THE

AMERICAN
NATURALIS

A MONTHLY JOURNAL
DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES
IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE.

MANAGING EDITO
Prors, E. D. COPE, PEERAA AND J. " ENGEL EY, Boston.

ASSOCIATE peie
Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Chicago, EE be BESSEY, Lincoln, Neb., H. C. MERCER, Philadelphia, — '
PRor. C. M. WEED, Durham, N. H., n. or, W. S. BAYLEY, W nos. Maine, Pror, E. A. ANDREWS, Baltimore,
PROF. * H. HOBBS, Madison, Wis.

m XXVIII. JULY, 1894. No. 331.

CONTESTS.

PAGE, PAGE.
ANIMAL MECHANICS, Dr. Manly Miles: . 555 | New Island off Pantelleris —A . Correction—
THE MEANING OF TR&E-LirFE. Henry L. Clarke, 572 | Petrographical Provinces—Miscellaneous. '. . 60;
LEPIDOSIRENIDS AND BDELLOSTOMIDs. Botany —Thaxter’s Studies of the Laboul-
Theodore Gill, 581 | beniaces. . . s;
THE ORIGIN or PELAGIC LIFE, Zoology — The y EPERE Sense randi
From Professor W. K. M 585 | Insects—The Luminous Organs of HAE
RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. |.. . 589 | this rueppelii Verany—Verril's Organ—Pre-
KECENT LITERATURE, —Gage's TERRE end liminary Descriptions of Some New South
Microscopical Methods —Shufeldt on Chap- American Characinidee —On the Species of
‘man’s Birds of Trinidad — Annual Report Himantodes D. & B—Zoological News.
Minnesota Natural History Survey for 1892. . 592 | £""/eme/egy—The Pear Leaf Blister, D :
Psi. Norns. trated) — Termite octets =: Habits of. the
i Pasco of Southern Geena on
Geology and Paleontology,—Schlosser on Amer- the Win
ican Eocene Vertebrata in Switzerland—The piles Antenuation of Viper puse.
| Skull oa Pisodus Medic oma pd The Secretion of Ure :
Cenoz . 994 Archeology and Etro gy olo pipes iie in
Mi ES ui ibutions to Swedish Miner | Shell-heaps of the St. John’s—Norse Remains
^ ema art I—Optical Methods—Isotypism— | in the Neighborhood of Boston mA x
basilar Structure in Quartz Crystals. . . . 597 | of field work in the Department of Am
Petrography—Contact Effects around Saxon and virion Archeeology of the University
` Granites—The Schists of the Malvern Hills— of Pennsylvani
A Soda-Rh yolite from the Berkeley Hills, Cal. PROCEEDINGS OF dine Socrernik coy 2c NN
—Diabases from Rio Janeiro, Brazil — The SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 4. i... v 09.59. 20 CENE

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THE /5 9 Y
AM ERICAN NATURALIST
Vor. XXVIIL ^ July, A E 331

ANIMAL MECHANICS:
By Dr. Manty MILES.

Reference was made to a former lecture before the Michigan
Short-horn Cattle Association, in which the relations of hered-
ity and variation to the improvement of live stock were dis-
cussed, and attention was called to the flexibility of the con-
stitution of domestic animals that made them susceptible to
the modifying influences of the conditions in which they are
placed—so that variations are constantly produced by changes
in food and management, and constant care must be exercised |.
to select the animals presenting desirable variations to fix and
retain them as inherited characters.

In presenting these fundamental principles in the improve-
ment of animals, many important details were necessarily
omitted, and at the present time my purpose is to supplement -
the general subject of heredity and variation, by calling atten-
tion to some of the latest contributions of science to the
philosophy of feeding, and notice their relations to the prin-
ciples of selecting breeding stock, that are often overlooked by
inexperienced breeders in their efforts to improve their ani-
mals in special qualities.

In the lecture referred to, inin were compared to
machines for converting the vegetable products of the farm
_ 1Abstract of a lecture before the Michigan Association of Breeders of Improved
Live sunt. um 17, 1892,

Mo. Bot. Garden,
1598. 2 jus

556 The American Naturalist. [July,

into animal products of greater value. This simile, which is
often made, is of greater significance than at first sight would
appear, and if breeders will keep in mind the fact that they
are, in effect, providing machines for doing work in the man-
ufacture of meat, milk, wool, muscular power, or other animal
products, from the raw materials derived from the soil, the
means of improvement will be more readily understood.

From this point of view the breeders of live stock should
have a deep interest in the general progress of agriculture, as
any improvement in crop growing must be to their advantage,
from the larger supply of raw materials for the manufacture
of animal products, which should increase the demand for
animal machines to perform the work with the greatest econ-
omy, and at the same time turn out a finished product of a
quality than can be disposed of at renumerative prices in the
market.

This simile of a machine makes apparent the fallacy of the
old notion that the animal that eats the least is the best for
the farmer. It would certainly be a poor recommendation for
a machine to say that it could work up but a small amount of
raw materials. The object of the farmer is, profit, and in
every department of production the aim should be to obtain
the largest net return from the raw materials he has to dispose
of. The more the animal machine can do of useful work, the
greater its value to the farmer, if the results are obtained with
the greatest economy.

. Another popular error will be readily corrected by looking
upon animals as machines for doing work. The notion has
too generally prevailed that animals are composed simply of
flesh and blood and bones, etc., and that when they are furnish-
ed with food containing the materials which enter into the
composition of their tissues, it would, in some mysterious way,
be converted into animal substances. This is, however, a par-
tial or one-sided view, that does not represent the whole
truth.

. Farmers are constantly dealing with the forces of Nature,
and a knowledge of naturallaws cannot fail to aid them in
their mastery. The applications of the law of the conserva-

E 1894] Animal Mechanics. 557

| : tion of energy to animal and vegetable physiology, which

5 have recently been made, are of great assistance in giving

clear and correct notions in regard to the economy of living be-

ings, and we learn that the materials used in the constructive

| processes of plants and animals are not of greater importance

: than the motive power required to convert them into living
substances.

The law of the conservation of energy has revolutionized
| modern physies, and the industries have been directly bene-
fited by its applications, and its influence in agriculture when
rightly applied, can hardly be overestimated. Faraday pro-
| nounced it “the highest law in physical science which our
| faculties permit us to perceive," and it has been claimed to be
the most important discovery of the present century.

Energy has been defined as “the power of doing work, or
overcoming resistance." Its familiar manifestations we call
heat, light, motion, electricity, etc. "These different forms of
energy are mutually convertible, without gain or loss, or, in
other words, the energy of the Universe is a constant quantity
that is neither increased or diminished by the transformations
it undergoes.

All forms of energy may be transformed to heat, and this
furnishes a convenient unit or standard for measuring it. The
unit of heat is the amount required to raise one pound of
water one degree in temperature. Its mechanical equivalent
is 772 foot-pounds, which is the unit for measuring work.
‘That is to say, the heat required to raise one pound of water
one degree in temperature, is equivalent to the force required
toraise a weight of one pound 772 feet, or a weight of 772
pounds one foot, which is, conveniently expressed, as 772 foot-
pounds, the weight in pounds being multiplied into the dis-
tance in feet through which it is raised. Foot-pounds divided
by 2000 will give the result in foot-tons, which is often used.

When a weight of one pound is raised 772 feet, it represents,
in that position, 772 foot-pounds of potential, or stored energy,
and when this weight is allowed to fall the entire distance
without interruption, the stored energy is transformed into
active energy or motion, and when this motion is arrested on

Ew
TET eee ee

558 The American Naturalist. [July,

completion of the fall of 772 feet, heat is liberated sufficient
to raise one pound of water one degree in temperature, or, the
equivalent of the energy required to raise the weight to the
height from which it fell. This serves to illustrate what is
meant by the conservation of energy.

The transformation of food constituents into animal sub-
tance involves the performance of work by the animal
machinery of nutrition, which is carried on at the expense of
the stored energy of the food consumed. An expenditure of
energy in work is as necessary to convert corn or grass, into
animal subtance, as in the hauling of a load on the road, and

-the term work is as applicable, in the same sense, in the one
case asin the other. Sheep growing wool, cows giving milk,
and animals fed for the butcher, should, therefore, be recog-
nized as working animals, as well as those used in draft, or in
lighter, more rapid work on the road.

Internal work must be done in the first place to convert
vegetable substances into animal substance; and, in the next
place, an additional amount of work must be done in the
further conversion of animal substance into the special ani-
mal products of meat, milk, wool and muscular force, which
are the real sources of profit in feeding. Moreover, this inter-
nal work involves the wear and tear of the animal machine,
which unlike purely mechanical devices, makes its own repairs
at the expense of the raw materials it is its mission to convert
into animal products.

An important question here presents itself; how is the food
consumed by animals disposed of, and what purpose does it
serve in the animaleconomy? ‘The correct answer to this is
of great practical importance and interest to every farmer, and
especially to breeders of improved stock.

In the first place, materials are provided for growth, and
for the needed repairs of the system, but only a small propor-
tion of the food constituents are utilized for these purposes, as
will be seen from the following table giving the results of
experiments at Rothamsted.

Each 100 pounds of food constituents consumed by fatten-
ing animals were disposed of as follows :

VERSUS AT C Ne CREAN RU TS OA Ree Sap SCRI IMS o8 ee gk PME |

1894.] Animal Mechanics. 559

0 — — 1 — Bored in increase. | Voided in Excreta.
d si Food.
Oxen. | Sheep. | Pigs. | Oxen. | Sheep. | Pigs.
$
Ibs Ibs Ibs Ibs Ibs Ibs
otei | 41 4.2 13.5 95.9 | 95.8 | 86.5
Non-proteids 1 2:29 i | IM 143. 1. 84 |
Hie XM | 1-9 T Ww T 38 | ww» | wr Ww
Bubeame | 621. | RA | dM | MÀ ( WH9 | M

The food constituents not accounted for have served a use-
ful purpose in their liberated energy for the performance of
work, and their residues have been exhaled in the gaseous
form, and the surplus energy as animal heat. Growing ani-
mals, and cows giving milk, will retain, or utilize a larger
proportion of the food constituents, but even then much the
larger part of the material elements of the food are discharged
in the excreta.

In the next place, the potential or stored energy of the food
is made available in all of the work done by the system, and
it is the sole source of power in all of the processes of the ani-
mal machine.

From the prominence given to the chemical theory of nutri-
tive ratios in some of our agricultural papers, farmers are
asked to believe that success in feeding depends upon follow-
ing certain theoretical formulas, giving the proportions of food
constituents in the rations fed, while the animal machine
which does the work of manufacturing valuable animal pro-
ducts, and the motive power that makes it efficient, are
entirely ignored. I can only say in passing, that in the pres-
ent state of knowledge, we cannot formulate the constituents
of foods in chemical terms, to serve as practical guides in
feeding. The machine itself, is the most important considera-
tion, and its capacity, for doing the work required of it, is of
far greater significance than the proportions of the compara-
tively small amount of the so-called nutritive constituents
stored up, or used by the animal.

Let us for a moment consider the facts in regard to the con-
struction and repair of other farm machinery, as reapers,
mowers, threshing machines, etc. When we-take an exact
inventory of the items of cost, in the construction and repair

of these machines, we find that the materials of which they
. are made, or are used in repairing them, make but a small fig-

560 The American Naturalist. [July,

ure in the expense account, and that the work donein shaping
and fitting the materials in proper relations, represent a very
large proportion of the real cost of the machine or of the
repairs that may be made. In repairing a machine, a few
cents may pay for the iron or wood used, while several dollars
would be required to pay for the work done.

The same principle holds good with the animal machine,
both in its original construction and its repairs. But a small
proportion of the food constituents are utilized in the processes
of nutrition, and a very large amount of energy is constantly
expended in the work. of transforming these materials into
animal substance and animal products.

The real significance of these facts will best be seen by
making a quantitative estimate of the energy expended, and
the transformations it undergoes in organic processes, as repre-
sented in the following table giving an approximate state-
ment of the composition of one acre of corn, and of a fat ox
analyzed at Rothamsted.

PE TEENS AS E TD Tries oon ie een S ENS ale

FECE TE EUN.
SRE eee) MIR T PHP EN EM

SHOEI rere AA ae wd NM FS

RSEN ES PT MAT

Corn one Acre, io: '
cae | mer p qon qmi,
7200 Ibs. total bs. ).
Per cent. Lbs. Per cent. Lbs.
Carbon 39.7 2858 31.6 448
Sion 7.0 504 9.7 137
À Oxygen 48.8 3511 46.5 660
Nitrogen 1.3 90 24 m
— 3.3 237 3.9 55
Potash 1.10 79 0.18 2.6
Phos. Acid. 0.53 38 1.55 22
Water 17.1 1232 | 45.5 646
Proteids 7.8 562 || 14.5 206
Fat 3.3 237 || 30.1 427
Carbhydrates 68.5 4932 || 7
B Ash 3.3 37 — i 3.9 55
| Potash 1.10 79 | | 0.18 2.6
Phos. Acid} 0.58 "EN 1.55 22

1894.] - Animal Mechanics. 561

17 083 000 foot-tons, equiva- j 3, 381,000 foot-tons, equivá-

Stored umi d song
ork don

lent to the

day and night for 142 days,

continuously for 719 days.

A chemical analysis of the corn shows (division A of the
table), that it is composed of 2858 lbs. of carbon; 504 lbs. of
hydrogen; 3511 lbs. of oxgen; 90 lbs. of nitrogen; and
237 lbs. of ash, or mineral constituents, the most important of
which are potash 79 lbs., and phosphoric acid 38 lbs. "Theash
constituents and the nitrogen are alone derived from the
soil.

We have here the elements of which the crop is composed,
but division B of the table shows that they represent water
1232 lbs.; proteids 562 lbs.; carbhydrates 4932 Ibs.; and ash
237 lbs. "These are the facts furnished by chemistry in regard
to the composition of the acre of corn, but they do not repre-
sent the whole truth.

To transform the simple elements of division A of the able
into the complex organic compounds of division B, energy
must be expended and work done, and the energy so used is
stored up in the organic substances formed as an essential con-
dition of their constitution. The amountof this stored energy
is represented in division C of the table, and it is an import-
ant factor in the composition of the crop of corn, as it is one
of the essentials in animal nutrition.

This stored energy of the corn does not, however, represent
the total expenditure in the growth ofthe crop. Experiments
show that for each pound of dry organic substance formed by
the growing corn, about 300 lbs. of water will be exhaled, or
thrown off by the plants in the form of vapor. To convert
water into vapor involves an expenditure of energy, and this
for the acre of corn would be approximately equivalent to the
work of 24 horses for six months without intermission. Water
is likewise evaporated from the soil as one of the essential con-
ditions of fertility, and this calls for a further expenditure of
energy, which under our climatic conditions may be estimated
at about twice the amount expended in exhalation from the
plants themselves. Taking all of these processes together, the

562 The American Naturalist. [July,

energy expended directly and indirectly in Nature’s invisible
unobtrusive work of growing an acre of corn, must. be equiva-
Ient to the work of 76 horses, day and night, for six months.

This energy is all derived from the heat and light of
the sun. The importance of proper soil conditions to favor
the required transformations of energy in the growth of the
erop will readily be seen.

The motive power of the animal machine, in all of its pro-
cesses of nutrition and growth, is derived exclusively from the
stored or potential energy of their food, and we may ask how
this energy is liberated and made available in the animal
economy.

As the energy used in its construction is stored up by the
plant as an essential condition of its constitution, any disin-
tegration of its organie substance will liberate the stored
energy in the form of heat. This may be brought about in
several ways. 1.—The plant may be burned, and the heat
produeed represents its stored energy. 2.—Microbes feeding
on organic substances tear them apart and liberate the stored
energy in the form of heat. The heat produced in the famil-
iar processes of fermentation and putrefaction, all of which
are caused by microbes, is but the stored energy of the organic
substances on which they feed. 3.—The digestive processes
of animals involve a disintegration of the food constituents,
and liberate their potential energy for use in the processes of
animal nutrition.

Turning now to the table, for the composition of the fat ox,

we find it represented in division A, as consisting of simple
elements, and in division B the complex compounds built up
from these elements are given. It will be seen that work has
been done, and energy expended in transforming the simple
elements of division A into the complex compounds of divi-
sion B, and, as in the case of the corn, the estimated amount
of this expenditure of energy is given in foot-tons, and horse
power, in division C of the table.

The popular notion that the proteids, fat and carbhydrates
of the corn are directly converted into the proteids and fat of
the ox that eats them, (division B), does not take into account

E EE ern NU NEM REUNIR REE RA SE RECS RIP TIONS ERI ANGUS RORIS, UE IR CUNEO M OTE PO UITAE UN T Metaph EDS DS Dt

Mace E T. z ^
NR TN LAS PEREAT RAN TRUE ete RMR Be E a

LE EL AT Ne Oe LEER OS Me A ee ne fee ee Mle PRO ae Eee ena n
EE E AARE E ne RES RR RR Te Sg TS S eet em PPIE ERE MER E ENIE LE MINE I ee EH AT ERE RITE UTR RR RR ERE U RSE erm

1894.] Animal Mechanics. 563

all of the factors concerned. We have seen that energy must
be expended in work to convert vegetable substances into ani-
mal substances, and this energy can only be obtained by tear-
ing apart the vegetable compounds through the processes of
digestion, and liberating theirstored energy. In this process
the vegetable compounds of the food are resolved almost into
their elements, and from these

by means of the energy liberated, the proteids and fats of the
ox are manufactured.

The complex animal substances thus formed are continually
undergoing change. The wear and tear of the animal ma-
chine involves a disintegration of its organic substance, and
its stored energy is liberated as heat. This may in part be
used again in the processes of repair, but a large proportion
leaves the body as animal heat.

As in the case of the corn, the stored energy (division C of
the table), of the fat ox does not represent all of the energy
expended in building up its organic substance. A constant
process of repair has been going on to replace the waste
resulting from the wear and tear of thesystem, which involves
a continuous expenditure of energy—and the loss arising from
the energy thrown off from the body as animal heat, (radia-
tion), and expended in vaporizing the water exhaled from the
skin, (perspiration), must be replaced at the expense of the
stored energy of the food to keep the machinery of nutrition,
in efficient activity.

The facts presented are sufficient to show that the transfor-
mations of energy are important factors in the economy of
plants and animals, and that the materials of which they are
composed cannot be looked upon as the sole subjects of interest
in farm economy. The tendency to make the compounding
of food rations the prominent subject for consideration, con-
flicts with the interests of the breeders of improved stock, and
misleads the farmers who are induced to look upon it as the
real source of profit. This reference to the subject of feeding
is made with the two-fold purpose of ealling attention to the
fallacy of feeding experiments in which the chemical compo-

sition of foods is made the prominent or sole object of interest,

564 The American Naturalist. [July,

while the importance of the improvement of the live stock of
the farm is wholly ignored ; and to remind breeders that they
are fully warranted in claiming that improved animals are
entitled to the first place among the means of an improved
agriculture, as machines for manufacturing the crops grown
on the farm into marketable products.

The most serious obstacles to the progress of agriculture at
the present time arise from the one-sided and misleading
statements that are made in the name of science by those who
have but a superficial knowledge of Nature’s laws, and their
intimate relations to farm practice. The experiment station
reports, on the feeding of animals, fail to give a full statement
of all of the factors that may influence the results, and too
often the record is made to conform to hasty assumptions, or
false theories, so that it is difficult to find a grain of truth in
the mass of chaff that is scattered broadcast over the coun-
try.
As the remarkable progress made in other productive
industries has been largely owing to improvements in machin-
ery, so progress in agriculture must depend, to a great extent.
at least, upon the further improvement of the animal machines
that are so essential to success in the business of farming, and
we must look to the breeders of the pure breeds tó accomplish
this desirable object.

It will not answer to rest satisfied with the present high
development of the pure breeds and their more general diffu-
sion on the farms of the country, but the aim of every intelli-
gent breeder must be to still further increase their useful
qualities in special directions. Notwithstanding the decided
superiority of the pure breeds over the average farm stock,
there is still a wide margin for improvement, asthere are good
reasons for believing that even the best animals do not utilize
more than one-half of the available energy of their food in use-
ful work.

The largest profit can only be realized with animals that
have the ability to consume and utilize in useful work, an
amount of food considerably in excess of what is required in
the needed repairs of the system. This involves severe work,

POSH CUENTE DOSES ete eee Stee eS TI TTE IIR Te IRE TQ TRE EAE IIT ENTER RIEN PE TER

d
1
|

1894.] Animal Mechanics. 565

and one of the first essentials to be considered is that of
stamina and constitution, or, in other words, the capacity for
hard work and: powers of endurance, or the same qualities in
this respect that all working animals should possess.

These qualities are largely determined by heredity, and
selections for breeding purposes should be made with reference
to these qualities in the ancestors. Good sanitary conditions
must of course be maintained, to secure a continuance of
robust health and an active performance of the normal func-
tions of nutrition.

PREPOTENCY.

Strength of constitution or powers of endurance must not
be confounded with prepotency, or the quality of holding a
preponderating influence in the act of reproduction. Many
animals that are prepotentin transmitting their own qualities,
are deficient in constitution, and their offspring lack that
active and vigorous performance of the nutritive organs that
is essential to stamina and powers of endurance in useful
work. Prepotency arises from uniformity in the characteris-
tics of ancestors for many generations, and these characters
may or may not be desirable.

In the improvement of the pure breeds with their present
high development of valuable qualities, an accumulation of
slight variations must be the aim. We cannot expect to gain
any wide departure from present characters at a single step.
Progress can only be made by a succession of short steps, and
their sum will represent the real advantage gained. Small
items determine the difference between gain and loss in the
present activity of the industries, and in agriculture we must
recognize the importance of slight improvements in each
detail of general management as the only available method
of making real progress.

BREEDING TO A TYPE.

In making selections for breeding, an ideal type of excel-
lence representing definite valuable qualities, should be strictly

566 The American Naturalist. [July,

adhered to. "Thistype, in all cases, should represent the high-
est development of characters that indicate the posession of
the desired useful qualities. The form should be that which
represents a special adaptation to the particular purpose in
view. It is well known that the general form of animals is
correlated with particular functions. The form of the roadster
differs from that which is suited for heavy draft, and the type
for rapid meat production is different from that giving the
best results in the production of milk.

The law of correlation has, however, a further application.
There is not only an adaptation of the general form to the
kind of work that can best be done, but the different organs
of the body have correlated relations that are quite as signifi-
eant. An excessive activity, or development of one organ, or
set of organs, diminishes the activity or development of the
system in other directions. That is tosay, the system has a
capacity for utilizing a certain amount of energy, and if it is
largely expended in one direction there is less to be expended
for other purposes. If the tendeney to lay on fat predominates,
the milk producing functions must suffer a corresponding
diminution, and severe muscular work will diminish the ten-
dency to lay on fat, or produce milk.

To give permanency and uniformity to the ideal type that
has been adopted, selections for breeding must be strictly con-
fined to animals having the desired characters, within the
limits of a distinct breed, or of a single family of a distinct
breed. This is in effect establishing, or fixing, family charac-
ters in the particular breed. The constitution or physical
stamina of the family type should not be lost sight of in
attempts to secure other desirable characters, as on it will
depend the efficiency and profitable exercise of the special
functions that have been cultivated and fixed as family char-
acters.

All coarseness should be avoided. Improvements in all
breeds have been made by securing a greater refinement of the
system, or in diminishing the proportion of coarse parts.
Large bones, with apparent good reason, have been looked
upon as an indication of imperfect nutrition, and as a general

1894.] Animal Mechanics. - 567

rule, to which there are few, if any exceptions, they are corre-
lated with coarseness in other parts. The wear and tear of
the animal machine is greater in such cases, and a larger
expenditure of energy is required in its repairs.

INHERITED HABITS.

Aside from the general inherited habits of animals with
which you are all familiar, as the tendency to early maturity,
or the habit of milk production throughout the year, or in
what is called the trotting instinct, there are inherited habits
of the nutritive organs themselves which should not be over-
looked. ,

Habits are cultivated and established by their systematic
exercise, and the desirable habits of the nutritive organs can
only be cultivated and maintained by their constant exercise,
or, in other words, by liberal feeding, and the direction in
which the liberated energy of the food is expended must, at
the same time, be determined and promoted by cultivating
the general and special habits of the system. If, forexample,
milk is a leading object, in connection with a liberal supply of
food, from which energy is freely liberated through the inher-
ited activity of the nutritive organs—a sufficient capacity of
the udder and other organs concerned in milk production
must be provided—and a dominant tendency to the expendi-
ture of the available energy in the milk producing function
must be kept up by gentle treatment and regularity in milk-
ing and feeding. Judgment and skill must be exercised and
attention given to many details, all tending in the same
direction, to give the desired bias to the energies of the sys-
tem.

The application of general principles will be found a better
guide in practice than any specific empirical rules, and the
habits of the system developed by judicious exercise and cul-
tivation, must be fixed by systematic selection as hereditary
characters.
GENERAL PURPOSE ANIMALS.

We can only call attention to some of the principles already

presented to illustrate thisspecial subject. There is, undoubt-

e
568 The American Naturalist. [July,

edly, a greater difficulty in securing two qualities on a high
plane of excellence, than to obtain an extraordinary perma
ance in a single special direction.

Milk and meat production are not strictly incompatable,
and a high degree of excellence may doubtless be obtained
with both. Greater skill is, however, required to combine the
two qualities and retain them for any time, than to obtain a
high development of either of them alone. A certain bal-
ance, or equilibrium, in the expenditure of energy, must be
secured in the general purpose animal, or there will be a ten-
dency for some single quality to predominate.

A tendency to the expenditure of energy in one direction
during the period of growth, and in another direction when
maturity is reached, may be cultivated and fixed by heredity-
This principle is an important one for consideration in breed-
ing dairy stock. When a cow is giving milk the tendency, or
inherited habit of the organs of nutrition, may be to expend
the entire energies of the system in the milk producing func-
tion, and when she becomes “ dry,” the available energy may
be expended in laying on fat. The difficulty is, however, to
maintain a due balance of the two functions. If the fattening
tendency predominates, the period of giving milk may be
shortened and the activity of the function ultimately dimin-
ished. One of the best precautions against this is to retain in
perfection the milking type in the general form of the animal,
and to keep up the milk secreting function as long as possible
by proper management. Constant care in the selection and
treatment of the animals will be required to secure the most
desirable balance between the two functions, and prevent a
predominance of either.

EXERCISE AS A Factor IN IMPROVEMENT.

From the general principles already noticed, it must be seen
that the exereise of special organs, and of the general system,
are necessary to secure the highest excellence in the working
of the animal machine. We must keep in mind the fact that
the exercise of an organ or group of organs, involves an
expenditure of energy, and what is spent in one direction can-

enc a e i > E EAS eu in : $ ]
Birra EEE EEN PEIN ETE. a M ee tee due cie Em VD? ssim aire, Se i ei iy foe a MN Bar ae a betes VE ne ee ul bcn ci bd tds ERR

OSEE ee ee SERRE t URINE TT

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1894.] Animal Mechanics. 569

not be used in another, that is to say, that work performed by
one organ diminishes the amount of energy to be expended
in work by another. Judgment is, therefore, required to
adopt the exercise, in a particular case, to the requirements of
the system for a special purpose.

The general exercise of the muscular system is undoubtedly
desirable in growing animals to secure the symmetrical devel-
opment of all organs, or parts of the body. Even in the pro-
cess of growth a bias, or tendency to the expenditure of energy
ina particular direction may be encouraged. This is illus-
trated in the Palo Alto training of youngsters. Culture and
heredity have given the remarkable development of the trotting
horse, and early culture, or training, is now looked upon as
one of the most encouraging factors in future improvement.

In the animal raised for meat production, early maturity is
essential, and the tendency to flesh forming may be encouraged
from birth. Exercise of the general system in the early stages
of growth should tend to promote the development of muscle,
or lean meat, and check the tendency to excessive fat product-

on.

While recognizing the advantages of muscular exercise dur-
ing growth, in promoting the formation of lean flesh, and a
symmetrical development of the system as a whole, we must
not overlook its unfavorable influence under other conditions.
In the case of a cow giving milk, or in that of a fattening
animal, muscular exercise must result in a diversion of energy
from the work of milk production or flesh formation. Any
considerable amount of muscular exercise by a cow giving
milk must tend to diminish both the quantity and quality of
the milk produced, or at least diminish the total amount of
the solid constituents of the product.

QUALITY oF MILK AND ENERGY.

A large mess of milk may be produced with but a small
quantity of solids, and a corresponding small expenditure of
energy. The best milk contains very much more potential
energy than poor milk, and it must cost a corresponding
expenditure of energy to produce it. In other words, more

570 The American Naturalist. [July,

work is done by the animal machine in making good milk
than in turning out an inferior article containing a larger pro-
portion of water.

Sex INFLUENCING THE TRANSMISSION OF HEREDITARY
CHARACTERS.

From the manner in which pedigrees are recorded in some
of the herd books, there is a tendency to overlook the char-
acteristics of the female ancestors, which, especially in the
dairy breeds, are of great importance. In the chapters on
“atavism,” and “the relative influence of parents” in my
“Stock Breeding,” a number of cases are collected showing
that sex has an influence on the transmission of characters.
A sexual alternation in the inheritance of dominant charac-
ters is often observed, female peculiarities being more strongly
transmitted to male offspring, which they in turn impress
upon their female offspring; and male characters are in the
same way transmitted by females. This should not be over-
looked in breeding dairy stock, as the milking qualities of the
grand dam frequently appear to be transmitted to her grand
daughters with greater intensity, and certainty, by her sons
than by her daughters. The female ancestors of the bull ina
dairy herd must, therefore, be of especial interest in his pedi-
gree, as an index of the qualities he will be likely to transmit
as dominant characters to his daughters.

The means of improving animals in useful qualities may be
expressed in a few general principles, and the success of the
breeder will depend upon their judicious application under the
circumstances presented in each particular case, and every
detail of practice must conform to them to secure the best
results.

The most valuable qualities of our domestic animals are the
outcome of highly artificial characters, representing a wide
departure from the original stocks from which they sprung ;
and if the same artificial conditions that produced them are
not maintained, and the selection of breeding stock is not lim-
ited to the animals that have the desired characters, they are

aii

1894.] Animal Mechanics. 571

readily impaired and finally lost. The old race characters,
under careless management, have an advantage over the more
unstable acquired characters that give the animal its greatest
value.

Pedigrees must be studied to ascertain whether all ancestors
have had the desired qualities. Cross breeding, in the widest
sense of breeding together animals of distinct breeds, would
not now be defended by any intelligent breeder, but the same
principle is frequently acted upon in breeding together differ-
ent families of the same breed, and unless there is a strong
prepotency on the one side, the advantages of such crossing
must be at least problematical.

Uniformity in hereditary characters, so far as we know, can
only be secured by breeding together animals having the
same characteristics.

The whole matter of successful breeding may be summed
up in the two words “culture” and "herédity," and in the
selection of breeding stock itis desirable that all ancestors
should have had the required form of culture, or training, in
order to secure uniformity in hereditary characters.

38

572 The American Naturalist. [July,

THE MEANING OF TREE-LIFE.
By Henry L. CLARKE!
(Continued from Volume 28, page 472).

It is a striking fact that the older fossil forest remains, at
least through the Paleozoic and early Mesozoic strata, present a
wonderful likeness in character the whole world over. The
wide scattering and spreading of types that this indicates, is to
be directly accounted for partly by the more frequent physi-
cal changes that took place in early geologic times, and the
constant changes and shiftings in the relative positions of con-
tinental surfaces, through upheavals and subsidences; and
in part by the wide wind-dispersion possible for the spores of
the Paleozoic Cryptogams. Past question geology makes
countless blunders in assigning strata in different parts of the
world to the same age because of likeness in their fossil flora
(and the statement holds almost equally true of fauna),
where likeness is in fact a positive proof that the strata
are not synchronous. But the chances for error in this
direction decrease from the latest to the most remote ages.
All evidences indicate more and more homogeneous climatic
and physiographic conditions as we trace the geologic record
farther and farther back.

When the low insular character of the early continents, and
the consequent increased humidity of the atmosphere extend-
ed a nearly sub-tropical climate to the poles, it is obvious
that the potency of the sun as a maker of the seasons and
and zones, counted for far less than now,—unless indeed the
sun itself were tremendously hotter then than now. But that
this last supposition is false within the history of vegetation
is proven by asimple fact. Were it true, the equatorial zone
would have been a region of such intense heat that it would
have formed an impassable barrier between the floras of the

1University of Chicago.

meee

1894.] The Meaning of Tree-Life. 573

north and south polar regions; whereas, on the contrary, we
find identical types to the far corners of both hemispheres.

It is a vitally important consideration that a slight increase
in general atmospheric humidity would have the effect of
converting the atmosphere into a heat-distributing oven.

We cannot indulge in the absurdity of asserting separate
centers of identically similar development, and we know that
the torrid zone of even the present would be impassable to per-
haps 99 7; of our far north temperate flora ; so here is proof suffi-
cient of relatively great homogeneity in the conditions of the far
past, and increasing heterogeneity thence down to the present.
Aside from the greater stability and ruggedness of modern
continents, the change that has wrought an all important
effect upon vegetation, has been the development of the
modern widely extended continental land-areas, producing a
secular diminution in the general humidity of the earth's
atmosphere, with the consequent full development of the great
climatic zones, the polar, temperate, and torrid. Probably in
the later Mesozoic and early Tertiary, this change began to
make its influence most strongly felt, and through the Tertiary
down to the present its effect has steadily and rapidly become
more and more obvious. The fact is of course not to be lost
sight of, that the highly specialized Mesozoic and Tertiary
floras would be far more susceptible than the more lowly
Paleozoie to climatie changes. But the working of these
changes has been all-powerful in making most of the problems
of geographie botany that are before us in the present, and so
we may here fittingly turn the course of our discussion in this
direction.

The progressive changes from the comparative homogeneity
of conditions in remote ages to the world-wide heterogeneity
of the present, have been recorded in the development of more
and more complex tension systems between the various factors
of vegetation. Of these systems, the most primitive was that
belonging to each individual forest, —a central stronghold of old
established types, merging into a tensional margin line of
newer, weaker forms. Wherever vegetation existed, this ten-

sion system must have existed; but while we see it in the

574 The American Naturalist. [July,

present world under an indefinite variety of aspects, probably
in Paleozoic times a study of the tensions of one forest would
have been, in the main, a study of all others. The far more
homogeneous climatic and physiographic conditions then pre-
vailing, must have meant almost as striking world-wide simi-
larity between all forest tracts, as there is now bewildering
diversity, New forms were far more rapidly dispersed from
the localities where they originated, and whereverthey migrated
they found conditions practically similar and hence equally
favorable. Thus within a comparatively brief range of time,
closely similar floras might have been found in widely separated
regions. But another factor came into play at an early period to
greatly complicate the problem—the physiographic irregulari-
ties in continental surfaces. The increasing stability of physio-
graphic features from remote toward modern times, has made
these features vastly more complicated and diverse now than
in ages past, and consequently their influence on vegetation
has become more and more profound. The earliest, as well as
all the subsequent manifestation of this influence, was
the development of a second great system of tensions—ten-
sions between the unlike vegetations of adjacent unlike coun-
try surfaces, between the swamp and the dryer plain, the flat
country and the hills the mountain sides and the valleys.
Here the tensional margin lines. of two diverse hosts of vege-
tation met and formed another tension line between their own,
and on this, the struggle for the mastery waxed fiercest, and
the evolution of highly specialized forms was most active.
Such were the two tension systems of preeminent import-
ance in the early history of plant-life; later a third came
upon the stage, brought into existence through the develop-
ment of the great climatic zones. Probably this first began to
assume decided importance,as has been pointed out,sometimein
the later Mesozoie, and increased the range of its influence
through the Cretaceous and Tertiary, till in modern times, it
has culminated in producing the broadest and most funda-
mental division of the world into great botanical realms.
That there were regions of glacial cold in Australia, India,
and Cape Colony in Carboniferous times is an undoubted fact;

1894.) . The Meaning of Tree-Life. 575

that there were regions of glacial cold in previous, as well as
several subsequent, ages is highly probable; but this does not
invalidate the general principle suggested here. The recon-
structive meteorology of the near future will probably demon-
strate that the geographical distribution ot the Carboniferous
glaciation, and of several other similar cases, is directly con-
nected with peculiar stages of continental evolution and
oceanic extension. And while such glaciations are of far-
reaching importance for their age, they are nevertheless
temporary “ perturbations ” that do not, in the long range of
time, break down the secular increase in the direct subordi-
nating of the zonal world-climate to astronomical, rather than
terrestrial, influences. From a nearly homogeneous climatic
condition throughout the world, there were gradually
developed five fairly distinct zones merging into each other
at their adjacent margins—a torrid equatorial, frigid polar,
and temperate intermediate. Their development inevitably
had a profound effect on vegetation. In the fossil forest
beds of Cretaceous times in far northern regions, there have
been found side by side Cycads, Conifers, Palms and Hard-
wood trees, a conglomeration utterly bewildering to the botan-
ist of to-day, but nevertheless a typical indication of the rela-
tively homogeneous climatic conditions of the age when such
a forest could have existed.

With such a suggestion of the Mesozoic world before us, let
us watch the great climatic zones develop. It is the tree-life
of the forests that tells the story most clearly; to it belonged
preeminently the all-important mission of remodeling the
aspect of the world’s vegetation. The trees moved their hab-
itats, and the herbaceous forms were carried along with them.
In the equatorial belt were all the conditions of heat and
moisture most favorable to the vigorous development of plant
life; in the polar regions that sternest foe, steadily increasing
cold; in the temperate belts, à compromise between the con-
ditions of the others. From the original mixed forest a
selection had to be made of the tree-groups that were to
hold dominion respectively over each of the new sets of con-
ditions. How? It will not do to say glibly, the Palms

576 The American Naturalist. |. [July,

loved the heat, the Conifers the cold, and the Hardwood trees
the happy medium. Conifers luxuriate to-day in the torrid
zone, and Hardwood trees and modern congeners of the Palms
once grew together in Greenland. No innate partiality for
heat or cold separated the three great groups, but the stern
laws of plant dynamies that determine the course of the
struggle for existence. The old established and all-powerful
tree-group, the patriarchs of the forest, were the Conifers, the
group best fitted to stem the tide of change and battle with
opposing conditions; next them in power, because most like
them in character, were the Diclinae; and weakest were
the Palms, the group whose foot hold was most precarious.
These last could hold their own against the powerful Conifers
and Diclinae only so long as climatie conditions were most
favorable. Consequently, as the cold advanced from the
polar regions the palms retreated toward the torrid zone.
Here they took their stand, their highly specialized structure
asserted its full power, and gradually they crowded out
the Conifers and Diclinae, and established preeminent domin-
ion over the equatorial belt. The Diclinae and Conifers
were crowded out, *not that they loved heat less, but tliat
they loved freedom more.” They were fitted to maintain
themselves against the cold of extratropical regions, and in
these regions they were relieved from the struggle with a.
powerful competitor, the whole family of Palms and its
associated rank luxuriance of tropical vegetation. In short,
the strength of the Palms when congested into the equatorial
belt, more than counterbalanced the loss sustained by the
coniferous and hardwood trees in the cooling of extra-
equatorial regions. And so the Palms, and with them the
remnant of their ancient allies, the Tree-ferns and Cycads,
claimed the tropics for their heritage. There was probably no
region of the world where Conifers had not gained a strong
foothold in the long course of ages; there is scarcely a corner
of the modern plant-world that does not hold some group of
them ; and it wasthe Conifere that obstinately held their own
against the cold of sub-polar lands, with the stubborn endur-

ance that four great eras of geologic time have helped to build.

4
3
P.

1894.] The Meaning of Tree- Life. 577

The Diclinae retreated before the advancing cold into more
temperate climes, retreated in fact until they gathered strength
to wage equal battle with their mighty coniferous opponents.

Here, in the temperate zones, the Diclinae stood fast and
crowded the Conifers outward toward the polar regions, not
toward the equatorial, for there the odds againt the emigrants
would be tenfold increased. The record of this battle of the
trees is stamped upon many of the forest monarchs that we
marvel at to-day. A recent writer has well said: “Just as in
the formidable armor of some extinct armadillo one may read
somewhat of its struggles with its enemies, so in the one hun-
dred meters of solid trunk and in the massive girth of a living
Sequoia gigantea, the giant red-wood, one may learn of its
struggles in the ancient forests of Cretaceous and Tertiary
times, when its allies and competitors were alike more numer-
ous.”

The third great tension system is now unfolded before us.
We see the hardwood forests of temperate regions facing on
the one hand the congested luxuriance of equatorial vegeta-
tion, and on the other the ancient coniferous forest gathered
round the poles and step by step forced backward by advanc-
ing cold. There is a great equatorial pressure toward the
poles, and an opposing polar pressure, traceable to opposite
causes; and between them there is a broad tension line, the
temperate zones. Conway MacMillan, who was quoted just
above, has proposed a broadly generalized division of the
world into two great botanical realms, the Central Realm and
the Distal Realm. But the division should be carried a step
farther; taking the three great forest elements as a guide, we
may fully express the evolutionary history of plant dynamics
by recognizing three great divisions :—

The Central Tropical Realm, the Tensional Temperate
Realm, the Distal Sub-Polar Realm. The three merge into
each other and their elements are everywhere somewhat com-
mingled, but in the main they are fairly distinct. Such was
the general plan of the plant world of the late Tertiary,
proximate Preglacial times. The Glacial Period had a
wonderfully interesting effect in So the northern

578 The American Naturalist. [July,

portion of it. The story has been often told, but one
aspect of it will deserve further attention. Out of the various
forests of north temperate regions, we may recognize four that
are of peculiar interest. The European, the Northeast Asian,
the Appalachian, and the Pacific North American. All are
relics of the preglacial northern forest, but they are relics in
very different stages of preservation. The Northeast Asian is
a marvel to students of tree-life in the abundance and im-
mense variety of its forms. Evidently it has best preserved
the characters of the primaeval forest. The poverty of the
European forest is equally striking and has been well ex-
plained by the fact that the east and west mountain chains
and the Mediterranean to the south were fatal to the vegetation
retreating before the advancing glaciers. The Atlantic North
American, or Appalachian forest, on the contrary, was well
preserved by the physical characters of the country, and in its
perfection is second only to the Northeast Asian. But the
Pacific North American is an anomaly. It is preeminently a
forest of Conifers with an astonishing poverty of hardwood
types, although the latter are abundant as fossils in the Ter-
tiary strata of the region. But is this such an enigma as it
has often been considered? ‘The ice sheet that swept over the
Great Lakes and down into the Mississippi Valley did not
reach that Pacific forest region of the United States, but its
influence was felt there none theless surely. Before it retreat-
ed—first the Hardwood forest, and close on its heels the Coni-
ferae. The Coniferae invaded the strip along the western
slope of the Rockies, and also the great Northeastern Asian
forest region, and remained in both, about equally strong in
number of species. But in the case of the first named region
what became of the Hardwood forest that pushed ahead of the
Conifers? Behind it on the east were the Rockies ; before it
on the west the Pacific; and to the south the stern physio-
graphie obstacles of the Mexican coast. And again, what
was the character of the coniferous forest that invaded the
Pacific strip? We need only point to the two Sequoias, sem-
pervirens and gigantea, the * Big Trees" of California, the
culminating triumphs of vegetative energy in Coniferae. The

Ree a ent, Sele oe a” nD

1894.] The Meaning of Tree-Life. 579

Pacific strip became the refuge and stronghold during glacial
times of the mightiest phalanx in the North American coni-
ferous forest, and there they have stayed, simply because all
competitors perished before their invasion. Obviously the
conditions in the case of the Asian coniferous invasion were
vastly different ; while the comparative poverty of the conifer-
ous element in the Appalachian forest is directly traceable to
the strength of its hardwood element and the path of retreat
afforded the Conifers toward the north and northwest.

A remarkable example of the development of higher types
along the tensional margin-line was the glossopteris flora of the
Carboniferous glacial regions,—a flora an age ahead of that
of the rest of the world, and developed where the latter flora
was beaten back by the glacial cold.

Many details of great interest to the systematic botanist
might be outlined in this connection, but what has been
suggested suffices to show how vitally important is the
chapter of plant-history recorded in the world’s tree-life. It
will be found on comparison, that the record of the develop-
ment and migrations of shrubby and herbaceous plants closely
accords with the history of the tree-groups with which they
are most closely allied. But the stability of tree characters
vastly exceeds that of the characters of the lesser plant forms,
and hence it is these latter that vary most in passing from
one region to another. Still in this latitude we may clearly
observe that the more ancient herbaceous forms are the more
northerly in their range, and the newer the more southerly.
The equatorial belt has become the great center of develop-
mental activity, and out from its congested tension-margins
come the vanguard of our highest floral types. The coniferous
trees were all-powerful in the Mesozoic; the Hardwood trees
of the amentaceous and choripetalous Dicotyls seem to have
reached a climax of luxuriance in the late Tertiary; and out
of the great element of sympetalous Dicotyls that predominate
the herbaceous flora of the present world, there may be
developed another great tree group that shall rule the forest
of the far off future. The promise of this last is already to be
found in the arborescent Composite of certain of the Pacific

580 The American Naturalist. [July,

islands. But it is certain that forest development in the future
will follow no such clearly defined courses as in the past;
the wonderful complexity of the geographical botany of the
present has forever sealed the possibility of another distinctive
tree-group attaining such a world-wide prominence as either
the Conifers or the Diclinae or the Palms. These three must
stand alone asa unique monument to the struggle for existence
in the primaeval Mesozoic forest. For even as the conditions
of that age made possible a remarkably homogeneous plant
world, even so the great tension system of the earth’s present
vegetation makes diversity, to an equally or more remarkable
degree, the key-note of future development.

1894.] ; Lepidosirenids and Bdellostomids. 581

LEPIDOSIRENIDS AND BDELLOSTOMIDS.
By THEODORE GILL.
I.

In the American NaruRALIST for November, 1893, Dr.
Howard Ayers has published an article “ on the genera of the
Dipnoi Dipneumones” which exhibits a characteristic—“ lump-
ing "—which, may sometimes be a virtue but which, in this
particular instance, has been exaggerated into a decided fault.

In 1885, Dr. Ayers created much astonishment among nav-
uralists familiar with the history of the Lepidosirenids by not
only refusing to admit the generic differentiation of Lepidosi-
ren and Protopterus, but by contending that the representatives
of the two genera were even specifically inseparable, and that
the American habitat of the type was doubtful !

In the article just cited, Dr. Ayers has given a reluctant and
grudging admission to specific rank of the two types but has
unqualifiedly denied their higher rank; grudgingly, because
he concludes that “if they had to be named as new discover-
ies to-day, and could be studied together in so doing, most
zoologists would include both animals in one genus, even if they
did not group them as varieties of one species” (p. cit., p. 922).

Dr. Ayers’ former article has been sufficiently answered by
Baur, Schneider, and Parker, and his last article fails to inval-
idate their contentions. I shall only add that, after a compar-
ison of the entire body as well as the skeleton of Protopterus
annectens with the descriptions and figures of the corresponding
parts of Lepidosiren paradoxa, I am convinced that no zoologist
of mature experience would hesitate to rank Lepidosiren and
Protopterus as very distinct genera.’ -

1Professor Ray Lankester, in ** Nature" for April 12, 1894, (p. 555), has an-
nounced that he recently obtained, “by purchase from a London dealer, speci-
mens of the Lepidosiren of the Amazon well preserved in spirit" (how many he
has not told). He has illustrated peculiarities in “the limbs of Lepidosiren par-
adoxa,” and we may soon expect more details from that accomplished naturalist.

582 The American Naturalist. [July,
il.

In the article in the NATURALIST (p. 923), Dr. Ayers claims
to “have ascertained that, taking all the Bdellostomids together,
they form a series in which the gill variation runs between
the minimum of 6 pairs and the maximum of 14 pairs, or a
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE EXTREMES OF 8 PAIRS OF GILLS,
AND YET ALL THESE INDIVIDUALS NOT ONLY BELONG TO THE

SAME GENUS—THEY BELONG TO THE SAMESPECIES!” (Big type

and exclamation mark are Dr. Ayers’ own).

In “ Biological Lectures” delivered at Woods Holl in 1893,
lately published, is reproduced (pp. 125-161) a lecture by Dr.
Ayers on “ Bdellostoma dombeyi Lac.; A study from the Hop-
kins Marine Laboratory.” Therein Dr. Ayers has urged at
length the contention just cited and has categorically stated
that “the number of gills of individuals from different localities
varies from 6 on either side to 14 on either side, with the
observed intermediate stages” (p. 137).

Dr. Ayers’ own record of his observation (p. 140) and sum-
mary of those of his own as well as of others (p. 156) will be
an all-sufficient refutation of this claim.

“Tn the material which [he] was able to collect at Monterey,
the following proportions of the several variations prevailed :

104 individuals had 11 gills on both sides.
96 [11 [11 Tl ét [14

one side.
and 12 * * the other side.
+ 2U8 " had12 “ * both sides.
11 e " ID "- * ooo Hae
and 13 * * theother side.
8 T had13 *" * both sides.

354 total number of individmals counted.”

In his summary of observations on the number of gills, he
gives formulas for all observations as follows :—

Ee tie HIN og eee Me gee TERES E MER Oak. DR OS T Aer aes Ve Re EE e enm

ee ee a m TAMEN

UTE ns cor own usdea o beu Mc.» sbi Sos doe la cedo ligt ae iM i RC ak a ML en I al a

1894.] Lepidosirenids and Bdellostomids. 583

“Bdellostoma dombeyi 6 gills.
" » 6-7 indicating the sides of the body
« a 7.G [ Upon which the respective num-
bers occurs.

It will be noticed that there is a great gap from 7 to 10
which has been straddled, but for which there is not the
slightest observational basis. The logical fallacy involved is
too obvious to need more than pointing out,

On one hand out of 354 specimens examined by Dr. Ayers,
208 had 12 pairs of gills and 104 had 11 pairs of gills, while
26 had 11 or 12 on one side. Not a single one had less than 11.
No specimen with a smaller number than 10 has been record-
ed from the Pacific Coast.

On the other hand, of many specimens obtained in New
Zealand, South Africa, etc., all had 7 or 6 and none had more.

Are not these facts sufficient to prove the distinctness of the
two types?

(1) There is a gap of from 7 (maximum) to 10 (minimum)
at least, between the number of gills of the two types. (2)
The range of variation, considerable as it is, is limited in both
directions. (3) The differences in numbers are associated with
differences in geographical range. Certainly, then, the two
forms are specifically distinct. Are they not generically dis-
tinct ?

Dr. Ayers has truly remarked (p. 152) “It seems to have
become a settled belief among the large majority of zoologists
of both morphological and systematic proclivities, that the
number of gills found among vertebrates never rises above

584 The American Naturalist. [July,

eight pairs in existing forms.” The deviation from this
almost universal rule led me to propose the generic differ-
entiation of “ Bdellostomids with an increased number of
branchise" from those “ with typically 7 (sometimes 6).” Be
it recalled also that the former have * the base of the tongue
between the seventh or eighth pairs of gills," while the latter
have *the base of the tongue between the anterior pair of
gills.” The genera thus defined were named by me Polisto-
trema and Heptatrema (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1882, pp. 518, 520).
These have been accepted by Jordan, Gilbert, the Eigenmanns,
and others, and probably will continue to be. Dr. Ayers,
however, has urged that “these accounts all refer to the
varieties of what I shall call Bdellostoma dombeyi, adopting
Müler's genus on account of the inapplicability of Lacépéde's
Gastrobranchus, and of theinappropriateness of Cuvier's Hepta-
tremes, which could only be used for the seven-gilled form or
variety " (p. 155).

