginatum, Sagartia leucolena and Halo- campa producta with excellent results, the tentacles remaining perfectly expanded after the animals had been transferred to Perenyi’s fluid, picro-sulphuric acid or formalin. The same method applied to Astr- angea, Seyphistoma, and various hydroids did| not give as good results as those obtained with the sea-anemones. The polyps were not equally affected so that only portions of the colonies were perfectly expanded. A large Physalia treated in this way was preserved in 4% formalin with all the tentacles and polyps fully extended. _ ECHINODERMS.—Star-fishes and sea-urchins were killed with the am- bulacral feet and pedicellaria well extended, by placing them upon the aboral surface for a short time in a saturated solution of Epsom salts and then transferring them to 4% formalin. The epidermis of the star-fishes, however, was rendered soft and was subsequently easily rub- bed off, but this was probably due to the formalin. Specimens of Synapta were readily preserved without any constric- tion by very slowly and intermittently adding to the water, in which they had been allowed to expand, a saturated solution of MgSO,,. VerMes.—Most annelids when placed in a saturated solution of Epsom salts, in a very short time became perfectly limp and were easily extended upon a glass plate and treated with a fixing reagent. Balanoglossus, when taken soon after being collected, was preserved in this manner in nearly a perfect state. It was necessary, however, to keep it in position between the edges of two glass slides when the fix- 1895,] Microscopy. 401 ing fluid was applied. Good results were obtained with Cirratulus, Amphitrite, Nereis, Rhyncobolus, Clymenella and Phascolosoma. Phas- colosoma in most cases was killed with tentacles protruded. Nemertean worms, when transferred to a killing fluid before being completely narcotized, sometimes protruded their probosces. ASCIDIANS.— Molgula and Cynthia were readily killed with siphons open after anzesthetization with magnesium sulphate. In this case it is best to add the saturated solution of sulphate intermittently with a pipette. CrenopHores.—After considerable experimentation a method for preserving these delicate creatures in a nearly life-like appearance was devised. Formalin alone in solutions of varying strength had been tried without success. It was found necessary to treat the animals with some hardening reagent before placing them in the formalin and the following method seems to be the most successful. To a solution of equal parts of 2% formalin and Perenyi’s fluid was added enough common salt (NaCl) to increase the density of the mixture to that of sea-water, i. e., until a Ctenophore placed in it barely floated. This adjustment of the density of the surrounding medium prevented the Ctenophores from collapsing of their own weight. After remaining for about half an hour in this fluid, they were transferred to 4% formalin, the density of which had been increased by the addition of either Epsom salts or common salt so that the Ctenophores again barely floated. Epsom salts is probably better than common salt for increas- ing the density of the fluid. Some specimens which were preserved in formalin-+-NaCl began to shrink after a few days, while some (Mnemiopsis) which have been preserved for nearly six months in for- malin-+ MgSO, are still in excellent condition. After the Ctenophores have been properly preserved, precaution must be taken in transporting them, for they are easily torn to pieces. If they are placed in bottles filled with fluid of the proper density and the cork so inserted as to leave no air bubbles, this danger is reduced to a minimum.—-W. A. REpENBAUGH, Dartmouth Coll., Hanover, N. H. 402 The American Naturalist. [April, PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. National Academy of Sciences.—A special stated session of the Academy met on Saturday, February 9th, 1895, in New York City, at Columbia College, to consider the Report of the Committee on Electrical Units. The report was adopted and was ordered to be transmitted to Congress. Boston Society of Natural History.—January 16.—The fol- lowing papers were read: Prof. E. S. Morse, “ Korean Interviews ; ” Mr. Percival Lowell, “ Korea and the Koreans.” February 20th.—The following paper was read: Prof. Edmund B. Wilson, “ Karyokinesis and the Fertilization of the Ovum; ” illustra- ted by stereopticon views photographed directly from the eggs ef the sea-urchin ( Toxopneustes variegatus). March 6th.— The following papers were read: Mr. L. S. Griswold, “The Geographical History of the Lower Mississippi;” Mr. C. F. Marbut, ‘Some Features of the Coastal Plain in the Mississippi Em- bayment ;’* Mr. Cleveland Abbe, Jr., “ Note on Cusped Sand-bars of the Carolina Coast.” —SamuEL HENSHAW, Secretary. The Biological Society of Washington.—February 9th.— The paper of the evening was “ Explanation of Immunity from Infec- tious Diseases,” by Surg.-Gen’l George M. Sternberg, U. S. A February 23d.--The following communications were made: Prof. Lester F. Ward, “ Archetypal Angiosperms;” Prof. F. E. L. Beal, “Food Habits of Woodpeckers;” Mr. F. A. Lucas, “Some Abnormal Feet of Mammals ;” Mr. M. B. Waite,“ Notes on the Flora of Wash- ington.” —FREDERIC A. Lucas, Secretary. Nova Scotian Institute of Science.—February 11th—The fol- lowing papers were read: “ The Iron Ores of Nictaux N. S., with Notes on the Manufacture of Steel in Nova Scotia,” by Edwin Gilpin, Jr., Esq., LL. D., F. G. S., Inspector of Mines; “ Geological Notes on the Nictaux Iron Fields,” by A. H. MacKay, E, LL. D, F. B.S. C. Superintendent of Education.—Harry Prers, Secretary. "7 New York Academy of Sciences. Biological Section.— February 11th, 1895.—The following papers were presented: Dr. Albert Schneider, “ The Occurrence and Functions of Rhizobia;” a 1895.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 403 discussion of the discovery of the adaptability of rhizobia to other plants than leguminous. Some conclusions based upon investigations carried on at the Illinois experiment station were given to show that it is probable that rhizobia may be so modified as to grow in and upon roots of gramineous plants (ex. Indian corn). Prof. N. L. Britton,“An Undescribed Ranunculus from the Mountains of Virginia;” Dr. J. L. Wortman, “On the So-called Devils Corkscrews of Nebraska.” A visit to the locality during the past summer had enabled him to study many problems in connection with their occurrence, which tend to throw considerable light upon their nature. The formation in which they occur was positively identified as the Loup Fork division of the upper Miocene, which is a true sedimentary deposit. The Daemonelix occurs in a stratum of from 50 to 75 feet in thickness, always standing vertically, and their tops are not confined to any one level. They vary much in size and character, but, so far as observed, always present the spiral twist. The fact that they occur in true sedimentary rocks, that their tops occupy many levels, together with the lack of evidence to show that there was any disturbance of level during the time the sedi- ment was being laid down, was considered to totally disprove the theory that they represent the burrows of animals which has been so extensively held in explanation of their curious nature. The invari- able presence of plant-cells, together with other facts, leads to the con- clusion that they very probably represent the remains of roots or stems of some gigantic water plant. “The Excretory System of Clepsine and Nephelis,” by Dr. Arnold Graf. The results of H. Bolsius have proved to be erroneous. The different parts of the nephridium are classified as follows: 1. Infundi- bulum, consisting in Nephelis of six bilobed ciliated cells, in Clepsine of a peduncle cell, pierced by a ciliated canal, and two bilobed ciliated cells attached to the peduncle. 2. Receptaculum excretorium si piany for ’94. T r. D. G. Brinton, Ty on aS Prof. mberlain, Mr. “James Deans, G. O. Dorsey, Dr. J. W Yrs reka HGM mae preg tan Nuttall, C. Staniland Wake, Dr. Wm. Wallace Tooker, Dr. Cyrus Thomas e Ma agazine during ’95 will embrace scone yp it pes. arn and the following der ce will bee charge and report all explorations di Rev. . C. Winslow, D. D., L. L. D., Egypt. Prof. T. "F. Wright, Explorations i in Palestine. ra W. Haynes, pree ics ace kaant Archaeology. Dr. A. 5. G atschett, Indian Ling Marshall H. Sev k Maxie Send Cons Hon. James Wickershacs The North West Cot and Eastern Asia. A FEW COMPLETE SETS ARE IN THE HANDS OF THE EDITOR AND WILL BE SOLD AT SPECIAL PRICES TO LIBRARIES. Price per Vol. $4.00 or with American Naturalist $6.00. The American Antiquarian will be furnished with The American Naturalist for $6.00. ADVERTISEMENTS. iii AMERICAN MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 14TH YEAR, 1893. PRICE INCREASED TO $2.00. Beautifully Illustrated. 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THE AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE. NAGING EDIT Prors. E. D. COPE, Philadelphia, axnp J. S aay Tufts College, College Hill, Mass. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: 35 cts. per Copy. Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Chicag: P BESSEY, Lincoln, Neb., H. by MERCER, Philadelphia, Pror. ©. M. WEED. , Durham, Y Ha Pror. W. S. BAYLEY, We Benle Maine, F. E. A. ANDREWS, Baltimore, PROF H. HOBBS, Madison, Wis . WM. ROMAINE NEW DOL D, Philadelphia, Vol. XXIX. MAY, 1895. No . 341 CON TEN ES. PAGE, THE BIRDS oF New GUINEA. G. S. Mead. . 409 THE viet faa! MECHANISM Bu mals THE SEARCH THE UNKNOWN FACTORS OF EVOLUTION. Hones. Fairfield Osborn. -418 ON THE PRESENCE OF A TEST FOR THE FOSSILIZATION OF ANIMAL Bones. - (Co tinued.) . Dr. Thomas W Slon. 439 THE GENERA OF Be dveniscronhe Theodore Gill. 457 RECENT i ea ores LAORE TDA e Life of Ric wen . 459 RECENT Sik AND SE ESE 460 GENERAL NOTES. 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KIKUCHI, Keigyosha, Urajimbocho, Kanda, Tokyo, Japan. e $ Wanted: # = Back Numbers %»e American Naturalist In Your Communication Name Price June issue, 1889 Volume XXIII, (1889) complete i May issue, 1887 396 October issue, 1879 June issue, 1881 THE EDWARDS & DOCKER CO., 518-520 Minor Street, PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST Vor. XXIX: May, 1895. ; 341 THE BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA. By G: S. MEAD. (Continued from page 9). No one is more deserving of the honor of having a bird of paradise named after him than Mr. Wallace. Such an honor, it is true, is not an extraordinary one in his case, being scarcely more than the customary recognition of a first dis- covery, but at all events it serves to remind us how closely he has identified himself with a beautiful family of birds, while his still greater labors for knowledge have already secured the reward of preëminence in the field of science where excel- lence is not always remembered by the world at large. In “The Malay Archipelago,” the author has told of his accidental discovery in the island of Batchian of a new spe- cies which was called from his name Semioptera wallacei. This was as along ago as 1858, and in all the intervening years no one has succeeded in making the bird a familiar inmate of museums. It is not of remarkable beauty, although its ap- pearance is, in one respect at least, strangely peculiar, viz., in that which gives it the name Standard-wing. This curious formation is not a wing at all, but two flexible feathers spring- ing from either shoulder, six inches in length and quite dis- tinct from every other part of the plumage. As they stand out, swaying slightly to every movement, they look not unlike 28 410 The American Naturalist. [May, four narrow ribbons of unequal width, that had somehow become entangled on the back of the bird. They are of a whitish color, a pleasing contrast to the sober hue of the upper parts, and especially to the vivid greens and emeralds of the breast and throat. A two-fold shield extends its points several inches on either side after the fashion of the Superb bird of paradise. ‘This targe sparkles with radiance, but aside from it and a less observed gleam of violet on the head, the Standard-wing is comparatively plain; perhaps no other species wears such a quaker garb. Short, recurved feathers impinging upon the bill, cover the forehead. The tail is stiff and square, and nearly overlapped by the wings. Both have white shafted feathers. ' Altogether the bird is destitute of the rich colora- tion of others of its tribe, save in the deeply forked pectoral shield, which, however, in its intense, sparkling lustre, makes partial amends. This is contrasted with the uniform drab of the rest of the plumage with striking effect. Herein lies the beauty of the Semioptera. Its oddity rests in the extraordinary standard-wing plumes. For about half their length, these widen out oar-like in white feathers, the remaining part up to the body consisting of the bare quill-shaft. The bird is almost a foot in length, the native of Gilolo being larger than that from Batchian and morestrongly marked. It is remark- able, as Mr. Wallace points out in his admirable account, that this is the only species of paradise birds known beyond the bor- ders of Papua and Northern Australia. Its habits are active, and its dissonant voice keeps pace with its movements. It may frequently be seen flitting rapidly among low tree- branches or clinging to the boughs. The female is in plain colors with scarcely a gloss on her feathers, excepting the crown, and is entirely without shield, alar plumes or green glaze. Among the true birds of paradise, Mr. Wallace classes Diphyllodes wilsonii and calls it a distinct species, “still more rare and beautiful” than the Magnificent, which it resembles in size and plumage. This bird, strangely enough, was first ‘discovered’ in Philadelphia, where, however, it must be con- 1895.] The Birds of New Guinea. 41] fessed, it is not native. It has been rediscovered since in Waigiou and Batanta. The anomalous feature characterizing the Red Magnificent or Schlegel’s Paradise bird—a_ better name—as it is sometimes called, and setting it entirely apart from its relations, is its bald head. This might seem a sad blemish to beauty, but as if to atone for a caprice, nature has painted the spot a deep blue and intersected it with lines of dark feathers. The wings, back, and lesser fringe are blood- red, hence the specific term, with dark shadings; the mantle springing from the neck is a bright yellow, while the breast reveals emerald and all its reflections in its dark depths. These are the predominant tones, but they emit and shade off into a hundred transitory hues, the metallic surface changing fitfully with every changing light. Around this breast shield runs a narrow fringe of dark, thin filmy plumes, cut like a pattern with waving edges of an old-gold color. The tail is brown, squared but with rounded corners; from the rump two centre feathers much elongated and very nar- row project, cross each other twice and then become involved in an incomplete circle. These curious appendages are much shorter than those of the Magnificent Paradise-bird, but are curved with even greater elaboration, though lacking the bold, sweeping lines of that fine species. The bird is+a small one, not much over seven inches in length ; the female equals her mate in size, but, of course, is deficient in every other respect with this exception, that she is partially bald. Her dress is a uniform brown and yellow, with gray speckled breast. In taking leave, for the present, of the birds of paradise, mention may be made of the Paradise Oriole, Sericulus aureus, a separate genus but bearing certain marks of a character similar to the group already considered. Mr. Stone records the bird as found in southern New Guinea, although he does not appear to have collected it, while Mr. Wallace ascribes it to Salawatti as well, noting at the same time that it is exces- sively rare. In general coloring it is like our Baltimore Oriole, with an admixture of the flaming Scarlet Tanager (being still more in the tone of orange, like the Cock-of-the-rock) 412 The American Naturalist. [May, a brilliant contrasted gold and black, the brighter hue predominating. Here the resemblance ceases, and affinity with the Paradisea is suggested in the long thickly folded plumes of a deep shining yellow, running in rippling lines of light down the neck and back, and forming a large dorsal. shield or mantle. Ofthe same fiery orange-red are the longer side plumes. A lighter tint intermingled with black prevails on the rump, tail coverts and scapulars. Jet black marks the throat and the side face enclosing the eye. An inch wide streak of the same runs along the side of the body as far as the tail. The under parts are an orange-yellow. It will be seen, therefore, that Xanthomelus aureus, as he is also termed, is a very showy fellow. To add to his port, he is adorned with an erectile crest like that of the Blue-jay, except- ing in color. In size he is about the same as that denizen of our forests. He carries himself too with as much alertness and can be as noisy on occasions, though ordinarily he is in- curious and evasive. He is thought to build some kind of a bower, but this is not positively known. His note is clear and resonant. The female is a very pale reflection of her beautiful mate.’ Allusion has been made several times in these pages to Mr. Octavius Stone. This gentleman visited Southeastern New Guinea twice, and twenty years ago his collection of birds was, perhaps, the most considerable that had been gathered up to that time. He secured 116 species, among them some either entirely unknown or never seen before in England. Among these was a new Catbird, named from its discoverer Aeluroedus stonvi. This interesting little’stranger may claim affiliation with the Bower birds, and through them with the Paradiseidae. It does not, however, construct a bower. In size it is smaller ` than Aeluroedus buccoides (Temm.) a species more common in New Guinea, especially in the northwesteru part. The length is between nine and ten inches. As one takes up the 1 Oriolus aureus and xanthogaster (Vide, p. 393, Vol. XX VIII, American Nat- uralist) are probably one and the same, the latter being now regarded as the young of this lovely bird which is burdened with many other synonyms besides those already mentioned. 1895.] The Birds of New Guinea. 413 skin of this bird, he might deem it that of some small parrot, the thick, white, curved beak assisting that impression. The upper parts are a lively green, growing dark on the extremities of the wings and tail; a touch of blue and yellow appears hereand there. The head is a dull black, the throat a spotted black and white. Yellow is the prevailing color beneath, speckled with black and green. These tints cover the nape of the neck, the black in streaks running like so many short strings of beads on a yellow ground. White shows on the throat and side face dotted with dark spots. The tail is short and square. The same terms apply to the form of the bird. The female is of the same size and figure. Aeluroedus buccoides or Barbet-like cat bird of Western New Guinea has the spots on the throat and under parts much larger than those on the preceding species. The head is olive- brown, the wing coverts a uniform green; length ten inches. In Aeluroedus melanocephalus we must first notice its specific characteristic—the black head—in which, however, it is not singular, arfakianus being marked in like fashion. It has green wing-coverts, dark olive-brown under parts, black-tipped feathers on the throat, the ground color being white, the black running only as a narrow stripe or figure. Every one has heard of the Bower-bird—Chlamydera—who constructs a play-ground or garden of delight, adorning it with all sorts of attractive objects either for his own whimsi- cal purposes or to please his mate. The bower is some little distance through, perhaps thirty inches along the ground, and is composed of short twigs and sticks so placed as to form a half-roofed tunnel. Here the bird passes much of his time, diverts his mate by adding to their resort or by showing the gay material he has picked up, and in various ways manifests his appreciation of his own ingenious devices. He is a plain fellow in his own dress, though his taste is for the gaudy and meretricious; his size too, is small in propor- tion to the Castle of Indolence he rears, for this is no nest— this retreat of his, but a pleasure-house, a place of retirement, quiet amusement, or rollicking sport. His nursery is a differ- ent thing altogether, and is placed elsewhere. In his bower he 414 The American Naturalist. [May, gives his fancy full swing; he brings hither to garnish it every bright article he can discover, and lays a considerable territory under tribute to minister to his beloved habit, and so prodigal is he of his acquired treasures that the approaches to his singular abode are strewn with spoils. Nothing seems to come amiss, hence he is as eager to possess himself of old bones, shells, stones, and all kinds of miscellanea, as bits of metal, flowers, leaves, dropped feathers, etc., although as a rule, glit- tering objects prevail, obviously collected for decorative pur- poses. It is apparent that with so much evidence in plain sight, the little builder could not well conceal his structure, nor indeed was it the probable intention to do so; it was far easier to hide the real nest, and this has been done so effectu- ally that the most persevering efforts towards discovery have gone unrewarded. It is not likely, however, that arbor and nest are very far apart. The Chlamydera cerviniventris or Fawn-breasted Bower-bird is enough like the common female robin of this country to be mistaken for her. The bird is very plain throughout, the nearest approach to brightness, and that but slight, being on the breast and abdomen, where a brownish-yellow tinge occurs. The buff throat is streaked with dull yellow. The upper parts are uniformly drab or slate. It israther longer than our robin—about twelve inches—with tail and wings extended more than strict proportions would permit. The bill is short and black, eyes are dark, legs and feet black. The male is said to sing sweetly, thus adding another accomplishment to his faculty of pleasing his mate as well as himself. Another Bower-bird of New Guinea is the Gardener—Am- blyornis inornatus—who builds his hut or arbor of a triangular shape, set back against the trunk of a tree ; in front he scatters the usual assortment of shining, smooth, and curious objects together with perishable substances, such as small plants, flowers, insects, fruit and fungi, removing them carefully when they become offensive or timeworn. ‘This little virtuoso is plain in color, a yellowish-red predominating, and in size and general appearance not unlike a large Brown Thrasher. He seems always busy and, indeed, must be, for the nature of his 4 1895.] The Birds of New Guinea. 415 work requires unflagging diligence, but the time of greatest activity probably is during the pairing season. The best authorities describe the cabin of the Gardener as built around the central stem of some bush, or as enclosing a cluster of shoots; in front the garden is placed, and is set out with that strangely rational, though fantastic system of horti- culture that has gained the bird its name. If there is no growth in the garden, we may infer that this branch of culti- vation formed no part of the grand design; the results were all that was sought and these were to be always above ground. These birds have been classified by some naturalists with the Paradisea, though nothing in their appearance, habits or song (they are said to sing sweetly) seems to bear out such assign- ment. ' This curious and fascinating bird is very local in its range, being confined so far as known to the Arfak Mountains in the northwest of New Guinea. It is only of recent years that it has been studied by scientifically; Mr. Wallace knew nothing of it nor have naturalists since his visit to the great island added much to our knowledge. Dr. Becceari was the first to intro- duce the Gardener to the world, and his graphic account of the abode of the little artificer has not been surpased in merit nor greatly amplified in details by subsequent investigators. The Italian traveller, as in a picture, shows the hut or cabin close upon a small, flower besprinkled meadow. It is built around the stem of a little tree as thick and tall as an ordinary walking-stick. The materials used are moss chiefly, and form a structure about three feet in diameter. In shape the nest is conical, reminding one irresistibly in its whole appearance of the head covering Robinson Crusoe is usually represented as wearing. Inside is a little gallery or runway built along the walls. The garden is arranged before the hut decked out as we haveseen. Amblyornis—simple in attire and color- ing as his specific name indicates—is now a favorite illustra- tion with theorists of the adaptation of animate life to its surroundings. Certainly its dun and sober clothing assimilates easily with the tones of soil and vegetation around. Its home 416 The American Naturalist. [May, too with all its adornments harmonizes with, indeed, forms a part of the gay green wood. A very interesting little group of passerine birds belonging to the family of Prionopidae are the Rectes, of which there are several species common to New Guinea and the adjacent islands. Near his camp at Narinuma on the southern side of the mainland, Mr. Denton first saw “ brown birds with black heads” sitting close together and keeping up a constant whistle, very soft and prolonged. The sound he describes as not unlike a steamboat whistle a great distance away. It seemed almost impossible for a small bird to produce such a sound. All travellers have met one or another of the several varieties in different parts of the island. Probably Mr. Den- ton’s bird was Rectes cirrhocephalus or dichrous, if these are not one and the same bird. The former, indeed both species, while not brilliantly clad, possesses a singularly rich golden- brown dress contrasted with the jet black of the head, wings and tail. When the bird flies through the sunshine this warm plumage lights up with wonderful effect. Then the entire body is displayed, and is seen both above and below to be full ‘of all,the tints from maroon to orange. Black again appears on the throat extending well down on the breast. The bill is also black. The tail, black above and below, is long and narrow. A -g Oxide of iron. Phosphoric acid. Fluorine. Fluorine of apatite. Ratio. range, ming reddish bro n by calcination. Carbonate of lime and oe in gE quantities Tittle SUCK. csc iccsscvcevesen prinsi PEANT ET EEES . Halitherium schinzi from the tongrien de = g’ d'Etang-la-ville (Department of Seine-e n fr: —— shows porn we pak chestnut, its ase Pianina ay and re me after calci- nation. Cartonata of lim ong phn By quan tity, traces of rap at Httle gilio: sirsiran vasis . Ru mipan een from the ‘deposit of A vergr Gra yish-w rage density with a slightly tint by colette, Carbonate of lime and Shlovine i normal apg TH I OUPA ET A PANTS TOAN 4. Rhin Bone from the de — it = ear ites of Quescy: sg pe tite zone is hard a mpact, violet = wos mixed ; with an interior zone, 1 porma red, w sti crystals of carbonate of lim terior OR analyzed. The powder was gray and took % bluish ‘tint oy daleidation.. fparker of lime abundant. races of chlorine, no silica 5.90 .erssss 1.80 36.70 | 3.26 35.08 Pe 3.12 0.71 0.20 Average of the four samples from the Oligocene : LY eg oe acid, : À : : Fluo i rs 03 Ratio, 0.59. Dna ‘calculated for’ apatite, i : Ash Prats Eie Ea AE a ie ee g ack (2] g s © Eocene. 1 te) ELS bee RIETER” 8- f $ Š £ S fa Paloplotherium codiciense. Pelvic bone from th dilaiive of Sundert (De ment of Aisne). Li it, easy to n becoming a gray yellow- ish with bluish tint hlor ition. Carbonate of lime abundant, li e OG RENTAS 3.06 | 0.70 | 31.10 | 2.45 | 2.77 | 0.88 2C ne. ne of the head. Dense, black-brow S. besonaiay g reddish-brown by igni- tion. Notable hide of pyrites of eatin Bors and sulphate of lime with of cote PORE E 10.30 | 6.50 | 30.03 | 1.40 | 2.68| 0.52 3. Anoplotherium commune. Me 1 from la De. Department of Vaucluse), ure show- ing mat, with a bl rown, studded with whi pa? temas tars brilliants of carbonate of lime. Is easil powdered when it becomes vole Prana me and by igni- nition passes to a gray-wh baobddelvcbapbiedcecivectistcskcvce! SLE 0.66 | 20.00 |: 2.98] 210) 0.76 4. Paletherium he gig: Cubitus from the sum of Villette (Pa ws tones te low color; after ignition the powder beco eos ngewe A of mut cae of lime, a little He auphete traces o an MA I BE SOENE MEAS E EAE FOSA 8.67 | 0.80 | 33.70 | 2.05| 3.01| 0.68 E kona: sor 7 gypsum of Paris ‘(the low- in “ape Tyr , Orange color, becom- pie ite tgntion, Gal a of Pohang of lime, po bie ayant iby of sulphate 7.80 | 0.90 | 27.26 | 1.64| 2.43 |* 0.67 1395.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fosstlization of Animal Bones. 443 Average of the five specimens from Eocene: Phosphoric acid, ; : : ; 30.39 Fluorine, . - : ; ‘ 1 ws \ Ratio, 0.70. Fluorine calculated for spatiis, : 2.71 Ash sigl g AESA E E] re 2 S S S Cretaceous. fee es si/s13 Be Bf og eb Bag ym AE A Z ô E S fe urus camperi. A vertebra from the chalk +. — of Maes triont, Doan Porous, a grayish- Diiin be- porong o lightly green y calcination. Ca te of : lime in ee atte, teases of chlorine, no silica. oe 10.18 | 2.50 | 32.73 | 3.06 | 2.92); 1.05 2. Large turtle from the same locality with the same characters. The on slightly more descr E Ee EEE EREA, 8.69 | 4:10 | 36.10 | 3.33 | 3.22 | 1.03 3. Reptile dinosaur fro e su of Ariege. White, dense, becoming aoe ot gooenlals by calein n. Carbonate of lime in considerable quan- tity, traces of chlorine, no Es EOE RE AE 7.53 | 0.47 | 32.70 | 2.85 | 2.92) 0.98 Belgium dense, fragile; gi aae a parer er of light gray, turning slightly yellow, but be.oming oe p pA with light green tint by ignition. Carbona in | rather Pao goni paiphate of lime rad nota jle quan- no p: , a little silica, traces of chlorine.............. 6.47 | 2.87 | 32.17; 2.62 | 2.87) 0.91 dinosaur. Rib = ao hier ms stage of Filgate, Southern England. nish-gray, ee Aere by aki teng p ea of uantity, traces of chlorine, no s ae NNA DOR EEEO EE N A O E soeseene sevens 8.80 | 3.30 | 38.65) 2.76) 3.45] 0.80 faa pan = ®© ine, gg pores 2 lean ey sassesssevssvvcsoes| 9.20 | 3:18 | 86.82 | 2.69 | 3.18] 0.90 + Average of the six Cretaceous specimens : Phosphoric acid, ; : o 34.92 Fluorine, . : ; 2.87 \ Ratio, 0.92. Fluorine oaii for ia oo 3.117 444 The American Naturalist. [May, Jurassic. Organic matter. Oxide of iron. Phosphoric acid. Flourine of apatite. | Ratio A. Oolithic. lac ‘ ya ‘lime, iron pyrites, s ged silica Saath od se 17.25 | 0.68 | 6.40 Licsuabadeestes 0.56 0.57 | 0.98 . Teleosaurus cadomensis. Bon State from 1 sulphate of lim: red in notable fr a lit de ey k E aries KEA ae BENNE P anes PEE IEC Ree a piel: aan lophorus. _— c calcaire 0 Cerin (Department of Ta mprints of fishes. A | 0.90 | 34.97 | 2.31 | 3.12| 0.74 ellow T, lightly dnte with yellow and Carbonate of | e in notable quantity, traces o chlor ine, no silica...... 11.62, 1.05 | 33.94 B. Lias. 4. Ichthyosaurus burgundia. Vertebra from the su- ae lias of Saint Co rng ent of Yonne). rty gray, im s! rele h, remaining same color after i on, rey due to the abun- dance of car! mate of of eee traces of chlorine, a ep pA {faded “i roe pi of me ‘and ‘sulphate of lime the middle lias of Posh twig i cham ree a with white, strewed ; breaks ana pul a 3.03 | 0.62 } En EER sss] | By i x i k 0.98 . Teleosaurus of lias. icone’ reddish-brown, becom. gcse Sarees pointes yere Pie s gray, arros by ignition much carbona te of lime, a little ie ahien mad and by ignition ; | of sulphate of lime and pyrites of iron, chlorine wy «| 13.88 | 4.65 | 10.57 lesiosaurus. Vertebra of the lower lias of V oa Bib y ance of carbonate of thane more than thea average q tity of chlorine, a little silica, vn 15.24 2.73 | 14.79 2.19| 1.31 | 1.67 Average of the seven Jurassic specimens: Phosphoric acid, elites i ; 17.79 Fl nes es ty uorine, 1.44 no Ratio, 0.91. Fluorine calculated for ARN AR 1895.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 445 Ash | 2813 3 ea 3 Triassic. oe be hys 2 e] Gd a S ara TS mA A OLA z E — wow r from muschelkalk of Bay- IOR, ~ Bér piens -yellow, becoming greenish- Jook by ignition. Carbonate of lime in considerable quantity ; chlorine normal, no silica...... EE +| 11.92 | 2.41 | 19.64 | 1.40| 1.75) 0.80 2. Reptile from muschelkalk of Moselle e brown, g gra after ignition. Gain of carbonate Hime, very ittle magnesia and chlorine, and alittle fer- ous clay 16.28 1.75 | 24.23 2.07 2.16 0.96 Average of the two Triassic specimens: Phosphoric acid, i ace es 21.93 3 Fluorine, pk iss 1.74 , ~ F Ratio, 0.89. Fluorine paleuiated for enue, : : 95 Ash ; i 3 ~ Li} end g g 3 = ‘71 BS i ge te Permo-Carboniferous. INTE gioa 2/18 /}421sia Bot Md E S £ E — 1. Pleuracanthus frossardi. Cartilaginous fish from Thelots near Autun (Department of pane LON): poe black imprint on schist. The detached fi nt gives mes dark chestnut powder, beco: - oe by ignit Phosphate of iron, a little carbonate Sf lime, a iilo ‘chieure soluble in water, abundant res- idue inso Sedani pot = E E TTE E wvevevscees 34.55 | 8.18 | 22.57 | 2.26 | 2.01} 1.17 Pal oide fish from Muse near Autun. Brilliant scales vaar a gated age ai becoming by ignition uch iron, considerable quantity of of et chlorine, no pi marn! of lime, insoluble Oe Vet aei a .27 | 6.70 | 26.20 | 1.55! 2.33! 0.67 Aet vendo Srossardt. A reptile iabyrinthodonte © trom Felots near Autun. The same characteris 29.66 | 2.08 | 28.35 | 3.62) 2.53| 1.43 4. “opie baylei. Of the same origin and same — EI SEE LRI E EATEN PETER TR TCL esevess| 42.52 | 2.37 | 28.23 | 3.15] 2.52] 1.25 5. pai re From Lebach nea: r Saarbruc = = black imprint, “tentier, Aita ut E menia becow brownish-red byi ition errape of carbonate Pry ie andofchlorure notablequant ity ofeulphateof limeanda little pyrites of iron. Insoluble residue quite abundant... 7 o 6.73 | 28.37 | 2.02) 2.53) 0.80 ikvcaige of the five Permian specimens: Phosphoric acid, : ‘ i 26.74 Poe tis, ee Fluorine calculated for apatite . . 2.38 \ Ratio, 1.06. 446 The American Naturalist. [May, Devonian. 1. Asterolepis Bony plates from the Devonian of Livonia, Russia. Dense, brownish-black, becoming reddish-gray by ignition. Very little carbonate of lime, notable quantity of quartz with traces of chlorine. Organic matter, : : ; fi 5.20 Ash: Oxide of iron, . ‘ i i 3.02 Phosphoric acid, . $ : i 29.50 Fluorine, . EEE ; 2.59 lR tio. 0.98 Fluorine of apatite, tee EO earls a Silurian. The debris of fish extracted from a ferruginous bone breccia of the inferior silurian of Canyon City, Colorado, U. S. A., re- ported in 1891 by Mons. Albert Gaudry, after his journey to the Rocky Mountains. Organic matter, eee Es ‘ : 5.67 Ash: Oxide of iron, . P á o ray kt Phosphoric acid, ; ; A 32.63 Fluorine, ; 2.72 . Fluorine of apatite, 2.90 j gia ata General observations—Bones of the same age present great differences in their composition; but one can, nevertheless, conclude from the foregoing series of analyses, in a general fashion, that the fossilization is accompanied by an important increase in the proportion of carbonate of lime, of oxide of iron and fluorine. For the first two of these elements, the augmentation is too irregular, too usually affected by special influences of the de- posit where they were buried, to enable us to indicate with certainty the true fossil state of the bone. We frequently ob- serve, also, a high proportion of carbonate of lime and of ox- ide of iron in bones which have been buried for a time, either longer or shorter, but which, after all, belong to the modern period. 1895.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 447 It is otherwise for the fluorine, and in spite of the great variations in the proportions of this mineral remarked in the bones of the same period belonging to deposits in different lo- calities, it does appear that we may formulate a general law of age based upon the increase in the proportion of fluorine ex- isting in them. This law is shown with greater certainty and clearness in the comparison of the average proportions in the entire number of specimens from each geologic epoch than from the proportions in the individual specimens, and in order to render this more apparent, the table following of geo- logic epochs shows the average results obtained from the bones of each one of these periods. The first column gives the average proportion (as above calculated) of fluorine to that of an apatite containing the same quantity of phosphoric acid. The second column gives the average ratios of the weightjof phosphoric acid to the weight of fluorine. he ratio between The ratio of the : : 7 weight o Geologic Periods. jho quantity ofin phorie acid in the to that of apatite. bone to that of flu- Modern «.......0cc.ccscesseveresscees 0.958 0.058 193.1 193.1 paring vinta sien evesecseecseses 0.36 0.360 31.3 31.30 ertiary sssi pliocëne........sesooe.sss roosa ee ) 19.2 | miocene x 18.3 z Aa oa ae nics 0.59 j poen 189 ů 1815 ONE 0.70 16.0 | Secondary. cretaceous 0.92 12.2 : JUTASSİC. nesset eeeeeeeeses tettet 0.41 > 0.907 12.3 } 12.40 ba triassic. 0.89 12.6 mary. aes vanced 1.06 10.5 devonian.. -. ib ans 0.98 0.993 11.4 11.30 . SULUTIBN: cssese esses 2c ctcsshens 0.94 120 Apatite normal 1.00 — 1.000 11.21 1121 The averages set forth in the figures of this table are not to be taken as of absolute, but only as of relative, value. The only ones which can be considered definite are those relative to apatite on the one side and to the modern bones on the other. For the fossil bones, the average not only varied with 448 The American Naturalist. [May, the choice and number of the specimens analyzed, but the specimens taken for analysis were varied as much as possible and in sufficient number as to leave no doubt as to the cor- rectness of the final result. There is a progressive increase in the quantity of fluorine as compared with the quantity of phosphoric acid, between the bones of modern times and those of quaternary times; and that the latter contain, on the average, six or seven times more than do the bones from the tertiary, secondary or primary epochs. The tertiary bones contain, on the average, eleven times more fluorine than the modern bones, and this augmentation appears gradually from one geological period to another. The bones belonging to the secondary epoch have a propor- tion of fluorine sixteen times more, and those of the primary, eighteen times more than the modern bones. The bones of the most ancient epochs have almost exactly the same proportion of crystallized apatite; the secondary bones are not far behind, but the loss becomes sensible in the tertiary bones, and more so in the quaternary bones. The contrast is still more striking in modern or recent bones, where the fluorine is found in a minimum proportion. Causes of the increase of Fluorine in Fossil Bones—What can be the cause of this progressive enrichment of fossil bones in fluorine? How can one explain that this increase has for a general limit the proportion of fluorine in apatite, although this limit is sometimes exceeded? It seems proper to say “ in- crease of proportion of fluorine,” as we could not admit for an instant that the bones of ancient animals contained during their life the proportions of fluorine which we now find in them. Even if this were not opposed to known physiological law, it would still become necessary to reject the theory be- cause of the considerable difference observed in the composi- tion of bones coming from the same species, whether from the same or from different epochs. The question arises—what could have been the vehicle of the fluorine? We can only think of gas or liquid, i. e., of something belonging to atmos- phere or water. But as we have no knowledge of any chem- ical condition of fluorine under which it could be carried in a 1895.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 449 gaseous state in a humid atmosphere in the sedimentary strata, we are obliged to conclude that it penetrated into these strata under the form of an aqueous solution. It is, therefore, to infiltration of water, that has, during the lapse of time, come in contact with these fossil bones, that we must attribute this increase of fluorine, as well as other chemical changes, like the fixation of oxide of iron, the fixation and more rarely the disappearance of carbonate of lime, the solution of phos- phate, etc. According to all appearance, the infiltrating water carries traces of fluorine in solution, and these traces have been fixed progressively on the phosphate of lime, by virtue of some sort of affinity which we may suspect, remarking that all crystallized phosphates of lime contain fluorine (or chlorine) in a constant quantity. But there are other proofs— the affinity of the phosphate of lime for fluoride or for chlor- ide of calcium ata high temperature has been demonstrated by the experiments made in connection with the synthesis of apatite, which synthesis was made first by Mons. D’Aubrée (by means of lime and chloride of phosphorus), then by Forschammer (by phosphate of lime and chloride of sodium), then by H. Sainte Claire Deville and Caron (by phosphate of lime and chloride of calcium). Experiments have been made to determine whether the same affinity was sensible in the cold and by the wet way; and if the phosphate of lime in modern bones could fix the fluoride of calcium in analogous conditions with those in which the fossil bones must have been (save and except the lapse of time and the degree of concentration of the liquids). Experiment No. 1.—A bone of a manatee (in fragments) was placed in 200 cubic centimetres of a solution of alkaline flu- oride diluted to the 50th part, containing 2 grams of carbonate of ammonia. At intervals of time, longer or shorter, frag- ments of this bone were taken out, carefully washed and dried and subjected to analysis for fluorine. The proportion of bone in the fluorine was originally ys of one per cent. After remaining fifteen days in this solution, had increased to 1.70 per cent. After remaining a month in the liquid, it contained 2.81 per cent, and after five months, 7.74 per cent. The pro- 450 The American Naturalist. [May, portion, however, of phosphoric acid had, on the contrary, been reduced from 38.93 to 35.06. There had been a forma- ‘tion of fluoride of calcium at the expense of the original phosphate of lime and carbonate of lime, and a mixture which contained more fluorine than apatite had been formed ; for the latter would have contained only 3.13 of fluorine instead of 4.74. Experiments 2 and 3—Two analogous experiments were made with solutions of chloride in which were placed the fragments of the bones of the manatee containing at the be- ginning 1%% of one per cent of chlorine in the form of an insol- ublecompound. After remaining for three months in a solution of one tenth of chloride of sodium, we showed roo of one per cent (0.16) of insoluble chlorine. After three months in solution of one-twentieth of chloride of sodium and one-twentieth of chloride of calcium, the bones contained 0.24 per cent of chlorine in an insoluble state. Therefore, there had not been any fixation of chlorine by the action of chloride of sodium alone on the phosphate of lime, but it was by the action of chloride of calcium; the proportion of chlorophos- phate formed was otherwise much less than that of fluophos- phate produced by a solution, even very feeble, of an alkaline- fluoride. We can conclude that the affinity of phosphate of lime is much greater for the fluoride than for the chloride. Experiment No. 4.—In other experiments, instead of using an alkaline-fluoride easily soluble in water, there was employed fluorspar in fine powder, to which was added distilled water, with a little carbonate of ammonia, a salt which frequently forms near, on, or in the bone by reason of the decomposition of organic matter, and which can aid in the solution of a small quantity of fluoride of calcium. The fragments of the bones of the manatee were placed in an uncovered vessel with sand, with 200 cubic centimetres of distilled water and 2 grams of carbonate of ammonia, and it was noticed that the proportion of fluorine which, at the be- ginning, was 0.31 per cent, became 0.35 at the end of the month and 0.43 at the end of three months. While the bones were thus immersed, the solution was frequently shaken and 1895] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 451 distilled water added to replace loss by evaporation. There was, under these conditions, a notable increase in the bones, of fluoride of calcium, despite the slight solubility of the fluor- spar employed as are-agent. We then have the right to sup- pose that the continuous action during an indefinite time could produce a fluoration much more advanced than that shown in the experiment. The analyses or attempts did not succeed the same in closed vases where the bones were in the presence of the powder of fluorspar and of carbonate of am- monia of 2 grams, whether with seltzer water only, or with the seltzer water and sand. After three months of trial, one of the bones showed 0.32 and the other 0.31 of fluorine. The experiment was also made of the action of a copper- zinc couple in the mixture; but at the end of four months this contained still 0.80 per cent of fluorine, about the same as at the begininng. From these negative results we may make certain inductions which may be of utility in explaining the phenomena. There was realized in experiments 1 and 4 the gradual fix- ation of fluoride of calcium on the phosphate of lime of the bones, whether using fluoride of calcium in powder (of which a small proportion was dissolved in the water containing car- bonate of ammonia), or whether in producing action upon the bones by a small quantity of alkaline fluoride in solution. The alkaline fluoride can act directly upon the phosphate of lime in giving birth to fluoride of calcium and to a soluble alkaline phosphate, from which results a diminution of the pro- portion of the insoluble residue of phosphoric acid ; or it can produce action of the alkaline fluoride on the carbonate of lime which is found mixed with phosphate in the bone and which causes the formation of fluoride of calcium. In cases where the fluoration takes place under the sole in- fluence of fluoride of calcium, it ought to have for its extreme limit, the proportion which we observe in apatite—that is, about one part of fluorine to 11 parts of phosphoric acid. But if the alkaline fluoride intervenes, the fluoration can go farther and reach a proportion much higher than that of apatite. This was shown in Experiment No. 1, and it has been observed in fossil bones and in phosphates of organic origin. 452 The American Naturalist. [May, Among the preceding analyses to be especially mentioned are those of three bones from the Permian of Autun (Pleura- canthus, Actinodon and Haptodus) those of two bones from the Lias of Igornay and of Saint Colombe (Plesiosaurus and Ichthyo- saurus), the two bones from chalk of Maestricht (Mosasaurus and large turtle). The same effect was remarked by M. Phip- son before the Acadamie des Sciences, Oct. 3, 1892. It is, therefore, not rare to meet with proportions of fluorine greater than that of apatite for the same quantity of phosphorus. In some of the experiments heretofore given the proportion of fluorine, compared to that of apatite, which is taken for the unit, was increased from 1.03 to 1.67. The excess of fluor- ide of calcium can be attributed to the action of the alkaline fluoride in the solution, alone or mixed with fluoride of cal- cium, while the latter has perhaps alone produced the meta- morphoses of the bones in which the proportion of fluorine does not exceed or perhaps has not even attained that of apatite. In every point of view, in order to explain the fluoration of bone, there is admitted the existence of fluorine in solution in the waters which come in contact with these bones; at least this is the most plausible supposition, for, on the one hand, the fluorides and in particular the fluoride of calcium is suffi- ciently prevalent, not only in the crystalline rocks, notably in the masses of granite and granulite, but also in a certain num- ber of sedimentary rocks, for example, coal-bearing strata in arkoses of Burgundy, in the muschelkalk, even in the calcaire of Paris, which appear to sufficiently indicate that waters charged with fluoride of calcium. can circulate throughout these deposits ; and on the other part, the fluoride of calcium not being completely insoluble, the infiltrated water, either more or less charged with carbonic acid, and with alkaline salts and salts of ammonia, could take it up from the rocks through which the water traversed and which are more or less impregnated with fluorine. Many analyses of various waters aun the existence of flu- orides in solution even though in minute quantities. Nicklés found it in the waters of the Seine at Paris, of the Somme at 1895.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 453 Ameins, of the Rhine at Strasbourg, and of the mineral waters of Plombiéres, Contrexville, Antogast, Chatenois, Vichy (Compte Rendus, 1857, Vol. I, page 783; Vol. II, pages 250 and 331). Also by Charles Méne in the waters of the Rhone, Saone, Loire; by Rose in the well-waters of the neighbor- hood of Berlin (Compte Rendus, 1860, Vol. I, page 731); in the waters of Plombiéres by Jutier and Lefort (9 or 10 mille- grams per litre); Carlsbad by Berzelius (3 mg, 2); Kreus- brunnen by Berzelius (traces) ; Kissingen and Aix-la-Chapelle by Leibig (traces); d’Orezza by Poggiale, the latter ones cited in the Dictionaire de Chimie by Wurtz, Vol. II, page 1206. Clemm and Forchhammer recognized in the deposits formed by the evaporation of sea water, phosphate of lime accom- panied by carbonate and fluoride (Daubrée, Gisements de chaux phosphatée, Annales de Mines, 1868, page 81.) The existence of fluorides has been also discovered in different substances, both animal and vegetable, as blood, milk, urine, yellow of the egg (Nicklés, Compte Rendus, 1857, Vol. II, page 331; Tamman, Zeitschrift f. physiolog. Chimie, 1888, page 322). And finally, this substance is much more extensively dif- fused than has been generally believed. There is, therefore, nothing astonishing that the infiltrated waters which come in contact with animal bones should contain in small quan- tities the fluorides in solution, and should produce, in the course of a long period of time, a sensible modification in the composition of those bones; but which must have been affected with extreme slowness because of the very feeble pro- portion of fluorides in solution. Ordinarily the traces are so minute that it is extremely difficult to recognize them by an- alysis, and it must have taken a great number of centuries for the variation in the proportion of fluorine to become appreci- able. The other changes in the nature of bones are often much more rapid and more irregular. An augmentation of several hundredths in the proportion of oxide of iron can be produced in a short interval of time. It isthe same with a notable variation in the proportions of phosphate and carbon- ate of lime; while, as for the silica, sulphate of lime, pyrites 454 The American Naturalist. [May, of iron, they are encountered only in an accidental manner. The different modifications in the chemical composition of bones, depend essentially upon the nature of the filtrating water and by consequence with that of the strata which they percolate. It is the same as to the proportion of organic matters which diminish with time, but in a very irregular fashion according as the earth is more or less permeable. There is even to be found, sometimes, considerable organic matter in bones of great antiquity. The differences are too great between one deposit and another for us to be able in general to draw from the presence or the proportion of these elements, any induc- tion as to the length of time the bones have remained in the earth. The fixation of fluorine upon the phosphate of the bones is ‘subordinate in a certain measure to the conditions of the de- posits and surrounding earth. The local circumstances have probably a much less influence because of the slowness of the phenomena. In any case, the series of analyses which are here given, show clearly that the proportion of fluorine in- creases at a perceptible rate during the later geological peri- ods, and that it can furnish in consequence better than the other elements a characteristic indication of the antiquity of the bone. The following conclusions seem to be justifiable. In the different deposits of the primary and secondary geologic epochs, the relative proportions of fluorine and of phosphoric acid are, upon the average, about the same as in crystallized apatite. In the tertiary and quarternary deposits there is a progressive and marked decrease in the proportion of fluorine, but this proportion remains during these epochs much higher than in modern times. It will, perhaps, be possible to use this means to fix the veritable age of certain human bones which have been found in the neighborhood of quaternary animals, but the deposits of which may have been disturbed _and the bones mixed. We cannot at present, from these ex- periments, establish this as a general method for the determi- nation, accurate or absolute, of the degree of antiquity of 1895.] Fluorine as a Test for the Fossilization of Animal Bones. 