Gastrobranchus was a generic name formed for Myxine alone
and of course could not be perverted to a Bdellostomid. Hep-
tatrema can be used for the group to which it was applied with
perfect propriety, even though the species deviate in having
often 6 branchial apertures on one or both sides. A cor-
responding latitude of usage is so generally recognized by
modern zoologists, that a defense of such procedure is unnec-
essary. Even if such an extreme view prevailed, however,
there is the name Homea of Fleming available, and this was
proposed many years before Bdellostoma.

There are several other questions that deserve attention,
but I resist the temptation to consider them now.

?- The relation of the tongue muscle to the gills is of interest, and here again
we find great variability. Müller found it to lie entirely in front of the gills in
the 6 and 7 gilled forms from the Cape of Good Hope, and this condition obtains
in Myxine so far as known. In Bdellostoma with 10 or 11 gills, the base of this
muscle may lie between the 6th and 8th pair of gills according to Putnam. In
the 12 and 13 gilled forms, I have found it between the 5th, or at most, the 6th
pairs of gill-sacks.” (Ayres, p. cit., p. 139, 140). No observational basis has fill-
ed the great gap between the “front of the gills” and the interspace between
the 5th pair!”

1894.] The Origin of Pelagic Life. ; 585

THE ORIGIN OF PELAGIC LIFE.
(From Pror. W. K. Brooks.)

Chapters VII and VIII of Brooks Memoir on Salpa em-
brace a discusssion of this genus in its relation to the evolution
of life, and in order to clearly present its position and signifi-
cance in the economy of nature the author discusses at some
length the conditions under which oceanic life has been
evolved. He notes first that the marine animals are almost
exclusively carnivorous. They prey upon each other to an al-
most incredible extent, and were it not for the extraordinary
fertility of pelagic organisms the rapacity of the higher forms
of life would bring about their own extermination. Mr.
Brooks, in commenting on the abundance of marine life, in-
stances the great schools of mackerel, the hunters of herring,
which in turn swarm like locusts. In 1879, three hundred
thousand river herring were landed by a single haul of the
seine in Albemarle Sound; but the herrings feed upon cope-
pods, each one consuming myriads every day. In spite of
this destruction and the ravages of armies of medusæ, siphon-
ophores and pteropods, the fertility of the copepods is so great
that they are abundant in all parts of the ocean, and not only
on the surface, for banks of them are sometimes a mile thick.
On one occasion the Challenger steamed for two days through
a dense cloud formed of a single species. But upon what do
the copepods feed? And this brings the author to the impor-
tant factors in the food supply of the animals of the ocean.
The basis of all the life in the modern ocean is to be sought
in the microorganisms of the surface. They consist of a few
simple unicellular plants, and the globigerinæ and radiolaria
which feed upon them. These organisms are so abundant
and so prolific that they meet all demands made upon them.
They are not only the fundamental food supply, but, accord-
ing to the author, the primæval supply which has determined
the whole course of the evolution of marine life.

586 The American Naturalist. [July,

Sameness of environment and lack of competition for space
have tended to make pelagic plant life retain its primitive
simplicity, but existing apparently under the same conditions
is an infinite variety of animal life. How can this be ac-
counted for? In tracing the phylogeny of Salpa, Mr. Brooks
finds that the structure which is so well adapted for life on
the high seas has come to it by the inheritance of peculiarities
originally acquired by bottom animals in adaptation to the
needs of a sessile life. In this connection the author states
that the majority of the present pelagic animals have not been
produced at the surface of the ocean by gradual evolution
from a simple pelagic ancestor, but that part of their family

history has been worked out by individuals who colonized —

upon or near the bottom, or along the sea shore, or upon the
land, and the exceptions are all simple animals of minute size.
He reviews the chief groups of metazoa to demonstrate this
fact and gives, as notable exceptions, some of the veiled
meduse, a few of the primitive annelids, possibly, and the
copepods among the crustacea. Among the higher forms, the
fishes, which at first sight would seem to have been pelagic
from the beginning, so admirably are they fitted for life in
the open water, are found upon examination to be only sec-
ondarily adapted to a pelagic life, like the sea-birds and the
cetaceans.

Mr. Brooks bases these statements on evidence from paleon-
tology, from embryology, and from the structure and habits
of living animals.

In discussing the conditions under which the primitive pe-
lagic fauna lived, and the comparative results of pelagic and

bottom environment upon marine life, the author points out.

that while the animals which first settled on the bottom prob-
ably did not secure more food than did their floating allies,
they obtained it with less effort and were able to devote their
surplus energy to growth and multiplication. The rapid mul-
tiplication led to crowding and competition, prevented the in-
flux of newcomers from the open water, and finally resulted in
the elaboration and specialization of the types of structure al-
ready established. Evolution was rapid, for life at the bottom

Wome ia ate dU Y EET ER i a: dba ra METER NE

TWO ee ee ee TERI

:
|
|

1894.] The Origin of Pelagic Life. 587

introduced many and new opportunities for divergent modifi-
cations.

Another result was the escape of varieties from competition
with their allies by flight from the crowded bottom to the
open water above. The influence of these emigrants upon
strictly pelagic forms is seen in the evolution at the surface of
complicated forms like the siphonophores. But, on the whole,
ocean space is so great and conditions of life in open water so
easy that many of the pelagic organisms retain their primitive
simplicity, existing simultaneously with the large and highly
organized invaders from the shore and bottom.

The colonization of the bottom formed an important era in
the evolution of marine life and the author devotes a section
to a consideration of the characteristics of this primitive fauna
of which the following is a summary:

“1. It was entirely animal, and it at first depended directly
upon the pelagic food supply.

“2. It was established around elevated areas and in water
deep enough to be beyond the influence of the shore.

“3. The great groups of metazoa were rapidly established
from pelagic ancestors.

“4. There was a rapid increase in the size of the bottom
animals and hard parts were quickly acquired.

* 5. The bottom fauna soon produced development among
pelagic animals.

“6, After the establishment of the bottom fauna, elabora-
tion and differentiation among the representatives of each
primitive type soon set in and led to the extinction of the
connecting forms."

In comparing these characteristics with those of the earliest.
known fauna as sketched by Walcott, Mr. Brooks finds that in
going backward toward the lower Cambrian he finds a closer
and closer agreement with the biological conception of the
primitive life at the bottom. And while he does not regard
the Olenellan fauna as the first bottom fauna, since it contains
forms secondarily adapted to pelagic life, such as pteropods,
still, ^a biologist must regard it as an unmistakable approx-
imation to the primitive fauna of the bottom, beyond which

39

588 The American Naturalist. [July,

life was represented only by simple and minute pelagic organ-
isms.”

Mr. Brooks’ point of view, then, is that marine life is older
than terrestrial; it has shaped itself in relation to its food
supply; this food supply, the microorganisms referred to
above, is the only form of life which is independent and it
therefore must be the oldest; from these simple types the pe-
lagic ancestors of all the great groups of metazoa were slowly
evolved until the colonization of the bottom, when a rapid ad-
vancement took place; the present highly differentiated
forms which constitute the ocean fauna are the descendants of
the colonizers, while the lower pelagic forms are the lineal rep-
resentatives of the primitive forms, some of which are slightly
modified by the influence of the emigrants from the shore and
bottom.

1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 589

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ABBOTT, W. L.—Notes on the Natural History of Aldabra, Assumption and
‘Glorioso Islands, Indian Ocean. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI,
1893. From theauthor

ALLEN, J. A.—Description of a New Mouse from Lake Co., California. ——
Description of a new species of Geomys from Costa Rica. Extr. Bull. Am. Mus.
Nat. Hist., Vol. V, 1893. . From the author.

ASHMEAD, W. H.—Monograph of the North American Proctotrypidae. Bull.
No.'45, U. S. Natl. Mus, 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution.

Ayres, H.—On the M. Flexor Accessorius of the Human and Feline Foot.
Es a i 1893. From the author.

CHE, —Reply to Mr. F. M. Thom’s Specifications in opposition to the
nomination of p Bache for cm Superindency of the Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey. Phila., 1894. From the author.

BRAZIER, J.—Catalogue of the Marine Shells of Australia and Tasmania. Pt.
III. mie Murex. Sydney, 1893. From the Australian Museum.

CHAPMAN, F. M.—On the Birds of the Island of Trinidad. Extr. Bull. Am.
Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, 1894. From the author.

CLAYPOLE, E. J.—An Investigation of the Blood of Necturus and Crypto-
branchus. Extr. Proceeds. Amer. Micros. Soc., Vol. XV, 1893. From the
author.

Cook, O. F.—Notes on Myriapoda from Loanda, Africa, collected by Mr. Heli
Chatelaine, including a description of a new genus and species. Extr. Proceeds.
U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution.

Dames, H. W.—Ueber das Vorkommen von Ichthyopterygian im Tithon Argen-
tinens. Abruck. a. d. Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geol. Gesell. Jahrg. 1893. From
the author.

Eisen, G.—On California Eudrilidae. Extr. Mem. Cal. Acad. Sci., Vol. II,
1894. From the Academy. :

ErLtis, H.—Democracy in the Kitchen. A Noviciate for Marriage. No date

iven.
GILL, T.—The proper Generic Name of the Tunnies. Extr. Proceeds. U. S.
vea EME Vol. XVI. From the author
t, M.— Observations sur les Restes s a Elephants du sud-ouest de la France.
fi la fin du quaternaire, dans le sud-ouest
dela France. Extrs. Compte rendu de = Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de Toulouse, 1893.
From the author.
Janes, L. G.—The Brooklyn Ethical Association. Its Objects, History and
Membership. Brooklyn, 1893. From the author
Keyes, C. R.—Crustal Adjustment in the Upper Mississippi Valley. Extr.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Societ
Lypekker, R.—On some Bird-bones from the Mioi of Grieve-St-Alban,
F: Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London, June, 189.

. ——On a Mammalian Incisor from the Wealden of Hastings. Extr. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., August, 1893. From the author.

590 The American Naturalist. [July,

Maps to accompany the Annual Report (new series) Vol. V, 1890-91. Geol.
Surv. of Canada. From the Survey

Mercer, H. C.—The Lenape Stone; or the Indian and the Mammoth. New
- York, 1885. From the author.

MERRILL, H. B.—The Structure and Affinites of Bunops scutifrons Birge.
Extr. Trans. Wise. Acad. Sci., IX. From the author.

MILLER, S. A. AND GURLEY, Wm. F. E.—Descriptions of some new species of
Invertebrates from the Paleozoic Rocks of Illinois and adjacent States. Bull.
No. 3, Ill. State Mus. Nat. Hist,, Springfield, Ill.. 1893. From the authors.

Mitsukuri, K.—On the Process of Gastrulation in Chelonia. Extr. Journ.
Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ., Japan, 1893. From the anthor.

Morean, T. H.—Experimental Studies on Echinoderm Eggs. Abdruck aus
Anat. Anz. IX, Bd., 1893. From the author.

MUYBRIDGE, E.— Descriptive Zoopraxography. Philadelphia, Pa., 1893. From
the author.

NuTTING, C. C.—Report of Committee on Iowa Fauna.—— Significance of eel
concealed Crests of Fly-Catchers. President's Address. Extr. Pr oceeds. Iow
Acad. Sciences. No date given. Fromthe author.

OsBoRN, H.—Fruit and Forest Tree Insects. Extr. Report of the Iowa State
Agric. Soc. 1892. From the author.

PACKARD, A. S.—Study of the Transformations and Anatomy of Lagoa cris-
pata, a Bombycine Moth. Extr. Proceeds. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. XXXII, 1893.
From the author.

Penrose, R. A. F., Jr.—The Chemical Relation of Iron and Manganese in
Sedimentary Rocks. Extr. Journ. Geol, Vol. I, 1893. From the author.

Proceedings of The International Congress of Prehistoric Archeology and
Anthropology. 2d Session at Moscou, August, 1892. T. II, Moscou, 1893.

Proceedings Congrés International de Zoologie. Deuxiéme Session à Moscou
Aofit, 1892. Moscou, 1893.

Records of the American Society of Naturalists. Vol. I, Pt. 11. Boston, 1894.
From the Society.

Report of the Trustees of the Australian Museum for 1892. . New South Wales,
1893. From the Museum.

Risot, TH.— The Diseases of Personality. Chicago, 1894. From the Open
Court Pub.

Ripeway, R.—Catalogue of a Collection of Birds made in Alaska by Mr. C.
H. Townsend during the cruise of the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross
in 1888.

—— Description of a New Geothlypis from Brownsville, Texas. Extr. Pro-
ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus, Vol. XVI. From|thefauthor.

Röse, C.—Contributions to the Histogeny and Histology of Bony and Dental
Tissues. Extr. Dental Cosmos, Nov. and Dec., 1893. From the author.

RoTHPLETZ, A.—Ein Geologischer Gensko durch die Ost-Alpen nebst
Anhang über die Sog. Glarner Doppelfalte. Stuttgart, 1894. From E. Schwei-
zerbart’sche Verlagshandlung.

SCHIMKEWITSCK, W. M.—On the Pantopodes Peta off the west coast of
— and in the Gulf of California, in charge of Alex. Agassiz, carried on by
the U. S. Fish Com. steamer Albatross, during Lr» Extr. Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool. Harv. Coll, Vol. XXV, 1893. From the Muse

1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 591

SIEBENROCK, F.—Das Skelet von Uroplates fimbriatus Schneid. Separatabdruck
aus Ann. des K. K. Naturh. Hofmus. Band VIII. Wien, 1893. From the

uthor.

STEARNS, R. E. C.— Notes on Recent Collections of North American Land,
Fresh-water and Marine Shells received from the U. S. Dept. Agri. Extr. Pro-
ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution.

STEJNEGER, L. -Description of a new species of Blind Snake ( Typhlopidae)
from the Congo Free Stat

——On some SEN of Reptiles and Batrachians from East Africa and the
adjacent Islands.

—— Remarks on Japanese Quails. Extr. Proceeds U. S. Natl. Mus, Vol.
XVI, 1893. From the Smithsonian enpa

TARR, R. S.—Notes on the Physical Geography of Texas. Extr. Proceeds.
Phil. Acad. Sciences, 1893. From re author.

TRUE, F. W.—Description of Sitomys decolpves from Central America.
the Relationship of Taylor’s ARE cpa taylorii. Extrs. Proceeds. U. S. Nat.
Mus., Vol. XVI. From the author.

TRUMBULL, M. M.—The Free teat in England. Open Court Pub. Company,
eme "eim From the Pub. Co.

N, T. B.—Ernst Heckel, His Works, Career and Prophecy. Evolu-
tion n Series x. 2. New York, 1891. From the author.

WAR . F.—Status of the Mind Problem. No date given. From the

author.
WILLIAMS, G. H.—The Distribution of Ancient Volcanie Rocks along the east-
ern border of North America. Extr. Journ. Geol, Vol. II, 1894. From the.

author.
. Woopwarp, A. S.—The Evolution of Sharks’ Teeth. Extr. Nat. Sci, Nov., .
1892. From the author.

592 The American Naturalist. [July,.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Gage's Microscope and Microscopical Methods.'—Some
years ago we noticed one of the previous editions of this work, prepared
for the use of the Students of Cornell University. The present, the
fifth edition, is greatly enlarged and forms a most valuable guide to
the microscope as an optical instrument, showing the use of each part,
the means of testing and using it, correcting its faults, ete. Follow.
ing this portion comes some more special directions for its use in
spectroscopic and polariscopic work and in photography, together with
a chapter on the mounting of slides in which every aspect of the sub-
ject, from the measuring of the thickeness of the cover glass to the
labelling and storage of the slides is discussed, excepting that the stain-
ing and sectioning of the specimen is left for a second part which is
announced as in preparation. This second part will deal with the use
of the Microscope in Vertebrate Histology, and with the two volumes
the student will not often meet with questions of technique in this line
which cannot be answered by referring to this vade mecum. The work
is well printed and is a credit to Comstock Publishing Company which
issues it. It is well illustrated with 103 cuts while the fact that every
_ other page is left blank, allows the student opportunity to add notes.
The work will doubtless be used in many other laboratories than that
for which it is especially preparared.

Shufeldt on Chapman’s Birds of Trinidad.—To the Editors
of THE AMERICAN NATURALIST:

DEAR Sirs :—In your issue for April, 1894, p. 332, I find a review
of a paper by me on Trinidad birdsin which, much to my surprise, the
reviewer charges me with an attempt to place all but Passerine birds
in the order Macrochires! I had intended in this paper to give the
names of the sixteen orders which have representatives in the Trinidad
avifauna, and under each order the families which most Ornithologists
now believe to belong in it. Ina vain endeavor, however, to hurry
my paper through the press before sailing on a second voyage to
Trinidad, the last half of the copy was unfortunately sent to the printer
before the slips giving the names of orders and families had been

1 The Microscope and Mi pical Methods by Simon Henry Gage. Ithaca,
1894, pp. viii, 165.—$1.50.

fy i sas al lh dl dl coe EE ta

SUPERINDE ag rd

1894.] Recent Literature. 593

inserted. I did not see proof and the error was noticed too late for
correction.

The fact that not only the names of orders but also those of families
are wanting after * Macrochires” and “ Trochilide,” should, I think,
have suggested to so practiced a reviewer that there was a lapsus some-
where.

It is certainly bad enough to be accused of trying to classify all but
the Passeries in one order, but when it logically follows—and in this
case it does—that one is also accused of attempting to crowd the. same
heterogeneous assemblage into the family Frochilid I must, in justice
to myself, plead not guilty.

Very truly yours,
| RANK M. CHAPMAN.

American Museum Natural History, New York City. May 24,

1894.

Annual Report Minnesota Natural History Survey for
1892.'—The important papers incorporated with this report are as
follows: The Geology of Kekequabie Lake with special reference to
an augite-soda granite, by Mr. U. S. Grant ; Report of a reconnoisance
in northwestern Minnesota in 1892, J. E. Todd ; and Field Observa-
tions of N. H. Winchell in 1892. A feature of general interest is a
table of comparative nomenclature prepared by the State Geologist.
This table gives the Minnesota Strata in order; the stratigraphy of the
Wisconsin reports issued under the direction of Prof. Chamberlain ;
the terms used by the present Michigan survey; and the general
terms used by the United States and Cananian geological surveys.
These separate series are arranged so that one can see at a glance the
supposed equivalents.

1The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota. The Twenty-first
Report, for the year 1892. N. H. Winchell, State Geologist. Minneapolis, 1893.

594 The American Naturalist. [July,

General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Schlosser on American Eocene Vertebrata in Switzer-
land.'—Dr. Max Schlosser has recently’ reviewed the work of Prof.
Riitimeyer of Basel on the “ Eocene Fauna of Egerkingen.” In this
memoir Dr. Riitimeyer endeavored to show that there have been
found on the Eocene bed of Egerkingen, Switzerland, certain genera of
Mammalia which were previously discovered in North America, and
had not been known from any part of Europe up to that time. These
fossils he named as follows.

Tillodonta. Calamodon europeus.

Quadrumana. Hyopsodus jurensis ; Pelycodus helveticus.

Condylarthra. Phenacodus europeus; P. minor; Protogonia cartie-
vii; Meniscodon pictetit.

Dr. Schlosser makes the following critical observations on these
species.

He considers the Calamodon’ europæus to be well established.

Hyopsodus jurensis is probably an Artiodactyle allied to Dichobune.
The Pelycodus helveticus is a lemuroid, but of a genus different from
Pelycodus. Phenacodus minor is probably a Creodont, while the P.
europeus, Protogonia cartierii and Meniscodon pictetii, Dr. Schlosser
thinks belong to a single genus, which he thinks is Protogonia (Eupro-
togonia). He doubts whether the teeth, on which the three species
are founded, belong to distinct species.

Asa result Schlosser concluded that Riitimeyer in correct in determin-
ing the American genera Calamodon (Conicodon) and Protogonia, (Eu-
protogonia) as occurring in the Egerkingen formation. The lemuroids
and creodont are of types common to both continents, while the Dichob-
unid is European in relationship.

Schlosser further remarks, that a boreal fauna, such as exists at pre-
sent, was unknown during the Cenozoic ages. Europe was the home

1 Zodlogischer Anseiger, 1894, no. 446, p. 157.

? A genus of birds has been named Calamodus, a name which is in my opinion
abundantly distinct from Calamodon. As, however, there are persons who, like
the American Ornithologists Union, will make this resemblance an excuse for
changing the name, I suggest that they call it Conicodon, from the shape of the

as distinguished from those of Stylinodon.

See ATEA ee. RUNE Ph ee EER A I NR SAC se Om UT INIRE

*

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 595

of the Artiodactyla except Oreodontide and Tylopoda, of the true
Carnivora, and the Monkeys (except the S. American). North
America was the home of the Perissodactyla and Amblypoda, and the
ancestors of the monkeys and carnivora, during that time.

The Skull of Pisodus owenii.—It is now a well-established fact
that many types of Teleostomous fishes have undergone very little change
since the Eocene, or even since the latter part of the Cretaceous period.
Several well-defined genera seem to date back thus far, and others are
represented by forms that differ in but small particulars. Moreover,
a few of the most remarkable specializations in piscine skeletal anato-
my chatacterizing the existing faüna are already recognizable in certain
closely related Eocene types, and the progress of discovery is continu-
ally adding to the number of known examples. A most striking new
case has been lately met with by the present writer among the fishes
from the London Clay (Lower Eocene), and this forms the subject of
the following notes.

So long ago as 1845, Sir Richard Owen described and figured the
tritural dentition of an unknown fish form the London Clay of the Isle
of Sheppey under the name of Pisodus oweni (ex. Agassiz MS.). The
original specimen is preserved iri the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons, and exhibits an ovate pavement of small rounded or poly-
gonal teeth firmly fixed in shallow sockets upon a plate of true bone.
Appearances suggested to Sir Richard Owen that the fossil had been
attached to another bone of the skull, most probably, as in Glos-
sodus and Sudis, to a median bone of the hyoid system. Agassiz, who
first examined the specimen, supposed it might pertain to a so-called
Pyenodont Ganoid; and in Owen’s Paleontology (edit. 2, 1861, p.
174) Pisodus is also doubtfully quoted as a “Ganoid” of uncertain
position.

It now appears from a nearly complete skull in the British Museum
that the problematical fossil in question is the parasphenoid dentition
of a fish remarkably similar in eranial characters to the recent Clupeoid

"Albula. The fact has already been incidentally mentioned in a record

of the discovery of Pisodus in the Middle Eocene of Beligium; and it
only remains to justify, by a detailed description and figures, the recog-
nition of an Albula-like fish at so remote a period as that of the Lower
Eocene. Dr. Shufeldt's admirable description of the skull of the
recent Albula vulpes fortunately suffices for requisite comparison.
(Dr. Smith Woodward in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 6, Vol. XI, 1893.)

596 The American Naturalist. [July,

Geological News, Cenozoic.—In studying the origin of Lake
Cayuga, Mr. R. S. Tarr, has become a convert to the rock-basin theory
of lake formation. In a paper recently published he shows that the
preglacial tributaries to the Cayuga valley are rock enclosed and that
their lowest points are above the present lake surface. This the
author holds to be proof positive that Lake Cayuga is a rock-basin.
If this be true, a similar course of reasoning would suggest that Lake
Ontario is also a rock-basin, from the fact that the preglacial Cayuga
River flowed north and was tributary to a river which drained
Ontario, and whose channel was above the present surface of the lake.
(Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894.)

The recognition of the extension of the Pine Barren flora of New
Jersey through Staten Island, Long Island, Nantucket, Southern
Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, suggests to Mr. Arthur Hollick a
theory of a continued existence of land connection between New Jersey
and southeastern New England, by way of Long Island, during a suffi-
cient time after the final recession of the glacier, for the pine barren
flora to have spread and become established there. This theory would
seem to be supported by the position and configuration of the chain of
islands to the east of Long Island Sound, and by the geological history
of this region. If Mr. Hollick’s views are correct Long Island, Block
Island, Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, etc., as we now know them,
have not been snbmerged since the final retreat of the glacier, and
their separation into islands is a comparatively modern phenomenon

due to erosion, and the depression of the costal plain. (Taans. New .

York, Acad. Sci. Vol., XII, 1893.)

A new theory of the origin of Drumlins has been advanced by Mr.
Warren Upham, viz.; they are the result of the accumulation of
englacial drift. The author offers the following explanation of the
manner of the accumulation. The upper current of the thickened
ice above the englacial bed of drift would move faster than the drift,
which in like manner would outstrip the lower current of the ice in
contact with the ground. Close to the glacial boundary the upper ice
must have descended over the lower part. This differential and shear-
ing movement gathered the stratum of englacial drift into the great
lenticular masses or sometimes longer ridges of the drumlins, thinly
underlain by ice and over-ridden by the upper ice flowing downward
to the boundary and bringing with it the formerly higher part of the
drift stratum to be added to these growing drift accumulations. The
courses of the glacial currents are not determined by the topography
of the underlying land, but by the contour of the ice surface. (Pro-
ceeds. Boston, Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXVI, 1893.)

SEE P OR

1894.] Mineralogy. 597

MINERALOGY.’

Contributions to Swedish Mineralogy, Part I:—In this
paper Sjögren? has given in English a very interesting series of crys-
tallographical studies. The well known but rare axinite from Nord-
marken is reexamined. In addition to the tabular crystals described
by Hisinger and v. Rath’s prismatic type, a third type of smaller
erystals is identified having neither the tabular nor the prismatic hab-
its and highly modified. —Hedyphane which is closely related chemi-
cally to the members of the apatite group, particularly mimetite, has
been supposed to possess monoclinic symmetry on the basis of Des
Cloiseaux’s determination in 1881. Sjógren has examined crystals
from the Harstigen mine in Wermland and finds that both crystallo-
graphically and optically hedyphane is hexagonal. The crystals
examined exhibited the forms oP, o» P, P, 4P, 2P, P2, 2P2, and clear-
ly belong to the apatite group. Another member of the apatite group
is discovered in Sjégren’s new mineral svabite, which occurs in scheffer-
ite at the Harstigen mine. Svabite is a hydrous calcium arsenate of
the composition indicated by the formula HO Ca, As, O,, in which the
hydroxyl appears to be part replaced by chlorine and fluorine. The
mineral is crystallographically like apatite and exhibits the forms
æ P, P, P2, oP. Thesame mineral was found at Jacobsberg, enclosed
in hausmannite. A very exhaustive study is made of the minerals of
the humite group, all of which are found at Nordmarken. No less
than 29 forms were observed on chondrodite from this locality, and
these include the six new forms, + 3P,—1P,--1P,—i P3,+ P2, — 5 Pi.
The humite of the locality showed 20 and the clinohumite 26 forms, all
of which have been observed on Vesuvian crystals. A probable
fourth member of the humite group which occurs at Nordmarken, is
announced in this paper. Three new analyses of longbanite are con-
tributed, on the basis of which the formula of the mineral is given as
m Sb,O, n Fe, O, p R'"R"O, in which R'—Mn and Si, and R"—Mn, Ca,
and Mg. Thesymmetry of the mineral is shown to be rhombohedral, this
and the chemical constitution indicating its isomorphous relation with
hematite and ilmenite. Adelite is the name given to a new basic
arseniate from Nordmarken, Jacobsberg and Longban, having the for-

1Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Bull. of the Geol. Inst. of Upsala, I; No. 1, (1892), pp. 1-64, pls. I-IV.

. 598 The American Naturalist. [July,

mula 2CaO, 2MgO, H,O, AsO, The symmetry of the mineral is
monoclinic and its relationships, both chemical and crystallographi-
cal, are with triploidite, wagnerite and sarkinite.

Optical Methods :—Friedel? has devised a new method for deter-
mining the double refraction in thin sections of minerals on the stage
of the ordinary petrographieal microscope. The method makes use of
the quarter undulation mica plate. The nicols are crossed and the
slide is raised a short distance above the stage on thin blocks, so as to
allow of the introduction of the mica plate between the slide and the
stage. The stage is now revolved until the directions of extinction
make 45° with the principal sections of the nicols. The mica plate is
introduced below the slide and carefully turned without moving the
stage until that portion lying outside the mineral plate is extinguished.
By now revolving the polarizer, the mineral can be extinguished or
given the same illumination as the mica plate. The observations are
made in monochromatic light. If the positive direction of the mineral
plate passes through the upper right quadrant of the field and the
positive direction of the mica plate coincides with the vertical cross
hair, the polarizer should be revolved to the right, the angle v required
to produce extinction, and the angle e, required to produce equal
illumination of mineral plate and mica plate, yielding ¢ the difference
in phase produced in the mineral section. The forutulas are ó— e,
and /—2e, The greater part of the paper is devoted to methods of
evaluating errors in the process.

Harker* has determined trigonometrically the values of the extinct-
ion angle in prismatie cleavage flakes of augite and hornblende, as
dependent on the optical angle and the extinction angle in the plane
of symmetry. His tables of values will be convenient for reference,
but as he points out, the variation in the values with 2V is not great
enough to determine the optical angle from measurements of the pris-
matic and clinopinacoidal extinction angles.

Isotypism :—Rinne’ compares crystals of the metals with crystals
of their oxides, sulphides, hydroxides and haloid compounds. He
points out that in this comparison we find strikingly close relation-
ships between bodies markedly different chemically, and these relation-
ships do not consist simply in identity of crystal symmetry, but in

*Bull. Soc. Franc. Minér., XVI; 19 (1893).

*Min. Mag., X (No. 47), p. 239.

5Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1894, (I) pp. 1-55.

PEER ee NN SORT

ie E

1894.] Mineralogy. 599
close approximation to a type as regard tal shape ( Krystallgestalt)
and interfacialangles. Even when the symmetry of two ‘substances i is
not identical, he makes comparison of the crystal shape as, e. g., between
a cube and a rhombohedron with polar edge approaching 90°. The
author distinguishes seven types as follows: I regular type (isometric),
II magnesium type (hexagonal and pseudo-hexagonal—orthorhombic),
III arsenic type (rhombohedral), IV quartz type (hexagonal tetarto-
hedral) V @ tin type (tetragonal), VI rutile type (tetragonal and
poeudo-tetragona]-orthorhombie), VII £ tin type (orthorhombic and
pseudo ). Every group but the fourth con-
tains metals and this type Rinne considers as derivable from the third
or arsenic type. Many oxides, etc., have their crystal forms to some
extent indicated in the forms of their contained metals. The term
isotypism is proposed to describe these crystallographical relations
between members of different divisions of the chemical mineral system.
The author further states, “ It must now be accepted as a fact that such
substances ” (elements, oxides, sulphides, haloid salts, and even silicates,
which have been grouped together under his various types) “ possess
equivalent or very similar crystal forms, and it follows that the chemical
differentiation into elements, oxides, salts, ete., finds no crystallograph-
ical expression, and therefore no independent, certain conclusion as to
the chemical group to which a compound belongs can be drawn from
its crystal form.”

Lamellar Structure in Quartz Crystals.—In an “additional
note on the lamellar structure of quartz crystals and the methods by
which it is developed,” Professor Judd* describes and figures a remark-
ably beautiful instance of lamellar structure in quartz, in which he
sees a close analogy with the “rippled fracture” which he finds can be
produced in quartz crystals by breaking them in a powerful vice along
a plane perpendicular to the optic axis. The appearance of such
fractures is very much like that of *engine-turned surfaces.” This
appearance is caused by ridges following the planes R and -R, which
are often curved and die out in the manner of plagioclase lamelle.
From a study of the lamellie in an equatorial section of quartz sup-
posed to be one of those investigated by Brewster, Professor Judd con-
cludes that quartz is dimorphous. What' he calls “stable quartz”
shows no tendency to assume a lamellar structure, whereas “ unstable
quartz" constantly exhibits such a tendency. ‘The latter variety is
usually amethystine. The lamelle consist of alternating bands of

"Min. Mag., X, p. 123.

600 The American Naturalist: [July,

right and left handed quartz. When they are bent or disturbed they
furnish biaxial interference figures. Many crystals are composed of
both stable and unstable quartz, the relative positions of which show
some relation to the symmetry of the crystal. ‘Such crystals, or crys-
tals composed entirely of unstable quartz, have the lamelle induced
by great mechanical stresses. The fact that the structure is only
faintly induced and that very near the fracture in artificially crushed
crystals, is explained by the short time during which the stress is
applied, permanent structure being produced only after a long applica-
tion of the stress.

1894.] Petrography. 601

PETROGRAPY:

Contact Effects around Saxon Granites.— The effects of the
granite and syenite of Lausitz, of the granitite of Markersbach and of
the tourmaline granite of Gottleube upon the rocks through which
they cut in the Elbthalgebirge in Saxony, are concisely described by
Beck? The members of the phyllite formation and the beds of Cam-
brian, Silurian and Devonian age, whatever may have been their
nature, have all undergone contact metamorphisen near ther junction
with the eruptives. During the process of altergtion there seems to
have been little addition of material to the metamorphosed rocks, as
all the contact products when originating from the same member of
the bedded series are the same, irrespective of the nature of the meta-
morphising eruptive. The great variety in the contact products of the
region is due solely to differences in the character of the originals of
the altered rocks. The phyllites have been changed to ‘Fruchtshiefer’
and into andalusite mica schists, chlorite gneisses into biotite gneiss,
and feldspathic quartzites into hornfels. The Silurian slates near
the contacts have become hornstones and knotty schists, carbonaceous
quartz schists have changed into graphitic quartzites, graywackes and
marbles have been made crystalline, and the latter rock has in many
cases been changed into a cale-silicate aggregate, which has been
impregnated with ore masses, presumably originally in the granitite
with which the limestones were in contact. Diabases and diabase
tuffs in proximity to the intrusive rocks have been amphibolized. The
Devonian rocks have suffered the same alterations as the corresponding
Silurian ones, and in addition there has been formed a gneiss-like rock
whose predecessor among the clastics is unknown. A large number of
contact minerals are discussed at length by the author, chief among
them being quartz, plagioclase, cardierite and graphite. The article is
full of instructive suggestions though nothing of striking novelty is
met with in it.

The Schists of the Malvern Hills.—Callaway? has published
a final summary of the conclusions based on seven years work in the
Malvern Hills. He reiterates his belief that the schists of the region

'Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, roped University, Waterville, Me.

?Min. u. Petrog. Mitth. XIII, p

*Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Xr p p. 398.

602 The American Naturalist. [July,

are squeezed eruptives, and discusses the physical, mineralogical and
chemical changes that have effected the alteration of the granites and
diorites into gneisses and schists of various kinds. His conclusion
that a sericite schist may be derived from diorite and that biotite is
often an alteration product of chlorite are both of great interest. In
the change of a massive into a schistise rock, the author states that the
former “ passes through the intermediate state of a laminated grit,
which thus simulates a true sediment, the subsequent stages of alter-
ation and cementation resembling the process of metamorphism in
some bedded rocks.” In the production of the foliation there is de-
composition of the original components of the massive rock and a re-
construction of new, minerals largely from these decomposition pro-
ducts. In the Malvern Hill rocks orthoclase has been replaced by
quartz and muscovite, plagioclase by quartz and muscovite, chlorite by
biotite and white mica, and biotite by a white mica. A number of
analyses appear in the paper to illustrate the chemical changes that
have accompanied the physical ones through which the respective
rocks have passed,

A Soda-Rhyolite from the Berkeley Hills, Cal.—In the
Contra Costa Hills near Berkeley, California, are occurrences of a
voleanie flow that has been investigated by Palache, who recognizes
three facies of the rock. In the first, the porphyritic phase, pheno-
erysts of quartz and feldspar are abundantly disseminated through a
micro-grauular aggregate of the same minerals. The second phase is
characterized by the possession of numerous small spherulites in a
glassy matrix, in which are a few small grains of magnetite and some
feathery aggregates of chaleedony. The third phase is a glass con-
taining tiny microlites of feldspar and grains of magnetite. Analyses
of the different types indicate that the material of each type has the
composition of a soda-rhyolite. The spherulitic variety which is inter-
mediate between the other two, in its acidity is composed as follows:

SiO, ALO, ar CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O Total Density
75.46 13.18 95 .10 1.09 688 .93 = 99.50 2.42

Diabases from Rio Janeiro, Brazil.—Sections from a series of
twelve diabase dykes from Rio Janeiro, Brazil, have been investigated
by Hovey,’ with some interesting results. The chemical composition

*Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ, Cal., Vol. 1, p. 61.

5Min. u. Petrog, Mitth. XIII, p. 211,

1894.] Petrography. 603

of all the dykes is practically the same. Their mineral composition
and structure, however, vary. In the largest dykes the number of
constituents discovered is much greater than in the smaller ones. They
embrace the usual diabase components with the addition of a light col-
ored sahlitie pyroxene differing from the sahlite of Sala in the value
of its optical angle. In the Brazil mineral E,—32? 39’, while in the
Sala mineral it is 112? 30'. It is the oldest constituent of the rock
after magnetite, and, consequently it is that which approaches most
nearly to being idiomorphic. The structure of the large dykes is
gabbroitic and ophitie, whereas that of the small ones is porphyritic
and hyalopilitie, with the pyroxene figuring as the phenocrysts.
Quartz is not uncommon in the coarser rocks and granophyric inter-
growths of quartz and feldspar are frequently met with.

The New Island off Pantelleria—A Correction.—In these
notes for December® last, the statement was made concerning the
material of a recent eruption near Pantelleria, that it consisted of loose
blocks and of lava. Mr. G. W. Butler of Chertsey, England, cor-
rects thisstatement in a recent letter to the writer and declares that the
new island formed during the ernption was composed entirely of loose
scoriaceous bombs, which disappeared a short time after the eruption
ceased. ;

Petrographical Provinces.—Iddings*® gives a brief and, conse-
quently, a tantalizing account of the old voleano of Crandall Basin in
the Absaranka Range of Mountains in the Yellowstone National Park,
that has been eroded in a manner to give a good section of the cone
with the dykes and flows radiating from it. The different rock types
mentioned in the paper are simply alluded to, a full account of them
being promised later. The author's conclusion from his study is to the
effect that we have here proof that the texture of rocks and their[min-
eral composition is more directly dependent upon the rapidity with
which the rocks cooled, than upon the pressure to which they were
subjected during their solidification. The differentiation of rock mag-
mas is also well shown in the case of the volcano studied by the pro-
duction of many individual rock types.

Upon comparing thirty-nine of the best analyses of rocks occurring
in the eruptive areas around the Bay of Naples, Lang? concludes that

SAMERICAN NATURALIST, Dec, 1893, p. 1088.
"Cf. also G. W. Butler; Nature, April 21, 1892.
‘Jour. Geol, Vol. 1, p. 606,

?Zeits, $0 deutsch. geol. Ges, XLV, p. 177.

604 The American Naturalist. [July,

there are here three independent volcanic centers, represented respect-
ively by Ischia, Vesuvius and Mt. Nuovo. That they are on different
volcanic fissures is indicated by the differences in the character of the
lavas extruded from them, especially in their sodium and calcium con-
tents. Ateach center each magma became differentiated, and this dif-
ms geui explains the variety of the rock types discovered in each.

study in the consanguinity of eruptive rocks' is the title of an
article by Derby" in which is shown the fact that the occurrence of the
eleolite syenites, phonolites, monchiquites and other related rocks in
Brazil, point to the correctness of the notions of differentiation and
consanguinity as explanatory of the existence of different phases of
eruptive rocks within the same volcanic sphere. The author also shows
that, while not having formulated the theory, its principle has been
the guide in his work on the Brazilian rocks.

Miscellaneous.—Upon examining spherulites of lithium phos-
phate between crossed nicols, McMahon" finds that some of the group-
ings present apparently miaxial crosses which remain fixed in position
during a complete revolution, while in others the cross breaks up into
two hyperbolic branches resembling those of biaxial optical figures.
The phenomenon, the author regards as due to molecular strains that
affected the spherulites at the time of their crystallization.

Jour. Geol., Vol. 1, p. 579.
"Mineralogical Magazine, X, p. 229.

, 1894.) Botany. 605

: BOTANY:

Thaxter's Studies of the Laboulbeniacez.—Mr. Thaxter has
recently issued the fifth of his preliminary papers upon the Laboulben-
iacec preparatory to the monograph of that group upon which he is
engaged. In this paper he describes four new genera and fourteen
new species, and gives a synopsis of the described species of the group.
As it is indicated that the paper in question is to be the last of his
preliminary papers, a few words as to his work upon the group and the
effect which it seems likely to have may be timely.

Although the first representatives of the family were noticed as early
as 1852, and received their first systematic treatment in 1869, it isonly
within a short time that the group has been thoroughly studied and
any great number of forms discovered. In fact the great majority of
the forms have been found in this country by Mr. Thaxter. In the
first of his preliminary papers, in 1890, Mr. Thaxter states the total
number of described species at fifteen. In the present paper he enu-
merates in the course of his synopsis twenty-three genera and one
hundred and twenty-two species. The difference is mostly due to his
researches.

The Laboulbeniacee are parasites on the outer surfaces of insects,
principally of insects which live in or about the water. They grow
either singly or in a thick fur, and are very minute, the largest
not exceeding 1 mm., and most species being about 0.5 mm. in length.
They have no mycelium and consist solely of a short stalk and a re-
productive apparatus.

Reproduction in these fungi is of one sort only. Karsten was the
first to describe it and he compared it to the sexual reproduction in the
Floridee. Peyritsch afterward made more exact and extensive observa-
tions and came to the conclusion that the supposed abscission of sperm-
atia did not take place and that the sexual nature of the process was
doubtful. Since these observations little or nothing has been published
on the subject and for that reason the following statement made in the
present article is of great interest :

“ The writer’s observations, based upon an examination of several
thousand specimens illustrating more than one hundred species and

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. _

606 The American Naturalist. [July,

more than twenty genera, appear to warrant the following con-
clusions.”

“The Laboulbeniacee, while showing no signs of any non-sexual
mode of reproduction are characterized by a well marked sexual type
closely resembling that of the simpler Floridec.”

He goes on to give a summary of the process, which cannot well be
abbreviated, and which is too long to be repeated in this place. Suffice
it to say that he has found that “the trichogyne varies from a simple
vescicular receptive prominence, or short filament, to a copiously
branched and highly developed organ,” that, however highly it may be
developed, it always disappears immediately after fertilization; that
the antherozoids are non-motile spherical or rod like masses of naked
protoplasm, which originate in two genera exogenously from special
branches and in other genera are produced endogenously in antheri-
dia; that the antheridia are either single specialized cells or highly
developed multicellular bodies, from which in either case the anther-
ozoids are discharged through a terminal pore. It appears also that
while the sexes are commonly present in the same individual, in some
species they are completely separated on specialized individuals.

Although the observations, on which the foregoing conclusions are
based, are not given, we may take it to be settled that the doubts as to
the nature of the reproduction in these fungi raised by the observations
of Peyritsch are set at rest. If so, several interesting questions arise.

There seems to be no doubt, as Mr. Thaxter remarked in a prior
paper, that these fungi are real Ascomycetes. Indeed their title to a
place in that group seems much better than that of some others which
are included with little hesitation. If they are Ascomycetes, the ghost
of the much vexed question of sexual reproduction in that group, which
it was supposed had been effectually laid by Brefeld, must soon begin
anew its visitations. And in any case, since the relationship of the
Laboulbeniacee to the Ascomycetes as a whole must be close, even
though they have no apparent relationship to any particular group of
them, the whole scheme of the relationship of the Ascomycetes framed
by Brefeld and his followers is placed on very shaky ground by the
conclusions which Mr. Thaxter has announced.

After it had been shown that there was no sexual process in the
Ascomycetes, the question remained, to what fruiting stage of the simpler
fungi does the ascus stage of the Ascomycetes correspond. Brefeld has
answered this by comparing it with the sporangium fructification of
the Mucoracee. The ordinary Ascomycetes, called Carpoasci, he derives

1894,] Botany. 607

through Thelobolus from the carposporangic Zygomycetes, as Mortie-
rella.

But the fact that in the Laboulbeniacee an ascus fructification is pro-
duced as the result of a sexual process throws grave doubt upon this
theory, if it does not wholly overthrow it. It seems clear that the
process of reproduction in these fungi, as outlined by Mr. Thaxter, in-
dicates that the comparison of the ascus to the sporangium of the
Mucorace is wholly erroneous and that DeBary was right in consider-
ing it homologous to the sexual fructification of the Phycomycetes,
whether or not he was wrong in believing it to be in many cases the
result of a sexual process. It is perhaps not without significance that
works like Von Tavel's Morphologie do not notice the Laboulbeniacee
at all.

Another and still more interesting question will be presented. ‘when
some one in the light of the development of the Laboulbeniacec ventures
to reopen the question of the formation of the spore-fruit in the As-
comycetes and to question the conclusions of Brefeld. That the evidence
must be reexamined seems to be clear if the conclusions announced by
Mr. Thaxter are sustained by his observations. We have come to
regard all accounts of sexual processes in fungi as doubtful since the
writings of Brefeld have produced a school of sceptics on such points.
If in a group which must be admitted to be immediately related to the
Ascomycetes, if not a veritable member of them, which it evidently is,

antheridia, antherozoids, and trichogynes—terms which the works on
the morphology of the fungi have agreed to discard for the higher
fungi—actually occur, we cannot rest content with any explanation of
the formation of the sporocarp in the Ascomycetes which leaves any
phenomenon apparently connected with those found in the Laboulbeni-
acee unaccounted for. '

Mr. Thaxter's brief sketch suggests many coincidences which serve
to convince one that the ghost of the DeBaryan theory as to the
Ascomycetes will not down and that we may expect it to visit our
slumbers nightly until we find some better means of reconciling the
Laboulbeniacew with current theories as to the Ascomycetes than at pre-
sent seems possible.

Mr. Thaxter's forthcoming Meine will be awaited eagerly by
all who are in any degree interested in the morphology and biology of
the fungi. It goes without saying that his previous work is a guaranty
that our expectations will be amply realized.

Roscor Pouxp.

608 The American Naturalist. [July

ZOOLOGY.

The Antennal Sense Organs of Insects.'—During his studies
carried on in Leuckart's laboratory on the peculiar sense organ in the
the base of the antenna of certain Diptera (Mochlonyz culiciformis,
Corethra plumicornis), Mr. C. M. Child found that the organ occurs
generally in Diptera, and, if not generally, at least very often in the
other orders of Insects.

In the wasp ( Vespa vulgaris) the organ occurs in the second joint of
antenna. Near the end of the first joint the main nerve of the antenna
gives off branches on all sides. "These run toward the periphery of the
second joint, connecting with ganglion cells, which in turn connect with
small rod-like bodies that end in the articular membrane between the
second and third joints. "These rods are gathered into groups each of
which ends in a pore in the membrane. On the outside of the antenna
no sense hairs are found corresponding to these pores, which seem to be
closed on the outside. Between the rods nuclear elements were found,
but whether they were of connective tissue or of nerve elements was
not determined. An organ similarly placed and of similar structure is
to be found in the genera: Melolontha (Coleoptera), Epinephele (Lep-
idoptera), Bombus (Hymenoptera), Pachyrhina, Tabanus, Syrphus,

Helophilus, Musca, Sarcophaga (Diptera) Sialis, Panorpa, and Phryga- |

nea (Neuroptera), Libellula (Pseudoneuroptera.)

Of the Hemiptera only the Homoptera were investigated. Here the
rods and ganglion cells are fewer in number. Periplaneta, Locusta
and Stenobothrus among Orthopteran genera have a structure in the
second antennal joint with ganglion cells and long fibrous rods.
Thysanura were not studied.

In certain Diptera (Culicids and Chironomide) the organ is somewhat.
different. At the base of the antenna of both sexes there is a nearly
spherical joint. This is larger in the male than in thefemale. In the
latter the nervous structure within this joint is much more readily com-
parable to the organ described for the wasp than that inthe male. But
even in the male the structure may be reduced to the general type. In
the female the rods instead of ending at the periphery of the second
joint are directed toward the middle of the long feeler. The large
antennal nerve runs chiefly to the ganglion cells, giving off two small
branches that run on into the other joints of the antenna. There is no

! Zool. Anz. XVII, p. 35, 1894.

1
1
E
3
3
:
3
3

1894.] Zoology. 609

sharp line to be drawn between the ganglion cells of the organ and the
brain. The rods are delicate and covered with small nuclei very well
supplied with chromatin.

To what has already been made known by Weismann and Hurst on
the general development of the antenna in these insects, Mr. Child
adds that the entire sense organ is formed from a fold at the base of
the invaginated hypodermal cavity, and that the differentiation of the
rods and ganglion cells takes place very early.

The organ he considers to be auditory in function, agreeing with
Johnston, Mayer and Hurst! Supporting this view is the fact that
the rods are so placed as to be affected by any slight motion imparted
to the distal part of the antenna, either by sound waves or otherwise.
It has been repeatedly shown by others that certain insects seem to
hear by means of their antenns. To offset the fact that the so-called
tympanum of certain Orthoptera is considered to be auditory he recalls
the experiments by Graber, who found that insects in which the
tympanum bad been destroyed still reacted to sound waves which
affected the antennz or in some cases the legs. The organ is of further
interest in that there is shown in it no marked difference between hear-
ing and touch.—F. C. Kenyon.

The Luminous Organs of Histioteuthis rueppellii Verany.
—Dr. Joubin has recently been making a study of the luminous organs
of a rare cephalopod, Histioteuthis rueppellii, found near Nice. The
animal belongs to the abyssal fauna and the specimen in question is
over a meter in length. "The author describes the outward appearance
of its phosphorescent organ, and its internal organization, comprising a
reflector, which the author calls a mirror and an apparatus for produc-
ing light. Mr. Jourbin offers the following theory of the use of the
luminous organ to the animal.

“ Ordinarly the light-producing apparatus does not function. It is
like a machine at rest. But if a living creature suitable for food
wanders into the vicinity of the cephalopod, this prey being of a higher
temperature than the water in which it floats emits caloric radiations.
These heat rays impinge on the reflecting mirror and are then concen-

AJ ohnston. PME Apparatus of the Culex Mosquito. Journ. Mier. Sci.
IH, old seri

Mayer. es chesin acoustics. Am. Journ. Sc. Series III, vol. 8.

Hurst.—The Pupal Stage of un Inaug.-Diss. Leipzig, 1890.—On the Life
History and Development ofa gnat. Trans. Manchester, Micro. Soc., 1890.
The Post-embryonic Development of Culex. Proc. Liverpool Biol. Soc. IV.

610 The American Naturalist. [July,

trated in the light-producing apparatus, causing there a sensation, and
the organ functions by reflex action. The surrounding medium is then
illuminated by rays perceptible by the eye of the animal. In a word,
these organs are the organs of a caloric sense. Heat sensations are the
only kind that can be felt in those abysses when the darkness is relieved
by occasional gleams of phosphorescent light. I add, finally, that I
have found in another cephalopod an extremely curious organ con-
structed in such a manner that it does not perceive light rays, but can
only receive heat rays, which confirms the hypothesis just advanced,”
(Bull. Soe. Sci. et Med. de l'Ouest France, t. IT, no. 1893.)

Verrill’s Organ.—In the funnel of certain Cephalopods, several
authors have noticed a peculiar cushion-like organ, situated a little
behind the valve, and this has, for very insufficient reasons, been called
Verrill’s Organ by Hoyle and others. Its function and homology have
been the subject of some discussion. Ferussac and D'Orbigny confused
it with a transverse muscle; H. Müller, in 1852, thought.it was a
stinging organ; Verrill, in 1882, considered it “ the true homologue of
the foot of gasteropods;” Laurie, in 1888, from rather insufficient
material, showed its glandular nature, and believed that it secreted
mucus, but his observations were criticised by Brock ; Hoyle, in 1889,
believed that it served to close the funnel. That it is really a mucous
gland is now proved by the careful observations of G. Jatta (Boll. Soc.
Nat. in Napoli, vol. VII, p. 45, 1893), who has observed it in 32
species belonging to 21 genera, thus bringing the number of genera in
which it has been found from 10 to 27. He describes and figures six
main modifieations of its arrangement, and gives excellent drawings
to show its microscopic structure in different stages of its development.
He concludes that this funnel organ is a mucous gland homologous
with the pedal glands of other mollusca. If this be so, the organ must
be somewhat archaic, and one would expect to find it in Nautilus,
where, to the best of our knowledge it has never been described. (Nat.
Sci., Feb., 1894.) P

Preliminary Descriptions of Some New South American
Characinide.—1l. Tetragonopterus heterorhabdus. This species is
related to T. schmarde Steindachner. It is readily distinguished from
T. schmarde by the conspicuous dark lateral band which has on the
anterior end an oval expansion resembling the humeral spot present in
in many species of Tetragonopterus. `

1894.] Zoology. 611

D. 10; A. 20-23; head 3}; depth 33, eye in the head 23 and once
in the inter-orbital; scales 32-34, the lateral line incomplete, only 6
scales perforated.

Maxillary toothless, extending nearly to the centre of the pupil of the
eye. The dark-brown lateral band, deepest colored anteriorly, edged
above with a conspicuous silvery band. No caudal spot. Dorsal
about midway between the tip of the snout and base of the caudal, and
over the space between the anal and ventral. Anal with first six rays
elongate. Many specimens from Brazil. Length 10-29 mm.

2. Tetragonopterus paucidens. Related to T. diaphanus Cope from
which it differs in having 1 to 3 maxillary teeth; in proportions and
in lateral markings.

Head 33; depth 23, in the length. Snout 33, diameter of the eye 3
in the head. The maxillary extends to the anterior border of the
pupil. A silvery lateral band and a diffuse caudal spot present. No
humeral spot.

D. 11; A. 19; scales 5-31-3; lateral line complete. Length 45 mm.

One specimen from Itaituba, 45 mm. long.

3. Tetragonopterus santaremensis. This species has much the appear-
‘ance of T. bellottii Steindachner: The scales of the lateral line are
perforated to the base of the caudal while in T. bellottii only 5 to 7
scales are perforated. The caudal spot is somewhat more rhomboidal
and extends to the end of some of the rays, otherwise the lateral band
and humeral spot are about as in T. bellottii.

Head 3? ; depth 31 in the body. D. 10; A. 20-22; scales 5-30-3.
Anterior dorsal and anal rays elongate. Snout short, 4 in the head.
Maxillary toothless, extends to the eye. Diameter of the eye somewhat
more than the width of the inter-orbital and 21 in the head.

Ten specimens from Santarem, 8-24 mm. lon

4. Tetragonopterus astictus. Related to T. Kiwis Günther. It
differs from that species in having no caudal or humeral spot, no red
margins on the anal and ventral fins and fewer rows of scales.

Head 33, depth 34, in the length. Eye 23 in the head and once in
the inter-orbital space. A silvery lateral band present, most distinct
posteriorly.

Lateral line complete, scales 5-35-33. D.10; A.30. Maxillary
toothless, extending a little past the anterior margin of the orbit.

One specimen 53 mm. long from Brazil.

5. Aphyocaraz maxillaris. Maxillary with minute teeth along its
entire margin. Intermaxillary with about ten teeth, the inner four
three-pointed. Mandible with a few conical teeth in front.

612 The American Naturalist. [July,

Depth 3-34; head 33. D.11; A. 22-23 scales; 30, tubes 6. Snout
very short, the maxillary extending beyond the anterior margin of the

e.

A small circular humeral spot present, sometimes reduced to two or
three color cells. A large black spot on the upper half of the first
dorsal rays, the tips of these rays white. A small black spot near the
tip of the first fur and rays.

A. agassizi Steind. differs from A. mazillaris mainly in its larger
number of anal rays. Brazil, 10 specimens, 10-11 mm. long.

6. Aphyocarax heteresthes. Maxillary teeth six, conical. Intermaxil-
lary with eight conical teeth and two with lateral cusps on each side.
This species is related to A. agassizii Steindachner and A. eques Stein-
dachner. From the former it differs in having only the upper part of
the maxillary dentiferous and apparently in having the anal rays
graduated. From the latter it differs chiefly in having no humeral
spot.

Depth 3; head 33. D. 11; A. 27-30; scales about 31. Snout
very short, maxillary long, extending considerably beyond the ante-
rior margin of theeye. Eye twice the length of the snout, ? the length
of the head. Origin of the dorsal midway betweeen the tip of the snout»
and the base of the caudal. Upper half of the first five developed
rays of the dorsal black.

Brazil, 6 specimens, 14-17 mm. long.

7. Mylesinus macropterus. Body deep, 1? in the length. Head 33.
Abdominal serrations 11 behind the ventrals, the posterior four in
pairs, 22 to 25 smaller ones before the ventrals.

D.L16; A.36; V.7. Sealessmall, about 83 in the lateral line which
is deeply curved below the origin of the dorsal. Height of dorsal fin
23 times its length, the second and third rays greatly elongate, the
fourth ray about half as long. Anal without lobes.

Snout little more than half as long as the diameter of the eye, the
inter-orbital space a little more than the diameter of the eye. Lower
jaw greatly projecting. Teeth in the mandibles in one series, notched
and wide a

Brazil, 1 specimen 9 em. long.

ALBERT B. Urnzv, Bloomington, Ind.

On the Species of Himantodes D. & B.— This genus of snakes
is represented by numerous individuals in tropical America, and suffi-
cient material is now at hand to render it possible to determine the
number of species to which they belong. An examination shows that

1894.] Zoology. 613

the typical species H. cenchoa L., does not occur in Central America and
Mexico, the individuals which have been hitherto referred to it, re-
presenting another species, which I call H. semifusciatus. Of the seven
species, five belong to this region, and two to continental Soutb Amer-
ica.

I. A small additional superior preocular plate.

Scales in 17 rows; superior labials 4 and 5 in orbit; one scale in
first temporal row ; vertebral row enlarged; dorsal spots ontending to
gastrosteges throughout ; H. cenchod L.

II. One large preocular plate only.

8. Scales in 15 rows.

One scale in first temporal row ; superior labials 4, 5, and 6 bound-
ing orbit; vertebral row enlarged ; dorsal spots terminating in an angle
near gastrosteges; no lateral spots ; H. lentiferus Cope.

s5. Scales in 17 rows.
&. One scale in first temporal row.

[Two labials in orbit; vertebral seales enlarged ; on posterior two-
thirds the length the dorsal spots are small and lateral spots are present ;

exceptionally, H. semifasciatus Cope.]
Two labials in orbit; vertebral scales similar to the others, spots as
in H. semifasciatus ; H. gemmistratus Cope.

Bf. Two scales in first temporal row.
v. Dorsal spots continued to gastrosteges throughout.
Vertebral row enlarged ; superior labials 4 and 5 in orbit;
H. leucomelas Cope.
Vertebral row like other scales; superior labials 4, 5, and 6 in orbit ;
H. tenuissimus Cope.
vv. Dorsal spots reduced posteriorly ; lateral spots.
Vertebral row enlarged ; H. semifasciatus Cope.
[Vertebral row like others; exceptionally, „H. gemmistratvs Cope.]
III. A small inferior preocular plate. e
8. Two scales in first temporal row.
Scales in 17 rows ; vertebrals large, wider than long ; labials 4 and
5 in orbit; dorsal spots continued to gastrosteges throughout ;
H. anisolepis Cope.
Himantodes lentiferus sp. nov. Besides the characters already men-
tioned, this species exhibits the following: Labials eight above, ten
below. Seventh superior labial as high as long; temporals 1-2-3.
Postgenials in contact anteriorly, separated by two scales posteriorly.

3 Specimens from Brazil and E. Ecuador from Prof. Orton.

614 The American Naturalist. (July,

Superior postocular three times as large as inferior. Vertebral scuta
wider than long. While the dorsal spots are acute angled below gener-
ally, they are not so on the tail and anterior region ; on the latter many
of them are separated by a much smaller vertebral spot. Top of head
brown, brown spotted; lips and throat unspotted; other inferior
regions black speckled. Total length 622 mm.; tail 189 mm. _ Pebas,
Ecuador, J. Hauxwell; E. Equador, J. Orton.

The characters of this species are well marked, as compared with
those of the H. cenchoa. Of the latter I have four from Peru (Orton)
and one from Ecuador (Hauxwell.)

Himantodes semifasciatus sp. nov. The width of the vertebral series
of scales varies in the numerous specimens I have assigned to the H.
semifasciatus ; in some the width is nearly equal to the length, while in
others it is considerably less. The apices of the vertebral scales are,
however, always truncate, and never acuminate like the other scales, as
is seen in the H. gemmistratus. There are usually two scales in the
first temporal row in this species, while there is invariably only one in
the H. gemmistratus, but in three of the nine Costa Rican specimens
there is but one scale. The largest specimens belong to the H. semi-
fasciatus. One of these (No. 101) measures; total length 1125 mm.;
tail 380 mm.

Ten specimens from Costa Rica; Paso Azul, Santa Clara, Carrillo,
Alajuela, Monte Aguacate, and San José; from the Museo Nacional,
through Geo. K. Cherrie. Two specimens in Mus. Academy, Philada.
from Nicaragua.

Himantodes anisolepis sp. nov. Besides the characters already men-
tioned, the following may be noted. The small inferior preocular is
cut from the fourth superior labial; the labials number eight above
and ten below. The lower post-ocular is one-third the size of the supe-
rior. Temporals 2-2-3. The postgenials are entirely separated by
scales. Thirty-nine brown spots from the head to the vent, which ex-
tend nearly to the gastrosteges, with truncate or rounded inferior
border, on avery pale ground. Belly unspotted. Total length 420 mm.
of tail, 127 mm. Monte Aguacate, Costa Rica, G. Witting.

This slender species resembles in coloration the H. tenuissimus and H.
leucomelas. It differs sufficiently in scale characters from both.—E.
D. Cope.

Zoological News.—M. de Guerne recently reported to the
Société Acclimatation de France the capture in the open sea of a female
eel bearing mature eggs. (Rev. Sci. March, 1894.)

re eee aa OR ER TUMOR er ee NM S TE ISI AIRES

1894.] Zoology. 615

Prof. Carl Eigenmann is in receipt of a Ling (Lota lota maculosa)
from the Columbia River which does not show any specific differences
from those of Lake Michigan. This fish is found in all three of the
large water basins of the Atlantic slope—the Saskatchewan, St. Law-
rence and Mississippi, and its distribution is now extended to the
Pacifie Slope. (Science Vol. XXIII, 1894.)

Distomum leptodon, a new Trematode from the intestine of Aplodi-
notus grunniens (River Drum) has lately been described by W. G.
MacCallum in a paper before the Natural Science Association of
Toronto University.

616 The American Naturalist. [July,

ENTOMOLOGY `

The Pear Leaf Blister.—Mr. M. V. Slingerland has recently
rendered an important service to economic entomology by showing
that the injuries of Phytoptus pyri, the mite which causes the pear leaf
blister can be controlled by spraying the trees in winter with kerosene
emulsion. In a recent bulletin? he presents the most satisfactory
account of this pest that has yet been published, recording the experi-
ments which have led to the discovery of the remedy. The disease is
said to appear on the leaves early in spring “in the form of red blister-
like spots an eigth of an inch or more in diameter. During this red
stage of the disease, the spots are more conspicuous on the upper sur-
face of the leaves. About June 1, the spots gradually change to a
green color hardly distinguishable from the unaffected portions of the
leaf; this change takes place on the lower side of the leaf first, and
the spots may thus be r
above and green below. In
this green stage, which seems
to have been overlooked, the
badly diseased leaves present sz
a slightly thicker corky ap-
pearance; otherwise the dis-
ease is not readily apparent Fig. 1.—Phytoptus pyri. Magnified.
especially where not severe. This green stage lasts about a week or
ten days; and about June 15, the spots may be found changing toa
dark brown color beginning on the lower side of the leaf. The tissue
of the diseased parts or spots then presents a dead, dry, brown or black,
corky appearance. The spots are also more conspicuous on the lower
side and remain unchanged until the leaves fall in the autumn. They
occur either singly scattered over the surface of the leaves or often
coalesce forming large blotches which sometimes involve a large por-
tion of the leaf."

In describing the life history of the Phytoptus mite Mr. Slingerland
says: “The exceedingly minute oval grayish eggs are laid by the
females in the spring within the galls that they have formed, and here

! Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.
*Cornell University Agr. Exp. Station Bull. 61, pp. 317-328

Wee OO Ce ere ae

DRE ia i ae a

1894.] Entomology. 617

the young are hatched. How
long they remain within the gall
of their parent has not been

they escape through the opening
in it, and seeking a healthy part
of a leaf or more often crawling Fig. $-geoion of leaf showing gall in
to the tenderer leaves of the new peq stage, n, n, normal leaf; o, opening
growth,they work their way into of gall; e, eggs. (After Soraué r).

the tissue and new galls are thus started. In this manner the galls on
a tree are often rapidly multiplied during the summer. The mites
live within the galls, feeding upon the plant cells, until the drying of
the leaves in the autumn. They then leave the galls through the
openings and migrate to the winter buds at or near the ends of the
twigs. Here they work their way beneath the two or three outer
scales of the buds where they remain during the winter. Fifteen or
twenty may often be found under a single bud scale. In this position
they are ready for business in the spring as soon as growth begins ; and
they doubtless do get to work early for their red galls are already con-
spicuous before the leaves get unrolled.

" The mites instinctively migrate from the leaves as soon as the latter
become dry. Whenever branches were brought into the insectary, as
soon as the leaves began to dry, the mites left them and gathered in
great numbers in the buds. It is impossible to accurately estimate the
number of mites that may live in the galls on a single leaf. Sections
of galls made while in their red stage would seldom cut through more
than two or three mites; but sections of the brown galls often showed
four or five times as many. Thus on a badly infested leaf there is
without doubt at least a thousand of the mites."

de.
EET

Fig. $i of the leaf Fiir. structure of gall in autumn; g, gall; n,
normal leaf; o, opening of gall.

The upper figure on the accompanying plate shows a cluster of
infected leaves representing the brown stage of the disease as seen
from below on three leaves and from above on one leaf; and the lower
one shows part of an infested leaf, seen from below, with several of the
galls considerably enlarged.

618 The American Naturalist. [July,.

Termite Societies.—Professor B. Grassi and Dr. A. Sandias have
investigated the nature and origin of the Termite society in Calotermes
flavicollis and Termes lucifugus. A Calotermes colony may include
(a) indifferent larve, capable of becoming soldiers or sexual members;
(b) larvee and pups of sexual members with rudiments of wings; (c)
soldier larvee and soldiers which may arise from a and b; (d) winged
sexual insects: (e) a true royal pair with vestiges of wings; (f) larve
of ‘reserve’ sexual members and the reserve kings and queens which
arise from these. These last larve may be developed from a or from
various stages of b.

n the Termes nest there is a specigl caste of workers and no dis-
tinetive royal pair. The society includes (a) very young indifferent
larvz; (b) larger larvæ and the workers and soldiers to which they
give rise; (c) winged sexual animals; (d) various stages of reserve and
complementary sexual animals.

The one type, that illustrated by Calotermes, is founded by a king
and queen, who may be replaced by a pair of reserve royal individuals,
i.e. by a ‘neotznic’ couple. The second less primitive type, illus-
trated by Termes, contains several ‘ neotznic' couples, while kings are
only temporary; in this ease the nest arises in a secession from an
older colony. :

One of the most interestsng results concerns the influence of nutri-
tion in producing polymorphism. Thus the reserve sexual members
are fed not only in the larval state but afterwards from salivary
secretion only, a nutritive diet which probably hastens the rapid devel-
opment of the reproductive system.—Journal Royal Mieroscopical
Society.

Habits of the Lering Ant of Southern Georgia.—In the
pine forests upon the sandy loam of Thomas County, near Thomas-
ville, Georgia, I discovered a nest of Atta brunnea (Odontomachus
brunneus Roger.) No hillocks were formed, the openings to the gal-
leries in the earth being at the surface level. The aperture was large
enough to have allowed queens as large as those of Oecodoma to have
passed, the workers (the only sex observed) of brunnea being much
smaller. The workers jump several inches when disturbed, the leap
being backwards and being caused by snapping the mandibles to-
gether.

The cocoon contains the pupa of the worker in September.

ATTA BRUNNEA (Roger). Georgia.

A. (0.) hematodes (L.) of the West Indies may prove to be a

ety of this.

j XVI.

PLATE

Work of the Pear Leaf Blister Mite.

1894.] Entomology. 619

$. Length 9mm. Ofa uniform brown color. Legs and sometimes
the tip of the abdomen and the head and thorax, especially beneath,
are paler. Mandibles finely serrate within; the tip tridentate, middle
tooth smallest. Palpi invisible, obsolete. *

Tibs all one-spurred. Scale of the petiole produced into a spine.
The thorax above is densely striate, the head above with finer stria-
tions.

ATTA CLARA Texas.

$. Uniformly honey-yellow. Scale smaller than in brunnea, not
forming a spine.

4. Length. 6 mm. Head ordinary, as wide as long. Eyes oval,
slightly sinuate both before and behind, black. Ocelli large, white.
Antennz long as body, not elbowed; brown, except first joint. Man-
dibles distant, minute, their tips touching. Palpi minute. Wings
clear, veins yellow, recurrent vein received in base of second submar-
ginal cell. Entire body and legs yellow. Abdomen hairy, second
constriction deep, claspers large, scale rounded.

Wm. Hampron Patron, Hartford, Conn.

Note on the Winter-Ant.—Since writing the article upon this
ant (Amer. Nar., Oct., 92) I have found the sexes paired in flight, at
Hartford, Conn., on the third of August. This indicates the existence
of a second or summer brood of the species. The male of Prenolepis
imparis (Say) Patton, measures only about one-eigth of an inch, the
female is twice as long and much more bulky. The sexes also differ in
color, the males being black, the workers dark brown, and the females
dark honey-yellow.

Wa. HAMPTON PATTON.

41

620 The American Naturalist. [July,

PHYSIOLOGY.

Attenuation of Viper Poison.—Ina commnnication published
in Revue Scientifique Feb., 1894, M. M. C. Phisalix and C. Bertrand
published the results of experiments made with the venom of vipers..
Fresh venom from Vipera aspis extracted from the glands rapidly
loses its virulence when subjected to a temperature of 75°-80°, and an

aqueous solution so treated exhibits energetic innoculating properties
against the venom itself.

They have also demonstrated that the blood of animals innoculated
with this echidno-venin becomes antitoxic, the injection of this defi-
brinated blood or of the serum into the peritoneal cavity of healthy
guinea-pigs, neutralized the effects of the venom.

They add that the blood of guinea-pigs protected by a poison habit,
that is, by injections of pure venom in increasing quantities, adminis-
tered at gradually decreasing intervals, is also antitoxic, but to a
less degree than that of animals protected by vaccination. Animals
protected by innoculation with antitoxic serum preserve their immu-
nity quite a long time.

heir observations are such as lead them to believe that this anti-
toxic serum will prove to be a therapeutic agent.

. Since then, M. Calmette, who had questioned the correctness of the
results of their experiments, but who later retracted his assertions, has
presented a note in which he annnounces “that one can protect ani-
mals against the venom of serpents by means of repeated doses of
poison, at first weak, but gradually increasing in strength ..... and
that the serum of the animals thus treated is at once protective, anti-
toxic and therapeutic.” This is precisely what M. M. Phisalix and
Bertrand demonstrated; but M. Calmette, not having cited their
researches, they think they should lay claim to priority in publishing
the important theoretical and practical consequences of this discovery,
having been able to give in logical sequence the facts upon which the
results are scientifically established. (Revue Sci., May, 1894).

The Secretion of Urea.—It is well known that urea exists
already formed in the blood when it reaches the kidneys, and that so
far as this substance is concerned, the kidneys function as eliminating
organs. But in what part of the organism then is the blood charged

m with the urea? The researches of M. Kaufman, who has been at work

ee ee eee hee ee = EE oe ae ae

eee reer ree eee ET
E Siete ices a oe

1894.] Physiology. 621

at this problem for several years, have furnished results from which
he draws the following conclusions:

1. The formation of urea does not take place in the liver alone; all
the tissues produce a certain quantity.

. The liver, however, is the most active secreter of urea in the
young animal.

3. The production of urea seems to accompany the phenomena of
nutrition which occur in the different tissues, and the phenomena of
elaboration and of preparation of nutritive materials constantly
poured into the blood by the liver. (Revue Sci., Mai, 1894).

622 The American Naturalist. [July,

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Tobacco pipes in Shell-heaps of the St. John's.—By those
familiar with the archeology of Florida, it will be remembered that
the extended and careful researches of Professor Wyman among many
of the shell-heaps of the St. John's river yielded no pipes, fragmentary
or otherwise, intended for the smoking of tobacco, and that naturally
the conclusion was arrived at by him that in all probability the makers
of the shell-heaps were ignorant of its use."

During the first two years of our investigations on the St. John's
the negative results obtained by Professor Wyman awaited us also,
though at the conclusion of our third season, in the island shell-heap
constituting Mulberry Mound, on the southern border of Orange
County, near Lake Poinsett, we discovered at considerable depth from
the surface a fragment of a tube of earthenware, which we believed,
and which was pronounced by competent authority, in all probability
to be a portion of a pipe used for the smoking of tobacco.

In the small burial mound situate on the northern extremity of the
shell-heap we found two other fragments still more markedly indicating
a similar use when entire. Nevertheless, the shell-heap fragment and
those from the burial mound, assuming the contemporaneity of the two,
while strong evidence as to the presence of tobacco pipes in the shell-
heaps, were not final.

At the close of our fourth and last season of investigation of the
river mounds (April, 1894) we again visited Mulberry Mound, making
an excavation abont 16 by 24 feet and 16.5 feet in depth to the water
level.

At a depth ot 6 feet from the surface was discovered a tobacco
pipe of earthenware, complete in every part, of which we give à
representation. (Plate XVIL)

Thus we have positive evidence that the men under whose feet slowly
grew the great mass of powdered shell and other kitchen refuse now
known as Mulberry Mound were familiar with the use of tobacco.

It is fair to explain, however, as we have previously stated in the
NarunALIST, that Mulberry Mound is by no means a type of the shell-
heaps of the river, since the debris of which it is composed is compara-

! This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

2 ** Fresh Water Shell Mounds of the St. John's River, Florida," page 59.

3 Naturalist, Aug. 1, 1893.

1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 623

tively rich in relics connecting it with a period presumably much later
than most of the shell-heaps which yield little or nothing to the inves-
tigator, some even giving no evidence of the presence of sherds to the
most careful and prolonged search.

The failure to find tobacco pipes in the other shell-heaps after years
of investigation may at least suggest the question whether the smoking
of tobacco was practiced when the older shell-heaps were made. It
might be suggested, however, that, as in upwards of eighty sand mounds
of the river, the majority of which were leveled to the base by us, but
five tobacco pipes were met with, a proportionate infrequency of occur-
rence might be expected in the shell-heaps. To this we would reply
that we by no means concede the contemporaneity of the sand mounds
with the earlier shell-heaps; and even were a contemporary existence
shown one might expect pipes, or fragments of pipes, in greater numbers
in shell-heaps which represent longer periods of occupancy than in the
sand mounds. The deposit of articles and certain classes of articles in
the sand mounds was voluntary and dictated by custom; while into
the debris of shell-heaps objects found their way through loss, if
unbroken, and through rejection, if fragmentary or imperfect. Articles
discovered in the shell-heaps afford a fair idea of the possessions of the
men who made them. Most of us know to our cost the fragile character
of a tobacco pipe of earthenware, and it is quite evident that portions
of pipes accidentally broken, not to be expected in the sand mounds,
since these “high places” were not used for domicile during con-
struction, must be looked for in the shell-heaps whose makers lived
upon them. :

We are, therefore, of the opinion that the finding of a tobacco pipe
in so exceptional and in such a presumably late shell-heap compara-
tively as Mulberry Mound, does not establish the use of tobacco as
existing among the makers of the earlier shell heaps of Florida.

CLARENCE B. Moore.

Norse Remains in the Neighborhood of Boston Bay.'—
The late Professor E. N. Horsford was the first to call attention to the
evidences of the truth of ancient Sagas which claim for the old Sea

‘I received the following paper from Mr. Gerard Fowke, late of the Bureau of
Ethnology, Washington, last night (June 27, 1894).

Archeology must watch with keen interest and sympathy the work undertaken
by him for Miss Cornelia Horsford of excavation at the alleged sites of Norse
occupation in the Charles River Valley, Massachusetts. Much discussion on and -
prejudice has beclouded the important problem which he and Miss Horsford have ;

~

624 The American Naturalist. [July

Rovers of Norway the honor of discovering America nearly five cen-
turies before Columbus. He spent many. years in this study and found
dams, docks, wharves, artificial islands, ditches and canals, that could
not be accounted for by any known works of either English or Indians
—though this conclusion was not forced upon him until long after he
had begun his investigations. With untiring industry he collected
and pored over scores of ancient and almost inaccessible maps and
manuscripts, and went afoot over nearly every acre for miles in the
Valley of the Charles. Despite all this, his work is not known to the
world at large as it should be, nor appreciated at its value outside of a
very small circle of those who are ready to listen to proofs instead of
dismissing as groundless statements they will not be at the trouble to
verify by a slight outlay of time and labor.

Professor Horsford preferred not to make any excavations until
every other source of knowledge had been exhausted ; and it was not
until May of this year that careful examination was made of certain
places that seemed to promise good results.

Most important among these was the site of the house built by
Thorfinn, who planted the first colony in A. D. 1007, within a few
rods of the present site of the Cambridge Hospital. It was discovered
that the foundation wall had been made by digging a trench around a
rectangular space measuring about sixteen by sixty-four feet. In this
trench, which was about two feet in width, were placed stones varying
in size from small pebbles to boulders as large as man could readily
lift, and in sufficient numbers to prevent the logs or timber resting on
them from coming in contact with the earth below or at the sides; but:
they did not extend above the surface.

Within this foundation, at nearly equal distances from the ends and
from each other, were two circular pavements some four feet in diame-
ter, of small stones carefully laid in by hand. They were in the
proper position for hearths or fire-places, but although the earth under
and about them contained charcoal and ashes, the stones themselves
showed no marks of heat.

The building was very similar to the long houses of the Iroquois;
the same type may also be found among the timber cutters in our pine
forests.
before them, but the truth will now lie with him who digs without fear or favor-
If the Sea Rovers lived long there, and built many houses, if they buried many
dead there, then the sure evidence of arts known and practiced by Norsemen will
see the light, and Mr. Fowke will not ask his friends to agree with him till he
holds such proof in his hands.
x H. C. Mercer.

1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 625

Another type of houses, of which there are numerous examples,
consists of a cellar-like excavation in a hill side, the floor being level
and the height of the back wall varying according to the slope of the
hill and the size of the house.

The first of these opened is near Stony Brook Station on the Fitch-
burg Railway. It is just at the foot of a kame, and at a point where
an ancient dam extends across a little brook a few yards away. At
the front was a wall about sixteen feet long of small boulders ; another
wall of similar stones was a foot within this, somewhat shorter than
the first and slightly curved. From the ends of these walls the ends
of the hut were marked by two rows of stones at irregular intervals,
four or five boulders similarly placed marking the line of the back
wall At the middle of the excavated area was a carefully placed
layer of pebbles, covering aspace seven feet long and three feet across.
This was very probably a hearth, though as in the case of Thorfinn’s
house there were no marks of heat. At the left front corner of the
house was a pavement four by five feet of cobblestones, extending
toward the end of the dam, but not reaching to it.

A short distance from this hut site was another not more than ten
feet square within the foundation walls. There was no continuous
wall in this; but at each front corner three or four stones had been
piled to make a support for the timbers, and a row of stones extended
for five feet back from one corner. One stone at the opposite side,
and two or three at the back formed the remainder of the foundation.
There was a small pavement of pebbles at the center but they were
not arranged in any order.

A third hut, not far from East Watertown, differed from all others
opened in being narrower at the back than at the front. Boulders
` were at each front corner, one on each side, and two at the rear. The
evidence was more distinct in this than in the others, thatthe roof had
been of sod or turf with a covering of small stones, as the interior
space was filled for more than a foot in depth with a mingled mass of
black earth and pebbles that could have come only from the caving in
of the top.

At several places, in the neighborhood of these houses are ancient
cemeteries, most of them on sloping ground, some of them on hill sides -
so steep as to be difficult of ascent. The grave sites are indicated by
cairns, generally about six feet in diameter, few of them varying a
foot from this size. It has been generally supposed that these stone
piles are due to the clearing up of the ground at some former time:
but many of them are on slopes so steep that no effort at cultivation

626 The American Naturalist. [July,

would ever be made; some are composed entirely of pebbles few of
which exceed a goose egg in size while all about them are large boul-
ders that would materially interfere with any farming operations that
might be attempted. In only one of the graves opened was there any
evidence of an excavation more than a few inches in the soil. It
appears that the body was laid on the surface with a coveriug of brush
or timber over which the stones were piled. It would seem scarcely
reasonable that a people as far along toward civilization as the Norse
were at that time would adopt such a mode of burial; but these cairns
were beyond doubt intended for this purpose, and it must be remem-
bered that in their native home the scarcity of soil made it necessary
that corpses be thus disposed of instead of being interred. People
tenaciously adhere to what is customary in such matters—as witness
the wide-spread opposition to cremation

. What has been so far done in the field is only a beginning; while
Professor Horsford has seemingly left little for any one else to do in
collecting maps and collating the evidence of history as embodied in
the Sagas, it is possible there may yet be among the old Scandinavian
and Icelandic records something that will throw unexpected light on
the subject. But there remains a great deal to do in the strictly
archeologic line. More of the hut sites are to be excavated, and the
soil immediately around them and the long houses is to be carefully
examined, as there is always a possibility of the preservation of some
object that will furnish indubitable proof of what is sought. This is
necessary not alone in the vicinity of Cambridge, but all along the
coast from Long Island Sound to the Saint Lawrence, as this whole
region is said to contain to some extent remains similar to those above
mentioned. A careful study is desirable also, of the sites of settle-
ments in other countries where these people have lived ; especially in
Greenland whence many if not a majority of the earliest settlers of the
Charles River Valley were derived.

GERARD FOWKE.

Progress of field work in the Department of American
and Prehistoric Archaeology of the University of Pennsyl-
vania.—The believer in Man's great antiquity in Eastern North
America is again called upon to explain a serious doubt. The easily
accessible broad and well lit shelter of the Forge Cave (1 mile below
Barren Springs, left bank of the New River, Pulaski County, Virginia),
as explored by us in February, 1894, has astonished us again with the
modern look of the evidence furnished.

1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 627

Instead of several ancient midden beds interlaid with stalagmite
breccia or cave earth indicating the lapse of successive epochs and the
comings and goings of pre-Columbian peoples, our six-sectioned trench,
36x24x10 feet (Section 3 to rock bottom) at deepest, showed :

(1) Red earth left by nitre leachers in 1863-64, with bottle glass,
nails, domestic fowl bones, etc., 15-17 inches. (White Man).

(2) Charcoal and ashes in hearth layers, sometimes invaded by dig-
gings from above, sometimes undisturbed, with arrowheads, chips, un-
glazed pottery, and bone awls, 7 to 9 inches. (Predecessor of White
Man).

(3) Rough, unworn blocks of limestone, larger towards the bottom,
containing, for some distance down, infiltrations from layer No. 2, rest-
ing on the rock floor, 8 feet. (No trace of human or animal occu-
pancy).

Here then, as at the Nickajack and Lookout Caves in Tennessee
(explored in December, 1893), we had found but a single stratum of
human occupancy (no. 2) below the superficial glass, nails and domes-
tic animal bones of the White Man.

While in it (stratum 2), instead of a predominance of the relies of
extinet or probably ancient animals bedded in the fossil preserving
charcoal, we discovered the presumably modern remains (kindly iden-
tified by Professor Cope) of the Unio, Paludina, Catfish, Tortoise,
Frog, Domestie Fowl, Bird (undetermined), Turkey, Marmot, Ungu-
late (undetermined), Beaver, Lynx, Domestic Sheep, Elk and Deer.

Only in one instance gnawed by rodents and often interlaid between
undisturbed hearths, the presence and position of the bones and shells
demonstrated them to be the remains of a fauna preyed upon by Man,
while the 5 potsherds (3 showing decorative incisions), the 12 bone awls,
the triangular chert arrowhead and infrequent hornstone chips, found
in the midden layer, proved it the work of the same Indian, who, 8 miles
above had scattered his riverside camp site with bones of the Deer,
and had dropped pottery, earthen pipes, a polished celt, hornstone
chips, and hammerstones. At a surface feasting place twenty miles
below, I found the remains determined by Professor Cope to belong to
the Unio, Paludina, Trypanastoma, Catfish, Turtle, Soft Shelled Turtle,
Raecoon, Bear, an

This proof that no earlier people than the Indian resorted to the
Forge Cave (and the Lookout and Nickajack Caverns), may indicate
that no earlier people than the Indian ever inhabited the upper valleys
of the New River and the Tennessee. But further search is needed to

628 The American Naturalist. [July,

establish the conclusion, while objections to the final value of all such
cave layer tests for Man’s antiquity must be thoughtfully weighed.

The first is suggested by Professor Cope, that as the caves explored
by me lack fossil remains, the old (Plistocene) ends of caves with
their animal and, if we can believe it, human remains, have probably
been worn away. Caves, therefore, would not tell the whole human,
as they do not tell the whole animal story, since Man may have in-
habited parts of caves which have disappeared.

This, if true, would exclude the alleged Tertiary Man of Thenay or
Otta from caves, but would leave us our witnesses for any possi
Plistocene blade chipper of Trenton and Madisonville.

Another objection to cave evidence is advanced by Dr. Brinton.
Like the Veddas of Ceylon (who are supposed, on the authority of the
brothers Sarasin, to have avoided rock shelters), early Man, he sug-
gests, was probably arboreal and did not inhabit caves. But continual
avoidance of available and conspicuous natural shelters by primitive
peoples anywhere is hard to imagine. We have the trace of all kinds
of Paleolithie, Neolithic and post-Neolithie peoples in caves in Europe

and the evidence of explorers as to still existent savages visiting caves
is scanty and insufficient.

If we are not hunting “ Cave Dwellers,” and if proof of Man's pres-
ence is all we want, then a few surface gathered trouser buttons and
bottle chips will do for the White Man, arrowheads and bone needles.
for the Indian, and a breccia—let us suppose with Mylodon teeth and
* Turtlebacks"—for some one else. Nothing short of cave avoidance
by the savage will rob us of the evidence which a fire kindler or two
in a century would suffice to furnish.

. C. MERCER. March, 1894.

1894.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 629

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Entomological Society of Washington.—June 7, 1894.—The
100th regular meeting. Twenty-two members present. Mr. Charles
Palm, of New York City, elected a corresponding member. President
Ashmead made some brief remarks congratulating the Society upon
attaining its 100th meeting and upon its prosperous career and pros-
pects. The Recording Secretary, Mr. Howard, read a review of the
work of the Society during the past ten years. Mr. Pergande pre-
sented certain additional observations upon the habits of Ammophila
gryphus for publication. Mr. Benton read a paper entitled “ Obser-
vations on the Mating of Queens of Apis mellifica,” showing that the
queens mate twice. Discussed by Messrs Riley, Gill, Schwarz and
Pergande. Mr. Chittenden presented for publication some biological
notes on certain Coleoptera. Mr. Schwarz presented a paper on the
composition and extent of the Coleopterous fauna of Alaska, giving a
lengthy outline of the history of the entomological exploration of that
country, commenting upon the results of a trip taken by himself and
Mr. H. G. Hubbard in 1892 through parts of Oregon, Washington and
British Columbia, and showing that the Alaskan fauna predominates
along the coast range of Oregon and Washington. Discussed by Dr.
Gill Mr. Schwarz also read some notes on the West Indian Sugar-
cane Borer (Xyleborus perforans) and showed the difficulty of deter-
mining whether this insect really occurs in the United States. i
cussed by Messrs Riley and Howard. Under the head of short notes
and exhibition of specimens, Mr. Heidemann exhibited certain rare
Pentatomids and Professor Riley announced the rearing of perfect
females of Margarodes. He showed that Margarodes and Porphyro-

phora are synonyms.
* L. O. HOWARD,

Recording Secretary.

N. Y. Academy of Sciences, Biological Section, May 14.—The
following papers were read :—

Professor E. B. Wilson, * Experiments on the Horizontal Isotropy
of the Egg ;" Dr. Arnold Graf, “ On the funnels and vesiculae termi- —
nales of Nephelis, Clepsine and Autostoma ;” O. S. Strong, “On Lith- .
ium bichromate as a hardening reagent for the Golgi method." =

Basuronp DEAN,
- Rec. Sec. of Section.

630 The American Naturalist. [July,

Boston Society of Natural History, May 16.—The blo
paper was read:
Mr. A. W. Grabau: Ancient and modern channels of the Gina
River. Stereopticon views were shown.
SAMUEL HENSHAW,
Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Professor G. J. Romanes.—We have to announce the recent
sudden death of Professor Romanes. He was born in Kingston, Can-
ada, in 1848, and graduated at Cambridge, England, in 1870. In
1873 he was Burney prize essayist, and Croonian lecturer in 1875.
His first important investigation was on the anatomy and physiology of
the nervous system of the Medusae, and he first placed our knowledge
of this subject on a definite basis. His works on the evolution of mind
in the lower animals and man are the best we have on the subject. He
was a prolific writer on evolution, and leaned sometimes to the Neola-
markian, sometimes to the Neodarwinian opinions. In his latest work
he revised the opinions of Weismann, and showed the important mod-
ifications which they have undergone. The death of Professor Romanes
is a serious loss to science. |

The Peary Auxiliary Expedition.—The members of this ex pe-
dition dined together at St. Georges Hotel, Brooklyn, June 17th, pre- |
paratory to taking passage on the steamer Portia for St. Johns, N. B.
A farewell dinner was given to Henry G. Bryant, the leader of the
expedition and his colleagues at the Art Club, Philadelphia, on June
18th by the members of the advisory committee of the Geographical
Club. At St. Johns they expect to be joined by the steam whaler
Falcon, on which they will sail for North Greenland to look for Lieut.
Peary and his party.

'The members of the expedition are Professor Wm. Libbey, Jr., of
Princeton University, geographer; Professor T. C. Chamberlin, of the
University of Chieago, geologist; Dr. Axel Ohlin, of Sweden, zoolo-
gist; Dr. H. E. Wetherill, of Philadelphia, surgeon; H. L. Bridgman,
of the Brooklyn Standard-Union; Emil Diebtsch, of Port Royal, S.
C., civil engineer.

When the Portia sails to-morrow she will have on board the usual
Arctic outfit of snow shoes, sledges, ice axes, tents, etc. The vessel

1894.] Scientific News. 631

will probably reach St. Johns about the 26th of this month, and by
the 4th of July, it is thought, the Falcon will sail for the far North.
It is hoped that Peary's headquarters in Bowdoin Bay will be
reached by July 25. If assured of the safety of Peary's party, some
of the members of the expedition will then pay a brief visit to Elles-
mere Land in their search for the missing naturalists, Bjorling and
Kallstenius, who were ship-wrecked on the Carey Island two years

0.

The auxiliary expedition and the Peary party, it is expected, will
leave Bowdoin Bay, September 1, and sail on the Falcon for this city,
arriving here probably by the 15th of that month.

The Retirement of Professor Dana.— The resignation of Pro-
fessor Dana from the position he has long held in Yale University is
announced.

Professor Dana is eighty-one years of age, and is compelled to aban-
don further active work by feeble health. His resignation has just
been accepted. He graduated from Yale in the class of 1833, returned
to college as tutor and succeeded to a full professorship fifty years ago.
Since then he has had charge of the department of natural science.

Born in Utiea, N. Y., February 12, 1823, Dr. Dana early became
interested in the researches of Professor Benjamin Silliman, and
through them was attracted to New Haven. Under his guidance he
was graduated from Yalein 1833 and immediately appointed instructor
of mathematies to midshipmen in the United States Navy, and in this
capaeity visited the seaports of France, Italy, Greece and Turkey
while on board the warships Delaware and United States. In 1836-38
he was assistant to Professor Silliman in the department of chemistry
at Yale, and while thus engaged was appointed mineralogist and geol-
gist to the exploring expedition to the Southern and Pacific Oceans
under Captain Charles Wilkes. He was on the corvette Peacock,
wrecked at the mouth of the Columbia River. He returned in 1842
and spent some years on his portion of the report, which was partly
prepared in Washington. In 1844 Dr. Dana married Professor Silli-
man's daughter, Henrietta Frances, and he has since continued to
reside at New Haven. In 1850 Dr. Dana was appointed Silliman-
Professor of natural history and geology at Yale, and the same year
became associate editor of the American Journal Science and Arts,
founded by the elder Silliman in 1819., Later he became editor-in-
chief, with his son, Edward S. Dana, as assistant. In 1872 the Geo-
logical Society of London conferred on Dr. Dana its Wollaston med-

632 The American Naturalist. [July,

al,and in 1877 he received the Copley gold medal from the Royal
Society of London. He is a member of many of the leading scientific
societies of the world, and was President of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science in 1854. In 1872 the University of
Munich gave him the degree of Ph. D., and in 1886 at the Harvard
celebration he was awarded the degree of LL. D.

Professor Dana's principal works have been on Corals and Crus-
tacea, and in Geology and Mineralogy. His text-books of the latter
subjects are so well known as to require only mention here.

The Wistar Institute of the University of Pennsylvania.
—This important addition to the many courses of the University is
the gift of General Isaac J. Wistar, a son of Dr. Caspar Wistar, one
of the earliest professors of anatomy at this institution. The preserva-
tion and exhibition of the Wistar Anatomieal Museum is the princi-
pal object of the institute. There will also be added to it a complete
collection of all objects necessary for the successful study of biology,
anatomy and the historical development of the organs in man. ‘The
department will be so thoroughly equipped from a scientific stand-
point that it will be used not only for purposes of exhibition but also
for practical teaching. Advanced research will be the most striking
feature of the work.

In connection with the institute there will be established a course of
lectures which will give graduates of the medical department opportu-
nities for post-graduate courses and deeper research in the advanced
stages of anatomy and biology.

A periodical will be published, in which these subjects will be treated
by men who have become celebrated because of their knowledge of
these important subjects. In this building will be placed the present
museum of anatomy, known as the Wistar and Horner Museum,
which was presented to the University by the widow of Dr. Caspar
Wistar, which gift was afterward supplemented by those of Mr. Hor-
ner. In addition to this the museum now used in connection with the
Biological School will be placed in the building as soon as it is com-
pleted.

It has been decided to place the management of this institute under
the direction of a Board of Managers elected by the Trustees of the
University. In order that the memory of the founder of this depart-
ment may be perpetuated in fitting recognition of the appreciation felt
at the benevolence of General Wistar, it has been settled that one of
the managers shall be a descendant of the Wistar family. Thė other

1894.) Scientific News. 633

two will be the President and Vice-President of the Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences.

The University will elect a dean of the department, who will devote
his entire time and energies to the development of the manifold inter-
ests of the institute, which gives promise of being one of the greatest
of its kind not only in this country, but also will rank high among
similar departments in the European schools of anatomy. Fellow-
ships will be established in order to afford deserving students ample
opportunity for extended researches in this department.

Dr. Horace Jayne, the retiring dean of the college department of
the University, has presented his famous anatomical collection, pur-
chased some years ago from the renowned Collector Wade, to the
Wistar Institute. The collection is composed principally of mammals,
including a large number of alcoholic specimens and a complete set of
rhinoceros skeletons.

Work on the building was begun less than two years ago. It is
of buff brick, plainly but handsomely finished in buff terra cotta,
and so constructed as to permit of additions being made with
facility. The structure is thoroughly fire proof, and is provided with
the most approved fire-escapes. It has a depth of sixty-six feet on
Woodlaud Avenue, and a frontage of two hundred and thirty-seven
feet on Thirty-sixth Street. On the latter thoroughfare is the broad
entrance leading into a large vestibule eighteen by twenty feet. To
the left of the entrance the curator’s room is situated, and to the left
is the lecture room connecting with the professor’s room. The main
entrance from the vestibule leads into the main hall, the dimensions of
which are forty-four by thirty-six feet.

Passing through the hall to the left one will find the main museum
a roomy apartment of fifty by one hundred and ten feet, furnished
throughout with all the appliances necessary for an institution of the
sort. Two smaller rooms toward the Spruce Street end are reserved for
the reception of private collections.

The second floor will be devoted principally to work-rooms and pro-
fessors’ apartments. It will also contain a library and a museum cor-
responding in size to the one on the lower floor. Three more work-
rooms are located on the third floor, with quarters for the janitor.
There will also be another museum formed of galleries eighteen feet -
wide, overlooking the similar department on the floor below.

The basement will be devoted exclusively to work-rooms, all of x
bie will be furnished ne zines, flues and other mes moniy

634 . The American Naturalist. [July,

for dissecting work. The height of the basement is twelve feet, and
that of the other floors, fourteen, twelve and twelve respectfully.

At the opening exercises, there was a fair assemblage notwithstand-
ing the very unfavorable weather. Addresses were made by Provost
William Pepper, Director Harrison Allen, M. D., and Professor Wil-
liam Osler, M. D., of John Hopkins, biens A of the University of
Pennsylvania.

Major J. W. Powell has resigned. from the Directorship of the U. S.

Geological Survey, and Mr. C. D. Walcott has been appointed by the ©

President and Senate to take his place.

Professor H. 8. Williams formerly of Cornell University, takes the
place of Professor J. D. Dana in Yale University.

Among the books announced by MacMillan & Co. for early publi-
cation are :—“ A three peor eourse of practical instruction in Bot-
any" by F. O. Bower; a “Course in Experimental Psychology” by
J. McK. Cattell; “ Puvilitoyy for Beginners” by Michael Foster ;
“ Methods of Histological Research” by C. von Kahlden, translated
by C. Morley Fletcher; “Text-book of Invertebrate Embryology”
by Korscheldt and Heider, translated by E. L. Mark and W. M.
Woodworth; “Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology” by
Wilhelm Wundt, translated by J. E. Creighton and E. B. Tichener ;
and a series, the * Cambridge Natural Science Manuals” edited by A.
E. Shipley and containing * Elementary Paleontology—Invertebrate”
by Henry Woods; “ Practical Physiology of Plants" by F. Darwin
and E. H. Acton; “ Text-book of Physical Anthropology” by Alex.
Maeallister; * The Vertebrate Skeleton” by S. H. Reynolds; “ Fossil
Plants" by A. C. Seward; and * Elements of Botany" by F. Dar-
win.

We regret to learn that our contemporary “Science” has suspended
publication for want of sufficient financial support.

The Philadelphia Zoologieal Garden has received specimens of the
Indian cats, Felio bengalensis and F. viverrinus.

Errata in June Narurauist.—For Fig. 4, p. 530, read Fig. 2.
For Fig. 2, p. 529, read Fig.3. For Fig. 3, p. 530, read Fig. 4.

SER

PLATE XVII.

q

f

Tobacco Pipe of Earthenware from Shell-Heap, Mulberry Mound, Florida, (full size.)

ee ———
'

ADVERTISEMENTS. LI

Walker -Prizes in Natural History.

By the provisions of the will of the late Dr. William Johnson Walker
two prizes are annually offered by the Bosrox Socrery or NATURAL HISTORY
for the best memoirs written in the English language on subjects proposed by a
committee appointed by the Council.

For the best memoir presented a prize of sixty dollars may be awarded ; if;
however, the memoir be one of marked merit, the amount may be increased to
one hundred dollars, at the discretion of the committee.

For the next best memoir, a prize not exceeding fifty dollars may be
awarded.

Prizes will not be awarded unless the memoirs presented are of adequate
merit.

The competition for these prizes is not restricted, but open to all.

Each memoir must be accompanied by a sealed envelope enclosing the
author's name and superscribed with a motto corresponding to one borne by the
manuscript, and must be in the hands of the Secretary on or before Te ge 1st of
the year for which the prize is offered.

SUBJECTS FOR 1895 :—

(1) A study of the * Fall line" in New Jersey.

(2) A study of the Devonian formation of the Ohio basin.

(3) Relations of the order Plantaginaceae.

(4) Experimental investigations in morphology or embryology.

SUBJECTS FOR.1896 :—

(1) A study of the area of schistose or foliated rocks in the eastern United
States.

(2) A study of the developement of river valleys in some considerable
area or folded or faulted Appalachian structure in Pennsylvania, Virginia, or
Tennesee.

(3) An experimental study of the effects of close-fertilization in the case
of some plant of short cycle.

(4) Contributions to our knowledge of the general morphology or the
general physiology of any animal except man.

NoTE—In all cases the memoirs are to be based on a considerable body of original "— :
ás well as on a general review of the literature of the subject.

SAMUEL HENSHAW.

Boston Society of Natural History,
Boston, Mass, U. 8. As

tt ADVERTISEMENTS.

THE MONISI.

A QUARTERLY MAGAZINE

EDWARD C. Mee
Mary CARU

Vol. IV. APRIL, 1894. No. 3.
CONTENTS.

- THREE ASPECTS OF MONISM, ey cie C. Lloyd enit on chews ee
THE PARLIAMENT OF RELIGIONS, Gen. M. M. Trum oe oy
MODERN PuvsioLocv, Prof. Max Vernon Jena, Ger
KaNr's DOCTRINE OF THE SCHEMATA, H. H. Wi Disi Daie of North Carolina.
THE EXEMPTION OF WOMEN FROM LABOR, Lester F. Ward, Washington D. C.
NOTION AND DEFINITION OF NUMBER, Prof. Hermann Schube rt, Maki; Germany.
ETHICS AND THE COSMIC ORDER, Editor.

s itor.

Editor: DR. PAUL CARUS. RED Associates ¢

KARMA AND NIRV

LITERARY CORRESPONDENCE—France, Lucien Arréa :

CRITICISMS AND Book. Logic as Relation Pes Rejoinder to M. Mouret. F.C.
Russell.

Boo k Have S.
Eao OF Coirkiets OF PHILOSOPHICAL PERIODICALS.

CHICAGO:
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.

Price, 50 cts.; YEARLY, $2.00.

London: WATTS & CO., 17 LU. s veia dre St, E €.
Price in England and U. P. 2s 6d.; y, 9s 6d.