455 human bones in all deposits, for the different chemical com- positions of the deposits may produce differences in the com- position of the bones which will neutralize all our efforts in this direction. The incident at Billancourt affords an excellent illustration, Mons. Riviére, of Paris, sent to Mons. Carnot at the Ecole des Mines, two fragments of animal bones and one human tibia to be submitted to analysis (Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Paris: No. 6, 15 July, 1893, Vol. 4, 4th Serie, page 309). The animal bones were white, friable and quite dense ; the human tibia was brown- ish-yellow, light and soft enough to crush under reasonable pres- sure. The ignition showed the following: In the animal bones, the organic matter was from 12.93 to 12.69 ; with the human tibia it was 19.65, and, therefore, the decomposition of the latter was much less than that of the first. The ash of the animal bone was a greenish-white; of the human, a bluish-gray attributa- ble probably to phosphate of iron. The determination of per- oxide of iron gave in effect 0.19 to 0.21 for the animal bone, and 3.06 for the human tibia. This difference gives a pre- sumption against the age of the two sets of bones being the same. The proportions of carbonate of lime differed slightly ; for carbonic acid, the animal bones gave from 6.06 to 4.75, while it was 6.15 in the human tibia. The determination of the phosphoric acid and fluorine were as follows: + Long bones. Fossil animal. Scapula. Modern ? Human Tibia. m #2 | Fossil animal. as os t à w pP om s] IY Phosphoric acid | Fluorine { ` = The phosphoric acid, then, had diminished more in the human bones than in the animal as though the latter had been more ancient. But the relationship between the phos- phoric acid and the fluorine is found as follows in the three cases : | 23,9 19,4 | 168,9 456 The American Naturalist. [May, As has been established in the table on page 447, the relation between the weight of the phosphoric acid and the weight of fluorine and water was in the neighborhood of 193 in mod- ern bones, while it became reduced to 31 in the average of quaternary bones, and 19 for their average in bones of the pliocene period. Therefore, the animal bones found in the sands of Billancourt present a relative proportion of fluorine intermediate between the average of the quaternary bones and those of the pliocene, that is to say, for the one was 23.9, for the other, 19.4. On the contrary, for the human tibia submitted to analysis, the relation is raised to 168.9 and it is, therefore, 8 times greater than in the animal bones, and is only slightly lower than that of the modern bones. We can, therefore, conclude that the human bone belongs to an age much more recent than those of the animal, and that if it was really in the ancient gravels of the Seine in the neighborhood of the found bones of the qua- ternary animal, it was only by reason of a natural change of position or else the result of accident. It is believed that this new method of control may prove to be of utility in determining the problems relative to the an- tiquity of man. It often happens that in the excavations made in prehistoric stations, one encounters human bones as- sociated with animal bones, whether in alluvial deposits, caverns or rock-shelters. If the man and the animal in these deposits were contemporaneous, their bones, having been ex- posed to the same influence and submitted to the same transformation, ought to have approximately the same proportion of phosphoric acid and fluorine. But if the human bones are of an age much more recent than those of the animal and have been introduced either by accident or fraud, we can, perhaps, find the proof. by this chemi- cal analysis and be able to detect the error by the difference in the relative proportions between their phosphoric acid and fluorine. (To be Continued.) 1895.] The Genera of Branchiostomidae. 457 THE GENERA OF BRANCHIOSTOMIDAE. By THEODORE GILL. The work of Mr. Arthur Willey on “Amphioxus and the Ancestry of the Vertebrates ” (N. Y., 1894) is a useful compila- tion of what is known respecting the general anatomical char- acteristics of the Branchiostomids, but much remains to be yet made known regarding structural details and the range of variation, not only within the family, but also within specific limits. A first step toward the proper examination of such variations is to segregate the species into groups distinguished by positive structural peculiarities or associations of charac- ters. For the expression of such structural peculiarities, generic diagnoses and terms are the best expedients, and they will differentiate most clearly characters of secondary importance from those of tertiary rank and the common or family charac- ters or those of primary rank.- Unfortunately, Mr. Willey has not distinguished between the various grades of characters, but has thrown all the representatives of the family into one genus without any sectional subdivision and (adapting the sequence of Dr. E. A. Andrews), has interposed “ B. cultellum” between “ B. caribaum” and “ B. bassanum,” and even (unlike Dr. Andrews) added to the genus the Asymmetron lucayanum of Andrews. There appear to me, however, to be at least three well-marked genera. These are Branchiostoma, Epigonichthys and A tron. Another (Paramphiozus) has been proposed by Prof. Haeckel (1898) for the “ Branchiostoma bassanum” of Günther, and it is gratifying to find that my views seem to be in accord with that eminent master of discrimination and valuation of morphological characters and their expression in diagnostic form. Doubtless Prof. Haeckel has good reasons for the genus Paramphioxus, but he has not yet formulated its characters, although he has indicated that it has unilateral gonads, and, such being the case, it must be related to Epi- gonichthys, although apparently distinguished from it by differ- ence in the relative development of the fins. A fifth genus is 31 458 ' The American Naturalist. ‘[May, apparently represented by the B. pelagicum of Giinther, which may be named Amphiozides. The principal distinctive charac- ters of generic importance appear to be the development of the gonads in two lateral rows or their restriction to one (right) side, the extent of the metapleural folds, the presence or want of what is generally called the ventral fin (sympodium), the -extent and structure of the dorsal fin,’ and the form of the pos- terior end of the body or tail. The genera may be briefly defined as follows: BRANCHIOSTOMA. Branchiostomids with bilateral gonads, a rayed sympodium, low dorsal fin, and sagittiform expansion of caudal fin mem- branes. Contains B. lanceolatum and most other species. PARAMPHIOXUS. Branchiostomids with unilateral gonads, a rayed sympodium, low dorsal fin, and expanded caudal membranes. EPIGONICHTHYS. Branchiostomids with unilateral gonads, a reduced rayed sympodium, elevated:dorsal fin, and expanded caudal fin- membranes. | ASYMMETRON. Branchiostomids with unilateral gonads, no sympodium, low dorsal fin, and an extended attenuated tail. AMPHIOXIDEs, Branchiostomids with bilateral (?) gonads, no rayed sym- podium (?), low dorsal fin, expanded caudal membranes, and oral cirri aborted (??). | The so-called rays (Actinomimes) and their inclosing chambers (actinodomes) are characteristic of the Branchiostomids. 26 1895.] The Genera of Branchiostomidae. 459 ' P.S. Shortly before the proof of the present note came to hand, a brief article “ On the species of Amphioxus,” by J. W. Kirkaldy, became known to me; it is published in the Report of the British Association for 1894 (pp. 685, 686). Three genera are recognized, (1) Branchiostoma with 4 species, (2) Heteropleuron with 3 species, and (3) Assymetron with 1. Heteropleuron is a compound of Paramphiorus and Epigonich- thys, and consequently the latter name should have been retained for it. A. pelagicus was overlooked by Mr. Kirkaldy as it had been previously by Messrs. Andrews and Willey. RECENT LITERATURE. Ord’s Zoology.'—A patient bibliographic research undertaken by Mr. S. N. Rhoads to unearth a copy of the Second American Edition of Guthrie’s Geography containing an account of North American Zoology by Mr. George Ord, was finally successful, and the one copy known to be extant was found in the possession of Dr. J. Solis Cohen of Philadelphia. Through the courtesy of the owner, Mr. Rhoads was allowed to reprint the part relating to Zoology, and in editing the work he has been zealous in reproducing as nearly as possible the style, form, paging, paragraphing, typography and inaccuracies of the origi- nal, The desirability of a reprint of this rare book is evidenced by the numerous applications to librarians for citations from the work. In an appendix Mr. Rhoads gives the complete titles of the different editions of Guthrie’s Geography, some further historical data, and what may be termed a commentary on the species referred to by Mr. Ord. A number of names of American mammalia are settled beyond further disturbance. A speaking likeness of the eminent naturalist faces the title page, and adds greatly to the interest of the volume. : 1 A Reprint of North American Zoology, by George Ord. Being an exact re- production of the part originally compiled by Mr. Ord for Johnson & Warner, and first published by them in their Second American Edition of Guthrie’s Geography in 1815. Edited by Mr. S. N. Rhoads, Haddonfield, N. J , 1894. 460 The American Naturalist. [May, The Life of Richard Owen.’—In two octavo volumes of some 400 pages each, the Rev. Richard Owen has given the important inci- dents in the life of his grandfather, Sir Richard Owen, the leading traits in his character, and a record of his work, including his many important discoveries in anatomy and paleontology. The data upon which the biography is founded are compiled from a voluminous cor- _ respondence carefully preserved by Sir Richard Owen, comprising let- ters received and written, and also from his wife’s diary, in which it was her custom to record fully every detail of their joint lives. As may be inferred, the “ Life ” is extremely interesting. The reader is on terms of intimate companionship from the first to the last page with the subject of the sketch, and is interested by turns in his domes- tic, social, and scientific character. ‘ The second volume contains Huxley’s essay on Owen’s position in history of Anatomical Science, and also a Bibliography. Among the illustrations are restorations of a number of extinct ani- mals, the reconstruction of which occupied so large a portion of Pro- fessor Owen’s life. RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. ALLEN, J. A.—Descriptions of Five New North American Mammals. Extr. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, 1894. From the author. AARON, E. M.—The Butterfly Hunters in the Caribbees. From the Pub., _ Seribner’s Sons, New York, 1894. Baur, G.—The Relationship of Lacertilian Genus Anniella Gray. Extr. Pro- ceeds. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the author. gree Report of the Director of the Ill. State Laboratory Nat. Hist. for 1893-94 BRENSKE, E.—Die Melolonthiden der _paleartictischen und orientalischen Regionen im kéniglichen Naturhistorischen Museum zu Brüssel. Extr. Mém. Soc. Entomol. de Belgique, 1894. From the author. Bulletin No. 32, Division of Entomology. U. 8S. Dept. Agric. Washington, 1894. Bulletins of the U. S. Geological Survey Nos. 97 to 117 inclusive. From the Survey. , CuarMan, F. M.—Remarks on Certain T.and Mammals from Florida, with a List of the Species known to occur in the State. Extr. Bull. Am. Mus Nat. Hist. Vol. VI, 1894. From the author. P oT rae EE aeaa a a EE SaSao naaa penne, * The Life of Sir Richard Owen. By the Rey. Richard Owen. In two Vol- umes. New York, 1894, D. Appleton & Co. 1895.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 461 CLEMENS, P.—Die Ausseren T der Wirbeltiere. Aus dem anat. Inst. zu Freiburg i B., 1894. From the a CLEVENGER, 8. V. Trel Tki. ‘Western Med. Reporter, 1894. From the author. Customs Law of 1894 compared with Customs Law of 1890. Washington, 1894. Day, D. T.—Mineral Resources of the United States 1893. Washington, 1894, From the U. S. Geol. Survey. Dean, B—A new Cladodont from the Ohio Waverly, Cladoselache newberryi. Extr. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XIII, (Dec., 1893). From the author. DeVis, C. W.—The Lesser Ohalonian of the Nototherian Drift. Extr. Pro- ceeds. Roy. Soc., 1894. From the author. FarrcHILp, H. L.——Proceeds. of the Sixth Summer Meeting, held at Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 14 & 15, , 1894. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. 6, 1894. From the ‘ickahy: Herrick, C. J.—The Cranial Nerves of Amblystoma punctatum. Extr. as ourn. Comp. Neurology, Vol. IV, 1894. From the author. L, R. T.—Notes on the Tertiary and Later ne a 4 Island of Cuba. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLVIII, 1894. From the a Hosss, W. H—Notes on a Trip to the Lipari ci Te. Trans. Wisc. Acad. Sci. Arts & Letters, Vol. IX, 1894. From the author Ho .uick, A.—Fossil Salvinias, insading description of a new species; Extr: Bull. e Bot. Club, XXI, (June, 1894). From the author. Hovey, E. O.—A Study of the Cherts of Missouri. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. Xi viN, 1894. From the author. Keyser, L. S.—In Bird-Land. From the Pub., A. C. McClurg and Co., Chi- cago, 1894. List of the Scientific oe of R. H. Traquair. ASON, O. T.—North American Bows, Arrows and Quivers. Extr. Smithso- nian Report for 1893. OS 1894. From the Smithsonian Institution. Matériaux réunis par le Comité d’organization du congres internationaux à Moscou concernant les expéditions scientifiques, les excursions et les rapports sur les questions touchant le congrès. Deuxième et dernière Partie. Moscou, 1893. MatrtrHew, W. D.—The Intrusive Rocks near St. John, New Brunswick. - Con- trib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Coll, No. XXII. From the author. Extr. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII, 1894. From the author. Merriam, L. S.—Higher Education in Tennessee. Bureau of Education. Cir. of Information, No. 5, 1893. From the Bureau of Ed. Miter, S. A. AND Gurey, W. F. E.—New Tor and Species of Echino- dermata. Bull. No. 5, Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist., —Upper Devonian and Niagara Crinoids. ea k 4, Ill. State. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1894. From the authors McMurrıca, J. P.—A Text- Book of Invertebrate Morphology. New York, 1894. From Henry Holt and Company, Publishers. PALACHE, C,—Lherzolite-Serpentine and Associated Rocks of the Potrero, San Francisco.—On a Rock from the Vicinity of Berkely containing a New Soda Amphibole. Extr. Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Cal., 1894. From the University. 462 The American Naturalist. [May, Parker, L. F.—Higher Education in Iowa. Bureau of Ed. Cir. of Informa- Penrose, R. A. F.—The te egies of Ore Deposits. Extr. Journ. Geol. » Vol. II, 1894. From the au Pox ic, H.—Sur un important cones du Cervus (Euryceros) hiberniae (Owen). Extr. du Bull. Soc. de Geol., Paleon., et Hydrol. Tome VI II, 1894. —— Le Premier crane complet du Rhinocéros ( Caenopess occidentalis Leidy, 1. c. Tome VII, 1893. From the author. ' PowEtt, L. P.—The History of Education in Delaware. Bureau of Ed. Cir. or Information No. 3, 1893. From the Bureau of Ed. ~ Press Bulletin No. 66, N. C. Agricultural Experiment Station, 1894. Sear pa Indiana Academy of Sciences for 1893. From the Academy. - S.—Kansas River Section of the Permo-Carboniferous and Per- mian Ricks of Kansas. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. 6, 1894. From the Society. - RANnsoME, F. L.—The Geology of a Island. Extr. Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Cal., Vol. I, 1894. From the Uni Ruoas, S. N.—Reprint of the North oake Zoology by George Ord. To which is added an Appendix on the more important Paer and Historic Questions involved. Haddonfield, N. J., 1894. From thea Rigs, H.—Microscopie Organisms in the Clays of New York ri Extr. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XIII, (March, 1894). From the Columbia College. Ror, A.—Geotektonische Probleme Stuttgart, 1894. From the peia D. E.—Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. Farmers Bull. No. 24, 1894. U. S. Dept. Agri. Bureau Animal Industry. From the Department. ERGI, G.—The Varieties of the Human Species, Principles and Method of Marans Smithsonian Mise. Coll., 969. From the Smithsonian Institu- tio ‘einai R. W.—On the Osteology of certain Graiis, Rails and the Allies, with remarks upon the Affinities. Extr. Journ. Anat. and Physiol., Vol XXIX, 1894. From the author. SPENCER, J. W.—The Yumuri Valley of Cuba.—A Rock Basin. Extr. Geol. Max: Vol. I, 1894. From the author. TEINER, B. C.—The History of Education in pepon Bureau of Ed. Cir. of Information No. 2, 1893. From the Bureau o: f Ed. TAFEL, A. J.—Translation of Hensel’s Bread from Stones. From the Pub, A. J. Tafel. Thirteenth Annual Report 1891-92 U. = begenn Survey, Part III, Irriga- tion. Washington, 1894. From the Sury Transactions of the Congress of paek Physicians and Surgeons, Vol. III, 1894. Visitor’s Guide to the Collection of Birds found within fifty miles of the City of New York in the American Museum of Natural Histo neon Dr. T.—Man andthe Mylodon. Extr. Am. Nat., 1892. From the author. 1895.] Geography and Travels. 463 General Notes. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS. The Greenland Scientific Expedition of 1895.—Efforts are now making to raise a fund of $12,000 for the purpose of bringing Mr. Peary and his two assistants home from Nurthwest Greenland early next fall, and, in counection with this, to prosecute scientific investiga- tions during the available summer season. It is hoped, by this means, to charter and fit out a staunch steamer built for Arctic service and commanded by experienced Arctic navigators, which shall start from St. John’s, Newfoundland, on or about July 5, 1895, for Inglefield Gulf, Northwest Greenland, lat. 78° N., Mr. Peary’s headquarters. The cooperation of Museums, Scientific and Educational Institutions and individuals is invited, not only because they will thus assist in the return of Mr. Peary and in the preservation of the results of his ex- tended labors, but also because such an expedition will afford the most favorable advantages to eight or ten specialists for obtaining the rich results that are possible in a prolific field that, for a generation to come, may not again be easily and economically accessible. These Arctic waters have been traversed eight times without an acci- dent by the four Peary expeditions, 1891-94. No Arctic authority will dispute the feasibility of carrying on the work now proposed. If any members of the party desire to await in the vicinity of God- haven, Disco Island, the return of the vessel, facilities will be found here for transportation to the neighboring mainland, which, with its ice-cap, its giant glaciers, its great sheets of overflow lavas, its abund- ant fossil remains, and its large variety of Arctic flora and fauna will reward search with many valuable results. The vessel should reach the coast of Greenland by July 10 or 12, and should be able to arrive at Mr. Peary’s camp late in July or early in August, if it is deemed best to make only few and short stops on the northerly trip. There will then remain four or five weeks for investi- gations in that exceptionally advantageous region, and still leave some time for work at more southerly points, where, owing to the influence of the East Greenland current, the conditions are unfavorable in the early part of the season. After the severe season of 1893-94, an open passage through Melville Bay and a favorable summer may reasonably be expected this year. 464 The American Naturalist. [May, GLACIAL REsEARCHES.—Every scientific member of the four Peary expeditions gives his hearty endorsement of the plans for next sum- mer’s campaign. Professor T. C. Chamberlin, head Professor of Geol- ogy in the University of Chicago, and a member of the expedition of 1894, writes of the special advantages offered for glacial researches : “The more I work upon the results gathered last summer, the more I congratulate myself upon having made the trip. The results grow constantly upon me, both in respect of their instructiveness and their fundamental importance. Surely no field is likely to be found which throws clearer light upon the problems of glaciology than the northern portion of Greenland. The facilities for study there presented are truly remarkable. The ends and sides of the glaciers are truncated, revealing their internal nature and their methods of work to a degree that could not well be anticipated.” - On Bowdoin Bay, in Inglefield Gulf, Professor Chamberlin found, last summer, nine glaciers of varying forms and habits, within a half dozen miles. It is hardly possible to find any point north of Cape York where glaciers and ice-caps, profitable for study, are not near at hand. ZooLocicaL WorKk.—The study of marine life should be pursued upon a systematic plan. The results obtained by the Peary Auxiliary Expedition of 1894, clearly indicate that this work may be carried on with profit, and that large additions may be made to our knowledge of marine forms of Arctic life. Mr. C. E. Hite, of the University of Pennsylvania, a member of the Peary Auxiliary Expedition of 1892, says that the dredging results were remarkable for variety and inter- est. Professor Chamberlin says that, in his opinion, the glacial and biological lines in particular, may be worked harmoniously together. Not a few of our museums desire specimens of walrus, with which these waters abound. In 1893, Mr. Peary secured over twenty of these ani- mals in a few days’ hunt. White whale, seal, narwhal, reindeer, Arctic hare, blue fox, birds of various kinds, and insects, may also be procured. ETHNOLOGICAL Srupres.—The Anthropologist can hardly experi- ence anything more instructive than first contact with the native or pure Eskimos, who, by isolation, have been preserved, in all respects, as the most primitive of human beings. They are to be found only in an almost inaccessible district of East Greenland and along the coast line, soon to be visited, between Cape York and Inglefield Gulf. Ethnological collections of great interest may be made at almost every point. The materials furnished by these people would equip a full ward in any Ethnological Museum; and here the primitive phase of 1895.] Geography and Travels. 465 developmental anthropology may be studied with the greatest advan- tage. BOTANICAL AND OTRER WorxK.—Complete botanical studies in this region, whose flora is developed in considerable variety by the contin- uous sunlight of a few short months, will be of much interest. It is desired also that artistic and excellent results of photography be se- cured in large variety. The photographs of glaciers already brought from this region show that nothing can be more helpful to the study of these phenomena than the graphic pictures revealing every phase of glacial activity. This region will afford to all the lines of work here mentioned nearly equal opportunities and very valuable results. Mr. Peary, who has done great service in opening this interesting region to scientific study, will render every aid in his power to the ex- pedition. His thorough knowledge of the natives, of methods of travel and work, and of points of interest, will greatly facilitate the present undertaking ; and, conspicuous among its results, will be the fact that it will bring back, not only the fruits of its own labors, but also the product and records of the able and brilliant explorer who, for several years, has devoted all his time, energy and money to the study of Arctic life and phenomena, and to widening the bounds of geographic knowledge in the North Polar area. The following resolution was passed by the Council of the American Geographical Society at its meeting on March 2, 1895: “Resolved, That the American Geographical Society heartily approves Mrs. Josephine Diebitsch Peary’s project for the relief of Mr. Peary, and the prosecution of Arctic scientific research, and that it hereby contributes one thousand dollars towards the expenses of such expedition, provided that other subscriptions, sufficient to make up the sum required to send the expedition, are obtained by Mr. Diebitsch.” The business management of the expedition will be in the hands of the undersigned, Mr. Emil Diebitsch, who was a member of the expe- dition of 1894. A limited number of Scientific Societies, Educational Institutions, or individuals, contributing $1,000 to the fund, will be entitled to have each a representative on the Expedition, who shall be approved by the scientific leader. The expenses of each member over and above $1,000, will be the cost of his scientific outfit, transportation from his home to St. John’s, and from New York or Philadelphia to his home. The proposed work will require three months. All communications and requests for further information should be addressed to Emit Dresrrscu, Business Manager of the Greenland Scientific Expedition of 1895, 2014 Twelfth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. ` 466 The American Naturalist. [May, MINERALOGY." Recent Books. Fletcher. The Optical Indicatrix and the Transmission of Light in Crystals.’—This treatise is an important one for mineral- ogical students because of its simple form and style and its easy mathe- matical demonstrations. It is Fletcher’s opinion that, since Fresnel’s hypothesis that the medium for transmission of light—the ether—is in- compressible, has been shown to be untenable, it should be abandoned by teachers. The newer theory of Neumann and MacCullagh that the ether is compressible, he supports, but wisely advises that since we may be dealing with only an approximate mechanical analogy, it is best to make use of terms which do not commit one to either of the hypothe- ses. The surface of elasticity he proposes to call the optical indicatriz. The wave surface of Fresnel he prefers to call the ray surface, and ray front is substituted for wave front. The plane passing through the ray and the normal to the plane of polarization, he designates simply as the transverse plane. The optic axes of biaxial crystals are called bi-normals, and the “ secondary optic axes,” or directions of common ray velocity, he calls bi-radials. The author shows that Fresnel did not, as supposed, arrive at the wave surface as a deduction from his theory of the incompressible elastic ether, but by a simple generaliza- tion before his theory of the ether was developed. Chapter II, of Fletcher’s work, is devoted to the evolution of the optical indicatrix, and begins by remarkably simple statements of the accepted views con- cerning the nature of light, its transmission in isotropic media, reflec- tion, refraction, polarization, etc., with the facts on which they are e ray surface and indicatrix are then developed from em- pirical data. It is unfortunate that the printing of the book should have been so badly done. It has been translated into German by Ambronn and König’ - 1 Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. ? The Optical Indicatrix and the Transmission of Light in Crystals, By L. Fletcher, M. A., F. R.S. Pp. xii and 112. Henry Frowde, London, 1892. guaman Dói the Mineralogical Magazine). Die Optische Indicatrix, Eine geometrische Darstellung der age in den Krystallen, von L. Fletcher, uebersetzt von H. Ambronn u. W. Köni Pp. ix and 69. Barth, Leipzig, 1893. Price, M. 3. 1895,] Mineralogy. 467 Hecht. Introduction to the Calculation of Crystals.‘—The author of this valuable little book states in his preface that it gives by the method which originated with him, the general solution to tbe problems which arise in the calculation of crystals, and outlines a course which must, in every case, lead to the result. The necessary mathematical formule recommended are not difficult. A simple method is also given for making the stereographic and parallel projec- tions. Numerous examples for practice are included in the book. Behrens. Manual of Microchemical Analysis.’—This most valuable handbook is the best that has appeared treating the subject of microchemical analysis. Its appearance first in English, for it will undoubtedly be translated into German, is especially fortunate for American students. The book was written in English by Professor Behrens and edited by Professor Judd. The introductory chapter by the latter is an excellent resumé of the mechanical and chemical methods of modern petrography. Besides devising many new methods, Behrens has rigorously tested all the older ones, and furnishes data in this handbook showing the reliability and delicacy of each method. He has been careful to insure that errors arising from the differences in conditions of crystallization shall be excluded. As is well-known, the principle of Behrens’ method is to get the element to be determined in the form of a sulphate, the basis for the reactions. He insists that micro-chemical reactions, to come into general use, must be suited to work with a minimum of material and secure results in a minimum of time. Part I of the work describes apparatus and reagents and the reactions which determine each element. Part II gives a systematic scheme of analysis, and has special sections for the examination of water, ores, rocks, alloys, and combinations of the rare elements. The book is full of ingenious suggestion, and should be in the library of every petrographer. Baumhauer. Results of Methods of Etching in Crystal- lographical Investigation.’—Baumhauer, who, more than anyone t Anleitung zur Krystallberechnung von Dr. Benno Hecht. Pp. 76, with 1 pl. and 5 oiled paper charts to be used in stereographic projection. Barth, Leipzig, 1893 > A Manual of Microchemical Analysis, by Professor H. Behrens, with an intro- ductory chapter by Professor John W. Judd. Pp. xxv and 246 and 84 cuts. MacMillan & Co., London and New York, 1894. Price, $1.50. ê Die Resultate der Aetzmethode in der Lirvilaitlcgrsiihtachien Forschung, an einer Reihe von krystallisirten Kérpen dargestellt von Dr. H. Baumhauer. Pp. 131, 21 cuts, and an atlas of 12 plates. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig, ‘1894. Price, M. 16. 468 The American Naturalist. [May, else has developed the elegant and accurate methods of etching crys- tals, gives us in the introduction of this work a most admirable resumé of the work that has been done and the methods that are in common use. Not only etched figures (Aetzfiguren or Aetzgriibchen), but v. Ebner’s Lésungsgestalten, Hamberg’s Prarosionsflichen, and Becke’s Lésungsoberflichen are discussed. The studies of Meyer, Penfield, and Gill, on the forms derived by prolonged etching of spheres of quartz with hydrofluoric acid and the alkaline carbonates, and those of Hamberg on forms assumed by cylinders of Iceland spar etched with hydrochloric acid, are correlated. The author discusses in detail the application of the methods of etching to the determination of iso- morphous relations. The greater part of the work is devoted to de- tailed descriptions of a number of important minerals on which the study of etched figures has been of special significance. Among these are the minerals: cryolite, apatite, Zinnwaldite, dolomite, nepheline, datolite, leucite, and boracite. The plates are particularly beautiful, and are suited to lecture demonstration. Czapski. Theory of Optical Instruments.’—Mineralogists and petrographers who have occasion to test the working or to deter- mine the constants of compound microscopes, will find this recent work of the scientific expert of the Zeiss Optical Works at Jena of much practical utility. -The greater part of the work is devoted to a compli- cated mathematical exposition or Abbe’ s Mano bead optical instru ments» this latter term bei which form images of external objects, chief among which are the eye, camera lens, microscope, and telescope. The portion, however, which will find most use among mineralogists and petrographers, is included in the last two chapters. Here the compound microscope, with its modern accessories, is described in respect to construction and use, and methods are given for the practical determination of its optical constants. Fuess. Instrument Catalogue.*—R. Fuess, the well-known goniometer and microscope maker, has issued a supplement to his catalogue of 1891. The supplement treats of goniometers, universal apparatus, microscopes (with many recently devised attachments), grinding apparatus, mounting materials and collections of thin sections. ™Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe, von Dr. Siegfried Czapski: Trewendt, Breslau, 1893. Price, M. 9.60. (Reprinted from Vol. II of Winkel- mann’s Handbuch der Physik.) 8 Ergänzungen zum Preis-Verzeichnisse 1891, über krystallographische und petrographische Instrumente, von R. Fuess, Berlin-Steglitz, 1894. Pp. 56 1895.] Mineralogy. 469 The catalogue is very greatly increased in value by its references to the literature on the construction and use of each piece of apparatus which it describes. Klockmann. Text-Book of Mineralogy.’—While the Eng- lish language can boast the best completed reference work on mineral- ogy—the sixth edition of Dana’s System—it is a lamentable fact that it does not possess a single modern class text of the subject. In con- trast with this, the Germans have several, the best being those of Tschermak and Bauer. To these has been recently added another by Klockmann, the Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in the Royal Mining School at Clausthal. Klockmann’s text is somewhat shorter than any of the others, having but 467 pages (Tschermak, 606; Bauer, 562), but by means of synoptic descriptions and abbreviations in the systematic portions, it is made to include nearly as much material. The book is a very valuable acquisition, and, to the writer of these notes, seem to possess some advantages over either Tschermak or Bauer for the use of its material in the general courses of American universi- ties and colleges. Excellent judgment has been shown in the selection and arrangement of material, and, perhaps, because of the author’s position in a mining academy, the minerals which are of economic im- portance are given more prominence, and more stress is laid upon the geological occurrence and the mineral association than upon the list of localities. The great aid to the memory which the dualistic formule furnish seems to be a sufficient reason for making use of them with ‘elementary classes. In view of the general adoption of the index symbols, either alone or with the Naumann’s symbols, it will probably be questioned whether it is wise to make exclusive use of the latter symbols in a text-book, but it is difficult to give students familiarity with both systems at the outset without drawing too much of their at- tention from more important matters, and the student finds it easier to deal with parameters than with indices. The section on the optical properties of minerals is probably the best in the book. In the de- scriptive portion, symbols, abbrevations, italics, and small type have been used to excellent advantage to aid the eye in referring to the descriptions and to indicate degrees of importance of the subject matter. In the appendix is included, first, synoptical statements concerning minerals of economic importance--ores, gems, etc.; and, second, a key ® Lehrbuch der Mineralogie fiir Studierende und zum Selbstunterricht, bearbe- itet von Dr. F. Klockmann. Pp. xii and 467, with 430 cuts in the text. Enke, Stutgart, 1892. Price, M. 470 The American Naturalist. [May, for the determination of the common minerals from an examination of their physical properties. American mineralogists will look forward with interest to the text- book of mineralogy which is now in preparation for MacMillan & Co., by Mr. H. A. Miers, of the British Museum. W. H. Hosss. PETROGRAPHY.' Granite Inclusions in Gabbro.—Inclusions of granite in the gabbro of the Cuillin Hills, Skye, England, afford excellent illustra- tions of the effects produced by the fusion of acid rocks on a molten basic one. The granite in question is reported by Judd’ to be a biotite or a hornblende-biotite variety. Near the periphery of the mass the biotite and hornblende are replaced by augite, and granophyre is de- veloped in the interstices between the phenocrysts. The gabbro, in its passage upward, broke fragments from this granite, especially from its peripheral portions, and changed them completely. The granophyric intergrowth was fused and changed to a rhyolitic glass, marked by flow lines and filled with spherulites and lithophysae. In a few instances, some of the larger granophyre groups have escaped complete fusion, in which case, their remnants remain as nuclei of large compound spheru- lites. Imbedded in the glass are the large crystals of the granite. The quartzes have been cracked, and into the cracks glassy material has been pressed. The feldspars are also cracked, and in the crevices thus formed, secondary feldspars have been deposited. The original augites ` have disappeared, and in their places are aggregates of magnetite and other secondary products. The most interesting features of the altered inclusions are the spherulites. Simple and composite varieties are both common, and the trichitic kinds described by Cross are also met with. The centers of the spherulites are nearly always grains of quartz or of orthoclase, or groups of granophyre, as already mentioned. Pyrite and fayalite are both new products of the metamorphic action. The Geology of Pretoria, South Africa.—A long and inter- _ esting account of the geology of the gold fields near Pretoria, in the 1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Maine. * Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., xlix, p. 175. 1895.] Petrography. 471 South African Republic, has appeared under Molengraaf’s’ name. The major portion of the paper is taken up with descriptions of the geologi- cal features of the region. There are in it, however, several items of petrographic interest. The oldest formation of the region embraces granites and crystalline schists. The former rock-type includes tonal- ites and orthoclase-plagioclase-microcline granites. In some places the rocks show evidences of dynamic metamorphism. Among the rocks associated with the granite are sericite-schists, actinolite-schists and amphibolites. Above these is another schist formation, comprising quartzites, clay slates, corundum-schists and porphyroids, and chiasto- lite-schists, cut by diabase dykes. The corundum porphyroid resem- bles a feldspar porphry. Large crystals of biotite and large corundum individuals are in a groundmass of quartz and chlorite. The whole rock is besprinkled with quartz grains. Above the schists are bedded fragmentals, with which are associated diabases, quartz-porphyres and -amygdaloids. In one of the diabases a diallagic augite and a primary hornblende were detected. In the carboniferous sediments south of Reitzburg are quartz gabbro and quartz diabases, and in the Rhenos- terkop in the diamond fields at Driekop, in the Orange Free States, is a quartz-amphibole gabbro containing magnetite, biotite, primary hornblende, diallage and plagioclase. The pyroxene is striated paral- lell to oP, and is twinned parallel to œ Px. The Gabbro of the Adirondacks.—The gabbro associated with anorthosites of the Adirondacks are described by Smyth‘ as very simi- lar to the Baltimore gabbros. They are best developed at Morehouse- ville and at Wilmurt Lake in the valley of West Canada Creek. The rock is a norite, in some phases a hypersthene-gabbro, both containing a brown hornblende regarded as original. The hypersthene, especially in the foliated varieties of the gabbro, which have been rendered schistose by pressure, sends tongues out into the contiguous feldspar. This stringing out of the pyroxene is so closely connected with the de- velopment of the foliation of the rock that it is believed to be a dy- namic phenomenon. An analysis of the gabbro gave: SiO, .Al,O, Fe,OQ, FeQ MgO CaO NaO K.O H,O Total 46.85 18.00 616 8.76 843 10.17 219 .09 .80 = 100.95 A black garnetiferous hornblende gneiss, which is associated with the ‘other gneisses in the neighborhood of the gabbro, is thought to be re- 3 Neues Jahrb. f. Miner. B. B., ix, p. 174. ‘Amer. Jour. Sci., xlviii, 1894, p. 54. 472 The American Naturalist. [May, lated to the latter rock, from which it is believed to have been derived by pressure. Around the garnets are rims composed of radiating tongues of hypersthene or of hornblende. Green hornblende is present in the gneiss in addition to the brown variety, and all the other com- ponents of the gabbro are represented in either the fresh or the altered condition. ) The Dykes of the Thousand Islands.—The granites, gneisses and other rocks of the Admiralty Group of the Thousand Islands in the St. Lawrence River are cut by numerous dikes of a dark rock. These, to the number of thirty, have been studied by Smyth.’ They are all normal diabases and olivine diabases. In the latter variety the olivine is often surrounded by a reaction rim composed of radiating plates of tremolite. The magnetite in many of the rocks of both va- rieties is separated from the plagioclase by a rim of biotite. This is absent when the mineral is in contact with the other rock components, hence it is regarded as a true reaction rim between the iron oxides and the feldspar. Analcite-Diabases from California.—aA series of dykes, from San Luis, Obispo Co., California, are described by Fairbanks® as con- sisting of two distinct portions. The main one is dark and fine-grained, and the other a hard, light, rock cutting the former in dykes. Both possess the same general features in the thin section, but the lighter rock possesses them in greater perfection. It consists of lath-shaped basic plagioclase, lamellar diallage and analcite. The latter mineral occurs as irregular masses in the feldspar, in wedge-shaped pieces be- tween the plagioclase, in the form of hexagonal or rounded grains partly enclosed within the feldspars, and as the lining of cavities in the rock. It is supposed to have been derived from nepheline, as the mass analysis of the rock shows it to be very rich in sodium: SiO, AlO, Fe,0, FeO CaO MgO K,O NaO H,O Cl Total 50.55 20.48 2.66 4.02 7.30 4.24 2.97 837 .44 tr— 100.33 The analcite is changed partly to an aggregate of green fibres, and partly to natrolite. In the wedge-shaped areas between the plagio- clase the mineral also contains prehnite crystals, and is bordered here and there by a doubly refracting substance supposed to be a soda feld- spar. These are both believed to be alteration products of the analcite. 5 Trans. N. Y. Acad. Bei., xili, p. 209. 6 Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Cal., Vol. I, p. 273. 1895.] Petrography. 473 In some of the dykes the structure is ophitic, and in others, panidio- morphic. If the author’s view as to the origin of the analcite is cor- rect, these rocks are clearly related to teschnites. A Quartz-Keratophyre from Wisconsin.— Weidman’ has in- vestigated the porphyritic rock overlying the Baraboo quartzites of Wisconsin, and has shown it to be a quartz-keratophyre. It shows all the features of a lava, and is associated with tuffs and a sericite schist. The schist is at the contact of the keratophyre with the quartzite, and is evidently a result of shearing of the eruptive, The latter is porphy- ritic, with plagioclase and anorthoclase phenocrysts (often fractured by movements of the lava), and a few partially dissolved quartz pheno- crysts in a fine-grained holocrystalline groundmass of quartz and feld- spar, which, in addition to the phenocrysts mentioned, contains imbed- ded in it ilmenite, biotite and zircon. Many specimens show a flux- ion structure and some are spherulitic—the spherules being sometimes secondary and sometimes primary bodies. An analysis of a sample of the rock gave: SiO, ALO, FeO CaO KO NaO H,O S0, Total 73.00 15.61 195 .79 88 495 1.06 .76= 99.00 The series of bulletins, of which the author’s article forms the sec- ond number, is well printed and is apparently well edited. It is a valued addition to the list of science bulletins now being published by American colleges. Notes.—The crystalline limestones of Warren Co., N. J., contain a large number of accessory minerals, which are described by Westgate.* It contains irregular masses or concretions of pyroxene, hornblende, magnetite and biotite. Quartz, tourmaline, apatite, graphite and gar- net are also present in it. The quartz and pyroxene are so abundant that, in some cases, they constitute rock-bodies, composed of interlock- ing grains of their principal constituents, with a small admixture of some others. The nickeliferous pyrrohotite of the Gap Mine, Lancaster, Pa., forms a peripheral zone around the eastern end of an amphibolite lens, which, according to Kemp,’ is an altered norite or peridotite. The ore is irregularly intermingled with the hornblende of the amphibolite, 1 Bull. Univ. Wis. Science Ser., Diy I, p. 35. 8 Amer. Geologist, Vol. xiv, p. 30 ®Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Engin. a: 1894. 32 474 The American Naturalist. [May, filling interstices between its crystals. The authoris inclined to regard the ore as having separated from the rock magma, but, whether in accordance with the Soret principle, or not, he is unwilling to say. A variolite in a small dyke at Dunmore Head, County Down, Ire- land, is described by Cole” as an altered glass containing spherulites composed of cryptocrystalline material with a delicately radial struc- ture. Cracks traverse the spherulites and also the groundmass of the rocks. Into some of those in the spherulites glass has been forced. Occasionally the nuclei of spherulites are crystals of plagioclase. In a general geological article on the Essex and Willsboro’ Town- ships in Essex Co., N. Y., White” records the existence of a number of bostonite, fourchite, camptonite and other dykes cutting the country rocks of the region. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. The Lakes of Central Africa.—Concerning the origin of the Central African lakes, Dr. D. Kerr-Cross advances the theory that these lakes were in the first instance, arms of the sea, as the Red Sea is at the present time. During Cenozoic time the whole continent participated in a general movement resulting in the crushing, subsid- ence, faulting, and upheaval which are evident on every hand. The fauna living on during these successive changes has gradually adapted itself to the varying environment. This theory is founded on the fol- lowing facts collated from the author’s own observations, and those of other East African travelers : 1. East Africa is a country of table-lands. 2. Its lakes, Tanganyika, Nyasa, Rulswa, Bangweolo, Newero, and to some extent those further north—not to speak of the lesser lakes— run more or less in the lie of the continent north and south, and are separated from the sea to the east by highland, and are environed by great mountain systems remote from those of the coast range. 3. The lakes are all at high elevation. 4. Some of the lakes have evidence of great volcanic activity having taken place in late geological time. There are recently extinct craters, and hot springs and lava flows. Geol. Magazine, April, 1894, p. 220. . Y. Acad. Sci., xiii, p. 214. 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 475 5. There is a decided parallelism between the lakes and the strike of the mountains, and they occupy vast valleys surrounded by high ground or table-land. 6. The mountains consist chiefly of osyatalline and schistose rocks and gneiss. 7. The number of the lakes in the centre of the continent is great, some are salt, some > brackish with sodium and magnesium salts, and some are fresh. 8. Most of them have islands. 9. Some are surrounded by markedly escarped hills, with terraces rising from them. Some of these terraces denote a former higher level. 10. In some places the lakes are extremely deep. Notably Lake Nyasa shows great variation of level. 11. The fauna shows a marked remnant: to marine forms. (Geog. Journ., Feb., 1895.) Structure of Triarthrus.—Additional discoveries relating to Triarthrus give rise to the following observation, by Mr. C. E. Beech- er, upon its general organization: “ The simplicity and primitiveness of the trilobite structure will first impress the student. The variable number of segments in the thorax and pygidium in the different genera shows the unstable meta- meric condition of the class. The head alone seems to have a perma- nent number of segments and appendages. . salen) Wa the exception of the antennules, all other paired ipada of the animal seem to agree in every point of structure, and vary only in the relative development of certain parts. The appendages of the pygidium are ontogenetically the youngest, and express the typical phyllopodiform structure. Passing anteriorly, the joints become less leaf-like, until in - the anterior thoracic legs they are quite slender, and the limbs re- semble those of schizopods. Corresponding to this, there is through the whole series, a gradual development of a process from the coxopo- dite, forming a gnathobase to the limb. On the head these serve as true manducatory organs. Posteriorly, they were like the basal endites of Apus, and enabled the trilobite to convey food along the entire length of the axis to the mouth.” In regard to the affinities of the Trilobita, and especially their rela- tions to Apus, Mr. Beecher points out while a general similarity of of the cephalic organs of Apus and Triarthrus is apparent, yet there are important structural features of other parts of the body in the 476 The American Naturalist. [May, latter which are quite dissimilar from Apus and the higher crustacea, and the exact relations of the trilobite with any one group cannot be considered as fixed. Points of likeness may be established with almost every order, showing chiefly the relationship between the trilobite and the ancestors of the modern Crustacea. (Amer. Geol., Vol. XV, 1895.) Land Animals of the Canadian Paleozoic.—The paucity of fossil remains of land animals in the older rocks renders the finding of new material of special importance. Accordingly, the announcement by Sir William Dawson of the discovery of a number of Paleozoic air- breathing animals is of great interest. Forty-three individuals, re- presenting a number of species, have been taken from the interior of two erect trees in the Joggins Coal Mine—the same locality in which the first known Paleozoic land snail was found in 1851. Descriptions of these remains are embodied by Sir William Dawson in a Synopsis of Air-breathing Animals of the Paleozoic in Canada, up to 1894. The Synopsis contains references to the publications in which the various species have been described, and to their localities, discover- ers, and dates of discovery and description. The species described in the Synopsis are distributed as follows: Vertebrata 26; all Batrachia. Arthropoda 33; viz., Insects, Scorpions, Myriapods. Mollusca 5; Pulmonate Snails. Four of the vertebrate species are named for the first time in this paper—two from osseous remains, and two from foct-prints. The paper concludes with a note of advice to collectors as to where and how to obtain this valuable Paleozoic material. (Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Sect. IV, 1894.) The Devonian System of Eastern Pennsylvania and New York.—In a paper containing an account of a field investiga- tion of the Devonian system of eastern Pennsylvania and New York, Mr. Prosser takes exception to the terms used by the Pennsylvania Geo- logical Survey and proposes certain changes to bring the correlation of the Pennsylvania section nearer to that of New York. From paleon- tological data Mr. Prosser has been enabled to compare the formations of this region with the typical sections of the Devonian system of Central New York. Mr. Prosser finds the Marcellus shale clearly defined, the Hamilton (of White) the Genesee shale (of White) and Tully limestone (of 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 477 White) constitute the Hamilton stage; true Genesee shales and Tully limestones are wanting; the Chemung (of White) is found to be Lower Portage; beginning with the Starucca sandstones and New Milford red shales there is a series of deposits equivalent to the One- onta sandstones of New York; the line of demarkation between the Chemung and Catskill lies at the base of the sandstones overlying the Montrose shales; and, finally, the Mount Pleasant Conglomerate on the Pocono Plateau represents the base of the Pocono. The classification proposed by Prosser then would be as follows: Lower Car- j Pocono Mount Pleasant Conglomerate. boniferous Mount Pleasant Red Shale. Elk Mountain sandstone and shale. Catskill Cherry Ridge Group. Upper Honesdale sandstones. Devonian z Fortage (including Oneonta) (of Prosser). ey Chemung (of Prosser). Middle i Hamilton (Prosser). Devonian goarn Marcellus shales. Lower : : Upper Helderberg. Devonian sale pit Cauda-galli grit. The English Tarns.—While investigating the Tarns of Lake- land, England, with the view of determining their origin, Mr. J. E. Marr discovered that many basins supposed to be rock-bound were in reality not true rock-basins, although the streams issuing from them- run over solid rock close to the surface of the lake. The facts as ob- served by the authorare these: Some of the tarns were moraine-dam- med at the exit. Should the exit of the lake thus formed immediately overlie the old river-bed, the lake would have a brief existence, for the morainic material would soon be worn away. If, however, the low- est point of the morainic barrier did not lie vertically over the old river valley, the out-let stream would cut rapidly until it reached the level of the rock, and then in the majority of cases would cut sideways along the junction of the rock and the drift until it reached its original position, when the lake would be drained. But if a ridge of rock lay between the position attained by the stream issuing from the lake and the position of the former valley-bottom, denudation would be retarded, 478 . The American Naturalist. [May, the lakelet would become much more permanent, and its basin would be apparently rock-bound, with its surplus water flowing over a rocky outlet. ; Mr. Marr concludes since many of the Tarns he examined are in- stances of the third class described above, that the lakes of that region, at least, give no support to the theory that the basins in which they occur were hollowed out by ice. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Feb., 1895.) The Loess of Northern China, —The superficial deposits of Shantung formed the subject of a paper by Messrs. Skertchly and T. W. Kingsmill read before the Geological Society of London at a recent meeting in which some interesting facts were made known concerning the Loess of that region. The Loess east of the Pamirs is extensively developed over an area of over one million square miles. It is some- times over 2000 feet thick, and occurs up to several thousand feet above sea-level. Evidence was brought forward by the authors with the intention of establishing the absolute want of connection between the Chinese Loess and the present river-systems, its original stratified condition (as shown by variation of tint and horizontality of layers of concretions) and its subsequent rearrangement to a great extent. The absence of marine shells was discussed, and the suggestion thrown out that the shells had been destroyed by percolating water. The authors gave their reasons for supposing that the Loess is a marine formation, and stated that the sea need not have reached to a higher level than 600 feet above the present sea-level, for the Pamir region where it occurs, 7000 feet above the sea, is an area of special uplift. They maintained that there are no proofs of the glaciation of Northern and Eastern Asia, so that Chinese Loess could have no connection with an area of glaciation. The zoological, ethnological, historical and tradi- tionary evidence alike pointed to the former depression of Asia beneath the sea, and the subsequent dessication of the land ee upon re-elevation. (Nature, March, 1895.) Geological News, Pa.rozorc.—In studying the remains of Radiolarians and Sponges in the precambrian rocks of Bretagne, M L. Cayeux arrives at the following conclusions : (1). There exists at the base of the pea of Bretagne numer- ous sponge spicules representing many speci (2 )- All, or at least nearly all, the oe of the siliceous sponges were in existence at this early period. 