The AMERICAN ANTEA and ORIENTAL JOURNAL.
Published at 175 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill.

Edited by STEPHEN D. PEET, Goop Horeg, ILL.
Bi-Monthly. Price, $4.00 Per Year.

The First Magazine Devoted to Archaeology and Ethnology established in America, It has now
reached its Sixteenth Volume, which promises to be the Best of the Series.

Among the Attractions for 1894 are the following:
- À series of articles, accompanied with maps, on the early migrations and locations of Indian tribes,
under the title of

** Footprints of the Aborigines, By Rev. William M. Beauchamp, Prof. A. F. Chamberlain, Dr.
Bees ep — Tooker, Lauf ae and myths ofthe Rev. "George Patterson, and nd her PUES Also a series of

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THE

! AMERICAN
+ NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL
DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES
IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE.

AGING EDITORS
Prors. E. D. COPE, akin i AND J. S. KINGSL EY, Boston.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS:

Dr. C. O. WHITMAN, Chicago, Dr. C. E. BESS SEY, Lincoln, Neb., . C. MERCER, Sw E
Pror. C. M. WEED, Durham,.N. H., Pror. W. S. BAYLEY, W atervills, Maine, ud or. E, A. ANDREW
: PRor. W. H. HOBBS, Madison; Wis.
Vol, XXVIII. AUGUST, 1894. No. 332

CONTENES.

a PAGE. PAGE.
= "THE ORIGIN OF THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON. Somma—Phonolites a me Black Hills—

J. i cingsley. 632 | The Origin of Nor Q The

COLOR-VARIATION OF TOMA CAPRODES = of the e Bioseiferner--Potrographiea
^ d SW. UR Meiner 641

NEO-LAMARCKISM AND NEO-DARWINISM, Bot o heal Plant Ovnis ae i

L. H. Bailey 661
ORNITHOPHILOUS POLLINATION, (lllustrated.)
Joseph L. Hancock 679
EpiroriAts.—The U. S. Geological Survey—

he Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. . 684

proaching Meeting of the A. A. A. S—The
Completion of Coulter’s Texan Flora. . . .7
Zoology — An Australasian Sub- mco of
Fresh-water Atherinoid Fishes. . . 708.
OIT ET Phylogeny —Deter
mination of Sex. |

RECENT BooKs AND PAMPHLETS. . . . . . . 687
Recent LITERATURE — The genus hus —

Bateson's QUANT of Variation. . . . 690 Psychology —Mutualists. . + +
GENERAL N Archeology and Ethnology—Ancient American -

d and Travels —Antarctiec PERE B — The making of New Jersey ;
ion . 693 | Shell "— in 1780—The nice Collect- NI
Mineralogy — Friedel' s nid de Mise Me ions. 7
— —Relation between Atomic Weight and Crys- Microscopy—New Method of PR in&

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alite from the Kola Peninsula. . - 698 | Fixing of Paraffine Sections to the Slide. . . 720.

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Vor. XXVIII. August, 1894. — ps 332

THE ORIGIN OF THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON.

By J. S. KixcsrEy. a

Until a very recent date, not a doubt existed that any part
of the vertebrate skeleton was of other than mesodermal origin.
The cartilages were mesoderm, and in their further develop-
ment the cartilages were transformed into bone by means of
the cells from the same parent layer. The membrane bones of
the skull were also believed to mesodermal, since the re-
searches of Oscar Hertwig (’74) had shown that in the Batra-
chia especially, as well as in other forms, they arose from the
layer which formed the dentine of the teeth, and which was:
homologous with that which formed the dentine of the placoid -
scale. The details of this need not be given here, as they will
will be found in every text-book; the point to be emphasized -
is that dentine and its homologue membrane bone were as-
sumed to be, and even thought to be proved to be, of —
mal origin. :

One of the first papers to lay a foundation fora different view __
was one by Kastschenko (’88), which, while saying nothing vi me
the origin of the skeleton, pointed out that certain parts of the -
mesenchyme were of ectodermal origin. Next, another Rüs-' x
sian, Goronowitsch (92), showed that in the formation of the
* ganglionie folds" into the head, not all the tissues proliferated
from the ectoderm into the “ —— iii was -r es

636 The American Naturalist. [August,

the formation of nervous matter, but that some of it became
mesenchymatous and was possibly utilized in the development
of the skeleton. Other authors at about the same time con-
firmed more or less clearly this view that all mesenchyme was
not of entodermal, but that at least some of it was ectodermal,
in origin.

In 1893, Miss Julia B. Platt, in a preliminary paper, made
the noteworthy statement that the embryology of Necturus
showed that, at least in the head, the cartilages were derived
from the ectoderm. Necturus was especially favorable in this
respect, for its cells are larger and pigment is absent. At
about the stage of the formation of the ganglienleisten, the
differences between the entoderm and mesothelial tissues on
the one hand, and the ectoderm on the other, were very great,
the former being loaded with yolk granules, the latter contain-
ing comparatively few. Further, the layers readily differen-
tiated by staining with the Erlich-Biondi mixture. With the
formation of the ganglienleisten from the ectoderm, its cells
could be distinguished in the same way, and it was found that
only the dorsal portion of ridge becomes nervous, the lower
contributing its cells to the mesenchyme, while between the
two regions there was a portion which contributed to both tis-
sues. These ectodermal mesenchymal parts (mesectoderm, as
Miss Platt calls them) can readily be distinguished after their
separation from the parent layer by the peculiarities already
mentioned. From these proliferations tissue arises which later
forms the gill cartilages, while further in front, near the eyes
and the nose, similar ingrowths are seen, and especially in the
region where the mouth is to break through. From these last
arise at least the trabecular cartilages; the origin of the para-
chordals and otic capsule is not given.

In a second paper (93°), Miss Platt further elaborates some
of her earlier statements, illustrating the parts with three fig-
ures, one of which shows the downward growth of the mesecto-
derm, to use her extremely convenient term, between the gill
clefts and in the region of eye and nose.

Before the appearance of Miss Platt’s second paper, Gorono-
witsch published his detailed account (’93), fully confirming

Ri i a «i

1894.] The Origin of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 637

the statements of his preliminary, and showing that ectoder-
mal ingrowths occur in the birds in just such positions as to
justify the view that they gave rise to skeletal structures.
Some of these, according to Goronowitsch, found their destiny
in the cutis, a fact to be remembered while considering the
work of Klaatsch, outlined below. A little later (93*) Gorono-
witsch published a short note in which, among other points, he
claimed that Miss Platt had not made good her thesis that
these mesectoderm cells gave rise to the cartilage. Miss Platt’s
final paper will, we understand, soon appear.

The most important and most detailed paper of all is that of
Klaatsch, which appeared in April of this year. Its title—“ On
the Origin of the Scleroblasts. A Contribution to the Know-
ledge of Osteogenesis "—shows its scope. Wecan give but the
merest outline of the points detailed in the 90 pages of the
paper.

The first point considered is the development of the placoid
scale. 'This, as is well-known, consists of two portions, a
harder outer portion, the enamel secreted by the basal ends of
cells of undoubted ectodermal origin; and a deeper dentine
which, up to now, has been universally regarded as of true
mesodermal nature. Klaatch studied the development of the
placoid organ in several species of Acanthias, Mustelus and
Heptanehus. These presented various differences, but in
general, they agreed in the following features. In the earlier
stages the ectoderm is two cells in thickness, a flattened super-
ficial layer and a deeper cubical or columnar layer. Between
this last and the corium is a clear space, and there is no con-
tinuous basal membrane. A little later this deeper layer be-
gins to undergo modifications, cells being budded from it into
the clear space. These cells are readily seen to belong to the
ectoderm, not only from the directions of the mitotic spindles,
but from the fact that their nuclei are greatly larger than
those of the corium, the only other layers from which they
could arise. These cells are the scleroblasts. They are not
scattered irregularly through the clear space, but are more
abundant in some places than in others thus early marking
out the positions of the later placoid organs. With the modi- __

638 The American Naturalist. [August,

fications of the ectoderm described by Klaatsch, we have noth-
ing to do here further than is concerned in the scale develop-
ment. It is to be noticed that along with the formation of the
little patches of scleroblasts the overlying cells of the basal
layer become elongated, the first step in the development of an
enamel organ. The later stages in their general features are
much as described by Oscar Hertwig in his classic paper of
twenty years ago, and yet there are important differences to be
noted. The heaping up of the scleroblasts continues, the re-
sult being the formation of the dentine organs, carrying with
it the superposed enamel cells in the form of a pyramid. The
enamel organ is terminated on all sides by a groove, and even
at this stage the cells at the bottom of this groove are actively
engaged in proliferating additional scleroblasts which are
pushed into the still-growing dentine organ. The necessary
conclusion is not only is the enamel of the placoid scale an .
ectodermal derivation, but such is the nature of the dentine as
well.

Now placoid scales and teeth have long been regarded as
homologous structures, and so Klaatsch studies the history of
the latter. In the sharks he finds that the conditions of the
development of the scales are paralleled in the ontogeny of
the teeth. There is the same early proliferation of scleroblasts
into the clear layer, and later, when the enamel cap is formed,
its limiting groove is the seat of additional ingrowth of den-
tine-forming cells. In short, we must no longer regard the
teeth as structures derived from two germ layers—ectoderm
and mesoderm—but as purely ectodermal products.

In the fin of the shark are numerous horny rays, and their
history is followed. Earlier workers had universally regarded
them as belonging to the connective-tissue series, although in
1885 Krukenberg had shown that their organic base was differ-
ent from the chemical standpoint from the other connective
tissues. Klaatsch finds that here there is a similar inwander-

! It is to be noted that in the recent meeting of the Anatomische Gesellschaft at
Strassburg, May 13-16, Professor Rabl had a paper “ Ueber die Herkunft des Den-
tinkeims in den Placoidschuppen und den Zihnen der Selachier (gegen

Boo mee Me oe ont a eR imal ia. |” E cro
3 d yrs

1894.] The Origin of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 639

ing of ectoderm cells into the region between the basal epithe-
lium and the corium. From these cells are produced at first
extremely minute horny rods, and these, later, together with
their parent cells, sink through the corium into the position
they finally oceupy, where no one, not tracing their history in
detail, would suspect their ectodermal origin. Even in Tor-
pedo, where no horny rays occur in the paired fins of the adult
ingrowths of ectoderm into the axial portions of the fin exist.
Atthis point one author supports Rabl in his view that the
unpaired fins are not derived from the fusion of paired rudi-
ments. The opposite view is fastened upon Dohrn, regardless
of the fact that it was first shown to be probable by J. K.
Thacher and later supported by Balfour. Dohrn’s special
contention was that the fins, paired and unpaired, were deriva-
tives of the parapodia of the worms, and later, Paul Mayer
claimed to have found structures—“ parapodoids"— which rep-
represented these. These “parapodoids” are, according to
Klaatsch's view, the early placoid organs.

In studying the development of true bone, Klaatsch studied
Salmo salar. Here the earliest to appear were the opercular
bones, and but little later those of the shoulder girdle and
those arising in connection with the teeth, later those of the
cranium. The details of the formation of the scleroblasts for a
few of these bones is given, including the squamosal, opercu-
lum, clavicula, dentary, and the osseous fin-rays. In the case
of each, the osteoblasts are derivatives of the ectoderm. "The
squamosal is especially interesting, since it begins from out-
growths at the point of the infolding of the mucous canals, and
is developed in connection with these organs. At first it is
connected solely with them, and is plainly a membrane bone ;
later it comes into contact with the otic capsule. Klaatsch |
sides with those who would make no sharp distinction between
cartilage- and membrane-bones, and regards not only the
squamosal but the cranial roof and the ossifications which ap-
pear in the cranial roof and on the primordial cranium as

having their origin in bones developed, like the squamosal, for

protection of the cutaneous sense-organs.

640 The American Naturalist. [August,

After diseussing these, Klaatsch passes to the bony fin-rays
of the Teleosts and then to their scales, giving details which
our space will not allow us to repeat, but in each case he comes
back to the conclusion that in each and every case the so-
called mesodermal element is of ectodermal origin. Then a
few instances are taken from other groups—Salamandra and
Lepus. In the Batrachia he finds the same conditions as in
sharks and Teleosts. In the Mammals he fails to trace the
history of his scleroblasts, but he finds here, as elsewhere, pro-
liferations of ectodermal cells into the subadjacent tissues,
which, it is possible, may later form the skeletogenous cells.

It needs hardly be said that these various contributions thus
superficially summarized are most important, since, if they be
confirmed, they will tend to an overthrow of many ideas long
believed to be firmly grounded. The questions concerned are
far from settled, but we venture to predict that the subject will
occupy a prominent place in the morphological literature of
the immediate future.

LITERATURE CITED.

’92. N. Goronowitsch. Die axiale und laterale Kopf-
metamerie der Vogelembryonen. Anat. Anzeiger, VII.

'98. Untersuchungen über die Entwickelung der sog. Gang-
lienleisten der Vogelembryonen. Morph. Jahrbuch., XX.

'92*. Weiteres über die ectodermale Entstehung von Skelet-
anlagen im Kopf der Wirbelthiern. Morph. Jahrb., XX.

'88. N. Kastschenko. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der
Selachierembryo. Anat. Anz., iii.

'94. H. Klaatsch. Uber die Herkunft der Scleroblasten.
Morph. Jahrb., XXI.

'93. Julia B. Platt. Ectodermie Origin of the Cartilages
ofthe Head. Anat. Anz., VIII

"93". Ontogenetic Differentiations of the Ectoderm of Nec-
turus. Anat. Anz., IX.

1894.] Variation of North American Fishes. 641

VARIATION OF NORTH AMERICAN FISHES.*

E

THE VARIATION OF ETHEOSTOMA CAPRODES
RAFINESQUE.

By W. J. MoENKHAUS.

Etheostoma is a genus of American Freshwater Percide. It
consists of about 100 species distributed in a number of sub-
genera. All the members of the genus are small. They are
distributed over approximately the entire Atlantic slope of
North America. The northernmost points are Fort Quappelle
and Montreal; the southernmost, Chihuahua. The most west
ern points are Colorado and Swift Current in Canada near
the 108th meridian.

The subgenus Percina includes the largest of the darters.
There are but two well-defined species. One, Etheostoma rex
is known from east of the Alleghany Mountains. The other,
Etheostoma caprodes is also found east of the Alleghanies, but
its chief habitat is west of these mountains, where it is found
from Lakes Champlain and Superior to the Rio Grande.

This latter species, Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, has been
studied with a view to ascertain the extent of its variation, the
relation of its variation to its geographical distribution, the
extent of variation in each locality, and the variation with
age. This species of the darters has been selected for its size,
and on account of its wide distribution and moderate abund-
ance within its limits. Its variability has been known for a
long time, and has given it a number of specific names.

The material examined is recorded in the table of measure-
ments and counts.

The greatest variation was found to be in the color. Slighter
variations were found in proportions and number of fin rays.

* Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of Indiana rins under ler
the direction of Carl H. Eigenmann, No. 10. [OA

642 The American Naturalist. [August,

Evolution of the Color Pattern.

As just stated, the point of greatest variability is the color
pattern. The colors in life are not taken into consideration,
but only the black markings which were preserved in alco-
holic specimens. On comparing living specimens with alco-
holic material, but little difference was noticed. In the matter
of color patterns, the specimens from any one locality agree to
a remarkable extent. This statement refers only to specimens
of the same size—differences, of course, existing between young
and adult stages.

The simplest pattern was found in specimens from Chocola
Cr., Ala. These were immature specimens, and do not represent
the adult condition. ;

In these specimens (30 and 33 mm. long., fig. 1), we have
a series of nine cross-bars extending from the back to below
the middle of the sides. The bars at the ends of the dorsal
fins are much emphasized, and all the bars are heaviest at
their upper and lower ends. There is a distinct round spot
at the root of the caudal. The color of the head need not be
taken into consideration in this specimen. The caudal spot
remains in all the specimens examined. The most compli-
cated pattern, that of fig. 7, is shown to-be derived by easy
stages and step by step from the condition figured in fig. 1.

The simplest pattern in adult fishes is found in specimens
inhabiting the waters of the Wabash River and its tributaries
in Indiana (Nos. 9, 40 and 44). The pattern here consists of
a series of long and short bars alternating. In the anterior
region, the short bars are usually as long as the long bars. A
better way to designate these is to term the long bars “ whole
bars," and the short bars “ half bars" The whole bars towards
the posterior end of the body spread slightly and become more
intensely colored toward their ventral extremity. The black
caudal spot is also present here. This spot does not vary in
any of the patterns figured. The head is colored black above,
and has a large spot on the opercle, taking the general form of
the opercle itself. The color on the top of the head is most
intense towards the posterior, as shown in fig. 9, and becomes
less less distinct as it extends forward to the tip of the snout.

1894.] Variation of North American Fishes. 643

Around the eyes are seen faint indications of three bars: one
extending forward ; the second downward, and the third back-
ward (fig. 2).

Comparing this pattern with the one in the young, we find
that the whole bars are homologous in the two, and that the
half bars have been added.

A step in advance is taken by the adult specimens from
Chocola Cr., Ala., fig. 3 (Nos. 76-82). These have the bars
alternately long and short along the entire length of the body.
The bars are considerably broader and more intense, and the
whole bars have their ventral extremities much broadened, so
as to form quite an apparent series of spots along the side.
An additional half bar is added by the union of the spot
above and the spot justin front of the black caudal spot. Here
the three bars radiating from the eye are somewhat more dis-
tinct than in the pattern already described. |

The next series of individuals are Nos. 45-55, 72, 73 and
75, in the list given below, and are represented by fig. 4. They
are found in the Green, Cumberland, Tennessee and Arkansas
River Basins. The color pattern here shows a greater irregu-
larity in its bars, and has developed in addition a still shorter
between each of the whole and half bars of the preceding
pattern, so that we have now whole, half and quarter bars.
'The series of lateralspots is present only along a part of the
body. The bar extending anteriorly from the eye is broken
into two shorter and less distinct ones.

Of considerable significance in the specimen figured in fig.
3 is the fact that in the bar between the dorsals, we have a
notch indicating that some of the color-cells are separating
from the whole bar. A similar condition is shown in thesame
region of fig. 4. The quarter bars are apparently split off
from the other bars. It is of interest that variations in the
direction of an increased number of bars is always, as far as
my specimens go, introduced at this point. Specimens inter-
mediate between this and the preceding form show that the
quarter bars always make their first appearance between the
seventh and eighth whole bars and the included half bar. -

644 The American Naturalist. [August, E 4

Other quarter bars are then added in front and behind this
region.

From the conditions represented in fig. 3, we have two P
diverging lines of development. The one line was discussed
in the preceding paragraph. The other line is found in speci-
mens, Nos. 82 and 83, taken from San Marcos Spring, Texas,
and is represented in fig. 5. We have here a splitting of the
bars without the regular result seen in fig. 4. The lower ends
of the whole bars have not split, in fact, they have increased .
in width, and form a very prominent series of spots along the
side. It will be seen that the bars radiating from the eye have
become much more pronounced.

'The pattern of fig. 6 can be easily derived from the preced-
ing one by assuming that the lower half of the whole bars of
the anterior part of the body have shifted their position back-
ward, so that they no longer extend extirely to the mid-dorsal
line. The 3d,4th and 5th whole bars show different degrees 1
of shifting. The lower part of the 4th has shifted, but still *
retains its connection with the upper part. In the 3d, the bar
is more nearly separated, while in the 5th the separation is
complete, and the original lower part of the bar becomes
simply a vertically elongated spot. The bars around the eye
are here again less developed. "The pattern of fig. 6 is the one
occurring in Etheostoma caprodes manitou Jordan, and was
drawn from a specimen taken from Torch Lake, Mich. Other
specimens, taken from the same lake and from other localities,
have the same color pattern with slight variations. Nos. 1-7,
and 41 of Table I, are this variety.

The line of development taken up by fig. 5 is continued in
figs. 7 and 8, representing the specimens from Obey’s River
and Eagle Creek in Tennessee, and from the Little South Fork
of the Cumberland River in Kentucky. These are Nos. 56-72
in the table. A single young specimen, No. 74, which prom-
ised to become this form, was also taken in the North Fork of
the Holston River, in Virginia. The two figures were drawn
from a younger and older specimen respectively, of the same
form. In the younger specimens, the bars have become more
split up, and have increased in irregularity. Almost all of

1894.] - Variation of North American Fishes. 645

the original bars, however, can be traced. The lateral spots,
too, are much more prominent than in the preceding pattern.
In the older individuals the bars have become so much split
up as to form a complicated network, and the original pattern
can be made out only in a general way. The spots are larger
and darker than in the younger, and form almost a continuous
lateral band. The radiating bars around the eyes are corre-
spondingly more developed, the one extending backward in
a slight curve beyond the head to the first lateral spot.

In the last pattern, the original simple whole and half bars
have reached their greatest modification, and the faint lateral
spots of fig. 2 have become the most prominent part of the
coloration.

The variation presents a piil modification in two divergent
lines from an original simplest pattern. Beginning with the
whole bars of fig. 1, we pass to the form having alternate whole |
and half bars,and an imperfect series of lateral spots. From
this form we pass on the one hand to the pattern having alter-
nate whole, half and quarter bars, and -on the other hand to
the pattern consisting of reticulated markings above, and a
very prominent series of spots along the sides. In the pattern
of fig. 6, we have a second divergent line of development from
fig.5. The radiating bars around the eyes become more devel- -
oped as we pass from the simple to the more complex patterns,
with the exception in fig. 6.

It will be seen from the localities at which each of the vari-
ous patterns occurred, that there is no definite serial relation
between the variations and the latitude at which they are
found. As already stated, however, the variations are remark-
ably definite fora given locality. T dA RR from the Wa-
bash waters can,almost without exceptio d from
those of the Cumberland River, for. instance, while those from
the Alabama River are distinguished by their invariably
broader bars. Both the patterns of figs. 4 and 6 occur in the
Cumberland and Tennessee River system, but both have not
been taken from the same tributaries of these streams.

The color pattern of Etheostoma caprodes is of interest when f

considered as to its bilateral symmetry. In most of the sim- —

646 The American Naturalist. [August,

plest patterns, the corresponding bars on the two sides are
exactly alike, and precisely meet each other in the mid-dorsal
tine. This almost perfect symmetry is not so prevalent in the
more complex patterns. The simplest cases of asymmetry
are found in the simplest patterns when some of the bars do
not exactly meet their fellows on the back. Fig. 8 shows an
instance of this kind. Both the asymmetrical and the sym-
metrical forms occur in the same locality, and the former
seems purely accidental, but in all cases observed, it makes its
first appearance in the bars along the spinous dorsal. From
this point it spreads backward along the soft dorsal until we
reach an extreme form of asymmetry, as represented in fig. 9.
Here the first three and the last four bars, together with the
bar between the dorsals, still preserve their symmetry, while
those along the entire length of both dorsals are quite asym-
metrica

_ In regard to variations in parts other than in the color pat-
tern, only those points of structure were examined that could
be most accurately made out on alcoholic specimens. One
very marked departure from the regular form exists in the
specimens from San Marcos Spr., Texas. This departure con-
sists, as shown in fig. 5, of an increase in the depth of the
body in the region of the spinous dorsal, as a result of the
unusual elevation of the back in this region. These belong
to the variety carbonaria, described from Texa, and are more
distinct in points of form than the varieties I examined from
any other locality.

No. 8 in Table I, taken by Dr. Meek at Cedar Rapids, Iowa,
differs materially from any of the specimens from other local-
ities. It approaches nearest the variety zebra in the color pat-
tern, and in having no scales before the spinous dorsal. The
scales, however, are larger, there being but 76 in the lateral
line. The head measures 33 in body and the number of rays
in anal is 12.

The following table will give the number of specimens, their
locality and the points of structure which have been examined.
The spines in the dorsal and anal fins are indicated by Roman
numbers and the rays by Arabic numbers. The length of the

Te ea! ada Sire es ae irre

1894.] Variation of North American Fishes. 647

- specimens are measured in mm. from the tip of the snout to
root of caudal. Only those scales of the lateral line are
counted which have the tribes developed in them. The local-
ities are arranged in the order of their latitude from north to

south.
TABLE I.
2
srd Ls]
E oe a fe g - E į
LOCALITY. BE is a p | E = a S£
aa cod Bee Aa;
BS | god § 4m à +
fa
| ——M— E
1. Torch Lake, Mich ( Y 19 |445;| XIV,15 | 1,10 )
2. e " e ( 76 19 V,15 | 11,10 | 90
3 ” he Le ( 80 4 V,15 | I1,10 )
5 4, « & S e oir 6 15 18} | 47; | XV,15 | 11,10 )
5. « «c « ( 80. 20 XV,15 | 11,10 )
6. m « m ( 71 19 Ads. XIV,14 11,10 )
* 3 e te “u t 78 18 4 ly AY, 6 IL11 )
8. Rapids, Iowa 70 | 29 |3l | xtvi1s | Ib12 | 76
9. White River, joe eg Ind... XIV,16 | I10 )
10. Ra Mebcea, [nd............. 40 103 | 3% )
m c " NO C nt aa 42 3% )
7 mo s z E n ine 41 11 |3% )
E 13. Gosport, Ind 90 21 4 XV,15 | 11,10 | 90
1 14. " n 50 13 |3H | XIV IL10 j
1 Ib. d " 38 10 | 3% XV, 1L10 )
3 16. T n 47 18 {384 XV, 11,10 f
Tee. « 53 | 14 3H] XV,15 | ILIO | 90
18. Bean Blossom, Ind 7 17 | 344) XV,l ILIO [
9. “ a e $ 4 XIV. 1 IL1 1 )
REI E E s 24 i| XIV, IL11 j
: [71 rm ec j 4 224 S4 XV, 16 ILI 1 5
eo " " 21 | 39%) XIV,16 | ILI
, t « T: 113 4$, XV,15 iLi! 1
Lo " us 3| 184 | 344) XIV,16 | 11,10 3
) « u t ie 82 214 5 XIV, TI,10 à
) € [1 &€ 21 x ,16 I111 E
r « [rr t L 18 8. XIV, ) ILI 3
a " 61 16 sl XV,16 | I10
“ ge a T , 44 11 |4 XIV,16 | IL11 | 85
je " " 42 1l |9f., XV,I6|ILIO | 86
“ te 5 47 13 |3% | XIIL16 | 1,10 | 85
xt Ys " 96 94 14 XV,15 | U,11 `
. “ 7 3 18 |4| XIV,I6 | 0,10 j
d me s 3 17 |4 ,16 | 11,10 bo
“ “ «€ 1 5 10 3 ; : * RE
ko « Hels ast edes eR a 33 9 3 i P a
. Rushyille, Ind ‘ SR | 92 |4 | XIV,I5 | 1,10 | 90
. Wild Cat Creek, Kokomo, Ind....... 10 34 14A XV 85

648 The American Naturalist. [August,

|

Ei
i" b |f p E
ED pv 3 =
Be Sart BE ^ g 4
LOCALITY. Peia |. LA - -EEE
$9 | we | t8 |g $ = 5
s@ | & 5 $ 5 8 [8
be | 4 n m A <q 2
&
:89. Pike Creek, Ind 2 |107 26 |4% | XIV,16 | IL11 | 89
4, € s S 2 | 102 2 4A XV.16 ILII | 91
41. Illinois 2 65 15 | 43 XV,14 | ILIO | 89
.42. Nipisink Lake, Ils 2 XV,15 | ILIO | 85
43. « T T d XIV,15 | IL11 | 85
44. Monongahela River, Pa..............-. 4 96 23 | 45 | XV,15 | ILIO | 85
45. Hartford, Ky. 4 | 76 | 19 |4 | XVLI4 | IL10 | 88
aM ai « 4 | 76 | 19 |4 | XV,15 | ILIO | 87
a o e a 4 | 76 | 19 |4 | XIV,16 | 1110 | 88
mO oo ed aa e 4 | 78 | 1931/4 | XV.16 | ILI1 | 90
49 dine River, Greensburg, Ky... 4 85 20 | 4:5 ,15 | ILIO | 89
nw 4 | 90 | 213 4 | XV,I6 | I.11 | 92
Duldo Wo (WES «oe, cr 4 | 77 | 17 \4y5| XV5 | ILI1 | 85
52. Little Farren River, Osceola, ete 4 92 23:74 XV,15 | IL11 | 89
3 4 69 LF 4 XV,14 | IL11 | 89
er Yt "ono uw 69 17 | 427 | XVL15 | IL11 | 89
` wd t 69 17 | 47, | XIV,16 | IL11 | 88
56. Little S. Fork Canbala River
e Co., Ky 7&8|10 | 2 4b | X Lll | 92
57. Eagle Creek, Olympus, Tenn......... 7&8, 82 21 |811 XVIL14 | I11 | 87
.58. OE M Du d sq eres 7&8| 614| 16 |3Hi | XV Lik } 92
59. Obey’s River, ‘“ MEC eases 7&8|. 77 18 | 4°; |XVII,14 | II1 | 89
ae = " Oh iiec 7&8, 86 4r | XV,14 | IL10 | 86
Lh ^ x s co 7&8| 55 13} | 444 | XVI,15 | IL12 | 89
e 44 4 s E 7&8| 66 314 | XVLI15 | 11,12 | 90
d oo n X ae, 7&8| 62 | 15 | 44 XVII, | ILI2 | 87
e á - I e x Um 7&8 VILI15 | IL11 | 90
a d t € ue 7&8 | 65 | 164 | 838] XV,17 | ILU | 90
Go" T x $6 enana 7&8, 53 4 |3M| XVI, 1,11 | 89
ern «4 “ t Br hassel 7&8| 54 13 XVILI5 | IL12 | 86
«A ^ * « = Wr dealt ebie 7&8 60 15 XVIL15 | 11,12 | 91
e o " n E Hide 7&8, 514| 12} | 4f, |X VII,14 | 11,12 | 85
3A Gee Am we u NE 7&8| 534 | 18 XVII,15 | IL12 | 89
Wit e v: ine eee 7&8, 574 | 1444 |XVII,15 | Il11
72. Watauga River, EE on
4 |122 27 XVI,16 | IL11 | 92
"78. 4 21 XV,16 | IL10 | 92
74. North Fork Holston River, Salt- :
ville, Va. 7&8, 474| 18 ggs XVI,15 | 11,12 | 92
75. Eureka EN Ark 4 |112 24 XVI,15
76. Chocola Creek, Oxford, Ala.......... 3 94 21 ait XVI,15 | I11 | 91
"TA ie e * = EE sesveeeee 3 97 18 |44&| XV,17 | 1112 | 78
1 Eis e = - T boss 8 89 21 |44| XVI,17 | IL11 | 83
a * yi M x 78 17 |419| XV,15 | ILI1 | 90
so. San Marcos Spring," Tere, eat O 2) | 444 | XIII,15 | IL11 | 85
A e [oA P dee 5 |102 | 24 5 | IL
" a i - jenni 3 7 |3
hk 83. “ « « Ws os = 3 30 8 34 |

1894.] Variation of North American Fishes. 649

Table II presents all the combinations of dorsal spines and
dorsal rays, and the number of specimens having the given
combination. (But 76 of the specimens have been examined
for this table.) The combinations are arranged in the numer-
ical order of the spines from the lowest number to the highest.
In the third column are given the per cents. of specimens hav-
ing each combination. XV,15 is seen to be the commonest
combination ; XIV, 16 the next, XV, 16 and XVI, 15 the next,’
and soon. The largest per cent. of any combination does not
exceed 21.052.

TABLE II.
HE M
r TE

DORSAL FINS.

BÉ A

A
XIII, 15 1 1.315
XIII, 1€ 1 1.315
XIV, 1: 2 2.631
AV, i 6 7.895
XIV, 12 15.789
XIV T 1 1.815
XV, 3 3.947
XV, 16 1.05
AV, 184i uode Bain. 11 14.47
XV, 2 2.631
AVL 14 I 1.315
XVI, 15 9 11.841
XVI, 16 1 1.315
LVL It 1 1.315
XVII,14 3 3.947
XVII, 15 6 7.894

In Table III are arranged the varieties in the number of
-dorsal spines, the number of specimens representing each vari-
_ation, and the per cent, of all the specimens for each variation.

The average number of spines is 155, while the number of
-spines predominating is 15.

650 The American Naturalist. [August,
TABLE III.
b d
| ge 83
DORSAL SPINES. E É : z
A à
|
. |
XIII 2 2.631
AIV 21
XV 32 42.11
XVI 12 15.789
XVII 9 11.841
Average number of spines...... 1575

In Table IV the same data are given for the dorsal rays.
The average number of rays is 155, about the same as the
spines. Fifteen is seen to be the number in about 50 per cent.
of all the specimens examined. While 42.11 per cent. have
fifteen dorsal spines, and 50.007 per cent. have fifteen dorsal

.. rays, only 21.05 per cent. have a combination of fifteen npe |

and fifteen rays.
TABLE IV.
sg =.
: | DoRSAL RAYS. ii 3 i
a ©
z [s
Et 9 11.841
ug ^15 i i 50.007
16 omes oe
Tsai DOE : efe 5.262.
Average number of ray... 1575 ;

pe T
da o

"he Vistas: in | ds anal fn are given in n Table Vv. The d
anal fins dele 76 —— i E a

PLATE XVIII.

| A 77
CQ CA

Etheostoma caprodes, Raf.

PLATE XIX.

I
|

TTI SS
UAM E E

Etheostoma caprodes, Raf.

PLATE XX.

Etheostoma rex, Jordan.

PLATE XXI.

Distribution of Etheostoma caprodes.

ee ae ee ee ee KI 4 n.

oes

1
:

1894.] Variation of North American Fishes. 651

TABLE V.

3 E : E é
pn] =|
ANAL FINS. 2 S F :
z un x [7]
; II, 10. 30 39.47
; Saree E Spe h t 36 47.37
: LL 48 eiie > 10 13.15 í
Average number of anal rays....| - 101$ ^

1n Table VI are given the variations in the number of scales
in the lateral line. The scales were counted on 79 de i ee
Eighty-five was the number fonnd ina number having the
lateral line incompletely developed. Eighty-five, ee.
eighty-nine and ninety were found jin about 60 per cent. of
the specimens examined. pM 2

TABLE VI

sesesessessereee "sao eerte

89 LETITI D sirais vee

652 The American Naturalist. [August,

Table VII indicates the number of specimens, the average
number of dorsal spines, and the number of specimens with
thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen and seventeen spines from
each of the localities from which specimens were examined.
The localities are arranged as they occur, from north to south.
It will be seen that the prevailing numbers occurring in the
more northern streams are fourteen and fifteen. As we go
farther south the usual number is fifteen and sixteen, and in
the most southern streams the numbers are fifteen, sixteen and
seventeen spines, the specimens from Texas are peculiarly poor
in the number of spines.

TABLE VII.
28 | 23 | ov] $9) 3S) 35
si | 54 [SLES | 83/2 | 25
cg agn cid a R SEL OE
- B oa H Sait ie
LOCALITY. 2$ FI. EE a3 EE FE E
LEBCSEHEHEHEHEE
Z < Z zZ Z * zZ
Torch Lake, Mich......... ................- 7 144 3| 4
Cadar Rapidi, T. coss isasce tenes daii] A 14 1
hoa River, at Indianapolis Nep 007 E 1 14 1
5 | 14 Il a4
San Blossom, Ind 17 BN B91 7
Rushville, 1 14 1
Wild Cat ot Ind 1 15 1
Pike Creek, 2 143 i11
Illinois 1 15 1
Nipisink Lak 2 144 PL
Monongahela Rives 1 15 1
4 5 1 2 1
Green River Greensburg, E —— pe 15 8
Barren River, Osceola, Ky......... 1 15 TL)
Little South Fork Ciebetland River,
Eagle e dedi y Ky 1 16 1 i
2 63 1
ay aie Lr loma, Tenn «oid Pete 13 o 2| 81 $
eer 2 15 1
North Pork Holsten n River, Saltville; Vero 16 1
1 16 1
Chest Cel, Oxf Oxford, Ala 4 15 21 3
San Marcos Springs, Nek. 2 isi II-1

T——ÉRR

NTC NE S RUNE NES EER NA

1894.] Variation of North American Fishes. 653

Table VIII contains the same data with regard to the dorsal
rays. In the last column is given the average number of dor-
sal spines and rays combined. The rays do not show the same
variation found in the dorsal spines, the number being the
same for localities north and south. ` The average number of
dorsal spines and rays combined consequently increases with
the dorsal spines.

TABLE VIII.
Sai (al Bul Bol de | ba | 55
ge (85) 8 | 28 | 28 ES) 33
SE | ag [e3|w3 93 [se ya] Se
RB of Teele Te? | et ret am
a 22 | #3 2422/22/22 (22) 2:
5% | Ss BB BH|BH|SH|SR| c8
zZ < Z4 zZ z z <
Torch Lake 7 15 14.5]. 1 294
Cedar Rapids, Ia 1 15 1 29
White River at Indianapolis......... 1 16 1 =
Bean eee Ind 17 1515 2|14| 1/30;
ille, Ind 1 15 i 29
Wild Cat bm Ind 1 16 1 31
In 2 16 2 30}
Illinoi 1 14 1 29
Nipisink Lake, Il 2 15 2 293
Monongahela River i| deer + 15 1 30
Hartford, y 4 | 15} Lire 3 30}
Green River T, ; Greensburg, Ky ee 3 154 21 1 804
Little Barren River, Osceola, Ky... 2 4 15 14 211 30
Little South Fork ee
rl a des RH uns 1 15 1 31
Eagle Creek, Ol a, Tenn.« n 2 14 Lido 31
Obeys Rives, «vage ttown, Tenn... 13 14:4 31:59 1| 31,
Watauga Riv 2 16 2 313
North hoe Tuki River, Sali
ille, 15 1 31
Eureka c ian Ark ea oe eei ta 1 15 i 31
Chocola Creek, ' Oxford, S. RREA 4 16 2 2 | 31}
` San Marcos Spring, 2 15 2

Table IX gives similar data on the anal fins. The spines
are not given since they were found to be two in all cases ex-
amined. In the anal rays we have, as in the dorsal spines, a
slight increase in their number from north to south. The —

654 The American Naturalist. [August,
most common number in the Indiana streams is ten, the num-
ber increasing to eleven and twelve in the most southern
specimens.
TABLE IX. :
, lapleplet
| 28/5/25) ES
35 | E8 |w8 s3|t*8
LOCALITY. ef | of | BEI BEI BE
E $8 |Zal2Za 2m
HENETMEHEHEE
A 4 aA ZAZA
Torch Lake 7-| 10i 8| 1
Cedar Rapids, Ia 1 12 1
dee River, at Indianapolis ] 10 I
, In Ə | 10 5
Bean Tiho, Ind 17 10,5; 8| 9 1
Rushville, Ind : 10 1 d
Wild Cat Creek, Ind 1] 1 7
Pike Creek, Ind * Hg 2 *
MARK E E A E diae eee deseo» scaususoesvysbevetiones! a ebd : 10 1 =
Nipisink Lake, I 2 I0. 1...
Monongahela Rives 0 tj
LC HAUS iia p e Med: e. 4 ld 3171
Green River, Greensburg, Ky 3 1 bius
Little Barren River, Osceola, Ky. B Liz 4
Little South Fork "Cumberland R,WayneCo,Ky.| 1 | dH 1
le lympus, 2 11 2
ade pi Elizabethtown, Tenn 13 115). 1). 8. 7
S xU 2 TAI
North Fork Holston River, Saltillo Mb ETE j 12 1
Ckocolk “reek, Orford Ala 4 114 24 41
San Marcos Springs, T 2 11 2

Synonymy, BIBLIOGRAPHY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ETHEOSTOMA
CAPRODES RAFINESQUE.

Scixna caprodes Rafinesque, “Amer. Month. Mag. 1818,
534."

Etheostoma caprodes Raf., “Ich. Oh., 1820, 88.” Kirtland,
Zool, Ohio, 1838, 168, 192; Bost. Jour, Nat. Hist., III, 346,
1841. (Ohio); Storer, “Synop. Fish. N. A., 1847, 270-272.”
Evermann, Bull. No. 2. Brookville Soc. Nat. Hist., 1886, 8.
(Little Cedar Cr., Ind.); Evermann & Bollman, Notes on Coll.

1894.] Variation of North American Fishes. 655

Fish. from Monongahela R., 1886; Jenkins, Proc. Terre Haute
Sci. Soc., 1886. (Streams of Vigo Co. Ind); Evermann &
Jenkins, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus, 1888, 51-57. (Tippecanoe R.,
Wabash R., Deer Cr., Little Deer Cr., Wild Cat Cr., Fourteen
Mile Cr., Clarke Co., Ind.); Meek, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XI,
1888, 440. (Maumee R., Defiance Co., O.); Jordan, Bull. U.
S. Fish Com., 1888, 147, 153, 159, 164, 167. (White R.,at
Spencer, Ind.); Mackey's Ferry, Posey Co., Ind; Wabash R.,
Vincennes, Ind.; Patoka R., at Patoka, Gibson Co., Ind.;
Black R., New Harmony, Ind.; Wabash R., at New
Harmony, Ind.; Eel River, Logansport, Ind.; Swan-
nanoa R., at Asheville, N. C.; Watauga Rs, Elizabethton,
Tenn. ; North Fork of Holston R., (near Glade Spr.,Va.); Boll-
man, Bull. U. S. Fish Com., 1888, 224. (Cognac and Torch
Lakes, Mich.; Spencer Cr, Calhoun Co. Mich.); Henshall,
Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist, 1888, 80. (Little Miami R., and
Ross L., O.); Meek, Bull. U. S. Fish Com., IX, 1889, 123, 128,
130,139. (Gasconade R., at Arlington, Mo.; Spadra Cr. at
Clarkesville, Ark.; James R., near Springfield, Mo.); Gilbert,
Bull. U. S. Fish Com., 1889, 151, 155. (Ala. R., Tenn. R.);
Jordan, Bull. U. S. Fish Com., 1889, 18. (Arkansas R., at

Wichita); Jordan, Man. Vert., 1890, 126. (Gr. Lakes to Va.,
` Ala. and Texas); Kirsch, Bull U. S. Fish Com., 1891, 260,
261, 262, 264, 265, 266, 268. (Southern Trib. Cumb. R. in
Tenn. and Ky.) ; McCormick, Lab. Bull. No. 2, Oberlin College,
O., 1892. (Waters of Loraine Co., O.); Evermann & Kendall,
Bull. U. S. Fish Com., 1894, 84, 88, 93, 113, pl. XXXV. (Long
L., near Magnolia Point; Nechec R., east of Palestine.)

Pileoma caprodes Agassiz, L. Superior, 1850, 308; Le Vail-
lant, * Recherches sur les Poissons, etc., 1873."

Percina caprodes Girard. * Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1859,
66 ;” Putnam, * Bull. M. C. Z.,1863,5;” Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci., Phila., 1865, 82; Cope, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci, Phila., 1869,
211; Jordan, Ind. Geol. Sur., 1874, 213; Man. Vert., 1876, 224;
Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Hist, 1876, 93; Jordan & Copeland,
Am. Nat., 1876, 337; Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Hist., 1876, 135;
Jordan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1877, 44, 58, 54. (Low:
Wabash R., White R.); Jordan, Ann. N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist, —

656 The American Naturalist. [August,

1877, 312, 373, 376. (Etowah, Oostanaula and Coosa Rivers,
Ga.; Rock Castle R., S. E. Ky.; White R., at Indianapolis);
Jordan, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 9, 1877, 15, 24. (Notes on
Nomenclature); Jordan, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 10, 1877, 15.
(Gr. Lake Region to Alabama); Jordan & Brayton, Bull. U.S.
Nat. Mus. No. 12, 1878, 45, 57, 73. (Ala. R., Tenn. R., Cumb.
R.); Jordan, Bull. 2 Ills. State Lab. Nat. Hist., 1878, 3. (Ver-
milion R., Calumet. R., Wabash R., Pine Cr., Mo); Jordan,
Geo. Surv. of Ohio, IV, 1878, 970. (Quebec to Georgia, Lake
Superior, and the Rio Grande); Jordan, Bull. U. S. Geo. Surv.,
1879, 438. (Gr. Lake Region to Ala.); Hay, Proc. U. S. Nat.
. Mus., III, 1880, 491. (Chickasawha R., Miss.) ; Bean, Proc. U.
S. Nat. Mus., IIT, 1880, 100. (Meadville, Penn., Racine, Wis.,
Columbus, O., Westport, N. Y., Poland, O., Yellow Cr. O.,
Madrid, N. Y., Ohio, Potomac R., Penn.); Cope, Report of
State Fish Com. Pa., 124. (Lake Erie and Allegheny R., east
to Lake Champlain); Hay, Bull. U. S. Fish Com., II, 1882, 60.
(Vicksburg and Jackson, Miss.); Jordan & Gilbert, Syn. Fish
North America, 499, 1883. (Gr. Lakes and streams of the
South and West); Forbes, Rept. Ills. State Fish Com., 1884, 65.
(L. Mich. to Cairo and Wabash Valley); Gilbert, Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus, VII, 1884, 204. (Salt Cr., near Bedford, Ind.) ;
Jordan, Ann. Rept. Com. Fish and Fisheries, 1884,79; Eigen-
mann & Fordice, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1885, 411. (Bean
Blossom Cr., Ind.); Jordan & Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., 1885, 68; Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1886,
5, 8, 13, 21. (White R., near Eureka Springs; Trib. of Ark.
R., near Ft. Smith; Washita R., at Arkadelphia, and Saline
R., at Benton, Ark.; Rio San Marcos, at San Marcos, Tex. ;
Colorado R., at Austin, Tex.); Gilbert, 3d Series of Notes on
Kansas Fish, ed. 1887, 207. (Inokomo Cr., Kans.)

Percina nebulosa Haldeman,“ Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila.,
VIII, 1842, 330 ;” Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1859,
66.

Perca nebulosa DeKay, “ Fishes of N. Y., 1842, 7.”

Etheostoma nebulosa Storer, * Synop. Fish N. A., 1847, 270-
272.

————

1894.] Variation of North American Fishes. 657

Pileoma semifasciatum DeKay, N. Y. Fauna Fish., 1842, pl.
50, 162; Günther, I, 76,1859. (Lake Erie and Ohio.)

Etheostoma semifasciata Storer, “Synop. Fish N. A., 1847,
270-272.”

Percina semifasciata Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci, Phila.,
1859, 66; Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci, Phila.. 1860, 20.

Pileoma carbonaria Baird & Girard, “ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.,
Phila.,” 1853, 387 ; Girard, U. S. and Mex. Bound. Surv, 10,
1859, pl. VIII, fig. 10-13. Rio Salado, Rio Medina, San Ped-
ro Cr. Tex.); Günther, I, 76, 1859. (Rio Salado, Tex.)

Percina carbonaria Girard, * Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci, Phila.,
1859, 67 ;" Jordan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1877, 54. (Ala-
bama R.); Jordan, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 10, 1878, 15.
(Texas); Jordan, Ann. N. Y. Lyc. Nat. Hist., 1878, XI, 312,
(Alabama R.); Jordan, Bull U. S. Geo. Surv., 1879, 438.
(Texas).

Percina caprodes carbonaria Cope, Bull. 17, U. S. Nat. Mus.,
1880,31. (Trinity R., near Dallas, and Llano R., Kimble
Co., Tex.)

Percina bimaculata Haldeman, “ Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.,
1843, 157.”
Etheostoma bimaculata Storer, * Synop. Fish N. A., 270-272,
1847.”

Pileoma zebra Agassiz, Lake Superior, 308, pl. 4, fig. 4, 1850.
(Lake Superior.)

Percina zebra Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1859, 66.
(Lake Superior); Jordan Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 10, 1877, 15.
(Gr. Lake Region.)

Asproperca zebra Heckel.

Percina caprodes zebra Jordan, Ann. Rept. Com. Fish and
Fisheries, 1884, 79.

Percina manitou Jordan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1877,
53. (Lake Manitou in N. Indiana); Jordan, Bull. U. S. Nat.
Mus. No. 10, 1877, 15. (Indiana to Minnesota) ; Jordan, Bull.

9 Ills. State Lab. Nat. Hist., 1878, 3. (L. Manitou, Ind, Wis); _

Jordan, Bull. U. S. Geo. Surv., 1879, 438. (Indiana to Minne- oe

658 The American Naturalist. — [August,

sota); Jordan, Geo. Surv. of Ohio, IV, 1878, 971. (Lakes of
N. Ind., Mich. and Wis.)

Percina caprodes manitou Jordar? & Gilbert, Syn. Fish. N.
Am., 500, 1888. (Potomac R., Ills., Wis.) ; Jordan, Man.Vert.,
1890, 126. (E. and N. U. S.)

To illustrate the distribution, the localities contained in the
works quoted in the bibliography have been marked in the
aceompanying map.

The localities from which I examined specimens have
been marked 4. The areas inhabited by the various color
patterns, as determined by my specimens, and by reports
containing sufficiently minute descriptions, are indicated on
the map by broken lines. The patterns distributed in each
area is indicated by the number of the figure in the plates
representing the pattern. In some cases it could not be deter-
mined which pattern occurred at the locality. There are some
localities on the map, therefore, that are not included in any
of the marked areas.

In conclusion, it may be observed:

1. The variation between specimens of the same locality is
very slight.

2. The most complicated color pattern can be connected
with the simplest by a series of intermediate stages.

3. The variation in color pattern cannot be connected with
the latitude inhabited by the different varieties. The color
variation is determined, but not in a direct line north and
south. |

4. The simplest color pattern of the body, found only in im-
mature specimens, consists of nine transverse bars. ,

5. The simplest color pattern of adults consists of the nine
bars seen in the young plus half bars between each two of the
primary bars.

6. The next complieation arises by the addition of quarter
bars. These bars are first introduced in the region between
the two dorsals, from which region variation seems to radiate.

7. Another complication may be the splitting of the bars
into reticulations on the back and Rr intensification into

BC larger spots along the sides.

1894.] Variation of North American Fishes. 659

8. Another modification is brought about by the shifting of
the the lower half of the whole bars backward, which thus be-
come separated from the dorsal halves. In this, the northern-
most variety, the nape is naked.

9. In the simplest pattern, the two sides are usually sym-
metrical. If unsymmetrical, the asymmetry is introduced in
the region of the spinous dorsal fin by a shifting forward or
backward of the bars of one side in this region.

10. In the more complicated patterns the asymmetry has
become the rule, and has spread along the region of both
dorsals.

11. The variation in the combination of dorsal spines and
rays is promiscuous.

12. The variation in the number of dorsal rays is promis-
cuous. :

18. The variation in the number of dorsal spines is deter-
minate. The southern specimens having a larger number of
spines. Exception: the specimens from San Marcos Spring,
Texas.

14. The variation in the number of anal rays is also deter-
minate. As in the case of the dorsal spines, the number varies
with the latitude, the southern specimens having a slightly
larger number of rays.

EXPLANATION or PLATES.

Fig. 1. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, 33 mm., Chocola Cr.
Oxford, Ala.

Fig. 2. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, 83 mm., Bean Blos-
som, Ind. :

Fig.3. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, S8 mm., Chocola Cr.,
Oxford, Ala.

Fig. 4. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, 102 mm., Green R.,
Greensburg, Ky.