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 479 (3). The precambrian Radiolarians are the oldest known rhizopods, and of the Sponges the phtanites are the first in point of time. (Revue Scientifique Feb., 1895.) The zinc deposits in the Galena limestone of the Upper Mississippi are unique in that they occur in practically undisturbed strata that show no evidence of metamorphoric action, and are found in crevices of comparatively limited extent downward. The ores are the car- bonate, sulphide and silicate. As to their origin, it is suggested by A. G. Leonard that the zine comes from the limestones in which occur the crevices. It was deposited along with the sediments by the waters of the Silurian sea into which the metallic salts were washed from pre- existing land surfaces. After deposition in the limestome beds the zine was concentrated in the crevices by the action of drainage water percolating through the metal-bearing beds. (Proceeds, Iowa Acad. Sci. Vol. I, Pt. IV, 1894.) Mesozorc.—In commenting on the Sauropodous dinosaur recently found in Madagascar, Mr. Lydekker notes first, that it belongs to a hitherto imperfectly known genus, first described from the Jurassic rocks of England, under the name Bothriospondylus; secondly, the lateral cavities of the vertebree had no connection with any honey- combing of the interior, and, finally, this fossil completes the evidence that gigantic sauropodous dinosaurs ranged over Europe, India, Mad- agascar and North and South America during the Jurassic and Creta- cic periods. From these facts Mr. Lydekker infers that, since the whole world was inhabited by such closely allied reptiles, the great continents were intimately connected with each other, and the evolu- tion of distinct regional faunas and the separation of large southern island-continents (now, for the most part reunited with more northern lands) took place during the early Cenozoic period. (Knowledge, March, 1895.) The remarkable resemblance of the jaws and dentition of the Creta- ceous fish Erisichthe to those of the Upper Jurassic genus Hypsocormus extends to the pectoral fins and the axial skeleton, so that Mr. A. S. Woodward concludes that Erisichthe is not a “Teleostean” in the ordinary acception of the term, and that none of its known characters warrant its separation from the family to which the Jurassic genera Hypsocormus and Pachycormus belong. (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 1894.) Crenozoic.—A revision of the Cenozoic deposits of the Texas Coastal Plain has been made necessary through the accumulation of new 480 The American Naturalist. [May, stratigraphic and paleontologic evidence by the State Geologist, Prof. umble. Of the Eocene beds, the divisions below the Fayette are retained, but the Fayette is limited to the basal sandy portion of the beds originally bearing the name, and characterized by the opal- ized wood it contains. The succeeding clays are called Frio, and they mark the close of the Eocene. The Neocene divisions, beginning with the lowest, are Oakville, Lapara (the coastal representative of the Blanco), Lagarto and Reynosa. The last is a widely distributed bed of gravel cemented by lime and interbedded with clays and limy sands. The basal beds of the Plistocene are the Equus, the direct correlatives of the Equus of the Llano Estacado, which are followed in turn by the Coast Clays, and the Coast Sands. (Trans. Texas Acad. Sci., 1894). An account of an important find of Mastodon bones (M. americanus) near the city of Cincinnati, Ohio, is given by Mr. Seth Hayes. At least three individuals are represented. One complete jaw of an old animal, as indicated by the excessive amount of wear of the last molars presents the unique feature of two mandibular tusks. On Prof. Orton’s authority it is stated that the bed from which these remains were taken is of Postglacial origin. (Journ. Cin. Nat. Hist. Soc., Jan., 1895.) BOTANY.’ Notes on Mexican Lichens. I,—Sometime since a quantity of lichen material from Mexico was placed in my hands for study. The collection was made by Mr. Jared G. Smith and Professor Lawrence Bruner on and about Mt. Orizaba, in the latter part of 1891 and in the months of January and February, 1892 The following annotated list it given as a report of the results of the study of certain genera represented in the collection, and will be fol- lowed from time to time by other “notes” as the remainder of the material is worked over. Ramalina. _ R. linearis (L. f.; Sw.) Tuckerm. Trees, ete. Orizaba. (Bruner This agrees with specimens in hb. Tuck. under this name, but is not the linearis of Nylander. Spores straight or curved, 1895.] Botany. 481 R. laevigata Fr. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 52). R. denticulata (Eschw.) Nyl. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith and Bruner 53). Spores more or less curved, 13-16 4—5 mic. R. denticulata canalicularis Nyl. Trees. Orizaba. (Bruner 54). Differs from the species in being smaller, slenderer, and the main branches becoming divided inte many attenuate, chan- nelled branches. Apothecia much as in the species. Spores smaller R. aay pA (Pers.) Fr. Trees. Orizaba. Alt. 12,000 ft. (Smith 56). R. ce fraxinea (L.) Fr. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 55). Apparently not as common as the preceding. R. pollinaria Ach.? var.? “ Trees in forest, slope of Mt. Orizaba, alt. 9-12,000 ft.” (Smith 89). Though this lichen has the aspect of pollinaria it differs in be- ing more rigid, larger, and more densely branched, and in having narrower spores. It may prove to be undescribed. Cetraria. C. madreporiformis (Ach.) Müll. A single specimen on earth on = Orizaba. (Smith 3). Evern E. PEPEN (L.) Mann. Trees. N. W. slope of Mt. Orizaba. Smith 5). Very plentiful at an altitude of 11,000-12,500 ft. Usnea. U. florida (L.) Hoffm. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 6). Abundant at 12,000 ft. alt i U. florida strigosa Ach. Trees. Orizaba. (Bruner 8). Plentiful. U. florida mollis (Stirt.) Wainio. On oak trees, slope of Mt. Orizaba at Jalapasco. Alt. 9-11,000 ft. Notuncommon. (Smith 80). U. florida rubiginea Michx. Trees. Orizaba. Rare. (Smith 79). U. hirta (L.) Hoffm. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 7) U. ceratina Ach. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 9). U. angulata Ach. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 13). U. longissima Ach. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 14). U. cavernosa Tuckerm. “ Hanging from branches of oak trees, Jala- pasco.” Alt. 10-12,000 ft. Abundant. (Smith 15). This species is sometimes mistaken for U. plicata, but may be readily distinguished by the scarcity of fibrils and by the lacu- -nose surface, even when sterile. 482 The American Naturalist. [May, Alectoria. A. ochroleuca rigida Fr. On earth. Orizaba. Common. (Smith 1). A. fremontii Tuckerm. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 4). Often mixed with Usnea cavernosa, Theloschistes. Th. flavicans (Sw.) Mill. Abundant on trees. Orizaba. (Smith 41). This is certainly distinct from Th. chrysophthalmus and should be maintained as a species. Parmelia. P. perlata (L.) Ach. “Growing on rocks near warm springs,’ Ag- uascalientes ; Orizaba. (Smith and Bruner 27). The thallus is not always as smooth as is common in this species. P. latissima Fee. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 28). Thallus sometimes isidiophorous. P. perforata (Jacq.) Ach. Trees. Orizaba. Common. (Smith and P. perforata hypotropa Nyl. Trees. Orizaba. (Bruner 30). P. cetrata Ach. Oak trees N. W. slope of Mt. Orizaba. Alt. 10- 12,000 ft. (Smith 31). P. revoluta (Floerke) Nyl. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 33). P. kamtschadalis americana (M. & F.) Nyl. “On oak trees N. W. slope of Mt. Orizaba.” Alt. 11,000-12,500 ft. Very plentiful. (Smith 36). P. caperata (L.) Ach. On oak trees at Jalapasco. Alt. 10,000 ft. Rocks, Aguascalientes. (Smith 34 P. conspersa (Ehrh.) Nyl. Rocks. Orizaba; Aguascalientes. Com- mon. (Smith 35). Some of the specimens from the latter locality belong to the f. isidiata Anzi. cia. Ph. hypoleuca (Muhl.) Tuckerm. At bases of trees sang moss. Orizaba. (Smith and Bruner 62). Ph. comosa (Eschw.) Nyl. Trees. Orizaba. Common. (Smith 38). Ph. leucomela (L.) Michx. Trees. Orizaba. Abundant. (Smith Ph. lencomela angustifolia M. & F. With the preceding. (Smith 40). Ph. stellaris (L.) Tuckerm. On oak trees at Jalapasco and else- where on Mt. Orizaba. Common. (Smith and Bruner 42). It is often difficult to separate this from the following species. 1895.] Botany. 483 Ph. astroidea (Fr.) Nyl. Trees. Orizaba (Smith); Cordova. (Smith and Bruner 45). Ph. crispa (Pers.) Nyl. Trees. Orizaba; Aguascalientes. (Smith 46). Apparently one of the commonest Physcias in this region. Ph. major Nyl. Trees. Orizaba; Cordova. (Smith 43). The specimens agree very well with Nylander’s description and with specimens in hb. Tuckerm. Ph. dilatata integrata Nyl. Trees. Cordova. (Smith 48). Ph. caesia (Hoffm.) Nyl. A single specimen from Orizaba, infertile. (Smith 44). Ph. obscura endochrysea Nyl. “On oak at Jalapasco, foot of Mt. Orizaba.” Alt. 10,500 ft. A single specimen.” (Smith 90 Ph. setosa (Ach.) Nyl. A single specimen, infertile, collected on trees, Orizaba. (Smith 47). Umbilicaria. U. anthracina reticulata (Duf.) Schaer. Common on rocks at 14,000 15,500 ft. Mt. Orizaba. (Smith 81). This plant is so different from typical anthracina that it should, more properly, be regarded as a distinct species. U. hyperborea Hoffm. “Growing on rocks at lower snow line, 15,000 15,500 ft.” Mt. Orizaba. (Smith 59). U. hirsuta papyria Ach. “ Foot of Orizaba.” Alt. 15,000 ft. (Smith 60). A single specimen. U. hirsuta grisea (Sw.) Th. Fr.? Rocks. Orizaba. Alt. 15,000 ft. (Smith 82). This plant is placed here with some doubt. If it is really grisea it is certainly distinct as a species from hirsuta. U. vellea (L.) Nyl. With the preceding. (Smith 84). ticta. S. aurata aa Ach. Trunks of trees, etc. Orizaba. (Smith and Bruner 57). The specimens are in fine fruit, the apothecia being £ apk, marginal, oblique,” with a thin inflexed thalline margin. S. tomentosa (Sw.) Ach.? Orizaba. (Smith 92). Sterile and frag- mentary. ns (Michx.) Ach. Trees, etc. Orizaba, (Smith and Brunet 58). Sterile. According to Wainio (Lich. Bres. I, 189) this species should be called St. weigelii (Ach.) Wain. S. sylvatica (L.) Ach.? Rocks, etc., among moss. Orizaba. (Bruner 91 Sterile and fragmentary. 484 The American Naturalist. [May, Peltigera. Pelt. canina (L.) Hoffm. On earth among moss; Jalapasco. (Smith 64). Pelt. canina spongiosa Tuckerm. “On the ground in dense forest, lower slope of Mt. Orizaba.” Jalapasco. Altitude about 12,000 ft. (Smith 65). Well characterized by the tufted fibrils and dense spongy nap of the under surface. Pelt. rufescens (Neck.) Hoffm.? On ground among moss; Jalapas- co. (Smith 66). Sterile and fragmentary. Pannaria. Pan. rubiginosa (Thunb.) Delis. Trees. Orizaba. (Smith 24). Pan. molybdaea (Pers.) Tuckerm. Trees. Motzerongo. (Smith 25). Sterile and fragmentary. Pan. molybdaea cronia (Tuckerm) Nyl. Trees. Cordova. (Smith 26). The thallus agrees well with Tuckerman’s specimens, but the disks of the apothecia is redder and the spores are somewhat smaller. Collema C. aggregatum implicatum (Nyl.) Tuckerm. Branches of trees ; Ori- zaba. (Smith 16). C. aggregatum glaucophthalmum (Nyl.) Tuckerm. With the pre- ceding. (Smith 67). Leptogium. L. pulchellum (Ach.) Nyl. Trees, ete. Orizaba. (Smith 23). Spores larger than usual, and much like those of L. eres lum measuring 25-36 8 -12 mic. L. tremelloides impresso-punctata Tuckerm. hb. Orizaba. (Smith 19). _ Readily recognized by the impressed pits scattered over the upper surface. L. chloromelum (Sw.) Nyl. Rocks. Aguascalientes. (Smith 22). What is apparently the same thing was collected at Orizaba growing with moss on trees. L. bullatum (Ach.) Mont. Trees. Orizaba, (Smith 17). L. phyllocarpum (Pers.) Nyl. Trunks of trees. Orizaba. (Smith 20). This species is very common and is represented also by several varieties. L. phyllocarpum isidiosum Nyl. With the species. (Smith 86). 1895,] Botany. 485 L. phyllocarpum macrocarpum Nyl. With the preceding. (Smith 21 ppi one of the commonest varieties. L. inflecum Nyl. Orizaba. (Smith 18). This species seems well distinct from L. burgessii. L. inflexum isidiosulum Nyl. With the species. (Smith 93). HoMaAs A. WILLIAMS. The Simultaneous Origin of Similar (or identical) Varie- ties from Different Stock.—In the summer of 1883, there appeared in a crop of Challenger Lima Beans (a garden form of Phaseolus luna- tus in which the pods and beans are much thicker than the type), growing near Newark, N. J., a dwarf plant showing no tendency to twine or climb, but in all other respects like the Challenger Lima with its distinguishing characteristics highly developed. Eighty per cent of the seed product of this plant produced dwarf plants, the remaining twenty per cent reverting to the regular Challenger Lima type. Of the product of the eighty per cent of dwarf plants, all, or practically all were dwarf, and thus a dwarf variety of Phaseolus lunatus was established. In the summer of 1884, there appeared in a crop of large White Limas (a garden form of Phaseolus lunatus in which the pods and beans are larger and a little flatter than the type) growing near Ken- nett Square, Penna., a dwarf plant showing no tendency to climb, but in all other respects like the large White Limas. Sixty-six per cent of the seed of this plant produced dwarf plants, and in the succeeding generations practically all of the plants were dwarf, thus giving us a second dwarf variety of the species. The seed from which the Ken- nett Square crop was grown had been produced on the same farm for several generations, and there is no possibility of the two dwarf sorts tracing back to the same stock within ten generations at least. About the same time there appeared a dwarf form of the very distinct Small White Lima or Seewell, another garden variety of the species, the dwarf plant having all the characteristics of the parent variety except the rank growing twining vine. Again, the White Plume aud Golden Self Blanching varieties of Celery, are of a distinct class of so-called self blanching sorts in which the inner leaves assume in one case a white and in the other a yellow color as the plants approach maturity. There were no such varieties in cultivation until the White Plume appeared in New Jersey and the Golden Self Blanching appeared about the same time in France, There 486 The American Naturalist. [May, are many other instances of the appearance at about the same time in different locations and from distinct strains of seed, of a variation pre- viously unknown to the species, and generally each sport retains the general character of the strain from which it sprang, having only the new variation in common. I have annually, for the past ten years, carefully looked over from 1000 to 2000 acres of cucumbers, and a proportionate area of other vegetables all grown for seed, my object being to note any impurities or tendencies to variation in the stock, and again and again I have found some particular variation, often an undesirable one which I had never seen before, but of which I would find many repetitions during that and the succeeding one or two seasons, after which they would often disappear and give place to some new and equally distinct type. I have often noticed that any particular style of sport common to the season was common to all varieties of the species on which it occurred. I offer no theory in explanation and make no comments, but simply put on record my observations. Wit. W. Tracy. Some Features of the Native Vegetation of Nebraska.— The natural vegetation of Nebraska is emphatically that of the Great Plains, and thus differs much from that of the forests to the eastward, and the mountains lying westward. To say that the eastern botanist notes the absence of many familiar plants signifies nothing, since this must always be the case in comparing the flora of one region with that of another. The flora of the plains differsin many things from that of New York and New England, but the eastern man must not unduly magnify the importance to be attached to the fact that he does not find here many of the plants he knew in his boyhood days. The plains have their own plants which will eventually be as dear to the men and women who gathered them in childhood, as are the old favorites to the New Englander transplanted to the west. A study of the vegetation of Nebraska begun somewhat more than a decade ago, soon showed that it possessed some remarkably interesting features, which my owa annual botanizing trips, and the more extended explorations by the “ Botanical Seminar” have brought out in stronger light. The native plants of the State are very largely immigrants from surrounding regions. By far the greater number have come from the prairies and forests lying immediately on the east and southeast, creeping up the rivers and streams, or in case of herbaceous plants, blowing overland with a disregard for the water-courses, Thus of the 1895,] Botany, 487 one hundred and forty-one trees and shrubs which grow naturally within our borders, all but about twenty-five have migrated from the east, in nearly all cases following the streams. Of these twenty-five, about four or five may be considered strictly endemic, the remainder having come down from the mountains. In several expeditions made by members of the “ Botanical Seminar” along the Missouri River from the southeast corner of the State to the mouth of the Niobrara River, it was found that many species of trees and shrubs are confined to limited areas in Richardson and the adjoining counties, (in the ex- treme southeastern corner of the State) and that the number of species decreases with a good{deal of regularity as we ascend the river. The same general law is seen as we ascend the three great rivers, the Repub- lican, Platte and Niobrara, which cross the State from west to east. On the other hand, as we ascend the streams, we meet here and there a mountain tree or shrub }which is wandering eastward down the slope from an elevation of a mile above sea-level, in the western counties, to less than a thousand feet along the Missouri River. Thus the Buf- falo Berry, Golden Currant, Low Sumach, the Dwarf Wild Cherry, and Yellow Pine |have travelled half way or two-thirds across the plains; while the Creeping Barberry, Greasewood, Black Cottonwood, Rydberg’s Cottonwood, Mountain Maple, Mountain Mahogany, and Sage Brush barely enter the western counties, not extending eastward of the Wyoming line more than a few miles. A couple of species of Wild Roses, the Sand Cherry, and, perhaps, the Sand Plum, appear to belong strictly to the plains. . The grassy vegetation, and the other herbaceous plants present a similar commingling of eastern aud western species. Every mile which one advances to the westward brings him in contact with plants not hitherto seen, while at the'same time he leaves behind him some famil- iar species. I know of no other place on the continent where there is a finer illustration of the commingling of contiguous floras than is to - be found on the Nebraska Plains. Not a few of the herbaceous species in the southern half of the State have come up from the plains of the southwest, some, even, coming from Texas and New Mexico. Others, again, appear to have migrated from the great northern plains of the Dakotas, while here again there are endemic species, as the Buffalo Grass, Redfield’s Grass, False Buffalo Grass, and many of the more showy higher plants.—CHARLES E. Bessey. The Division of Agrostology.—A mong the things of botanical interest done by Congress, the establishment of the Divison of Agros- 488 The American Naturalist. [May, tology in the Department of Agriculture may well be ranked as of most importance. The purpose of this division is set forth as follows in the bill making the appropriation. “ Investigations and Experiments with Grasses and Forage Plants, Diwision of Agrostology: Field and laboratory investigations relating to the natural history, geographical distribution, and uses of the various grasses and forage plants, and their adaptability to special soils and climates; establishment and maintenance of experimental grass sta- tions; employment of local and special agents and assistants; col- lection of seeds, roots, and specimens for experimental cultivation and distribution ; materials, tools, apparatus, supplies, and labor required in conducting experiments ; freight and express charges and traveling expenses; the preparation of drawings and illustrations for special reports, and the preparation of illustrated circulars of information, bul- letins, and monographie works on the forage plants and grasses of North America, fifteen thousand dollars.” The liberal spirit of Secretary Morton toward scientific investigation is well shown in the wording of the section quoted, and it is a pleasure as genuine as it is rare, to be able to fully and heartily commend an action initiated wholly by a Government official. The wisdom of selecting a man who is more than, and above the mere politician for the Department of Agriculture, was never better illustrated. HARLES E. BEssry. Gray’s Field, Forest, and Garden Botany.'—Twenty-seven years ago Dr. Gray brought out the first edition of a book under this name, which has been very widely used in the public schools of the United States. even beyond the territory for which it was intended. The old book had long outlived its usefulness, and a new edition should have been made long ago, but the death of its author delayed the _revision until the present time, when from the hand of Professor Bailey we have the rewritten work. The familiar appearance of the old book is preserved, as well as the general mode of treatment, the sequence of families, ete. In the words of Professor Bailey “it is still Asa Gray’s botany, and the reviser has attempted nothing more than to bring it down to date.” That this work has been conscientiously done is shown on every page, ‘Field, Forest and Garden Botany ; a simple introduction to the common plants of the United States east of the 100th Meridian, both wild and cultivated. By Asa Gray, late Fisher Professor of Natural History in Harvard University. Revised and extended by L. H. Bailey. American Book Company, New York. 1895.] Botany. ` 489 and no man need ask for a more faithful adherence to the spirit of the older book than we find here. Yet this did not prevent the introduc- tion of some modern ideas. We all know how candid a mind Dr. Gray always possessed, and how open it was to the reception of new ideas. Accordingly we find that the relation of the Angiosperms to the Gymnosperms is properly given in the new book, and that the latter are no longer “ sandwiched” between the Dicotyledons and Monocotyle- dons. Among other improvements to be noted in this edition are, the use- ful table of contents and the four pages entitled “ nomenclature,” the “latter including valuable biographical data. The citation of the author- ity for each plant name will be useful in accustoming young students to the practice of botanists, but it isto be regretted that the old method had to be followed. This and a few cases in which an obsolescent nomenclature was followed, show the folly of the publishers in insist- ing upon too close an adherance to Dr. Gray’s views of ten or more years ago. In life Dr. Gray frequently changed his views, as became a candid man of science, and it is an injustice to his memory for the “ President and Fellows of Harvard College” to require that his books shall remain essentially unchanged. They would not dare to do so with a work on Chemistry or Physics, why should they for one on botany? When they authorize another edition of Dr. Gray’s works they would do well to follow the example of our German friends, who are bringing out a new edition of Rabenhorst’s “ Kryptogamen Flora.” Professor Bailey has taken much care in the selection of the addi- tions which he has made, and rightly he has given preference to those which are cultivated rather than the wild species. It appears from the reviser’s estimates that this edition contains 553 species more than . the former one, which represents considerably more than so many actual additions, since some species have been omitted. The new book will be very useful. CHARLES E, Bessey. 490 The American Naturalist. [May, ZOOLOGY. Web-Spinning Spiders.—The origin and evolution of web- spinning in Spiders is given hy Mr. R. L. Pocock in a recent number of Nature. His theory may be briefly outlined as follows : Granting the inheritance of silk-glands from an ancestor, the first step in the formation of web-spinning was the formation of the cocoon for the protection of the eggs. This is characteristic of all spiders. The next step would be to extend this protection about herself and the retreat in which the mother had sought refuge while watching over the incipient brood. An aperture would probably be left for ingress and egress, and so arises a rudimentary form of the tubular nest or web which may or may not become a permanent abode for the mother after the dispersal of the young. That this is the seeond step in the evolution of web-spinning seems supported by the fact that, with the exception of the cocoon, it is the most constant feature in the spinning industry of spiders. At this point there are two developments. Along one is a gradual ascent in complexity until a culmination is reached in the trap-door nest of the wolf-spiders (Lycoside) and the bird-spiders (Aviculariide) ; while the other leads to the webs which function as snares, of which the web of the Epeira probably represents the highest type. From a tunnel-weaver like the Drasside which spins a temporary retreat for its breeding season, there are gradations to the web spun by the common house spider, Tegenaria, as an adjunct to its tubular retreat, and thence to the highty specialized orb-weaving of an Epeir, by way of the Nephilengys, a tropical genus, whose net shows a scanty mesh- work of lines arranged radially and concentrically with respect to the mouth of the funnel. It would seem, according to the author, that the primary influence in guiding the evolution of the architecture of the tunnel-making species has been the necessity for the preservation of life and the avoid- ance of enemies; while the web has resulted from a struggle for food. (Nature, March, 1895.) Fishes of the Northwest.—During the summer of 1892, Mr. C. -H. Eigenmann obtained a series of collections of the fishes of western Canada and the northwestern United States. The collections were made at 25 different places and include material for a comparison of 1895.] Zoology. 491 the fish-faunas of the streams flowing into Hudson Bay and into the Gulf of Mexico on the Atlantic slope, and into Puget Sound and into the Columbia River on the Pacific slope. Mr. Eigenmann has worked out the relations that these different river faunæ bear to each other by an elaborate system of comparison, and tinds that 6 of the 65 species are found on both the east and west slope of the continent. Of 42 species found in the Winnipeg system 8 are found in the Saskatchewan, and not in the Red River of the North; 16 found in the Red River of the North were not found in the Saskatche- wan; 13 of 17 species taken in the Missouri are found in the Saskatche- wan. The species of the Saskatchewan, with the exception of the new ones, are all found in the Mississippi basin. 11 Families of the Mississippi basin have not yet been found in the Saskatchewan basin. Only one variety was found in the Fraser that was not found also in the Columbia. Sixty-five species were obtained, of which 20 per cent. were new to science. They belong to 14 families and 37 genera. The notable additions to the knowledge of the North American fish- fauna made by these explorations is shown in the following summary of the results of the author’s work. 1. A species of Pantosteus (P. columbianus=P. jordanii of the Mis- souri) discovered on the Pacific slope. 2. Noturus flavus found at the base of the Rockies at Craig, Mont. 3. Four new species of Notropis added to the East Canadian fauna. 4. Two new species of Agosia added to the Pacific fauna. 5. A new species of white-fish ( Coregonus coulterii) discovered in the Rocky Mountain streams of a restricted region in British Columbia. 6. The family of Percopside found to have a representative on the Pacific slope in the new genus Columbia. 7. Several species of Etheostoma found in Canada, among them two new species. 8. One new Cottus (C. onychus) added to the fauna of the Saskat- chewan. 9. A new Cottus (C. philonips) discovered at Field, B. C. 10. A species of Lota reported from both the Columbia and the Fraser. 11. It was discovered that the fins of the fishes of the Pacific slope vary from the fins of the fishes of the Atlantic slope in definite direc- tions. 12. The extent of variation between the species of any given family of fishes on the Pacific coast was found to be greater than that between the species of the same family on the Atlantic slope. 492 The American Naturalist. [May, 13. Richardsonius was proved to be a subgenus of Leuciscus. Its species were found to vary directly with the locality. (Art. ll, Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1894.) Queer Misfortunes of Birds.—I have noticed in a N. Y. paper, an account of a strange misfortune that happened to an English spar- row at the building of the Edison laboratory, Orange, N. J. The bird became entangled in a twine used in the construction of its nest, and met its death by hanging. This has reminded me of a similar incident that occurred to a bird last summer, near this place, Bowling Green, Ky. It was a common, or crow blackbird, and was seen hanging by the neck, from the limb of a tall tree overhanging the road. Whether in flying with a long grass or string it became entangled with it, or in what way it got caught in the noose and met its death is a matter of conjecture. A queer incident of a woodpecker has come under my notice. The bird, a hairy woodpecker, was seen on a tree trunk and though a stone was thrown towards it to see it fly, it remained in the same position. On going nearer it was found that the bill had been driven into the tree with such force that the bird could not extricate it, and had hung there, meeting a miserable death. I have heard from a friend of an interesting life history of a mock- ing bird. It was quite a young bird when purchased from a negro bird-catcher, and it was soon discovered to have sore feet. These were swollen twice the natural size, and though efforts were made to relieve this, it was only after it had lost several of its toes,—two front toes on one foot and one on the other,—that the feet were finally healed. After this it moulted, losing about all its feathers at onetime. Its eyes then became inflamed, and the eye-ball like a drop of water, finally closed and the bird became totally blind. In getting its food it would stand at one side of the cage and follow the wires till it reached the food, it would then follow the side of the cage till it reached the water. It soon learned, however, to guage distances and would fly to the perch without fail. It was a pitiable object, but strange to say, this poor maimed bird, lame and blind, developed into one of the finest of singers ! A caged mocking bird here, in moulting, has the new wing-feathers, the primaries at least, reversed ; the upper surface turned in or partially so. The owner of the bird has been advised to pull out these feathers, that they would then grow in straight. This would seen rather a severe measure. It would be interesting to know whether this is an accident only to caged birds, or if it ever occurs to birds in a state of Nature — SADIE F. Price. 1895.] Zoology. 493 The Cotton-Tail Rabbit.—The name Lepus sylvaticus proposed by Dr. Bachman in 1837, for the common gray rabbit of the United States, has hitherto been restricted to the eastern region from northern Florida to Canada. A recent investigation of the subject by Mr. Ou- tram Bangs reveals that this region is occupied by.two distinct sub- species, for the northern one of which he proposes the name Lepus sylvaticus transitionalis, thus restricting the true L. sylvaticus to the Carolinian life area. In the same paper the author in referring to the geographical distribution of the northern hare (Lepus americanus Erxl.), in the east, points out that the common cotton-tail (L. sylvaticus) is continually pushing its way farther to the north and replacing the northern hare. The latter is rare in Massachusetts, has almost wholly disappeared from many parts of New Hampshire, but is still abundant in Maine, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Mr. Bangs accounts for the spread of the cotton-tail to the north as a consequence of the de- struction of the great coniferous forests, which are replaced by a scrubby second growth of shrubs. The hare goes with the coniferous forests and the cotton-tail comes in with the second growth. (Proceeds, _ Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. XX VI, 1895.) Zoological News, Mollusca.—Mrs. M. B. Williamson reports the successful planting of Eastern oysters in the bays of Los Angeles Co., California. The oysters of Alamitos Bay are as large as those of the same age raised in the East. No star-fish or carnivorous shell fish have been detected in the oyster beds. It is possible that in stocking the beds with eastern oysters may result in planting the fry of other eastern molluscs as well, since Mya arenaria L. and Urosalpinx cinerea are now propagating in San Francisco Bay as a result of the introduc- tion of Eastern oysters in those waters. (Ann. Pub. Hist. Soc. South- ern Cal., 1894.) Crustacea.—Four new genera of crabs, represented by a number of species, are reported by Mr. J. E. Benedict from the collections made from dredgings in the North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea, by the Streamer Albatross. Several new species of Lithodes are included in the same collections. A number of young Lithodes, referred by the author to L. camtschatieus agree with Brandt's description of L. spinos- issimus, which, according to the author, was undoubtedly founded upon a young specimen. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., 1894.) Agnatha.—Mr. Howard Ayres does not agree with the commonly accepted theory that Bdellostoma dombeyi Lac. is a parastic, degenerate ~ 494 The American Naturalist. [May, vertebrate. He asserts that its sense organs represent primitive condi- tions, showing no anatomical characters that justify a conclusion that _ they are degraded from a more perfect ancestral condition. A series of experiments has demonstrated also that this vertebrate does not de- pend upon its internal ears for the equilibration of its body. (Biol. Lectures at Woods Holl, 1894.) Pisces.—In the revision of the subfamily Sebastine of the Pacific coast of America, Messrs. Eigenmann and Beeson have adopted a classification based upon the relation of the parietals to the supra- occipital as a primary character, and the constant presence or absence of certain cranial spines. Under the system 11 genera are defined, to which are referred 52 species. A valuable addition to the paper is a historical list of the species and their present equivalents. (Proceeds. ' U. S. Natl. Mus. Vol. XVII, 1894.) Reptilia.—Dr. G. Baur places Anniella in a separate family, the Anniellide, close to Anguids, and has its closest relative in Anguis it- self. In fact, the Anniellide are in the same relations to the Anguide, as are the Acontiide to the Scincide. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus. Vol. XVII, 1894.) From a study of the herpetological fauna of the islands of Palawan and Balabac Dr. Boulenger concludes that these islands should be re- garded as belonging to the same subregion as Borneo. This conclusion was reached also by Mr. A. Everett from a study of the mammals and birds of that district. (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ang., 1894.) Aves.—Mr. Robert Ridgway reports 6 more new birds in the Abbott collection from Aldabra, Assumption and Gloriosa Islands. This makes in all 14 new forms from these islands. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. X VII.) Mammalia.—An Clivedale terrier bitch belonging to a coachman in my brother’s employ gave birth to seven puppies, sired by a thorough bred Irish terrier; two of the puppies were born with the tails, just half as long as those of the other five. As for generations the ancestors have had their tails artifically modified, it seems as though this was a genuine case of natural following of artificial type. As the two puppies happen to be male and female it would be interesting to see if the type could be continued ——ALLErTon S. CUSHMAN. Fic, 1. Pic; 2. Cabbage Root Maggot: 1, Injured Cabbage Roots, 4 natural size ; 2, female fly, Magnified. After Slingerland. 1895.] Entomology. 495 ENTOMOLOGY.’ The Cabbage Root Maggot.—In Bulletin 78 from the Cornell University Experiment Station Mr. M. U. Slingerland has brought to- gether the most elaborate account yet published of Phorbia brassice Bonché. This insect has long been known as one of the most destruc- tive garden pests. It was introduced into “this country from Europe ‘early in the present century, perhaps first appearing in Massachusetts, from whence it gradually spread north, west, and south into the neigh- boring States. In about 25 years it had reached Maine on the north, Maryland on the south, and Michigan on the west. In 20 years more it had entered Colorado, reached the Pacific Ocean, and passed through South Carolina into Alabama. In a little more than half a century it had thus spread over the greater portion of the United States and Canada. Doubtless it is now present in injurious numbers in every State where its food-plants are grown to any extent. “ Whenever the pest obtains a foot-hold, it usually appears in alarm- ing numbers year after year if its food-plants continue to be grown in the neighborhood. In England it has been very destructive almost every year since 1880. Inthe United States, the gardeners in this State (especially in the neighborhood of New York City, over the line in New Jersey and throughout Long Island) and in Michigan have. suffered severely from the pest almost every year, as the records show, for the past 25 years. Many market gardeners on Long Island have abandoned the growing of early cabbages, cauliflowers, and radishes on account of this formidable pest. In 1887, Peter Henderson said: ‘tens of thousands of acres the past season have been, of both cauliflower and cabbage, utterly ruined by maggots.’ In Canada the pest has been especially injurious in 1885, 1887, 1890, 1892, and 1893; in 1892 it was considere] the most destructive insect of the year.” Concerning the food-plants of the insect, Mr. Slingerland says “ that it has been recorded in Europe on the cabbage (including the cauliflower, borecoles, etc.), the radish (Raphanus sativus and radiola), the turnip (Brassica rapa), the ruta baga and swedes (Brassica cam- pestris), and on stocks (Mathiola) ; the reported feeding on clover roots and manure needs further confirmation. In this country the Cabbage Root Maggot feeds upon most of the above plants and on at least two common Mustard-like weeds, the Common Winter Cress (Barbarea 1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H. 496 The American Naturalist. [May, vulgaris), and the Hedge Mustard (Sisymbrium officinale); the maggots infesting onions, beans, and raspberry canes are different insects, dis- tinct from each other and from the Cabbage Root Maggot.” The presence of the pest, where it occurs in considerable numbers, is indicated by a checking of the growth of the plant, a tendency to wilt badly under a hot sun, and a sickly bluish cast to the foliage. .The - way in which the roots are injured is shown in the upper figure of the accompanying plate. Mr. Slingerland discusses the life history of this and allied species, and treats of the methods of preventing its injuries at considerable length, concluding with an elaborate bibliography and synonymy. The bulletin is illustrated by eighteen excellent figures two of which we are permitted to reproduce herewith. Ohio Dragonflies.—Prof. D. S. Kellicott publishes a valuable Catalogue of the Odonata of Ohio’, in which 68 species are recorded for the Central and Northern parts of theState. He thinks the num- ber of species found compares favorably with other Mississippi Valley regions of similar latitude. While lakes, ponds and morasses which are favorable homes for the nymphs of the Odonata are not numerous, many and copious streams traverse the State, and the great Ohio, the Beautiful River, on the south, and Lake Erie on the north, with its numerous estuaries and sheltered areas of reed-grown waters, compen- sate for the unfavorable conditions of the State at large. Whether or not the number of species is decreasing as a consequence of the pro- found changes due to more complete occupation of the country by civilized man, it is impossible to know. In all probability, the drain- ing of swamps and ponds, the resulting disappearance, in Summer, of former perennial streams, and the contamination of others, will, sooner or later, produce a material reduction. “ The common names of the adults are often as striking as the forms themselves. In the central and southern sections they are almost uni- versally known as ‘snake-feeders;’ in the north and northwest, as ‘spindles; in the northeast they are often ‘ devil’s darning-needles.’ Still, any one of these, and others, may be heard in any section. Among the less common designations may be mentioned the follow- ing: ‘horse stingers,’ ‘ mosquito hawks,’ and ‘ dragonflies.” The last, used more or less everywhere, is, by far, the most desirable. It ex- presses so aptly and happily the characteristics of these veritable dragons of the air. No insects y ? Journal Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., Jan., 1895. ¥ 1895.] Entomology. 497 than the Dragonflies; hence, none appeal more strongly to the imagina- tion. Their graceful forms, brilliant colors, and arrow-like flight at once arrest attention and hold the interest ; it is, therefore, not supris- ing that they have received so many and such poetic names. It has been said that “some of these names testify to the wide-spread, but quite unfounded, belief in the harmfulness of these creatures to man.” The writer recalls at least one grown person who truly believed they were harmful. This was a school teacher, who impressed upon him, and others of her charge, that the devil’s darning-needles about the ‘old swimmin’ hole’ were dangerous, and that they were quite deter- mined to sew up the ears of truants who sought the limpid waters and grass-covered banks of the millrace, rather than the hard and strict ways of the prosy school-room. This is the one ‘fact’ of Natural History he remembers to have been taught him in the ‘district’ school.” A Unique Journal.—The Entomological Society of the University of California has recently begun the publication of The Entomologists Daily Post Card, especially devoted to the insects of California and adjacent states. It contains synopses, bibliographical references and many useful notes. The subscription price is $2.00 a year, which may be sent to C. W. Woodworth, Berkeley, California. Loss by Fire.—We regret to learn from Prof. C. H. Tyler Town- send, now stationed at Brownsville, Texas, that he recently lost by the burning of a warehouse at Las Cruces, New Mexico, his valuable ento- mological library which was especiallly rich in Dipterology. Mr. Townsend would be glad to receive separates of papers from entomo- logists, who we are sure will willingly help to replace his library. Male Reproductive Organs of Beetles.—Dr. K. Escherich describes’ the genital system in the males of Carabus, Blaps, and Hy- drophilus. The Carabidæ illustrate the simplest state; a simple blind tube on each side produces spermatozoa, stores the elements and secretes mucus; each tube opens into a somewhat stronger duct, and the two ducts unite in a common ejaculatory canal. The terminal por- tion in this case is lined. with chitin, and is, therefore, ectodermic, not the result of the confluence of the mesodermic vasa deferentia. The region corresponding to testes, vasa deferentia, and seminal vesicle are 3 Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. LVII, 620-41. 498 The American Naturalist. [May, mesodermic and Escherich calls them “primary organs.” Starting from such a simple case as Carabus the author shows how the endless variety of complications may be reduced to some order, as illustrations of progressive specialization.—Journal Royal Microscopical Society. Lamp Chimneys for Breeding Cages.—Now that the insect season is opening it will be opportune to give some attention to the methods of rearing larve. The common lamp chimney makes an excellent cage for this purpose and one which commends itself by its cheapness as well as by its con- venience. If the larva is to be reared on a small potted plant, the lamp chimney is placed over it and is pressed down into the earth in the pot. The top may be closed by tying over it a pieceof muslin. A watch glass just large enough to lie within the top makes a very neat method. Lantern globes, which may be used in the same way may be closed by inverting tumblers over them. Potted plants are not always available when the insects must be fed on leaves or stems. These may be kept fresh by putting the stems in water. A cork just fitting the bottom of the chimney is bored so as to hold a homeopathic vial for the water produces a suitable adaptation of this form of cage.—Entomologists Daily Post Card. The Name of the Southern or Splenic Cattle-Fever Par- asite.—The generic name given by Drs. Smith and Kilborne, having been previously used in Zoology, must be dropped. I propose the name Piroplasma to replace it. PIROPLASMA BIGEMINUM (S. & K.) Syn. Pyrosoma bigeminum Smith and Kilborne, Repts. Bn. An. Ind. ’91-’92 (1893), p. 212, plts. IV-IX.—W m. Hampron Parron, Hart- ford, Conn. 1895.] Embryology. 499 EMBRYOLOGY. Ascaris Eggs and Temperature.—Dr. Luigi Sala’ has applied the experimental method to the study of that classical object, the egg of Ascaris megalocephala. He exposed the eggs to a low temperature from 0° to 8° C. for an hour or more and then allowed them to de- velop under normal conditions of temperatnre, 25 to 30° C. In such eggs most noteworthy changes are found in the processes of maturation and fertilization. The changes that cold brings forth con- cern the penetration of the sperm, the structure of the protoplasm of the egg, the formation of the egg membrane, the arrangement of the chromatic substance and of the achromatic substance, the formation of the polar bodies, the formation of the pronuclei and of the first cleavage nucleus. These results of cold are illustrated by eighty-nine carefully executed figures and cannot readily be described in words, except in most gen- eral terms. The effect upon the egg that may be mentioned under the first cate- gory, the penetration of the sperm, are in some cases the prevention of any entrance, but in most cases the entrance of several or even as many as 12 sperms. That the protoplasm itself is changed is indicated by the fact that its staining reactions are different after the action of cold; while cer- tain changes in optical appearance are also brought about by the same agent. The membrane about the egg is quite noticably different in the cooled eggs; it may be formed but slowly and imperfectly and when formed be changed so remarkably as to fuse with the membranes of other eggs, at least so the author interprets certain monstrous com- pounds of several eggs enclosed in a common membrane. The spindels and their sharply marked groups of chromosomes ap- pear in the cooled eggs in quite different guises. The chromatic mate- rial may remain in long threads with irregular thickness instead of as- suming the characteristic two groups of four sharply circumscribed rods, The number of the chromatic elements is also changed in these abnormal eggs. The achromatic filaments of the spindles assume the most peculiar arrangements in double strands or sheafs, or in crossing 1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts, reviews and preliminary notes may be sent. ? Archiv. f. Mik. Anat., Feb. 1895. 500 The American Naturalist. [May, X-shaped bands, or in multipolar spindles. In some, the appearances point to an active migration of the chromosomes inducing a stretching or dragging of the achromatic filaments. Many remarkable perturbations appear in the formation of the polar bodies. Contrary to the rule, in Ascaris the first polar body may divide after its extrusion. The polar bodies may be exceedingly large, appearing like blastomeres, and contain more than their share of chro- mosomes. In one case the polar body had taken all of the eight chro- mosomes, leaving the egg with the sperm only. The pronuclei are increased in number when the chromosomes that should enter the polar body remain behind in the egg, since they are modified into small nuclei. In the first cleavage spindle the number of chromatic elements may be greater than normally results from the fusion of one male and one female pronucleus. It is thus evident that very abnormal processes may take place in the eggs of Ascaris when exposed to low temperatures. In attributing so much to the action of cold it must not be forgotten that many such abnormalities have been found in eggs that had never been exposed to such temperatures; it is difficult to say just what are the limits of the “ normal” processes occurring under the average condi- tions. Isolated Blastomeres in Ascidians.—Hans Driesch? has ap- plied his experimental methods to the eggs of the Ascidian Phallusia mammilata and found here, as in the echinoderm, that an isolated blastomere may form a complete individual. When the eggs are shaken in water for only twenty-five seconds some of the blastomeres are so changed that they die and remain as inert masses inside the egg membrane, while the other blastomeres continue to develop. In this way a complete larva may be formed within the egg membrane and adjacent to the dead blastomeres. Such larvæ arise from one of the first two cleavage cells and are about half the normal size. Otherwise they are like the normal larvæ in being perfect and complete individuals, except that the sense or- gans and adhesive organs may be in part deficient, as is the case in larve reared from whole eggs when exposed to adverse circumstances: The larvee are not at all half individuals but whole individuals. In the cleavage of these separate blastomeres there is never any ar- rangement of cells to represent half the normal state: the cells form a "Arehiv. Entwicklungsmechanik. March 8, 1895. 1895.] Embryology. 501 solid aggregate and do not appear as open or half blastulæ: nor is there any peculiarity about the gastrula stage except its small size. One of the first few cells forms an irregular solid mass by cleavage ; one of the first four and also three of the first four cells when left alive also form a compact mass that does not represent a half, a quarter or a three-quarter individual, but a whole one. There is thus no semi-morula. The chorda dorsalis is like that of a complete egg larva and not a half structure. The author thus adds the ascidian to the echinus, frog, fish, medusze and siphonophores as cases in which an isolated blastomere has been found to produce, not a partial, but a complete individual. It will be remembered that Roux, in the frog, and Chabry,* in the ascidian; as well as Chun, in the ctenophores, find cases where an iso- lated blastomere does not make a complete individual but wai a half or a partial one. The results obtained by Chabry are in Driesch’s opinion the same as those he himself has just obtained, though otherwise interpreted by Chabry, Barfurth and Roux. Considering the differences in the methods employed by Chabry and Driesch we can scarcely expect a very close agreement in the results. Chabry carefully thrust a fine needle into one cell and left the other little disturbed. Driesch violently shook both cells so that one did not continue to live and the other, its equal, must have been much changed in its relation to the first cell as well as internally altered by the mechanical jar. Frogs’ Eggs in Salt Solution.—Professor Oscar Hertwig’ has applied the method first used by T. H. Morgan in the study of the frog’s egg to a more detailed examination of the abnormal results fol- lowing when the eggs are kept in water containing common salt. He finds that when eggs of Rana esculenta or R. fusca are put into water containing from 1 per cent to 5 per cent sodium chloride they develop abnormally ; in the stronger solution they are soon killed, in the weaker not for several days. Larve that develop in a 6 per cent solution of salt are abnormal only in the remarkable failure of the blastopore to close, as already noted by Morgan, and in the failure of the medullary folds to close over in the middle region of the brain. * American Naturalis., July, 1892. 5 Archiv. f. Mik. Anat. 16 Feb., 1895. 502 The American Naturalist. [May, The action of weak salt solution is thus apparent as a partial inhib- ition of the normal developmental processes. A considerable part of the paper is taken up with a consideration of the differences of view between Weismann and Hertwig, and the ap- plication of these new facts to the epigenetic conception of develop- ment. Stimuli in Embryology.—Curt Herbst’ reviews all the various forms of movements that are called forth in the lower animals and in plants by the action of heat, light, chemical bodies, etc., and known com- monly as thermotaxis, phototaxis, chemotaxis, etc., and then advances a plea for regarding such responses to stimuli as important factors in the development of the individual. Physiological stimuli are thus to be regarded as important factors in the processes of animal ontogeny. Just as a plant or animal cell may move to or away from the source of light, heat or chemical action and just as a plant may bend toward or away from such agents or respond to gravity or to moisture, so, Herbst thinks, may cells and organs in the embryo move or change form in response to various stimuli. He would thus explain many well known facts; the migration of nuclei to the surface of an insect egg may be the result of positive ærotaxis, that is, the response of the nuclei to stimuli coming from the more abundant oxygen near the surface of the egg. The movements of vitellophags likewise may be the results of definite stimuli. n later stages the remarkable collecting of mesenchyma cells to in- vest nerve processes, etc., that is, the formation of the sheath of Swan and the neurilemma as well as the coats of blood vessels may again be due to migrations under the directive influence of stimuli. Even the outgrowth of nerve fibres to the end organs (generally regarded as actually taking place) may not be along the lines of least resistance but controlled by directive stimuli. All this, it will be observed, is an outgrowth of the observations upon lithium salts and echinoderm larve noticed in this journal for December, ê Biologische Centralblatt, Nov., 1894. 1895.] Psychology. 503 PSYCHOLOGY. Psychical Research.