Fig. 5. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, 115 mm., San Marcos, —— 7 r

Spr., Tex.

660 = The American Naturalist. [August,.

Fig. 6. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, 88 mm., Torch Lake,
Mich.

Fig. 7. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, 86 mm., Obeys R.,
Elizabethtown, Tenn.

Fig. 8. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, 115 mm., Lit. S. Fork
Cumberland R., Wayne Co., Ky.

Fig. 9. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, 60 mm., Gosport, Ind.

Fig. 10. Etheostoma caprodes Rafinesque, 85 mm., Obeys R.,
Elizabethtown, Tenn.

ig. 11. Etheostoma rex Jordan.

ExPLANATION or Mar.

2. Pattern 2.
d " 3
4. x 4.
b. se 5.
6. A 6

1. Etheostoma rex Jordan.

I

1894.] Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism. 661

NEO-LAMARCKISM AND NEO-DARWINISM.
By L. H; BAILEY:

It is difficult to accept the hypothesis of organic evolution
in the abstract. In the first place, there must be some reason
for the operation of a law of transformation or development ;
and this is found in the ever-changing physical or external
conditions of existente, which are more or less opposed to
established organisms. And it may also be said that the very
fact of the increase of organisms through multiplication must
impose new conditions of competition upon every succeeding
generation. Again, it is necessary to conceive of some means
or machinery by which the process of evolution is carried
forward. It was long known that all species vary, that is, that
no two individuals in nature are exactly alike; yet there was
lacking any hypothesis to show either why these varieties ap-
pear or how it is that some become permanent and some do
not. The first scientific explanation of the process of evolu-
tion was that made in 1809 by the now famous Lamarck. He
saw two factors which, he thought, were concerned in the trans-
formation of species—the habitat and the habit. The habitat
is the condition in which the organism lives, the environment.
This environment, subject to change with every new indi-
vidual, calls for new habits to adapt the organism to the new
needs—inducing greater exercise of some powers or organs
and less exercise of others. "This greater or less use gradually
strengthens or enfeebles the organ concerned, and the modifi-
cations thus acquired are preserved “through heredity to the
new individuals that are produced by them, provided the
chauges are common to the two sexes, or to those that have
produced these new individuals." "There are three things to
be considered in this hypothesis: 1. Changes in environment
or the conditions of life react upon organisms in the direction -
of their needs or functions. 2. Organs or powers thus affected
are modified to satisfy the new demands. 3. The modifications

! Extract from an address before the Philosophical Club of Cornell University. Ty

662 The American Naturalist. [August,

acquired by the individual are hereditary. This, then, is La-
marckism—that the controlling factor or process in evolution
is functional, and that acquired characters are readily trans-
missible. It is important that I still repeat Lamarck’s belief
in the transmission of a character obtained by any individual
during its own lifetime, for this is the starting point of the
definition of an “ acquired character” concerning the heredi-
tability of which the scientific world is now rent. “All that
nature has caused individuals to acquire or lose through the
influence of the circumstances to which their race has been
fora long time exposed," says Lamarck, * it preserves," etc.
And again, “ Every change acquired in an organ by a ħabi-
tual exercise sufficient to have brought it about, is preserved
thereafter through heredity,” etc. We shall presently observe
how far this definition of an acquired character has been main-
tained by recent philosophers.

Just fifty years after the publication of Lamarck's theory,
Darwin proposed a hypothesis which has had a greater influ-
ence upon the habit of scientific thought than any enunciation
since the promulgation of inductive philosophy. Darwin, like
Lamarck, saw that all forms of life vary; and like him, too,
he perceived that there must be a fierce struggle for place or
existence amongst the individuals of the rapidly succeeding
generations. This variation and struggle are particularly
apparent in cultivated plants; and Darwin saw that the gar-
dener selects the best, and thereby “improves” the breed. “Can
it, then, be thought improbable,” says Darwin, “seeing that
variations useful to man have undoubtedly occurred, that
other variations useful in some way to each being in the great
and complex battle of life, should occur in the course of many
successive generations? Ifsuch do occur, can we doubt (remem-
bering that many more individuals are born than can possibly
survive) that individuals having any advantage, however slight,
over others, would have the best chance of surviving and of pro-
creating their kind?" “This preservation of favorable indi-
vidual differences and variations, and the destruction of those
which are injurious, I have called Natural Selection, or the
Survival of the Fittest.” This, then, is Darwinism—that the

1894.] Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism. 663

controlling factor or process in evolution is selective: the sur-
vival, in the struggle for existence, of those individuals which
are best fitted to survive. But while this is the naked core of
Darwinism, there are various correlative or incidental hypoth-
eses attached to it. Darwin, for instance, accepted in some de-
gree the views of Lamarck as to the importance of functional
characters; he considered that sexual selection, or the choice ex-
ercised in securing mates, is often an important factor in modi-
fying species; he thought that variation is induced by the
modifications of environment, or the “changed conditions of
life ;” and he was a firm believer in the hereditability of ac-
quired characters. It is round these two great hypotheses—
the functional or Lamarckian on the ohe hand, and the select-
ive or Darwinian upon the other—in various forms and modi-
fications, that the discussions of the philosophy of organic
nature are at present revolving.

Before leaving the subject of Darwinism, I wish to touch
upon Darwin’s view of the cause of variation and his belief in
the transmission of acquired characters. We shall presently
see that the rehabilitation of the theories of Lamarck, under
the name of Neo-Lamarckism, is undertaken, very largely, for
the purpose of assigning the origin of variations to external .
causes, or to the environment, in opposition to those who con-
sider the source of variation to be essentially innate or at least
internal. But Darwin also believed that variation is induced
by the environment, and the chief factor in this environment,
so far as its reaction upon the organism is concerned, is prob-
ably excess of food supply, although climate, and other im- .
pinging circumstances, are potent causes of modification. He
marshalled arguments to support “the view that variations of
all kinds and degrees are directly or indirectly caused by the
conditions of life to which each being, and more especially its
ancestors, have been exposed,” and that “ each separate varia-
tion has its own proper exciting cause.” I do not understand
how it has come about that various writers declare that Dar-
win did not believe explicitly in the external cause of variation,

and that they feel obliged to go back to Lamarck in order to — vd

find a hypothesis for the occasion. It is true that Darwin be- - =

664 The American Naturalist. [August,

lieved that the nature or direction or particular kind of varia-
tion in a given case, is determined very largely by the consti-
tution of the organism, but variation itself, that is, variability,
proceeds largely from external causes; and the characters
arising in the lifetime of an individual may become hereditary.
I must hasten to explain, however, that Darwin clearly recog-
nized the importance of the union of sexes, or crossing, as a
cause of variation.

While Darwin believed that the effects of variability arise
“ generally from changed conditions acting during successive
generations," he nevertheless believed that the first increment
of change—that arising in the first individual of a given
series—might be directly carried over to the first offspring.
That is, he believed in the hereditability of acquired or new
external characters, a fact which is emphasized by his convic-
tion that certain mutilations, and even the effects of use and
disuse, may be transmitted. Yet, whilst Darwin accepted the
doctrine, he believed it much less thoroughly than Lamarck
did, and it is but an incidental part of his philosophy, while
it is an essential tenet of Lamarckism.

Thus far, the heriditability of all important characters had
not been disputed. In other words, heredity as a general law
or foree in the organie world, had been assumed. But with
the refinement of the discussions it became necessary to con-
ceive of some definite means through which the transmission
of particular characters or features should operate; and it was
soon found, also, that no philosophy of evolution can expect
to explain the phenomena of organic life unless it is connected
and co-ordinated with some hypothesis of the method of her-
edity. While, therefore,-a hypothesis of heredity need not
necessarily be associated with the abstract theory of evolution,
all such hypotheses which are now before the scientific world
have for their particular object the explanation of the assumed
progressive tendency of the forms of life.

It is incomprehensible that the minute fertilized ovum or
ovule should reconstruet the essential characters of the two
individuals from which it proceeds, unless it has in some way
derived distinct impressions from every part and organ of the

TET

1894.] Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism. 665

parental bodies which it reproduces. It would seem as if it
must of itself be an epitome or condensation of its parents,
with the power of unfolding its impressions or attributes dur-
ing the whole life course of the organism to which it gives
rise. Several hypotheses have been announced to account for
the phenomena of heredity, of which, one of the most im-
portant is still Darwin’s theory of pangenesis. Darwin sup-
posed, provisionally, that besides the ordinary multiplication
of the cell, each cell may “throw off minute granules which
are dispersed throughout the whole system; that these, when
supplied with proper nutriment, multiply by self-division, and

are ultimately developed into units like those from which they

were originally derived." These granules, or gemmules, have
a natural affinity for each other, and they collect themselves
* from all parts of the system” to form the sexual materials or
elements. 'These sexual elements, therefore, which unite to
form the new individual, are an epitomized compound of the
parents. The value of this hypothesis, it seems to me, lies not
so much in the particular constitution and behavior of these
gemmules, as in the fact that it attempts to account for the
known phenomena of life by supposing each corporeal element
to be represented in the sexual elements. The hypothesis has
never gained wide support, because of the supposed physical
improbability of the gemmules and of their concentration in
sexual system ; yet it should be said that a simpler one, which
can account for the facts, has not yet been advanced, unless it
be the bathmic hypothesis of Cope, which supposes that each
body-cell transmits “a mode of motion” to the germ-cell.

For the present purpose, we need consider but one other

hypothesis of heredity—that advanced in 1883 by Weismann,

which has given rise to the philosophy now called Neo-Dar-
winism. Weismann’s point of view is interesting and unique.
He places himself at the threshold of organic life and contem-
plates what takes place in the reproduction of one-celled organ-
isms. These organisms multiply largely by simple division,
or fission. When the organism reaches a certain size, it be-
comes constricted near its middle, and finally parts into two — —
cells or organisms. It is evident that one organism is twin ——

666 The American Naturalist. . [August,

of the other, neither is older, neither is parent, but each
has partaken of the common stock of protoplasm. The pro-
toplasm again multiplies itself in the two organisms, and at
length it is again divided; and so, to the end of time, the re-
motest individual of the series may be said to contain a por-
tion of the original protoplasm ; in other words, the protoplasm
is continuous. And inasmuch as protoplasm is the seat or
physical basis of life, it may be said that the one-celled
organism is immortal, or is not confronted by natural
death.

In time, however, there came a division of labor—cells liv-
ing together in colonies, and certain cells performing one
function and certain other cells other functions. This was,
perhaps, the beginning of the many-celled organism, in which
certain cells developed the specific function of reproduction,
or eventually became elements of sex. As organisms became
more complex in their structure, there came to be great differ-
ences between this reproductive or germ portion and the sür-
rounding or body portion; and Weismann assumes that these
two elements are different and distinct from each other in
kind, and that inasmuch as the one-celled organisms propa-
gated their exact kind by simple division, that therefore the
reproduetive elements of the many-celled or complex body
must continue to perpetuate their kind or enjoy immortality,
while all the surrounding or body cells die and are reproduced
only through the reconstructive power of the sexual elements.
There are, then, according to this hypothesis, two elements or
plasms in every organized being, the germ-plasm and the
soma-plasm or body-plasm ; and every organism which pro-
creates thereby preserves its germ-plasm to future generations,
while death destroys the remainder. A vital point in this
hypothesis is the method by which the soma-plasm, or the
organs and body of the organism, can be so impressed upon
the germ that they shall become hereditary. At first it would
seem as if some assumption like that of Darwin's might be
useful here—that this germ-plasm is impressed by particles
thrown off from all the surrounding or soma-cells; but this
Weismann considers to be too unwieldy, and he ascribes the

1894.] Neo-Lamarckism and Neo- Darwinism. 667

transfer of these characters through the medium of the germ-
plasm to “variations in its molecular constitution." In other
words, there can be no heredity of a character which originates
at the periphery of the individual, because there is no means
of transferring its likeness to the germ. All modification of
the offspring is predetermined in the germ-plasm ; and if the
new organism becomes modified through contact with external
agencies, such modification is lost with the death of the indi-
vidual. “Characters only acquired by the operation of exter-
nal circumstances acting during the life of the individual,
cannot be transmitted.” “All the characters ee bites by the
offspring are due to primary changes in the germ.” It is ad-
mitted that the continued effect of impinging environment
may, now and then, finally reach the germ-plasm, but not in
the first generation in which such extraneous influence may
be exercised. In other words, acquired characters cannot be
hereditary.

It would seem as if this hypothesis precluded the possibility
of evolution or the continued modification of species, inasmuch
as it does not accept the modifications arising directly from ex-
ternal sources. But Weismann supposes that variation origi-
nates—or at least all variation which is of permanent use to
the species—from a union of the sexes, inasmuch as the unlike
germ-plasms of two individuals unite; and from the variations
thus induced are derived the materials upon which natural
selection works in the struggle for existence. “I am entirely
convinced," Weismann writes, “that the higher development
of the organic world was only rendered possible by the intro-
duction of sexual reproduction.” “Sexual reproduction has
arisen by and for natural selection, as the only means by which
the individual variations can be united and combined in every
possible proportion.”

It will be seen that Weismann is a Darwinian—a believer
in natural selection as the one controlling process of evolution;
but, unlike Darwin, he refers variation to sex and declares that
any new or acquired character originating in the body of the -
organism cannot be transmitted. The exact means or machi- ——
nery oe which he supposes Eee to act, is rather RU

44 8s

668 The American Naturalist. | [August,

more an embryological matter than a philosophical one. We
are particularly concerned in its results, which are the distin-
guishing marks of Neo-Darwinism—that variation is of sexual
or internal origin, and that acquired characters are not her-
editary.

In opposition to this body of belief, which has been upheld,
` particularly in England, with much aggressiveness, is Neo-
Lamarckism, which is a compound of both Lamarckism and
Darwinism, and which has an especially strong following in
North America. The particular canons of this philosophy are
the belief that external causes, or the environment, are directly
responsible for much variation and that acquired characters
are often hereditary. Other features of it, held in varying
degrees by different persons, are the belief in the transforming
effects of use and disuse, and in natural selection.

The one great schism between the Neo-Darwinians and the
Neo-Lamarckians is the controversy over the hereditability of
acquired characters, and just at present this question has come
so strongly to the fore that other differences in the two hypothe-
ses have been obseured. Itis worthy of remark that Darwinism
or Neo-Lamarckism sees first the facts or phenomena and then
tries to explain them; while Neo-Darwinism or Weismannism
assumes first a hypothesis and then tries to prove it. Ithink
that any one will be struck with this difference of attitude, if
he read Darwin's ehapter upon pangenesis, and then read
Weismann's essay upon heredity. The Neo-Darwinians areloud
in demand of facts or proof that aequired characters are her-
editary, and they attempt to throw the burden of proof upon
their opponents; while, at the same time, they give no proofs
of their own position, and confound their adversaries with
verbal subtleties. The burden of proof, however, lies clearly
upon the Neo-Darwinians, inasmuch as they have assumed to
deny phenomena which were theretofore considered to be estab-
lished.

A voluminous issue of polemics has occurred during the last
five or six years between the Neo-Darwinians and the Neo-
Lamarckians; but whatever may have been its effects upon
the older philosophy, it is clear, to my mind, that some of the

UN Ee ee ee a ae

1894.] Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism. 669

attacks upon Neo-Darwinism are unanswerable in any rational
manner, and it is certain that they have forced Weismann into
a change of position with reference to some of his definitions.
Certain phases of this discussion appeal with particular force,
of course, to some minds, while they exert little influence upon
others. My own objections to Neo-Darwinism—and I admit
that my bias is strong against it—seem to be somewhat differ-
ent from those most commonly urged in opposition to it; and
the three which chiefly influence me I shall present very
briefly.

1. I cannot see that the non-transmissibility of acquired
characters is a necessary assumption to Weismann’s funda-
mental arguments. I have already explained his reasoning
from the reproduction of the one-celled organism. I cannot
attempt any opinion of the probable facts upon which the hy-
pothesis is founded. It may be said, in passing, that one of
the prominent objections to the fundamental basis of the the-
ory is the difficulty of deriving the mortal soma-plasm from
the immortal germ-plasm, a question to which, however, Weis-
mann has made a somewhat full reply.

When organisms became complex, it was necessary to assume
either that the soma-plasm does or does not directly influence
the germ-plasm. Weismann discarded the various hypotheses
which suppose that there is a vital and necessary connection be-
tween the body units and reproductive units, and then to avoid
the difficulties which the hereditability of acquired characters
would entail, he supposed that such characters are not heredi-
tary. His subsequent labors have been largely employed in
trying to show that they are not. This supposition was made
for the purpose of simplifying the hypothesis by removing the
cumbrous gemmules of Darwin and the similar bodies or move-
ments of other philosophers, and therefore by localizing the
seat of the germ-plasm. But he immediately encounters diffi-
culties quite as great as those which he avoids. In cases where
there are alternate generations of asexual and sexual organ-
isms, he must suppose that the germ-plasm is united with the
soma-plasm, and is probably, therefore, distributed throughout
the body. “There may be in fact cases,” Weismann writes,

DOM ae

670 The American Ni aturalist. [August,

“in which such separation [of the germ-plasm from the soma-
plasm] does not take place until after the animal is completely
formed, and others, as I believe that I have shown, in which
it first arises one or two generations later, viz.,in the buds
produced by the parent.” And he has been compelled to ad-
mit that in the case of begonias, which are propagated by
leaves, the germ-plasm is probably distributed throughout the
foliage; and he must make a similar admission for all plants,
for they can all be propagated and modified through asexual
parts. This is admitting, then, that there is no localized germ-
plasm in the vegetable kingdom and in some instances in the
animal kingdom; and if the germ-plasm is distributed to the
very periphery of the organism, why may it not be directly
affected by environment, the same as the soma-plasm is? Or
why is the hypothesis any the less objectionable than Darwin’s
pangenesis, which supposes that every organic unit can com-
municate with the germ ?

Weismann also supposes, as I have said, that the means by
which the germ-plasm is able to reconstruct the soma-plasm
in the offspring, is through some modification in its “ molecu-
lar constitution,” an assumption which was by no means novel
when Weismann announced it. “The exact manner in which
we imagine the subsequent differentiation of the colony to be
potentially present in the reproductive cell," he writes, “ be-
comes a matter of comparatively small importance. It may
consist in a different molecular arrangement, or in some change
of chemical constitution, or it may be due to both these causes
combined.” In whatever manner the germ-plasm receives its
somatic influences, there must be a direct connection between
the two, and it is quite as easy to assume the existence of gem-
mules as any less tangible influence. I am not arguing in
favor of pangenesis, but only stating what seems to me to be
a valid objection to the fundamental constitution of the Weis-
mannian|hypothesis—that it is quite as easy to assume, from
the argument, one interpretation of the process or means of
heredity as another. And if there is any vital connection
whatever between the soma-plasm and the germ-plasm—as the

1894,] Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism. 671

hypothesis itself must admit—then why cannot the soma-plasm
directly influence the germ-plasm ?

Again, I wish to point out that modification and evolution
of vegetable species may and does proceed wholly without the
interposition of sex—that is, by propagations through cuttings
or layers of various parts. This proves either one of two
things—that the germ-plasm is not necessary to the species, or
else that it is not localized but distributed throughout the en-
tire body of the individual, as I have shown above; and either
horn of this dilemma is fatal, it seems to me, to Weismannism.
If the germ-plasm is not necessary to this reproduction, then
we must discard the hypothesis of the continuity of the germ-
plasm ; if the germ-plasm is distributed throughout the plant,
then we are obliged to admit that it is not localized in germ-
cells beyond the reach of direct external influences.

This sexual propagation of plants has been brought to Weis-
mann’s attention by Strasburger, who cited the instance of the
leaf-propagation of begonia, and said that plants thus asexually
multiplied afterwards produce flowers and seeds, or develop
germ- plasm. Weismann meets the objection by supposing
that it is possible for “all somatic nuclei to contain a minute
fraction of unchanged germ-plasm,” but he considers the be-
gonia, apparently, to be an exception to most other plants, in-
asmuch as he declares that “no one has ever grown a tree
from the leaf of the lime or oak, or a flowering plant from the
leaf of the tulip or convolvulus.” Henslow meets this latter
statement by saying that this has not been accomplished sim-
ply because “it has never been worth while to do it. If, how-
ever, a premium were offered for tulips or oak-trees raised
from leaf-cuttings, plenty would soon be forthcoming.” What
Weismann wishes to show is that the begonia is an exception
to other plants in allowing of propagation from leaf-cuttings,
although he should have known that hundreds of plants can
be multiplied in this way, and that—what amounts to the same
thing—all plants can be propagated by asexual parts, as stems -
or roots.

But there is another aspect to this asexual multiplication of
plants which I do not remember to hayi seen stated i n this

672 The American Naturalist. [August,

connection. It has been said that the asexually multiplied
plants may afterwards produce flowers and resume the normal
method of reproduction and variation. I now wish to add-
what I have already said, that plants may be continuously
multiplied asexually and yet the offspring may vary, and the
variations may be transmitted from generation to generation,
quite as perfectly as if seed production intervened. This has
been true with certain plants through a long period of time,
as the banana, and every intelligent gardener knows that
plants propagated by cuttings often “sport” or vary. Here
are cases, then, in which variation does not originate from sex,
unless Weismann is willing to concede that the result of pre-
vious sexual union has remained latent through any number
of generations and has been carried to all parts of the plant
by a generally diffused germ-plasm ; and if this is admitted,
then I must again insist that this germ-plasm must be just
as amenable to external influences as the soma-plasm with
which it is indissolubly associated. I have repeated this argu-
ment in order to introduce the subject of “ bud variations,”
or those “sports” which now and then appear upon certain
limbs or parts of plants and which are nearly always readily
propagated by cuttings. These variations cannot be attributed
to sex,in the ordinary and legitimate application of the Weis-
mannian hypothesis. Whilst these “sports” are well known
to horticulturists, they are generally considered to be rare,
but nothing can be farther from the truth. As a matter of
fact, every branch of a tree is different from every other
branch, and when the difference is sufficient to attract atten-
tion, or to have commercial value, it is propagated and called
a “sport.” This leads me to recall the old discussion of the
phytomer, or the hypothesis that every node and internode of
a tree—and we might add the roots—is in reality a distinct
individual, inasmuch as it possesses the power of leading an
independent existence when severed from the plant, and of
reproducing its kind. However this may be as a matter of
of speculation, it is certainly true as regards the phenome-
non, and shows conclusively that if the germ-plasm exists at.
all, it exists throughout the entire structure of the plant.

1894.] Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism. 673

This conclusion is also unavoidable from another consider-
ation—the fact that plants are asexual organisms at all times
previous to flowering, and the germ-plasm must be preserved,
in the meantime, along with the soma-plasm. But this con-
clusion is inconsistent with Weismannism as taught at present,
and this alone would lead me to discard the hypothesis for
plants, however well it may apply to the animal kingdom.

Henslow has made a different argument to show that the
germ-plasm of plants may be directly exposed to external
influence (Origin of Floral Structures). The germ-plasm is
assumably located in the flower, and the egg-cell of the em-
bryo-sac and the sperm-cell of the pollen grain are close to
the surface, and are directly impressed by the interference of
bees and other external stimuli. Henslow endeavors to show
“that the infinite variety of adaptations to insects discoverable
in flowers may have resulted through the direct action of the
insects themselves, coupled with the responsive power of proto-
plasm.” And these characters must be in part acquired dur-
ing the lifetime of a given individual.

2. It seems to me, also, that the presumption, upon general
_ philosophical grounds, is against the doctrine that immediate
external influences are without permanent effect. If we ad-
mit—as all philosophers now do—that species are mutable,
and that the forms of life have been shaped with reference to
their adaptations to environment, then we are justified in assum-
ing that every change in that environment must awaken some
vital response in the species. If this response does not follow,
then environment is without influence upon the organism ; or
if it follows and is then not transmitted, it is lost just the same,
and environment is impotent. And it does not matter if we
assume, with the Neo-Darwinians, that this effect does not be-
come hereditary until the germ is affected—that is, until two
or more generations have lived under the impinging environ-
ment—it must nevertheless follow that the change must have
had a definite beginning in the lifetime of an individual; for
it is impossible to conceive that a change has its origin in two
generations. In other words, the beginning is singular; two
generations is plural And whether the modification is di- -

674 The American Naturalist. [August,

rectly visible in the body of the organism or is an intangible
force impressed upon the germ, it is nevertheless an environ-
mental character, and was at first acquired. If this is not
true—that the changed conditions of life exert a direct effect
upon the phylogeny of the species—then no variation is pos-
. sible save that which comes from the recompounding of the
original or ancestral sex-elements; and it would still be a
question how these sex-elements acquired their initial diver-
gence.

The Neo-Darwinians would undoubtedly meet this argu-
ment by saying that their hypothesis fully admits the import-
ance of these external influences, the only reservation being
that they shall have affected the germ. It is true that this is
a common means of escape; but it cannot be gainsaid that
the denial of the influence of the external or environmental
forces is really the fundamental difference between them and
the Darwinians or Neo-Lamarckians, as the following quota-
tion from, Weismann will show: “Our object is to decide
whether changes in the soma (the body, as opposed to the
germ-cells) which have been produced by the direct action of
external influences, including use and disuse, can be trans-
mitted; whether they can influence the germ-cells in such a `
manner that the latter will cause the spontaneous appearance
of corresponding changes in the next generation. This is the
question which demands an answer; and, as has been shown
above, such an answer would decide whether the Lamarckian
principles of transformation must be retained or abandoned."

If, then, to repeat, organisms are adapted to their environ-
ment, it must be equally true that this environment directly
affects its inhabitants; and considering the intense struggle
for existence under which all organisms live, it is highly prob-
able that any advantageous variation can be seized upon at
once. I cannot conceive that nature allows herself to lose the
result of any effort.

9. My third conviction against Neo-Darwinism arises from
the fact that its advocates are constantly explaining away the
arguments of their opponents by verbal mystifications and in-
genious definitions. This charge is so frequently made, and

1894.] Neo-Lamarckism and .Neo- Darwinism. 675

the fact is so well known, that it seems almost useless to refer
to it here; and yet there are some phases of it upon which I
cannot forbear to touch.

Weismann declares that he uses the term “ acquired charac-
ter” in its original sense. This term, or at least the idea, was
first employed, as we have seen, by Lamarck, who used it or
an equivalent phrase to designate “every change acquired in
an organ by a habitual exercise sufficient to have brought it
about.” In fact, the basis of Lamarck’s philosophy is the as-
sumption of the hereditability of characters arising directly
from use or disuse; and his idea of an acquired character is,
therefore, one which appears in the lifetime of the individual
from some externally inciting cause. Darwin’s notion, while
less clearly defined, was essentially the same, and he collected
a mass of evidence to show that such characters are transmis-
sible; and he even went farther than Lamarck, and attempted
to show that mutilations may be hereditary. Weismann’s
early definition of acquired characters is plain enough. Such
characters, that is, the somatogenic, “not only include.the
effects of mutilation, but the changes which follow from in-
creased or diminished performance of function, and those

" which are directly due to nutrition and any of the other exter-

nal influences which act upon the body.” Standing fairly and
squarely upon this definition, it is easy enough to’ disprove it
—that is, to show that some characters thus aequired are her-
editary. But the moment proofs are advanced, the definition
is contracted, and the Neo-Darwinians declare that the given
character was potentially present in the germ and was not
primarily superinduced by the external conditions—a position
which, while it allows of no proof, can neither be overthrown.

‘A cow lost her left horn by suppuration, and two of her calves

had rudimentary left horns; but Weismann immediately says,
“The loss of a cow’s horn may have arisen from a congenital
malformation.” Certainly! and it may not; and the presump-

tion is that it did not. A soldier loses his left eye by inflam- -

mation, and two of his sons have defective left eyes. Now,

“the soldier,” says Weismann, “did not lose his left eye be- RC D
cause it was injured, but because it was predisposed to become. Le

^

676 The American Naturalist. [August,.

diseased from the beginning, and readily became inflamed
after a slight injury”! This gratuitous manner of explaining
away the recorded instances of the supposed transmission of
mutilations and the like, is common with the Neo-Darwinians,
but it must always create the impression, it seems to me, of be-
ing labored and far-fetched ; and inasmuch as it is incapable
of proof, and is of no occasion beyond the mere point of up-
holding an assumed hypothesis, it is scarcely worthy serious
attention. It would be far better for the Neo-Darwinians if
they would flatly refuse to accept the statements concerning
the transmission of mutilations, rather than to attempt any
mere captious explanation of them ; for it is yet very doubtful
if the recorded instances of such transmissions will stand care-
ful investigation.

But perhaps the most remarkable example of this species of
Neo-Darwinian logic is produced by Weismann when he is
hard pressed by Hoffmann, who supposed that he had proved
the hereditability of certain acquired characters in poppies..
Weismann says: “Since the characters of which Hoffmann
speaks are hereditary, the term cannot be rightly applied to
them ;” thus showing that his fundamental conception of an
acquired character is one which cannot be transmitted! He
then proceeds to elaborate this definition as follows: “ I have
never doubted about the transmission of changes which depend
upon an alteration inthe germ-plasm of the reproductive cells,
for I have always asserted that these changes, and these alone,
must be transmitted.” Then he proceeds to say that it is nec-
essary to have “two terms which distinguish sharply between
the two chief groups of characters—the primary characters
which first appear in the body itself, and the secondary ones
which owe their appearance to variations in the germ, however
such variations may have arisen. We have hitherto been
accustomed to call the former ‘ aequired characters,’ but we
might also call them ‘ somatogenic,’ because they follow from
the reaction of the soma under external influences; while all
other characters might be contrasted as ‘ blastogenic,’ because
they include all those characters in the body which have arisen
from changes in the germ. * * * We maintain that the

1894.] | Neo-Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism. 677

‘somatogenic’ characters cannot be transmitted, or rather, that
those who assert that they can be transmitted, must furnish
the requisite proofs.” That is: changes in the soma-plasm
are not transmitted; acquired characters are changes in the
soma-plasm; therefore, acquired characters eannot be trans-
mitted! Or, to use Weismann’s shorter phrase, “Since the
characters * * * are hereditary, the term [‘acquired’]
cannot be rightly applied to them!” Surely, Neo-Darwinism
is impregnable!

Weismannism has unquestionably done much to elucidate
some of the most intricate questions of biology, and it has
weeded the old hypotheses of much that was ill-considered
and false. It has challenged beliefs which have been too easily
accepted. Its value to the science of heredity upon its biolog-
ical side is admitted, and its explanation of the meaning of
sex is one of the best of all contributions to the philosophy of
organic nature. It has suffered, perhaps, from too ardent
champions, and its great weakness lies in its stubborn refusal
to accept an important class of phenomena associated with
acquired characters, a sufficient explanation of which, it seems
to me, could be assumed without great violence to the
hypothesis.

Most Neo-Lamarckians accept much of Weismann’s teach-
ings. But, while there are comparatively few who believe
that mutilations are directly transmissible, there is a general
and strong conviction that many truly acquired characters are
hereditary, and there seems to be demonstrable evidence of
it; and while sex variation is fully accepted, it logically
follows, if acquired characters are hereditary, that much
variation is due directly to external causes. Perhaps the
habit of thought of most Darwinians and Neo-Lamarckians
is something as follows:

All forms of life are mutable. Variation affords the mate-
rial from which progress is derived. Variation is due to
sexual union, changed conditions of life, panmixia or the ces-
sation of natural selection, and probably somewhat to direct
use and disuse. There is an intense struggle for existence.
All forms or variations useful to the species tend to m en e

678 - : The American Naturalist. [August,

the harmful ones tend to be destroyed through the operation
of the simple agent of natural selection. These newly appear-
ing forms tend to become permanent, sometimes immediately;
but the longer the transforming environments are present, the
greater is the probability, on the whole, that the tene
modifications will persist.

1894.] Ornithophilous Pollination. 679

ORNITHOPHILOUS POLLINATION.
" By JosgPH L. Hancock.

The position that some of the humming-birds occupy in
respect to the transference of pollen from flower to flower is
by no means subordinate to insects.

The common ruby-throated humming-bird (Trochilus colu-
bris) though not endowed with specialized structures for the
specific performanee of this office, bears upon careful study
evidence that the mouth parts and feathers have certain means
for the harboring of pollen quite beyond the ordinary views.
The anatomical peculiarities of this bird's head allows access
to flowers, covering a wide range of forms. A narrowing awl-
shaped cone 29 mm. long represented by a base of 10 mm.
admits of this latitude, as expressed more clearly in the ac-
companying plate, figures 2 and 3, of the head and skull. By
reason of some flexibility, the billis capable of probing to the
bottom of nearly all the forms of flowers commonly met with.
In the feeding process, familiar to almost every one, the flower
is often bent over to be relieved of its juices. The trumpet
honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens) in the proper season, furn-
ishes an important part of the food of T. colubris. This vine
appears wild in the south, the corolla of the flower is long, see
figure 6, red and scentless. There is a way of accounting for
this latter condition. Fragrant odors are largely essential to
the attraction of bees and other insects, but as this plant does
not lean upon their aid for fertilization, but depends more
upon the humming-bird and larger moths for the interchange
of pollen, the absence of fragrance is accounted for. The two
last mentioned, from my own observations, depend for the
most part upon sight for the detection of food plants. A male
specimen of the ruby-throated humming-bird which wastaken
from a cat which had seized it in the act of feeding upon the
nectar of flowers, was sent to the writer by a friend. From

"To this power in birds the designation of ornithophilous pollination is proposed :

in contradistinction to entomophilous pollination.

680 The American Naturalist. [August,

this and other dead specimens was derived much of the pres-
ent knowledge. A cursory examination with the naked eye
of the head does not reveal with clear distinctness the import-
ant facts brought out by the use of the microscope, conse-
quently this instrument was brought into use in furthering
research. Pollen is carried in several ways by this bird. On
the lower mandible just in front of the angle of the mouth,
overshadowed by the nasal scale when the bill is closed, a
faint yellowish line marks the deposit of pollen grains resting.
in a small groove clustered together, see figure 5 at point b.

Here were found various kinds, but one small form rather
irregularly round in outline predominated. Pollen-grains work
their way free to the summit or vanes of the feathers about
where they were seen scattered, and as will be described further
on, caught up by the barbs of the feathers, along the sides of
the chin and lores ready to be deposited when a more suitable
surface presents. Under the lower bill, see enlarged view, fig-
ure 4, and also 5a, the deep median groove, the point of meet-
ing of the rami, which traverses along for nearly one-half its
length, acts as a second repository. This pollen repository
groove becomes divided backwards on either side for a short
distance. Pollen lodges in larger quantities here and can be
detected deep within the median portion of the groove. It is
interesting to note that pollen found deep in the recess of this
part bore evidence of greater age and possibly from foreign
plants unknown tome. ‘This fact opens up a line of investi-
gation which promises interesting results in the future. With
a needle the mass of grains which cluster together can be re-
moved and separated with care. A small mass, only a frac-
tional part of what still remained, showed with a focus of a}
inch objective hundreds of pollen-grains. The long shaft of
the bill also had upon its surface a few scattered ones. The
most noteworthy phase of this subject remains yet to be
recorded when the feathers are analyzed in greater detail, for
here is to be found the real means of scattering the pollen or
pollination. The chief repositories having been just described
as occurring below the angle of the mouth and in the median

ee a SERA

SEE eT eR

D PENNE

Eee Ao Ue eee eme e ee qep mere MT tret GR aR aE ae S

1894.] Ornithophilous Pollination. 681

groove under the lower mandible, it remains to mention the
part taken by the feathers.

There are four ways by which the pollen becomes engaged
or held by the feathers, which will be better understood after
the anatomy of the latter structures are touched upon. The
feathers from the sides of the head, lores and below, are
mainly instrumental in this work. In general they are much
like feathers of other birds, of the contour type, plumulaceous
at the base, composed of à short, weak calamus, a rhachis,
vanes, barbs and barbules; the latter being peculiar in that
at the extremity of the vane the barbules are armed with
sharp, thistle-like projections (barbicels) some of which are
somewhat curved. The vanes at the base of the feathers are
long and thread-like, near where they join the shaft are flat-
tened oar fashion as seen in figure 8. Little pointed barbs
divide these filimentous vanes at regular short distances. One
of the methods of carrying pollen is here met with between
two of the vanesasshown. The vanes of the upper part of the
main body of the feather, are made up of narrow acute plates
or barbs resting close together. The barbs of another vane

-often encroach or touch the barbs of a neighboring vane, so

that between them is found entrapped many pollen-grains as
demonstrated in figure 7. Another way by which pollen is
effectually engaged is between two of the barbs merely spread
apart, giving room for the grain to be held as in figure 9.
The fourth method observed of carrying these fertilizing
agents is an extraneous one, depending upon the glutinous:
secretion from the stigma of plants that adhere to the feathers,
thus assisting the pollen to stick fast to the feather. Through
a high magnifying power is seen the thistle-like ending of the
vanes, the barbules frequently matted together by the sticky
secretion referred to, gathered from the flowers while in search
of food. Attached to the many pointed and flattened surfaces
were seen pollen-grains of many kinds, chiefly of very minnte
size, ready to depart or taken on anew at the next visit to a
flower. In anemophilous flowers in which the wind is the
agency for carrying the pollen, the grains are usually small,
light, more or less dry and spherical, while in ME

682 The American Naturalist. [August,

. flowers, the pollen of which is carried from one plant to
another by insects in search of honey, are variously adapted to
cause the grains to adhere to the hairy underside of the insects
body to promote their dispersion. In ornithophilous pollina-
tion the pollen is carried in such diverse ways that this
together with other data combine to make it possible that the
humming-bird is the most wonderful distributor of pollen
known to the animal world. We are not content to leave the
subject without noticing, that as compared with insects, the
local range of flight of humming-birds is undoubtedly greater
and during the regular migrations they make extensive
flights? Their summer home in eastern North America ex-
tends from the Gulf of Mexico to half way across the British
Provinces and from the Atlantic Coast to beyond the Missis-
sippi River. In winter its range is southward, reaching into
Southern Florida, into Veragua and the western portion of
the Isthmus of Panama, about eight degrees north of the
equator. The equivalent of some 2000'statute miles is thus
represented in the migrations of this diminutive bird. The
pollen taken enroute during migration, as the humming-bird
takes its sip of nectar from flower to flower, may gather in its
repositories and be transported from place to place any where
throughout its range. That some strange pollen grains are found
entangled upon the bird is not surprising, especially in spring,
taking these suggestions into consideration, and what wonder
is it we are called upon to say that the phenomena of so wide-
spread and perpetual a means of pollination of plants is per-
haps unparalleled. |

ExPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1. Trochilus colubris taking food, drawn from memory.
Fig. 2. Head of T. colubris from nature.
Fig. 3. Skin removed from head to show skull.
*It will be observed that the author refers entirely to the ruby-throated hum-
ming-bird ( T. colubris) here, and what may be brought out by a further study of
other species as regards to the part they play in pollination is a matter for the

PLATE XXII.

d L. Hancock. Del,
Ornithophilous pollination.

Ornithophilous Pollination. 683

. Enlarged ventral view of lower mandible showing

pollen repository groove.

Head of T. colubris showing a, side repository, 5,
repository under the lower mandible.

Single flower of Trumpet Honeysuckle.

Two vanes side by side, from main part of a feather
of T. colubris, showing oneof the ways of carrying
pollen-grains.

Two vanes side by side of the same feather from the
base, showing another way of carrying pollen-grains.
One-half of a vane showing thistle-like structure at
end of a feather, also showing another method of
carrying the pollen-grains between two barbs. Pol-
len adheres to these feathers by aid of the sticky
secretion of plants.

684 The American Naturalist. [August,

EDITORIALS.

—TuE U. S. Geological Survey has entered on a new era of its his-
tory, and one which will have an important bearing on the study of

geology in this country. We look for a material improvement in the
' administration of this public trust, as compared with its history during
the past ten years. Major Powell, who has just retired from the posi-
tion of director, tried a good many experiments which were not judi-
cious, and proposed to try others which were fortunately suppressed.
It is to be greatly regretted that the Survey did not at the outset es-
tablish a modus vivendi with either the U. S. Engineers, or the Coast
and Geodetic Survey, so that the topographic work could have been
done by one or the other of these competent corps of men. They pos-
sessed the plant, both in men and in apparatus, but instead of arrang-
ing with one or the other of them, director Powell preferred to expend
a large part of the resources of the Survey on this branch of the work.
The topographic corps of the Survey constituted, perhaps, two-thirds
of the entire force, and the expenditures for it were of course pro-
portionately great. The new director, Dr. Walcott, inherits this incu-
bus from his predecessor. The problem of its continuation as a part
of the Survey's work is a serious one, in view of the reduced appropri-
ations now granted by Congress. It may be considered in connection
with the fact, that ultimately the geology of the United States will be
represented on maps of first class topographic quality. It is frequently
asserted that the maps hitherto produced by the Survey have not that
high accuracy which the subject demands, although not without value
for general purposes. The produetion of the best grade of map will
probably require a greater outlay than has been heretofore granted for
this purpose. Since the appropriations are less than heretofore, the
assumption of this work by one or the other bureaus of the Govern-
ment already mentioned would seem to be a necessity.

The importance of such a transfer is obvious from another point of
view. The department of paleontology was inexcusably neglected by
Major Powell, who had little appreciation of its importance to geology.
So far as concerns vertebrate paleontology, the Survey's publications
are distinguished by their absence, as based on collections in this depart-
ment, for which large sums wereexpended. This failure of the Survey
to render any equivalent for the expenditure, led Congress to restrict
definitely the appropriation for this object, which was a misfortune for

BN a EEEIEI A ia UI CICER ET E EE TIA RC ue LIST e der CUN SE

1894.] Editorials. 685

which Major Powell is responsible, since the management of that depart-
ment was of his own selection. The amount of work done in other depart-
ments of paleontology by the Survey is much less than it should have
been. It is not necessary to call the attention of the present director
of the Survey to the subject. An able paleontologist himself, he is not
likely in his administration to neglect a department which is the life-
blood of the science of geology. And, apart from its relations to
geology, it has an especial importance of its own, which it is the busi-
ness of a great government survey to foster.

In the later years of the Powellian period, the Survey made up for
lost time in the quantity and quality of its stratigraphic work. It
may be truthfully said that during the last five years no organization
of the kind has turned out so large an amount of excellent original
stratigraphie work at various and remote parts of the country. The
habilitation of the Columbia, the Appomattox and Tuscaloosa forma-
tions of the Atlantie slope, and the correlation of the older paleozoic
beds of the Appalachian Mountains must be credited to the geologists
of the Survey. S0 also the definition of the epochs of the Cretaceous
and Cenozoic beds of the coastal plain. The analysis of the strata
of the Sierra Nevada has been immensely advanced, and much work
has been done in the field of glacial geology. We look for a continu-
ation of this work; and if some of the omissions of the past are sup-
plied, the Survey will probably have the unanimous support of the
scientific world.

—TueE publication of the geological map of Pennsylvania by the
State Survey marks an era in the history of that organization. Pro-
fessor Lesley, the director, has issued an atlas containing the map of
the State in four sheets, together with detailed maps of Bucks and
Montgomery Counties, with maps of the bituminous coal areas of the
western counties, with others. An atlas of county maps is issued at
the same time. The geological maps are well colored, and are a credit
to the State. The amount of the appropriation did not permit of the
insertion of the topography by contour lines in either the State or
County maps. This is to be regretted, but may be left for some future
survey, which may issue a new edition. An important and obscure
problem has been greatly elucidated by Dr. B. S. Lyman, the author
of the Montgomery-Bucks map, i. e., the analysis of the red beds which
are generally referred to the Trias. His division of the formation into
several horizons will aid research, and we await the evidence of their
paleontology to determine the relations of some of them. Another

686 The American Naturalist. [August,

problem of even greater significance awaits the labors of the Survey.
This is the discrimination of the Cambrian and Ordovician beds of the
eastern border of the mountains. The Calciferous and Trenton lime-
stones both exist in this series, but they are stillincluded in one forma-
tion by the present survey, as they were by the first survey, as No. II.
Walcott has already made some progress in this direction, and it is
certain that many important results will be obtained by further re-
search.

s Eos " Sem
Mia: ee A m e CHEER d

1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 687

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Aarsberetning for 1892. Stavanger Museum, Stavanger, Norway. From the
Trustees of the Museum.

Archivos do Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro, 1892. From the Museum.

Annals of British Geology, 1892. Introductory Review. From J.F. Blake.

Annuaire de l'Acad. Roy. des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux Arts de Bel-
gique. Bruxelles, 1894.

Bulletin Iowa Agric. Coll. Exper. Station, No. 23, 1893.

Bulletin North Carolina Agric. Exp. Station, Nos. 55 and 93, 1893.

LAKE, PRor.—On the Bases of the Classification of Ammonites. Extr. Nat-
ural Science, Vol. 3, 1893.

_ Bove, M.—Découverte d'un squelette d’ Elephas meridionalis dans les cendres
basaltiques du volcan de Senèze (Haute Loire). Extr. Comptes rendus des
séances de l’ Acad. des Sciences, Paris, 1892. From the author.

Brooks, W. K.—Salpa in its relation to the ee of Life. Studies from
the Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ.. Vol. V, 1

—Salpa. A monograph with 57 plates. wi a Supplementary Paper by
M: M. Metealf. Memoirs Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ., II, 1893. From the
author.

Coss, N. A.—Nematodes, mostly Australian and Fijian. Extr. Macleay Mem.
ee wn From the author.

ER, H.—Zur Histologie der Faltenzühne Paliiozoischer Stegocephalen.
Des XX XX fida der Abhandl. der math.-phy. Classe der Kónigl. Sichs. Gessell.
der M agree No. IV, Leipzig, 1893. From the author.

“Dames, Von W.—Uber die Gliederung der Flótzformationen Helgolands.
Siaha der König. Preuss. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1893

—— Ueber Zeuglodonten aus Aegypten und die Beziehungen der Archæoceten
zu den Uebrigen Cetaceen. Palaeontologlsche Abhandlungen, Neue Folge, Bd.
I, Heft. 5. From the author.

Doper, C. W.—Elementary Practical Biology. New York, 1894. Harper &
Brothers, dug From the Pub.

Drage, N. F. AND THomeson, R. A.—Report on the Colorado Coal-field of
Texas. Exiz. Fourth Ann. Rept. Texas Geol.Surv. 1892. Austin, 1893. From
the Survey.

` GAUDRY, A. L'Eléphant de Durfort. Extr. du Vol. Com. du Centennaire de
la fondation du Mus. d'Hist. Nat. de Paris, 1893. From the author.

Git, T.—A Comparison of Antipodal Faunas.—— Families and Boblamilies
of Fishes. Extrs. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Vol. VI. From the Acad.

GOEBEL, |

—Gedichtnisrede auf Karl von Nägeli gehalten in der öffentlichen
Aus

Sitzung der k. b. Akad. der Wissensch. zu München am 21, Mürz, 1893.
Denkschrift der k. b. Akad. München, 1893. From the author.

HAECKEL, E.—Der Monismus als Band zwischen Religion und Wissenschaft.

Fünfte Auflage. Bonn, 1893. From the author.

688 The American Naturalist. [August,

JULIEN, A. A.—Notes of Research on the New York Obelisk. Extr. Bull.
Am. Geog. Soc., 1893. From the author

LAMPERT, Dr.—Bemerkungen zur Süsswasserfauna Wiirttembergs. Separat-
Abdruck aus Jahreshefte des Vereins fiir vaterl. Naturk. in Württ., 1893. From
the author.

LawcLEYv, S. P.—The Internal Work of the Wind. Smith. Contrib. to
Knowledge, 884. Washington, 1893. From the author.

Lrsoucg, HERR.—Zur plastischen Anatomie der Fersengegend bei den Anti-
ken. Abdruck aus Verhandl. der Anat. Gesell, Góttingen, 1893. From the
author.

LyDEKKER, R.—Note on the Coracoidal Element in Adult Sloths, with remarks
on its Homology. Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc., London, 1893. From the author.

Macleay Memorial aa Edited by J. J. Fletcher, Sept. 1893. From the
Linn. Soc., New South Wal

MARTE TEL, E. A. ET r kepsen G.—Note sur la Pte Gypseuse de Taverny.
Extr. Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes. No date

MERRIAM, C. H.—Preliminary Descriptions of ems new Mammals from south-
ern uoc collected by E. W. Nelson. Extr. Proceeds Biol. Soc., Washington
Dec., 1893.

Ni E. T.—On some new Reptiles from the ioe erige Extr.
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Vol. 184, 18983. From the

PACKARD, A.—Further Studies on the Brain of dono: Joh phai with
notes on its embryology. Extr. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., Vol. VI. From the
Academy.

QutRoGA, Don Francisco.—Sobre la existence de la humita en algunas caliza
arcáicas de la Sierra de Guadarrama. Extr. Actas de la Soc. Esp. de Hist. Nat.
t. II, 1893.——— Estudio Petrográfico del Meteorite de Guareña, Badajoz. Extr.
Anal. de sm Soc. Esp. de Hist. Nat., t. XXII, 1893. From the anthor.

Ramonp, G —Geologie—Asie et Océanie. Extr. l'Ann. Géol. Universal, T.
VIII, set Paris, 1893. From the author.

Riveway, R. —Remarks on the Avian genus Myiarchus, with special reference
to M. yucatanensis Lawrence. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893.
From the Smithsonian Institution.

Ritey, C. V.—Further Notes on Yucca Insects and Yucca Pollination. Extr.
Provedds: Biol. Soc., Washington, June, 1893.— Insects in — Entomology.
Reprint Insect Life, Vol. VI, 1893. From the author.

Scupper, S. H.—— The American Tertiary Aphididae. Extr. Thirteeth Ann.
Rept. of the Director U. S. Geol. Surv. Washington, 1894. From the author.

SHUFELDT, R. W.—Notes on the Trunk Skeleton of a Hybrid Grouse. Extr.
The Auk, Vol. X, 1893. From the author.

STILLMAN, J. D.—Natural System of Medecine. St. Louis, 1893. From the

1893. From the U. S. Geol. Surv

TULLBERG, TycHo.—Ueber einige Muriden aus Kamerun. Mitgetheilt aus der
Konigl. Gesell. der Wissensch. zu Upsala, 1893. From the author.
WnurrEAvEs, J. F.—The Recent Discovery of large Unio-like Shells in’ the

Suess, E.—The Future of Silver. Translated by Robert Stein. Washington,
rvey.

LS cae pe A t aaa O EE ere I PE EO aa

Oi O SNIPEE A EEIE EETAS, cedo rue nda EES

a eS Sm EE a ag i i Eph ok ia i cae ek TAT. re NT INOEREUARES T TE TV ar

1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 689

Coal Measures at the South Joggins, N. S. Extr. Trans. Roy. Soc., Can., 1893.
From the author.

Woopwarp, A. S.— Description of the Skull of Pisodus owenii, an Albula-like
Fish of the Eocene Period. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., May, 1893.

— — On the Cranial Osteology of the Mesozoic Ganoid Fishes, Lepidotus and
Dapedius. Extr. Proceeds. London Zool. Soc., 1893.

— —List of the Scientific Writings, 1882-1892. Hertford, 1893. From the
writer.

ZITTEL, K. A.—Handbuch der Paleontologie; I Abtheilung. Paleozoologie
Vertebrata; IV Band; 3 Lieferung; München und Leipzig, 1893. From the
author. : :

690 The American Naturalist. [August,

RECENT LITERATURE.