—Mr. Podmore has recently brought out a book in the Contemporary Science Series which seems to have a double object. In the first place, Mr. Podmore is himself fully con- vinced of the reality of “ thought-transference ” or “ telepathy,” as an, as yet, unrecognized agent in communication between mind and mind, and in this little book he marshals the experimental and spontaneous evidence for the hypothesis in an attractive and convincing manner. In the second place, Mr. Podmore thoroughly disapproves of the ani- mistic and the spiritistic tendencies noticeable in much of current “psychical research” and is anxious to show that telepathy is suffi- cient to account fur the phenomena upon which spiritism and animism depend. If this thesis can be made good it will certainly go far to ac- credit the cause of psychical research in the eyes of contemporary science. The telepathic conception as outlined by Mr. Podmore is suf- ficiently in line with current scientific conceptions to gain admission to their number, if sufficient experimental evidence is forthcoming to warrant it. It would be, perhaps, more exactly described as a species of “ thought-induction,” rather than as “ thought-transference,” and it does not seem hard, so far as a priori considerations are concerned, to conceive that the transformations of energy which, taking place in a given brain, are manifested as consciousness may, under conditions at present undetermined, induce in the brain of some other person similar transformations, accompanied by a similar mental state. The adoption of such a conception would not materially affect our general system of thinking in psychology or in other branches of natural science. But when we turn to animism or spiritism, the case is quite different. No amount of evidence will avail to persuade the average man of scientific training that the human consciousness can be separated from its mate- rial body and go to and fro upon the earth, becoming cognizant of things at a distance in space from its body and even of past and future events, and occasionally manifesting itself to other human beings as an “astral” form. And the notion that after death the personal con- sciousness still exists and can sometimes manifest itself to the living, is viewed with scarcely less disfavor. “ Evidence” bearing upon such phenomena is usually thrown out of court without consideration. 1 This department is edited by Dr. Wm. Romaine Newbold, University of Penn- sylvania. 504 The American Naturalist. [May, Mr. Podmore has been an active member of the English “ Society for Psychical Research,” since its founding ; he was a personal friend of the late Mr. Edmund Gurney and is probably as much entitled to regard as an expert in the matters of which he speaks as any man living. Moreover, his cautious temper and shrewd common sense make him peculiarly well fitted to deal with questions in which the judgment of most persons is biased by either prejudice or superstition. The first five chapters of the book deal with the experimental evi- dence, which Mr. Podmore thinks strong enough to establish the ex- istence of some unknown method of communication. Then he turns to the spontaneous evidence, treating of such phenomena as coincident dreams, veridical hallucination, both individual and collective, cases of reciprocal telepathy, and of clairvoyance in the normal state and in trance. Much of the material adduced in these latter chapters cannot, I think, be fairly regarded as evidence for telepathy, or at least not for the type of inductive telepathy which the experimental evidence would lead us to infer. Much of it can be brought under any telepathic con- ception only by violent assumptions, and I cannot but feel that Mr. Podmore alleges it, not so much in proof of telepathy as in disproof of animism and spiritism, theories which these phenomena seem prima facie, to favor. In his last chapter, entitled “ Theories and Conclusions,” Mr. Pod- more indulges in some interesting speculations. ‘‘This close connec- tion,” he says, “ of the activity of thought-transference with the sub- liminal consciousness, the consciousness which appears in hypnosis, and occasionally in dream-life and in spontaneous trance and autom- atism, may perhaps offer a clue to the origin of the faculty. For the future place of telepathy in the history of the race concerns us even more nearly than the mode of its operation; and we are led, therefore, to ask whether the faculty as we know it is but the germ of a more splendid capacity, or the last vestige of a power grown stunted through disuse. By those who view the matter simply as atopic of natural history, the latter alternative will be preferred. The possible utility of telepathy as a supplement to gesture, etc., at a time when speech and writing were not yet evolved, is too obvious for comment. Whilst, on the other hand, such a faculty can with difficulty be conceived as originating by any physical process of evolution in our modern civilization. But more direct evidence of the place of telepathy in our development is not wanting. For there are indications that the consciousness which lies below the threshhold, with which the activity of telepathy is constantly 1895.] Psychology. 505 associated, may be regarded as representing an earlier stage in the consciousness of the individual, and even, it may be, an earlier stage in the history of the race. The readiest means of summoning into activ- ity this subterranean consciousness is in the hypnotic trance. Now, the consciousness displayed by the hypnotized subject includes, as a rule, the whole of the normal consciousness, and also extends beyond it. That is, the hypnotized subject is aware, not only of what goes on in the trance, but also of his normal life: when awakened, the events of the trance have passed from his memory and are not revived until the next period of trance. Our work-a-day consciousness would ap- pear to be, in fact, a selection from a much larger field of potential consciousness. Or, to put it in another way, the pressure on the narrow limits of our working consciousness is so great that ideas and sensa- tions are continually being crowded out and forced down below the threshhold. The subliminal consciousness thus becomes the receptacle of lapsed memories and sensations; and up to a certain point in the history of each individual these lapsed ideas can be temporarily re- vived. Long forgotten memories of childhood, for instance, can be resuscitated in the hypnotic trance, and ideas which have demonstra- bly never penetrated into consciousness at all can be brought to light by crystal vision, planchette-writing and other automatic processes. “ Again, one of the most marked characteristics of the subliminal consciousness, whether in dream, hypnosis, spontaneous trance, or in crystal vision and other automatism, is its power of visualization—a power which, as Mr. Galton has shown, and our daily experience proves, tends to become aborted in later life. And beyond these indi- cations of memories lost and imagery crowded out in the lifetime of the individual, we come across traces of faculties which have long ceased to obey the guidance or minister to the needs of civilized man—the psychological lumber of many generations ago. Such, at least, it may be suggested, is a possible interpretation of the control frequently ex- ercised by the hypnotic over the processes of digestion and circulation and the functions of the organic life generally. And the more doubt- ful observations, which seem to indicate the posséssion, by the sub-con- scious life, of a sense of the passage of time and of a muscular sense superior to that of the waking state, may be held to point in the same direction. “ From such facts and such analogies as these it may be argued that telepathy is, perchance, the relic of a once serviceable faculty which eked out the primitive language of gesture, and held to bind our an- cestors of the cave or the tree in, as yet, inarticulate community. Dr. 34 506 The American Naturalist. [May, Jules Héricourt, indeed, goes further, and suggests that we find here traces of the primeval unspecialized sensitiveness which preceded the development of a nervous system—a heritage shared with the amoeba and the sea-anemone. “On the other hand, it may be urged that our present knowledge, either of telepathy itself, or of the subconscious activities with which it is sought to link it, cannot by any means be held sufficient to sup- port such an inference as to the probable origin of the faculty, and, further, that the absence of mundane analogies and the difficulties at- tending any such explanation yet suggested, forbid us to assume that the facts are capable of expression in physical terms. “Tt is further urged that whilst the dependence of telepathy on any material conditions is not obvious, it is constantly associated, not only in popular belief, but in testimony from trustworthy sources, with phe- nomena which seem to point to supernormal faculties, such as clair- voyance, retrocognition, and prevision, themselves hardly susceptible of a physical explanation. This view has found its ablest exponent in Mr. F. W. H. Myers, and although Mr. Myers would himself readily admit that the evidence for these alleged supernormal faculties is not on a par with the evidence for telepathy, yet he maintains that such as it is it cannot be summarily dismissed. No doubt, if it should ap- pear with fuller knowledge that there are sufficient grounds for believ- ing in faculties which give to man knowledge, not derivable from liv- ing minds, of the distant, the far past and the future, it would be more reasonable to regard telepathy as a member of the group of such super- normal faculties, operating in ways wholly apart from the familiar sense activities, and not amenable like these, to terrestrial laws. Such considerations may, at any rate, be held to justify a suspension of judg- ment,” and Mr. Podmore concludes with an earnest appeal for more careful experimental work. I have given this passage in extenso, both on account of its interest from the point of view of biology and also on account of the clear statement which it makes of the “stratum ” theory which is now ac- cepted asa working hypothesis by many English psychologists, espe- cially those interested in “ psychical research.” The theory is not without its advantages in explaining the phenomena of hypnosis and automatism, but it is not readily reconciled with our physiological knowledge. Moreover, it involves certain assumptions as to the con- tinued independent existence of subconscious mental states which is wholly unjustified by the evidence. The analogous theory of “ co-ordi- nation ” or “ organization,’ propounded by Pierre Janet, seems to me $ 1895.] Archeology and Ethnology. 507 more consonant with the facts and with prevalent psycho-physiological conceptions. Neither theory, however, has as yet been much used by professional psychologists, just as the immense mass of phenomena which the theories would account for, is left unnoticed in most of our psychological text-books. There can be little doubt that when these phenomena are seriously studied by professional psychologists we shall find that the conceptions upon which the science is now based are in need of extensive modification. “ Mind ” will no longer be a simple, indivisible substance upon which the brain acts and which in turn acts upon the brain, but will be regarded as an exceedingly complex dyna- mic system, every part of which is what it is only by virtue of the then constituition of all other parts—a system capable of partial or total disintegration and of pathological integration. It is only by recourse to some such conception as this that we can hope to explain these hitherto unknown phenomena, and bring the laws of mind in line with the laws of its material basis, the brain—W. R. NEWBOLD. ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.’ Notes on Yucatan.—The expedition sent out in January, by the University of Pennsylvania, had, for its object, the discovery of culture- layers in the caverns of Yucatan. It was thought that proof of man’s antiquity in this part of Central America ought to be established by the discovery of refuse beds on the floors of conspicuous, easily-acces- sible caves, and a group of these shelters, situated ina mountain range, midway between many of the ruined cities, were chosen for explora- tion, as probably containing evidences of every race that ever visited the Peninsula. When these cave floors were cut down to bed rock, and when the surface stratum of Maya occupation was sliced through, the work was expected to decide whether other earlier epoch-made refuse beds were to be encountered before the trenches reached rock bottom? This was the main question of the expedition, and the investigation which has, in a great degree, settled it, remains to be described in the report pre- sently to be published by the University of Pennsylvania. The thanks of the University are due Mr. John W. Corwith, of Chicago, for placing his time and means at their disposal in the under- 1This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania. 508 The American Naturalist. [May, taking. No less should acknowledgement be made to Dr. S. Weir Mitchell for advice and assistance in the outfit. Important coopera- tive aid has been furnished by Dr. William Pepper, President of the Association, by Dr. D. G. Brinton and Professor E. D. Cope ; while the expedition owes its choice of the Sierra de Yucatan to the geographical help given it by Professor Angelo Heilprin, of the Academy of Nat- ural Sciences of Philadelphia. Certain notes, taken upon the journey, and not bearing directly upon the results of the work, may interest students. They recall an interesting conversation at Ticul, in February, with Herr Maler, the archeologist, who, coming to Mexico with the French expedition, has remained in Yucatan as a student of its antiquities, ever since. Nothing, next to the stone work of the ruins themselves, so strikes the explorer in the peninsula as the remarkable predominance of pot- tery over all other relics of human handiwork. Herr Maler believes that much of the craft of the old earthenware might be relearned and recovered by a study of the work of the present Indian potters. Some of the pots were, he supposed, baked over the constricted calabash, now used as a water bottle, but on none were noticed traces of the pot- ter's wheel. Pottery is found everywhere, but no hunting grounds have proved so rich as the Chultun, artificial, clock-shaped cisterns, built by the ancient Mayas, for catching rain-water. He who is stag- gered at the task of searching for sites of habitation in the stony, thorny, insect-haunted jungles, saves labor by climbing down into these round holes, so often seen in the woods and near mounds, now dry in- side. When not repaired for modern use, their plastered floors gener- ally contain two or more feet of rubbish, whence come many of the perfect vases, cups and jars which leave Yucatan. Chief among these is the wide-necked water jar, miniature models of which are some- times found in the debris; the latter being probably playthings drop- ped by children into the cistern, and there lost beyond easy recovery in the deep water. But the ruins themselves, by all means the most conspicuous relics of the past in Yucatan, visited and studied, perhaps, to exclusion of almost everything else, suggest a puzzling question which yet defies answer: How were the stones cut which surprise us by the richness of their ornament? Were the tools used random masses of similar ma- terial—chips of the old block, lavishly used to cut the parent stone? Were they the pitted hammer-stones of Mr. MeGuire’s theory, or chisels made of a harder rock? Were they implements of copper? What- éver any or all of them were, none of them have been discovered in 1895,] Archeology and Ethnology. 509 such a position as to prove their use. Yet, so immense is the amount of the Mayastone work, that the wonder increases as we think of it, and we fancy that the kind of tool we search for, battered and cast away, or well-worn on its cutting-edge, should be scattered about the ruins thicker than potsherds. The only reasonable explanation why not one single such tool has ever been found, is Herr Maler’s—that the coun- try is too much overgrown with thicket, too much obscured by un- cultivatible stone heaps to make it easy to find anything. Stone quarries near certain of the ruins where the native limestone had evidently been blocked out for building had been noticed by Herr Maler, and, though a modern quarryman rarely loses tools at the quarry, it is fair to suppose that a careful and prolonged search among the chips at these places might disclose one or two specimens, at least, broken or whole, of the cutting tool sought for. If the implements used were stone, the chance of finding a fragment, at least, is increased, since breakage would have disqualified many specimens for the work. While much stone chipping was undoubtedly done at the ruins, during _ building, and while there are probably stone-cutters’ work-shops undis- covered close by the crumbling walls of Uxmal or Labna, it seems that an overhauling of these isolated quarries in the woods would easiest settle the vexed question. Herr Maler had found no traces of earlier peoples in Yucatan, such as in Asia and Europe meet the explorer at ever turn. If a more ancient race of builders had preceded the Mayas, then the latter would have used again previously cut stones in their houses. But they did not; all the evidence showing that they originally dressed their build- ing-stone from native rock. That the builders of the ruins lived chiefly on maize, beans, roots, melons and fruit he had little doubt. Flesh they rarely ate, and had no domestic animals except the dog. Of these he believed that there had been several indigenous kinds—one hairless, much used for food by the early Spanish explorers, existing still in Mexico, but now extinct in Yucatan. Another breed he supposed was hump-backed as is indicated by hump-backed figures of dogs, carved on the sixteenth century facade of Governor Montillo’s house in Merida. The explorer has not yet found much to astonish him in the graves of the ancient Mayas. Herr Maler says they lie thick near most mounds, rudely outlined with small rectangles of stone rather than indicated by earth heaps, so there is no way of discovering them when these little rows of stone become scattered, as is now generally the case, save at undisturbed spots in the remote wilds. Under them, skeletons, much decomposed, lie about three feet deep, sometimes in 510 The American Naturalist. [May, boxes of undressed slabs, after the manner of the stone graves of Tennessee, but oftenerin the open earth. If valuable trinkets of jade- ite or nephrite and vases painted with hieroglyphs are not to be found in these tombs, we should hardly know where to look for them. But Herr Maler says that few graves reward search. Of hieroglyphs on vases he had seen several specimens, and showed me one such incised inscription at his house. The mounds do not repay the explorer as they seem to promise. Instead of containing some tomb altar or enclosed chamber at their very centre, digging proves many of them to be heaps of loose boulders piled up for the purpose of erecting vaulted chambers on their sides and top. These ill-constructed structures have generally crumbled piecemeal into a loose talus that now forms the sides of the mounds, and the tumuli have become round, bramble-covered rubbish heaps, haunted by scorpions and garapatas. As a rule, with few excep- tions, there are no graves inside the typical mound, which contains three tiers or steps of the buildings in question, each with its plastered terrace. In the debris of the old floors of these rooms, many interesting fragments of pottery, sometimes showing religious symbolism, some- times imitating the forms of birds, monkeys and jaguars, have been found. Of monkeys, Herr Maler believes that there are two or three species in Yucatan. One small earthen monkey head, which he showed me, was truer to nature and less grotesque than other miniature human busts in his collection. Of these latter, one hideous face had been pre- sented to him by a Maya sorcerer at Bolon Chen, as a charm of great value. Obsidian flakes and flint knives, such as he showed me, were _ rare, since the modern Indians who found them, soon broke or lost them. The flint, of a creamy-white color, he had often found in the native state in swamps. Several earthen cloth stamps showed interest- ing curved designs, and two earthen whistles blew loud enough to have pleased a boatswain. Strange to say, he had but one arrowhead, but showed me several polished celts, probably of syenite or jadite, from _Chichen-Itza, Cozumel, and other places. They were somewhat worn on the cutting edges, but, in my opinion, could not have been used to carve limestone. Much light might be thrown on the history of the old inhabitants of Yucatan by a study of the modern Mayas, but Herr Maler supposed that the demonic beliefs and practices of the mystic brotherhood, known to students as Naguales, had faded away among the docile people of eastern Yucatan. The word Nagua, a familiar spirit in animal forms, is not used amongst them ; nevertheless, I suspect that i interesting results 1895.] Microscopy. 511 would reward the investigator of this subject who first mastered the language and then gained the confidence of these people. —H. C. MERCER. The Potters’ Wheel in Yucatan.— While in charge of the Cor- with Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania in Yucatan last month (March, 1895), and while studying the process of pottery making by modern Maya Indians at Merida, I saw a female potter reproduce the chief conditions of the potters’ wheel by turning a wooden disc set on a board with her toes. The clay rested on the disc and received the impress of her tools and fingers while revolving. Though the disc was called, in Maya, Kabal, it may be doubted whether it is an inheritance by these Indians from their pre-Columbian ancestors and not derived from Spain ; in other words, whether its present use demonstrates the ex- istence, till now undiscovered, of the potters’ wheel in ancient America. Doylestown, April 13, 1895. —H. C. Mercer. MICROSCOPY.’ Cytotropism of Cleavage Cells.’—The principle of the method employed by Roux is very simple; but the experiments require to be carried out with care, in order to exclude as far as possible sources ot error. a The eggs of Rana fusca, obtained from newly captured animals at the beginning of the normal period of spawning, furnished the best material for observation. Eggs obtained from animals kept separate and thus prevented from spawning at the normal time, proved to be quite unsatisfacto The phenomena of cytotropism are seen most readily between cells separated from the egg in the morula or blastula stage. The separa- tion is effected by cutting or tearing the egg in an indifferent fluid, such as the white of a hen’s egg, or a } per cent salt solution. One requires for such experiments a small quantity (5-10 cem.) of freshly prepared white of egg each day. This is prepared by filtering, in an uncut state, through a wad of cotton. The preparation must be perfectly clear. The egg, in the morula or blastula stage, is first stripped of its gelat- tinous envelope, and placed on a circular glass plate, about 3 cm. in 1 Edited by C. - Plaga University of Chicago. Contributions should be addressed to the edi ? Wilhelm Roux, Ach. f. Entw’mech. d. Organismen, I, 1, pp- 44-48. 512 The American Naturalist. [May, diameter ; then covered with about 5 drops of the prepared white of egg, and torn open with two dissecting needles; or, after puncturing with one needle, cut with a small curved pair of scissors. The out- flowing parts of the egg are then cautiously reduced in size by a few movements of the needles. The circular plate is then placed in a round glass dish (4-5 cm. in diameter) with a rim 1 cm. high, contain- ing 10-15 drops of water—just enough to fill the space between the edge of the object-plate and the rim of the dish, but not enough to come in contact with the white. The purpose of the dish and the water is to check the evaporation of the medium in which the egg lies, and thus to guard as far as possible against concentration of the medium and currents in the same. The dish offers the advantage that one, on interrupting the observa- tion, can cover it and so protect the preparation against evaporation. Thus protected, cells may be kept alive in a suitable medium for one or two days. ! The preparation should be immediately examined while in the dish with a low objective (e. g. Zeiss A). It is important that the table of the microscope and the object-plate bearing the preparation should be per- fectly level. The examination of isolated cells in an uncovered medium has the advantage that one can easily change the position of the cells with needles or other means. But it is indispensable for checking results to examine also preparations covered with a cover-slip. The cover-slip for this purpose must be large enough, so that at least two of the wax feet (} mm. high) supporting it may fall on dry points of the object- plate, where they will firmly adhere and not allow the cover to slide. A still more complete protection against currents in the medium may be had by having a moist chamber ground into the object-plate and covered with a large cover-slip. The bottom of the chamber must be flat and horizontal. After separating the cells of an egg, one searches at first with a low power (Zeiss A) to find two cells separated from each other by a distance equal to, or less than, the radius of the smaller cell, and from all other cells by a distance not less than about double the diameter of the cells. No yolk substance should lie between or beneath the cells, Such a pair of cells having been found, higher objectives (Zeiss C or D) may be turned upon them and the cell so adjusted under the ocular micrometer that the line connecting their centres will fall length- wise of the micrometer. In this position, one can easily see whether the cells move towards, or away from, each other. 1895,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 513 PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. The U. S. National Academy of Sciences met in Washing- ton, D. C., Tuesday, April 16th, 1895, and continued in session until Friday the 20th, inclusive. The following papers were read: “On Some Variations in the Genus Eucope,” A. Agassiz and W. McM. Woodworth ; “ Notes on the Florida Reef,” A. Agassiz; “ The Progress of the Publications on the Expedition of 1891 of the U. S. Fish Com- mission Steamer ‘Albatross,’ Lieut.. Commander Z. L. Tanner, command- ing? A. Agassiz ; “On Soil Bacteria,” M. P. Ravenel (introduced by J. S. Billings); “A Linkage Showing the Laws of the Refraction of Light,” A. M. Mayer; “ On the Color Relations of Atoms, Ions and Molecules,” M. Carey Lea; “ Mechanical Interpretation of the Vari- ations of Latitude,” R. S. Woodward (introduced by S. C. Chandler) ; “ On a New Determination of the Nutation-Constant, and Some Allied Topics,” S. C. Chandler; “On the Secular Motion of a Free Magnetic Needle,” L. A. Bauer (introduced by C. Abbe); ‘‘ On the Composition of Expired Air, and Its Effect Upon Animal Life,” J. S. Billings ; “Systematic Catalogue of European Fishes,” Th. Gill; The Extinct Cetacea of North America,” E. D. Cope; On the Application of a Per- centage Method in the Study of the Distribution of Oceanic Fishes: ” (A) “ Definition of Eleven Faunas and Two Sub-faunas of Deep Sea Fishes,” (B) “ The Relationships and Origin of the Carribeo-Mexican and Mediterranean Sub-faunas,” G. Brown Goode; “On the Two Isomeric Chlorides of Ortho-sulpho-benzoic Acid,” Ira Remsen; “ On Some Compounds Containing Two Halogen Atoms in Combination with Nitrogen,” Ira Remsen ; “ Presentation of the Watson Medal to Mr. Seth C. Chandler, for his Researches on the Variation of Latitudes, on Variable Stars, and for his other works in Astronomy” ; “ Biographi- cal Memoir of Dr. Lewis M. Rutherford,” B. A. Gould; “ Relation of Jupiter’s Orbit to the Mean Plane of Four Hundred and One Minor Planet Orbits,” H. A. Newton; “ Orbit of Miss Mitchell’s Comet, 1847, VI,” H. A. Newton. ; The following officers were elected : President, Walcott Gibbs; Home Secretary, Asaph Hall; Foreign Secretary, Alexander Agassiz ; Coun- cil, G. J. Brush, G. L. Goodale, S. Newcomb, B. A. Gould, Ira Rem- sen, O. C. Marsh. The following were elected members: C. O. Whitman, Chicago; W. L. Elkin, New Haven ; C. S. Sargent, Jamaica Plain, Mass.; W. E. Welch, Baltimore, Md. 5l4 The American Naturalist. [May, Boston Society of Natural History.—March 20th.—The fol- lowing paper was read : Miss Grace E. Cooley, “ The Reserve Cellulose of the Endosperm of Seeds of the Liliaceae.” April 3d.—The following paper was read: Prof. Harold C. Ernst, “The Antitoxine of Diphtheria.” —SA MUEL HeEnsuHaw, Secretary. The Biological Society of Washington.—March 9th.—The following communications were made: Dr. C. W. Stiles, “ A Double- pored Cestode with Occasional Single Pores;” Mr. Theo. Holm, “Oedema of Violet Leaves ;” Dr. Geo. M. Sternberg, “ Explanation of Acquired Immunity.” March 23d.—The following communications were made: Mr. Chas. T. Simpson, “ On the Respective Values of the Shell and Soft Parts in Naiad Classification ;” Mr. F.V. Coville, “ Remarks on the List of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta Growing Without Cultivation in. ‘ Northeastern North America ;” Dr. C. W. Stiles, “ Two Cases of Adult Cestodesin Sus scrofa ;” Prof. Joseph F. James, “ Remarks on Dæmon- elix and Allied Fossils.” —Freperic A. Lucas, Secretary. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. The province of Ontario is to have a great reservation for the pre- servation of its native animals and plants. The Algonquin Natural Park will comprise about a million acres of forest land. No hunting, trapping or destruction of animal life will be permitted within its pre- cincts, Dr. G. M. Dawson has been appointed to succeed Dr; A. R. C. Sel- wyn as Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. An Austrian Expedition, under the direction of M. Julius von Payer, has been organized for Polar research. The present plan is to start for the eastern shore of Greenland in June, 1896. A course of Popular Science Lectures, given under the auspices of the Ethical Society of St. Louis in the Grand Opera House of that city during the past winter, includes the following subjects: About Birds, or Life in the Air, Mr. Frank M. Chapman; The Native Races of North America, Mr. Frederick Starr; Explorations and Experiences in the Arctic Regions, Prof. Angelo Heilprin; About Fishes, or Life under the Sea, Prof. E. D. Cope. 1895.] Scientific News. 515 The literature of games, a subject which has come prominently before the public since the remarkable exhibit of the games of all countries shown by Stewart Culin, in the Anthropological Building at the Columbian Exhibition at Chicago, will shortly receive a noteworthy addition in a work on “ Korean Games,” by Mr. Culin and Mr, Frank = Hamilton Cushing, of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington. The special field of Korea has been selected for illustration from the re- markable survivals that are found there. Mr. Edward B. Tylor bases his argument as to the Asiatic origin of Aztec culture largely upon the similarity of the Mexican game of Patolli with the Hindoo game of Pachsi. The resemblances which he noted will be shown to practically extend over all culture, and a theory of the origin of games formulated as the result of a searching examination of the games of all people. The book will be published by subscription as an edition de luxe, with twenty-two full-page colored plates from brilliant pictures by a skillful Korean artist, and with native sketches in black and white, of corre- sponding games of China and Japan. Natural Science will be published hereafter by Messrs. Rait & Hen- derson Co., No. 22 St. Andrew St., Holborn Circus, London, England. Professor James Dwight Dana, the eminent geologist, who for fifty years was a professor at Yale University, died at 10.30 P. M., April 14, 1895, of heart failure, aged 82 years. Professor Dana had been ill for about eight weeks, but had, how- ever, been able to be about on the streets attending to his usual routine. On Friday after being out for a walk he returned to his home slightly indisposed. The family physician, Dr. J. P. C. Foster, was summoned, but after making an examination said that the Professor’s illness was nothing serious. ‘Shortly after 10 o’clock that night (April 14th), how- ever, there was a change in Professor Dana’s condition and, becoming alarmed, the members of the household sent for the physician. Dr. Foster went immediately, but when he arrived at Professor Dana’s residence he was dead. Although well advanced in years Professor Dana was very active. He was a familiar figure about the streets of New Haven, as his daily routine was commenced with a visit to the post office for his mail. When he resigned his position as professor of geology and mineral- ogy, the action was forced by his family because of the decline of his health. He had previously been asked by his friends in the Univer- sity to give his work up, but he declined, preferring to continue. He was succeeded by Professor Henry S. Williams, of Cornell. 516 The American Naturalist. [May, James Dwight Dana was born Utica, N, Y., February 13, 1813, and was graduated at Yale in 1833. He was appointed instructor of math- ematics in the United States Navy, in which capacity he visited many remote parts of the world. In 1836 he returned to Yale as assistant in chemistry to Profossor Benjamin Silliman. In 1838 he went with the United States exploring expedition to the Pacific, under the com- mand of Captain Charles Wilkes. His reports on the Crustacea col- lected by the expedition, and on the geology of the regions visited are standard authorities on these subjects throughout the world. He did much important local work in Massachusetts and Connecticut. He was a defender of the doctrines of the permanency of continental nu- clei, and of the glacier theory of the glacial phenomena of the Plisto- cene system. . In 1850 he became associate editor of the “ American Journal of Science and Arts.” The Geological Society of London in 1872 con- ferred upon him the Wollaston medal. Professor Dana’s works in book form include “System of Mineral- ogy,” 1837; “ Manual of Mineralogy,” 1848; “Coral Reefs and Islands,” 1853 ; “ Manual of Geology,” 1863 ; “ Text Book of Geology,” 1864 ; “ Corals and Coral Islands,” 1853; and ‘‘ The Geological Story, Briefly Told,” 1875. A joint meeting of members of the University of Pennsylvania, the American Philosophical Society, and the Academy of Natural Sciences, was held in the hall of the Academy of Natural Sciences on the even- ing of Wednesday, April 10, in memory of the late Professor John A. Ryder. General Isaac J. Wistar presided, and Philip P. Calvert acted as secretary. Addresses were made by Dr. Harrison Allen on “Dr. Ryder’s Relation to the Academy of Natural Sciences;” Dr. Bashford Dean, of Columbia College, on “ Dr. Ryder’s Work in the U.S. Fish Commission ;” Dr. Horace Jayne on “ Dr. Ryder and the School of Biology;” Professor E. D. Cope on “The Evolutionary Doctrine of Dr. Ryder;” H. F. Moore on “ Dr. Ryder as a Teacher,” and Dr. W. P. Wilson on “ Dr. Ryder as a Collegian.” The speakers all bore testimony to Prof. Ryder’s merits as an investigator and as a teacher, and to his amiability and honesty as a man. Charles D. Wolcott, of the United States Geological Survey, has had conferred upon him the Bigsby medal of the Royal Geological So- ciety of England. ADVERTISEMENTS. i Just ISSUED D. G. ELLIOT’S MONOGRAPH of the PITTIDAE OR FAMILY of ANT-THRUSHES. Second edition revised and enlarged, 51 Coloured Plates, with Descrip- 5 parts, imperial folio boards, tive Letter-press. igs I5. O, New York and London, 1893-95. A List of D. G. 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Exchanges made with other Natural History Magazines or Transactions of Scientific Societies. 1295 tt ADVERTISEMENTS. Contents of THE MONIST for January, 1895. VOL, 5., No. 2. ey ee Death (A Posthumous Essay.) George J. Romanes; To Be Alive. What is . Edward Montgomery; Ought the United States Senate be Reformed? y; The Adv ICS. he Natural Storage of Energy. Lester F. Ward; Mind, No Storage of Ener ergy. Editor; De Rerum Natura. Editor; Foden Correspondence ; Criticism and Dis- cussions; Book Reviews. Yearly, $2.00. Single Copies, 50 Cents. The Philosophical Portrait Series—Issued Quarterly—Will be sent free on application. ACCORDING TO OLD RECORDS, The Gospel of Buddha, “Fei i» pauc carus With Table of References and Parallels, Glossa ary, and complete Index. Elegantly Bound; Gilt $1.50. Price, AN ogy ce ich iad ate 0 te See By GEORGE Macu, Professor of Physics in the University of , LL. D., F.R.S., Honora ary A Translated from the Second German Fellow of , Cam bridg tion by R OTT J. 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BAY -W atarvilfe, Maine EWS, Baltimore, . W.H. HOBBS, Madison, Wis M. ROMAINE NEWBOLD, Hiatt Vol. XXIX. JUNE, 1895. No. 342 CONTENTS. PAGE, PAGE. Is DAEMONELIx A Burrow? (Illustrated.) Petrography.—The Eruptive Rocks of . the Erwin Hinckley Barbour: 517 | Christiana Region—The Massive Rocks of Arran ON eee’ PROTANDRIC AND PROTEROGYNIC —Migration of Crystals from a Younger to an HERMAPHRODITISM IN ANIMA Older Rock—News - 567 nas H. E E Jr. 528 Geology. and Paleontology -Niagara an am the SPONGES: RECENT AND past ees ) . | Great aleozoic Insects — Fhe Phylogeny seph F. James. 536 |-of the Whalebone w araea Two New Species of THE MOUTH-PARTS OF THE rare, (Hlus- Dinictis from the White River Beds, (Illustrated) trated. Vernon L. Kellogg. 546 | Geological News. . 570 RECENT Liter atone Cambridge Natural Botany. thant of the Pikica Sirtiy of é History—Marshall’s Biological Lectures and -Nebraska—Pharmaceutical Botany. . 580 Addresses—Butterfly Hunters in the Carib- Vegetable Phipiologit —What becomes of the bees—L’ Amateur de des Papillons— Mono- Flagella ?—Perithecial Stage of the Apple-Scab graphic Revision of the Pocket Gophers— Fungus—Poisonous Cactaceae—Rothert on Helio- A Monograph of the Bats of North America, 557 | tropism — Austro-German Views on Botanical RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. . . . . 560 | Nomenclature—Separation of Enzymes. . 583 GENERAL Notes. Kage k ~ ens S cape? -Life History s Mient y.—Origin of the “ PEENE ECN he- Lobster— as in the Swim- ro af Mailis —Biowpips he “Pa Deep-Sea Fist A New Locality for Abastor erythrogrammus—The C Cold- bata. Warehouse © of Phosphorus in Studying Minerals of High Cat-—A New Harvest Mouse 1 Flori = 587 Refractive Index—Chaleocite from-Monte Catini ` Embryology. ate Amphibis—The Embryo —Diopside and Apatite from Zoptau—Serpierite of the Duckbi - 590 —Lautite—Study of Optical Anomalies by Artifi- Astron -- s he. Antiquity o of von in North . cially EPE TE Method of Illuminating in Am —Paleolithic Man . 593. Photo omicro idee RE pepe ical Behavior — mni OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 600 of > Dimorphous Minerals—Pearl s poe | SCIENTIFIC NEWS. oo poo as ae BOE PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. ‘THE EDWARDS & DOCKER CO., 518 ano 520 MINOR STREET. For Sale (“items vivens in 28 volumes to 1894. Volumes 1 to 14 S36 (1880) bound, volumes 15 to 28 (1881 to 1894) in parts, unbound. The Edwards & Docker Co., 518 Minor St., Philadelphia. Keigyosha Natural History Store Supplies Museums and Private Purchasers with Zoological, Botanical, Paleontological and Mineralogical Specimens, native to Japan and surrounding seas, on lowest possible terms. We employ only scientifically trained collectors under the guidance of specialists, and especially recommend the services of Messrs: M. Kikuchi and Y. Nawa on our staff. The former, until lately assistant in the Science College, is familiar with the best modern methods of morphological work, and the latter, a well known entomologist, is an expert in his branch as his beautiful exhibits in the late Chicago Fair well attest. For application and information, communicate to M. KIKUCHI, Keigyosha, Urajimboché, Kanda, Tokyo, Japan. For Sale — Vols. 18, 19, 20 and 21 of The 5x% American Naturalist, in parts, in perfect order. H. F. WEGENER, REDLANDS, CALIFORNIA. PLATE XXIV. Fic. 1. Fic, 2. Fic. -1.—A typical Daemonelix without axis (The balance of this specimen is still in the rocks at Eagle Crag, Sioux Co., Nebr.). From a photograph of the specimen in the Morrill Collection, State Museum, University of Nebraska. (See Fig. 2.) Fic. 2.—Diagrammatiec figure of Daemonelix, giving measurements (See Fig. 1.) Height 2.3 meters THE AMERICAN NATURALIST . Vor. XXIX. June, 1895. 342 IS DAEMONELIX A BURROW?! A REPLY TO Dr. THEODOR Fucus. By Erwin HINCKLEY BARBOUR. Dr. Theodor Fuchs, criticises at considerable length the nature of Daemonelix as described by the author, in the Uni- versity Studies, of the University of Nebraska, Vol. I, No. 4, July, 1892, under the title, ‘ Notes on a New Order of Gigantic Fossils.’ When the criticism first appeared it seemed so fraught with errors that they were counted its own best rebuttal, and no at- tempt to frame a reply was thought of. However, the author has several times of late been reminded that these errors might pass muster and become fixed in the minds of those, at least, who place too implicit reliance in authority. Therefore in all justice to himself and to those who have been entirely mis- guided and misinformed the author thinks it better, perhaps, to correct certain errors and inaccuracies. After carefully describing the burrows of the supposed Miocene gopher, citing as important proof the rodent found inside of one specimen of Daemonelix, and after quoting Ges- ner on the ‘ Habit of the Pouched Rat’ Geomys pineti, of Georgia, he writes: 1 In Annalen k. k. Naturhistorichen Hofmuseums, Wein, 1893, Pages 91 to 94. 35 518 The American Naturalist. [June, “T think we have before us all the essential elements of Daemonelix, and that accordingly we are justified in viewing these strange fossils as nothing else in reality than the under- ground homes of Miocene rodents, apparently of the family Geomyide.? Thereby it is very easy to explain why these spirals are found invariably in upright positions; why they are never prostrate, bent or broken. Also why, in spite of their massive size, no organic substance is present. But further the nature of the deposit in which these strange bodies occur sheds unexpected light. “According to the representations and drawings of the author, these Daemonelix are in the Miocene deposits of the Bad Lands, and are not confined to one stratum but they occur in the entire mass of these layers, and one very frequently sees sides of the hills more than one hundred feet high, from bottom to top, studded with the screws, but especially with the root- stalk which projects everywhere on the sides of the hills. “ Under such circumstances these Miocene deposits can not possibly be those of an inland sea, but we must regard them as essentially continental formations for the most part of sub- äerial origin ; the same as our Loess, as the pampas formation, and many similar ones. “The assertion of the author, that the rock in which Daan nelix occurs is a very homogeneous fine sandstone, agrees very well with the above conception”? he same conception of Daemonelix could have been found in the American Naturalist for June, 1893 as proposed by Dr. E. D. Cope. 3 Ich glaube, dass wir heir alle wesentlichen Elemente eines Daimonelix vor uns haben, und dass wir demnach berechtigt sind, in diesen sonderbaren Fossilien wirklich nichts Anderes als die unterirdischen Wohnungen miociiner Nagethiere, warscheinlich aus der Verwandtschaft von Geomys zu sehen Hiedurch erklirt sich ganz einfach, warum man diese Saanbao käpa ausna- hmslos in verticaler aufrechter Stellung findet, warum sie niemals umgefallen, umgebogen oder zerbrochen erscheinen, ebenso auch warum trotz ihres maemneey Aber auch auf die Natur der Ablagerungen, in welchen se sonderbaren Körper auftreten, wird hierdurch ein unerwartetes Licht gewo Nach der Darstellung und den Zeichnungen des Verfassers sind diese hlas nelix in den Miocänbildungen der Bad Lands durchaus nicht auf eine bestimmte Schicht beschränkt, sondern sie kommen durch die. ganze Masse dieser Ablager- 1895.] Is Daemonelix a Burrow ? 519 The foregoing argument when summed up reads about as follows: Daemonelix is a burrow (false premise); burrows can not exist in water; therefore the Miocene of the Bad Lands are wind deposits (false conclusion). No valid argument can be based on the assumption of the point to be established and proved. A premise, as the name signifies, is something antecedently established or proved, therefore the argument is based on the false premise that Daemonelix is a burrow, which is not an established fact, but is the fact which he is to establish. If the premise is false, so is the conclusion, and we find it re- markably exemplified in this case. The startling and extra- ordinary conclusion is, that the well-known region of the Miocene Bad Lands is a wind deposit, and not a water deposit, as it is known the world over to be. Itisargument in a circle. It is not logical nor are the deductions geological. It is a pure assumption that Daemonelix is a burrow, but so easily is the mind led from pure assumptions to the conviction of their truth, that we find the author under consideration unhesita- tingly pronouncing the well-known Miocene Bad Lands an aérial deposit, and denying that it is aqueous. That such a mistake could ever have been made is to be explained away on the ground of undue haste. No naturalist could deliber- ately pronounce our Miocene Bad Lands anything but water deposits. Those famous Miocene beds are not wind deposits. They are not Loess. They are exactly what he says they are not, —water deposits. The Bad Lands are among the best known ung vor, und man sieht sehr häufig Wände von mehreren 100 Fuss Höhe von un- ten bis oben von den Schrauben, noch mehr aber von an “ Wurzelstécken ” er- füllt, welche überall an den Wänden hervorragen. Unter solchen Verhältnissen können aber diese nai umöglich Ablagerungen eines Binnensees sein, sondern wir müssen sie der Hauptsache nach für continentale Bildungen ansehen welche, wahrscheinlich grossentheils subeeris- chen Ursprungs in ähnliche Weise gebildet werden wie unser Löss, wie die Pampasformation und viele andere ähnliche Bildungen. Die Angabe des Verfassers, dass das Gestein, in welchem die Daimonelix vor- kommen, ein äusserst P, feiner Sandstein ist, stimmt mit dieser aman- sung sehr gut überein 520 The American Naturalist. [June, and most celebrated formations in the world, and are recog- nized as stratified aqueous deposits by every geologist. Unless the foregoing syllogism is right and all geologists: wrong, then Dr. Fuchs’ gopher is left to burrow and build its nest of dry hay in one or two hundred fathoms of Miocene water. The White River tertiary is an extensive deposit covering parts of Nebraska, Dakota and Wyoming. The depth of the deposit was originally, and still is, nearly 1,000 feet in thick-. ness, and the time required for its deposition is estimated at 25,000 to 30,000 years. It is so plainly stratified that in- experienced students, members of my geological excursions to. these regions, could make out thestrata and follow them with certainty at sight. They could recognize the Titanotherium beds, lower, middle, and upper, and follow them about as they would follow the lower, middle and upper boards of an ordinary fence. So with the Oreodon beds, Metamynodon. sandrock, Protoceras and others. All is stratification there,. and that too so strikingly and conspicuously that no one can overlook or mistake it. The Loess, or Bluff Deposits, at the- best are but obscurely stratified. They occur in southern Nebraska, Iowa, northern Kansas, and Missouri, 200 or 300: miles south of the region under discussion. No wind could ever have formed the perfectly stratified and. minutely laminated deposits of the Bad Land region. It can be formed by the assorting power of water and by that only. It is, of course, true that modern winds are functional in pro- ducing certain local surface configurations, but primarily the. deposit was aqueous throughout. He says—“ It is not clear what the author writes concerning: the structure of the body of Daemonelix. According to him the same seems to be filled with fine tubes, which wind about. each other and give the body a spongy structure, a circum- stance which the author advances, and seizes upon as impor- tant proof of the organic structure of the bodies. “Tt is difficult to discuss the subject without having seen the specimen. Typical Loess is also filled with fine tubes which 1395.] Is Daemoneliz a Burrow ? 521 intertwining give it a tufaceous or sponge-like structure, yet it is in itself no organism.” The author is entirely cognisant of the fact that Loess is penetrated by tubes—but they are vertical rather than inter- twining and ramifying,—whereby are produced lines of weak- mess in vertical planes. The result being manifest in the sides of cafions and bluffs which are as upright as walls. This it is that gives our bluff deposits their character. Of course, ordinary meteoric water, charged more or less with carbon dioxide, percolates readily through the porous Loess, where it finds superabundance of lime salts to be dissolved out. It finds easy passage through these tubes, and as evaporation goes on and the carbon dioxide is liberated, lime carbonate is deposited as a white lining to these tubes. In the color, and in that alone, is there any similarity be- tween the vertical tubes in Daemonelix and those of the Loess, although we are led to the inference that they are the same. In chemical composition the two are totally unlike. The tubes of the Loess are entirely inorganic; those of the Daemo- nelix are entirely organic, as every section shows. There re- mains then not so much as a semblence of an analogy between the tubes of the Loess and those of the Daemonelix. In reply to the description of the characteristic and very in- tricately tangled tubules on the surface of Daemonelix (Figured in Pl. III of the paper criticized) he asks, “Could not this tube structure originate from the dry grass of which the gopher built his nest?” It seems to me there are two very patent reasons why this can not be. In the first place the so-called hay is not confined to the region of the sup- posed nest, but covers every portion of the entire "fossil. The burrow then in which the gopher presumably dwelt was literally tamped with fine hay from bottom totop. Where then did the gopher and his prolific family dwell ? In the second place, if it were hay, the microscope would easily recognize it. But to the contrary the microscope shows it is not hay, because there are no fibro-vascular bundles, which grass would of necessity show; nor is there a trace of the siliceous epidermal layer which would certainly be 522 The American Naturalist. [June, preserved in grasses.. Nor is the arrangement of cells that of hay, but it is instead that of soft parenchymatous tissue of sea- weeds or rootlets. As for the size and general appearance, I may explain here that these tubules are not unlike a tangle of root- lets in a flower pot. In a semi-arid region, such as this, plants are variously modified to withstand drought. Some send down roots to unusual depths, and it often happens that wells are entirely filled with great masses of fibrous rootlets especially of the cotton- wood. If we can conceive of the burrow being thus occupied - it would agree much better with its general structure than hay. It would repre- sent it still more closely if we conceive of a burrow, row, possibly abandoned, . and subsequently lined by Fig. 3.—A typical Daemonelix with axis. a felt of some imaginary From a photograpk of a specimen in the 3 ‘ ‘ ‘Morrill Collection, State M University fucoid. However, in view of Nebraska. For measurements see Fig. 5. of all the facts, the foregoing seems untenable, and the author, although conceiving of the idea long ago, cannot believe this to be merely a vegetable lining toaburrow. Microscopic sections suggest the sea-weed, the structure being very simple. It is cellular but never vascular. It seems to me then that any attempt to show that these tubules are possibly hay, must miscarry. “Tf the spiral is a filled up burrow so is the axis also, and one must admit that apparently the animal, after it had dug 1895.] -Is Daemoneliz a Burrow ? 523 the spiral burrow, in order to shorten the exit, dug yet another straight one.” “Possibly the animal used both burrows alternately, the ‘comfortable winding one when it returned home with booty laden pouches; the shorter straight passage when it emerged light and unloaded.” 3 gat Per E . Seat ig. 4. diagrammatic figure showing the difficult, if not the mechanical impossibil- ity of building a burrow in sand. The “Spiral Burrow” is colored black ; the “Straight B ’ is left white. The sand is represented by stippl- “The author’s observation agrees very well with this that each Dae- monélix which has no central axis, but consists simply of a free spiral, has, as a rule, no transverse piece. One must certainly consider these as incomplete structures in which the side canal, with its nest and the central canal, are not yet fin- ished.” It seems to me that the visionary argument in the foregoing crumbles as would such a burrow before it is half done. See Fig. 4. Conceive of a hollow rotunda in sand encircled by a spiral stairs and you have thought out a physical and mechan- ical impossibility. Grant that the sand was coherent enough to hold together till the burrow was done Can it be presumed for a moment that it could withstand the wear and tear of gophers climbing straight up this hollow passage? Yet the fossils show not a notched, scratched or rounded angle. Ifthe Miocene gopher had burrowed in half lithified sandrock as coherent as that in which these fossils now occur, it could not resist the destruction which must result from gophers scurrying up and down its walls. But no specimen furnishes the slightest evidence of such wear. 524 The American Naturalist. [June, But there are other facts militating against this burrow theory, among which the following may be mentioned. The tangled tubules which so plainly characterize the entire surface of Daemonelix often appear diffused in great irregular masses, and in broad sheets, in certain places throughout the sand rock in Daemonelix beds. In the case of those which occur in thin sheets in cracks and fissures it is impossible that any animal ever burrowed there. Some of this plant structure then is unquestionably disconnected entirely from any burrow. What is true then of part of this organic structure may possibly be true of the whole. It is very common indeed to notice offshoots from these corkscrews either running as supports from one coil up to the next (See Fig. 1) or running out irregularly into the surround- ing matrix. These vary from thesize of one millimeter to one or more centimeters and have been traced to a length of half a meter to a full meter or more. | Now it is perfectly apparent that no gopher could possibly have constructed these narrow tubes. Granting that he con- structed the spiral tube how are we to account for these numerous offshoots which could not have been pon aa bya gopher. If this is in truth the work of a gopher then it must Hoad as a lasting monument to the genius of that creature which laid the lines of his complex abode with such invariable precision ‘and constancy. If it were that of any of the lower forms the surprise would be less. The difficulty alone of digging a spiral with a constant and invariable pitch seems entirely beyond the instincts of higher animals such as these quick and reasoning creatures. But be- sides the constancy and accuracy of pitch of the helix comes another element of great complexity, the helix tapers from top to bottom with such nicety that this animated instrument of precision would have to be sensitive to differences, not exceed- ing one millimeter for every 90°, in its course around the axis of the spiral. Is such precision to be expected of animals endowed with reason ? 