The genus Salpa.—The Johns Hopkins Press has issued the
second of the series of * Morphological Monographs," in the shape of
a magnificent treatise on the genus Salpa by Professor W. K. Brooks.
The monograph is an exhaustive one, without which no working
library can afford to remain. It includes a brief but valuable survey
of the anatomy of many species, a detailed account of the develop-
ment of the solitary form from the egg, and of the chain Salpa from
the stolon. The systematic position of Salpa with reference to other
tunicates is discussed, and this leads the author to a wide biological
consideration of the primitive pelagic fauna and the origin of the
Metazoa. The evidence on the origin of the Chordata, to be gathered
from the tunicates, is presented and is shown to be in opposition to the
annelidian hypothesis of the derivation of this group. Dr. M. M.
Metcalf contributes the final section, a careful study of the eyes and
subreural gland of Salpa.

The chapter on the egg development of the solitary Salpa is espe-
cially interesting and suggestive. An outline of this remarkable
development is as follows; The germ mass is present in the embryo
of the solitary form, and extends into the stolon as the latter grows
out. It is differentiated into a superficial epithelium and an inner
mass of ovarian ova, which in the mature stolon form a single row.
When the stolon is constricted to form the chain of salps, each Salpa
body gets its particular portion of the elongated germ mass. In most
species this consists of a single egg with its surrounding epithelium.
The latter is differentiated into testes, follicle, and fertilizing duct, i. e.
a tube attaching the egg to the dorsal wall of the chain salp, through
which the spermatozoa pass to reach the egg—the egg itself liesin a
blood sinus of the chain salp. It is evident from these facts that the
alternation of generations in Salpa differs from the typical alternation
of generations, in that the sulitary form does not arise from the chain
Salpa, but from an egg passed into the chain Salpa from the preceding
generation of the solitary form.

As the embryo grows, it pushes out of the blood sinus in which it lies
at first, into the cavity of the cloaca, driving the wall of the cloaca
before it. From the dorsal wall a complicated system of covering

"The genus Salpa, by William K. Brooks. Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins
Press, 1893.

1894.] Recent Literature. 691

embryonic membranes is formed. The inner end of the embryo
remains exposed to the blood sinus of the chain salp, and from it the
placenta is formed. The placenta of Salpa is fundamentally different
from that of the Mammalia. It is merely a portion of the embryonie
body through which the blood of the chain salp circulates. Jt appears
to be exclusively a nutritive organ, not respiratory. The stream of
water constantly passing through the cloaca of the chain salp and
bathing the body of the embryo, makes a special respiratory organ un-
necessary. "The placenta performs its nutritive function in a way very
different from that of the corresponding mammalian organ. In Salpa
the placental blood current nourishes the placenta itself and causes the
cells to multiply. The latter migrate into the body cavity of the em-
bryo, where they degenerate and are used as food.

The very remarkable character of the egg development is due to the
peculiar behavior of the follicle. During the segmentation of the egg,
the follicle undergoes a considerable increase in size. Its cells prolif-
erate and the follicle assumes ashape, which may be likened to that of
a mature Graafian follicle of the vertebrate ovary. That is, there is
a superficial (or somatic) layer of the follicle, connected over a small
area with a central mass (visceral layer), the two elsewhere separated
by acavity. The blastomeres, which are forced apart by the growth of
the follicular tissue, lie in the visceral layer and the region where vis-
ceral and somatic layers are connected. The follicle now proceeds to
develop, as if it were going to form the embryo, while the blastomeres
remain few in number, scattered about in the midst of the mass of fol-
licular tissue. It is impossible without figures to explain the way in
which the follicular tissue is folded and-:hollowed out, to form the
various parts of what appears to be the embryo. It may be said in a
word that the follicular tissue gives rise to a body, which is a “ simula-
erum of the embryo.” In this body, pharynx, cloaca, gill and gill-
slits, are all developed, but are lined with the follicular cells of which
the great mass of the body is composed. As the various organs are
outlined in the follicular tissue, the blastomeres take up certain more
or less definite positions with reference to each organ. Finally the
blastomeres begin a rapid growth, and in each organ and throughout
the body they take the place of the follicle cells, the latter degenerating
and being ultimately used up as food. Thus in fact the Salpa embryo,
like that of other animals, is derived from the egg cell and not from
the follicle, as some investigators have held.

Professor Brooks suggests an explanation, which is probably the
true one, of the behavior of the follicle in the Salpa embryo. It is
well known that in many tunicates the follicle cells migrate in between

692 The American Naturalist. [August,

the blastomeres, more or less completely surrounding the latter, in
which position they are finally used up as food. And the peculiar
behavior of the follicle in Salpa is probably to be explained on the
theory that Salpa has had an ancestor in which the follicular tissue
persisted late in the development, and was so accurately disposed
around and between the organs as to form what might be called a cast
of the embryo.

In the modern Salpa, as in the hypothetical ancestor, the follicular
tissue develops into a cast of the embryo, but the blastomeres instead
of leading the way as they doubtless did in the ancestral embryology,
are now so retarded in their development that they do not begin to
build up the embryonic organs until the follicular cast is well nigh
completed. H. V. Wirsox.

Bateson's Dictionary of Variaton.'—In this work the author
has eollected a great many examples of variations from normal struc-
tures found in animals. These include both absolute abnormalities
and variations which are in the line of evolution. The work is a use-
ful one to all zoologists aud students of evolution, as furnishing exam-
ples of variation in groups with which they are not personally -famil-
iar. It will, however, not take the place with any specialist of his
knowledge of the subject matter of his own studies. It is not to be
supposed that its author intended that it should. A dictionary of vari-
ation of all animals would be a detailed work on zoology in general,
where the normal characters of all species should be stated, in order
that it might be shown what constitutes variation. Such a work could
only be produced by the cooperation of a large number of “species
naturalists.” Embryologists and histologists would be wholly unfit
for the task. Perhaps it was a sense of this deficiency which led Mr.
Bateson to prepare this work; for otherwise it is difficult to imagine
why an expert in any branch of zoological sciences should attempt the
task, unless it should be designed for amateurs and general readers.
While preparing the work, its author neglected one of the richest
mines of information as to normal variation. This is found in the
writings of American specialists in vertebrate zoology, where the sub-
ject has been treated in greater detail, and with greater wealth of ma-
terial than exists in the literature of any other country. The book is
well illustrated, which greatly enhances its value. We recommend it
for study to persons who are doubtful in their opinions on the subject
of organic evolution.

‘Materials for the Study of Variation treated with especial Regard to Discon-
tinuity in the Origin of Species. MacMillan & Co., London, 1894, pp. 598.

epee a ame deer A CIL. E ri eR i. A ei ht arp Mo gi e tree rtp pip enn ER er A I a ag

1894.] Geography and Travels. 693

General Notes.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.

Antarctic Exploration.—The most important geographical dis-
coveries made in the Antarctic regions since Ross traced a part of Vic-
toria Land’s coast, and saw its smoking mountains, fifty-two years ago,
have just been reported by an old and well-known Norwegian whaler,
Captain Larsen, who, by this time, is undoubtedly on his way home
with a cargo of seals. His discoveries were made in the latter part of
November and early in December last, on the steam whaler Jason.
Later he went north to the Falkland Islands, where he found an oppor-
tunity to send home his log for this period. He then returned to the
sealing grounds near the Antarctic Circle. His log was forwarded from
Norway by Mr. Christensen of Sandefjord to Dr. John Murray, the
well-known Scottish scientist and member of the Challenger expedition,
who has just published the extract from the Jason’s journal in the
Scottish Geographical Magazine. Only a few lines, including the lati-
tude and longitude attained, are given in the log to each day’s events,
and the narrative is therefore lacking in detail. When Capt. Larsen
returns to Europe, he will doubtless give a full account of his interest-
ing voyage.

If the reader will refer to a map of the Antarctic regions, he will see
a large land mass, known as Graham’s Land, lying across the Antare-
tic Circle, south of Cape Horn. Except Victoria Land, which lies on
the other side of the Antarctic area, Graham’s land is the largest bit
of terra firma that has yet been found in South Polar waters. It was
discovered by John Biscoe in 1831, and a brief allusion to the explora-
` tion there is necessary in order to understand what Larsen has achieved.
Biscoe skirted its lofty western coast for about 200 miles, and, landing
on little Adelaide Island, not far from the mainland, he was the first to
set foot on shore within the Antarctic Circle. No one ever saw any
other part of Graham’s Land except Ross, over fifty years ago, and the
Scottish and Norwegian whalers who were there in the season of 1892-
93. Capt. Larsen’s recent achievement was to steam for days along the
east coast of the unknown land, and when he was finally compelled to
turn north again, he could still see the lofty summit of the mainland
stretching south and east as far as the eye could reach. Dr. John Murray

694 — The American Naturalist. [August,

and other authorities believe that in those days he wasskirting a part of
the coast of the great Antarctic continent, and while he was adding to
our knowledge of the coast lines around the South Pole, he also dis-
covered some volcanoes in a highly active state, showing that Plutonic
energy in that part of the world has not yet died out, and that its
piles’ there is more widely distributed than we had any reason to
suppos

; The i ice conditions greatly favored Capt. Larsen, for he found a com-
paratively open sea, and was able to advance about one hundred miles
south of the Antarctic Circle. Only the year before the whalers had
found the sea packed with ice almost to the extreme northern part of
Graham’s Land. As they looked south they saw a chain of bergs
towering high above their ships, which effectually barred their progress
in that direction. After Ross, in his sailing ships Erebus and Terror,
had discovered Victoria Land and skirted its coast for hundreds of
miles, he spent almost the entire season of 1842-43 near the north end
of Graham’s Land trying in vain to push his way through the ice-en-
cumbered sea and the great chain of bergs. He was not able, however,
to advance toward the south until he went far east, out of sight of
Graham's Land, whose mystery he had hoped to solve. Larsen had a
very different experience in November and December last. The
weather was fine and warm, and there was plenty of sunshine and little
fog. The air and sea teemed with animal life, for many birds, whales
and seals were seen, and, best of all, the white, east coast of Graham’s
Land, rising here and there into lofty peaks, stood out clearly in view.
He followed it straight to the south, until, at its furthest point, he saw
it rising to still loftier heights and stretching away to the southeast and
east.

From Capt. Larsen's log, and from the observations of the whalers
at the north end of Graham's Land, in the previous season, we are able
to get some idea of this ferra incognita. According to his log, Capt.
Larsen steamed along this east coast for 230 miles, the coast line
stretching away a little east of south, a high, rocky shore, most of it a
few miles west of 60? west longitude from Greenwich. Right at the
Antaretie Circle is a very high peak, most of which is bare of snow.
The shore front is skirted with an ice barrier that runs about five miles
out to sea, and is from twenty-five to sixty feet high. The land is
covered with an ice cap and glaciers flow down the valleys, but in the
narrow, northern part of the land they are, of course, small, and do not
produce icebergs over sixty to seventy feet in height. In 1892-93 the
whalers saw in the neighboring waters bergs that were 200 feet or more

SS ge areata ie ES ee LEM a een gem

1894.] Geography and Travels. 695

in height, and their depth below the surface must have been at least
1,400 feet. It is certain that they come from some more southern part
of the Antarctic region.

Skirting the shores, Larsen saw numbers of islands and rocks, all
volcanic and mostly basaltic, rising out of the sea almost as perpen-
dicular as the icebergs, and presenting little surface on which snow can
rest. He succeeded, however, in landing on Seymour Island, and
pushed some distance into it, though the walk was most difficult across
the deep valleys and over the high rocks. Great numbers of penguins
had their nests there, and in the interior he found several dead seals.
These penguins are peculiar to the Antarctic regions, and their rook-
eries are very curious. They are occupied by countless numbers of the
common black-throated penguins, and the nests are crowded together
in square blocks formed by paths intersecting one another almost at
right angles. The whalers of the previous year said that these rooker-
ies, viewed through a telescope from the ship's head, had the appear-
ance of hair brushes, the penguins representing the bristles.

It was about eighty miles north of the Antarctic Circle that Larsen
discovered a chain of five little islands, extending in a straight line
from northwest to southeast. The most northern is about ten miles
from the mainland. Two of these islands are active volcanoes. The
captain and his mate fastened on their snow-shoes and crossed on the
ice to one of the islands. A large volume of smoke poured from both
of the voleanoes, but neither of them was ejecting lava or solid matter
at the time, though the ice in the neighborhood was strewn with vol-
canic stones that had recently been hurled out of the craters. There
was no snow on these volcanic masses.

On his journey south, Capt. Larsen saw many whales and seals. It
is well-known that the Dundee whalers turned their attention to the
Antarctic regions in 1892, in the hope of finding the true whalebone
whale, which Sir James Ross believed he saw there. The Dundee
fleet, however, saw neither this variety nor any sperm whale. They
saw any number of finners, which were so tame that the ships actually
struck them sometimes before they would get out of the way. Now
and then these enormous creatures, not less then eighty feet in length,
jump like a salmon, every portion of their bodies being clear of the
water. The hunchback whale, which was found there in great num-
bers, is another interesting species. The whalers say that neither sal-
mon nor trout fishing can equal the hunchback for sport. Larsen
hunted one which, on being harpooned, ran the five lines in the first boat
straight out and got free. Four additional harpoons and six —

696 The American Naturalist. [August,

were fired into it. It fought a thirteen hours’ battle and then escaped,
taking with it a good deal of line, two of the harpoons, and all of the
rockets. Larsen saw three other species of whales there, but none of
much commercial value, while the seals are desirable chiefly for their
oil.
. The most southern point reached by Capt. Larsen was in 68° 10
south latitude. Had he advanced a few miles further, it would have
been necessary to turn quite abruptly to the east, for he saw the shore
line bend around till it ran almost due east and west, and behind it
was high land covered with snow. He had followed the coast on the
east side of Graham’s Land as far as Biscoe had traced it on the west.
On the map the reader will find Alexander I. Land, which is due
west of the high land seen by Larsen when he turned his ship to go
north again. Dr. Murray believes that Alexander I. Land is a part
of the west coast of Graham's Land, and that this landmass, which
Biscoe and Larsen proved to widen rapidly toward the south, is only a
peninsula of the continent of Antarctica.
It is interesting to consider the geographical significance of Larsen's
voyage. Our maps show that all around the Antarctic area, in the
neighborhood of the South Polar circle, bits of land have’ been discov-
ered. It is noteworthy that scarcely one of these bits of land has been
explored in its whole extent. The explorers did not ascertain whether
the land they saw was islands or projections from some great land mass.
Discoverers have very rarely been able to effect a landing on account
of the belt of pack ice or ice floes, often ten to twenty miles wide, that
separated them from the shore. "There are several excellent reasons
why many of the leading geographers and geologists believe that these
various lands— Victoria, Graham, Wilkes, Adelie, Clarie, Sabrina and
Termination Lands and sonie others, are merely parts of theouter edge
of a large continent. To mention here only one of these evidences, the
Challenger expedition, sounding in Antarctic waters, brought to light
material which is regarded as strongly indicating the proximity of a
landmass of continental proportions. Ross believed this when he was
in the region where Larsen has made his reconnoissance. Ross said
that though the ice prevented him from taking his vessel south, he be-
lieved he could have landed and travelled over the continent. Larsen’s
work adds strength to the theory, for we see Graham’s Land rapidly
widening as its coasts are followed toward Victoria Land. A great
deal of the area within the Antarctic Circle may be covered with the
sea and still leave room there for a land of continental extent. It has
been observed, when possible to approach the land, that there is much

1894.] Geography and Travels. 697

similarity in the geological structure of the apparently detached masses.
Dr. Wild, of the Challenger expedition, has observed that Graham’s
Land and Victoria Land are remarkable for the height of their mount-
ain ranges, rising from the sea to 7,000 feet in the former, and 15,000
feet in the latter country, and the shores of both are guarded by numer-
ous islands, mostly of volcanic origin. Wild, Murray, and others say
that we are justified in concluding that Victoria Land, whose east coast
line was traced by Sir James Ross for more than 500 miles, must ex-
tend much further to the west and south, and that probably on its ice
cap will be found the present position of the South Magnetic Pole.

Dr. Murray points out that the summer excursion of Larsen’s little
whaler, shows what large additions might, in a short time, be made in
our geographical knowledge by a properly equipped expedition pro-
vided with steam power. British geographers will be more than ever
encouraged, now that the news of Larsen’s work has come to them, to
redouble their present efforts to induce their Government to send out
an expedition. The expenditure will hardly be justified unless the
proposed expedition is accompanied by scientific men and fitted with
all the apparatus of scientific investigation. Such a party and equip-
ment would enrich almost every department of natural science. There
is no doubt that the science of our day is demanding such an investiga-
tion, and, in all probability, it will be carried out within the next few

ears. Not only scientific men, but also a considerable part of the
public, would like to know the nature and extent of this Antarctic con-
tinent and what may be learned by pushing into its interior. It is
highly desirable, also, as the advocates of South Polar exploration
have shown, to ascertain the depth and condition of the ice cap, to
sound the ocean depths, to learn its various temperatures, from the sur-
face to the bottom, to trawl up the animals on the sea floor, and study
the nature of the marine deposits. These are among the questions that
explorers will be called upon to solve in the prolific field of South
Polar research.—Cyrus C. Apams, in New York Sun.

698 The American Naturalist. [August,

MINERALOGY.’

Friedel's Cours de Mineralogie.'— The first part of a text-book
of mineralogy by Charles Friedel covers the field of general mineral-
ogy. In the preface it is stated that a second part, devoted to special
or descriptive mineralogy, will be prepared with the assistance of M.
George Friedel, the author’s son. The book does not claim to be, the
author states, a treatise on crystallography or crystal physics, but a
practical method of determining minerals on the basis of their mor-
phological, physical, and chemical properties. It is intended for the
use of those students who are preparing for the examinations for
licentiate in physical sciences, and should therefore be adapted to the
needs of college students.

The book contains 416 pages with the subject matter distributed as -

follows: introduction (giving history of science and fundamental
definitions, 16 pages); organoleptic properties, 16 pages; crystallo-
graphy, 238 pages ; physical (and optical) properties, 59 pages; chem-
ieal composition occupies the remainder of the book and includes the
divisions, blowpipe methods, mineral synthesis, and mineral classifica-
tion. Under organoleptic properties are included among others,
structure, color, lustre, density, external form (with a consideration of
pseudomorphs), hardness, and streak. In treating crystallography
eight pages are devoted to an exposition of Hauy's théorie des décroisse-
ments. This is followed by sections on the law of rational indices
andsymmetry. After deriving the crystal systems, the author gives
eight pages to an exposition of Bravais’s theory of crystal structure.
No mention is made of the work of later writers on this subject, and
throughout the book a tendency to utilize mainly the work of French
writers seems manifest. The difficulties of translating Levy’s symbols
into those of Weiss, Naumann, Dana and Miller, makes it necessary
to devote thirty-seven pages to crystallographic notation. Twelve of
these are consumed by a table giving the equivalents of Levy’s sym-
bols in the other notations. An usually large amount of space for a
book of this sort is devoted to the representation of erytals, but those
which illustrate the book are very poor. Many of the figures are not
merely carelessly, but incorrectly drawn. Crystals having a principal

'Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

"Cours de minéralogie professé a la faculté des sciences de Paris, par Charles
Friedel. Minéralogie générale, pp. iii and 416. Paris, 1893.

Eo MM Se equ ES ANB eee M m
trm Berg E d ue rel, UE TE UC be PAPER ERE REM UR set ai

1894.] Mineralogy. 699

axis are generally lopsided. Figures 70, 138, 224, 255 and 322 area
few of the incorrectly drawn crystals. Another bad feature of the
illustrations is that crystals are not always properly set up but are seen
from all directions. The best portions of the work are those which
treat optical mineralogy and mineral synthesis. The former is treated
without mathematics and in a simple and practical manner. The
section on the classification of minerals is very unsatisfactory. What
purports to be a history of the subject isgiven. The systems mentioned
are those of Werner, Hauy, Beudant, Delafosse and Dana. Groth’s
system is not mentioned nor is that of any other modern German
mineralogist. A considerable number of pages is devoted to detailed
ists of minerals as they appear in the schemes of Werner, Delafosse,
and Dana. With theexception of the latter, which Friedel adopts as
the one most in harmony with the present state of the science, these
lists seem out of place. The book is not provided with an index, but
has a somewhat extended table of contents.

As a text-book the work is subject to criticism on account of its
classification and arrangement of subject matter, its lack of perspec-
tive in the treatment of the different divisions of the subject, its ten-
dency to utilize mainly French investigations and systems, and its
faulty illustrations.

Relation between Atomic Weight and Crystal Angles.—
In a paper entitled, “Connection between the Atomic Weight of con-
tained metals and the magnitude of the angles of crytals of isomor-
phous series, a study of the potassium, rubidium and cesium salts of
the monoclinic series of double sulphates R,M (SO,), 6 H,O,” Tutton'
has given the results of a most careful and thorough erystallographi-
cal study of an isomorphous series of salts, to determine the kind and
degree of effect which the different bases exert upon the crystal angles.
The results are very interesting since they seem to show a relation be-
tween the atomic weights of the contained bases and the crystal
angles. "The work involved no less than 9,500 measurements. The
crystals were obtained by slow crystallization from cold solutions and
ten good crystals of each salt were selected for measurement from a
dozen or more different crops. The double salts of the formula RM
(809), 6 H,O containing as univalent metals either potassium, rubid-
ium, or cesium, and as bivalent metals either magnesium, zinc,
iron, manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, or cadmium, were always pre-

‘Jour. Chem. Soe, London, Trans., Vol. LXIII, (1893), pp. 337—423.

700 The American Naturalist. [August,

pared by mixing solutions of the two simple sulphates in equal molec-
ular proportions. The study shows that the bivalent metal exerts no
appreciable effect on the crystals, the predominant effect being due to
the univalent metal present. The crystals of the potassium, rubidium,
and cæsium salts have each a peculiar habit, that of the rubidium be-
ing intermediate between the other two. The axial angle £ increases
from the cesium, through the rubidium to the potassium salt, its value
in the rubidium salt being midway between the values in the cæsium
and potassium salts. This is in close correspondence with the differ-
ences between the atomic weights of those bases. Tutton says “The
relative amounts of change brought about in the magnitude of the
axial angle by replacing the alkali metal potassium by rubidium and
the rubidium subsequently by cæsium, are approximately in direct
simple proportion to the relative differences between the atomic
weights of the metals interchanged.” The other crystal angles of the
rubidium salts are likewise intermediate in value between those of the
potassium and cæsium salts, but they do not show the same relation to
the atomic weights of the alkali bases, the maximum deviation from
such a relation being found in the prism zone. As these angles are for
rubidium nearer to those of potassium than to those of cæsium, the
author thinks that as the atomie weight of the alkali metal introduced
gets higher, the effect of the metal on certain angles increases beyond
a mere numerical proportion. Professor Tutton announces that this
communication will be followed by another, which will discuss the
changes in the optical constants of the crystals due to the same chemi-
cal substitutions.

Spangolite from Cornwall.— Miers' has found in a collection of
Cornwall minerals presented to the British Museum, small crystals of
the new mineral spangolite described by Penfield in 1890. The Corn-
wall crystals show the hexagonal prism, pyramid, and base. Their
association is remarkably like that of Penfield’s spangolite, as they
occur with cuprite and its alteration products. From the characters
of the associated liroconite and clinoclase, Miers thinks that there ean
be no doubt that the specimen is from St. Day, near Redruth.

Eudialite from the Kola Peninsula.—The occurrence of eudia-
lite in the nephelene syenite and pegmatite of the Lujawr-Urt and
Umptek in Russian Lapland, recently mentioned by Ramsay, has
now been studied in detail.’ The crystals have developed on them the

*Neues Jahrbuch, 1893, TI, 174.
*Neues Jahrbuch, Beil. Bd., VIII, (1893) 722.

car ee ANS NS oe cent i Tus c E MK coal

Ss en: ee ee a II E

1894.] ~ Mineralogy. 701

forms R,—1R, 1R,—2R, œ R2, œR, and oR. The axial ratio is a:c
—1:2.1072. The mineral has good cleavage parallel to the base and
one varying from very good to poor runs parallel to the second order
prism. The color is usually cherry to garnet red. The crystals are
specially interesting because of a marked zonal structure and of a
division into sectors having differences in double refraction. Some of
these sectors have positive and others negative double refraction. Like
the eudialite from Magnet Cove the crystals are optically anomalous,
sometimes having biaxial character with optical angle as large as 15°.
On heating the sections of the crystals to a temperature at which
boracite had become isotropic, all the sectors of the field seemed to
give negative double refraction. Ramsay finds evidence that the differ-
ent zones of the mineral possess different specific gravities as well as
different double refraction, and he considers this to be due to isomor-
phous growth together of eudialite and eucolite. He shows that as
regards axial ratio, specific gravity, double refraction and optical char-
acter, there is a gradation from the eucolite of Aró through the eudia-

lites of Umptek and Kangerdluarsuk to the eudialite of Magnet

Cove.

702 The American Naturalist. [August,

PETROGRAPY.

The Ejected Blocks of Monte Somma.—Johnston Lavis’
has begun a thorough study of the ejected blocks of Monte Somma,
with especial reference to their petrography and the nature of the
metamorphic changes that have been produced in them by the lavas
by which they were enclosed. The druse minerals of the blocks have
long been known, but their nature as rocks has been left uninvestigated.
The author proposes to study in detail about 700 specimens of the
blocks, including many varieties. He begins by describing some 30
that were originally stratified Cretaceous limestones containing carbon-
aceous material The first stage in their alteration seems to be the con-
version of bituminous substance into graphite, and the crystallization
of the rock into marble. The crystallization has not destroyed the
original bedding bands, nor the most delicate structures exhibited by
them, hence it is assumed that fusion or softening of the rock did not
accompany the crystallization processes. A few olivines were formed
at this tisme, and these consequently are the first products of the
metamorphosing agency. They appear principally as inclusions in the
calcite. In the next stage of alteration the graphite disappears, and
a saccharoidal marble results. This contains more or less colorless
olivine, and passes rapidly into a mass of olivine, colorless pyroxene,
wollastonite and biotite, where impurities were present in the original -
rock. In the earlier stages of metamorphism the calcite and the sili-
cate minerals will exist in different bands, but in later stages silicates
and calcite intermingle, and finally a purely silicate rock results.
The order in which new minerals seem to develope is thought to be the
following ; olivine, periclase, humite, spinel, mica, fluorite, galena,
pyrite, wollastonite, garnet, vesuvianite, nepheline, sodalite, feldspar,
secondary calcite, tremolite, brucite. The article is illustrated by three
lithographic plates. It will repay close study by students of contact
action, as we have recorded in the blocks the effects of the action of a
magma upon a limestone, in all its stages.

Phonolites from the Black Hills.— The sanidine-trachyte
described by Caswell from Bear Lodge in the Black Hills, has been
‘Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.
"Tarns. Edin. Geol. Soc., VI, 1893, p. 314.
3U. S. Geog. & Geol. Survey of Rocky Mts. 1880. Cap. VII, p. 471.

1894.] Petrography. 103

reexamined by Pirsson,' who finds it to be a phonolite with phenocrysts
of anorthoclase and pyroxene, in a groundmass of the usual compo-
nents of phonolite. The anorthoclase has the composition :

BIO, ALO, Fe,9, CaO Na,O rer HO Total Sp. Gr.
66.44 19.12 tr 7.91 10 67 =99.70 2.585

The nepheline is all in the groundmass where it appears as idiomor-
phic crystals. The density of the rock is 2.582 and its composition :

SiO, TiO, Al,O, Fe,0, Ae MnO CaO BaO MgO Na,O K,O H,O CI SO, Total Cl
61.08 18 18.71 1.91 tr 1.58 .05 .08 8.68 4.63 2.21 12 tr=99.86—.03=99.83

A second occurrence of phonolite within the same region is in a dyke
just south of Deadwood. It consists of phenocrysts of reddish feld-
spars and black hornblendes that approach barkevikite in properties.
The rock from the Black Hills sold by the dealers as tinguaite is a
dense aggregate of pyroxene phenocrysts in a matrix of feldspar and
aegirine, with an occasional patch of nepheline.

| The Origin of Norwegian Iron Ores.— The iron and other
i ores of many of the Norwegian localities are connected genetically
with granites and gabbroitic eruptives. The iron ores in veins
| are supposed by Vogt?to be due to contact action between granite
and the surrounding rocks. Those connected with the gabbros are
basic accumulations, whose origin is ascribed to differentiation of the
| basic magma. In consequence of this differentiation, which is governed
largely by Soret's principle and the differences in density of the various
| differentiated products, the gabbro splits into labrador-rock and various
iron-olivine and iron-pyroxene compounds, and in these latter are
accumulations of magnetite and ilmenite large enough to constitute ore
bodies. Each of the iron-pyroxene rocks is described by the author
and the iron ores associated with them are characterized. The titanium
of the iron is thought to have originated mainly in the olivine and
other basic components of the normal gabbro.

The Tonalites of the Rieseferner.—The tonalites of the
Rieseferner in the Tyrol are again the subject of careful petrographi-
eal study. The normal tonalite (hornblende-mica-quartz-diorite)

* Amer. Jour. Sci., XLVII, 1894, p. 341.

5Geol. Fóren Stock. Fórh. 13 and 14.

5Becke: Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., XIII, p. 379.

704 The American Naturalist. — [August,

which is a coarse granular rock, on its periphery often becomes finer
grained and porphyritic. Large biotites and hornblendes are scattered
through its groundmass, which remains fine grained, and the rock
thus takes on a prophyritie habit. At other times the decrease in the
size of its constituent grains is accompanied by a decrease in the pro-
portion of plagioclase and quartz present in the rock and a large
increase in the orthoclase present, while hornblende disappears com-
pletely. It is unnecessary to give the petrographical details of the
author’s paper. It should be mentioned, however, that the feldspars
are very carefully studied by comparing the differences in their refract-
ing indices, and many new points are brought out concerning their
relations to each other. Some of the plagioclases were found to con-
sist of nuclei of basic plagioclase, enclosing areas of a more acid feld-
spar identical with an acid peripheral zone. The phenomenon is
thought to be due to corrosive influences. In addition to the various
phases of the tonalite mentioned, the author makes a careful study of
the veins cutting them, and of the slight alterations they have suffered.
and he refers to the existence of gneiss fragments occasionlly met with
in their peripheral portions.

Petrographical News.—McMahon’ cites, as evidence in favor of
the eruptive character of the Dartmoor granite, and in opposition to
the view of Ussher that it resulted from the fusion by pressure of pre-
existing pre-Devonian sedimentaries, the following facts. Its apophy-
ses cut the surrounding rocks. The metamorphic changes effected in
the latter are the result of contact action. Finally the other rocks
with which the granite is associated show no evidence of the great
pressure, to which they must have been subjected if the granite were
truly a fused sedimenta

Associated with the argillites, graywackes and other sedimentary
rocks of the Keewatin series near Kekaquabie Lake in Northeastern
Minnesota, Grant? has discovered volcanic fragmentals and amphibole
schists, the former of which are recognized as diabase tuffs and the
latter as their recrystallized representatives.

A quartz bearing leukophyre variety of diabase porphyrite, forms
intrusive layers in the Carboniferous schists at the Hernitz Mine near
Saarbrücken in the Pfalz? The rock was regarded by Weiss as a
melaphyre.

"Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., XLIX, p. 385.

Proc. Somerset Arch. & Nat recs "Soc, Vol. 28, p. 892.

*Science, XXIII, 1894, p. 1

*Laspeyres : Corr. Blatt. ge^ Ver. Bonn., 1893, p. 47.

i
E
:
1

1894.] Petrography. 705

The tuffs found with the nepheline leucite basalts of the Dauner
region in the Eifel are made up of augite, mica, and olivine fragments,
augite crystals, glass particles and lapilli cemented together by quartz
and felspar which represent an original glassy cement."

On the west coast of the Island of Celebes, Wichmann” finds boul-
ders of an epidote glaucophane-mica schist, supposed to be associated
somewhere in the interior of the island with mica quartzite.

JI, Schulte: Verh. d. Naturh. Ver. Bonn., 1893, p. 295.

!'Neues Jahrb. f. Min. etc., 1893, LI, p. 176.

706 The American Naturalist. [August,

BOTANY:

Abnormal Plant Growths.— Trillium grandiflorum Salisb., is
noted for its variableness, but a specimen brought in by one of our
pupils, this spring, exceeds anything I have seen in this respect. The
flower is double, having two sets of sepals, and two of petals. Both
sets of sepals are of the usual form and color. The outer petals are
striped like ribbon-grass, except the half of one which is white. The
inner ones are white, except a thread of green through the center of
one. There sre three stamens—one normal, one a filament without an
anther, and the other expanded into a half-sized petal, concave on one

* side where a thread of gold, about the length of the anther, seems to be
holding loyally to duty. The ovary is of usual size, the styles rather
small—one smaller than the others. Near the top of one of the carpels
arises an outgrowth about half an inch long, white, doubled together,
and drawn over at the top like a hood. To add to the general confu-
sion, there are, on the edges of this growth near the top, two pollen-
bearing lines about an eighth of an inch long.

A member of my botany class, Mr. Cheshire Boone, found a speci-
men of Hepatica acutiloba DC., with two flowers on one scape. The
second flower arises from the axil of a linear bract a little above the
middle of the scape. It is on a peduncle an inch long, and is about
half the size of the upper flower.

Another unusual form found this spring is Viola palmata L., var cu-
eullata Gray, with all of the petals emarginate.

State Normal School, Lucy A. OsBAND.

Ypsilanti, Mich., May, 1894.

The Approaching Meeting of the A. A. A. S.—The meeting of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science, this year,
from August 15th to 24th, promises to be of great interest to botanists.
It is to be held in Brooklyn, N. Y., within a few hours’ ride of the
homes and laboratories of probably one-half of the working botanists
of the country, which may be counted upon as insuring a large meet-
ing. Added to this is the fact that at this time will occur the first
meeting of the American Botanical Society, which must attract many
of our most earnest workers.

1Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska,

1894.] Botany. 707

The Completion of Coulter's Texan Flora.—Within a few
weeks, botanists have received copies of Part III of Dr. John M.
Coulter’s “ Manual of the Phanerogams and Pteridophytes of Western
Texas," published by the Department of Agriculture, as one of the
Contributions from the U. 8. National Museum. A glance over its
pages shows it to be an important contribution to North American
botany, covering, as it does, a region whose botany has hitherto been scat-
tered through many different reports and papers. That the work is
well-done, need not be said of anything from the masterhand of Dr.
Coulter, who has here again shown his ability to make a much needed
book. This volume carries southward the area covered by Coulter's
“Rocky Mountain Botany," and gives to the author a kind of “ pre-
emption right" to a belt of botanical territory stretching from the
Canadian line on the north (N. Dakota, Montana and Idaho) to the
Mexican boundary on the south (Texas and New Mexico). It will
clearly be his duty to enlarge his * Rocky Mountain Botany," so as to
take in the territory of this Texan Flora; then by addingthe Arizona- ,
Nevada region, make it cover the whole of the Western Highlands,
from about the 100th meridian to, but not including, the Pacific Coast
Region. Such a “Botany of the Western Highlands” would, on
many accounts, be much more likely to be successful than the two or
three manuals which it now seems pr we are to have for this re-
gion.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

708 The American Naturalist. [August,.

ZOOLOGY. 5

An Australasian Sub-family of Fresh-water Atherinoid -

Fishes.—Mr. J. Douglas Ogilby, of the Australian Museum, of Syd-
ney, has recently sent me a photograph and description of a new
species of a genus called Aristeus by Castelnau. This genus is of
much interest from a morphological as well as geographical point of
view. Mr. Ogilby has asked, “Is it an Atherinid and allied to
Nematocentris ? or should a new family be formed of it?” Mr. Ogilby,
unlike the original describer, is quite happy in his appreciation of its
affinities.

The genus Me/anotenia was proposed by Gill in 1862 (Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Phila. 1862, p. 280) for a fish called Atherina nigrans by
Richardson, and was subsequently renamed Nematocentris (Peters,
1866), Strabo (Kner & Steind, 1866), and Zantecla (Cast., 1873). It
has been generally referred to the Atherinide, but Kner and Stein-
dachner were disposed to associate it with Pseudomugil in their family
Pseudomugilide, and Castelnau proposed a new family, Zanteclide, for
it. No satisfactory family characters were given.

The genus Aristeus was described by Castlenau in 1879, and by him
referred to the family Gobiide. Steindachner, in a notice of the
genus (Zool. Jahresber. 1879, p. 1061), happily hit at its relations i in
the words, “Aristeus N. G. Casteln. (wal
d. Ref.).” :

There are two specially interesting features of these genera.

(1) They deviate from the typical Atherinids in the elongated anal
fin which advances far forward, and with the advance are coordinated
an advanced position of the anus and of the ventral fins, whose roots are
little behind the bases of the pectoral fins.

(2) The species of both genera are confined to the fresh-waters of the
Australasian realm and the constituent group is thus one more of the
groups limited to a single realm.

The deviations of the genera from the typical Atherinide appear to
be sufficient to warrant their segregation in a peculiar sub-family
which may be named Melanoteniine. But confirmation by anatomi-
cal characters are very desirable. The sub-family may be defined pro-
visionally, as follows ;

MELANOTÆNIINÆ. Atherinids with a spinous dorsal, whose fore-
most spine is robust and rest weak, a very long anal, and thoracic

URIS Sg hl iS ER E E SC ce se ce ERU T pa a THEME ^

Ce ee ee

1894.] Zoology. 709

ventral fins. Inhabitants of the fresh waters in the Austrogean (Aus-
tralasian) realm.

The genera may be differentiated as follows:

MErANoTXNIA. Melanoteniines with a little compressed fusiform
body, slightly curved dorso-rostral contour, and a blackish lateral
band.

RuowBATRACTUS. Melanoteniines with a much compressed rhombo-
fusiform ventradiform body, emarginate dorso-rostral contour, and no
distinct lateral band.

Aristeus having been used in 1840 by Duvernoy for a genus of
Crustaceans, is unavailable for the group so-called by Castelnau, and
Rhombatractus is used as a substitute.

Rhombatractus has a curious superficial resemblance to a toxotid on
account of its compressed body, declining back and ventradiform con-
tour, but the head is that of an atherinid.

It may be that the Melanotzniines should be accorded family rank,
but further data are desirable before such a claim is recognized. One
of the subordinal characters of the Percesoces, in any case, must be
modified to fit these fishes.—THEODORE GILL.

710 The American Naturalist. [August,

EMBRYOLOGY."

Earthworm Phylogeny.—The great accumulations of anatomical
facts that the study of exoti t has brought into existence dur-
ing the past few years is now to be made more intelligible by the added
facts of comparative embryology. It isa fitting tribute to one who has
inspired so much of this recent exploration into this field that Bourne's
paper upon the development and anatomy of certain Indian earth-
worms should appear in the complimentary number of Lankester’s
Quarterly Journal.

When the study of exotic earthworms had shown that there might be
large numbers of micro-nephridia‘ present in any segment and
when it was even claimed that tubules of these micro-nephridia might
anastomose to form a connection from segment to segment, the view of
Lankester became less tenable as it became more probable that
the ancestral condition of the earthworm was not what the common
European earthworm had led one to expect.

It seemed probable that the ancestor of the earthworm might have
had a large number of nephridia and of setz and no definite segmental
arrangement of these structures.

. Now, however, we learn from Bourne's paper that in the development
of Mahbenus imperatrix and Pericheta the vexatious micro-nephridia
arise as out-growths from provisional mega-nephridia and are thus of
apparent secondary value. The ancestral condition of a pair of
nephridia for each segment being clearly indicated even in these cases.
The connection of nephridial tubes, the so-called “ plecto-nephric ”
condition does not, apparently, exist at all, certainly not in the embryo.

We learn also that in these exotic forms, such as Pericheta (which is
common with us in green-houses) the large number of setæ found in a
band around each segment are not to be regarded as of ancestral value
since they all arise from two germ bands that then give rise to matrices
which grow laterally in each segment and form the numerous setal
sacs by segregation of cells and by division of matrices. The setal
germ bands in turn are regarded as probably arising from Wilson’s
lateral teloblastes.

Besides thus throwing much light upon the probable ancestral con-

! Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baliimore, Md., to whom contributions may be
sent

” A. G. Bourne. Q. T. Mic. Anat., April, 1894.

j
1
3
:
:
1
3
4
r
p

1894] _ Embryology. 711

dition of seta of nephridia in the earthworm group the author’s more
detailed future work promises to add to our knowledge of other diffi-
cult points, such as the origin of the nerve cord, which it is here stated
arises from two distinct matrices.

Bourne is inclined to regard the germ bands as the source of all the
metameric structures. The body wall muscles would be of other origin.
The segmentation of the digestive tract a secondary state forced upon it
by the mesoblastic structures.

Determination of Sex.— What at first sight appears to be an
interesting and valuable addition to the facts tending to show that favor-
able conditions lead to the production of female offspring and unfavor-
able conditions to the production of male offspring is to be found in a
paper by F. Braem upon the development of a marine polychxtous
annelid, Ophryotrocha puerilis. Here, however, as in some other cases,
the evidence is really of little value as may be seen from the facts given
by Korschelt in a paper immediately following that of Braem.

Braem found in attempting some regeneration experiments in addi-
tion to his study of the ovaries and testes that in one case there was a
remarkable change of sex. A female annelid full of ripe eggs was cut
into two pieces, the anterior containing 13 and the posterior 22
segments. After three weeks the anterior part had regenerated seven
segments.

It had become smaller and appeared to be starving while the eggs
had disappeared. When sectioned it was found to have changed its sex,
containing only testes. A few cells remained that were ova in process of
formation before the sexual glands changed their character and began
to form sperms.

The author would refer this transformation into a male to the un-
favorable conditions, to the fact that the creature was not sufficiently
nourished to form ova as well as to regenerate the lost part of its body.

Now Korschelt in a careful study of the anatomy of this same small
annelid finds that besides males and females, there are also herma-
phrodites (in fact Braem found one such case) in which the same gland
makes both ova and sperms. Among 30 individuals 6 were female, 7
were male, 8 were apparently female but contained male cells buth
young and full formed, white the remaining 9 were apparently male
though containing ova in the testes. Thus the hermaphrodite state is
the more frequent one, to judge from these few cases.

* Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., 57.

712 The American Naturalist. [August,

Though there is no evidence that the male and female states may
normally succeed one another in the same animal, yet when this, appar-
ently, was the case in one specimen operated upon by Braem, we are
not justified in regarding this is as a result of the operation or as in any
way connected with it, since it may be that it would have taken place
under the normal conditions. Moreover, and this is more important,
the animal full of eggs may very well have been a hermaphrodite from
the first, and have merely re-absorbed2its*ova under the stress of re-
generation, so that we know nothing as to any real change from female
to male in this case.

1894.] Psychology. 713

PSYCHOLOGY.

Mutualists.—Many animals which are found associated with
-other animals and which are usually termed parasites are, in fact, true
mutualists. I mean by the term, mutualist, an animal which gives a
quid pro quo or specific beneficial service to the host which affords it
sustenance and domicile. A true parasite feeds on the food or the
physical juices and structures of its host without rendering auy recip-
rocal service whatever. Thus, the family Pediculide (P. corporis, P.
capitis, etc.), found associated with man, are true parasites, while the
family Ricinie, found associated with birds, are true mutualists. I am
fully aware of the fact that I antagonize the opinions of entomologists
(who regard all these little creatures as parasites which are to be de-
stroyed as soon as discovered, inasmuch as they consider them detri-
mental to the health of the animals upon which they are found), for I
consider most of them absolutely necessary to the health and well-
being of their hosts, and their absence to be an indication of disease in
some form or other in those animals on whose bodies they are not to
be found. Careful observation has taught me that these faithful little
hygeinic servitors immediately abandon the bodies of fowls which are
the victims of cholera and kindred diseases. Porcine mutualists be-
have in a like manner when their hosts become diseased. I had
thought with others until recently, that these corporal scavengers and
toilette assistants were parasites, but systematic and painstaking obser-
vation has taught me otherwise. In the first place, microscopic exam-
ination shows that these creatures have no suction apparatus like fleas
(Pulex) and lice (Pediculus) for the purpose of sucking up the blood
and juices of their hosts. Their jaws are usually armed with a simple
pair of incurvated scrapers with which they scrape the surface of their
hosts’ bodies. Their stomachs never contain the blood of their hosts,
but are always filled with exfoliated epithelium and kindred super-
ficial debris. Supported by these observations alone, the fact at once
becomes evident that these creatures are not true parasites; but there
is yet more testimony to be adduced in favor of these hitherto maligned
-coadjutors and promotors of animal hygiene. If one carefully separ-
ates the feathers on the body of a fowl and uses a good lens (10 diam.)
hé may observe Liothe pallidum, a true mutualist, busily engaged in
removing exfoliated epithelium (scarf-skin) from the body of its host.
It thoroughly cleans its allotted area, scraping away and swallowing

714 -© The American Naturalist. [August,

all of the waste products of the skin. Again, if the feathers them-
selves be examined, another mutualist ( Liothe saculatum) may be seen
freshening and beautifying their sheen by taking into its stomach all
dead epithelial cells, etc., with which it comes in contact. Mutualists
are found everywhere in nature, and wherever found are of essential
service and benefit to the animals possessing them. From the giant
cetacean to the microscopic rhizopod, from the savage lion to the timid
field-mouse, from the kingly eagle to the tiny humming bird, no ani-
mal is without them. Butler’s epigram:
* Big fleas have little fleas upon their backs to bite ’em;
And these fleas have other fleas and so ad infinitum.”

is mainly true, only I insist that no true mutualist ever bites its host.
Many mutualists never reside wholly with their hosts, but visit them
occasionally to render them needful service. The famous crocodile
bird visits its host in order to pick its teeth; Buphagus, the surgeon ofthe
buffalo, alights on the back of its host, and, with its sharp, lance-like
beak opens the cells of encysted larve and removes them; the Euro-
pean starling performs a like service in a " wolves ” from the
backs of cattle.

In matters of the toilette many animals are entirely dép demie on
the ministrations of mutualists. This is notably the case with many
of the fish family. I placed two gilt catfish, whose skins had been
thoroughly cleaned with a solution of salt water and borax, in a tank
of filtered water in which there were no eltes, the mutualists of
this species of fish. In two days their skins had lost their beautiful
golden sheen and had become dull and lusterless. "The fish themselves
clearly showed by their actions that they were not in good health.
They remained at the bottom of the tank almost without motion. I
then took them out and found that their skins were covered with a
slimy mucous exudate. I placed them for a few moments in a tank
of pond-water in which there were multitudes of Gyropeltes. After al-
lowing them to remain in this tank for a few moments, they were re-
moved and examined, and thousands of these mutualists were discov-
ered greedily devouring the mucous. After a day's residence in the
pond water their skins had recovered all their lustre and beauty, and
the fish showed by their aetions that they had regained their health.
A truly remarkable mutualist is found associated with the crayfish.
It belongs to the genus Histriobdella, and its office is analagous to that
of the vulture, the jackal, and the burying beetle which remove car-
rion. It is exeeedingly agile and is altogether one of the most unique
in appearance of all animals. It may be described as a two-legged

LUE ee ARR A o Eee s ghe Se ES T RR Svo Mey a

Moy reapse CS edet:
MOT CARA Su IURI T aer Le ERR

1894.] Paychology. 715°

worm, which has all the powers of a most accomplished contortionist.
The crayfish, after oviposition, carries its eggs beneath its tail, and the
Histriobdella lives among them. Its office or function is to devour all
blighted or unimpregnated eggs and dead embryos, the decay of which
might affect the health of its host and progeny. Van Beneden, de-
scribing the Histriobdella found associated with the lobster, says:
“ Let us imagine a clown from the circus, his limbs dislocated as far as
possible, we might even say entirely deprived of bone, displaying
tricks of strength and activity on a heap of monster cannon balls,
which he struggles to surmount; placing one foot formed like an air-
bladder on one ball, the other foot on another, alternately balancing
and extending his body, folding his limbs on each other, or bending
his body upward like a caterpillar of the family geometride, and we
shall then have but an imperfect idea of all the attitudes which it as-
sumes, and which it Varies incessantly.” I once saw one of these little
animals stand erect on its legs, then bend its body down between them
and, with a quick flirt, turn a complete summersault. I have re-
peatedly seen this mutualist insert its proboscis into the eggs of cray-
fish and devour them. Microscopic investigation always showed that
the eggs thus attacked were unimpregnated, consequently unfertile. I
might prolong this paper by introducing many other mutualists, but
think it hardly necessary. I have shown that these creatures subserve
a very useful purpose in nature, and that they do not belong to that
disreputable class—the parasites.— Jas. WEIR, Jux., M. D.

47

716 The American Naturalist. [August,

ARCH ZOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Ancient American Bread.—Mr. S. P. Preston, of Lumberville,
told me on April 1st, 1894, that he remembered his grandfather, Silas
Preston, telling him how the latter, when a boy living on the farm now
owned by Benjamin Goss, in Buckingham township, Bucks County,
Pa, had seen Delaware Indians, about the year 1780, encamped in
barked-roofed wooden huts near by, pound corn in stone mortars with
stone pestles. They mixed the meal with water, and patting the dough
into flattened balls with their hands, baked these cakes in the hot em-
bers of their open fires. He did not tell his grandson whether they
salted the meal, or—what was more important, if we want to try the
experiment—whether the corn grains were pounded when old and well
dried, which would be a diffieult operation; when green and soft,
whieh would be easier, or after previous parching, which would be
easiest of all.

Franklin (Harshberger on Maize, p. 140) speaks of Indians, prob-
ably Delawares, parching corn grains in dishes of hot sand and after-
wards grinding them to a fine powder, which kept fresh a number of
years. Captain John Smith saw Indians roasting corn on the ear
green, and when thus parehed crisp, bruising it in a * wooden mortar
with a polt and lapping it in rowles in the leaves of their corn, and so
boyling it for a dainty."

Parehing loose grains well stirred in an open iron dish does as well
as either of the above methods in my experience and gets over the first
and main diffieulty of producing the meal or dough with a stone mor-
tar and pestle. This meal, as I have made it, from freshly parched
grain, is the easily produced Mexican Pinol, carried invariably on long
desert journeys in Chihauhua and Sonora—sometimes seasoned with
herbs or parched cocoa shells and generally mixed with sweetened
water as a strengthening beverage.

The taste of cakes made of parched meal, I find on experiment, dif-
fers as much from that of others made from fresh grain as it does from
the flavor of bread made by Mexican Indians from Metate crushed
grains previously softened in hot lime water; but, given the meal, the
Lenape process of cooking the dough in the embers of an open fire is
that to-day in use by the negroes of Southern Maryland and Virginia.
In an ash cake baked in the embers before me at Egglestons’, Giles
county, Virginia, in February, 1894, they reproduced the mode of the

SR qeu cc ert he

1894.] Archeolog, and Ethnology. — 717

Lenape cook, while with their hoe cakes, originally baked by the corn-
field hands on hoe blades thrust into the wattle and clay fire places in
log cabins, another Indian cake, that cooked on flat heated stones is
imitat

The rie word * Pone" (pronounced by the pr PRE ach pone,
and meaning baked corn bread), much used in Virginia to mean all
kinds of corn bread, including the Johnny cake (baked on a greased
board like a planked shad), is not needed to show that maize bread
cooking—the best of it on the Atlantic seaboard, is a direct inheri-
tance from the Indian.