1895.] Is Daemoneliz a Burrow? 525 Without attempting to describe or discuss this point further the author has submitted certain figures which he believes will carry out the idea embodied in the foregoing much more tersely and emphatically than he could by verbal descriptions (See Figs. 2 and 5). cm. E TA E 11 ----- 11 f3- - 05- -=-= 12--------- 6 OR eee $e pe- Fig. 5.—Di ic figure of Daemonelix, giving measurements. (See Fig. 3.) agrammat Height 1.32 meters. I believe that such precision could emanate only from the’ blind instinct of plants and lower animals unguided by reason. In both papers (University Studies, Vol. I, No. 4, July, 1892, and Vol. II, No. 1, July, 1894) the author took pains to explain that he had found the skeleton of a rodent of exactly suitable size within the root-stalk at the base of a spiral. . But in the next sentence he urged the recognition of the fact that at the same time one of his party, Mr. F. C. Kenyon, found the bones of'a mammal as large as a deer, and altogether too large to have burrowed, yet it was likewise enclosed. ' The cork-screw 526 The American Naturalist. [June, spread out and conformed to the shape and size of the bones exactly as though it had been some growth which encased them. It was accordingly suggested that possibly the small rodent had been enclosed likewise. Touching this point Dr. Fuchs writes “ In my examination I am further strengthened by finding on closer reading that the author had, at one time, found the complete skeleton of a rodent within a so-called root-stalk at its anterior extremity. The author finds it entirely inexplicable how a rodent could occur within a root-stalk and undertakes to decide the case by declaring that the rodent was submerged and that the plant had settled down and completely grown around its skeleton. I believe, however, that the author had at hand the builder of Daemonelix.” Possibly this may be so. Certainly the author conceived of the idea months before it was published that there was such a fossil in existence. But in all justice, Dr. Fuchs should have mentioned the larger skeleton also. The smaller skeleton was enclosed within Daemonelix, so was the larger. Whatever is. proof in case of one ought to hold with the other, or at the least ought to have some weight. But this much is certain that no 100 centimeter Artiodac- tyle Ungulate can burrow in a 20 centimeter hole. That is to say the mere fact of finding bones thus encased is not in itself unconditional proof of a burrow. Some may raise the objection that possibly the bones of this large Artiodactyle were deposited in the sand long before the gopher dug his burrow, and that it is merely an accident that the gopher’s hole passed through, or in the vicinity of, the skeleton deposited there. Granting that this is so, then we have to face this condition ; the gopher in digging his burrow, dug straight through this large skeleton, through vertebre and limb-bones alike, and yet they are not disarticulated. The joints, to the metatarsals, are in place and the zygapophy- ses of the vertebra are locked in their original position. Now can any one conceive of the possibility of a gopher digging a 20 centimeter hole straight through such a skeleton yet leaving it entirely articulate. Atthe least it is improbable, 1895.] Is Daemonelix a Burrow ? 527 and as I believe is impossible. However, if it is a possible case then it brings us to another condition; sedimentation must have gone on indefinitely long, the bones of the large animal were buried and covered by unknown feet of superim- posed sediments, then the ancient lake was drained, erosion went on for an indefinite period cutting the surface into its present hills and valleys. _ All this brings us then from Miocene to recent DA for it wasin recent time, according to this, that the gopher must have dug his burrow through the bones of this old-time Artio- dactyle. But it must be borne in mind in this connection that all these burrows are fossilized at the present time, and that the sand in which they occur is sandrock at the present time and must have been sandrock before the gopher dwelt there. Can we believe that a gopher could excavate a burrow in rock too hard, often, even for our-chisels and picks? Or has there been time for the fossilization of its burrow and bones on this supposition ? With the specimen in hand, grown over as it is with an or- ganic network of tubules, the author can not believe that it can be accounted for in any other way than that already proposed ; viz., that some organism quietly grew around these bones, conforming to their very shape and knitting them all together. -. In still another case we found a small united radius and ulna in the matrix, on top of, and outside of, the root-stalk, just as if it had been deposited there as sedimentation went on One would naturally look for such bones within, not without the burrow; and on the bottom, not on the top. The author would not be misunderstood in this reply. He does not deny the possibility of this being an old-time burrow, for such it may yet prove to be despite his fondest hopes and his avowed convictions to the contrary, and despite the very plant structure itself. But he does attempt to deny that the Bad Lands are Loess of æolian origin; that the tubes in Daemonelix are Loess tubes; that the tubules and plant cells are those of hay; and that any gopher, Miocene or modern, could possibly construct in fine sand a straight bur- row inside a spiral burrow which could stand. University of Nebraska, Dec. Ist, 1894. 528 The American Naturalist. [June, ON SUCCESSIVE, PROTANDRIC AND PROTEROGYNIC HERMAPHRODITISM IN ANIMALS. By Tuos. H. Montcomery, JR., Pu. D. The term Successive Hermaphroditism has been introduced (Claparède, 9) to designate the kind of Hermaphroditism pre- sent in those animal forms, where the male and female gonads (germ glands) are in the adult separated from each other, and where the sexual products (sperma, ova) of the one sex develop earlier than those of the other. In all known cases of this _ form of Hermaphroditism, with perhaps the single exception of Microstoma lineare (Rywosch, 39, 40), the male products develop first. Successive Hermaphroditism is prevalent in the Plathelmin- thes (with the exception of the Nemerteans) and especially in the group of the TuroeRaria. In the Cestodes it has been observed in Sol hal (Rodoz, 38)and by Zsch- hokke (48) in Cestodes phish present a large number of proglot- tids. Ercolani (15) has proved this phase of Hermaphrodit- ism among certain Distomids. In the Turbellaria it occurs in probably all the Acoela (Graff, 16). Among Rhabdocoelida in Convoluta (Claparède, 9), in Macrostoma hystrix and Promeostoma ovoideum (Graff, 16),in Graffilla muricicola (Ihering,18, Bohmig, 5) and in G. brauni (Smidt, 42), in Prorhynchus (von Kennel, 19, Moore, 32a). According to Du Plessis (13) it occurs in Plagiostoma lemani, though the accuracy of this observation has been doubted by Graff (l. c.) As mentioned above, in Microstoma lineare according to Rywosch (39, 40) the female organs develop before the male organs. Hallez (17) has observed this phase of Hermaphroditism in a number of the Tricladidea, and Loman (29) in Bipalium. It is the rule in the Polycladidea (Lang, 24). Finally, Successive Hermaphroditism has been noted among the Mollusca in Entoconcha (Müller, 33), and in the Anatinacea (Babor, 2). In the case of Protandric Hermaphroditism the male and female gonads are united together into a single herma- 1895.] Hermaphroditism in Animals. 529 phrodite gland (ovotestis), but the male elements are developed earlier than the female. Protandric and Successive Hermaphroditism are, however, not to be very sharply distin- guished from one another. For example, in the Molluscs, where both these phases occur, we find all intermediate stages between (1) forms having a simple ovotestis, in which the male elements develop first (e. g. Ostrea); (2) forms, where in certain acini of a protandric ovotestis only male, in other acini only female elements are produced (e. g. Lobiger) ; and lastly (8) in forms where there are two or four separate genital glands, the male elements developing first (e. g. Entoconcha and the Ana- tinacea). According, though it is not proved that in all cases Successive Hermaphroditism has been evolved out of Pro- tandric Hermaphroditism, this has very probably been the case in certain animals, as Entoconcha and the Anatinacea, which shows that these two phases of Hermaphroditism are closely connected with each other. Protandric Hermaphroditism has been demonstrated in re- presentatives of a large number of groups. Among sponges in Aplysilla violacea (Lendenfeld, 26) and Amorphina coalita (Topsent, 44); I wish here to express my thanks to my former ' teacher, Prof. F. E. Schulze of Berlin, for calling my attention to these two references. Among Nematodes in Allantonema mirabile (Leuckart, 28), and Filaria rigida (zur Strassen, 43). Among Nemertinea in Tetrastemma kefersteint (Marion, 30), and observed further by me (32) in Stichostemma eilhardi. Accord- ing to Korschelt’s (21) observations it is present in the poly- chete Genus Ophryotrocha. Wheeler’s (46) account of the development of the gonads of Myzostoma would show that in this form Protandric Hermaphroditism exists, though Beard’s (3, 4) studies on the contrary would explain the state of affairs on the “ complemental male” theory. Among Isopod Crus- tacea in three genera of the Cymothoidz,-Nerocila, Cymothoa, Anilocra (Mayer, 31). Among Echinoderms we find it in Asterina gibbosa and Amphiura squamata (Lang, 25). But especially in the Mollusca is Protandry of frequent occurrence. So it occurs in the Solenogastra (Wiren, 47, Koren, and Daniels- sen, 20). In the pulmonate Gasteropoda in Lymnæus (Eisig, 14), 530 The American Naturalist. [June, Agriolimaz agrestis L. and A. melanocephalus Kal. (Babor, 1, 2). In the Opisthobranch Gasteropoda in Cymbulia (Leuckart, 27), Cymbuliopsis (Peck, 35); Desmopterus papilio (Chun, 8); Lobig- er, Clio striata, Clione, Eolis and Elysia (Pelseneer, 36, 37). Among the Lamellibranchiata in Ostrea (Davaine, 12, confirmed by Van Beneden, 45). Finally, among the Vertebrates in Myxine (Cunningham, 11, Nansen, 34), and in Chrysophrys (Brock, 6). Proterogynic Hermaphroditism is the term applied to the case of those animals, where the male and female gonads are not morphologically separate from each other, and where in the single ovotestis the female genital products are developed before the male products. It is much more restricted than the two other phases of Hermaphroditism under discussion, thus far having been observed only in pulmonate Gastropoda,— Limaz maximus L., Malacolimaz tenellus Nils. (Babor, 1, 2), Agrio- limax levis Müll. (Brock, 7; Babor, 1, 2); and among the Tunicata in Salpa (Krohn, 23; Korschelt and Heider, 22). Since now both Proterogynic and Protandric Hermaphro- ditism may occur in the same genus (e. g. Agriolimaz), these two phases of Hermaphroditism are probably closely allied. And as there exists in some cases of Protandry a cycle of development, where the individual is first male, then herma- phrodite, then female (e. g. Stichostemma) ; so there is present in some cases of Proterogyny (e. g. Agriolimax levis) a similar ontogenetic cycle, only reversed, by which the individual is first female, then hermaphrodite, and lastly becomes male. In fact, I think that I am justified in concluding, that the three forms of Hermaphroditism, which form the subject of the present paper, are closely connected with each other, and their differences are more of degree than of kind. What light does the consideration of these three phases of Hermaphroditism throw on the much discussed question,— whether in the Metazoa the hermaphroditic or whether the dioecious state should be regarded as the more primitive? Now we have found that in each phase, the products of the one sex develop earlier than the products of the other sex ; accord- ingly, judging from the well known biogenetic law, that the 1895] Hermaphroditism in Animals. 531 ontogeny repeats (to some extent at least) the phylogeny, we may logically conclude that the Hermaphroditism of those Metazoa, which present one or another of these phases of sexual development, has been secondarily acquired. This seems to me to be the only adequate explanation for such cycles of sexual development in the individual. Since the object of my present paper is only to discuss the meaning of these three kinds of Hermaphroditism, it would be irrelevant to bring into consideration the many other reasons tending to show that Hermaphroditism in the Metazoa is a secondarily acquired state. But this much may be remarked, that accord- ing to our argument all animal forms which present one or another of these phases of Hermaphroditism have been devel- oped from dioecious ancestral forms; and it must be left to future investigators to show in how many forms these phases are actually present, that is, whether or not all hermaphrodite Metazoa are either protandric, proterogynic, or successively her- maphrodite, and whether or not all hermaphrodite Metazoa are, therefore, to be regarded by the argument above as having been derived from dioecious ancestors. Finally in those forms where the individual is first male (or female), then becomes hermaphroditic, and lastly female (or male), we may conclude that the hermaphrodite species in question has not only been evolved out of dioecious ancestral forms, but is perhaps also — tending to become dioecious for a second time. There now arises the question: on which sex has the her- maphroditic state been superimposed? In the case of pro- tandric hermaphrodites, since here the male stage appears first in the ontogeny, one must suppose that it has been imposed on the male,—that ova have appeared in the testicle, and the individual has thus become hermaphroditic. Similarly, in all cases of Successive Hermaphroditism with perhaps the excep- tion of Microstoma lineare, we may consider that here too the Hermaphroditism has been superimposed on male individuals. In proterogynic forms, on the contrary, the Hermaphroditism has probably been imposed on the female, since here the female stage appears ontogenetically first. Pelseneer (37) while arguing that all hermaphrodite molluscan forms have a 532 The American Naturalist. [June, been developed out of dioecious ancestors, endeavors to prove, that hermaphroditism here has been superimposed on the female sex alone. He bases his assumption on the fact, that in certain normally hermaphroditic Gastropods (Cymbuliopsis, Clio striata, Helix aspera, Agriolimax levis, Arion intermedius) whenever an individual is found which is not hermaphroditic, it possesses the female organs only. But Agriolimax levis is certainly, and Helix and Arion probably, proterogynic, so that the individuals found with female organs only, should simply be considered as individuals in the early stage before male organs have appeared. Clio striata on the contrary, and prob- ably Cymbuliopsis, are protandric, accordingly the annotated female individuals of these two species should be regarded, as being individuals which have passed through both the early male and the hermaphroditic stage, and through the loss of all male elements had become entirely female. Thus Pelse- neer’s five cited cases are to be explained as being individuals in certain stages of ontogenetic sexual development, and are not to be referred to Atavism. To summarize, I agree with this zoologist that Hermaphroditism has been evolved out of the female state in all proterogynic forms, but in opposition to his views, hold that in the case of protandric forms Hermaphrodi- tism has been superimposed on the male sex. As to those forms, in which so-called “ complemental males” are present (e. g. the Cirripedea, and, perhaps, Myzostoma), I think that these too may come under either the conception of Protandric or of Proterogynic Hermaphrodites. The com- plimental males could then, in the case of Protandry, be re- garded as individuals which had not yet become hermaphro- ditic; and in the case of Proterogyny, as individuals which had passed through the ontogenetic female and hermaphroditic stages, and had become entirely male. It is perhaps more probable that Protandry and not Proterogyny has been the method of development in the Cirripedes. However, until our knowledge of ontogeny of the Cirripedes has advanced much further than its present state, the suggestions here advanced to account for the existence of complemental males can ee Be be regarded in the light of a hypothesis. 1895.] Hermaphroditism in Animals. 533 List oF Works CITED. 1. Babor, J. & Kostal, J., Prispevky ku poznání pomeru pohlavních u nekterych Limacidu. Vestník Kral. Ceske. spol. nauk. v Praze., 1893. 2. Babor, J. F., Ueber den Cyclus der Geschlechtsentwick- lung der Stylommatophoren. Verhandl. deutsch. Zool. Gesell. 1894. (Leipzig.) 3. Beard, J., On the Life-History and Development of the Genus Myzostoma (F. S. Leuckart), Mittheil. zool. Stat. Neapel. V, 1884. 4. Beard, J., The Nature of the Hermaphroditism of Myzos- toma. Zool. Anz. 461, 1894. 5. Böhmig, L., Untersuchungen über rhabdocöle Turbel- larien. Das Genus Graffilla v. Ihering. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 43, 1886, p. 290. 6. Brock, J., Beiträge zur Anatomie und Histologie der Ges- chlechtsorgane der Knochenfische. Morphol. Jahrb. IV, 1878. (S. 569.) 7. Brock, J., Die Entwickl s Geschlechtsapparates der stylommatophoren Pulmonaten, te Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. : 44, 1886. 8. Chun, C., Bericht über eine nach den Canarischen Inseln im Winter, 1877-8 ausgeführte Reise. Sitzungsb. k. preuss. Akad. d. Wissensch. Berlin, 1889. 9. Claparède, Ed., Recherches anatomiques sur les Anné- lides Turbellariés, Opalines et Gregarines Observés dans les Hébrides. Mém. Soc. de Phys. et d’hist. nat. de Genève, XVI, 1861 (p. 128.) 10. Collinge, W. E., On the Absence of the Male Repro- ductive Organs in two Hermaphrodite Molluscs. Journ. of Anat. & Physiol. 27, 1893 (p. 237.) 11. Cunningham, J. T., On the Structure and Development of the Reproductive Elements in Myxine glutinosa, L. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. XX VII, 1887 (p. 49.) 12. Davaine, C., Recherches sur la Génération des Huitres. Mém. Soc. de Biol. Paris, 1853. 36 534 The American Naturalist. [June, 13. Du Plessis, G., Turbellariées limicoles. Bull. Soe. Vaud. Se. Nat. XIII, 1874 (p. 114.) 14. Eisig, Hugo, Beiträge zur Anatomie und Entwicklung- sgeschichte der Geschlechtsorgane von Lymneus. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 19, 1869. 15. Ercolani, G., Dell’adatt to della specie all’am biente. Nuove ricerche nelle storia genetica dei Trematodi. Memoria II. Mem. Acc. Sci. Ist. Bologna. 3, 1882 (p. 43.) 16. Graff, L. v., Monographie der Turbellarien. I, Rhabdo- coelida. Leipzig, 1882 (p. 127.) 17. Hallez, P., Contributions a l’histoire naturelle des Tur- bellariés. Lille, 1879 (p. 43.) 18. Ihering, H. v., Graffilla muricicola, eine parasitische Rhabdocole. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. XXIV, 1880 (p. 147.) 19. Kennel, S. v., Zur Anatomie der Gattung Prorhynchus. Arbeit.-zool.-zoot. Instit. Würzburg, 6, 1882, (p. 69.) 20. Koren, J. & Danielssen, D. C., Beskrivelse over nye Arter, henhorende til Slaegten Solenopus, samt nogle Oplysn- inger om dens Organisation. Archiv. f. Mathematik og Natur- videnskag. Christiania, 1877 (p. 120.) 21. Korschelt, E., Ueber Ophryotrocha puerilis Clap.-Met- sch. etc. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 57, 1894 (p. 272.) 22. Korschelt, E. & Heider, K., Lehrbuch der vergleichen- den Entwicklungsgeschichte der wirbellosen Thiere. III tes Heft. Jena, 1893 (p. 1333.) 23. Krohn, M., Observations sur la génération et la dével- oppement des Biphores (Salpa). Ann. d. Sci. Nat. Paris, VI, 1846. 24. Lang, A., Die Polycladen des Golfes von Neapel und der angrenzenden Meeresabschnitte. Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel, XI, 1884 (p. 282.) ` 25. Lang, A., Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie, IV. Abtheil. 1894 (p. 1091.) 26. Lendenfeld, v., Ueber Cœlentraten der Südsee, II, Nene Aplysinidæ. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 38, 1883 (p. 261.) 27. Leuckart, R., Zoologische Untersuchungen, III tes Heft. Giessen, 1854. 1895.] Hermaphroditism in Animals. 535 28. Leuckart, R., Neue Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Lebensgeschichte der Nematoden. Abhandl. Sichs. Ges. Wissensch. "99, 1887 (p. 567.) 29. Loman, J. C. C., Ueber den Bau von Bipalium Stimp- son, nebst Beschreibung neuer Arten aus dem Indischen Arch- foal Bijdr. tot de Dierkunde, 14, Afl. 1888. 30. Marion, A. F., Recherches sur les Animaux Inferieurs du Golfe de Marseille. Ann. d. Sci. Nat. 1873-74. 31. Mayer, Paul, Carcinologische Mittheilungen, VI. Uber den Hermaphroditismus bei einigen Isopoden. Mittheil Zool. Stat. Neapel. I, 1879. 32. Montgomery, T. H., Jr., Stichostemma eilhardi nov. gen. nov. spec. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Nemertinen. Dis- sert. Berlin, 1894. (This paper accompanied by plates has appeared in the Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 1895. 32a. Moore; Percy, J., Hermaphroditism of Prorhynchus. A preliminary Note. Zool. Anz. 1895. 33. Muller, J., Ueber Synapta digitata und die Erzengung von Schnecken in Holothurien. 34. Nansen, J., A Protandric Hermaphrodite (Myxine glutinosa L.). Bergens Museums Aasberetning, 1877-’78. 35. Peck, J. T., On the Anatomy and Histology of Cymbu- liopsis calceole. Studies from Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ. _ IV (p 335.) 36. Pelseneer, P., Recherches sur divers Opisthobranches. Mém. Cour. Acad. Belg. 53. 37. Pelseneer, P., Hermaphroditism in Mollusca. Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci. 37, 1894. 38. Roboz, Z. v., Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Cestoden. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 37, 1882 (p. 263.) 39. Rywosch, D., Ueber die Geschlechtsverhältnisse und den Ban der Geschlechtsorgane der Microstomiden. Zool. Anz. 10, 1887 (p. 66.) 40. Rywosch, D., Die Geschlechtsverhaltnisse des Micros- toma lineare. Sitz. Ber. Nat. Ges. Dorpat. 8, 1889. 41. Simroth, H., Ueber die Genitalentwicklung der Pul- monaten und die Fortpflanzung des Agriolimax levis. Zeits- chr. f..wiss. Zool. 45, 1887. 536 The American Naturalist. [June, 42. Smidt, Ferd., Eine neue Species des Genus Graffilla (v. Ihering). Sitz. Ber. Nat. Ges. Dorpat. 8, 1887. 43. Strassen, O. zur, Ueber Filaria rigida, Vorlauf. Mittheil. Zool. Anz. 14, 1891 (p. 437.) 44, Topsent, (1887.) . 45. Van Beneden, P. J., Sur les organes sexuels des Huitres (O. edulis). Compt. rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, XL. 46. Wheeler, W. M., Protandric Hermaphroditism in Myzostoma. Zool. Anz. XVII, 1894. 47. Wiren, A., Studien über die Solenogastren, II. Kongl. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Handl. 25, 1892. 48. Zschokke, F., Studien über den anatomischen und his- tologischen Bau der Cestoden. Centralbl. f. Bakter. und Parasitk. 1, 1887 (p. 337, 409.) SPONGES: RECENT AND FOSSIL. By Josep F. James, M. D., M. 8c., U. S. DEPT. AGRICULTURE, WasHinaTon, D. C. A sponge, while one of the lowest forms in the scale of ani- mal existence, belongs to a class ranging back in time almost to the beginning of organized life. Asknown in a living state it is an aggregation of individuals, each one minute, but to- gether forming a body often of considerable size. Without power of locomotion ; without any differentiation of parts such as obtain in animals of a higher grade, it yet manages to sub- sist in a great number of places and in the greatest variety of forms. Geology tells us the family has persisted upon the = earth since the earliest time of which there is any record; and at no period has it been absent from places suited for the growth of its various members. A few words about living _ sponges may make plainer a short account of some of the fos- sil forms. 7 1895.] Sponges: Recent and Fossil. 537 The modern sponge is most familiar as an article of toilet use, varying in size from one as small as an egg to one that would fill a half-bushel basket; and differing in texture as much as in size. The gathering of this sort of sponge is a dis- tinct trade, pursued by fishermen in many quarters of the globe, but especially in the Mediterranean. The value of the fisheries for a single year (1871), as represented at a single port (Trieste), was over half a million dollars ($540,000). The examination of one of these sponges of commerce shows a porous structure, with a vast number of holes, some large, some small. The large ones are called “ oscula.” This porous body is but the skeleton, the animal matter, a sticky, gelatin- ous mass, having been destroyed in preparing the sponge for commercial purposes. If one of these aggregations of animal- cules be studied in a living state, an interesting sight is visible. A stream of water enters the smaller pores, is carrried by the branching canals through the interior, and is ejected from the larger openings or oscula. (Fig. 1.) The in- going streams carry with them the food of the colony ; the outgoing ones take away, the waste or insoluble parti- Fic 1. Portion of sponge, highly mag- cles, and the water cleared of sara an ia miatea Aai the food suitable for the ofthe water. (After T. Rymer Jones.) growth of the individuals among which it has passed. The water is drawn into the sponge mass by the action of rapidly vibrating cilia or hairs, and it is forced out by the constant inflow thus created. A close examination of the skeleton shows it to be made up of multitudes of fibres, sometimes calcareous, sometimes sili- ceous. In most instances siliceous spicules are found in great abundance, though these are, in certain forms, calcareous. The spicules are most diversified in form. Some are long, straight and bar-like, pointed at one or both ends or else club-shaped ; some are provided with three, four, six or many branches; sometimes spines are produced, at the tips or on the sides; 538 The American Naturalist. [June, sometimes there are developed at the top or bottom, cross-bars, or there is a cluster, curving upward or downward ; some are Ae Axe HE Fig. 2. Various forms of sponge spicules. (After Sollas). shaped like harpoons, with spines along the sides, all pointing in one direction. Some are curved; some have an umbrella- like top; some are oval, star-shaped, or are developed in the form of a rosette (Fig. 2). Sometimes these spicules are simply scattered promiscuously through the fibrous net-work; but in other instances they become united during growth at their free ends, and a network is formed from which results such “species as the beautiful Venus’s Flower Basket sponge. Each one of the spicules of a sponge originates in a single cell, within which it remains until fully grown. “ During its growth the spicule slowly passes from the interior to the ex- terior of the sponge, and is finally (at least in some species) cast out as an effete product. The sponge is thus constantly producing and disengaging spicules; and in this way we may account for the extraordinary profusion of these structures in some modern marine deposits and in the ancient stratified rocks.” (W. J. Sollas). While the sponge as a mass does not show any differentia- tion into special parts or organs, there are frequently scatter throughout its tissues certain wandering amceboid cells. These seem to perform special purposes. Some act as scav- engers; others as carries of nourishment; while some become — 1895.] Sponges: Recent and Fossil. 539 converted into sexual products. Itis even supposed from the connection of certain cells by ganglia with groups of other cells, that there may be a few nerve fibres, with the power of converting external i impressions into muscular movements. The life history of sponges is, as yet, imperfectly known. Our knowledge can be given in a comparatively few words. Increase takes place by internal and external budding; by fis- sion (division); and by sexual reproduction. In the method of increase by budding, a few cells become developed at some point, increase by general growth, bulge out from the cortex, and drop off to form a new colony. In internal division a mass of cells forms a globular cluster. The outer ones change so as to form an external sac. Under certain conditions the cells from the interior creep out from the enclosing sac, form a spreading mass, and give rise to a new colony. Sollas sup- poses these “gemmules” serve a PPAP IUNE purpose, and in- sure the persistence of the race, “since,” says he, “they only appear in extreme climates on the approach of drought, and in cold ones on the approach of winter. As a secondary function they serve for the dispersal of the species; some are light enough to float down a stream, but not too far, so that there is no danger of their being carried to sea; others which are characterized by AT air chambers, are possibly distrib- uted by the wind.” - Both sexes may occur in the same colony—though frequently one predominates—or they may be entirely separated. The ovum or female form develops from one of the wandering cells previously referred to, gradually increasing in size and finally passing into a resting state. The spermatozoan or male element is a minute oval or pear-shaped body with a long vibratile tail. The tailed bodies are also developed from wandering ameeboid cells, each cell containing numbers of ` them. When mature, the spermatozoa rupture the walls of the sac where they are confined, and at a favorable opportun- ity enter and fertilize the ovum. After this occurs the egg be- gins to grow, the cells at either end assuming distinct char- acters. When mature, the new individual ruptures the cell wall, enters one of the canals ramifying throughout the sponge 540 The American Naturalist. [June, body, and is carried out through the oscula by the out-flowing current, swimming and whirling about in a lively manner. It soon assumes a more spherical form, while a depression ap- pearing at one end increases in depth until a cup-shaped cav- ity results. The young spore then settles on a rock or some other substance, mouth downwards, becoming fast to its future abiding place. It elongates and becomes a cylindrical larva; the depression at the upper end develops into an opening or osculum, and the last stage of growth of the sponge is entered upon. It has now simply to divide and increase in size to form the sponge as we know it. The process varies, of course, with different species, but the stages of egg, free swimming larva, attached larva and developed sponge are the same in all. It is, of course, impossible to say that fossil species of sponges passed through the cycle which has been briefly de- scribed, although there is every reason to believe it to have been so. But of one thing we are certain, that in the sponges we have a group of organisms which has persisted under a great variety of forms through all the vicissitudes of the earth’s career. Thousands of kinds have ceased to exist; hundreds have been preserved to us in the rocks of various formations. Yet with all the extinction that has occurred, there is not a single large group which has not both fossil and living representatives. It is, therefore, a most interesting — group of organisms, and one which neither time nor change- ed conditions has caused to disappear. The oldest known series of fossil-bearing rocks in the world contains forms which belong to the sponges. Like low types that live at present, these early sponges were widely dispersed over the earth, and the same species occurs in rocks of Lower Cambrian age in Labrador on the eastern and in Nevada on the western side of the continent. One of the genera that seems to combine the features of the two great groups of corals and sponges, and whose position is, in consequence, still a matter of discussion, is known as Ethmophyllum. The species are simple, elongated, cup-shaped, turbinate or club-shaped ; they may be curved or straight; ribbed, lobed or corrugated. 1895.] Sponges: Recent and Fossil. 541 A thin membrane lines the inner and covers the outer wall, pierced by a great number of holes, while the two tissues are united by a number of septa. Dr. Dawson compares it to an i P: Fic. 3. Ethmophyllum. partly restored. Fic. 4. Leptomitus. (After Billings.) (After Walcott.) inverted cone, formed of carbonate of lime, with its point im- bedded in the mud and the open cup above (Fig. 3). The lower part is composed of thick plates, enclosing communicat- ing chambers. The cup expands above and the spaces between the two membranes are filled with sarcode or animal matter. Out from the pores projected innumerable pseudopodia, that served to convey food to the colony. Another one of the sponges from the Lower Cambrian hori- zon is a member of the group to which the Glass-rope sponge belongs, and it seems to be almost the earliest progenitor of the group. It has been named Leptomitus (Fig 4) and consists of a long bundle of acicular threads. It represents, possibly, the anchoring body of a sponge similar to Hyalonema found at present in the eastern seas. In Protospongia is an example of a form with a very wide geographical range. It has been found in Cambrian rocks in England, in Norway and Sweden, in New Brunswick and in Nevada. The extension of this spe- cies over so wide an area is indicative of great similarity of conditions in widely separated countries. It indicates a sim- 542 The American Naturalist. [June, ilarity in temperature, similar conditions of sedimentation, similar oceanic currents, and probably similar depths of water. As time passes and we ascend the geological scale, the num- ber and variety of genera of sponges increases. In rocks of Trenton age there has been found in a few localities in Ken- tucky, a form known as Brachiospongia (Fig, 5). It hasa large, cup shaped body, with an open, central cavity, and with from seven to thirteen arms radiating from it. No perfect speci- men of this has ever been found, and the conditions of preser- vation have not been such as to favor the presence of the minuter features. The probabilities are that it grew on the ocean floor, fastened. by a single point, with the open mouth of the cup above, and the so-called arms extending out in all directions. Its cruciform spicules ally it to certain modern living forms. In rocks of later age occur interesting cylindrical or turbin- ate forms described originally as sea-weeds. The framework is in the form of a net with regular meshes, the threads cross- ing each other at right angles. Professor Whitfield says that the threads “are not interwoven with each other like basket work, or like the fibres of cloth, nor do they unite with each other as do vegetable substances; but one set appears to pass on the out- side, and the other on the inside of the à body. The threads composing the net- as se Bruhn work vary in strength, and are in reg- ular sets in both directions.” One of the species of this family, known as Cyathophycus, occurs in clusters in the Utica slate rocks of New York. It is almost the earliest representative of a group that, in Devonian time, assumed a great development, and appeared in many different forms. The family is known as Dictyospongidx, and presents an interesting instance of the beginning, the culmina- tion and the dying out of a family of organisms. Beginning with the simple sac-shaped Cyathophycus (Fig. 6), or the glob- ular Rhombodictyon in the Utica slate, it branched off into prismatic, nodulose (Fig. 7) or spinose Dictyophytons in the 1895.] Sponges: Recent and Fossil. 543 Devonian, and died out in large, simple or rugose species in the lower Carboniferous age. meen Matsa | By UNU Ses bh ed laa hag SS ies n = == => aia Fic. 6. Cyathophycus. (After Hall.) Fic. 7. Dictyophyton. (After Hall ) A variety of sponges occur in deposits of Niagara age in * various parts of the world. Among these are some peculiar globular and basin-shaped forms that have been found in de- posits in Tennessee, in Ohio and in Gotland. They are known as Astylospongia, and were free-growing and unattached. The spicule are star-shaped and united by their extremities into a compact whole. One of the most interesting modern discoveries relating to fossil sponges is that showing the flint nodules so common in all deposits of Cretaceous age, to be formed largely of sponge spicules. Not only is this so, but extensive deposits of chert of Permian and Carboniferous age, have likewise been shown to be made up largely of these bodies. A remarkable paper by Dr. G. J. Hinde, describes the contents of a hollow flint, about a foot in diameter, from near Norwich, England. He gives details of finding, in about three or four ounces of dried “ flint meal” from this flint, many hundreds of sponge spic- ules, together with remains of other organisms. Some of the 544 The American Naturalist. [June, objects were so completely changed to silica, that acid had no effect upon them; while others were so entirely composed of carbonate of lime as to be dissolved. Dr. Hinde describes and figures the spicules, and says that no less than one hundred and sixty forms were observed. These he classified into thirty-eight species of thirty-two genera. Some doubt may be expressed as to the validity of these genera and species, but that the spicules occur at all is sufficient evidence of the part the sponges played in the great formations, and indicates their abundance at certain periods in the past. Modern deep-sea dredgings have shown that sponges exist now in wonderful profusion. In the Indian Ocean, out of about a quart of material, no less than sixty-two species of sponges were described. Dr. Hinde in discussing the rela- tions between the habitats of modern and fossil sponges, notes the different depths at which various Atlantic species occur. Some of these are nearly related by their spicules to forms oc- curring in the flint nodule; and the conclusion is reached that the species there represented could have lived in water varying from 1 to 1700 feet deep. The resemblance between the spicules found in Dr. Hinde’s flint, and those occurring in nodules in Ireland, Westphalia’ and Belgium; and in strata’ varying from Cretaceous to Eocene Tertiary, indicate an ex- tensive distribution both in space and in time. The importance of the statement of Sollas that spicules are being continually given off by the sponge in its process of growth is seen when it becomes known that thick beds of sed- iment are largely formed of these bodies. It at once reduces the number of individuals which it is necessary to imagine, if these strata are formed of the effete products, rather than of the remains of individual sponges. Two interesting facts may be noted in conclusion, relative to this group of organisms. One is the great variability it presents. Professor Alexander Agassiz says (Three Cruises of the Blake, vol. 2, p. 170) that with the group all our ideas of species are completely upset. “It seems as if in the sponges we had a mass in which the different parts might be consid- ered as organs capable in themselves of a certain amount of 1895.] Sponges: Recent and Fossil. 545 independence, yet subject to a general subordination, so that, according to Haeckel and Schmidt, we are dealing neither with individuals nor colonies in the ordinary sense of the words.” He then quotes Schmidt as saying that “in place of an individual, or a colony, we find an organic mass, differ- entiated into organs, while the body, which feeds itself and propagates, is neither an individual nora colony.” It would thus appear that the long existence of the group has not tended to the fixation of characters, and it is probable that the ten- dency to variation now manifest, was just as marked in early geological time. The other point is of interest to evolutionists. Sollas points out that the same type of canal system exists in genera of three distinct and apparently unrelated families. Further, that the development of a cortex has taken place independ- ently, though on parallel lines, in several other distinct fam- ilies. Finally, that while calcareous and siliceous spicules have had an independent origin, yet the forms of the one are repeated by the forms of the other. He comes to the conclu- sion that variation does not depend upon accident, “ but on the operation of physical laws as mechanical in their action here as in the mineral world.” If, further, he continues, “ the independent evolution of similar structures is of such certain and quite common occurrence in the pany of the sponges, it is also to be looked for in other groups.” Thus, a multiple ori- gin of species, instead of being an improbability, is about as likely to occur as a single origin. Identically the same vari- ety could scarcely arise in two isolated localities, but forms now supposed to be genetically related, may have been of dis- tinct origin. 546 The American Naturalist. [June, THE MOUTH-PARTS OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. By Vernon L. KELLOGG. By the association of the genera Hepialus and Micropteryx as a group of forms sub-ordinally distinguished from all other lepidopterous forms, and characterized by a distinctly general- ized condition of certain organs of the body, a special interest attaches to the study of the morphology of these genera. If the Jugate, as a sub-order of the Lepidoptera, is a more generalized group than the Frenate the morphology of its members is to be particularly studied for suggestions regard- ing the primitive form of the various organs of the lepidopter- ous insect, and, by summation, of the racial or ancestral type- form of the order. The commonly unqualified statement of zoological and ento- mological text-books that the mouth-parts of the Lepidoptera are of a type adapted for sucking, and that mandibles are wanting, or rudimentary, should not be longer repeated with- out qualification. It has been known since the publication of Dr. Walter’s study of the mouth-parts of Micropteryx that the genus presents conditions of mouth-parts obviously contra- dicting the common assertion, and undoubtedly the most generalized known among the Lepidoptera. The presence of functional, denticulate mandibles, combined with the absence of a maxillar proboscis, make the general] statement that the Lepidoptera are characterized by the possession of sucking -mouth-parts an untrue one unless suitably qualified. And although this qualification will depend upon the presence of functional mandibles in but a few species of moths belonging to a single genus, the noting of these few exceptional instances is, obviously, of extreme importance. Dr. Walter found func- tional, denticulate mandibles in Micropteryx aruncella and M. _ anderschella. Associated with the presence of the functional 1 Walter, A., in the Jenaisch. Zeitsch. f. Naturwiss., v. 18 (1885), pp. 751-807, 2 plates. | 1895.] The Mouth-Parts of the Lepidoptera. 547 mandibles, these two species'present a manifestly generalized condition of the other mouth-parts. The maxille possess two terminal lobes (galea and lacinia of orthopterous and biting insects generally), the outer ones, according to Dr. Walter, forming together the most primitive rudiments of a proboscis, while the inner ones form on each side a groove-like horny plate, which affords a lateral support for the labium. The lepidopterous proboscis is to be regarded therefore, according to Dr. Walter, as derived from the outer lobes (gales) of the maxille. In the higher forms the inner lobes (laciniz) are reduced. The labium (second maxille) has free outer lobes, and a ligula formed by the fusion of the inner lobes into a short tubule which is open externally. Dr. Walter detected a short hypopharynx on the soft inner or hinder wall of the ligula. In M. purpurella and semipurpurella Walter found the mandibles to be without denticulations, and the maxille to have lost their inner lobes, the outer lobes being applied to form a typical sucking proboscis, the short organ being capa- ble of being rolled up. The labium in these species is elon- gated, has no free outer lobes, and a small hypo-pharynx is discernible. . . In the brief study which I have been able to make of ‘the mouth-parts of Micropteryx the general conditions pointed out by Walter are apparent to me. I have examined the mouth parts of anderschella, unimacullela, sparmanella, and purpurella. In one important point, however, the few observations I have made lead me to differ from Walter in his derivation of the proboscis. It seems to me that they are the inner lobes of the maxilla (lacinie) which go to produce the proboscis, while the outer lobes appear as short, hood-shaped processes with chitin- ized, firm margins, lying laterad of the base of the lacinia, and appearing as protecting or supporting processes for the inner lobes. This condition is well presented by unimaculella. In the maxilla (see fig. 6, plate XXV) of this species we make out a sub-circular cardo (c) a quadrangular stipes (st) from which arise the long, 6-segmented palpus (mx. p. x), the short, horny- Margined protecting galea (mx. 1, e.), and as innermost pro- cess the long lacinia (mx. 1, i.), not fused with its mate 548 The American Naturalist. [June, of the opposite side but capable of being applied to it so as to form a short proboscis. The mandibles (see fig. 5, md, plate XXV), of unimaculella are not denticulate, but single-pointed, and are not strongly chitinized, functioning rather as flexible lobes or plates than as biting jaws. The labium (see fig. 4, plate XXV), is truly lip-like, with plainly distinguished sub-mentum (sm), mentum (m), and prominent 3-segmented palpi (1, p.) ris- ing from the outer or distal margin ofthe mentum. M. purpur- ella (see fig. 3, plate XXV), presents a condition of mouth-parts very like unimaculella. In anderschella, also, one of the species examined by Walter, the outer lobes again of the maxille are the ones which seem to me to be free, while the inner ones go to form the very rudimentary proboscis referred to by Walter. However, without study of other species the question may be left a moot one. For the object of this paper the exposition already made of the generalized state of the mouth-parts in Micropteryz is sufficient. _ The condition of the mouth-parts of Hepialus, the genus as- sociated with Micropteryx in the generalized sub-order Jugatæ, reveals an interesting further confirmation of the naturalness of the association. I have examined the mouth-parts of the Hepialus hecta, sylvinus, and of an undetermind species. Un- fortunately, in this genus we have an atrophied or reduced condition of the parts, a functionless state, as so often met among Lepidoptera (Bombyz et al). This condition makes a comparison of the mouth-parts of Hepialus with those of Microp- teryx, or of other Lepidoptera, difficult, but there are sufficient remaining evidences of the generally Micropteryz-like character of the mouth-parts to justify fully a recognition of. their generalized character. Especially is thisshown by the labium. In Hepialus sp. (fig. 10, plate XXV), the mandibles are entirely reduced, the maxillary palpi (mz. p.), greatly reduced, and one of the maxillary lobes lost, although one (mz. /.), remains in reduced state. The labium, however, retains its lip-like char- acter, with quadrangular mentum and thick, fleshy, 2-segmen- ted palpi (Z. p.), very like the similar organ in Micropteryx and altogether unlike the fixed sclerite forming part of the floor of © the head, the character assumed by the altered labium of the higher Frenate (see fig. 9, plate XXV). PLATE XXY. eo Fi > Atè wel, ay i Wb “ade WI ii eve et. ag | ¥ “i S | Kellogg on Lepidoptera. 1895.] The Mouth-Parts of the Lepidoptera. 549 In Hepialus sylvinus (see fig. 1), the labium is fleshy and lip- like, as in pas undetermined species, but the palpi, short and thick, are but 1-segmented, and all that is left of the maxilla is a short ex-articulate tubercle. In H. hecta, the broad thick mentum bears no palpi at all, and a faint 5 suture separates the terminal, fleshy men- Pie rit pr ra: tum from the narrow, fixed sub-mentum. tum; “4 p. labial palpus. The maxille are represented in sylvinus each by a short cylindrical tubercle. Thus, despite the obscurity which obtains in the condition of the mouth-parts of Hepialus because of their atrophied state, it seems apparent that they are reduced from a type with free lip-like labium, and with one or more free maxillary lobes, a generalized con- dition only met with elsewhere among the Lepidoptera in the genus Micropteryz. Before proceeding = a brief eee of certain struct- ural features of the mo mouth-parts as presented in the Rrenate; I wish to call attention to a few points of interest adduced from a comparison of the mouth- parts of the Jugate with those of the Trichoptera. Here, as elsewhere in the morphology of the Jugate and Trichopterous types, the comparisons are suggestive. The morphology of the Trichopterous mouth-parts is an interesting, and by no means completed, study. Latreille and Pictet found no in- dications of mandibles; Kolenati and Westwood found rudi- mentary mandibles present. Some authors have thought the maxilla and labium to be distinct, while Speyer and Kolbe declare them to be fused to form a sort of lapping or pseudo- sucking proboscis. Lucas’ in his recent careful study of the mouth-parts of Anabolia furcata pretty conclusively demon- strates, for this species, at least, the entire absence of mandibles and the distinctness of maxille and labium (see fig. 1, plate XXV). In the few Trichopterous forms which I have ex- 2 Author. The classification of Lepidoptera, in Amer. Nat., V. (Mar., 1895) pp- 248, 1 plate. 3 Lucas, Robert, Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Mundwerkzauge der Trichoptera, Berlin, 1893. (Dissertation. ) 37 550 The American Naturalist. [June, amined, the variation in mouth-part characters is considerable. In all, the characteristic large labrum (see figs. 1 and 2, lb., plate XXV), overlying the basal part, at least, of the haustel- lum (h) was present. The rudiments of mandibles were ob- served in but one species, Hallesus sp. The maxille present either rudiments of a free lobe, as in Mystacides punctatus (see fig. 2, ma. 1, plate XXV), or the lobe in a well-developed, sense- hair covered, probably functional condition, as in Hallesus sp, Setodes sp, Hydropsyche scalaris, and others. The basal part of the maxilla is sometimes pretty plainly divisible into cardo and stipes, as in Hydropsyche scalaris ; more often, however, not. The labium usually presents a conspicuous, characteristic, ex- panded, and longitudinally striated flap, the haustellum (see fig. 1 and 2, h., plate XXV), composed by the fusion of the terminal labial lobes. In Hydropsyche scalaris I was interested to discover the labium not so modified. The outer lobes were free and of rather large size; the inner lobes were represented by a pair of short, blunt tubercles, free from any indication of fusion with each other or with the outer lobes, the rudiments of free lobes. In general the mouth-parts of the Trichoptera, where func- tional, may be held to exhibit the following characteristics ;, the absence of mandibles (or, at best, the presence of rudimen- tary functionless ones), maxille with basal portion often dis- playing distinguishable cardo and stipes, with functional lobes or distinct rudiments of both or of one free lobe, prominent several-segmented maxillary palpi, labium with its lobes free or coalesced to form the characteristic haustellum or lapping organ, labial palpi 3-segmented, prominent, (see figs. 1 and 2, plate XXV). Conspicuous and characteristic also is the large, flap-like labrum, which overlies the base of the haustellum, and aids materially in the half-lapping, half-sucking mode of taking food, which Lucas attributes to the Trichoptera. This conspicuous labrum is strikingly paralleled by the exception- ally large and well-developed labrum of Micropteryz, a feature not referred to in the previous discussion of the mouth-parts of this genus. In all the species of Micropteryz examined by me the labrum is large, appearing as a prominent triangular 1895.] The Mouth-Parts of the Lepidoptera. 551 flap, composed of a firmer basal region and a more delicate, membranous, distal region, the whole organ bearing many tactile hairs. It overlies the mouth-parts, extending beyond the mandibles and out over the fleshy labium (see figs. 3 and 5, lb., plate XXV). This condition of the labrum is radically different from that presented by this organ among the Frenate, the more specialized Lepidoptera (see postea). The long 5- to 6-segmented maxillary palpi of Micropteryx already pointed out in‘ Walter’s admirable study of the maxillary palpi in the Lepidoptera as an indication of the generalized character of the mouth-parts of this genus, are very like, in point of number of segments and general habitus, the maxillary palpi of the Trichoptera. The maxille and labium in general characters are also similar in the two groups. The matter of mandibles is of special interest. In certain species of Micropteryx they are present as functional or- gans, although the tendency toward their reduction is fully displayed within the limits of the genus; in Trichoptera func- tional mandibles have not yet been found, although the dis- tinct rudiments of mandibles are present. Manifestly now, as the tendency of specialization in both groups is toward a reduc- tion to complete atrophy of the mandibles, the Jugatee can not be looked upon asin any way lineal descendents of the Trichop- tera. The affinity of the two groups must be of the character of two dichotomously divided lines of descent, diverging from a racial type which possessed conditions of mouth-parts, wing- venation, wing-clothing, and thoracic structure of a character suggested by the present conditions of these organs presented by the generalized members of the two groups. The question of the presence or absence of rudimentary man- dibles among the Trichoptera has been a bone of contention for insect morphologists, though it seems pretty obvious that if a sufficient number of species be examined both conditions 4 Walter A., Palpus maxillaris Lepidopterorum, in Jen. Zeitsch. f. Naturwiss. v. 18, 1884. In this study Walter found that the maxillary palpi appear in a general series of lepidopterous forms from lowest moths to highest butterflies in a progressive state of reduction, 6-segmented in Micropteryx, entirely reduced among the Nymphalidae. 552 The American Naturalist. [June, will be found. Lucas’ devotes much space to his proof that certain small, angulated processes projecting from below the eyes, and called rudimentary mandibles by some writers, are not such, but the remnants of the lower one of a pair of tuber- cles which, in the pupa, marked the limits of the genal surface with which the prominent mandibles of the pupa. articulated. The presence of these characteristic genal tubercles in all the species of Micropteryx which I have examined is worth mention (see figs. 3 and 5, g. t., plate XXV). That these tuber- cles are not mandibular remnants (if, indeed, it isto these pro- cesses to which Savigny, Brauer, et al. refer) is well shown by Micropteryx, in which both these genal tubercles and the true mandibles or mandibular remnants are present and obviously distinct. Passing now to the more familiarly known specialized Lepi- dopterous mouth-parts, a few commonly accepted beliefs de- mand brief reference. Moths and butterflies have been accre- dited with the possession of rudimentary mandibles asa general feature of the mouth-part conditions. The familiar statements and figures in entomological and zoological texts refer to cer- tain slight projections lying on either side of the so-called labrum, a minute median triangular sclerite, as rudimentary mandibles. The statements and occasionally the figures are traceable back tof Savigny’s enlightening study and explana- tion of the homologies of the insectean parts. This explana- tion was adopted by’ Burgess in his description of the anatomy of Danais archippus. In aê study of the sclerites of the head of this butterfly. I became convinced that the so-called rudi- mentary mandibles of Danais are not such, but are projections from the lateral extremities of the labrum, which also, to my mind, is a larger and other sclerite than the minute triangular 5 Lucas (op. cit.) ê Savigny, Jule-Cesar, Theorie des organes de la bouche des Crustacés et des ects, nsecta, Linn., mem. 1-2, fase. 1, partie 1, of the Memoires sur les Anim- aux sans Vertebres, 1816, Paris. 1 Burgess. Edw., tigen to the Anatomy of the Moth-weed Butterfly, ` Danais archippus Fab., 1880, Boston. 8 Author. The a of the Head of Danais archippus Fab., pp. 51-57, with 1 plate in the Kas. Univ. Quart. v. 2, no. 2. Oct., 1893. 1895.] The Mouth-Parts of the Lepidoptera. 553 sclerite lying upon the base of the maxillar proboscis and called by Savigny, and commonly, the labrum (see a. b. c. of fig. This minute triangular sclerite is a por- tion merely of the labrum, or may be indeed a true epipharynx, (i. e. process of the upper wall of the pharynx) fused, or apparently so, with the true labrum. In figure 13 of plate XXV, the cephalic aspect of the head of archippus, the labrum (lb), and its lateral projections, (pf), bear- : ing on the inner margin a fringe of short, stiff, aa re Po aaa light-brown hairs, are shown. ‘These labral Lapa wanna processes I have called pilifers from the charac- cris daplidice teristic fringe of hairs which is always present. Lat. ; b, Nymphalis Rudimentary mandibles are to be found among cardui Lat.; ¢, Zy- x gena scabiosx the Lepidoptera but so far as I have observed pied (After Sav- not among the’ Rhopalocera. When present, they uniformly arise from (i. e. are fused with) the gene, as the mandibles normally are among insects possess- ing biting mouth-parts. A clear demonstration of the distinct- ness of pilifers and mandibles is afforded by the fact that both mandibles and pilifers are present in all cases where mandibles are found. This is well shown in the figure of the cephalic aspect of the head of Protoparce carolina, (fig. 12, md., pf., plate XXV) Here the conspicuous” mandibular rudiments, strongly chi- tinized at the denticulate apex, plainly arose from the gene, and a faint articulating suture is visible. The pilifers are large, and manifestly continuous with the labral sclerite. I figure, also, the mouth-parts of Hadena auranticolor of same ? After having arrived at and published my conclusions regarding the error of „designating as rudimentary mandibles the labial processes of Danais and the other butterflies (of all the Frenats, in fact), I found that Walter had previously come to the same conclusions, declaring that the parts designated by Savigny as mandibles are not such bnt processes of the labrum, and that the labrum of Sav- igny is to be regarded as an epipharynx. 10 Despite Walter’s assertion of his beliefthat no mandibles, even rudimentary, are to be found among the macro-lepidoptera, I cannot understand how else than as mandibular remnants these conspicuous processes articulating with the gena, chitinized and even slightly denticulate at tip, of the sphinx moths are to be interpreted. ' 554 The American Naturalist. [June, family, Noctuide, as Strigina pox, by which name Savigny re- fers to his figure of the lepidopterous mouth-parts most widely copied by subsequent authors of zoological text-books. In the figure of Hadena may be noted the pilifers, (see fig. 11, pf. plate XXV), but no indication of mandibular rudiments. In Sav- igny’s reference to the lepidopterous mandibles he says that they are in all cases fringed very thickly with hairs on their inner margin (“ -+-+dans tous bordées de cils trés-épais sur leur tranchant interieur ”), (see a, b, c, fig. 1). He is evidently describing the pilifers which present just this condition. New- port in his article “ Insecta” in Todd’s Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology (1836-39), discussing the mouth-parts of Sphinx ligustri says: “On each side of labrum are the rudiments of the mandibles. They are two minute triangular plates attached in part to the labrum and margin of the clypeus to which, as Savigny has remarked, they appear to be soldered. They are applied to the base of the maxilla, and in Sphinx ap- pear each to be formed of two parts, and are covered along their margin with hairs.” As already noted, it is among the sphinges that we find conspicuous rudimentary mandibles and pilifers present, with distinct insertions and with the charac- teristic features of the sclerites. It is the outer one of New- port’s “two parts” which is the mandibular remnant, and the inner hair-bearing one which is the labral pilifer (see fig. 12, md. and pf., plate XXV). This erroneous impression regarding the identity of the lepidopterous mandibles receives, as already noted, common acceptance through the representations in the standard text- books. Figure 530, p. 556, in Claus’s Lehrbuch der Zoologie (5th ed., 1891) is after Savigny’s original figure of the mouth parts of the Noctuid, Strigina pox. The sclerites lettered md. and called mandibles are the pilifers. In figure 104, p. 153, in Graber’s Die Insekten (1877) the sclerites lettered /, and designated as mandibles, are the pilifers. In Packard’s Guide to the Study of Insects, on page 232, in Hyatt and Arm’s Insecta, plate IX, and elsewhere, the so-called mandibles are the pilifers. In Lang’s text-book of Comparative Anatomy, P- 448, fig. 307, the pilifers are figured as parts of the labrum ; the figure probably is after Walter. 1895.] The Mouth-Parts of the Lepidoptera. 555 Finally, I may call attention to another evident case of mis- taken identity in Burgess’s paper on the anatomy of Danais, -not for the sake of picking flaws in this admirable one of the few American contributions to the knowledge of insect mor- -phology, but for the sake of, if possible, preventing the confu- sion of the student of comparative insect morphology by his too willing complete acceptance of this monograph as a basis for his study of lepidopterous anatomy. Two minute, thorn- like projections, one on each lateral margin of the maxillar proboscis near the base, are referred to by Burgess as the rudi- ments of the maxillary palpi. Now the lepidopterous proboscis is composed of the greatly elongated terminal lobes (galez or laciniæ) of the maxilla, while the maxillary palpi always -arise from the median or sub-basal sclerite, the stipes of the typical maxilla (in reality often from a more or less distinct -sclerite, the palpiger, at the side of and closely applied to the stipes). We should expect, therefore, to find any palpal rem- nants on the fixed basal portion of the greatly modified lepidop- terous maxilla, that portion which does not enter into the composition of the proboscis, but constitutes a portion of the fixed floor of the head (see fig. 9, mz. b., plate XXV). Where- -ever the maxillary palpi or their rudiments are present among ‘the Lepidoptera, and it is only among the highest, the most specialized, of the butterflies, that they can not be made out with certainty, these palpi or their rudiments do, in reality, arise from that very part on which our knowledge of the homologies of the insectean mouth-parts would lead us to expect to find them. This is well shown in the figure of the under side of the head of Catocala sp. (see fig. 9, mz. p., plate XXV). Here the short, single-segmented, scale-covered palpal rudiments appear on the fixed basal part of the maxille, on the under side of the head, and at some little distance from the origin of the elongated, proboscis-forming, terminal lobes of the maxille. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV. Fig. 1. Anabolia fulcata, cephalic aspect of head: g. t. genal tubercle; mz. l., maxillary lobe; mz. p. maxillary pal- 556 Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. The American Naturalist. [June, pus; h, haustellum; /. p., labial palpus; 7b, labrum, removed and more enlarged. (After Lucas). Mystacides punctatus: g, gena; g: t., genal tubercle; max. l, remnant of maxillary lobe; mz. p. basal seg- ments of maxillary palpus; lb, labrum; h, haustel- lum; J. p., labial palpus. Micropteryx purpurella: a. f., antennary fossa; md, mandible; /b., labrum; g. t., genal tubercle; mz. Pp. basal segments of maxillary palpus; mz. l i, elon- gated inner lobe of maxilla; Z. p., labial palpus. Mieropteryx unimaculella, labium : s-m., Sub-mentum ; m., mentum ; l. p., labial palpus. Micropteryx wnimaculella, cephalic margin of head, showing labrum (lb), mandibles (md), and genal tuber- cles (g. t.). Micropteryx unimaculella, ventral aspect of right max- illa; c, cardo; st, stipes; mz. p. basal segment of maxillary palpus; mt. l. e., outer lobe; mz. l i, inner lobe. Catocala sp: cl, clypeus g, gena; pf., pilifer; mz. p. maxillary palpus. : Catocala sp., mesal portion of ventral aspect of head: gu., gula; Im., labium; l p. labial palpus; ge, gena; mx. b., fixed basal portion of maxilla ; mz. p., maxillary palpus. i Hepialus sp., ventral aspect of head: lm., labium; m. mentum; l. p., labial palpus; mz. l, remnant of maxillary lobe; mz. p., remnant of maxillary palpus. Hadena auranticolor: g., gena; pf., pilifer; mz. p. maxillary palpus; ma. l, maxillar proboscis formed of elongated maxillary lobes. Protoparce carolina ; ep., epicranium; cl, clypeus; lb., labrum; ge., gena; md., remnant of mandibles; pf-, pilifer. Danais archippus: g., gena; lb., labrum; pf., pilifer. 1895.] Recent Literature. 557 RECENT LITERATURE. The Cambridge Natural History.'—This series, to be com- pleted in 10 volumes, under the general editorship of Messrs. Clark, Harmer and Shipley, was announced some time ago, and this, the third of the series, is the first to be issued. Next to appear will probably be the insects (2 volumes) and the birds. Of the present volume 459 pages are occupied by the molluscs, and in their treatment we find much to enjoy. Most of the chapters read easily and interestingly, and the author has, apparently, thoroughly assimilated much of the recent literature relating to the life histories and habits, especially of the terrestrial forms. This side occupies the first hundred and twenty pages, and is then followed by a slight and thoroughly readable sketch of the morphology. The next section treats of the geographical distrib- ution, and the concluding chapters are occupied with the classifica- tion in which the divisions down to families are characterized, and the principal genera enumerated merely by name. Did space permit, we would gladly give many extracts of interesting items from the pages, for even the hints as to phylogenetic lines are treated with a freshness which demands praise—but we must forbear. We can only refer (p. 119) to the use of snails in the manufacture of artificial cream, to the chapter on pearls, and the exceedingly clear presentation of the modifications of the odontophoral teeth. Yet we note, here and there, a lapse. Thus, in the boring, by means of the odontophore (p. 237), the observations of Schiemenz are not mentioned. In the matter of the eyes of Chiton, Blumrich’s results are overlooked, while through the work so thoroughly have the American printers fol- lowed the English copy that Connecticut’s metropolis appears through- out as “Newhaven.” The classification adopted is, in its main fea- tures, that of Pelseneer for the Gasteropods and Acephals (excepting in the matter of the Chitons and Neomenids), while the Cephalopods are according to Hoyle. In their treatment of the Brachiopods, Messrs Shipley and Reed have had less of popular interest to deal with, but the accounts are clear and this portion of the work will doubtless prove of no little assistance to young paleontologists. ‘The Cambridge Natural History, Vol. III. Mollusca, by A. H. Cooke; Brachipods (Recent), by A. E. Shipley; Brachipods (Fossil), by F. C. Reed. New York and London: Macmillan & Co., 1895; 8vo. pp. xix 535. 558 The American Naturalist. [June, Regarding the affinities of Brachiopods, Shipley says, after mention- ing their former association with Molluscs, Tunicates, Polyzoa, etc.: “As far as I am able to judge, their affinities seem, perhaps, to be more closely with the Gephyrea and with Phoronis than with any of the other claimants; but I think even these are too remote to justify any system of classification which would bring them together under a com- mon name.’ Judging by this single volume, the series promises well. It is well illustrated by new figures; its language is clear and simple, and seems well adapted for those who, while not professional naturalists, wish to know something more than they get from their college course, as well as for those ‘who, deprived of suitable instructors, wish to go farther into zoological subjects than they can without aid. Marshall’s Biological Lectures and Addresses.’—A series of thirteen lectures, delivered by the late Arthur Milnes Marshall, between the years 1879 and 1890, has been published in book form under the supervision of C. F. Marshall. Among them are four Presi- dential addresses to the Manchester Microscopical Society and the dis- cussion of the Recapitulation Theory which formed the subject of an address before the Biological Section of the British Association of Leeds in 1890. The articles are written in a clear and direct style, and are admirably adapted to instruct the general reader. We can recommend the book as introducing the principal problems of modern biology to the reader in an agreeable and comprehensible manner. Butterfly Hunters in the Carribees.’—A pleasing little book, purporting to be the adventures of two boy naturalists, with their tutor, in the West Indies. The author carries the party safely through a number of adventures ingeniously contrived to bring out some scien- tific or historical fact. A good deal of information is imparted in an agreeable way, in some cases, however, not entirely reliable in its state- ments regarding matters not falling within the domain of lepidopter- ology. Thus, on p. 54, it is stated that a snapping-tortoise was found by the explorers! and, on p. 60, that they examined a snake allied to the pine snake of N. America, which squeezed the arm of its captor. In another place, the author lets the reader infer that blood-sucking ? Biological Lectures and Addresses. By Arthur M. Marshall. Edited by ©. F. Marshall. London, 1894: Macmillan & Co., Publishers. 3 Butterfly Hunters in the Carribees. By Dr. Eugene Murray-Aaron, New York, 1894. Charles Scribner's Sons, Publishers. 1895.] Recent Literature. 559 vampires occur in the West Indies. An interesting chapter is devoted to the habits of the rare Papilio homerus of Jamaica. On the whole, the book will probably serve its purpose, viz., to stim- ulate young people to an active, wholesome interest in the field work of natural history. L’Amateur de des Papillons.‘—This handy volume is one of the series, Bibliotheque des Connaissances utiles, contributed by M. H. Coupin, and is intended for the use of amateur butterfly collectors. After a brief discussion of the organization and life-history of this order of insects, in the course of which is given a concise account of “ mimi- cry,” polymorphism and parthenogenesis, the author comes at once to the main idea of the work, namely, advice to the amateur collector. Descriptions of articles included in a good outfit for collecting and pre- serving material are followed by advice as to where and how to find different species, not only of the adult but of the chrysalid, caterpillar and egg. Finally, a chapter on mounting and displaying the collec- tion completes this admirable book of instruction. The book is profusely illustrated, a matter of considerable import- ance where the text is necessarily so concise. Monographic Revision of the Pocket Gophers.’—This work is one of the North American Fauna Series, published by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. It has been prepared by Dr. Merriam after a critical study of over a thousand specimens, including many types, and constitutes a monograph of the family Geomyidae, exclusive of the genus Thomomys. The systematic descriptions of the genera and species are prefaced with a discussion of the morphology of the skull, and a description of some remarkable dental peculiarities as to the dis- tribution of the enamel discovered by the author during his investiga- tion. The opening chapter contains an interesting account of the hab- its and distribution of these animals, variation, both sexual and indi- vidual, and a key to the genera. The book is well illustrated with 20 full-page plates, 71 text figures and 4 maps, 3 of which show the distribution of the different genera, and one gives the distribution of the species of Geomys and Cratogeo- mys. *L’ Amateur des Papillons. Guide pour la Chasse, la Preparation, et la Con- servation. By M. Henri Coupin, Paris, 1895. B. Balliére et Fils, Editeurs. *North American Fauna, No. 8. Monographie Revision of the Pocket Gophers, Family Geomyidae (Exclusive of the species of Thomomys). By Dr. C. Hart Merriam. Washington, 1895. 560 The American Naturalist. [June, A Geomys lutescens, kept in confinement by Dr. Merriam, could run backward as rapidly and easily as forward. The well-known peculiar- ity of the external genitalia of the male, which are so hidden and modi- - fied that the sexes are determined with difficulty, is doubtless connected with this habit, the parts being protected from injury when the animal is moving backward. Another fact learned by Dr. Merriam from the captive Geomys is that the tail functions as an organ of touch. It is rather large and fleshy, and is apparently endowed with special tactile sensibility, and is evidently of great value in warning the animals of the presence of an enemy in the rear when they are traveling back- ward in their dark tunnels. Dr. Merriam has divided these animals into several genera, but the characters regarded as definitive seem to be hardly sufficient for that purpose. They appear to us to be more properly sections of a —_ genus. A Monograph of the Bats of North America.’—This work is one of a series of papers intended to illustrate the collections belong- ing to the United States National Museum. It is, in reality, a revision of a monograph published in 1864 by the same author, with such additions as haye been necessitated by the study of new material. The old descriptions have been elaborated, the new standards of compari- sons adopted, and many newly observed anatomical details included in the introduction. The region covered by the monograph includes North America, ex- tending to the southern limit of the United States. Thirty-eight plates, of skillfully executed drawings, give the details of the external characters, of the osteology and of the dentition. The work is authoritative in this branch of N. American mammalogy, and the student of this subject will find it a sine qua non. . RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. ABBOTT, W, J. I.—The Ossiferous Fissures in the Valley of the Shode, near Ightham, Kent. Extr. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1894. From the author. ALLEN, J. A.—Descriptions of Ten New North American Mammals, and Remarks on Others, Extr. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Nov., 1894. From the author. ; ; ê Bulletin of the U. S. Natl. Mus., No. 43. The Bats of North America. By Harrison Allen, M. D., Washington, 1893. 1895.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 561 Bulletin No. 26, 1894, Iowa Agric. College Exper. Station. Bulletin No. 23, 1893, Iowa Agri. College Exper. Station. From H. Osborn. Bulletin No. 53, 1894, Massachusetts State Agric. Exper. Station. Bulletin No. 17 & 107, 1894, North Carolina Agric. Exper. Station. Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen. Zweiter, Veirter, Fünfter, und Sechster ände. ; tak R. E.—The Life and Writings of Rafinesque. Filson Club Publications No. Ten, Louisville, Ky., 1895. From the Filson Club. ——On the Induration of Certain Tertiary Sandstones of Northeastern Kan- sas, Extr. Proceeds. Ind. Acad. Sci., Vol. ITI, 1894. From the author ray cata: S. V.—Sleep, Sleeplessness and Hypnotics. Extr. Ja. Amer. 894. From the author. Con BB, N: 7h —Tricoma and other New Nematode Genera. Extr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc., N. S. W., Vol. VIII, 1893. From the author. Day, D. T. = Minseal Resoures of the United States for 1892. Washington, 1893. oun the U. S. Geol. Survey Dawson, G. M.—Geological N otes on some of the Coasts and Islands of Ber- ing Sea and Vicinity. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Society. EruiorT, D. G.—The Life and Services of John James seasons: Extr. Trans. New York Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII. From the author GARMAN, Sasain alpinus 1758—85. aureolus 1888. Extr. Shooting and Fishing, Feb., 1891. From the author. GULDBERG, HERR.—Ueber Temporiire äussere Hinterflossen bei Delphin-Em- HAECKEL, E. .—-Gystematioche Phylogenie der Protisten und Pflanzen, Erster eil. Des E y Phylogenie. Berlin, 1894. From the author. HoLLIcK, A.—Dislocations in Certain Positions of the Atlantic Coastal Plain Strata and their Probable Causes. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIV. From Howes, G. B.—Remarks on two Lampreys and a Hag. Extr. Proceeds. = don Zool. Soc., 1894.——On Synostosis and Curvature of the Spine in Fishes, with special reference to the Sole. Ibid, 1894. Hussard, J. W.—The Yolk Nucleus in Cymatogaster aggregatus Gibbons. Extr. Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XXXIII. From the author. IRVING AND VAN HISE. Iron Bearing Series of Michigan and Wis- consin. Monographs of the U.S. Geol. Surv., Vol. XIX. Washington, 1892. From the Dept. of the Interior. James, J. F.—Remarks on the genus Arthrophycus eTO Fungi. — The genus Tricoides. Extr. Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1893. — The St. Peters Sandstone. Ibid, 1894.——On the Value of Šoppóspd Alge as Geologi- cal Guides. Am. Geol., Vol. XIII, 1894. From the author. Keitter, W.—The Teaching of Anatomy. Extr. New York Med. Journ., Nov., 1894. From the author. Kemr, J. F.—The Nickel Mine at Lancaster Gap, Penna., and the Pyrrhotite Deposit at Anthony’s Nose, on the Hudson. Extr. Trans. Amer. Institute Min- ing Engineers, 1894. From Columbia College. 562 The American Naturalist. [June, Moenkuaus, W. J.—Evolution in the Department of arpoi e the Indiana University. mem epee Student, March, 1894. From the au TGOM —Uebher die Stilette der m paap Aus dem Zool. Anz, ida 454 u. a. ert From the author Newton, E. T.—Vertebrate Fauna collected i Mr. L. Abbott at Ightham, Kent. Extr. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1894. From the author Pincuot, G.—Biltmore Forest. An Account of its Treatment and the Results of the first year’s work. Chicago, 1893. From the author eedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for the forty-second Meeting held at Madison, Wisconsin, August, 1893. Salem, 1894. Report of the Trustees of the Australian Museum, N. S. W., for 1892. Report of the Chief of the Division of Microscopy for 1893. Washington, Fs rt of the U. S. National Museum for the og sodis June 30, 1892. Washington, 1893. From'the Smithsonian Institutio Ripeway, R.—Descriptions of some new Birds Noi ‘Aldabra, Assumption and Gloriosa Islands, collected by Dr. W. a oo Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the au Scort, W. B.—On Variations and sree Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol., XLVII, 1894. From the author. : Tenth Annual Report of the Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niag- ara for the Fiscal Year Oct. 1, 1892, to Sept. 30, 1893. Albany, 1894. From A. H. Green. Thirteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, 1891-92. Pt. I.. Report of the Director. Pt. II. Geology. Pt. III. Irrigation. From the U. 8. Geol. Survey. Traquair, R. H.—A Monograph of the Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Pt. II. The Asterolepidae. Printed for the Paleontographical Society, London. 1894. From the author. Unperwoop, L. M.—Report of the Botanical Division of the Indiana State Biological Survey. Extr. Proceeds. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1893. From the Academy. VERRILL, A. E.—Descriptions of New Species of Starfishes and Ophiurans, with a revision of certain species formerly described. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the Smithsonian Institution. Wa cort, C. D.—Discovery of the genus Oldhamia in America. Extr. Pro- ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From the author. White, T. G.—The Geology of Essex and Willsboro Townships, Essex Co., N. Y. Extr. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII. From Columbia College. Wittey, A.—Amphioxus and the Ancestry of the Vertebrates. With a pre- face by Prof. H. F. Osborn. New York, 1894. From the Pub., Macmillan and mpany. Wituiston, S. W.—Restoration of Aceratherium fossiger Cope. Extr. Kan. Univ. Quar., Vol. II, No. 4, 1894. From the author. 1895.] Mineralogy. 563 General Notes. MINERALOGY.’ Origin of the ‘‘Pflockstruktur’’ of Mellilite.—The “peg structure” (“ Pflockstruktur,” “ Structure en chevilles”) of mellilite is one of its most constant characteristics. This structure has been at- tributed to original glass inclusions in the mineral. Gentil’ has re- cently made a careful microscopic study of this mineral from the local- ities of Mte. Vultura, Capo di Bove, Hohenstoffeln (Héhgau), Hoch- bohl, Palma (Canaries), and Rachgoun (Algiers). He concludes that the “peg structure” is due to products of decomposition of the melli- lite, of which the most common is a honey-yellow hydrated substance which gelatinizes readily with hydrochloric acid. It has a lower index of refraction and a weaker double refraction than mellilite. The double refraction is so weak as to be hardly appreciable in the small thicknes of the “ chevilles” and hence was supposed by Rosenbusch to be isotropic. In the mellilite of Vultura and Capo di Bove it is, how- ever, easily made out. In the mellilites from Hochbohl and Palma the decomposition has proceeded farther, producing a zeolite, probably mesotype. This process Gentil likens to the serpentinization of oliv- ine. The direction of development of the “ chevilles” (normal to the base) is a direction of easy decomposition and is, in some cases, at least one of weak cohesion. Blowpipe Coatings on Glass.—Goldschmidt* has proposed the use of a simple device for holding a small glass plate (an object or cover glass) or a mica lamella on the surface of a stick of charcoal, so that the blowpipe coatings are deposited on the glass or mica. It is thus possible to remove them and examine under the microscope or by chemical methods. The fusibility or solubility may be tested and the material is adapted to study by the methods of microchemical an- alysis. By use of sodium sulphide as a reagent, colored precipitates are obtained as follows: From arsenic, cadmium yellow; antimony, reddish-yellow; lead, molybdenum, tellurium, and copper chloride, 1Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. * Bull. Soc. Franç. Minér., xvii, pp. 108-119. May, 1894. * Zeitsch. f. Kryst. xxi, pp. 329-333, 1893. 564 The American Naturalist. [June, black ; zinc and tin, unaltered. The method is of special importance in distinguishing arsenic and antimony compounds, and in determin- ing zinc, thallium, and telluric acid. Use of Phosphorus in Studying Minerals of High Refrac- tive Index.—Retgers* uses colorless to yellow phosphorous as a medium in which to imbed small mineral grains, which, because of their high refractive-index would appear black if imbedded in Canada balsam. Melted phosphorous has a very high refractive index (np=2.075) and if used in grains of the size of a pin head can be handled without danger. Such a grain is heated on an object glass till fusion begins and quickly compressed under the cover glass. The substance remains long fiuid in the capillary space and consolidates clear and transparent. Rutile, brookite, and anatase are the only rock-making minerals of higher index than the phosphorous and these are brought out more clearly by it. Ifthe mineral grains to be exam- ined are so coarse that there is considerable danger of the oxidization of the phosphorous, the latter may be dissolved in carbon bisulphide. It is much more convenient to work with the solution but its maximum index is considerably lower than that of the fused metal. Chalcocite from Monte Catini.—Boeris® has investigated some specimens of chalcocite from the Monte Catini mines, Lucca, Italy. On these crystals he has made out five forms new to the locality 4 (230), (012), (023), (021), (111) }, and one (052) which is new to the mineral. Another new form (270), though very small, was deter- mined with considerable probability from its zones. There is also de- scribed a new twinning law for the species, the twinning plane being a face of (011). Diopside and Apatite from Zoptau.—Griiber® describes this new locality for diopside and apatite. The former appears in crystals up to 5 cm. long, which have terminations conditioned by the forms z (021), p (101), u (111), and s (111). The crystals are bright grass green and translucent. The crystals of apatite are thick tabular and 3-1 cm. long, and are either colorless or of a pale amethyst color, They occur loose in clay and in a much weathered horneblende schist. In addition to the base, first order prism, and first and second order pyramids, two-third order pyramids, » (1231) and (1341) are found on the crystals. * Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral., etc., 1808, m a. 130-134. 5 Zeitsch. f. Kryst:, xxiii, pp. 235-23: *Tscherm. Min. u. Pet. Mitth., xiv To pp. 266-270. \ 1895.] Mineralogy. 565 Serpierite.—This mineral, which comes from the Laurium Mts. in Greece, was described by Bertrand and Des Cloiseaux’ and Damour in 1881, but no analysis was made of it. Damour described it as an in- soluble hydrated basic sulphate of zinc and copper. Frenzel? has re- cently analyzed the mineral and found it to contain eight per cent of lime and very minute quantities of aluminium, chlorine, and sodium. The analysis is as follows: CuO 36.12, ZnO 13.95, CaO 8.00, SO, 24.29, H,O 16.75, Total 99.11. This corresponds to the empirical formula 3 (CuO ZnO CaO) SO,+-3H,0. Lautite.—This mineral has been considered a mixture by Groth and Weisbach. A new find from the Rudolf Schachte at Lauta, near Marienberg, Sax., is according to Frenzel’ very pure, though it never occurs in crystals or even in large masses. The following analysis by him he considers sufficient evidence that lautite is an independent mineral ; Percentages. Molecular ratios. Cu 36.10 0.568 As 45.66 0.608 ; 17.88 0.559 99.64 The content of silver in the mineral varies from 0-12 per cent, and perhaps more. Study of Optical Anomalies by Artificially Coloring.— Senarmont and later Otto Lehman showed that anisotropic crystals may be artificially colored by adding coloring matter to the solution in which they are forming. They thus become pleochroic. Gaubert”? utilizes this fact in examining some pseudo-isometric crystals—the an- hydrous nitrates of barium, lead, and strontium. The colored crystals obtained show six pleochroic sectors at the same instant, the opposite. sectors having the same tint. Ifa barium nitrate solution be divided into two parts and one of these be colored with methelene blue, the colored erystals obtained have intense pleochroism, although the un- colored crystals from the other part of the solution exhibit no double refraction. 1 Bull. Soc. Minéral. de France, iv, p. 89, 1881. ë Min. u. petrog. Mitth., xiv, pp. 121-130, 1894. ° Ibidem, . _ WBull. Soc. Franç. Minér., xvii, pp. 121-123, May, 1894. 38 566 The American Naturalist. [June, New Method of Illuminating in Photomicrographic Work. —Kéhler" has suggested a method of securing even illumination of the field when artificial light is used. Instead of removing the condenser and collector from the microscope, as is usually done, thus securing an image of the source of light in the plane of the section, Köhler makes use of an accessory lens and so adjusts the condenser that a sharp image of the accessory lens is brought to the plane of the section. The object is thus uniformly illuminated, even to the margin. Chemical Behavior of Dimorphous Minerals.—Doelter” has studied the comparative action of reagents on some dimorphous min- erals, viz.: andalusite and kyanite, orthoclase and microcline, epidote and zoisite, enstatite and anthophyllite, diopside and actinolite, pyrite and marcasite, and sphalerite and wurtzite. Finely powdered speci- mens of each were subjected under similar conditions to the action of such reagents as chlorine and hydrochloric acid gases, hydrofluoric acid, potassium and sodium hydroxides, ete., to determine their rela- tive decomposability. Marcasite is found to be less decomposed by solution of soda than pyrite. The fact that on treatment with water or sulphide of soda, the mineral which separates from the solution on evaporation is always the particular modification which was dissolved, seems to show a chemical difference between the two dimorphous forms of ZnS and those of Fe S, In many other cases the results were negative or the differences were such as might be explained by the slight chemical differences of the substances taken. Pearls.—Though perhaps not strictly to be included in the field covered by these reviews, it seems proper to call the attention of mineralo- gists to the admirable paper by the late Professor Karl Möbius on pearls", in Velhagen and Klasing’s popular magazine. This scientific paper discusses not alone the methods of fishing and extracting pearls, but describes, with the aid of beautiful figures, the different fresh and salt water mussels which bear pearls, the structure of the animal, and the manner of growth of the pearl. The structures of the pearl itself are made clear by drawings from microscopic sections, prepared by the author from a number of valuable gem pearls. The connection be- tween the structure and surface and the value of the gem is also dis- cussed.— Wa. H. Hoses. u Zeitsch. f. Wiss. Mikrosko = p. 443 (1893). Abstracted in Zeitsch. f. Instrumentenkunde, 14, pp. 41 1(1 1894 94). Neues Jahrb. f. Miner., etc., om ip pp. 265-27 te 18 Die echten Perlen. Velliagen und Klasing’s Monatsh IXte Jahrgang, pp- 325-335. (Nov. 1894.) on 1895.] Petrograp hy. 567 PETROGRAPHY.' The Eruptive Rocks of the Christiana Region.—Brigger has done an excellent piece of work in this, the first of his reports on the eruptive rocks of Norway. The article deserves much more notice than can be given it in this place. Briefly, the author describes groru- dite, salvsbergite and tinguite dykes whieh together form what is de- nominated a rock series—that is, a series of rocks that differ slightly from each other in their chemical composition, but which, at the same time, by their intimate gradations into each other, give evidence of being closely related. All of these rocks are rich in soda and potassa, and all contain alkaline amphiboloids. The grorudite is essentially an aggregate of microcline and albite, usually in microperthitic inter- growths, rarely anorthoclase, and always aegerine and amphibole, as phenocysts, in a groundmass of potash feldspar, albite, sometimes soda- orthoclase, aegerine and more or less quartz. The amphiboles are arfvedsonite and katoforite, the latter name being given to a series of alkaline iron amphiboles having the angle C A ¢ = 31°-58°, and pleochroism as follows: B>C> A= yellowish red > brownish red > yellowish red or greenish yellow. In all their properties, so far as studied, they occupy a position between barkevikite and arfvedsonite. Salvsbergite differs from grorudite in containing little or no quartz. Its structure is trachytic. Grorudite is regarded as the dyke form of soda-granite and panteller- ite and salvsbergite that of nordmarkite. After a discussion of the significance of the notion of dyke rocks as a group of well-defined rock types, the author concludes that while the group is well characterized by Rosenbusch, it includes a number of rocks that are but apophyses of bosses, etc., and which should be classed with the rocks of bosses. He prefers the term “hypabyssische Ges- teine” for all rocks with the structure of dyke rocks, whether they be in the form of true dykes, of sheets, or whether they occur as the peri- pheral form of bosses or laccolites. The hypabyssmal rocks comprise a great group of equal value with that of the surface (volcanic) rocks and that of the abyssmal (plutonic) rocks. It includes two classes— the aschistic and the diaschistic—the first embracing those rocks not produced by the differentiation of their source-magma, and the latter 1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Maine. 2 Viedenskabsselskabels Skrifter. Math.-naturv. Klasse, 1894, No. 4. 568 The American Naturalist. [June, those thus produced. The diaschistic rocks form complementary mem- bers, such as the minettes and aplites. The complementary form of salvsbergite is lindoite, a trachytic aggregate of phenocysts of micro- perthite and brown biotite, in a groundmass of quartz, biotite, aegerine and various secondary products, among which carbonates play an im- portant rôle. The laws of differentation in the different parts of the dykes are studied through the aid of a large number/of carefully made analyses, as well as those governing the differentiation of the dyke masses from the boss masses. In all cases it is found that the differentiation con- sists in an increase in Fe,O, toward the sides of the dyke, and an in- crease of the same constituents in the dyke masses as compared with the coroesponding boss material. The original magma is believed to have split into two magmas, one of which yielded the laccolite and boss material, and the other the substance of the diaschistic dykes. The former, in turn, split in the same way into a peripheral and a main phase, the former of which gave rise to the aschistic dykes. The large number of analyses accompanying the discussion, and the careful description on which it is based, supply an excellent basis on which the long-desired genetic and philosophical classification of rocks may be founded, provided the lines of thought developed by the author are found to hold for other regions than those of southern Norway. The Massive Rocks of Arran.—A very full account of the petrographical features of the massive rocks of the southern half of the Island of Arran has been given by Corstorphine’. The rock-types in- clude pitchstones, quartz porphyries, normal diabase, quartzitic phases of the same rock, olivine-analcite varieties and sahlite diabases, all of which occur in sheets or dykes. The pitchstone presents no unusual characters. The quartz porphyries include those with a spherulitic groundmass and those whose groundmass is crystaline, and among the latter are microgranitic and micropegmantic varieties. The quartz- bearing diabases are usually in sheets. They contain large macroscopic quartzes and feldspars, especially near their contacts with the porphyry; and at their contacts with the underlying sandstone they contain large fragments of this rock. In the normal biabase both hypersthene and biotite occur. The large crystals of quartz and feldspar are regarded as foreign components, which have been caught up from the porphyry- The olivine analcite diabase is a typical diabase in which zeolites, and especially analcites, are abundant. These occupy the interstices be- 3 Minn. u. Petrog. Mitth., XIV, p. 443. 1895.] Petrography. 569 tween the plagioclase and augites, and are thought to have originated from the alteration of nepheline. Migration of Crystals from a Younger to an Older Rock. —It has long been assumed, that of two igneous rocks in contact, that containing crystals peculiar to the other was necessarily younger than the latter. Cole,‘ however, shows that crystals may be floated away into a pre-existing rock of a low degree of fusibility from one of a higher degree which has intruded it. At Glasdrumman Port, County Down, Ireland, a dyke of eurite is flanked on both sides by dykes of basaltic andesite, of which the andesites are unquestionably the older rocks, since the eurite on its contact with them encloses fragments torn from their sides. The eurite contains porphyritic crystals of pink orthoclase, while the andesite is normally devoid of them. Near its contact with the former rock, however, crystals exactly like those in the eurite are occasionally found in the andesite. Crystals of quartz and feldspar have also often been floated from the eurite into the detached fragments of the andesite. The invading rock has melted the ground- mass of the andesite and has left its larger crystals scattered through a matrix made up largely of molten andesite intermingled with some eurite substance. Notes.—In a report accompanying an excellent geological map of Essex Co., Mass., Sears® describes briefly the following rocks: Horn- blende granitites, granophyric granitites with a flowage structure, augite- nepheline syenites, hornblende diorites, quartz-augite-diorites, musco- vite-biotite-granites, norites, quartz porphyries, peridotites, gneisses, both igneous and clastic, bostonite and tinguaite dykes and various effusive rocks, A series of chemical analyses of the gneissoid granites, granite por- phyries and porphyrites of the Bachergebirge in Stiermark, has been made by Pontoni® in order to discover whether all the granite porphy- ries, that form great dyke masses in the region, have the same compo- sition or not, and whether the small porphyrite dykes that cut the granite are like the granites and the granite porphyries or are unlike them. The conclusion reached is to the effect that the granite porphy- ries are identical with the gneissoid granites of the region, and that the porphyrites are independent intrusives. . *Scient. Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc., Vol. V, Ser. II, p. 239. > Bull. Essex Inst., XX VI, 1894. ê Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., XIV, p. 360. 570 The American Naturalist. — [June, Zaleski’ has made, with great care, a number of chemical analyses and mechanical separations of several granites to determine whether or not they are syenites plus quartz; that is, whether or not the chemical limits between which these rock types vary are fixed. His results may be tabulated as follows: Locality. SiO, Content. SiO, of rock—Quartz. Dannemora, 61.06 ; Nigg, 69.84 65.33 Hangö, 71.42 59.46 Baveno, 74.44 41.38 Of these granites only one possesses the silica content of syenite after the sor he has been abstracted from it. Spurr,’ in a bulletin on the iron-bearing rocks of the Mesabi Range in Minnesota, describes a series of fragmental and cherty rocks associated with the ores. One of these, to which he gives the name “taconite,” consists of a groundmass of silica, in which are granites of a green substance, regarded by the author as glauconite. These are always more or less altered, yielding siderite, magnetite, hematite, etc. The sideritic phase of this taconite is like the original carbonate of Irving and Van Hise. In asmall collection of specimens from central and western Para- guay, Milch’ has recognized quartzites, limestones and phonolites. GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. Niagara and the Great Lakes.—Another contribution to the history of the Great Lakes is published by F. B. Taylor.” It is the eighth of a series and brings the history up to date. In an introduc- tion the author refers to the recent papers of Professor J. W. Spencer and Mr. Warren Upham on the post-glacial history of the Great Lakes in the following language :— “ Prof. Spencer on the one hand levels all the higher abandoned beaches with the sea, and does not distinctly recognize a single ice- 1 Ib., XIV, p. 342. ê Bull. No. X, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minn. ? Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., XIV, p. 383. 1 Amer, Journ. Sci. Arts, 1895 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 571 dammed lake. Mr. Upham, on the other hand, ascribes nearly all submergence to ice-dammed lakes, and admits none as marine except that which is proved by fossils. As often happens in such cases, the ` probability is that the truth lies between these wide extremes. Ice dams have played an important part, but not to the exclusion of marine submergence even at high levels. On the other hand, marine invasion is not available as an explanation for some of the most important areas of submergence.” ' Mr. Taylor’s views of the subject under discussion are summarized in the following chronological conspectus, taken from the last paper of his series, from which it will be seen that they are of the medium character referred to above : “ As its maximum the great Laurentide glacier covered the whole area of the Great Lakes. By a correlation of the abandoned shore lines, moraines and outlets, and the gorges, recently submerged shores and rivers of this region the following order of events is made out for the post-glacial history of the Great Lakes. They are set down in seven principal stages with transitions or critical stages between. “1. Glacial, ice-dammed lakes. Outlets at Fort Wayne, Chicago and other places. Beaches correlated with moraines in Ohio. Glacial lakes fall by stages as outlets change on withdrawal of the glacier- dams. Land relatively high in the north but slowly subsiding. “ First transition: By withdrawal of glacier the Niagara river is opened and the upper lakes become united. “II. First Niagara lakes. First epoch of Niagara Falls begins at Lewiston. For a short time glacial Lake Iroquois receives the water from Niagara. Shore lines of lower levels of this glacial lake washed over and obliterated by later marine invasion. Gradual depression of land continues at north, finally opening Nipissing outlet. “ Second transition.—First two-outlet climax. Marked by the Algon- quin Beach. (Possible subdivision here for Trent river outlet). Gradual northward depression continues. First epoch of Niagara Falls closes at the Whirlpool. Epoch of Erigan Fall begins. “III. First Lake Algonquin. Outlet eastward over Ni ipissing pass. “ Third transition: Gradual northward depression continues. Nip- issing outlet brought down to sea level. Lakes become marine. “IV. Warren Gulf (rising stage). Marine waters fill the three upper lakes, the Ontario, St. Lawrence, and Winnipeg basins. “ Fourth transition: Marine climax. Marked by the Chippewa Beach. Northward depression eeases and gradual elevation begins, 572 . The American Naturalist. [June, Troquois and Herman marine beaches made at the same time as the Chippewa. This was probably the climax of the post-glacial warm epoch. “V. Warren Gulf (falling stage). Gradual northward elevation. Irregular uplifts in the north deforming Chippewa and Algonquin beaches. “ Fifth transition: Nipissing outlet raised to sea level. Upper lakes become fresh. “VI. Second Lake Algonquin. Outlet eastward over Nipissing pass. Probably a small amount of local uplift at outlet in early “Visth Transition: Second two-outlet climax. “Marked by the Nipissing Beach. Epoch of Erigan Fall closes at a point between 40 and 80 rods above the cantilever bridge. Second (present) epoch of Niagara Falls begins. “ VII. Second Niagara lakes’ (present stage). Lake Superior be- comesindependent. Great Champlain uplift at the northeast. Forma- tion of St. Clair delta begins and continues to the present time.” (Am. Journ. Sci., April, 1895.) Fossil Insects.—M. Brogniart in a work on fossil insects recently published recognizes 62 genera of cockroaches represented by 137 species, many of which are new, and described for the first time by the author. Among other facts made known is the existence of car- boniferous insects having three pairs of wings. Certain other species keep, in the adult form, a Jarval characteristic, being furnished with respiratory plates on the sides of the abdomen, comparable to those of the larvæ of modern Neuropters. The modern cockroaches lay their eggs, generally, enclosed in an egg-bearing capsule ; the Paleo-species, on the contrary, had an ovi- positor and laid their eggs one by one as the grasshoppers do. The Protolocustides and Paleacridides were jumping Orthopterons insects like the grasshoppers and katydids of the present time, but their posterior wings were as large as the anterior ones and were not folded like a fan. (Bull. Acad. Roy. des Sci. 1895.) The Phylogeny of the Whalebone Whales.—At a meeting of the American Philosophical Society held May 3d, 1895 Prof. E. D. Cope gave an account of the types of Mystacoceti which had been dis- covered, and which throw considerable light on the probable phylogeny of the suborder. He pointed out that the Zeuglodon pygmeus of PLATE XXVI. X A\\\AY Ss TKS st “SS -n PAN - Dinictis bombifrons, Adams, x }. 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 573 Müller is in cranial characters much like Mystacoceti of the genus Cetotherium, and that it is probable that the latter were derived from the forms by the loss of their teeth. The structures of the mandibular rami of various species show the transitions from such a form to those of the right whales. Deriving the Balænidæ then from a form like that of the new genus Agorophius (type Zeugloden pygmeus Miill.), we have a succession of genera in which the gingival groove and dental canal show various stages of roofing, fusion or obliterati The genera of the Neocone beds were defined as follows. I. Gingival groove distinct from dental canal. Gingival groove open ; Genus not discovered. Gingival groove overoofed ; Siphonocetus Cope. II. Dental canal not distinct ; gingival groove open. Gingival tubules wanting ; Ulias Cope. Gingival tubules present ; Tretulias Cope. III. Gingival groove and dental canal fied. Common canal roofed, and perforated by gingival tubules ; Cetotherium Brandt. The type of Siphonocetusis Balæna prisca Leidy. 8S. expansus Cope, and S. clarkianus Cope, sp. nov. belong to it. The type of Ulias is U.. moratus Cope sp. nov. - The type of Tretulias is T. buccatus Cope, sp. nov. To Cetotherium are referred C. pusillum Cope, C. crassangulum Cope sp. nov., C. polyporum Cope, and C. cephalus Cope. All the species of Balænidæ referred to are from the Yorktown (Middle) Neocene beds of Maryland, Virginia and N. Carolina. Two New Species of Dinictis from the White River Beds. —The primitive saber-toothed cats are already represented in the genus Dinictis by three species; D. felina Leidy, D. cyclops Cope and D. squalidens Cope. To these may be added the two species described in this article, D. fortis and D. bombifrons. With the exception of D. cyclops from the John Day Beds of the Lower Miocene, the species are confined to the White River or Oligocene. Until the division of the White River,’ no account of horizons was taken in collecting, but from the specimens at hand the range of the different species is indicated as follows: D. fortis, Titanotherium and Lower Oreodon Beds, D. bom- bifrons Lower Oreodon Beds, D. felina, Lower Oreodon to the Proto- ceras Beds. 1 Divisions of the White River or Lower Miocene of Dakota, by J. L. Mort- man, Bulletin American Museum, Nat. Hist., Vol. V, June 27, 1893. 