Virginians justly despise all corn bread made north of Mason and
Dixon’s line. We use red corn instead of white, say they, which spoils
the flavor, grind the meal coarse, which spoils the grain, and lastly,
bake the meal (sometimes at mills) to save the frequent grinding neces-
sitated in the South (once a week in summer and once in three weeks
in winter) to prevent fermenting which destroys the vitality.

These alleged reasons may not fully account for the abominable
corn bread of the North, but it is possible that the Indians had devel-
oped valuable modes of preparing the grain of their great plant, egi
neither Virginian nor Northerner have understood.—H. C. Mer

The making of New arm Coast Shell heaps in 1780.
—To learn from Mr. Preston that even these squatting, half-civilized
Lenape, in Buckingham, as lately as 1780, went over to the sea to
make shell heaps once a year, is to lessen our surprise at the man-made
shell deposits of the New Jersey coast, for if these conspicuous remains
of shell feasts were built up, not only by coast-dwelling tribes, but by
an Indian population from a good range of interior country, we need
not wonder that they are very large or suppose that they are very old.

The Indians were in the habit of going in a body several days' walk,
said Mr. Preston, the elder, in April or May to the clam banks of the
New Jersey coast, near New Brunswick. There they encamped for
several weeks to feast on clams, and when they retnrned, brought to
the old and infirm who had remained at home, bundles of clams slung
in skins on pairs of poles running from shoulder to shoulder of two
men.

Even their stone-pointed arrows were sometimes used, at that time
by these tolerated stragglers, who had sold the land they lived on in
1737, as when during mowing season, they shot robins and
“ flickers” (golden-winged woodpeckers) in black cherry trees with
bows and arrows and strung the birds on long cords. Land turtles

718 The American Naturalist. [August,

were cooked for food, as when Mr. Preston saw a woman throw an
apron full into an open fire, while another poked the tortured creatures
back into the coals with a pole till they were roasted. It was re-
membered as a good joke that during a boiling of lye and soap fat for
soft soap, an Indian woman coming to the kettle in the absence of the
cooks, was seen to grease her hair with the mixture.—H. C. MERCER.

The Hemenway Collections.—The trustees of the Peabody
Museum of Ethnology, in Cambridge, received a letter from Mr.
Augustus Hemenway offering them, on behalf of the trustees of the
estate of Mrs. Mary Hemenway, the incomparable collection of arche-
ological specimens gathered during the last seven years by Mr. Frank
H. Cushing and Dr. J. Walter Fewkes in Arizona and New Mexico.

These collections are not offered as a gift, but merely as a deposit.
The trustees of the museum have accepted the loan, and have offered
a sufficient space for its display. It is probable, however, that the
deposits will amount practically to a gift.

A condition of this deposit is that Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, who has
been in charge of Mrs. Hemenway’s archeological enterprises since Mr.
Cushing was compelled, on account of continued ill-health, to retire,
shall continue in charge of the collection, although, of course, under
the direction of Prof. Putnam, the curator of the museum.

The collection, which may be divided for convenience’s sake into
two parts, that formed by Mr. Cushing and that by Dr. Fewkes, is now
widely scattered.

The portion excavated in the vicinity of Phenix and Tempe, Ari., by
Mr. Cushing, is at present stored in Salem, Mass., while some of the
results of Dr. Fewkes’ expedition to the Moqui Indians of New Mexico
are stored at 42 Mt. Vernon Street, Boston, and the rest are on exhibi
tion in the National Museum in Washington.

How soon these portions will be united in Cambridge has not yet
been decided, but it is reasonable to suppose by next fall there will be
a fairly complete display open to the public at the Peabody Museum.

The indirect cause of these collections was the explorations which
Mr. Cushing carried on among the Zufiis of New Mexico. The Zufiis
seemed to Mr. Cushing to possess remnants of certain customs and
habits which might possibly be referred back to the prehistoric inhabi-
tants of the ancient pueblos or towns, the big, low, communal buildings
which lie in ruins throughout the southwestern part of the United
States.

A thoroughly equipped expedition, the entire expenses of which were
paid by Mrs. Hemenway, who had become interested in Mr. Cushing’s
project, started for Arizona in 1887. For three years a most thorough,

ee ee oe ee

1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 719

careful and scientifically conducted expedition was carried on among
these pueblos under the direction of Mr. Cushing.

The collection of specimens, including almost every variety of pre-
historic implement, utensil and ornament in use among the ancient
dwellers, which Mr. Cushing obtained is the most valuable ever carried
out of Arizona. There is nothing from the same region comparable to
it anywhere. Even more valuable are the facts which Mr. Cushing
was enabled to learn from his explorations about the life and religious
habits of this heretofore mysterious race. As yet, however, the facts
have not been published by Mr. Cushing, who, since his illness, has
been employed by the national government.

* The explorations of Dr. Fewkes were made during the summers of
1890, 1891, 1892 and 1893. They were confined exclusively to the
Moqui and Zuñi tribes.

Much attention was paid to the | religious —— of the Zufiis. A
set of phonograph cylinders, songs, was obtained
during the summer of 1890. The cylinders, of course, are preserved
in the Hemenway collection.

A year or so later the magnificent Keam collection was acquired by
purchase. Keam had been a trader among the Moqui Indians for
twenty years. Like most Indian traders, he had acquired a collection
of utensils and religious paraphernalia, colleeted with an idea to sell
at some future day. He had refused to sell single pieces, keeping the
whole lot intact for some future purchaser. Every specimen was
labeled with a short description. In its numbers are included both
ancient and modern articles—blankets, basket ware, religious and
household pottery, kilts, dolls (which are made in the likeness of idols,
serving as a sort of kindergarten instruction to the children in religion), '
in fact, almost every type of old and new, of everything in use among
the Moquis and their predecessors. Not only is the collection the best
in the world, but it must always remain so, for the Moquis have by this
time become sophisticated by white civilization. Added to this Keam
collection are the valuable supplementary collections gathered by the
Hemenway expedition itself.

Thirty-five hundred specimens were beautifully arranged in the
exhibition held two years ago in Madrid to commemorate the four
hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America. These specimens
were intended to illustrate the habits of the natives of New Mexico

` at the time of the landing of Columbus. They gained Mrs. Hemenway

a personal letter of thanks from the Queen of Spain, and their curator
the decoration of the Order of Isabella the Catholic.

720 The American Naturalist. [August,

MICROSCOPY.

New Method of Imbedding in a Mixture of Celloidin and
Paraffine/—Messrs. Field and Martin recommend the following
method as an improvement on those proposed a few years ago by
Ryder and Kultschizky. The method permits of imbedding the ob-
ject directly in a mixture of celloidin and paraffine. The mixture is
prepared by using as a solvent, alcohol and toluol (toluéne) ; the lat-
ter, taking the place of ether, makes it possible to dissolve paraffine in
the celloidin solution. Proceed as follows:

1. Make a mixture of absolute alcohol and toluol in equal parts.

2. Soak some dry celloidin in toluol; after some hours, add a little of

thealcohol-toluol? The celloidin swells up and dissolves. The solution.
should have about the consistency of clove oil.

3. Finally, add to this mixture some shavings of paraffine, obtained
by scraping the surface of a block of this substance with ascalpel. In
order to hasten the solution and increase the proportion. of paraffine
the mixture may be heated a little. Above 20° to 23°, one runs the
risk of precipitating the celloidin, which separates in a —
granular mass.

These mixtures prepared, the process of imbedding is executed in
the following manner: The object, taken from absolute alcohol, is-
placed in the alcohol-toluol. It is easily and quickly saturated, and
is then placed directly in the imbedding mixture. The penetration is.
more rapid than in the ordinary celloidin solution. As soon as satura-
tion is complete, one may proceed to solidify the celloidin. This may
be done in two ways:

1. The object is transferred to a saturated solution of paraffine in
chloroform, and when the solidification is complete (2-3ds.), the imbed-
ding paraffine is carried out according to the well known method
Bütschli.

TEd. By Prof. C. O. Whitman, University of Chicago.

*Bull Soc. Zool de France, XIX, p. 48, Mar. 18, 1894, and Zeitschr. f. wiss.
Mikr., XI, 1, 1894

*?The alcohol-toluol is added after the tuluol has been turned off. About 45cc
is enough for 1 grm. of celloidin. This solution will dissolve about 4 grm. of
paraffine (melting at 56?) at ordinary room temperature.

-

1894.] Microscopy. 721

2. The object is placed in toluol containing some paraffine in solu-
tion. The alcohol diffuses in the excess of toluol, and the celloidin
solidifies. Imbed as before.

In both cases care must be takef to avoid shrinkage, which occurs
if the eelloidin is solidified in pure paraffine.

The object thus imbedded in paraffine is sectioned in the usual way.
The ribbons of sections are fixed to the slide by means of the ordinary
albumen fixative, or by the aid of pure water. In the latter case, the
strips cut to the length desired are placed on a clean slide slightly wet
with water. Then a little water is added by means of a brush, just
enough to barely float the sections‘ The slide is then heated so as to
soften the paraffine without melting it. The sections expand readily.
It remains only to drain off the water and let the slide dry completely.

If desired the celloidin may be removed by the mixture of alcohol
and toluol which dissolves at once both the paraffine and celloidin.
Then, after washing with toluol, the sections may be mounted in bal-
sam in the usual way. If they are to be colored on the slide, they
should be washed with alcohol and water.

On the Fixing of Paraffine Sections to the Slide.—A com-
bination of the water method of Suchannek and Heidenhain with the
albumen method of Mayer has been found very useful as it does away
with the slow-drying of the former method and still permits the ready
arrangement of the sections and their expansion and flattening.

A slide, cleaned with only ordinary care, is covered by means of the
finger with the least possible amount of Mayer’s Albumen. By means
of a small brush the upper surface of the slide is then flooded with
water and the brush, still slightly wet, is used for picking up and ar-
ranging the sections or ribbons. The brush may then be used for re-
moving the excess of water, and the slide slightly warmed fora few
moments on a water-bottle, care being taken that the sections do not
melt. The sections soon expand and float upon the water which
should be drained away and slide placed a second time upon the
water-bath. After remaining about fifteen minutes the paraffine may
be melted and the slide plunged into turpentine or some other solvent
of paraffine.—H. C. Bumpus, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods
Holl, Mass.

*The following note by Dr. Bumpus suggests an improvement.

222 The American Naturalist [August,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The work of the Michigan Fish Commission in 1894.
—After a careful study of various points along the coast, Charlevoix
has finally been decided upon as the location for the work of this year.
It lies on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan just north of Grand
Traverse Bay, within easy reach of numerous white fish spawning and
fishing grounds. Extensive fishing operations are carried on here
throughout the year, and varied conditions of shore and bottom are to
be found within easy reach. Opposite this point Lake Michigan
reaches a depth of 850 feet, and shallow water with reefs and islands
are not far distant. Numerous inland lakes of varying size are also
readily accessible and the variety of conditions is unsurpassed by any
point on this shore. In addition to this the Commission has already
at Charlevoix a hatchery which will furnish extensive aquaria for
keeping specimens alive and for experimental work. A carpenter
shop next door to the hatchery building has been rented for the sum-
mer and fitted out as a laboratory, with tables, shelves, reagents and
the necessary apparatus. The University of Michigan co-operates
with the undertaking as in former years, and has renewed its loan of
apparatus and of a special library. Several boats, including a small
steamer and all kinds of nets for shallow and deep water work and for
bottom and surface collecting, are at the service of the party.

The work will include a determination of the fauna and flora of Lake
Michigan at this point and of their vertical and horizontal distribu-
tion. This determination will be both qualitative and quantitative,
and will be particularly directed towards a study of the life history of
the white fish and lake trout. Since the life of the water constitutes,
first or last, the food of the fish in it, this determination will afford
some idea of the value of this locality asa breeding ground for fish
and of its adaptability as a planting ground for the fry. The temper-
ature, transparency and purity of the water and the character of shore
and bottom, as well as the currents and connecting Jakes will receive
attention as problems which affect most powerfully the welfare of the
fish.

The party at work in the laboratory will consist of Professor Henry
B. Ward, University of Nebraska, Director; Professor E. A. Birge,
University of Wisconsin ; Professor C. Dwight Marsh, Ripon College,
Wisconsin; Dr. Charles A. Kofoid, University of Michigan; Dr.
Robert H. Walcott, University of Michigan ; Mr. Herbert S. Jen-
nings, University of Michigan; Mr. Bryant Walker, Detroit, Michi-

1894.] Scientific News. 123

gan. In addition to these, a number of specialists will be guests of
the Commission for a longer or shorter interval.

The laboratory will be open during July and August, and visiting
scientists will be aecorded a most cordial welcome. To a certain ex-
tent it will be possible to offer the privileges of the laboratory to spe-
cialists who may wish to carry on investigations on special groups.
Notice of such cases should be sent to the director as early as possible,
that the necessary arragements may be made.

The Biological Station of the University of Illinois.—
'The field operations and the resources of thé'natural history depart-
ments of the University, especially those of zoology and botany, have
been notably increased during the last term by the establishment,
April 1, on the Illinois River, at Havana, of a biological station
devoted to the systematic and continuous investigation of the plant
and animal life of the waters of that region. This establishment,
authorized by the trustees of the University at their March meeting, is
under the direction of Professor Forbes, with Mr. Frank Smith, assist-
ant in zoology, in immediate charge of the work. Mr. Adolph Hem-
pel and Mrs. Smith also work there continuously, with an expert
fisherman as factotum.

The field work is now done from a cabin boat, chartered for the
summer, which carries the seines, dredges, surface nets, plankton appa-
ratus, and other collecting equipment, together with microscopes,
reagents for the preservation of specimens, a small working library, a
number of special breeding cages for aquatic insects, and a few aqua-
ria. This boat is provided with sleeping accommodations for four men,
and with a well-furnished kitchen.

In Havana itself are office and laboratory rooms supplied with run-
ning water and electric light, and provided with the usual equipment
of a biological laboratory, consisting of first-class microscopes, micro-
tomes, biological reagents, etc., and tables for five assistants. Profes-
sor Forbes and Mr. Hart, of the state laboratory of natural history,
visit the station frequently for special lines of work.

The boat is established in Quiver Lake, an elongate hay or
Illinois, two and a half miles above Havana. At low water this lake
is about two miles long with a steep sandy bank some fifty feet high
on the eastern side and a mud flat on the western. The banks are
wooded, on the east mostly with oak and hickory, and on the west with
the lowland species. — The locality is beautiful and healthful, and the
water excellent.

From the lake and the river selection has been made of a number ot —

124 - The American Naturalist. [August,.

typieal situations, and from these, and from Phelps and Thompson
Lakes a little distance away, collections of all descriptions are made:
at regular intervals for a comparative study of the organic life—the
relative abundance of the species at different seasons of the year, and
the general system of conditions by which it is affected.

* The plan of operation contemplates continuous work at this station
for several years, with especial reference to the effect of the enormous
overflow and rapid retreat of waters characteristic of the Illinois and.
the Mississippi system generally. Continuous studies are made of the:
food of all the species collected, with final reference to the feeding
habits and food resourges of the native fishes of the region. Temper-
atures are taken daily, and analyses of the waters of the lake and
river at the various stations are being made at regular intervals by the
chemical department of the University.

This station will be held open for graduate students in zoology and
botany wishing to take their advanced degrees in zoological or botani-
cal lines. Such students, choosing to pursue their studies at Havana
will be furnished with every facility for the original investigation of a
large variety of subjects, and arrangements will be made by whiclr the
other studies of their postgraduate courses may be carried forward
without embarrassment.

The station is further capable of sufficient expansion to accommo-
date other investigators from the University and from the University
summer scnool, for whose benefit excursions will be arranged as may
be found profitable.

This is the first inland aquatic biological station in America manned
and equipped for continuous investigation ; and the first in the world
to undertake the serious study of the biology of a river system.—From
the Illini, June 6, 1894.

Cook's Excursion to Greenland.— The excursion to visit
Greenland organized by Dr. Frederick A. Cook, anthropologist of
Peary's first expedition, consists of fifty persons, of whom a good part
are students of science. They have chartered the steamer Miranda
and will sail directly for the far north, stopping at Cape Breton, and
at two or three places in Labrador and Southern Greenland, reaching
Inglefield Gulf about the first of August. Among the scientific mem-
bers are Professor W. H. Brewer of Yale College, who will go the
whole round; Professor B. C. Jillson of Pittsburg, Pa., who with Pro-
essor G. F. Wright and son, of Oberlin, O., and a party of six, will
stop off in Umenak Fiord about latitude 71, to study the border of the
ice sheet, the neighboring glacial deposits, the glaciers entering the

1894.] Scientific News. 725

fiord, the Tertiary deposits of the vicinity, "id make a collection of
the plants and animals.

Professor L. L. Dyche, at the head of the department of Zoology
and Taxidermy at the State University of Kansas, is the official nat-
uralist of the expedition, and will go the full round. He will make a
specialty of collecting Birds and Mammals. He will have under
him Mr.S. P. Orth of Oberlin, O., botanist, and B. F. Stanton of
Oberlin, assistant naturalist, to make general collections. Mr. E. A.
Mellhenney of Louisana, goes as an ornithologist.

Professer C. E. Hite of Philadelphia with three assistants is to stop
offin Labrador for general exploration. Professor E. P. Lyon of
Chicago goes for the general student of biology. The expedition ex-
pects to return about September 20th.—G. F. W RIGET.

The Forty-third Meeting of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, will he held in Brooklyn, New
York, August 15 to 24,1894. The following officers will bein charge:

President, Daniel G. Brinton, Media, Pa.

Vice-Presidents, A.—Mathameties and Astronomy, George C. Com-
stock, Madison, Wis.; B.— Physics, Wm. A. Rogers, Waterville, Me. ;
C.—Chemistry, T. H. Norton, Cincinnati, O. ; D.—Mechanical Science
and Engineering, Mansfield Merriman, South Bethlehem, Pa.; E.—

Geology and Geography, Samuel Calvin, Iowa City, Iowa; F.—Zool-
ogy, S. H. Seudder, Cambridge, Mass. (Resigned) ; G.— Botany, L. M.
Underwood, Greencastle, Ind.; H.—Anthropology, Franz Boaz, New
York; I.—Economie Suse and Statistics, Henry Farquhar, Wash-
Siete, D. C.

Permanent Secretary, F. W. Putnam, Cambridge (office, Salem),
Mass.

General Secretary, H. L. Fairchild, Rochester, N. Y.

Secretary of the Council, James Lewis Howe, Louisville, Ky.

Dr. August von Klipstein, formerly Professor of Mineralogy at
Giesson, died, A pril 16, 1894, in his 93d year.

The news of the appointment of Sidney J. Heckson of Downing Col-
lege, Cambridge, to the Chair of Zoology at Owens College, Man-
chester, will prove welcome to his many friends.

Science in Persia! "The Shah has instituted a zoological garden.

Dr. J eim Hyrtl, the anatomist, died, July 17, 1894. He was born
on Dec. 7, 1811, at Eisenstadt, Hungary, and studied at Vienna,
where he staked, at the age of twenty-one, the position of preparator.
He was chosen in 1837 as professor in the University of Prague, and

726 The American Naturalist. [August,

in 1845 returned to Vienna as professor of anatomy at the university
there. In 1857 he became a member of the Imperial Academy of
Sciences. He was one of Austria’s most distinguished anatomists and
the author of two works which have come to be accepted as standard
authorities throughont the world—* The Manual of Physiological and
Practical Anatomy” and “The Manual of Topographical Anatomy
atd Its Applications.” Dr. Hyrtl, being very skilful in the art of
preparing anatomical specimens, established in Vienna an anatomical
museum, of which he published a most interesting description. He
had enriched most of the anatomical collections of Europe with models
of rare perfection. One of his collections, that of the skeletons of
fishes, was purchased by Prof. Cope of Philadelphia. He was for a
time director of the Ecole Superieure, resigning the position in 1874.

Dr. George Huntington Williams, professor of geology at Johns
Hopkins University, whose death occurred in July, founded the de-
partment of mineralogy and geology at the Johns Hopkins in 1888,
and since that time had acquired a wide reputation among scientific
men for his intimate knowledge of the geology and topography of
Maryland. He was also a collaborator of the United States Geologi-
eal Survey, and prepared a number of special reports for the survey
during his summer vacation. He was born Jan. 28, 1856, at Utica,
N. Y. His connection with the Johns Hopkins dates from March,
1883, when he entered the university as a fellow by courtesy. In
October of that year he was added to the faculty as an associate in
mineralogy. In 1885 he was made an associate professor, and iu 1892
was chosen to the chair of inorganic geology. His writings include
nearly a hundred geological and mineralógical papers in scientific
journals, more than one-half of which treat of the geology of Mary-
land, especially in the vicinity of Baltimore. He wrote “The Ele-
ments of Crystallography,” and had been engaged for a number of
years in preparing a new geological map of Maryland for the United
States Geological Survey. He was one of the judges of the mines and
mining exhibit at the World’s Fair, an editor of the Standard Diction-
ary, recently issued, and of Johnson’s Cyclopedia, now in press. He
was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, a vice-president
of the Geological Society of America, and a member of the American
Institute of Mining Engineers, the Washington Geological Society and
other scientific bodies.

Johannes Nill, founder of the Stuttgart Zoological Garden. died in
that city May 20, 1894; hisson, Adolf Nill, is his suecessor in the
management of the garden.

| adi ae aS a T OTE

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THE MONISI.

A QUARTERLY MAGAZINE

_Editor: DR. PAUL CARUS.

di nisier à EDWARD sd ams.
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Vol. IV. APRIL, 1894. No. 3.
CONTENTS.
THREE ASPECTS OF MONISM, Vade C. Pere or Chines T e ME
THE oF RELI , Gen. M. M. Tra » Chi

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N FROM Laon: Lester , Washingto
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RR NDENCE—France, Lucien Arr
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The First Magazine Devoted to Archaclogy and Ethnology established in America. It has now
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mong the Attractions for 1894 are the following:
A series of articles, accompanied with kao on the early migrations and loeations of Indian tribes,
r the title of
** Footprinís of the Abori T ig Rev
William Wallace Tooker, Mr. J. A. Wat

m eauchamp, Prof. A. F. Chamberlain, Dr.
kins, Rev. "George Patterson, and other specialists, Also a
articles on the customs, symbols and droid chs of the

series of
Pueblos re ciitr Dwellers, y J. yit of the Hemingway puteo, E M. Ste-
phens, of Keam’s Canon, and sire Mere “Ch aracteristics of the American Lange pe by | Dr D.
G. Brinton, n, Prof. Ed. Seler and others. Alsoo on Pubs Mane and Folklore; byi Mr.
Jonn McLean. Mr. A. Perry, of London, England, «irs. Zelia A Dorsey will write upon
Mexican,and Peruvian Antiquiti en. E

ve here will be tots on a paio dos "PoLyNESIAN ORIGIN of the
American Indians, and on Prehistoric Con i pa Other Continents, by Dr. C rus Tho mas, Hon. James
Wickersnam and C. Staniland Wake and p gent n “ Bronze, Co opper and Rare Stone Relics” which have
recently come to ligh + Ue Dr Lh Ix

eT R. Sutter, H. I. Smith, William R. Seever, and S. H.
Montgomery. Notes
Discoveries in Palestine and Egypt. by Prof. T. F. Wri of —— rr and Rev. W. C.
Winslow, D. D. Explorations in Polynesia, ANM: Babylonia, ir China, in Classic Lands. by
competent scholars

The editor of the American Antiquarian is publishing a series of books on PRE-
CURA TIMES, and now offers the Sil wike to the public

l. He Mound- rien eio Works and pres, a. .Prioe, $3.50
It. mal Effigies and Emblematic Mo uu ru Wd X e ME LL
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MICROSCOPIGAL JOURNAL

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THE MICROSCOPE

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This periodical, now in its 14th year, recently edited by Dr. A. C. Stokes, of
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EDITORS: STEVENSON BROWN, President, Montreal Micro Soc., Montreal, Canada.

ILANDRO VICENTINI, M. D., Chie ti, Italy.

ag cod ad: TS, APRIL, 1894.
A by Aie Trip to Jers
The Extent of the Ann Ted and the Function of the different parts of the Sporangium of
t

1

Fern n A
The Sense-Organs on the ute of our White Ants, Termes fiavipes. Joach "rr ^1

oam Preparations xri with Chloral Hydrate.

Facts nis ce s eni he Vegetarian Theory. Mrs. Alice Bodington.
aeneon Photom

Bacteria of the Koos. ae ab EE Flora of the Mouth. (Large mco cm e

Predacious and Parasitic Enemies of the Aphides. (With Plate) H.C. A. ‘n an
Normal Histology. (Ilustrated.
The Technology of Diatoms. (With Plate.) M. J. Tempere.

w Amplification
The Royal Natural aae (Illustrat ted.)
Combination Hot Filter and Steam Steriliser. (With Plate) F. W. Malley.
The Solandi oe of is ipsu

Notes for Beginners in Mic Reynolds, M. D.
What is the Use of the Btady c of vi Dese: en "A. C. Smith.
Frogs’ er m

Microsco echni
Microscopical Techni Bacillus. H. Heiman, M. D.
aufmann's Method of Staining Tubercle Bacilli. Fannie L. Bishop.
re ode of Demonstrating Microbes.
Reviews.
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PLASTER CASTS OF THE "FOLLOWING "MAMMALIA

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Phenacodus primaevus Cope, (Wyoming) $100.00. Hy-
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Tetrabelodon shepardii Leidy, mandibular ramus and symphysis
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CONTENTS.

P
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THE

AMERICAN NATU RALIST

— XXVIII. _ September, 1 "m 333

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE SUBTERRANEAN FAUNA
OF NORTH AMERICA.

Bv ALPHEUS S. Packarp.!

Having, in my essay on the Cave Fauna of this continent,

attempted to bring together as many facts as possible bearing
on this subject, in now addressing the members of this Con-
gress on the topic assigned me, it will be well to first give a
résumé of the general subject and then to call attention to the
additional facts and conclusions relating to this interesting
topic.
In that work I took the view that the cave fauna of this
country, and presumably of the world in general, was formed
of emigrants or colonists from the surrounding regions of the
upper world. I may be permitted to give an extract from
what I published in 1888, in order to call attention to the
scope of the inqui

“The conditions of existence in caverns, subterraneous
streams and deep wells, are so marked and unlike those which
environ the great majority of organisms, that their effects on
the animals which have been able to adapt themselves to such
conditions at once arrest the attention of the observer. To
such facts as are afforded by cave-life, as well as parasitism,
the philosophic biologist naturally first turns for the basis of

1 Read at the meeting of the Zoological Congress of the World’s Auxiliary
Congress of the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1894.

48

728 The American Naturalist. [September,

his inductions and deductions as to the use and disuse of
. organs in inducing their atrophy. It is comparatively easy to
trace the effects of absence of light on animals belonging to
genera, families, or orders in which eyes are normally almost
universally present. As we have seen in the list already given

of non-cavernicolous animals, the eyes are wanting from causes

of the same nature as have induced their absence in true cave
animals. No animal or series of generations of animals,
wholly or in part, loses the organs of vision unless there is a
physical, appreciable cause for it. While we may never be
able to satisfactorily explain the loss of eyes in certain deep-
sea animals from our inability to personally penetrate to the
abysses of the sea, we can explore caves at all times of day and
night, of winter and summer; we can study the egg-laying
habits of the animals, and their embryonic development; we
can readily understand how the caves were colonized from the
animals living in their vicinity ; we can nicely estimate the
nature of their food, and its source and amount, as compared
with that accessible to out-of-door animals; we can estimate
with some approach to exactitude the length of time which has
elapsed since the caves were abandoned by the subterranean
streams which formed them and became fitted for the abode of
animal life. The caves in Southern Europe have been ex-
plored by more numerous observers than those of this coun-
try, and the European cave fauna is richer than the Ameri-
can, but the conditions of European cave-life and the effects of
absence of light and the geological age of the cave fauna are a
nearly exact parallel with those presented in the pages of my
memoir. Moreover, the cave-life of New Zealand and the forms
there living in subterranean passages and in wells, show
that animal life in that region of the earth has been affected in
the same manner. The facts seem to point to the origin of the
cave forms from the species now constituting a portion of the
present Plistocene fauna; hence they are of very recent
origin.”

The advances in our knowledge of cave-life made since 1886
and 1887, may be referred to under the following heads:

ME RT

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 729

I. The fauna of caves, subterranean waters and wells, and
their origin, investigated by H. Garman, Herrerao, Girard,
Bolivar, Cope and Stejneger.

II. New facts regarding blind non-cavernicolous or lucifu-
gous forms, comprising the anatomical and physiological in-
vestigations of Eigenmann, Hess, Kadyi, Schlampf, Ritter, and
others.

III. Embryological observations on the conditions of the
eyes in the young or in the embryos, tending to prove the
origin of blind forms from normal eyed ancestors, by Teller
and by Eigenmann.

IV. Theoretical discussions, by Weismann, Herbert Spencer,
Lankester, and others.

I. It is very desirable to make a thorough survey of the ani-
mal life living at present in the region around the entrances
of caves, in order to ascertain the eyed forms from which the
blind ones may have originated. This Professor Garman has
begun to do for the cave-region of Kentucky. In his article in
“Science,” on the origin of the cave-fauna of Kentucky,” while
he remarks that “ the geological evidence is all that could be de-
sired for proof of a recent origin of the caves themselves," he
dissents “from the conclusions which have been drawn from
this proof, as to the recent origin of the blind animals,” claim-
ing that animals which burrow in the soil everywhere show a
tendency: to loss of the organs of vision,” and that “ the origin-
als of the cave species of Kentucky were probably already ad-
justed to a life in the earth before the caves were formed,”
and adds, “I cannot believe that there has been anything
more than a gradual assembling in the caves of animals
adapted to a life in such channels. In this view of the mat-
ter the transformation of eyed into eyeless species appears to
have been much less sudden and recent than has been sup-
posed.” He illustrates his point by the “ definite example of
the blind crustacean, Caecidotaea (Asellus) stygia, which, though
first discovered in caves, is also widelyjdistributed in the upper
Mississippi Valley, occurring as far east as Pennsylvania. “It
is, throughout its range, a creature of underground streams,
and is nowhere more common than on the prairies of Illinois

730 The American Naturalist. [September,

(the last place in the country in which one would expect to
find a cave), where it may be collected literally by the hun-
dreds at the mouths of the tile-drains and in springs. In
Kentucky also it is not more abundant in the cave region than
elsewhere, being very frequently common under rocks in
springs and in streams flowing from them, even during its
breeding season. It is only natural that such a crustacean
should have found itself at home in Mammoth Cave when this
cave was ready for its reception.”

“T scarcely see what grounds there are for supposing that
the present cave species are older than the remaining Qua-
ternary fauna. All the blind and eyeless or partially eyed
species must, in the beginning, have descended from normally-
eyed forms, while the loss of vision or the disappearance of
eyes, even where the rudiments of eyes remain, may, in some
cases, have been comparatively sudden (by which we mean
after several generations, or less, say, than a hundred), or in
others have required hundreds of generations. In some cases,
as in that of Caecidotaea, forms living in subterranean streams
or under stones or buried in the soil, may have become already
modified before being carried, or before migrating into the
caves.”

Mr. Garman then refers to the blind fishes, giving some new
facts regarding their distribution. Finally he writes of the dis-
tribution of the blind beetles of the genus Anophthalmus, and
gives an interesting account of a new species (A. hornii) discov-
ered in fissures in the Trenton limestone of Lexington, Ky.
This is an interesting example of the way in which a species liv-
ing in conditions intermediate between an out-of-door life under
stones orin the soil and in caves, becomes gradually adapted to
a cavernicolous existence. The author also states his belief “that
there appears to have been, after the Champlain period, a
migration towards Mammoth Cave of cave insects from the
south and east, when the continent had not been so greatly
affected by changes of level as was the Mississippi Valley. Mr.
Garman also sees nothing to indicate that cave animals bave
ever been more completely isolated than they are now, a view
with which we agree. This does not conflict with the general

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 731

view we have expressed that isolation is an important factor
in the evolution of the fauna of caves, of subterranean waters,
and of other dark situations.

Other additions to our subterranean fauna have been noticed
by Mr. S. Garman, who finds in the caves of southwestern
Missouri, in which are subterranean streams, besides Tiphlich-
thys subterraneus Girard a new species of blind crayfish (Cam-
barus setosus Faxon); what “seems” to be Ceuthophilus sloanii
Pack. and Asellus hoppiae Garman, “ from Day’s Cave, in mud
under stones;” the latter form seems to be a genuine, eyed
Asellus, and allied to an undetermined species represented on
Pl. IV, fig. of our memoir, collected from a brook near Lan-
caster, Ky. The six other species of invertebrates mentioned
belong to common out-of-door species, including a dragon-fly,
a Dineutes, and a Hydrotrechus, and need not have been men-
tioned in connection with cave insects, as multitades of insects
naturally occur at or near the mouth of caves.

Here might be mentioned the interesting discovery by Mr.
Nathan Banks of the common Phalangid of Wyandotte Cave,
Scotolemon flavescens Cope, * under stones on the Virginia shore
of the Potomac near Washington, D. C," which, he says,
“does not differ from cave specimens.”

A blind Salamander has also been discovered in this coun-
try by Mr. Stejneger. In the Rock House Cave, Missouri, on
the walls, about 600 feet from the entrance, occurred a blind
salamander (Typhlotriton spelaeus), forming a new genus and
species of the family Desmognathidae. In the single adult
captured the eyes are said to be “ concealed under the continu-
ous skin of the head.” A larva was found, but, strangely
enough, the condition of the eyes in the young is not referred
to.

Passing out of our territory into Mexico, Professor Alfonso
L. Herrera describes the results of his researches on the fauna
of Cacahuamilpa Grotto, in Mexico. The new or more inter-
esting forms are the following:

*The Phaiangida Mecostethi of the United States. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc.,
XX, 149-152. June, 1893.

732 The American Naturalist. (September,
INSECTS.

Choleva cacahuamilpensis (Ch. spelaea Bilmk.).

Tachys cacahuamilpensis (Bembidium unistriatum Bilmk.).
Ornix cacahuamilpensis (Ornix impressipenella Bilmk.).
Pholeomyia cacahuamilpensis Herrera.

Phalangopsis cacahuamilpensis Herrera (Ph. annulata Bilmk.).
Lepisma cacahuamilpensis Herrera (L. anophthalma Bilmk.).

ARACHNIDA.

Phrynus cacahuamilpensis Herrera (Ph. mexicanus Bilmk.).
Drassus cacahuamilpensis Herrera (D. pallidipalpis Bilmk.).
Nesticus cacahuamilpensis Herrera (Pholcus cordatus Bilmk.).

MYRIOPODA.
Scutigera cacahuamilpensis Herrera.
. CRUSTACEA.

Armadillo cacahuamilpensis Bilmk.

I have received from Professor Herrera an eyeless Asellid
crustacean taken from a well at Montery, Leon, Mexico. It
shows no traces of eyes, and apparently belongs to a new genus,
the species also being undescribed.

II. New Facts REGARDING BLIND, NoN-CAVERNICOLOUS, OR
Luctrucous Fors.

Although not a cave-dweller, the blind goby of the Califor-
nian coast lives in similar conditions and tells the same story
as the blind Proteus of the cave of Adelsberg or the blind sal-
amander of the Missouri Cave, of the loss of eyesight by dis-
ease. The blind goby (Typhlogobius californiensis Steindachner)
occurs abundantly at Point Loma, San Diego, under rocks be-
tween tide-marks in holes made by “crabs” (more properly,
shrimps). As Professor C. H. Eigenmann tells us, in his paper —
on the “ Fishes of San Diego:” “It has been found nowhere
else about San Diego, but has been taken at Ensenada. Its

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 733

habitat is, as far as known, quite limited. In its pink color
and general appearance it much resembles the blind fishes in-
habiting the caves of southern Indiana. Its peculiarities are
doubtless due to its habits. The entire bay region is inhabi-
ted by a carideoid crustacean which burrows in the mud. It,
like the blind fish, is pink in color. Its holes in the bay are
frequented by Cleavelandia, etc., while at the base of Point
Loma, where the waves sometimes dash with great force, the
blind fish is its associate. . . . . In the bay the gobies
habitually live out of the holes, into which they descend only
when they are frightened, while at Point Loma this species
never leaves its subterranean abode, and to this fact we must
attribute its present condition.

“ How long these fishes have lived after their present fashion
it would be hard to conjecture. The period which would pro-
duce such decided structural changes can not be a brief one.
The scales have entirely disappeared, the color has been re-
duced, the spinous dorsal has been greatly reduced ; not only
have the eyes become stunted, but the whole frontal region of
the skull, and the optie nerves have been profoundly changed.

“The skin, and especially that of the head, has become
highly sensitized. The skin of the snout is variously folded
and puckered and well-supplied with nerves; the nares are
situated at the end of a fleshy protuberance which projects
well forward, just over the mouth. At the chin are various
short tentacles, and a row of papillae, which very probably
bear sensory hairs similar to those represented in Figs. 15 and
16 (Plate XXIII), extends along each ramus of the lower jaw,
and along the margin of the lower limb of the preopercle.
The eye is, however, the part most seriously affected. In the
young, Fig. 7, it is quite evident, and is apparently functional.
Objects thrust in front of them are always perceived, but the
field of vision is quite limited. With age, the skin over the
eye thickens, and the eyes are scarcely evident externally. As
far as I could determine, they do not see at this time, and cer-
tainly detect their food chiefly, if not altogether, by the sense
of touch. A hungry individual will swim over meats, fish or
a mussel, etc., intended for its food without perceiving it by

734 The American Naturalist. [September,

sight or smell, but as soon as the food comes in contact with
any portion of the skin, especially of the head region, the slug-
gish movements are instantly transformed, and a stroke of the
fins brings the mouth immediately in position for operations.”

Here, again, it may be observed that this blind fish is prob-
ably not older than the beginning of the Plistocene period,
since we know that the coast of California has been rising since
the Pliocene epoch, and therefore the coast lines have materi-
ally changed since tbe end of the Tertiary.

For a very full and elaborate account of the degenerate eyes
of this blind fish we are indebted to Mr. W. E. Ritter, in an
essay published during the present year. Besides the eyes he
treats histologically of the integumentary sense papillae, and
of the integument of this animal, giving a summary of his re-
sults on pp. 96 and 97, which we in part reproduce.

1. In the smallest examples of the blind goby studied, the
eyes, though very small, are distinctly visible even in pre-
served specimens, the lens being plainly seen. In the largest
specimens, on the other hand, they are so deeply buried in the
tissue as to appear even in the living animals as mere black
specks, while in preserved ones they are, in many cases, wholly
invisible.

2. As is the case with rudimentary organs in general, the
eye is subject to great individual variation in size, form, and
degree of differentiation.

3. The only parts of the normal teleostean eye of which n»
traces have been found are the argentea, the lamina suprachor-
oidea, the processus falciformis, the cones of the retina, the
vitreous body proper, the lens capsule, and, in.one specimen,
the lens itself.

4. In the parts present the rudimentary condition of the
organ is seen in the very slight development of the choroid; in
the fact that the choroid gland is composed entirely of pigment;
in the fact that the iris, though of fully the normal thickness,
is almost entirely composed of pigment; with great propor-
tional thickness of the pigment layer of the retina and the en-
tire absence in it of anything excepting pigment; in the min-
ute size of the optic nerve, and finally in the small size of the
motores oculi.

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 735

5. The surest evidences of actual degeneration are found,
first, in the greatly increased quantity of pigment, and secondly,
in the presence of pigment in regions where none is found in
the normal eye, as in the hyaloid membrane.

6. On comparing the eyes of all blind vertebrates that have
been most carefully studied, all may, in a general way, be said
to be passing along the same degenerative path.

7. The eyes of blind vertebrates furnish very little evidence
on the question whether structures in undergoing actual de-
generation in ontogeny follow the reverse order of their phylo-
geny.

Ritter also states that from the works of European authors
it is possible to make a detailed comparison of the eyes of
Typhlogobius with those of Proteus anguinus and of the Euro-
pean mole, which he proceeds to do. On the whole, the eye of
Proteus is more rudimentary than that of either Typhlogobius
or Talpa, the lens being absent in the cave Amphibians. All
authors, except Semper, are agreed that the optic nerve is
present in both Proteus and Talpa, but Ritter finds no account
of it ever having, in either of these animals, a pigment-sheath
in its passage through the retina, such as occurs in Typhlo-
gobius.

III. ÉMBRYOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONDITION OF THE
EYES IN THE EMBRYO OR IN THE YOUNG, PROVING THE
ORIGIN OF THE BLIND OR EYELESS FORMS FROM
NORMALLY-EYED ANCESTORS.

No complete observations have, so far as we are aware, been
made on the embryology of cave animals, nor on that of eye-
less non-cavernicolous forms, except in the few cases which we
proceed to mention. In our essay on the Cave Fauna of
North America (p. 159), we record the fact that in the young
of the blind crayfish (Orconectes pellucidus), the eyes of the
young are perceptibly larger in proportion fo the rest of
the body than in the adult, the young specimen observed
being about half an inch in length. Previously to this, Dr.
Tellkampf, in 1844, remarked that “ the eyes are rudimentary
in the adults, but are larger in the young." Mr. S. Garman

736 The American Naturalist. [September,

states, regarding the blind Cambarus of the Missouri Cave:
“ Very young specimens of C. setosus correspond better with the
adults of C. bartonii; their eyes are more prominent in these
stages, and appear to lack but the pigment.” In the blind
cave-shrimp (Troglocaris) of Austria, Dr. Joseph discovered
that the embryo is provided in the egg with eyes.

In this connection should be recalled the observations of
Semper in his Animal Life (p. 80, 81) on Pinnotheres holothuriae,
which lives in the “ water-lungs” of Holothurians, where, of
course, there is an absence of light. The zoéa of this form has
large, “ well-developed eyes of the typical character. Even
when they enter the animal, they still preserve these eyes; but
as they grow they gradually become blind or half-blind, the

brow grows forward over the eyes, and finally covers them so :

completely that, in the oldest individuals, not the slightest
trace of them, or of the pigment, is to be seen through the
thick skin, while, at the same time, the eyes seem to undergo à
more or less extensive retrogressive metamorphosis."

In this connection may be mentioned the case of the burrow-
ing blind shrimp (Callianassa stimpsonii) which has been found
by Professor H. C. Bumpus, at Wood's Holl, Mass., living in
holes at a depth of between one and two feet. He has kindly
given me a specimen of the shrimp, which is blind, with
reduced eyes, smaller in proportion to the body than those of
the blind crayfish. He has also obtained the eggs, and has
found that the embryos are provided with distinct, black, pig-
mented eyes, which can be seen through the egg-shell.

Recently, Zeller has studied the embryology of the Proteus
of Adelsberg Cave, and has confirmed the statement of Micha-
. helles, who, in 1831, discovered that the eyes of this animal
are more distinct in the young and somewhat larger than in
the adult. We quote and translate from Zeller's acecount :

“The development of the eyes is very remarkable; they are
immediately perceived and present themselves as small, but
entirely black and clearly drawn circular points with a slit
which is very narrow and yet, at the same time, well-defined,

and which penetrates from the lower circumference out to the 2

middle.

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 737

“ Indeed, one can hardly doubt that this astonishing devel-
opment of the eye has been accomplished by the influence of
light as has also the pigmentation of the skin, the reddish-
white ground color of which appears thickly studded with
very small brownish-gray points mixed with detached white
ones, over the upper surface of the head and over the back
down over the sides of the yellowish abdomen. Even on the
edge of the fins (Flossensaum) the pigment is found. On the
other hand there is a whitish spot over the snout as is likewise
the case in the adult creatures which have been colored by the
light. Both the under surface of the head and the entire ab-
domen are shown free from pigment like the limbs.

“ T cannot specify very exactly as to when the digmentation
of the skin begins, but, in any case, it is very early and often
earlier that the first beginning of the eyes can be discovered.
The latter occurs toward the end of the twelfth week, at which
time a thin, light gray line, which still appears overgrown,
may be perceived, forming a half circle open underneath.
Then while this line subsequently becomes clearer and darker
and its ends grow further under and towards each other, there
also takes place simultaneously a progression of the pigment
larger towards the middle point, and the circle finally seems
closed and filled up to the narrow slit mentioned above, which
proceeds from the lower circumference and penetrates to the
middle of the eye.” (p. 570, 571.)

But the most striking discovery bearing on this subject is
that of the condition of the eyes in the embryo and young com-
pared with the adult of the blind goby of San Diego.

In his essay on the Fishes of San Diego, Professor Eigen-
mann briefly refers to and gives four figures (Pl. XXIV) of
the embryo of Typhlogobius, Mr. C. L. Bragg having been for-
tunate enough to discover the egg in the summer of 1891.
“The eyes.develop normally, and those of Fig. 4 differ in no
way from the eyes of other fish embryos.” In this case, then;
we have the simplest and clearest possible proof of the descent
of this blind fish from individuals with eyes as perfect as those
of its congeners.

We have been permitted by the Director of the United
States National Museum to reproduce Professor Eigenmann’s -

738 The American Naturalist. [September

excellent figures on the embryo, which tell the story of degen-
eration of the eye from simple disease of the organ, the species
being exposed to conditions of life strikingly different from
those of its family living in the same bay.

Before the discovery of the eggs, the youngest individual ever
seen is represented in Pl. XXIII, fig. 7, its eyes being though
small, yet distinct, and “ apparently functional."

From these data it is obvious that future embryological
study on cave animals will farther demonstrate their origin
from ancestors with normal eyes.

IV. THEORETICAL RESULTS BEARING ON THE THEORY or DE-
SCENT, AND MORE ESPECIALLY ON THE NEOLAMARCKIAN
PHASE OF THE THEORY, INCLUDING THE DOCTRINE OF
THE TRANSMISSION OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS.

It is evident that the cases just cited afford the strongest
possible proof of the theory of evolution in general, and do not
militate against the truth of the Neolamarckian phase of the
theory, which holds that by a change of environment, induc-
ing disuse of the eyes, such variations, especially atrophy of a
part or whole of the eyes and optic nerves and ganglia have
become established, so as to result in the origin of new species
and even new genera.

In the case of the blind goby, the burrowing Callianassa,
the blind shrimp of Adelsberg Cave, and, in fact, nearly, if not
quite all the blind forms now known, it is easy to see that the
causes of variation are quite direct and appreciable, and that
we do not need to invoke the principle of natural selection.
And this is the view of Darwin himself?

Besides the factors of change of environment and of disuse,
the influence of the isolation of these forms from their out-of-
doors’ allies should not be overlooked. Take the case of the
blind goby of San Diego Bay, or the Callianassa of Buzzard's
Day. Living in habitats remote from their congeners, obvi-

* In our work on the Cave Fauna of North America we have discussed the bear-
ing of the facts of cave-life on the Darwinian and Lamarckian phases of evolution
and have attempted to show that natural selection is inoperative in such cases as
these, quoting Darwin's own words when referring to the loss of eyes in such

animals: “ I attribute their loss wholly to disuse.” (p. 137-143).

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 199

ously as soon as their ancestors took up a burrowing mode of
life, they were prevented from crossing with others of their
species, and, probably, when in sporadic cases it did occur, very
soon the swamping effects of intercrossing wholly ceased, only
those in which the eyes had begun to degenerate interbreed-
ing. Aftera few generations, therefore, owing to this isolation,
the partially blind forms became fixed by heredity and by the
very force of circumstances a blind or eyeless generation re-
sulted.

These cireumstances are paralled by the results of the inter-
marriage of deaf-mutes. Professor A. Graham Bell‘ has
pointed out the danger of the establishment of a distinct
variety of deaf-mutes with a special sign language of their
own, since owing to their peculiar social environment and iso-
lation in society there has lately arisen a strong tendency of
deaf mutes to intermarry. The result, so far as gathered from
a tolerably wide range of facts, shows that this incipient deaf
mute strain or variety may have originated in two genera-
tions, since it seems probable, as Mr. Bell remarks, “that the
oldest deaf mute in the country whose parents were both deaf
mutes is now only a little past middle age.”

Moreover, the cases we have cited tend to show that the
origination of new species and genera of subterranean, as well
as deep sea forms and others living in darkness, may have
been induced after comparatively few generations. Future
observations should be directed to this point. The moment
that several individuals became isolated in dark holes or in
caves, and more or less confined in such narrow limits, the
effects of darkness would at once begin to be experienced, and
some degree of adaptation to their changed conditions would
immediately begin to operate. The individuals of this gener-
ation, i, e., the new comers in the cave, or those gobies which
by burrowing in the mud had penetrated out of reach of their

* On the formation of a deaf variety of the human race. Memoirs National
Academy of Sciences for 1883, Washington, ii, 179-262, 1884. The author points
out the means of isolation ot deaf mutes through asylums and national, state and
city associations for

He also gives “ specimen n cases to prove that in ‘many different parts of the coun-
try deafness has been transmitted by heredity.” (p. 210).

740 The American Naturalist. [September,

congeners, would doubtless become used to life in darkness.
Their offspring of the first generation might or might not
suffer some alteration in the visual organs, but doubtless some
slight degree of physiological change would result; this might

or might not be latent in the next generation, or it might -

crop out and become manifested in the first generation, or, if
not in the first, in the second or third. As soon as the degen-
eration in the eye-sight began to become fixed by heredity,
the process must, have gone on rapidly, and, in a few genera-
tions, perhaps a dozen or twenty, or fifty, rather than many
hundreds or thousands, or * numberless generations," as most
writers since Darwin claim.

Now as deaf mutes already appear to breed true to their in-
cipient strain or variety, whether congenitally deaf or rendered
so by disease during the lifetime of either or both parents, it
seems most probable that animals not at first congenitally
blind, might have acquired, after having been carried into,
and after living for some months or even years in darkness,
the tendency to blindness, and have transmitted to their off-
spring such first steps in adaptation to their Cimmerian en-
vironment. It is difficult for any one, it seems to us, not hide-
bound by theory to imagine any other mode of procedure.

The steps in the process are these: 1, The change in environ-
ment from normal conditions to partial or total darkness; 2,
At first a slight degree of adaptation to such change, if the ani-
mal survived at all; 3, Becoming gradually habituated to the
darkness, compensation for the loss of eyesight would result in
the stimulation of the senses of touch and smell; 4, Mean-
while the physiological change from loss of eyesight would
react on the physical structure and the eye would begin to
degenerate, and very rapidly, after a few generations, the optic
nerves in some forms, or the optic lobes and nerves in others,
would disappear, the vestiges of the outer structures of the
eyes remaining in some forms long after the nervous connec-
tions between the eyes and the brain had become effaced ; 5,
Meanwhile, segregation would prevent intercrossing with new-
comers provided with perfect eyes, and consequently would
prevent the swamping of the new characters resulting from

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 741

disuse; 6, The new variety or species or genus, as the case
might be, would become persistent, as long as the conditions
of total or partial darkness continued.