574 The American Naturalist. : [June, Dinictis fortis sp. nov. This species is based upon two specimens in the Princeton Museum, (number 11085 from the upper Titanotherium Beds and number 10933 from the Lower Oreodon Beds) which were collected by Mr. J. B. Hatcher in the summer of 1894. Number 11085, in which the front portion of the skull and the mandibular rami are preserved, is taken as the type specimen. Besides the skull there are present the distal end of the scapula, the humerus, most of the lumbar vertebra, pelvis, proximal half of the femur, the tibia, astragalus and the bones of one digit. Of specimen 10933 there are portions of the skull showing the typical dentition and in addition to the bones of the type specimen there are the radius, ulna, scapho-lunar and additional foot bones and vertebree, thus making it possible to give all the distinguishing char- acters of the species excepting those of the posterior portion of the skull. Typical characters: The species differs from D. felina in that the muzzle is much shorter and broader and the orbital plate of the maxil- lary is larger and heavier. The differences in dentition are the entire absence of the paraconid of the second premolar, the larger upper = teeth as shown in the lower premolars. The Fig. 1. Dinictis ada skeleton is larger, the limb bones approaching fragment of jaw, x J. . in proportions those of Hoplophoneus occiden- talis but with more slender shafts. The Skull: The fact that the posterior portion is not preserved prevents the description of many important points, but the characters of the anterior portion are distinctive. The nasals are broader than those of D. felina and the premaxillaries are heavier and more rounded in their lower portion. The opening of the anterior nares is corre- spondingly broader. The maxillaries unjte with the nasals and pre- maxillaries so as to form a regularly curved surface, in consequence of which the muzzle presents a rounded appearance. The orbital plate is heavier and extends farther forward, the anterior portion of the malar process of the maxillary being over the posterior root of the third premolar while in D. felina it is above the anterior root of the sectorial. This fact also has an important bearing on the shortening of the muzzle. The orbit is wider aud the infra-orbital foramen is distinctly larger. The anterior portion of the palate is somewhat broader, otherwise it pre- sents no special characteristics. The horizontal ramus of the mandible - 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 575 is slightly heavier, the symphysis is broader and the flanges are less accentuated. There is a low rough tuberosity on the inner superior border of the ramus opposite the second rig similar to that men- tioned by Cope as occurring in H. oreodont Dentition: In the type specimen the crowns of all the teeth are broken off but the mugs show the dental formula to be that character- istic of the genus, I, $ C. + M. 3. The superior than is indicated by the recorded measurements of D. felina. In speo- imen 10933 from the Lower Oreodon Beds, the crowns of the third and fourth inferior premolars are preserved. They are higher, the para- and meta-conids are less trenchant and the teeth are set more nearly perpendicularly in the jaw than those of the other Nimravide. There are no indications of a paraconid on the third premolar. The fore-limb: The scapula presents a large glenoid cavity to correspond with the large articular surface of the head of the humerus. The neck is stout, the coracoid process is short and heavy, the spine is thick and shows the base of the metacromion. The head of the humerus is large and the greater tuberosity rises above it but slightly. The lesser tuberosity is low and rugose. The bicipital groove is broad and shallow, contrasted with that of D. felina, which is narrow and deep. The ulna and radius present no special characteristics excepting their relatively larger proportions. The manus of D. felina has not been described but from a specimen at hand it can be seen that it was small and narrow, thus agreeing in character with the pes which is already well known.2 The manus of D. fortis agrees with these characters but the scapho lunar differs in that the tubercle is set off by a distinct roove, The hind limbs are very similar in their markings to those of D. felina but on the femur the line from the third trochanter to the second is incomplete and the inter-osseous line of the tibia is very sharp and well marked. These characters are presentin both specimens and are probably not due to individual variation. The knee j joint seems particularly large, since the shafts of the limb bones possess something of the slenderness characteristic of those of D. felina. While the astra- gulus and calcaneum are heavy, the length of the fourth metapodial shows the pes to have been long. The unguals have incipient hoods. In the type specimen there are preserved the lumbar vertebra and the sacrum. In the other specimen twenty-nine vertebræ are present, all of which are more or less mutilated. These indicate an animal of ? Notes on the Osteology and Systematic position of Dinictis felina, W. B. Scott. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, July 30, 1889. 576 The American Naturalist. ~ [Junė, great strength especially in the lumbar regions. The pelvis is broad and rugose, the ilium and ischium being thick and stout. This species extends the range of Dinictis, this being the first spe- cimen reported from the Titanotherium Beds, and is interesting as being more primitive and pointing to a greater antiquity for the genus. MEASUREMENTS D. fortis D. felina M M Length of bony palate, 075 072 Breadth of bony palate (posterior edge) 070 069 Breadth between canines, 030 026 Length of upper molar series, 048 049 Breadth of upper incisor series, .028 029 Upper canine, transverse diameter, .010 .008 Upper canine, fore and aft diameter, .016 012 Length of mandible from condyle, 126 119 Length of lower molar series, 055 052 Breadth of lower incisor series, 015 .016 Lower canine, transverse diameter, 004. .006 Lower canine, fore and aft diameter, 005 .008 Humerus, length, 192 172 Humerus, breadth, proximal end, head and great tuberosity, .043 .038 Humerus, breadth, distal end, 047 .042 Radius, length, i .148 Radius greatest diameter of head, 020 Radius breadth of distal end, .030 Ulna, length, 191 Ulna, distance from olecranon to beak, .030 _ Ulna, distance olecranon to coronoid, .020 Femur, length, 190 Femur, breadth, proximal end (head and great trochanter) 050 .038 Femur, breadth, distal end (greatest width of condyles) 046 034 Tibia, length, including maleolus, .186 168 Tibia, breadth proximal end, 041 034 Tibia, breadth distal end, 5» OFF .020 Calcaneum, length, 055 043 Astragalus, length, 035 027 Metatarsal IV, length, .064 .053 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 577 Dinictis bombifrons, sp. nov. A nearly complete skull and mandible, (number 10502 in the Princeton museum) collected from the Lower Oreodon Beds by W. H Burwell establishes a second species new to science. Unfortunately there are no other parts of the skeleton associated with it, but its size and peculiar shape are sufficiently characteristic to distinguish it at once from the species already described. Comparing this skull with that of D. felina, which is the type of the genus, it is considerably larger and proportionately longer in the pos- terior region. At thesame time it is not so high, consequently the angle of the parietals with the frontals is greater. The most striking feature is the post-orbital constriction which is situated further back of the post-orbital processes than in D. felina and is more pronounced, being only 31 mm. in transverse diameter. This is the concomitant of a smaller cerebral capacity. On account of the cerebral fossa being less dilated, the zygomatic processes appear more distinct and the sagittal crest is higher. The frontals are bulging and in consequence there is a median depression. This conformation would seem to indicate an en- largement of the frontal sinuses. The nasals are broad and extend behind the maxillo-frontal suture, their line of union with the frontals forming a nearly perfect semi-circle. The infra-orbital foramen is de- pressed well into the maxillary. Tho premaxillaries with the incisors are absent from the specimens and the anterior portion of the maxil- laries is weathered away, leaving the fangs of the large canines exposed, The hard palate does not differ materially from that of D. felina. The opening of the posterior nares is broad in front but narrow further back where the pterygoyds curve inward. The basal region is slightly longer in proportion, the paroccipital processes are more developed and are acute. The occipital condyles are much heavier. The foramen magnum is smaller and is nearly round. The supra-occipital is produced posteriorly so that its surface looks downward. The sagittal crest and lambdoidal ridge are thin and high. As seen from above the lateral margins of the occiput are parallel and the inion is regularly curv The mandible is longer, corresponding with the elongation of the ` skull and the flanges are low and heavy. The dentition is not essen- tially different from D. felina except in the large, compressed superior canines, The superior molar is somewhat reduced, the second inferior molar has a single root and is just on the point of disappearing, and there is a short diastema between the second and third premolars, but these characters may not prove constant. The postero-internal cusp of 578 The American Naturalist. [June, the lower sectorial has been shown to be an inconstant character in the genus. In this specimen it is well developed. MEASUREMENTS D. bombifrons D. felina M M Length of skull, condyles to premaxillaries, .185 .154 Length of skull including overhanging occiput, .205 Length of cranium to anterior rim of orbit, .130 .108 Length of face, .055 .046 Distance from anterior rim of orbit to post- orbital constriction, .065 .050 Length of bony palate, i .074 .072 Breadth of bony palate, posterior portion, .070 .069 Breadth between canines, .025 .026 Distance from foramen magnum to line of post-glenoid process, .039 .033 Distance from foramen magnum to line of mastoid processes, 0195 0195 Length of upper molar series, 046 .049 Length of upper canine, .050 Upper canine, transverse diameter, »» SOO .008 ‘Upper canine, fore and aft diameter, 019 .012 Length of mandible from condyle, .132 119 Length of lower molar series, 055 .052 Lower canine, transverse diameter, 007 006 Lower canine, fore and aft diameter, 110 008 Geo. I. ADAMS. Geological News, Parrozorc.—Mr. Beecher’s study of a series of Trinucleus concentrieus Eaton, a trilobite departing widely from the common form, substantiates the conclusions of Barrande as to the generic value of the ocular tubercle and eye-line. They clearly repre- sent adolescent characters. In regard to the appendages of T. concentricus, Professors Verrill and Smith agree that they indicate an animal of burrowing habit, which probably lived in the mud of the sea-bottom, after the fashion of the modern Limulus. In addition to its limuloid form, the absence of eyes favors this assumption, so does the fact that many specimens have been found preserving the cast of the alimentary canal, showing that 1895.] Geology and Paleontology. 579 the animal gorged itself with mud like many other sea-bottom animals. (Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLIX, 1895.) The eruptive rock in south central Wisconsin, classified as quartz porphyry by the state geologists, is described in detail by Weidman. The formation represents a volcanic outflow which took place over beds of Upper Huronian quartzite. The normal rock is a quartz kerato- phyre, but along the contact line with the quartzite occurs a zone of sericite schist from 150 to 200 feet wide. These schists are a dynamic alteration of the quartz keratophyre, and are not as Irving supposed, related to the Magnesian schists of Devil’s Lake. A third type of rock belonging to the series is volcanic breccia varying in size from an inch to a foot in diameter. The areal extent of the eruptive rock is greater than was formerly supposed. It was during an elevation which followed the outflow, that the overlying porphyry was metamorphosed, in part, into schist. (Bull. Univ. Wise. Sci. Ser., Vol. I, 1895.) = Mxsozorc.—M. Sauvage classifies the Dinosaurs found in the Upper Jurassic beds of Boulogue from 1863 up to the present time as follows: Sub-order Sauropoda. Fam. Atlantosauridæ, Morinosaurus typus Svg.; Pelorosaurus pre- cursor Sog. Fam. ? Dinosaurien de grande taille. Sub-order Theropoda. Fam. Megalosauridæ, Megalosaurus insignis E. E. Desl. Sub-order Ornithopoda. Fam. Iguanodontidæ. Iguanodon prestwichii Hulke. (Bull. Soe. Geol. de France [1894] 1895.) Geological News.—PLISTOCENE.—À study of the topography and distribution of the typical eskers of New England brings Mr. J. B. Woodworth to the conclusion that they are most easily explained by a subglacial origin, but segments occur where the cross-section departs from the limitations of the type and demands a channel open to the sky. (Proceeds. Boston, Soc. Nat. Hist., 1894.) Mr. R. E. Dodge offers the following hypothesis to account for the terraces of the Connecticut River: The Connecticut River occupies such a well-marked valley that it must have been the drainage channel of a large amount of water caused by the melting of the great glacier that overlay some portion of its alley. A part if not all of the waste in the terraces must have been 580 The American Naturalist. [June, Jain down during the presence of the ice. Afterwards a decreased volume and a rising land will account for the rest of the work done in postglacial times. In other words, the upper terrace plain is due to a glacial accident in the river’s history, and the upper escarpment was formed as the river cut down toward base-level after the land rose when relieved from the weight of ice. The later terraces formed asthe river sank its channel deeper into the glacial waste, each terrace plain repre- senting the temporary level of the stream, and each escarpment show- ing intermittently rising land. (Proceeds. Boston, Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXVI, 1894.) A fossil mandible in the Museum at Brisbane, Queensland, is referred by Mr. De Vis to Zygomaturus. In commenting on the supposed identity of this genus with Nototherium Owen, the author says that this mandible shows the two genera to be distinct and that Zygomaturus, and its three allies, Diprotodon, Nototherium, and Euowenia, form a natural family of the phascolomine section of the marsupials. (Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, Vol. XI, 1895.) BOTANY. Progress of the Botanical Survey of Nebraska.—From data recently obtained the following statement is made of the progress of the Botanical Survey of Nebraska. From its beginning, several years ago, the Survey has been a private enterprise, supported and encour- aged by the University of Nebraska, the State Board of Agriculture, and the State Horticultural Society. The immediate work is in the hands of the Botanical Seminar, an organization of graduates of the botanical department of the University of Nebraska. Through the energy of the members of the Seminar expeditions have been made from time to time to nearly all parts of the State, and in some cases these have been of extended duration. The first considerable publica- tion was made in 1890 when H. J. Webber’s “ Catalogue of the Flora of Nebraska” appeared in the Report of the State Board of Agricul- ture. Reprints of this catalogue were issued under separate cover, and these have formed the basis of subsequent work and publication. This catalogue, unlike many local publications of its kind, was based upon 1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. 1895.] Botany. 581 actual specimens in the possession of the author, with a few exceptions where species were admitted on the authority of recent scientific publi- cations. In this catalogue 1,890 species were enumerated, almost equally divided between the flowerless and flowering plants. | Important additions were made by members of the Seminar during the two years following the publication of the catalogue, and early in 1892, Mr. Webber published an “ Appendix” to his first catalogue. This, with other additions published at the same time in a “ Supplementary List,” brought the whole number of species up to nearly 2,500 not quite equally divided between flowerless and flowering plants, the latter ex- ceeding the former by about 150. A year later, 1893, in the “ Report on Collections made in 1892” 162 species were added, and in the “ Report for 1893 ” published in 1894, 184 additions were made, bring- ing the whole number of species (after making necessary corrections) up to abont 2,820, again almost equally divided between flowerless and flowering plants. The collections made last year, now nearly worked up, will amount to about 220 or more species, so that the list of known species now approximates 3,050. The flowerless plants now surpass the phanerogams, there being fully 1,600 of the former, to about 1,450 of the latter. From this time forward the ascendency of the lower plants is assured, since it is quite certain that by far the larger part of the flowering plants have already been catalogued. Throughout the work, the original rule of basing all additions upon actual specimens has been adhered to, and in all the later work every specimen has been deposited in the Herbarium of the Survey. Some of the earlier collections are still in the private herbaria of members of the Seminar, but these will doubtless eventually be deposited in the Survey Herbarium also. Along special lines a more particular study of the distribution of species has been made; thus the distribution of the woody plants has been mapped for each species, the whole including a series of small maps on which the area covered by each species is indicated by red- ink shading. In addition the data so obtained have been published in the bulletins of the Experiment Station (No. 18, 1891), the Annual Report of the Nebraska State Horticultural Society (1892), and the Annual Report of the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture (1894). Sixty-four trees and seventy-seven shrubs are now known to occur in the State, and their distribution is already quite well known. The final reports of the Survey are to take the form of a systematic descriptive work, in whieh every species is to be fully described, accom- 39 582 The American Naturalist. [June, panied by illustrations of all the genera. This publication is to bear the name “Flora of Nebraska” and will be issued in “ parts” as the material is ready for publication. It is estimated that twenty-five parts of about fifty pages each, will be required to complete this work. In August of last year Parts I and II wereissued. They cover the classes Schizophycex, Chlorophyces, Coleochæteæ, Rhodophyces and Charo- phycex, and are illustrated by thirty-six plates. Part XXII, the Calyciflorae, is nearly ready for the press, and will probably appear about the middle of the year. The plates, of which there will be eleven, are already made, and will illustrate the more difficult species and genera. CHARLES E. Bessey. Pharmaceutical Botany.—A few months ago Professor Sayre’s book “ A Manual of Organic Materia Medica and Pharmacognosy ” was issued by Blakiston & Co. of Philadelphia. An examination of the work, and some use of it in the laboratory show that it is well adapted to the use for which it was designed. The introductory chap- ters, devoted to an outline of Morphological and Structural Botany, will enable the student without other preparation to take up the work of the body of the book. The sequence of pharmaceutical products is strictly botanical, beginning with those which are derived from the Ranunculaceæ, and ending with Irish Moss from one of the Red algæ. The descriptions are good, and there are numerous illustrations, many of which are very good, while even the cruder ones will prove useful to the young pharmacist. Aside from its high value in pharmaceutical botany, it will be a useful reference book in any botanical laboratory. Professor Bastin has recently added another useful book “ Labora- tory Exercises in Botany” (published by W. B. Saunders, Phila.) to his well known series. Although not distinctly so stated, it is especially suited to the wants of students in Medical Colleges, and those who are preparing to take up Pharmaceutical Botany, and for these it will be of much service. The numerous illustrations, while often not artistic, have the merit of making their meaning plain. The two books might very profitably be used together. 1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 583 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY: What becomes of the Flagella ?—Some authors have insisted that the flagella of swarm spores are finally absorbed into the body of the spore, while others have maintained that they are cast off. Ina recently published paper embodying the results of many careful exami- nations (Ueber das Schicksal der Cilien bei den Zoosporen der Phy- comyceten) Rothert shows that both views are correct. In the second swarm stage of Saprolegnia and in the Peronosporeae the flagella are either cast off as soon as the spore comes to rest or soon after, or else they remain attached to the spore indefinitely, even after germination. In the first swarm stage of Saprolegnia, however, he found to his sur- prise that they are as uniformly drawn back into the body of the pro- toplasm, the withdrawal being slow at first and then quite rapid. In both cases, more especially in the former, the old flagella are strongly inclined to turn back on themselves and form fused loops, the reason for which is not very apparent. These loops are formed while the flagellum is attached to the spore or after it has been cast off and may occur in any part of it, the straight part of the flagellum being drawn back into the loop which becomes, thereby, little if any larger, but in- creases noticeably in thickness. These loops usually form within 1 to 3 minutes after the spore comes to rest. The author believes the loop- ing movement is due to the vital activity of the flagellum, the subse- quent drawing in of the straight part being accounted for by surface tension. He points out that purely physical causes would leave the flagella straight, or cause them to swell, or make them contrdct into balls. While not committing himself to the view, it is suggested that possibly the flagella are formed out of a special cytoplasm existing only in small quantity, and that at the end of the first swarm stage of dia- planetic swarm spores this is carefully husbanded for future use. The observations were made on Pythium complens, on a member of an un- described genus nearest related to Phytophthora, on Saprolegnia mono- ica, and on an undetermined species of Saprolegnia, the spores being sown in hanging drops.—Erwin F. SMITH. Perithecial Stage of the Apple-Scab Fungus.—In Berichte d. d. bot. Gesellschaft XII, 9, pp. 838-342 R. Aderhold describes the 1 This cea is edited by Erwin F. Poh, Department of Agriculture oo i 584 The American Naturalist. [June, results of his observations and cultures, concluding that Venturia chlo- rospora f. Maliisthe much sought for ascosporous stage of Fusicladium dendriticum (Wallr.). In culture media of apple and pear broth and the same with addition of gelatin, he found the mycelium and conidia ob- tained from the ascospores of the Venturia to be identical with those obtained from the conidia of the Fusicladium taken directly from the host plant. He did not succeed in growing perithecia either from asco- spores or conidia, neither was he able to demonstrate that the scab can be produced by inoculations with these ascospores, owing to the fact that his experiment was tried in a locality where the disease made its appearance in unexpected abundance so as to confuse results. The evidence, therefore, rests on association and the supposed identity of the fungi which he obtained from ascospores and from conidia. The author states that without previous knowledge it was impossible to tell whether a given culture was derived from a conidium or an ascospore, and maintains that even without inoculatians he has fully established the genetic relationship of the two fungi, this argument will not, how- ever, be fully convincing to others. The perithecia are round to oval with club-shaped, 8-spored asci; spores brown, 2-celled, the forward end smaller, 11-15x7-8». At Proskau in 1893, the asci were ripe the last of March, in 1894, the middle of April. In gelatin cultures the mycelium penetrated to the depth of a centimeter and formed superfi- cially a dense black down, becoming gray-black with age. No pyeni- dia were observed, but round or oval pseudo-parenchymatic bodies finally formed in the cultures, and these were supposed to be incipient perithecia. Two closely related species of Venturia (V. chlorospora and V. ditricha f. piri) were found on old pear leaves attacked by Fusicladium, and because the extruded ascospores are exactly alike, so that the author could not tell with which he was working, the identity of apple and pear scab is also left for future determination. Altogether it would seem to have been better had the author held back the paper so as to include the results of another year, inasmuch as he intends to continue the investigation—Erwin F. Suirn. Poisonous Cactaceae.—The reports of certain Mexican travel- lers (last of all Lumholtz) that the Indians of that region become in- toxicated by eating certain species of cactus seem to have more truth in them than botanists generally have been willing to admit. Recently from Anhalonium Lewinii of northern Mexico, Lewin has isolated an alka- loid anhalonin, which is said to resemble the alkaloids found in many species of Strychnos. It was obtained pure, and both warm and cold 1895.] Vegetable Physiology. 585 blooded animals were subjected to its effects. Per kilo of the animals ex- perimented upon 0.02-0.04 grams caused severe poisoning and 0.16-0.20 grams caused death. This is not the only poisonous cactus. Four other - species of Anhalonium (Echinocactus) were examined and found to be poisonous in varying degrees. Of the genus Mammillaria five species were examined, one of which (M. uberiformis) is noxious. More sur- prising still, the juice of Rhipsalis conferta was also found to be poison- ; ous to cold blooded animals. The author thinks that other species of cacti will turn out to be poisonous, and expresses the hope that some of the alkaloids may be of service in medicine. These notes are from Ber. d. d. bot. Gesellschaft, XII, 9, pp. 283-290. Another paper by the same author giving the toxicological, chemical and ecrystallographical data in detail may be found in Archiv f. ex. Path. u. Pharmak., Bd., 34, 1894.—Erwin F. SMITE. ; Rothert on Heliotropism.—The last number of Cohn’s Beiträge (No. 1, Bd. VII, pp. VII, 212) is wholly given up to a paper on Heliotropism by Dr. W. Rothert, privat docent of the University of Kazan. Many experiments were performed with monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous seedlings, leaf-blades, petioles and stems, and some interesting results were obtained which it may be possible to abstract hereafter. Among other things he concludes that Wiesner’s “ Zug- wachstum ” has no foundation in fact. There are no plates, but many simple figures illustrating curvatures are introduced into the text. The work was done in Leipsic in Dr. Pfeffer’s laboratory —Erwin F’.Smiru. Austro-German Views on Botanical Nomenclature.—At the 66th meeting of the German Naturalists and Physicians held in Vienna in September, 1894, the section of Systematic Botany passed the following resolutions: (1) The rule that a name once used but subsequently invalid shall never again be used is to be recommended for future observance, but retroactive power (once a synonym always a synonym) shall not be given to this rule, and names which have been changed for this reason shall be rejected. (2) As a rule, the original species name is to be retained when a spe- cies is removed from the original genus to another. (3) In questions of priority the year 1753 shall be retained as the point of departure both for names of species and genera. (4) In the naming of species the principle of priority should govern, but a sure name shall not be thrust aside for a doubtful one. 586 The American Naturalist. [June, (5) In the naming of genera a name that has been disused for 50 years shall not be revived to displace one which has been in use. (6) This rule permits of one exception, i. e., when the name in question has been in use 50 years since its revival. ‘ These rules were drawn by two botanists of world-wide reputation, Drs. Ascherson and Engler, and are accompanied by some pages of explanation and remarks which deserve the serious attention of all who are interested in nomenclature. Itis unnecessary to say that Otto Kuntze and his followers receive considerable attention and plenty of sharp criticism. Of course, as Briquet has already remarked concern- ing the rules adopted at Rochester and those suggested by himself and other individuals, these rules must be adopted by an International Congress before they can have any binding force. Botanical nomen- clature is an international affair, and the absurdity of a few individuals or even all of a certain country getting together and trying to dictate to the rest of the world is self evident. The rules here translated and the remarks alluded to will be found in Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift, XLV, No. I, Jan., 1895, pp. 27-35.— Erwin F. SMITH. Separation of Enzymes.—The 18th An. Rept. Conn. Agricul- tural Exp. Sta. (1894) contains a number of papers of interest, notably three by Thomas B. Osborne on The Proteids of the Rye Kernel, The Proteids of Barley, and the Chemical Nature of Diastase. On methods of extraction, he has the following: “The usual method of preparing vegetable enzymes is to treat the aqueous or glycerin extract containing them with alcohol as long as a precipitate having fermentative power appears, to purify this by re- peated precipitation from its solution in water, by means of alcohol, and finally to subject the aqueous solution to dialysis to remove salts. This method is wholly unsuited to yield pure preparations, because the precipitate produced by alcohol contains not only a large amount of carbohydrates and salts, but also nearly all of the various forms of proteid matter present in the extract. : “The most rational method (hitherto very little used) is first to sep- arate the proteids from the carbohydrates and other soluble substances by saturating the extract with ammonium sulphate, thereby precipita- ting the ferment and proteids together, next to remove the proteid ex- isting as globulin, by dialysis, and then, if possible, to separate the albumin and proteoses by fractional precipitation with alcohol.” By this method a diastatic ferment was isolated from malt which was capa- ble at 20° C. of producing “from soluble starch, over 2000 times its weight of maltose, and a further undetermined quantity of dexterin, within one hour.”—Erwin F. Smita. 1895.] Zoology. 587 ZOOLOGY. Habits of Limpets.—It has long been known that the common limpet (Patella vulgata) settles down on some eligible spot (its “ scar % between tide-marks, and makes a home, to which it returns after having been out to feed. This locality-sense has been supposed to be independ- ent of smell, sight and touch, so far as the head tentacles are concerned. Mr. Lloyd Morgan, however, has shown (Nature, Dec. 6, 1894) that the head tentacles are the sense-organs concerned with this “ homing” power. Later observations made by J. R. A. Davis, at the Scottish Marine Section, confirm Mr. Morgan’s conclusions, to some extent, but Mr. Davis is inclined to think that the mantle tentacles may help in the homing. Mr. Davis notes also that this homing faculty is not confined to Patella, but is also possessed by Helcion pellucidum. The object of this habit seems to be protection from the assaults of the incoming or outgoing tide. (Nature, March, 1895). Life-History of the Lobster.—With a view to the artificial culture of the Lobster, Mr. Samuel Garman has undertaken to study the life-history of this animal, and has published the following notes on their breeding habits: 1. The female lobster lays her eggs but once in two years. The normal time of deposition is when the water has attained its summer temperature, varying with seasons and places ; the period ex- tends from about the middle of June to the middle of September. 3. The eggs do not hatch until the following summer, that is, for a ear. The time of hatching varies also with the temperature, and extends from the middle of May to the last of August. The Gas in the Swim-bladder of Deep-Sea Fishes.— During the last scientific voyage of the yacht Princess Alice, com- manded by Prince Monaco, M. Jules Richard had an opportunity of analyizing the gas in the swim-bladder of several species of deep-sea fishes. Serranus, from a depth of 60 meters, and congers, taken from a depth of 175 meters oft the bank of the Gorringe, showed more than 80 per cent. of oxygen. The rest of the gas was nitrogen with traces of CO,. The proportion of oxygen was such that it was easy to perform the well known experiment of lighting a candle by holding one in the 588 The American Naturalist. [June, | gas, having previously lighted and extinguished it, leaving only a spark to start combustion. Simenchelys parasiticus, taken in a bow- net from 1674 meters’ depth in the neighborhood of Corogne, showed 78 per cent. oxygen, that is to say, less than Serranus from 60 meters’ depth. The law stated by Biot, that the proportion of oxygen in- creases with the depth is in default. Some other influences must be taken into account. (Revue Scientifique, April, 1895). A New Locality for Abastor erythrogrammus.—I recently saw excavated from aclay bank on the Pamunkey River, Virginia, two specimens of the A bastor erythrogrammus. This is very far north of the most northern locality known in the east, which is South Caro- lina, although it has been found in the Austoriparian area in Southern Illinois. The locality mentioned is outside of that area and is in the Carolinian district. That the species is a burrower allied to Carpho- phiops is attested not only by its structure but by its habits. Accord- ing to Mr. A. E. Brown, it has been dug from mounds in Florida at a considerable distance below the surface by Mr. C. B. Moore. E. D. Cope. The Cold-Storage Warehouse Cat.—A story has been going the rounds of newspapers, both west and east, to the effect that a new breed of cats has been produced in the cold-storage warehouses of Pittsburg. In some of the papers, reference was made to a new species of rat with the bodies clothed with remarkably long thick fur, with even the tails covered with a thick growth of hair. The rats had adapted themselves to a low temperature, and the cats were the result of breeding from artificial selection in order to obtain a cat to prey on the new rat. According to the story, after several failures, a brood of seven kittens, the progeny of a mother possessing unusually thick fur, was raised in the rooms of the storage company, and developed into sturdy, thick-furred cats, with shortened tails, and “ feelers” five or six inches in length. This latter character was said to be probably due to their environment, since they must necessarily live in semi-darkness. Another peculiarity of the new cat is its inability to live in an ordinary temperature.. When removed from the warehouse to the open air, especially in summer time, it will die of convulsions in a few hours. This story was reprinted in England in some excellent scientific journals, which showed a great lack of caution in appropriating any- thing supposed to be new in science from a newspaper. It illustrates once more the English tendency to neglect the good and discover the 1895.] Zoology. 589 bad in American affairs. Mrs. Alice Bodington, however, redeemed ' the reputation of her countrymen by writing to the Secretary of the Cold Storage Co., to ascertain the facts in the case. She received the following reply : “ While there is some foundation for the newspaper article, it is somewhat exaggerated. Our cold storage house is separated into rooms of various sizes, varying from 10° to 40° above zero. “About a year ago we discovered mice in one of the rooms of the cold storage house. We removed one of the cats from the general warehouse to the room referred to in the cold storage house. While there, she had a litter of several kittens. Four of these were transferred into one of the general warehouses, leaving three in the cold storage house. After the kittens were old enough to take care of themselves, we put the old cat back into the house we had taken her from. The change of climate or temperature seemed to affect her almost immedi- ately. She got very weak and languid. We placed her again in the cold storage room, when she immediately revived. “ While the feelers of the cats in the cold storage room are of the usual length, the fur is thick and the cats are larger, stronger and healthier than the cats in any of the other warehouses.” Thus the only result of the change of environment was the usual one which ensues on the advent of winter in extratropical latitudes gener- ally. It is interesting as showing that the effect is really produced by the low temperature, and is not a survival through natural selection of a chance variation, as a certain school of evolutionists would have us believe. A New Harvest Mouse from Florida.—lIn a paper entitled “Contributions to the Mammalogy of Florida,” published in the Pro- ceedings of the Acrdemy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, in 1894, I had the pleasure of recording the first capture of a Reithrodontomys in Florida. This specimen seemed to indicate good sub-specific characters in comparison with R. humilis of more northern latitudes, but owing to its apparent immaturity, I decided to postpone a description until other specimens were taken. Subsequently, Mr. F. M. Chapman recorded, in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, of 1894, the taking of another specimen. The apparent rarity is confirmed by the experience of my friend Mr. Outram Bangs, who, in a list of about five hundred speci- mens of rodents taken by him in Florida the present winter (1894-5), 590 The American Naturalist. [June, does not enumerate a single specimen of the Harvest Mouse. I have just received a second specimen from Mr. Dickinson, who sent me the first one, and, as this is an adult in perfect condition and fully confirms the peculiar characters of number one, it may form the type of the following diagnosis : Reithrodontomys humilis dickinsoni. Type ad. 9 , No. 2240, col. of S. N. Rhoads. Col. by W. S. Dickinson, at Willow Oak, Paseo Co., Florida, Apr. 6th, 1895. Description: Size considerably smaller than R. humilis. Color above, uniform plumbeous gray, almost sooty, slightly darker along middle of back and rump, and a faint wash of light brown on sides. Tail above like back ; below, grayish, like feet and under parts. Skull as in humilis, but distinctly smaller. Measurements: Total length, 118; tail vertebra, 56 ; hind foot, 15. Skull, total length, 183; basilar length, 13°6; length of nasals, 671 ; interorbital constriction, 3'1; zygomatic expansion, 9°6; length of mandible, 10; width of mandible, 47 mm. This race of the common eastern Harvest Mouse conforms to the peculiarities of the Floridian as contrasted with the Carolinian environ- ment in the same way that its allies and neighbors of the genera Sig- modon and Peromyscus have done, viz.,in the diminuition of brown and rusty colors and the acquirement of a more or less darkened shade of gray. —Samuvue. N. RHOADS. EMBRYOLOGY.’ Grafting Amphibia.—Professor G. Born has published a prelimi- nary notice’ of some novel experiments made upon the young tadpoles of various amphibia. In studying regenerative processes in young tadpoles he observed that when a tadpole was cut into two pieces, the pieces might unite 1 Named for Mr. W. S. Dickinson of Tarpon ae Fla. in recognition of of his valuable services in the collecting of Florida mammals. E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to shen abstracts, reviews and preliminary notes ma: . 2? Jahresbericht d. Schlesischen Gesell. f. vat. Cultur Sitz., June 8, 1894. 1895.] Embryology. 591 again if kept close together. This led to a series of experiments that, at the time of publication, furnished the results enumerated below. He used larvee that were ready to escape from the egg jelly or those that had just escaped. They were put into 6% solution of sodium chloride and cut across with scissors or a scalpel into an anterior and posterior half. The pieces were at once brought together and held in place by various means till they grew together completely. Subse- quently they were transferred to a fresh supply of the salt solution. It was found to be easy to get two tail pieces to unite, since the cilia that normally move the animal forward would push the two tails toward one another. With other pieces various artificies were necessary to prevent the ciliated action or the muscular contraction moving the wounded surfaces apart before union had taken place. 1. When the tail ends of two tadpoles of Rana esculenta are placed with the cut ends together, they unite in twenty-four hours quite com- pletely, so that there is little external evidence of the line of fusion. These joined tails live for eight days and increase in length; they then degenerate and become dropsical. The union may be. made direct with the dorsal and ventral sides continuous in the two, or inverted with the dorsal of one continuous with the ventral side of the other. When very long pieces are taken a heart may develop in each, while in seven days there is an increase in length, for the two, of 2.9 mm. from a length of 15.6 mm. It is also possible to unite such a long posterior part with a shorter posterior part; then the head of a larva is replaced by the tail and belly of another growing forward in its place. 2. The anterior ends of two larvæ may be made to unite. This suc- ceeds more readily with the younger stages. Here again the union may be direct or inverted. In one case'of the latter method of fusion, two that had been cut across in the region of the liver, remained united for fourteen days, during which time much differentiation took place in each head. ; In the larvæ of the newt, triton, union of anterior pieces was affected, but this was less complete than in the case of the frog tadpoles. 3. Complex unions of two larvæ may result when the cuts are not quite complete and the two pieces of each remain connected by a slen- der bridge of tissne; the two pieces may be folded back side by side, and then pushed against the similar pieces of the other larva. The opposite ends of two larvæ may then fuse together while still remain- ing attached to their own proper terminations. 592 The American Naturalist. [June, 4. The anterior part of one larva may be united to the posterior part of another individual. When the pieces are long, the same region is repeated in the result- ing fusion, since it is present in the posterior part of one larva and in the anterior part of the other. In only one case, however, did this ex- periment succeed. After five days there had been much growth, but the intestine had not fused across the line of union and there was no circulation in the posterior piece. 5. Two frog larvee may be easily united belly to belly so that a true twin is formed. The animals may be united with the ends reversed as well as with the heads and tails in the same direction. 6. It is even possible to unite larve of different genera even of dif- ferent families. . The posterior end of a frog larva was fused to the anterior end of a triton larva. : The anterior end of a frog larva and the posterior end of a toad larva (Bombinator igneus) were readily united. The inverse of this last ex- periment also succeeded. 7. The larve of Rana esculenta and Bombinator igneus were united belly to belly, producing a true double monster, gastrophagus, made up of animals of two different genera. The Embryo of the Duckbill.—At the meeting of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, Nov. 28, 1894, J. P. Hill and C. J. Mar- tin read a description of an embryo of the duckbill taken from an in- trauterine egg. The embryo described was taken from one of two eggs just ready to be laid. The egg measured 18 mm. by 13.5, being some- what larger than the eggs described by Caldwell. The embryo was found lying on the surface of a thin-walled vesicle with its long axis corresponding to the long axis of the egg. It measured 19 mm. in length from the anterior end of the medullary plate to the posterior end of the primitive streak. The vesicle on which the embryo lay consisted of two layers all over, with the meso-- derm extending about half way round between and comparable to a typical mammalian blastodermic vesicle. The vesicle filled the whole of the egg, and contained a thin albuminous fluid together with a thin layer of yolk spheres next toits wall. The embryo with the exception of a slight head fold, is quite flat. Medullary folds are absent except in the most anterior region of the future fore-brain, where slight lateral upgrowths of the medullary plate appear. The three cerebral vesicles -a 1895.] Anthropology. 593 are indicated, and in the region of the hind brain four well-marked neuromeres exist. External to the 2d, 3d, and 4th neuromeres is an extensive auditory plate, already slightly grooved. There are seven- teen somites, which, in the middle region of the trunk, possess distinct cavities, and externally to these from the 4th to the 17th, are situated the beginnings of the Wolffian bodies. At the 7th somite the Wolffian duct is first seen, the appearance of which in sections suggests an ecto- dermal origin. Double heart origins are present, but there is no trace of a vascular area besides a slight mottling in and around the area pellucida. A distinct blastopore is present with a neurenteric canal, which runs through the head process and opens into the archen- teron (yolk-sac cavity). The primitive streak extends behind the blas- topore to a distance of 1.5 mm. The embryo more nearly resembles that of the Virginia opossum (Didelphys) of 73 hours described by Selenka, than any other embryo known to the authors. The Platypus embryo is, however, much longer.—Zool. Anzeiger, 1895, p. 31. K. ANTHROPOLOGY. The Antiquity of Man in North America.—The problem of the antiquity of man on this continent has received some interesting contributions within the last few years, and it will be interesting to take a survey of its present condition. The sources of information respecting the first human inhabitants of a country are four-fold—two-fold as to materials, and two-fold as to lo- calities. The materials may be either his bones or his handiwork ; the localities are deposits which are either within caves or outside of caves. The bones of primitive man have shown that there was, in Europe, and possibly in Asia (Java), a species of the Genus Homo distinct from the H. sapiens, which has been called H. neanderthalensis. This being possessed all the characters of the skeleton, dentition, ete., which belong 1 This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania. 594 The American Naturalist. [June, to the lowest existing races of men, and had, in addition, a transverse ridge across the inner side of the symphysis of the lower jaw above the genioglossal tuberosity, from which it is separated by a deep transverse valley. Nothing like this occurs in any existing race of the Homo sapiens. If any person is disposed to dispute the claim of the Homo neanderthalen- sis to recognition as a species, let him reflect that the diversities pre- sented by the existing races of the Homo sapiens are, in some instances, of the kind regarded in zoology as both specific and even generic, and that they are not so regarded is because of the existence of numerous intermediate forms. The peculiarities presented by the Neanderthal man (including, in this term, the people of Spy, Naulette, Shipka, etc.), found in a few of the lowest races are the small cranial capacity, the larger size and quadrituberculy of the last superior molar, ete., while the conforma- tion of the symphysis is not seen in any of them, and is of such a char- acter as to indicate wide divergence in zoological affinity. His small cranial capacity has been shown by Virchow to be matched by that of a Nigrito of the Andamans, where it is as low as 950 ccm., an inhabi- tant of New Britain, 860 cem.; Nilgiri, India, 960 cem.; New Ireland, 970 ccm., and of Abyssinia 975 cem. No trace of the skeleton of the Neanderthal man has been found in North America. Theskull found in the Gold Bearing Gravel of Calaveras Co., California, was without lower jaw, so that its specific position cannot be determined. The cranium proper, however, does not resemble that of the older species. The same is true of the man of Sarasota Bay, Florida; and the man of the baths of Pefion near the city of Mexico had the usual type of lower jaw. For the present, then, this species of man may be left out of account in the present discussion. Whether, after the subtraction of the Neanderthal species, the history of Homo sapiens can be divided into a paleolithic and a neolithic age, or whether the Neanderthal man was the only paleolithic man, remains for consideration. The man who made the turtle-backs of the gravels of the valleys of the Thames and of the Somme, is supposed to be truly paleolithic. Mr. Boyd Dawkins finds, however, that their bone fish- ing-spears are identical in character with those made and used by the (Esquimaux) Inuit, and he suggests that, in the glacial period, these people existed in southern Europe with the reindeer and other arctic mammals appropriate to the climate. And now comes Mr. Frank Cushing, who declares that not only the spears, but all the other bone instruments and implements of reindeer-horn and bone found in the * Verhandlungen d. Berliner Anthrop. Gesselsch., 1894, p. 506. 1895.] Anthropology. 595 French caves, and supposed to be of paleolithic age, are now in actual use among the Inuit of the Arctic regions of America. The coinci- dence covers so many kinds of implements, and the appropriateness of the environment is so plain, that the conclusion is almost irresistible, that the river valley paleolithic people were, as Boyd Dawkins sup- posed, Inuit. But no crania or jaws of these people have been discov- ered, so that it is not known. whether they possessed the dental charac- ters which I have shown to characterize this race... It would be re- markable for this race to have immediately succeeded the Neanderthal man in Europe, since the two present dental characters at the extremes of the range of variation in the Genus Homo, so that they would be re- garded as good genera zoologically speaking, were it not that the rest of mankind intervenes between them. Bone barbed spear heads of the Inuit pattern have been found in Ohio. The neolithic men of Europe do not differ in cranial or dental characters from the majority of men, so far as they are known. They were not Inuit. It is well known that Messrs Holmes‘ and Maguire? have endeavored to prove not only that there was no paleolithic man in North America, but that his existence in Europe is problematical. Paleolithic flints they regard as rejected cores from which fragments have been split for the manufacture of better implements. European authorities do not admit this, but maintain the validity of paleolithicman. The question to my mind is, however, more complex than it was. If the Neander- thal man is the paleolithic man, then he existed beyond a shadow of adoubt. But the river-drift men were totally distinct, probably Inuit. Did any other paleolithic man exist? The chances of proving the existence of such a man in Europe are diminished but not extin- guished. If we turn to North America, the evidence of the oe of any man but the so-called Indian on this t compared with the evidence for primitive man which exists in ı Europe, but, such as it is, it is important. Paleolithic flints have been found at Little Falls in Minnesota, at Newcomerstown in Ohio, and paleolithic argillites near Trenton, New Jersey, in beds of plistocene age more or less re- lated to glacial conditions. The attempts of Mr. W. H. Holmes to discredit these alleged discoveries does not appear to me to be successful. His criticism of the great manufactory of turtle-backs at Piney Branch near Washington, D.C., which he believes to be the refuse of an arrow 3 Amer. Journal of Morphology, 1888, p. 7 * Journal of Geology, 1893, p. 147 ; Aimiican Geologist, 1893, p. 219. 5 American Anthropologist, 1893, p. 307; American Naturalist, 1895, p. 26. 596 5 The American Naturalist. [June, factory, is worthy of closer attention. In any case, the evidence from glacial deposits of the existence of paleolithic man in America is not yet very considerable. If we turn to the caves, we have, at least, the opportunity in this country of demonstrating the existence or non-existence of Cave Dwellers. Between 1868 and 1871, I explored the contents of three ossiferous caves; one in Tennesee, one in. Virginia, and one in Penn- sylvania. No report was made on the contents of the first, as the material was sent to a museum in Philadelphia and was never seen after. Reports® on the other two were published. All of these caves are situated south of the terminal moraine of Lewis and Wright. A report on the contents of Hartman’s Cave in Northampton Co., Pennsylvania, within the line of the terminal moraine, was made’ by Professor Leidy in 1887. These investigations brought to light the existence of a definite fauna, which I have called the Megalonyx fauna, and which is the last of the extinct faunas of North America. It includes the extinct genera of Mammalia, Platygonus, Smilodon, Megalonyx, Mylodon, Mastodon, and extinct species of Bos, Dicotyles, Equus, Tapirus, Ursus, Castor, Arvicola and Lagomys. Teeth and other fragments are found which are not distinguishable from the fol- lowing spécies now existing in the country ; Cervus virginianus, Canis lupus, Ursus aretos, Vulpes virginianus, Procyon lotor, Didelphys virginianus, Lepus sylvaticus, Arctomys monax, Castor fiber. These re- mains are enclosed in a red calcareous clay, which, when dry, forms a matrix of moderate hardness, similar to that observed in the bone caves of Europe and Asia. It may be here remarked that the bone caves of the world so far as explored, present us with an oldest fauna of about the same age. They nowhere include fossil remains of animals of an age prior to the Plistocene. This I have had occasion to verify on specimens brought from the caves of Mount Carmel, Syria by Sir William Dawson, as well ason the American material already mentioned, and as has been long since shown with regard to the caves in Europe. And this in spite of the fact that bone caves exist in all limestone formations from the Cam- brian upwards, and have doubtless commenced their formation so soon as the respective limestones were sufficiently elevated to be subject to the soluble and erosive effect of water flowing in its fissures. The plain inference is that all those parts of the caves which represent this ê Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1869, p. 171. Ibid., 1871, p. 73. 7 Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, 1887, p. 1. 1895.] Anthropology. 597 work which was accomplished prior to the Plistocene age with their contents, have been removed by atmospheric and other erosion. The explorations in American caves conducted by Mr. H. C. Mer- cer of the University of Pennsylvania in the last two years, have thrown interesting light on the subject.. He examined some twenty five caves’ and rock shelters situated in the valleys of the Tennessee, Kanawha and Ohio Rivers with great care, digging trenches to bed rock, noting the deposits in their bottoms, and saving all the fragments met with, carefully classified as to position, ete. In only one of these did he find a slight trace of the Megalonyx fauna, and in this case only in a stratum at the bottom. In all the others were found the bones of the existing wild fauna of the country, the mammalia, birds, reptiles and fishes, with bones, pottery, and flints of the American Indian. The sole exception mentioned was the Lookout Cave, Tennessee, where in a bed of red clay at the bottom, there were found a jaw of a Tapirus haysti, and of a small Mylodon. The cave deposits encountered were loose and nowhere indurated as in the caves containing the Megalonyx fauna explored by myself. It is perfectly clear from these results that there exist cave deposits of two ages in eastern North America, the one containing the existing fauna and the Indian, and the other con- taining the Megalonyx fauna, and which has so far yielded no traces of the existence of man. What cause exterminated this populous fauna of large and small Mammalia from the North American Continent? Some of its features are distinctly South American. Such are the genera of sloths, Mylo- don, and by relationship Megalonyx, although the genus did not occur in the Southern Continent. Such are the genus Smilodon, and the species of peccaries and tapirs, and the great rodent Castoroides which © probably belongs to the same. The nearest approach to members of this fauna in N. America are the peccary of Texas and the tapir of Mexico. The appearance of the caves of this period throws some light on the question. The Virginian bone breccia which I examined was the floor of a cave only, the cave itself had been carried away by some powerful agency. The Tennessee cave was a steeply descending shaft which had been filled to the mouth. I found it most convenient to break from the roof of a hole which pierced the deposit, the frag- ments of matrix which contained the bones. The cave at Port Ken- nedy on the Schuylkill River, Penna., is a fissure, and it is packed from floor to opening with alternating deposits of clay and vegetable 8 AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1894, pp. 355, 626. 40 598 The American Naturalist. [June, debris mixed with fragments of limestone and wood. In my opinion all of these caves have been submerged, and their contained deposits are rearranged sediments. The later caves have not been submerged since they received their present contents. The difference in the age of the respective deposits is, then, considerable. In the case of the Lookout Cave, Tennessee, explored by Mr. Mercer, a part of the old cave deposit remained, and was covered by the modern bed. Geologic history presents us with a submergence at the middle of the Plistocene period, precisely such as constitutes the culminating point of every geologic system. This has been termed by Dana the Cham- plain epoch, and we may well retain the name in a broadened sense for the continental submergence to which we owe not only the Champlain and Erie formations of the North, but the Columbia gravels of the Middle and Southern States, so thoroughly studied by McGee. That the submergence was not without short reversed movements and oscil- lations has been shown by Spencer, but that it was continental in extent there can be no doubt. It is also clear that it was followed by an emergence, which constitutesthe Terrace epoch of Dana’s system. We are then led to the conclusion that the fauna of the Megalonyx epoch is pre-Champlain, and that of the later caves post-Champlain. The country was, however, not probably wholly submerged. Some species, mostly the smaller ones, and the genus Megalonyx, survived on the not submerged land, and these we find to be common to the two faunas. The Hartman’s cave, within the limit of the ice sheet, is on a hill now elevated 800 feet above the level of the Delaware River. That it was subjected to submergence is shown by the stratified clay with which it is even now partly filled. Its fauna does not include all the types of the Megalonyx fauna, and does include the Castoroides, as shown by Leidy. It includes a larger proportion of existing species than the usual Megalonyx fauna. Its peculiarities are probably due to its northern latitude. This submergence corresponds with the one which Professor Prest- wich insists effected Europe subsequent to the glacial elevation.’ The Paleolithic flints of Kent he thinks demonstrate such a submergence, and his reasoning as to the tharacter of the deposits in the European caves applies exactly to the bone breccias of the Megalonyx age of our caves here. The existence of Paleolithic man in North America has not yet been demonstrated by the cave explorations so far as they have gone. We can, however, only consider this conclusion as one which may be re- *Transac. Royal Soc. London, 1893, p. 903. 1895.] Anthropology. 599 versed at any time. The state of affairs on the Pacific Coast may be stated as throwing considerable light on the subject. The Equus beds are found covering areas of various extent in Oregon, Nevada, California, the Staked Plains, Southern Texas, Chi- huahua and the valley of Mexico. Their most eastern station is west- ern Nebraska. They contain a fauna which includes one extinct spe- cies (Equus major Dek.) of the Megalonyx fauna, and the recent Cas- tor fiber. They contain the extinct genus of sloths Mylodon, of a species different from that of the east, and four species of camels of the extinct genus Holomeniscus, and a peccary. Recent species of Canis and Thomomys occur, while two extinct horses (Equus occidentalis Leidy and E. tau Owen) are common. The hairy elephant (E. primigenius) is abundant, while the Mastodon americanus is rare, if occurring at all. The proportion of recent to extinct species and genera in the Equus bed fauna is very similar to that occurring in the Megalonyx fauna, while they differ as to details.” This fauna has also disappeared from the continent, a few species, as in the east, surviving to a later date. Was its disappearance due to a submergence as in the east? The appearance of the beds in Texas leads us to suppose that such was the case; while the deposit in Oregon appears to me to be that of a lake now desiccated. The gold-bearing gravel of California, which is also Plistocene, must have been the result of floods, and its wide distribu- tion and stratification resemble conditions due to submergence. Whether the Equus fauna was destroyed more or less by submergence or not, the réelevation of the Sierra Nevada introduced a period of desiccation to the east of it, before which all large mammals remaining must have succumbed. The remains of man have been shown to occur in the gold-bearing gravels. I have found them (obsidian spear and arrow heads) in pro- fusion mixed with the bones of the extinct fauna at Fossil Lake, Ore- gon, in a friable and wind-blown formation. This man, however, so far at least as regards California was not Paleolithic, since he made smoothly ground pestles and mortars. There is, therefore, considerable probability that man wasa contem- porary of the Equus fauna, and the Equus fauna was contemporary with the Megalonyx fauna of the east.—E. D. Core. Paleolithic Man.—7o the Editor of the American Naturalist :— Dear Sir:—In the January number of your estimable Journal, See American Naturalist, 1889, p. 160, for a partial list of the species of this fauna. 600 The American Naturalist. [June, there appeared on page 28, the following statement: “* * in Amer- ica the friends of paleolithic man have with few exceptions deserted the proposition as an unsupportable theory.” Without raising any discussion upon the theory of the paleolithic age in America, I desire to enter my protest against the correctness of the foregoing conclusion. There may be those who believe the existence of a paleolithic period in America is not yet proved; who only believe in its probability and do not reject the evidence cited in its favor; but of all those thus classed, I know of none who “have deserted the proposition as an un- supportable theory.” Respectfully, THomas WILSON. The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, Jan. 30th, 1895. PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. Boston Society of Natural History.—April 17th—The fol- lowing paper was read: Prof. William Libbey, Jr., “Two Months in Greenland ;” stereopticon views were shown. May 1st.—The reports of the Curator, Secretary, Librarian, Treas- urer and Trustees were read, also the report of the Walker Prize Com- mittee. The election of officers for 1895-96 was held. The following paper was read: Mr. J. L. Tilton, “ On the Geology of the Southwest- ern Part of the Boston Basin.” May 15th.—The following papers were read: Prof. Thomas Dwight, “ Notes on the Dissection of a Chimpanzee, with Especial Reference to the Brain.” Prof. N. S. Shaler, * The Conditions of Escape of Gases from the Interior of the Earth.” —SAMUEL Hensuaw, Secretary. Academy of Science of St. Louis.—April 15th.—Miss Mary E. Murtfeldt presented a paper on “The Habits of Certain Seed- Feeding Insects.”—A. W. DouGuas, Recording Secretary. American Philosophical Society.—April 19th—Dr. D. G. Brinton read a paper on the “ Proto-historic Ethnography of Western 1895.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 601 May 17th.—Dr. D. G. Brinton read an obituary notice of the late Dr. W. S. W. Ruschenberger. Mr. R. Meade Bache made a few re- marks on “ Personal Equation.” Prof. E. D. Cope read a paper on “ The Pamunkey Formation of the Chesapeake Region and its Fauna.” Mr. J. G. Rosengarten read an obituary notice of the late Prof. Henry Coppée. . : Proceedings of the Natural Science Association of Staten Island.—Dec. 8th, 1894.—Mr. Walter C. Kerr exhibited numerous maple leaves injured by storm and read the following: Survival of Storm-Injured Leaves—During the last summer it was frequently remarked that the late spring frosts had seriously injured the young foliage, several gentlemen having commented upon the dam- age thus wrought to their shade trees. My attention was first attracted, on May 27th, to the wilted appearance of the leaves of a white oak on Richmond terrace, near Stuyvesant place, and later to the similar con- dition of the Norway maples on DeKalb street. A search for para- sitic fungi as the cause revealed nothing, and it was not until a gar- dener suggested the wind that the true explanation appeared. This, perhaps, should have been more apparent, although few seem to have suspected the real cause. The damage was so general that it con- tributed a conspicuous feature to our summer’s foliage throughout our eastern and southern exposures, as has already been incidentally men- tioned in the Proceedings for October in connection with the effects upon the Cicadas. The storm, which lasted several days, began on May 20th, and the trees then in foliage all suffered more or less, the extent of damage seeming to be proportional to the size of the leaves. The white oaks and the maples having the largest leaves at that season, were lashed and bruised in a somewhat interesting, if not remarkable, manner. Fruit trees were also considerably injured. Few, if any, leaves were killed. They seem rather to have been injured in spots, chiefly at the tips, though also along the edges and through the blades of the leaves, | extending inward from the sinuses, withering at these points while the remainder of the surface was unharmed. Some were split radially along their weakest sections, withering on the edges of the split. In some, over three-fourths of the surface was killed, the shape, however, being preserved intact, the other fourth remaining green and healthy. It is difficult to describe their appearance, but the specimens submitted will indicate the peculiar way in which they were affected by the injury. The general appearance of the trees has been too common all summer 602 The American Naturalist. [June, to require special comment. Similar injuries are reported by Mr. William T. Davis and Mr. Charles W. Leng, as observed, especially on the leaves of oaks and maples, at Newfoundland, N. J., where a high ridge furnishes opportunity for exposure. With easterly storms so prevalent on our coast, it is strange to find so conspicuous a result from a storm possessing no unusual character- istics, and the simplest explanation would obviously be that it occurred just at a time when many leaves were sufficiently young and tender to receive the injury, yet old enough to survive it—a combination that might not often occur. Mr. Wm. T. Davis exhibited specimens of dragon-flies and read the following : Two Additions to the Local List of Dragon-flies——The dragon-fly, Libellula azxillena Westwood, form vibrans, was quite numerous last August in various parts of the island, both near ponds and in wood- land. If persistently disturbed, they often flew into the highest trees. The first one was seen on August 4th in the valley of Reed’s basket- willow swamp. In capturing it the abdomen was knocked off, and the remainder of the insect, true to what I afterward found to be the cus- tom of the species, flew into a tree. Several missles induced it to change this perch for a less elevated one, and it was finally placed in the cyanide bottle. Previous to the summer of 1894, this dragon-fly had not been seen on the island, and it is an interesting fact that it eventually came in such numbers. Two small specimens of Diplax semicincta Say, were taken on the 15th of last July at the small ponds of the old iron mines near Four Corners. This locality is also the only one on the island where Nan- nothemis bella Uhler has been found. With these two additions, the species belonging to the sub-family Libelluline, so far collected on the island, number twenty-two. Mr. Calvert reports but twenty-four species from the vicinity of Philadel- a. Minor Notes—Mr. Arthur Hollick reported that an oppossum was captured on December 6th, at New Dorp, by Mr. Richard Britton. It was found in a shallow burrow in the ground, near the foundation walls of an old ruined house, and was easily unearthed. The animal was killed and has been sent to a taxidermist for mounting. From the appearance of the locality, Mr. Britton is of the opinion that a colony of the animals is living there. Mr. Wm. T. Davis exhibited a small Indian stone paint pot, recently found at Tottenville. This is the first utensil of the kind reported from any of the collections made on the island. 1895,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 603 Mr. Davis also exhibited a large yellow gravel pebble, consisting of a mass of silicified coral (probably an Eridophylum) found by Mr. Trigg on the shore at Eltingville. March 9th, 1895.—Mr. Fred. F. Hunt read the following paper, illustrated by samples of the articles mentioned and tubes containing the tests made: Arsenic in Wall Paper and Hangings.—Having had occasion lately to test some wall papers and hangings for arsenic, it may interest our members to know of the results obtained. These tests were made on account of sickness, apparently a case of poisoning, which could not be traced to any cause. On finding that all the rooms in the house, except one, had arsenical wall paper, and also that some curtains and furniture covering carried arsenic, the doc- tor attributed the illness to that cause, and this view seems to have been borne out by the recovery of the patients on the removal of the ar- senical materials. The house is an old one, on this island, and some of the rooms had four papers on the walls. For testing, the papers were taken off to the plaster, and one test made of all the papers that were in one room to- gether, so I am unable to say which carried the arsenic. The test used was the “ Marsh test.” All the rooms in the house that were papered, except one, and also the hallways, carried arsenic in larger or smaller quantities, some tests requiring the gas to be passed for ten minutes before showing the arsenic mirror, while others showed ‘it after a few seconds, and one test gave the largest amount I have found in any wall t Tt is generally supposed that a paper must have green in it to carry arsenic, but that is not so, as I have found it in nearly all colors; one ceiling paper, which has a ground of very light yellow with a gilt pat- tern on it, carried notable quantities of arsenic, while other papers that were different shades of green, carried none; in fact, my experience has been that the browns, reds, yellows and grays are the most likely colors to carry arsenic. The cartridge papers do not carry arsenic, as far as my experience goes, even if there is a pattern printed on them. This may be due to its being a comparatively modern wall paper, and the manufacturers having found that of late years there has been more or less agitation on the subject of arsenic in wall papers, are more careful in the pigments they use. A set of red-brown colored chenille curtains in this same house gave avery marked mirror of arsenic, although they had been in use for 604 The American Naturalist. [June, some time in another house; a jute-velour furniture covering, color old rose, also gave the arsenical mirror, and a crétonne of a black ground with light colored figures and pattern was highly charged with arsenic, even after several years’ use as curtains, indicating that use does not eliminate the arsenic. Tests were made of 60 pieces of lately imported English crétonnes, and only 20 pieces were found to be free of arsenic. In Germany and, of late years, in France, there are laboratories sup- ported by the government, where anyone may take a substance believed to be injurious to health, to be tested free of charge, and, as there is a punishment for selling any such substance, fabrics from these countries are very likely to be free from deleterious matter. There are two ways in which the arsenic may be disseminated in the air, first, by a chemical action forming arseniuretted hydrogen, which readily comes through any paper that may cover the arsenical one; second, a purely mechanical action, where the arsenical paper is out- side, by the pigment or sizing, drying and being carried off as a powder and breathed—both these actions may be taking place with an arsenical outside paper. SCIENTIFIC NEWS. The Eighth Session of the Marine Biological Laboratory at Wood’s Hole, Massachusetts, will last from June 1 to October 1, 1895. The laboratory is under the general charge of Prof. C. O. Whitman, Di- rector, and Prof. H. C. Bumpus, Assistant Director. Instruction will be given by the following staff: Howard Ayers, E. G. Conklin, S. Watasé, M. M. Metcalf, C. M. Child, F. R. Lillie, O. S. Strong, H. S. Brode, W. M. Rankin, J. L. Kellogg, P. A. Fish, A. D. Mead, H. E. Walter, W. A. Setchell, W. J. V. Osterhout, Jacques Loeb, W. N. Norman. There will also be evening lectures on biological subjects of general interest. Among those who may contribute these lectures may be mentioned, in addition to the instructors above named, the following : G. F. Atkinson, E. G. Conklin, J. M. Coulter, A. E. Dolbear, Simon Flexner, E. O. Jordan, William: Libbey, Jr. ; F. S. Lee, W. A. Locy, J. M. Macfarlane, C. S. Minot, E.S. Morse, H. F. Osborn, W: B. Scott, = W.T. Sedgwick, William Trelease, S. Watasé, E. B. Wilson, B. G. Tir, W. P. Wilson. 1895.] Scientific News. 605 -` The following courses of instruction are offered : In the laboratory for teachers and students in anatomy which will be open from July 2 to August 30, two courses are offered : the first, in invertebrate anatomy, and the second, a newly arranged course in vertebrate anatomy. Either course may be made preparatory to the course in embryology. The course in invertebrate anatomy will em- brace a study of the more typical marine invertebrates, instruction being given by lectures, laboratory work and collecting excursions. The lectures are given each morning, and by those who are special- ists in the subject under consideration. For laboratory dissection, each student is supplied with fresh material, and the entire day is spent in study, under the direction of the instructors. Collecting excursions are taken on Wednesdays and Saturdays. The steam launch and boats are freely used, and methods of dredging, skimming, and general col- lecting are explained. The animals studied will be Grantia, Tubularia, Campanularia, Metridium, Mnemeopsis, Nereis, Phascolosoma, Polyzoa, Bdellura, Molgula, Branchipus, Lepas, Talorchestia, Cancer, Limulus, Asterias, Arbacia, Echinarachnius, Thyone, Venus, Sycotypus, Loligo. The course in vertebrate anatomy has been arranged for those who desire a thorough study of the vertebrate body. Though primarily a laboratory course, under the direction of the officers of the laboratory, there will be daily lectures upon anatomy, physiology, and kindred subjects by the following lecturers: Professor H. P. Bowditch, Dr. F. S. Lee, Dr. C. F. Hodge, Dr. O. S. Strong, Dr. C. S. Minot, Dr. J.S. Kingsley, Dr. J. P. MeMurrich, Dr. H. F. Osborn. The first week will be devoted to the Elasmobranchs, the Dogfish (Galeus) and Skate re- ceiving special attention. The second week will be devoted to the higher Fishes. During the third week the Batrachia will be studied. The fourth week will be devoted to the Reptilia. : Instruction in microscopical technique will extend throughout the month. Methods of section-cutting, differential staining, ete., will be taught, and histological preparations of the more important tissues will be made. , The fee for either of the above courses is $40.00, payable in advance. It covers tuition, material for dissection, dissecting instruments, lab- oratory outlines, drawing paper and instruments, slides and covers, and a supply of glassware and reagents. The laboratory loans, without charge, microtomes and certain other apparatus ; there is a small fee, however, for the use of microscopes, and all who can provide them- selves with simple and compound microscopes before coming to Wood’s Hole, are urged to do so. 606 The American Naturalist. [June, Applications should be made, at the earliest convenient date to, Pro- fessor H. C. Bumpus (until June 1), Brown University, Providence, R. I.; June 1-September 1, Wood’s Hole, Mass. The laboratory work in botany will be restricted to the study of the structure and development of types of the various orders of the crypto- gamous plants. Especial attention will be given to the study of the various species of marine Algæ, which occur so abundantly in the waters about Wood’s Hole, and students desiring to give their entire attention to these plants will be encouraged to do so. The Fungi and higher Cryptogams will receive less attention than the Algæ, but will be studied in a few types. Lectures will accompany the laboratory work. The course may be outlined somewhat as follows: First week: Cyanophycee—Lyngbya, Calothrix, Rivularia, Sti- gonema, Tolypothrix, Anabzena Second week: Ghlimphy an binay, Ulva, Enteromorpha, Chætomorpha, Bryopsis, Vaucheria, Œdogonium. Phæophyceæ--Ectocarpus, Mesogloia, Leathesia, Laminaria, Fucus, Third week: Rhod Batrachosp , Nemalion, Calli- thamnion, ne Roubican. Fourth week: Phycomycetes—Mucor, Sporodinia, Peronospora, Cystopus, Achlya. ; Uredinei—Æcidium, Uredo, Puccinia, Uromyces. Fifth week : Basidiomycetes—Agaricus, Lycoperdon. Ascomycetes—Microsphæra, Sordaria, Peziza, Physcia. Sixth week: Muscineæ— Riccia, Madotheca, Marchantia, Mnium, Tetraphis, Hypnum. Filicineæ— Dicksonia, Adiantum, Equisetam, Lycopodium, Marsilia, Selaginella. The tuition for students in the regular course of laboratory work and lectures is $40.00, payable in advance; for students engaged in investigation the tuition is $50.00. For the course in embryology, the introductory courses in anatomy, or their equivalent, are considered as prerequisites. The course is de- signed as a preparation for beginning investigation. The aim will therefore be, not only to master the details of development, but also to acquire a thorough knowledge of the method of preparing surface- views, imbedding in paraffin and celloidin, staining and mounting; drawing, reconstructing, modelling, ete. The study will be mainly confined to the fish egg as the best type for elucidating vertebrate development ; but the eggs of amphibia and other vertebrates, as well 1895.] Scientific News. 607 as some invertebrates, will receive attention. Each member of the class will be supplied with material, and be expected to work out the successive steps in development, beginning with the egg just after fer- tilization. The laboratory work will be conducted by Doctors Lillie and Strong, and accompanied with lectures and seminar work under the Director. The fee for this course is $50.00, and the class is limited to twelve. Applicants should state what they have done in preparation for such a course, and whether they can bring a complete outfit, viz.: a com- pound microscope, a dissecting microscope, camera-lucida, microtome, etc. In case these instruments are furnished by the laboratory, an additional fee of $10 will be charged therefor. No application for less than the whole course will be granted. For those prepared to begin original work, ten tables are reserved in zoology, and the same number in physiology and botany. The intro- ductory and preparatory courses in each department, or an equivalent, are prerequisites for admission to these tables. Ability to read scien- tific German and French is also required. Special subjects for inves- tigation are assigned to the occupants of tables, and the supervision of the work is so divided that each instructor has the care of but three or four students. In this way all the advantages of individual instruction are secured. All the lectures and the seminar are open to those en- gaged in such work. The fee is $50. The forty private laboratories for investigators are distributed as follows :—Zoology, 22. Physiology, 8. Botany, 10. These rooms are rented at $100 to colleges, societies or individuals. The general laboratories are for the use of students engaged in special research under the supervision of the Director and his assist- ants, and for advanced courses preparatory to beginning investigation, such as the course in embryology. There are forty-two tables, of which zoology has twenty-two, physiology ten, and botany ten. The seminar is especially designed for members of the class in em- bryology and beginners in investigation, but is open to all. It is ex- pected that all who attend will be provided with the third volume of the Biological Lectures, as this will be made the basis of discussion. Most of the authors of these lectures will be present, and from two to three mornings will be devoted to the consideration of each lecture, and such questions as may be raised. Wood’s Hole is situated on the north shore of Vineyard Sound, at the entrance of Buzzard’s Bay, and may be reached by the Old Colony Railroad (two and one-half hours from Boston), or by rail and boat 608 The American Naturalist. [June, from Providence, Fall River, or New Bedford. Rooms accommodating .two persons may be obtained near the laboratory at prices varying from $1.00 to $3.00 a week, and board from $4.00 to $6.00. Board will be supplied to members at The Homestead at $5.00 a week. The location of the Laboratory at Wood’s Hole, gives it exceptional advantages for study and research. The shore is varied by necks, points, flats, gutters, holes, bays and islands; there are numerous fresh- water ponds and lakes in the vicinity ; there is no muddy river or city sewerage to pollute the sea-water; the fauna and flora are exceptionally rich; the climate is especially favorable for summer work, and the place is free from the inconveniences'and distractions of fashionable -summer resorts. The Laboratory consists of. four two-story buildings, with forty private rooms for the exclusive use of investigators, and seven general laboratories. Itis supplied with aquaria, collecting apparatus, reagents, glassware, and a limited. number of microtomes and microscopes for use in the introductory courses. The investigators’ rooms are furnished with glassware and reagents, but not with microscopes and microtomes. No alcohol is supplied beyond what is allowed for the work done in the laboratories ; and expensive reagents, such as osmic acid and gold -chloride, are not included in the list of free reagents. The laboratory has a steam launch, boats, dredges, and all the apparatus necessary for collecting and keeping alive material reserved for class work or re- searc. The library is provided a many works of reference and the more important journals of zoology and botany, some of them in complete series, Members of the Laboratory are allowed the use of books from the Library of the Boston Society of Natural History, through the courtesy of the Curator and the Librarian. A department of laboratory supply has been established in order to facilitate the work of teachers and others at a distance, who desire to -obtain material for study or for class instruction. Certain sponges, hydroids, star-fishes, sea-urchins, marine worms, crustaceans, mollusks, vertebrates and marine plants are generally kept in stock, though larger orders should be filed some time before the material is needed. Circulars giving information, prices, etc., may be obtained on paros tion. Bowdoin College Summer Courses in Science.—Beginning July 9, 1895, and continuing for five weeks, the following courses in science will be conducted by instructors in Bowdoin College at the 1895.] Scientific News. 609 Searles Science Building, Brunswick, Maine. (1) A course in Elementary Chemistry. (2) A course in Advanced Chemistry. (3) A course in Physics. (4) A course in Biology. These courses are designed especially for teachers, but are open to all earnest. workers. It is believed that they will be well adapted to the needs of any student of natural science, giving, for example, an’ excellent introduction to the study of medicine or pharmacy. They will also be valuable to those who, either as teachers or scholars, are preparing to meet natural science requirements for admission to col- lege. They will consist largely of practical work in the laboratory, and it is doubtful if any college laboratories in the country have’ superior facilities for this purpose. Each elementary course will consist of lectures and laboratory work for two hours a day on five days of the week. No exercises will be held on Saturdays. Students in the advanced chemistry course can work in the laboratory as many hours a day as the instructor thinks advisable. A student in a single elementary course is not entitled to more than the regular time of work for that course, ten hours per week, The fees for the courses, paid invariably in advance, are as follows: For two or three elementary courses, $20. For a single elementary course, $10. For advanced chemistry, $15. An extra charge will be made for chemicals used and apparatus in- jured in any course. Experience proves that such charge need not exceed three dollars. Board and lodging can be obtained in er at a cost of from $4 to $6 per week. Occasional evening lectures on scientific: topics of a general nature may be expected from the different instructors. The next Meeting of the American Microscopical Society will he held at Cornell University in Ithaca, N. Y., August 21, 22 and 23, 1895, that is, the week previous to the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, which is to be held in Springfield, Mass. The unsurpassed beauty of the location of the University, and the richness of both its terrestrial and aquatic fauna and flora, make this an ideal place for holding the meeting. It is equally attractive to the 610 The American Naturalist. [June, student of natural history and to those who love beautiful scenery. The facilities of the University and its equipment in all lines for car- rying on microscopical work add to the attractiveness of Ithaca as a place of meeting. The University buildings, which will be held at the disposal of the Society, are especially adapted for the formal presentation of papers, blackboard illustrations, hanging of diagrams, etc., as well as for any demonstration that authors may desire to make. The armory is very convieniently located both for the University and for the city, and a soiree there can hardly fail to be a great success. Besides the attraction of papers and demonstrations by members, nearly all the opticians have expressed not only a willingness but a desire to be present and make an exhibit of their microscopes and microscopical apparatus, thereby affording the members an opportunity to see all the new and standard apparatus. A special feature of the coming meeting will be the setting apart of one or more sessions for the reading of papers on methods and demon- stration of special or new methods. The chairman of the local com- mittee, Professor W. W. Rowlee, or the President, Prof. S. H. Page, will be glad to receive requests from those who desire to have some specially difficult method or structure elucidated, and an effort will be made to get some member particularly expert in such subject to demonstrate it before the Society. Summer Zoological Laboratory of the Indiana University will be located at Vawter Park, the highest point on the southwestern shore of Lake Wawasee or Turkey in Kosciusko county. Wawasee is about nine miles long by three miles wide. In the immediate neigh- borhood are many lakes, some drained into Lake Michigan, others into the Wabash; a short distance to the east is the basin of Lake Erie and still a shorter distance to the west is the Illinois River basin. An hour’s ride from the station over the moraine separating the Miss- issippi system from the St. Lawrence system will bring us to Webster, Tippecanoe and the Barber Lakes of the former system. ResearcH.—The main object of the station will be the study of variation. For this purpose a small lake will present a limited, well circumscribed locality, within which the differences of environmental influences will be reduced toa minimam. The study will consist in the determination of the extent of variation in the non-migratory vertebrates, the kind of variation whether continuous or discontinuous, the quantitative variation, and the direction of variation. In this way 1895.]° m Scientific News. 611 it is hoped to survey a base line which can be utilized in studying the variation of the same species throughout their distribution. This study should be carried on for a series of years, or at least be repeated at definite intervals to determine the annual or periodic variation from the mean. A comparison of this variation in the same animals in other similarly limited and well circumscribed areas, and in the correla- tion of the variation of a number of species in these areas will demon- strate the influence of the changed environment, and will be a simple, inexpensive substitute for such expensive experimental work. Instruction.—Courses of instruction which ordinarily cannot be given in the University’s laboratories during the college year will be offered and credit given on the University’s records. The courses are as follows: 1. Elementary work. The class will collect, preserve and study a series of animals occurring in the neighborhood of the station. Em- phasis will be laid on the nature of the freshwater fauna and the cor- relation and adaption of organisms. The entire day will be given to collecting excursions, laboratory work and lectures. Individual work Saturdays. Nospecial preparation is needed. (Teachers may collect material for their classes, but alcohol for this purpose will not be furn- ished). 2. Embryology and life history of fishes and other local forms. 3. Special investigations in the variation of non-migratory vertebrates and survey of the physical and biological conditions of Lake Wawa- see, Courses 1 and 2 will extend through five weeks beginning June 25th. Course 3 may extend at the pleasure of the investigator till the middle of September. LecrurEes.—A number of biologists will be present for a shortjtime, several of whom have promised to lecture. Among those who will be present are: J.C. Arthur, Purdue University, Slime molds, the fun- gous-like animals; A. W. Bitting, Purdue University ; E. P. Boyer, Chicago High Schools, Biology in the High Schools; R. E. Call, Louisville Manual Training High School, Freshwater molluscs; W, S. Blatchley, State Geologist, Insects and how to collect them; G, Baur, Chicago University, How to study Variation; J. M. Coulter, President Lake Forest University, (Subjects not yet annonnced); B W. Evermann, U. S. Fish Commission, Field work of the U. S. Fish Commission; The Red Fish; P. Kirsch, Indiana State Fish Com- missioner; L. J. Rettger, Indiana State Normal School, Some topic in physiology ; rere Swain, President Indiana University, (Subject not yet announ 612 The American Naturalist. ġ Lune, State Geological Survey of Kansas.—In conformity with the law under which the University of Kansas is now working, the Board of Regents at a recent meeting formally organized the University Geological Survey of Kansas with Chancellor F. H. Snow, ex-officio Director; Professor S. W. Williston, Paleontologist; Professor Erasmus Haworth, Geologist and Mineralogist; and Professor E. H. S. Bailey Chemist. In addition to these, other members of the University Faculty, as well as the advanced students of the departments of Geology and Paleontology, will be engaged upon the work of the Survey. An effort will also be made to centralize and unify the energies of different geol- ogists in the State who have been doing valuable work along different lines of geological investigations. Already a considerable start has been made and the co-operation of different geologists of the State has been secured. Work in the Coal Measures of the State has been in progress for two summers, and Volume I of the Report is now almost ready for publication. Other volumes will appear at irregular intervals. Those already under preparation are : One on Coal, Oil and Gas; one on the Vertebrate Paleontology of the State; and one on the Salt and Gyp- sum deposits of Kansas. The Summer Course of the University Extension Asso- ciation will be held at the University of Pennsylvania in July, 1895, the course in Biology extending from July 1st to 26th. The lectures and laboratory courses will be conducted by L. H. Bailey (Cornell), E. D. Cope (Pennsylvania), G. L. Goodale (Harvard), B. D. Halsted (Rutgers), J. M. Macfarlane (Pennsylvania), J. S. Kingsley song O. Whitman (Chicago), W. P. Wilson (Pennsylvania), L. L. W. Wil- son (Philadelphia Normal School). The Missouri State Horticultural Society will hold its Semi- Annual Meeting at the Opera House, Willow Springs, Mo., June 4, 5 and 6, 1895. The Kansas City, Ft. Scott and Memphis and Central Branch Railways will give a rate of half fare for round trip. The San Francisco and Missouri Pacific Railroads will give a rate of one and one-third fare on the certificate plan. Hotels will give rates of $1.00 per day and 75 cents per day. The Colorado State Science Teachers’ Association held its first meeting—since its organization in December last—in Denver, April 3d inst. The object of the association is to promote a better grade of instruction in the elementary schools and high schools of the State. 1895.] Scientific News. 613 The Lehrbuch der praktischen vergleichenden Anatomie of Vogt and Yung is at last complete. It was begun in 1885. The German Zoological Society wiil hold its annual meeting at Strasburg, June 4-8, 1895. One boa in the zoological gardens of London recently swallowed an- other of his species which nearly equalled him in size. Dr. Lewis R. Gibbes, of Charleston, S. C. died in that city, November 21,1894. He was born there Aug. 14,1810. In his early days he he was an ardent zoologist and the Proceedings of the Elliot Society (of which he was one of the founders) the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences and other journals formerly contained numer- ous systematic papers from his pen. Since the war he has left the zoological field, and has occupied the chair of mathematics and astron- omy in the college of Charleston. Dr. Bela Haller, well-known for his Molluscan studies, is now privat- docent at Heidelberg. The bibliographical movement recorded in the columns of our Jan- uary issue is making considerable progress towards its complete organization. The ultimate suecess of the undertaking now seems highly probable. In France, the organization has reached its greatest perfection and as an example of what is needed in America we may briefly describe what has been done by a number of zealous French zoologists. The annual meeting of the French Zoological Society held in February, 1894 had already discussed the matter in a preliminary way and had referred the decision to the Council of the Suciety. After mature consideration the Council of the Society designated one of its members, Prof. Bouvier, vice-president of the Society to study all the details of the project and to report upon them at a subsequent meeting. This report of M. Bouvier was presented in February last and was unanimously approved by the Council who ordered it to be presented before the Annual Reunion of February 28. Basing its decisions upon this report as well as upon the recommen- dations of the Council, the Society nominated a permanent central Com- mission de patronage et de propagande comprising the following persons: —Prof. Blanchard, Prince Bonaparte, Prof. Delage, Prof. Filhol, Prof. Gandry, Baron de Guerne, Prof, Milne-Edwards, Prof. Raillet and Prof. Vaillant. As associate members twenty zoologists chosen to represent the various publishing centres of the country were nominated. It is through their agency that the central commission hopes to reach every part of France and to secure all the strictly zoological publications needed for the Bureau’s work. Journals rarely containing zoological papers as well as any zoological journals or books which the Bureau - 41 614 The American Naturalist. [June, should be unable to obtain will be examined by a body of eleven special correspondents who have been secured for this purpose. They are distributed as follows. Rrof. Bouvier, Botany, Chemistry, and Pharmacology ; Prof. Baudouin, Anthropotomy, Physiology, Patho- logy, and Medicine; Prof. Hervé, Anthropology; Prof. Ligniéres, Veterinary Science ; M. Roché, Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Piscicult-_ „ure; M. Caustier, Sec. Soc. Acclimatization; M. Boule, Asst. in the Nat. Hist. Museum, Vertebrate Paleontology, M. Haug, Instructor in the Faculty of Science, Invertebrate Palzeontology ; M. Denicker, Chief Librarian of the Nat. Hist. Museum, Separate Books and certain journals accessible in the Nat. Hist. Library ; M. Léveillé, Librarian of the Entomological Society, Books and Journals accessible in the Entomological Library ; M. Richard, Sec. Zool. Soc., Journals accessible in the Zoological Society’s library or in that of this Philoma- thic Society and the Society ordered; M. Bouvier’s report to be printed and distributed at once. A preliminary inquiry among a number of learned societies and the leading publishing firms of Paris seems to indicate that almost all the journals as well as the separate works of interest for the Bureau will be sent to it gratuitously. Publishers and learned societies alike can only profit by having their publications made known proniptly to those persons who would wish to use them. Not a single failure to accept the invitation to co-operate has thus far been encountered. In Russia also a distinct advance has been made in the last two months; but the conditions are here too different to serve as a model for what we hope may soon be accomplished in America. | The Third International Zoological Congress will meet at Leyden, Holland, September 16-21, 1895. The Netherlands’ Zoological So- ciety has taken upon itself the task of making all the arrangements for the meeting. Their Excellencies, the Minister of the Interior, and of the Public Works, of Commerce and Industry, will be the Honorary Presidents of the Congress; Dr. P. P. C. Hoek (Helder), General Sec- retary, and Dr. R. Horst (Leyden) Treasurer. The following scheme for the Sectional Meetings has been adopted: 1st section, General Zo- ology, Geographical Distribution, including fossil faunas; The Theory of Evolution.—2d Section, Classification of Living and Extinct Verte- brates, Bionomy, Geographical Distribution, including Fossil Verte- brates.—3d Section, Comparative Anatomy of Living and Extinct Vertebrates; Embryology.—4th Section, Classification of Living and Extinct Invertebrate Animals; Bionomy.—5th Section, Entomology. 6th Section, Comparative Anatomy and Embryology of Invertebrate Animals. The circular of announcement for the meeting has been signed by 310 Zoologi ADVERTISEMENTS, a Just ISSUED D. G. ELLIOT’S MONOGRAPH of the PITTIDAE OR FAMILY of ANT=-THRUSHES. Second edition revised and enlarged, 51 Coloured Plates, with Descrip- 5 parts, imperial folio boards, tive Letter-press. £10.20 O New York and London, 1893-95. *,* A List of D. G. Elliot’s superb works on Ornithology and Mammals may be had on application. BERNARD QUARITCH, 15 PICCADILLY, LONDON. In Press =a ode «Skiascopy and its Practical Application to the Study of Refraction ” x Edward Jackson, A. M. M. D., Professor of reat of the Eye in the Philadelphia Polyclinic and ee for Graduate n Medicine; Surgeon to Wills Eye Hospital; Etc., Etc The Edwards & Docker Co., PUBLISHERS, 51S MINOR ST., PHILADELPHIA. THE ENTOMOLOGIST’S RECORD AND JOURNAL OF VARIATION. (MONTHLY.) Edited by J. W. TUTT, F. E. S., London, England, Indispensable to all who are interested in Entomology as a Science. Exchange Column ‘ Subscription per annum to countries in the Universal Postal Union, 2 dol- lars (post free) 6 months, $1.00. Advertisements per inch (45 words) $1.25. Sample copy, 10 cents, All subscriptions should be sent direct to J. We LOTI; Raleigh Villa, Westcombe Hill, Blackheath, London, England. Exchanges made with other sma History Magazines or Transactions of entific Societies. 1295 t ADVERTISEMENTS. Contents of THE MONIST for January, 1895. OL. S5: No... 2s eget and T (A Posthumous AA George J. Romanes; To Be Alive. What is Dr. ard Montgomery; Ought the United States "Senate to be Reformed? Mone way; The Pilea e of Ethics. Dr. Francis Ellingwood Abbot; ure D. Ges cs. The Natural Storage of Energy. Lester F. Ward; Mind, No Storage of Energy. erum Natura, Editor; Foshan Correspondence; Criticism and Dis- ES d “gy ® nw Z p p orale Book Reviews. Yearly, $2.00. Single Copies, 50 Cents. The Philosophical Portrait Series—Issued Quarterly—Will be sent free on application. ACCORDING TO OLD RECORDS The Gospel of Buddha, “rei »y paur canus. With Table of References and Parallels, Glossary, and complete Index. Elegantly Bound ; Gilt T. p $1.50. Price, AN EXAMINATION 7 ee Ta By GEORGE Macu, Professor of Physics in the Usiro g OHN ROMANES LL.D.,, F-R:5S., Honorary Prague. Translated from the Sec Ger ellow of Gonville ‘and Caius Co llege, Cambridge aition by THomas J. McCor Bh. gy cuts, With Portrait of Weismann, and a Glossary Sof 534 pages Half M orocco. Gilt Top. Price, $2.50 Scientific “Ter ms. Thor ughly Indexed. 236 “_— AND AFTER DARWIN. An Exposition of oth. Price, $1.00 e Darwinian ‘Theory and a Discussion of Post- PRIMER ¢ Al phos rece be By Dr. PauL Carus. With a very complete e The Darwinian Theory. 460 pages. 125 a" ies dresig ‘oa; rice, $1.00. ont Cloth, $2.00. By Gro. Joun Rom THE SCIENCE OF MECHANICS. A Critical and “It is the best modern hand-book of e saluton” Historical Exposition of its Principles, by ERNST The atish, . Send for catalogue and specimen copies of “The Monist” and “The Open Cour fs 324 DEARBORN STREET, THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING C0., °* "Giicaco, ILL. The AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN and ORIENTAL JOURNAL. Published at 175 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Il. Edited by STEPHEN D. PEET, Goop Horg, ILL. Bi-Monthly. Erion, $4.00 Per Year. The First Magazine Devoted to Archeology and Ethnology established in America. It has now reached its Seventeenth Volume, which promises to be the Best of the Series. There has been no time in all the sixteen y ing hich thi i I | ti d, when a ar promised so ndaja as does the sr dase 1895. he cue inna who pt epee gentlemen and specialists will continue as before, i several new names will yep he following aa be Raho) as peer contributed to the Volume for ’94. Dr . Brin Rev. Wm. M. Beauchamp. Prof. A. F. Chamberlain, Mr. Ja ; mes Deans, G. O. Dorsey, Dr. J. Walter neries H. C. Mercer, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, = Lesa Wake, Dr. Wm. Wallace Tooker, Dr. Cyrus Thomas. The Magazine during ’95 will embrace different ayer and the following pase aie will have charge and report all bre a and disc th . C. Winslow, D. D., L. L. D., Egypt. Prof. T. Y. Wright, Ex xplorations i in akon Henry W. Haynes, ' Paleolit hics and European Archaeology. Dr. A. S. Gatschett, Indian Linguistics Marshall H. Seville, Mexico and Central A Hon. James Wickersham, The North West fear and Eastern Asia. A FEW COMPLETE SETS ARE IN | THE HANDS OF THE EDITOR AND WILL BE SOLD AT SPECIAL PRICES TO LIBRARIES. Price per Vol. $4.00 or with American Naturalist $6.00. The American Antiquarian will be furnished with The American Naturalist for $6.00 ADVERTISEMENTS. aii AMERICAN MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL 14TH YEAR, 1893. PRICE INCREASED TO $2.00. Beautifully Illustrated. ORIGINAL ARTICLES by the best writers. Descriptions of Microscopical Methods, pictures of new apparatus, a department of Medical Microscopy revealing what the instrument is doing to combat disease, Bacteriology or the study of Bacilli, Diatoms or Nature’s Jewels, Biological Notes upon the progress in botany, entomology, agriculture ana the study of all life by the aid of the grandest of instruments, Recreative Microscopy or the entertain- ment of people who exclaim “Oh! My!” when they look through the golden tube, Microscopical News, the Detection of Crime, Societies and their proceedings, Notices of Books, the Exchange and sale of Slides, etc. THE MICROSCOPE A Dollar Magazine Devoted Strictly to Elementary Microscopy Price $1.00. Its QUERY DEPARTMENT alone. conducted by Dr. S. G. Shanks, of Albany, N. Y., will be found worth the price. IFSAMPLE COPY FREE we ge@r-Price for the two, constituting the only microscopical periodicals in A mer- ica, $2.50 per annum. A treatise on elementary microscopy supplied free to every new subscriber. CARPENTER ON THE MICROSCOPE.—Latest and finest edition $5.00. CONSTANTLY ON HAND. Beautiful objects mounted in ingenious covers by an English Chemist, and all ready for use. Would cost 50 cents each if made in America. Catalogue of 170 White’s objects, mostly botanical, and a sample for 10 cents: 20 for $1.00. CHAS. W. SMILEY, Wasuineton, D. C. Ww ADVERTISEMENTS. “THE SANTTARIAN | Is THE BEST Sanitary publica- tion in America ” (Mississippi Valley Medi- cal Monthly); “* Easily maintains its | superiority over all similar publi- ’ The Edwards & Docker Co., poles aia World); and lu Has | accomplished more good than all | of the other Sanitary papers put to- | gether” (Hydraulic and Sanitary Plumber). “ The Editor, Dr. A. N. BELL, is well known to the mercantile community ° ne publishers for his co-operation with the mer- Nos. 518-520 Minor Street, | chants in quarantine reform, and to Philadelphia, U. S. A. | his profession asa leader in Sanitary HORACE BINDER, | Science ” (New York Journal of Commerce). MANAGER. 96 PAGES TEXT MONTHLY ; Two | VOLUMES YEARLY. $4.00 a year, in ANa a 35 cts. a Number. on copies, 20 cts. (ten two-cent costiee stamps : zi | (= All communications should be addressed te | the Editor, Brooklyn, N., Y. a j l READY! ° >° Microscopical Pr axis, DR, ALFRED C. STOKES. PRITE ps tee aree e 260 Pages, profusely ill df d pecially for the work. Very neat and attractive binding. Thoroughly practical, and no one who uses a microscope can afford to be with- out it. It is not cumbered with matter supposed to be ‘‘ of interest to some one else,’’ but every page is right to the point, valuable information plainly stated. SEND ALL ORDERS TO E. F. BIGELOW, Pubiher, PORTLAND, CONN. ADVERTISEMENTS. v The International Journal of Microscopy na Natural Science pA E ALLEN, Bath, Eng. PRO ATHAM, D. T. R. M. S. etc., Chicago University, U. 8. A. s ASSOCIATE Aust STEV ENSON BROWN, Reyer Montreal Micro Soc., Montreal, Canada. Epvitors: | FILANDRO VICENTINI, M. D., Chieti, Ital Contains articles by Specialists in every department of Microscopy, Botany, Geology, Zoology, and Natural Science, Reviews of New Books, etc. Illustrated with Plates, Wood engravings, etc. Portion of the Contents for January, 1895. The Denizens of an Old Cherry Tree with Notes of its Surroundings. (2 Plates. ) c.f. Watkins. The Development of the Germ im H. bere Browne, F. R. C. S. E. Technology of the Diatomaceæ. mper Predaceouś and Parasitic Enemies of Apike Including a Study of Hyper-Parasites. S Plates. A. Vine From Dust to Dust: A Cycle of Life. (1 Plate. pads Sydney Turner, MR C S E L S. ) Address to the Members of the Bath lees ) Microscopical Society. Rev. E T. Stu Recent Baċteriological Researches on the Sputa. The st Si and Biology of e Microbes of the Mouth. (1 Large Colored Plate.) F. Vic paapaa Technique. Notes, Reviews, etc., etc. BAILEY & FAIRCHILD, 29 Park Row, N. Y. M. A. BOOTH, Longmeadow, Mass. Subscription, U. S. A. and CANADA, $2.75. POST FREE PLASTER CASTS OF THE FOLLOWING MAMMALIA with dentition in good preservation, made under direction of Professor E. D. Cope may be had by application to Jacob Geisman, 2102 Pine St., Philadelphia, Phenacodus primaevus Cope, (Wyoming) $100.00. Hy- vacotherium venticolum Cope, (Wyoming) $50.00. Protohippus micabilis Leidy, skull $7.00. Protohippus pachyops Cope, skulls of adult and young, and P. fossulatus Cope, skull, $5.00 each. Tetrabelodon shepardii Leidy, mandibular ramus and symphysis with two molars, $20.00. Diċelodon tropicus Cope, do., $15.00 ; -Mastodon precursor Cope, last molar $5.00. The horses and “aastodons from the Cenozoic beds of Texas, are uncolored. vi ADVERTISEMENTS. A oA, UN A A A LY A Us, AA A UN N A eases A te om ot A ote oss ot ot A w aa a A Ore Oar Ore Oar Or ORT ORE ORY CHT ORE OM A A A MN RII A E, RNIB NRE LEN CENCE A, A, A, A A, A E, a ZENS fia. th. tht, oo coh oO TP TS TOS TS TOS TOS TS TP TS TOS TS TUS TO TS HS HS TS TS RR OP R For recreation and recuperation RIDE A MONARCH Best Spring Tonic for «THAT TIRED FEELING” Absolutely the Best Bicycle Made. Strictly up-to-date in Every Particular. Five Models—Weights 18 to 25 Pia PRICES $85.00 and $100.00. SEND FOR CATALOGUE. MONARCH CYCLE CO., Factory and Main Office, Lake and Halsted Sts. Retail Salesroom, 280 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Eastern Branch: 97-99 Reade Street, New York, he C. F. GUYON CO., Limited, Managers. OTHER BRANCHES: ) San Francisco, Sacramento, Los Angeles, Portland, Salt Lake f City, Denver, Memphis, Detroit, Toronto. (ph tS E S e E E E E T N sainadinatine italian ad oat aaa aS eee ree ee a a ee ee ee ee a ia a aA Oa ata, cia ta sia sia ih Phe Aha A elite offs ols ea Aa OM, OMY OY OMY a da OY a ot a OO oe A CO a a a A Oe AE TASS TNE TANS TNE ESS SS ES ES ES ES EE EP A A ES EE RD PRE PAE AS ARE TARE FARE PARE MARE TARE AE A AT QT AT QT AT FAQ AE ARE a WF Me Pe MR SP SR A OA OR SANT SN A ON OA A A SR OO PO TR SA OR A Guido Ferrari Drawing Optical and Mathematical Instruments Experimental Work Models for Patent Office, Etc. DRAWING INSTRUMENTS A SPECIALTY No. 911 VINE STREET, PHILA., PA., U. S. A. Send for Price List—MentionjAmerican Naturalist. A Weekly Feast to Nourish Hungry Minds.—N. Y. Evangelist. LITTELL’S LIVING AGE. 1844-1895 _ Over half a century has passed since its first number appe „and now, as it enters its 52d year, it still maintains the high standard of literary excellence which has characterized it from the beginning. — OBSERVE! The Living Age is a Weekly Magazine giving fifty-two numbers of sixty-four pages each, or more than Three and a Quarter Thousand double-column octavo pages of reading matter yearly, forming four large volumes filled with the ripest thought of THE ABLEST MINDS OF THE AGE, 7 and presenting a nss of matter Unequalled in Quality and Quantity by any other periodical. It presents in convenient form a compilation of the world’s choicest liter- ature, Encyclopedic in its Scope, Character, Comprehensiveness and Completeness, and with a freshness, owing to its frequent issue, attempted by-no other publication. Ablest Essays and Reviews, ‘Biographical Sketches, Latest Results of Scientific Research, Literary Criticism, Stories of Trayel and Exploration, Fiction, Every Phase of Culture and Progress in the European World. 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