Now these factors, so simple, so easily appreciated, that as
early as 1802, Lamarck could see their force, though he only
cited the case of the mole, for he knew nothing of cave ani-
mals—these factors would seem to be adequate for the pro-
duction of these eyeless forms. These results of disuse seemed
adequate to Darwin himself, the founder of the doctrine of
natural selection; and yet the extreme Darwinians or Neo-
darwinians of the present day push aside or are purblind to
these fundamental factors of organic evolution, and insist that
the vera causa of the evolution of these blind forms is either
natural selection or panmixia, and they likewise deny that
there is any ground for the operation of the principle of trans-
mission of acquired characters.

Weismann, who has rendered such eminent service to
biology, in establishing the principle of heredity on a physical
basis, as is well-known, pushes aside all these factors and ex-
plains the blindness of cave animals by a negative cause,
“ panmixia," i.e, the absence of natural selection. In his
“ Essays on Heredity " (1889) he claims that the small eyes of
moles and of other subterranean mammals can be explained
by natural selection, and remarks: “I think it is difficult to
reconcile the facts of the case with the ordinary theory that the
eyes of these animals have simply degenerated through disuse "
(p. 86). He assumes that the degeneration of the eye of
Proteus “is merely due to the cessation of the conserving in-
fluence of natural selection," and, he adds farther on, “this
suspension of the preserving influence of natural selection may
be termed Panmixia.” And he even goes so far as to express
the opinion that “that the greater number of those variations
which are usually attributed to the direct influence of external
conditions of life, are to be attributed to panmixia.” He thus
substitutes for the positive, tangible factors of change of en-
vironment, disuse and isolation, the negative and hypothetical
one which he calls “ panmixia.”

742 The American Naturalist. [September,

In his discussion on this subject, as well as those of others
who have adopted his views, Weismann, and his English
translators, do not always give evidence of having carefully read
the statements of those who have paid some practical attention
to cave animals, Weismann only referring to the cases of the
mole and of the Proteus. For instance, he remarks, “ If disuse
were able to bring about the complete atrophy of an organ, it
follows that every trace of it would be effaced (pp. 90 and 292).
Now in our “Cave Fauna of North America,” published two
years before the issue of the English translation of Weismann’s
essays, we have shown from microscopic sections that in the
different species of blind beetles (Anopthalmus) not only is
every trace of the optic ganglia and of optic nerves wanting,
but also every trace of the eyesthemselves. Also in the blind
myriopods of Mammoth Cave, Scoterpes copei, no traces of the
optic ganglia, optic nerves, or of any part of the eyes, includ-
ing the pigment of the retina or the corneal lenses, were to be
discovered. While in the blind crayfish the degenerate eyes
are retained, in some individuals of an Asellid (Caecidotaea
stygia), the eyes may be entirely effaced as well as the optic
ganglia and optie nerves. On p. 118 of the memoir referred
to there is a summary view of the effects upon the eyes, optic
ganglia, and optic nerves, of different Arthropods resulting
from living in total darkness.

Again, on p. 87, Weismann makes the following somewhat
loose statement: “blind animals always possess very strongly
developed organs of touch, hearing and smell" We have
laid special emphasis in our essay on compensation by the de-
velopment of tactile and other organs for the loss of eyesight
or of eyes in cave animals, and while Weismann's assertion 1s
true as regards the tactile and olfactory senses, it is curious
that, from the direct and repeated observations of Dr. Sloan,
which we quote, the blind fish oceurring in Wyandotte Cave
is, contrary to Wymar S and to Cope's suppositions, not sensi-
tive to soun

'The blind asayah of Mammoth Cave, ånd also the species
(Orconectes hamulatus) of Nickajack Cave, have, as we have
ascertained by anatomical investigation, degenerate ears, £O

PLATE XXIII.

A

NS
D)

\
A NN

N

uu

Typhlogobius, Eie.

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 743

that the sense of hearing is, with little doubt, nearly, if not
quite, obsolete (p. 128).

While, then, Weismann claims that there is a cessation of
natural selection in the case of cave animals, another writer,
Lankester, in a brief note in Nature, asserts that the blindness of
eave animals is due to natural selection, remarking: * This in-
stance can be fully explained by natural selection acting on con-
genital fortuitous variations. Many animals are thus born with
distorted or defective eyes, whose parents have not had their
eyes submitted to any peculiar conditions. Supposing a number
of some species of Arthropod or fish to be swept into a cavern or
to be carried from less or greater depths in the sea, those indi-
viduals with perfect eyes would follow the glimmer of light
and eventually escape to the outer air or to the shallower
depths, leaving behind those with imperfect eyes to breed in
the dark place. A natural selection would thus be effected.
In every succeeding generation (bred in the dark place) this
would be the case, and even those with weak but still seeing
eyes would, in the course of time, escape, until only a pure
race of eyeless or blind animals would be left in the cavern or
deep sea."

This explanation seems, however, vague and speculative, as
well as inadequate, when we compare the kind of natural selec-
tion here invoked with such direct, powerful and readily
appreciated factors as partial or total darkness (no plants being
able to grow in caves, and only a very scanty fauna); added
to the disease of organs whose very existence was originally
due to the stimulus of light, and where, were it not for their
enforced isolation, the swamping effects of crossing with eyed
forms would constantly tend to prevent the permanent exist-
ence of blind or eyeless forms. Besides, how can the varia-
tions be fortuitous when the overshadowing and all-prevailing
influence is darkness, this cause inducing a change primarily
in a single organ, and, in a single sense, due to a single cause,
urging the variation in a determinate way? Indeed, it may
be questioned whether variations are ever “ fortuitous” in the
sense that they can arise independently of and are not con-
trolled by the ever active forces of nature.

49

744 ; The American Naturalist. [September,

It is apparent that both of the last named writers, who have
not themselves had a practical experience in collecting and
studying cave animals and their surroundings, nor have care-
fully read the recent literature on the subject, are overmastered
by speculative views, and prefer to make an extremely vague,
unscientific and a priori speculation, rather than adopt an
opinion based on the inductive method.

In refreshing contrast are the views of the veteran English
philosopher, Mr. Herbert Spencer, who, like Darwin, fully ap-
preciates the direct bearings of disuse as a fundamental factor,
and, with his rare good sense and penetration, recognizes the
probability of the active agency of the principle of the trans-
mission of acquired characters in the origin of cave life.

Indeed, in caves, deep holes or burrows, or in dark subter-
ranean streams and wells, to which the blind are restricted,
we have conditions very closely parallel to those which obtain
in asylums for the deaf and dumb. The array of facts pre-
sented by Professor A. Graham Bell and the danger which
exists of the formation of a distinct deaf-mute variety of man-
kind, and the suggestions which he offers as to the most prac-
ticable way to arrest the further development of the incipient
variety, all afford an interesting and striking parallel to the
case of blind animals which are to be found living in caves
and similar places.

The cave fauna, as a whole, is composed of individuals, all
existing under the same conditions, living in partial or total
darkness, and with eyes either defective or absent. Now, how
did they come there? We occasionally find, all over the
world, creatures with defective sight or imperfectly-developed
eyes, but such cases are sporadic, and are not numerous enough
in proportion to the normal population to breed together and
to multiply. Where, however, individuals with more or less
defective eyes should breed with normal mates, any tendency
to the transmission of such defects would be wiped out by the
swamping effects of crossing, owing to the immense preponder-
ance of normal, vigorous forms with perfect vision. The
whole tendency in nature in the upper world of light is to
weed out such sporadic, defective forms. But in limestone

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 745

regions honeycombed with caves and permeated with subter-
ranean streams, like those in the Mediterranean regions,
France, Spain, and Austria, or in those of southern Indiana, Vir-
ginia, Kentucky and Missouri—in such regions as these, there
exist the conditions favorable to the origination and perpet-
uity of blind forms. To give an example, eyed geodephagous
beetles, such as the species of Trechus, of which there are so
many in southern Europe, accustomed to burrowing in the
soil under stones, when carried down by various accidents into
dark crevices or into caves from which they are unable to ex-
tricate themselves, and too hardy and vigorous to succumb to
the deadly effects of a life in perpetual darkness, and with, per-
haps, already partially lucifugous habits, such forms under
these changed conditions survive, breed and multiply, finding
just enough food to enable them to make a bare livelihood, and
with just enough vigor to propagate their kind. We can easily
imagine that in time, and indeed no very long period, the
neweomers would soon become adapted to their new surround-
ings, an environment abnormal both from the absence of light,
and from the lack of predaceous forms to devour them ; and
they would live on, weak, half fed, half blind, forced to make
their asylum in such forbidding quarters.

Where are there, in such cireumstances as these, any of the
conditions which would imply that any struggle for existence
or processes of natural or sexual selection in these trogloditic
societies are possible? On the contrary, it seems to us that in
such unwonted conditions as these, darkness, lack of suitable
food, and lack of destructive, carnivorous forms, other than
the blind species themselves, we are brought face to face with
the more powerful, primary, purely physical agents, which have
produced changes chiefly operating in a single direction, i. e.,
to destroy the vision and to more or less completely abolish
the eyes. Here we see exemplified in a typical way the direct
action of the Lamarckian factors, viz.: Change of surround-
ings, coupled with disuse of parts useless in such altered con-
ditions, and then the enforced isolation, especially marked in
the cases of the Proteus and of the blind crayfish, etc., which
never occur out of caves, however it may be;with[those species

746 The American Naturalist. [September,

living in dark wells or subterranean streams, which have a
more or less direct connection with the upper world.

As regards the problem of the transmission of acquired char-
acters, it would appear that the case with cave animals is
paralled by that of deaf mutes collected together in asylums,
and united by various social organizations. It has been
shown in a striking way by Mr. Turner, as quoted by Bell,
that “ before the deaf and dumb were educated, comparatively
few of them married.” Bell concludes, from an examination
of the records of deaf mute asylums in the United States,
“that of the deaf mutes who marry at the present time, not
less than 80 per cent marry deaf mutes, while of those who
married during the early half of the present century the pro-
portion who married deaf mutes was much smaller.”

It was also clearly indicated that “a hereditary tendency
towards deafness, as indicated by the possession of deaf rela-
tives, is a most important element in determining the produc-
tion of deaf offspring,” and “ it may even be a more important
element than the mere fact of congenital deafness in one or
both of the parents.”

It appears, then, that it is the segregation of deaf mutes, in-
including nearly half of the deaf mutes who became deaf from
accidental causes, which has led to the apparent increase of this
incipient strain or breed of human beings. And the statistics
and conclusions given by Mr. Bell appear to almost demon-
strate the fact of the transmission of characters acquired dur-
ing the lifetime of the individual, and that it is difficult to
draw the line between this phenomenon and the transmission
of congenital characters; the latter being, at present, the more
frequent and therefore normal law of heredity, though it was
not so in the beginning. For, as Bell, after a careful study of
statistics, remarks, “ The numbers of the non-congenitally deaf
are evidently subject to great and sudden fluctuations on ac-
count of the epidemical diseases which cause deafness, whereas,
the growth of the congenitally-deaf population seems to be
much more regular.”

Premising that heredity does not, at the best, always uner-
ringly act, that its results are sometimes uncertain, even where

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 747

those with congenital variations breed together or intermarry,
it is also to be taken for granted that it may, at times, be im-
possible to draw the line between the transmission of congeni-
tal and of acquired characters.

When a number, few or many, of normal, seeing animals
enter a totally dark cave or stream, some may become blind
sooner than others; in others there may be developed only a
tendency to blindness, the eye itself being imperceptibly mod-
ified by disuse, while a certain percentage may possess the
tendency plus a slight physical defect, either functional or
organic, in the eyes, especially in the optic nerves and ganglia.
The result of the union of such individuals and of adaptation
to their stygian life would be broods of young, some with vis-
ion unimpaired, others with a tendency to blindness, while in
others there would be noticed the first steps in degeneration of
nervous power and of nervous tissue. Even in a succeeding
brood, or in a third brood, we might have a few individuals
which were born blind or partly so, and were compelled to feel
their way about the cave, while the far more numerous mem-
bers of the colony would only exhibit a tendency to the disuse
of their eyes, attempting to see their way rather than to feel it.
Thus, after a few, or only several generations, the society of
troglodytes, vertebrate and invertebrate, might be compared
to a newly-established asylum of deaf mutes or to an asylum
for the blind, if they interbred in the same proportions.

At first, then, the number of cases of those not congenitally
blind, but which, after living for most of their life time in
darkness and becoming so modified that they could dispense
with the use of their eyes, pari passu becoming more and more
dependent on the exercise of their tactile organs—at first, such
individuals as these would greatly preponderate.

So all the while the process of adaptation going on, the an-
tennae and other tactile organs increasing in length and in
the delicacy of structure of their olfactory and tactile struc-
tures, while the eyes were meanwhile diminishing in strength
of vision and their nervous force giving out; after a few gen-
erations, (perhaps, Judging by what we know of the sudden
production of deaf mutes in human societies, only two or

748 The American Naturalist. [September,

three,) the number of congenitally blind would increase, and,
eventually, they would, in their turn, preponderate in num-
ers.

It is also possible that the longevity of cave animals, owing
to the absence of ordinary enemies and of casualties, such as
occur in the upper world, even though the supply of food were
greatly restricted, would be much greater than in epigaean
regions. If this be so, then there is a more favorable oppor-
tunity for the development and fixation of the myopic condi-
tion in subterranean situations.

It thus appears that while the heredity of acquired charac-
ters was, in the beginning, the general rule, as soon as the con-
genitally blind preponderated, the heredity of congenital char-
acters became the normal state of things, the inhabitants being
all blind, and for generations breeding true to their specific
and generic characters.

On the other hand if the conditions should be changed, and
the cave become opened to the light, then we should expect a
gradual reversion to their eyed ancestors. This process would,
of course, be due to causes exactly opposite to those producing
the blind form, i. e., the presence of light, etc. In such a case,
neither natural selection: nor panmixia would be the factors,
although some one might give a high-sounding, “scientific”
name to the supposed process. And this shows how inopera-
tive can be natural selection or panmixia as true working
causes of the transformation of species, compared with the
operation of the fundamental factors of organic evolution
postulated by the Neolamarckian.

List or Essays AND ARTICLES RELATING TO BLIND OR CAVE
ANIMALS PUBLISHED Since 18875
A. The general subject, including anatomical, physiological, and
theoretical considerations.

Ciaccio, G. V. Osservazoni intorno alla membrana del
-Descemet e al suo endotelio con una descrizione anatomica dell’
5 This list is supplementary to that te in my essay on the Cave Fauna
of North America Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, 1889, and

includes some titles omitted in that bian many of which are copied from
Ritter’s work.

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 749

occhio della Talpa europea. Mem. Acad. Sci. Instituto di
Bologna. Ser. 3, Tom. v, p. 501, 1875.

Edwards, W. F. De? influence des agents physiques sur
la vie (pp. 12 et 41-62). Paris, 1824.

Hermann, L. Handbuch der Physiologie. Bd.iv,ii, 1882.

Hertwig, O. Lehrbuch der Entwicklungsgeschichte des
Menschen und der Wirbelthiere. Jena, 1890.

Hess, C. Beschreibung des Auges von Talpa europea und
Proteus auguinus. Archiv. für Ophthalmologie, Bd. xxxv,
p. 1, 1889.

Hoffman, C. K. Zur Ontogenie der Knochenfische. Archiv
für Mikro-Anat., Bd. xxiii, p. 45, 1883.

Kadyi, K. H. Ueber das Auge der Maulwurfs ( Talpa ewropxa)
in vergleichend-anatomischer Hinsicht (Polisch.) Denkschr.
Akad. d. Wissens. Krakau, Math.-Naturhist. Abtheil. Bd. iv,
p. 124, 1878.

Kessler, Leonhard. Zur Entwickelung des Auges der
Wirbelthiere. Leipzig, 1877.

Kohl, C. Einige Notizen über des Auge von Talpa euro-

æa und Proteus anguinus. Zool. Anzeiger. Bd. xii, pp.
383, 405 ; 1889.

Krause, W. Die Retina, II. Die Retina der Fische. Inter-
nat. Monatschr. für Anat. u. Histol., Bd. III, p. 8, 1886.

Michahelles. Oken's Isis, 1831, p. 501 (Eyes in young more
distinct and somewhat larger than in the adult) (Vide Boulen-

er).

j ai er, Johannes. Vergleichende Anatomie der Myx-
inoiden. Abhandl. Akad. Wissensch. zu Berlin, 183

Parker, S. H. The eyes in blind ic cat Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool. Harvard Behe XX, No. 5., pp. 153-162,
1890.

Schampp, K. W. Die Augenlinse des Proteus auguinus.
Biol. Centralblatt. Bd. XI, No. 2, p. 40, 1891.

Das Auge des Grottencinies (Proteus auguinus).
Zeitschr. für Wissen. Zool., Bd. LIII, p. 537, 1892.
Spencer, Herbert. Inadequacy of Natural Selection. 1893.
Wallace, Alfred Russel. Darwinism. 1889.

750 The American Naturalist. [September,

Zeller, Ernst. Ueber die Larve des Proteus anguineus.
Zool. Anzeiger, No. 290, XI, Jahrgang, 8 Oct., 1888, pp. 570-
572, and Jahresh. Ver. Naturk. Wiirtt., xlv, 1889, p. 131
(colored plate of the larva).

Zuntz, W. Handbuch der Physiologie (Hermann). Bd.
IV, Th. 2, p. 144, 1882.

B. American Cave Animals.

Cope, Edward Drinker. On a Blind Silurid from Penn-
sylvania. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. XVI, p. 231. 1864.
Eigenmann, Carl H. The Point Loma Blind Fish and its
Relations. Zoë., Vol. I, p. 65, 1890.
The Fishes of San Diego. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.
XV, pp. 123-178, 1892.

Smith, Rosa. Note on Typhlogobius Californiensis. Zoë.
Vol. I, p. 181, 1890.

Garman, H. The Origin of the Cave Fauna of Kentucky,
with a description of a new Blind Beetle. Science.

Garman, S. Cave Animals from Southwestern Missouri.
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., p. 240, Oct. 28, 1892. No. 6, p. 225-
240. Cambridge, Dec., 1889.

Girard, Charles. Ichthyological Notices [ XIII], Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. XI, p. 63, 1859.

Lockington, W. N. Walks around San Francisco. Amer.
Nat., Vol. XII, p. 786, 1880.

Garman, H. On a Dipterous Larva from Mammoth Cave.
Bulletin Essex Institute, xiii, 1891.

A Silk-Spinning Cave Larva. Science, xxii, No.
546, July 21, 1893, p. 33.

Smith, Rosa. Description of a new Gobioid Fish (Othonops
eos) from San Diego, California. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1881.
Vol. IV, p. 19; also Smithsonian Misc. Collections, Vol. XXII,

: Packard, Alpheus Spring. Notes on the epipharynx, and
the epipharyngeal organs of taste in mandibulate insects.
Psyche, Vol. V, April, 1889, p. 198-199. (Taste organs of
Hadenecus subterraneus from Mammoth Cave).

tas

VE RT OTe ae IE

mee ee moe EE ee M

1894.] Subterranean Fauna of North America. 751

Stejneger, Leonhard. Preliminary description of a new
genus and species of blind cave Salamander from North
America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XV, pp. 115-117. No. 894.
Washington, 1892.

C. Cave Animals in other Countries.

Bolivar. Annales Société Entomologique de France. 1892.

Chilton, C. On thesubterranean crustacea of New Zealand,
with remarks on the fauna of caves and wells. Linnean So-
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D. Theoretical Discussions.

Anderson, A. Blind Animals in Caves. Nature, March 9,
1893, p. 439.

Boulenger,G.A. Blind Animals in Caves. Nature, Apr.
27, 1898, p. 608.

Cunningham, J. T. Blind Animals in Caves. Nature,
March, 9, 1893, p. 439; Apr. 6, 1893, p. 537.

Lankester, Edward Ray. Art. Zoology, Encyl. Brittanica
and The Advancement of Science, 1890. Blind Animals in
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Contemporary Review, Feb., March and April, 1893.

Weismann, August. Essays upon Heredity. Oxford, 1889.

752 The American Naturalist. [September,

THE NUMERICAL INTENSITY OF FAUNAS:
By L. P. Gratacap.

In the various aspects of the Development of Life upon the
earth the attention of the student has been principally directed
to the question of form, as a problem of derivation. The ex-
ternal configuration of the enclosing frame-work or envelopes
of organisms, or the modified outlines of internal skeletons
have been closely compared, and species have been defined
upon their differences, and the record of the march of specific
change, group segregation and class development compiled
from their study. The enumeration of species as they multi-
ply, or decrease and disappear has been made, and the succes-
sive expansions and contractions of the lineal avenues of
descent extensively elaborated. The student has less fre-
quently been brought to consider the question of number, the
numerical increase of forms, or to attach any biological sig-
nificance to the arithmetical rise or decrease of species. It is,
upon a little reflection evident that the subject of numbers, if
it admits of any determination, may have or must have, a
direct connexion with the ease and spontaneity with which a
new or old species maintains itself, and may prove an index of
the severity of competition or of the difficulty of living in its
field of zoological activity.

Assuming the rate of increase uniform, the apparatus and
impulse to procreation identical in a number of species, that
one, of course, will survive in the greatest numbers whose life
is attended with the least friction, against whose functions and
habits the smaller array of obstacles active and passive exist.
The comparison of species in this respect, so far as it is used to
make out the comparative adaptation of species to certain con-
ditions, assumes of necessity an identical fecundity in each
species, and the comparison has, therefore, valid probability
between species of the same families, or genera or perhaps
classes.

‘Paper presented at Brooklyn Meeting of the Amer. Ass. Ad. Sci, Aug., 1894.

1894.] The Numerical Intensity of Faunas. 753

On the other hand a more recondite suggestion is made in
this inquiry. Favorable conditions for the multiplication of a
species, such as temperature, food-supply, freedom from
enemies, habitability of station, etc., naturally assist numerical
increase. But the speculation suggests differences in the time
required for a species to attain momentum, the time required
for it to reach the maximum rate of increase, when its vitality
has attained such force as to most effectually overcome hamper-
ing conditions, and is recorded in the number of individuals
produced at one period. This question touches the surmises

made as to the manner of specific introductions. Does a
species make its appearance in one example—as an individual
—on the world's stage or, if dicecious, in pairs, and then pro-
ceed to establish its currency, and so in geometrical ratio of in-
crease engage itself in subjugating its environment and dispers-
ing or suppressing its competitors? Or do species appear in
numbers, and from separated points of occupation begin spread-
ing, until their divided areas coalesce, and their geographical
coincides with their numerical maximum? Or finally does
the manner of their entrance into life vary for different species,
or the species of different groups in both these ways? Itseems
probable that the higher orders of animals—especially the
vertebrates—are sporadic in their appearance, viz., differentiate
as individuals, while the lower are massive, viz., differentiate
in hosts.

Conditions being equal the invertebrates should reach their
numerical maxima quicker than the higher vertebrates, and
their maxima should, comparatively, reach enormously higher
figures. What the functional activity of procreation in
a new species is, cannot be determined. It would seem prob-
able that if specific variation were a process of insensible or
slightly sensible changes in forms or external physical features,
the correlated disturbances of function would be imperceptible
and the new species would earry on the work of self-propaga-
tion with the same energy as the allied species amongst whom
it makes its appearance. The actual numerical results would
be at first low, because of the smaller number of individuals of
the new species and would increase as that number enlarged,

154 The American Naturalist. [September,

and the opportunities or occasions of procreation multiplied.
Again it is necessary to consider a reversal of this. The
sterility of the offspring of crossed parents of different species
points to the fact that there are or may be functional changes
in the powers of generation, and that the new species, is, by this
law, made dependent for its successful extension, upon the
intercourse of similar individuals. It is likely that in connect-
ion with the rise of a new species those organs concerned in
reproduction have become modified, and the system of seminal
secretion, which carries with it the power of perpetuating the
new forms, has itself been more or less profoundly affected.
From such considerations it seems fairly probable that new
species appear in limited numbers, and acquire after time the
full power of propagation until with increasing numbers the
maximum of their numerical rise is reached, and then that
decadence begins which ends in their disappearance. It will
be understood that by “limited numbers” we mean such re-
presentations of species as are much below their later and
more normal development.

It then appears from such considerations, without further
detail, that the factors of numerical increase are two, the exter-
nal or physical conditions of life, and the internal or biogenet-
ic force of propagation. As regards the first, the external or
physical conditions of life, it may be assumed that the appear-
ance of a species must take place under favorable conditions,
if we are to accept the Darwinian hypothesis, that specific
origination means that very thing, the better adaptation of new
species to reigning conditions than any other, for it is its pre-
ponderant aptitude for life under these conditions that brings
the new species into existence. So that as regards the encour-
agement to increase given by the external conditions it is un-
exceptional or adequate, and the rate of multiplication is then
made dependent upon the physiological factor, the power and
provision for propagation. These favorable conditions will
be temporary. They will be succeeded by others less favor-
able, and the species, started under way under the best exter-
nal auspices will begin to work against physical detriments
and brakes that will lower its vital momentum, and, unless

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1894.] The Numerical Intensity of Faunas. 755

the biogenetic factor keeps up or even becomes intensified, the
species begins its downward course, since numerical diminu-
tion means final extinction. The biogenetic factor, the influ-
ence of propagation, will, in all probability, decline with any
changes in external conditions which affect the physical well-
being of the organism, so that the sum of influences springing
from external circumstances and internal conditions work
conjointly to exhilerate or depress the life of the animal.
Furthermore, although a new species responds more fittingly
to its environment and possesses peculiar advantages over its
companions, this species, it may be assumed, survives because
it is less at odds with its surroundiugs, not because it is most
appropriately placed. As it becomes more and more part of
the new status which brought it into existence, its organism
more and more nearly attains its limital fecundity.

The list of possible combinations of conditions upon the
emergence of a species would then be four.

First—Favorable Environment and High Vitality—pro-
creative activity.

Second.—Unfavorable Environment and High Vitality.

Third.—Favorable Environment and Low Vitality.

Fourth.—Unfavorable Environment and Low Vitality.

The discussion of these four as limital expressions, covers the
varying phases under which a species attains its numerical
maximum. And this discussion assumes, for the sake of reach-
ing definite results, that the species is considered as restrained
by the boundaries of a limited area, an assumption not very
much at variance with facts.

Favorable Environment and High Vitality—In this case the
species would rapidly rise to its numerical maximum, and
maintain it as long as the environment and its own vitality
remained propitious. But this very intensity of development
would lead to the deterioration of the species, and bring about
its own extinction. The competition between its own repre-

_ sentatives would become exasperated through their great

number, and this would drain the food-supply, while the
excessive productivity would reduce procreative power. The
zoological consequence, in this instance, would be quick

756 The American Naturalist. [September,

numerical expansion followed by a more or less abrupt decline.
Darwin says (Origin of Species Chap. X, 1860). “There is
reason to believe that the complete extinction of the species of
a group is generally a slower process than their production ; if
the appearance and disappearance of a group of species be re-
presented as before by a vertical line of varying thickness, the
line is found to taper more gradually at its upper end, which
marks the progress of extermination, than at its lower end,
which marks the first appearance and increase in numbers of
the species.” In the case of favorable environment and high
vitality the line would probably begin suddenly with a thick-
ened end, continued and increased for some distance, and slope
steeply to its termination. Two examples in paleontological
history illustrate this; the Trilobitic fauna of the Upper Cam-
brian, the Potsdam of Wisconsin and Minnesota, and the
successive Ammonitic faunas of the Jura-Lias in Europe.

Prof. Hall recognized and tentatively separated three hori-
zons of the trilobitic beds of Wisconsin and Minnesota; the
earlier trilobites were referable in numbers to the genus Cono- |
cephalites while Dicelocephalus emerges in the middle beds and
becomes numerically important through these and the higher
beds. Prof. Hall was struck with their extreme abundance,
and records his own impressions in these words; “ the multi-
tude of individuals of a few species is really wonderful; for in
some beds the layers may be separated at every inch, or even
half inch, and yet the entire surface is covered with the dis-
membered parts of these ancient trilobites.” As to the
Ammonites of the Jurassic they are celebrated for the sharp-
ness of lines of demarkation between beds abounding in great
numbers of the different species.

Unfavorable Environment and High Vitality—In this case .
there would result a variable numerical abundance according
to the equilibrium established between these discordant factors,
but the average result would be a numerical uniformity ex-
tended over a considerable length of time. The procreative.
power would replenish the losses by death, and keep up, at
least at first, a uniform amplitude of life. The unfavorable
environment would work a defeating influence upon procrea-

AISE ETER Ae P ERAS VENAT TIT AIRERA Ns

1894.] The Numerical Intensity of Faunas. 757

tion, and after a length of time, bring about a low vitality
which in conjunction with the uncongenial surroundings
would wind up the species.

Of course the term unfavorable is here used comparatively,
not meaning inimical, because a new species upon the doctrine
of adaptation could not arise in hostile circumstances, but
meaning less favorable than the most auspicious surroundings.
The result as measured in numerical estimates would be a low
mean, which perhaps as the environment improved might
increase. Itis only likely that such conditions are present
when a species migrates, or is invaded by a change of physical
conditions less advantageous than those it has previously en-
joyed. A new species with high vitality is hardly consistent
with unfavorable environment at the beginning, and the
category we are considering would only be exemplified in the
numerical exhibit of species whose habitat has been affected
unfavorably. The repression of great numbers of individuals
at any one time would tend to lengthen the life of the species,
inasmuch as it would relieve it from struggle in its own midst,
and this would have a tendency to extend its days.

In the paleontological record the case of Atrypa reticularis
seems to illustrate this numerical constancy. From the Upper
Silurian in the Niagara through the Lower Helderberg, Oris-
kany Schoharie and Upper Helderberg it keeps up a more or
less uniform though not excessive representation until diverg-
ing in the Devonian into A. vexata and A. spinosa it becomes
itself more numerous seeming then to pass under the condi-
tions of the first category—high vitality and favorable environ-
ment—and declining rapidly terminates in the Upper Hamil-
ton. Atrypa reticularis, as is well known, does not attain a
large size in the Silurian, but, according to Hall, exhibits con-
siderable variety of form. It is in the stage of “ oscillation,”
not yet having attained specific fixity and this fact of formal
instability points to a lack of congruity between itself and its
environment and leads us to consider it an example under this
heading. :

Favorable Environment and Low Vitality.—By * Low Vitality "
we here designate a certain sluggishness in fecundity in cer-

758 The American Naturalist. [September,

tain animals though the value of the procreative energy con-
sidered at the instant of its exercise may be high. Evidently
for such animals their duration in time will be conditioned
largely upon favorable circumstances of life and without these
they must undergo extinction. The numerical representation
must always be small; it is essentially limited by their intrin-
sic predisposition to be slow breeders. This assumption seems
applicable to species which without any apparent change in
their environment become subject to a progressive failure in
numbers. The history of invertebrate life on the earth’s sur-
face emphasizes this. Throughout similar conditions or what,
from lithological evidence, seem identical conditions, species
dwindle and disappear. On what hypothesis can this gradual
vanishment be explained, except that the living momentum
has run down, a physiological deterioration has set in, which
must, no matter how auspicious be the physical requirements,
compass the discomfiture and suppression of the species. Low
vitality might also reasonably imply a certain functional weak-
ness which affects the organic intregrity of a species. Under
either implication, that of low procreative power or functional
weakness, favorable environment fictitiously prolongs the life
of the species and gives a deceptive appearance of stability to
a species internally disintegrating. Its numerical ratio must
be a reduced one.

Unfavorable Environment and Low Vitality—This category
symbolizes the rapid decline of a species, and is symptomatic
of the final stages in its life-history. Where unfavorable con-
ditions combine with intrinsic decrepitude the doom of a
species is quickly sealed, and it vanishes from the scene
scarcely noticed amidst the on-coming armies of new and
intense competitors.

These four categories which we have epitomized, embodying
the relations of vitality to environment and applied to the
phenomena of the numerical abundance of a species, may be
generally regarded as the formal stages of a species’ decline.
And we observe that the succession of these stages may follow
one of two directions as divergent lines from an original con-
dition. That original condition is Favorable Environment and

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1894] The Numerical Intensity of Faunas. 759

High Vitality, for while these terms may not be co-existent
upon the first appearance of a species they must quickly be-
come so. A species originates, if we are to accept the Darwi-

nian hypothesis by reason of its preponderant adaptation to

new conditions, and if at first that adaptation is tentative or
accidental, it soon becomes assured and necessary, upon the
settling down of species and environment into a complete reci-
procity. We then may expect two similar but contrasted
stages to succeed this original, initial state, as is seen in the
subjoined diagram; these stages presenting equivalent numer-
ical zones, to be followed by two similar and identical stages,
which in turn precede the extinction of the species.

Favorable Environment and High Vitality.

— — na and ó © Unfavorable Environment

M" T High Vitality.

prseter Ei o) bier um

ronm

Extinction. Extinction.

The conjecture here delineated shows a species beginning
under the favoring conjunction of vitality and adapted environ-
ment, rising in numerical intensity until a weakening of these
elements sets in, and the species begins to decline in numbers.
It may decline along a line of lessening vitality with environ-
ment constant, or, it may decline along a line of increasingly
hostile surroundings with vitality constant, and it may be
gue a stage of equipoise may be reached along either

5

760 The American Naturalist. [September,

of these lines wherein, however, the factors of environment
and vitality are oppositely related. There would then be two
stages of equal numerical efficiency, opposite in conditions
but equivalent in effects, favorable environment and low
vitality, and unfavorable environment and high vitality, and
succeeding these as an inevitable sequence comes at the end of
either road of retreat, the final stage of unfavorable environ-
ment and low vitality and the extinction of the species. Along
either of the avenues of deterioration the numerical intensity
is supposed to decline similarly but this superficial resemblance
covers a radical contrast of agencies and we are brought to
consider two kinds of strain; the strain of internal weakness,
and the strain of external disparity. This introducesa crucial
question we think in reference to the Darwinian hypothesis.
That hypothesis assumes that species are perpetuated by the
concordance declared between them and their surroundings,
and it seems enclosed in this wide opening statement, that the
Darwinian must allow a certain power of provocation upon
organisms from exterior conditions, viz., that the inherent
variability (fully emphasized by Darwin) of organisms is
stimulated by changing environment while it should be more
quiescent under unchanged circumstances of life. Without at
present pressing this question the inference, we think, is rea-
sonable. Therefore, in establishing a line of numerical decline
for a species we have in this suggestion a form of test as to
whether that decline arises from changing environment or
changing vitality. If it proceeds from changing environment
it will be, upon the Darwinian theory, accompanied by specific
offshoots, and the disappearing species will sink from sight
amidst the emergence of related species; but, if it proceeds
from devitalization it will display a species dying as it were
alone, unattended by the growth of related varieties, and pass-
ing away without those bequests of derivative forms which, in
the other instance, represent the yet internally vigorous species
struggling to maintain its empire under the guise of modified
offspring. These propositions will, it may perhaps be con-
ceded, repay more careful and detailed application to zoological
history, as it has been written in the successive ages of geology.

1894.] Development of the Wing of Sterna wilsonii. 761

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WING OF STERNA
WILSONII.

Bv VIRGIL L. LEIGHTON.

Although various students have investigated the structure
and the development of the wing of the bird, many points
still remain unsettled, and prominent among them, the rela-
tionsof the carpal elements, the number of digits present and
the comparison ofthese digits with those of the normal penta-
dactyl manus. Professor J. S. Kingsley suggested to me to
attempt the solution ofsome of these problems and the studies
detailed below were carried out in the Biological Laboratory
of Tufts College under his direction. To him I owe the ma-
terial—embryos of various stages of Wilson’s tern, Sterna wil-
80nii from the Island of Penekese, Mass.—which formed the
basis of my work.

The alcoholic material was studied both in toto by clearing
with oil of clove, and by means of serial sections. The latter
proved far preferable and much more dependence can be placed
upon results obtained in this way, especially with the younger
embryos than by the more common methods of dissection and
clearing in essential oils. The figures of structural details
which illustrate the paper were obtained from reconstruction
projections of the sections and are magnified twenty diameters.
I am not able to state the ages of the various embryos, but
this is a matter of little importance since the approximate
development can readily be made out from the figures of the
various stages, each natural size. The numbering of the sep-
arate stages is entirely arbitrary.

I might state here, incidentally, that I have also studied to
some extent the foot of the tern and I find in it, as has already
been pointed out by other observers, (Miss Johnson, Studer,
W. K. Parker and others) a fifth metatarsal present.

STAGE I, (Fra. 1).

At this stage (fig. a) the principal elements of the wing are
becoming differentiated. The radius and ulna are entirely

762 The American Naturalist. [September,

cartilaginous, except a small portion at their distal ends where
they are least developed. In the proximal row of carpals are
two masses of rapidly forming cartilage (radiale and ulnare)
each of which appears to have two centers of chondrification.

The larger (the radiale, re) is almost divided into two parts;
of these the larger and outer one is somewhat triangular in
shape and is fitted upon the distal end of the radius, the smaller
and inner one is nearly cireular and is contiguous to the in-
ner margin of the distal end of the ulna. "The ulnare is com-
posed of two oval centers, the proximal beiug about half the
diameter of the distal one, thus giving the whole element a
wedge-shaped appearance with its narrow end passing just
outside the outer margin of the ulna.

. The distal carpals are represented only by a thickening of
tissue, or “ procartilage” of Parker, showing as yet no differen-
tiation into separateelements. There are four radiating digits
represented for the most part by “ procartilage,” but metacar-
pals II' and IV are becoming cartilaginous at their proximal
ends and metacarpal III is two-thirds cartilage.

Stace II, (Fie. 2).

This stage (fig. b) is but slightly more developed than the
last. The cartilage is a little more pronounced, and digits II,
1For the numbers to be given to the digits, see below.

abe abe REVO ae Sea eB oh Na rer:

1894.] Development of the Wing of Sterna wilsonii. 763

III and IV have become longer, III and IV being segmented.
The fourth digit has become free from the central mass, and
more nearly approximated to digit IV. In the distal carpal
series there are two masses of cartilage: on the radial side a
mass which represents the combined carpales II and III, and
on the side of the ulna carpale IV, an oval mass contiguous
proximally to the distal lobe of the ulnare and distally to its
own metacarpal.

Srace III, (Fro. 3).

In this stage (fig. c) there are several things to be noted.
The spreading of the digits is not so great and the whole
manus is beginning to flex towards the ulnar side, thereby dis-
placing some of the carpals from their normal position. The
elements are now all perfectly distinct, the radiale has entirely
lost its bibobate appearance, and is now of an irregular shape,
touching the radius and ulna and the approximate surface of
the conjoined carpales II and III. The ulnare is now entirely
outside the ulna, but, what seems most remarkable, its proxi-
mal portion is now about twice the size of its distal lobe,
while in the stages previously described it is about half as
large. The distal lobe is circular, the proximal wedge-shaped,
with the small end proximal. Carpale II--III is the last car-
pale to chondrify, but is now all cartilage except a very small
portion of its proximal end. It isan elongate mass, placed
somewhat diagonally to the present axis of the limb. It is
contiguous distally to the approximate surface of metacarpals
II and III and carpale IV ; proximally to the radiale. Carpale
IV retains the same relative position as in earlier, except that
it has approached closer to metacarpal III. Digits II and IIT
have each added a segment, that of the former is partly car-

tilaginous, the latter is all procartilage. Metacarpal IV has
approached metacarpal III and its single phalanx is entirely
cartilaginous. Metacarpal V has the same appearance as in
previous stages, but is farther from metacarpal IV.

Srace IV, (Fie. 4).

The specimen which forms the subject of this stage (fig. d)
is in some respects slightly more developed than stage III, in

764 The American Naturalist. [September,

other respects less so. The manus is not flexed so much, and
consequently the ulnare has not been pushed so far outside the
ulna. In this specimen, unlike the others, the two lobes of
the ulnare are about equal in size, the distal one oval, the
proximal wedge-shaped. The radiale retains its bilobate ap-
pearance as described in stage I. Carpale IJ+III forms a
lunate mass of fully developed cartilage about the head of
metacarpal III. Carpale IV is slightly smaller relatively than
in the previous stage; the digits are essentially the same.

Stace V, (Fia. 5).

In the specimens (fig. e) which forms the basis of this stage,
the manus now assumes very nearly the form which it has in
the adult bird. The radiale is irregular in shape and fitted to
the distal end of the radius, the inner distale margin of the
ulna and the approximate surface of carpal II-III. The dis-
tal lobe of the ulnare is here at à minimum in comparison
with the proximal lobe; it is now closely appressed to carpale
IV which is wedged between it,and carpale III. Metacarpal
II has approached metacarpale III and on its radial side is
developed a large projection or “trochanter.” Its proximal
phalanx is entirely cartilaginous, its distal one is just begin-
ning to appear. Metacarpal III now bears three phalanges,
the distal one not yet cartilaginous. Metacarpal IV has
assumed a position parallel to metacarpal III, but is not yet
united to it. Metacarpal V has approached metacarpal IV
near its proximal end.

SrAGE VI, (Fra. 6).

In birds of this age (fig. f), carpales IT, III and IV have
entirely coalesced, and, together with metacarpal II, form a
solid socket into which fits the head of metacarpal III.
Metacarpal II bears two phalanges; metacarpal III three,
their distal phalanges being unequal. Metacarpal V now
touches metacarpal IV and is not so near the proximal end as
in earlier stages.

AIR ED Um
CPC Sab URDUN

1894.] Development of the Wing of Sterna wilsonii. 765
Srace VII, (Fro. 7).

There is little in this stage(fig. g) to note except metacarpal
V. This is now an oval disk closely applied to the ulnar
flexor surface of metacarpal IV, about one-ninth of the dis-
tance from the proximal to the distal end. It no doubt finally
unites with metacarpal IV at that point.

COMPARISONS.

INTERMEDIO-RADIALE. In Sterna in the earlier stages these
two elements are distinct (fig. 1); later they become so com-
pletely fused that they cannot be distinguished, although,
exceptionally, (fig. 4) they partially retain their individuality
for a considerable time. Similar conditions have been noted
in several birds, e. g., Opisthocomus, Fulco tinnunculus and
chick by Parker and Cypselus melba by Zehntner (90). In
other birds the separation has not been described, possibly
from the fact that the proper stages have not been studied.

ULNARE-CENTRALE. My observations here closely agree
with those of Parker on the ducks and auks, there being the
same tendency to subdivision of the cartilage mass into two
elements which he shows. One of these is, beyond doubt the
ulnare, but I confess I am not so certain of the other which I
call centrale in deference to his better opinions. The condi-
tions shown in fig. 1 where the two portions of this element
are clearly shown, leads one to the conclusion that the distal
lobe may possibly belong to the series of carpales, in which
case it would be that of the fourth existing digit. In fig. 5
again the arrangement is such as to support such a view,
while on the other hand, in none of the earlier specimens
have I seen it in such a position as to indicate that it should
be regarded as a centrale. In Chloéphaga poliocephala Parker
(90) describes this bone as divided into three portions, the two
distal of which he terms centrale 1 and 2. It would rather
seem as if we had here to do with a true centrale, while Park-
er’s centrale 1—clearly, according to position, equivalent to
the single one which I find—must be regarded as a fourth
carpal. (Cf. Parker '90, pl. 5, fig.14). Studer, according to the

766 The American Naturalist. [September,

single figure copied by Wiedersheim, has different ideas. He
has no such projection from the ulnare, but in his figure car-
pale I+II projects np between radiale and ulnare and the pro-
jecting portion is the centrale. Zehntner, on the other hand,
(90) has the intermedium united to the ulnare, the centrale to
the radiale, conditions which certainly do not occur in Sterna.
Carpats. Unless we regard the “centrale” of the preced-
ing paragraph as in reality a carpal, Sterna never possesses
more than two distinct elements in the distal carpal series.
Of these that on the radial side is the larger. When chondri-
fication begins it occupies a position (fig. 2) at the base of met-
acarpal IIL; later (figs. 3, 4) it extends radially towards meta-
carpal II, and even at times (fig. 4) exhibits a marked bilobate
appearance. From these facts as well as its subsequent his-
tory I regard it as a compound body, the carpales II--III of
the normal pentadactyle hand, the distal carpal II of Parker
and most other students of Avian osteology. Concerning the
.'* pentosteon " of Shufeldt I can say little. This author (’82°
p. 691, footnote) gives this name to a small bone found by him
in Centrocercus lying at the base of the plantar surface of the
second (my third) metacarpal. The name was given because
it was the fifth carpal bone discovered, and because it was non-
committal as to its homologies. Parker now finds the same
bone in ducks and auks, occupying the same position, and re-
gards it as carpale I. This interpretation, however, seems to
me faulty, as the bone is not in the proper position for such
identification, nor have we any torsion or stress which could
account for such translation. It would appear rather to be-
long to the same category as the pisiforme, but since I have
not found it in Sterna I can offer no further observations upon
it. |
The other free carpal element, carpale IV, is clearly but a
single element and not a compound structure like that de-
scribed by Zehntner, Rosenberg and others. Studer, in the
penguin, also figures a broad element in this position which
he doubtfully regards as compound. In Sterna this element
at its first differentiation is no wider than the fourth metacar-
pal, and as long as it retains its free condition it remains re-

E vt em

Du M LEM E VELIE
ee ge i

1894.] Development of the Wing of Sterna wilsonii. 767

latively of thesame size. Later (fig. 6) it becomes united with
carpale II--III, the whole forming a single piece equivalent to
the separate os magnum and unciforme of some birds.

Metacarpats. The only metacarpal which requires notice
is V (IV of many authors). This has been more or less per-
fectly described by several students since its first discovery by
Rosenberg (73). "This author describes it in the chick as a
distal process of à common mass of cartilage which clearly
contains two carpal elements, IV 4- V, since to it is also joined
metacarpal IV. In the case of his figures there can be no
doubt that this distal prolongation is a true digital element, as
it is clearly homonomous with the other metacarpals. It is
to be noted that according to Rosenberg this new metacarpal
lies at a lower level than the others, being flexed towards the
palmar surface. Zehntner (90) finds the same element in
Cypselus melba, but existing there, as in Sterna, as a piece dis-
tinet from the basal (carpal) element with which it is at first
joined in thechick. According to Zehntner after 9 or 10 days,
this metacarpal "geht... bei Cypselus einen vollstündigen
Atrophie.” This is certainly not the case in Sterna, nor is it
in those forms studied by Parker. Here it retains its discrete
nature for sometime and in the fowl, toucan and cariama it
even becomes ossified before its final union with the basal end
of metacarpal IV.

That this is a true metacarpal is, I think beyond question.
Owing to the method of study adopted by Parker he failed to
recognize its earlier conditions, and his observations, unsup-
ported by other evidence might be interpreted, as has been
done by several, in another way. However, the evidence ad-
dueed by Rosenberg, Zehntner and myself, clearly removes
this from the category of tendinous ossifications, the pisiforme
and the like.

Naturally the structures which I have described should be
compared with those of the reptiles, but this to be at all ade-
quate would require a detailed knowledge far greater than I
possess. It isto be noted, however, that if, as contended in
the next section, the avian “pollex” is not the first digit of
the pentadactyle hand, a portion of the reasons adduced for

768 The American Naturalist. [September,

regarding the Pterodactyls as widely removed from the birds
is removed.

Tue HOMOLOGIES or THE DIGITS.

In the wing of the adult bird only three digits at most at-
tain full development, and, since the birds have descended
from pentadactyle forms, it becomes a matter of some import-
ance to compare these three with those of the normal hand;
in other words to ascertain which digits have been lost in the
process of evolution. Naturally many attempts have been
made to solve the problems involved, and within the last
decade four different views have had their advocates, though
naturally some of these ideas of homology date back to a
more remote period.

Thus Gegenbaur (’64), reasoning from the apparent ten-
dency towards reduction of the digital elements on the ulnar
side of the crocodilian manus, concludes that the persistent
digits of the bird wing are the I, II and III of the normal
pentadactyle hand. In this he has had many followers,
among them Rosenberg (’73), Huxley (’71), Jeffries (’81),
Jackson (’88),and Parker (’88). For this view there are many
more arguments than the one mentioned above, and Dr. Jef-
fries has given an able summary of them.

A second view is that of Owen, according to which the
digits in question are II, III and IV. This is based partly
(36) on the fact of the absence of the radial artery, which
would indicate reduction on the radial side of the manus; and
partly (62) on features supposed to exist in the British Museum
specimen of Archeopteryx. In this there are apparently four

digits present in connection with the right wing, but as these
show considerable dislocation, one may, as suggested by Pro-
fessor Owen, have belonged to the other side. This view has
fewer supporters than the other, among them Morse and Coues.
Morse (’72) contributes not a little in support by his advocacy
of the law of digital reduction asa valid argument in this
connection. That Coues supports the same view I take partly
on the statement of others and partly from the fact that, while
in the text of his “ Key " ('87), he gives both views, the num-

RUTIBORECS ONE p

Peewee te ee em EMT EE E

1894.] Development of the Wing of Sterna wilsonii. 769

bering of the digitsis II, III, IV. In an earlier paper (’66) he
accepts the numbering I, II and III. Here, too, must be
enumerated Shufeldt, who states (82, p. 616) that he has
always adhered to this view, but adds “the fact, however, that
the first phalanx of the manus of aves is the homologue of the
pollex of the pentadactyle limb seems to be gaining ground."
I have not found any further reference to this subject in his
subsequent osteological contributions further than this usual
reference to the radial digit as the pollex.

Mr. Hurst (93) has advocated a third system of numbering

according to which the digits are III, IV and V. An analysis
of his reasons will be given immediately when dealing with
the arguments for the enumeration adopted in the present
paper.
The fourth system is that of Tschan (89) who according to
Zehntner (90) proposes to regard the permanent digits as I, II
and IV. He bases this on the discovery by Parker (789) of a
slip of bone in chick, Musicapa and many Galline as occur-
ing between the second and third of the persisting digits.
This, says Tschan, is the true digit III. But Parker further
describes similar slips as occurring on the outside of the “ pol-
lex" and between the first and second permanent digits as
well as a true fourth metacarpal on the ulnar side of the hand.
Tschan suggests that the first of these might be the “ prepol-
lex" but even with the admission of this doubtful element,
there would be one superfluous digit. This together with the
utterly anomalous type of reduction which it presupposes—the
disappearance of digits in the middle of the manus—is suffi-
cient to discredit this view.

That there is developed a fourth digit in the avian manus is
beyond question, and the fact that this comes upon the ulnar
side of the three permanent fingers is sufficient to invalidate
the nomenclature, IIT, IV and V of Hurst. Hurst refers to
Parker's fourth digit as appearing to be the os pisiforme, and
since Parker had only the later stages, there would be some
plausibility in this view. This possibility, however, disappears

"It was discovered, as Parker points out, long before by Te (’20, pl. IV
f. 10) in the chick, persisting for sometime as a separate

770 The American Naturalist. [September,

when westudy not only my figures 1 and 2, but the figures of
Rosenberg and Zehntner. In the figures just cited the tem-
porary digit is just as prominent as is the “pollex” and no
one without a theory to support would regard it other than a
digit. Then too, as Rosenberg’s figure shows, it bears no con-
nection to the ulnare, but isa distinct outgrowth from the
outer distal angle of carpal III--IV.

We are then left to choose between the formule I, II and III
and II, III, IV, and though the apparent weight of authority
is in the other direction, I am strongly inclined towards the
second alternative, for the following reasons: First comes the
law of digital reduction advocated by Morse, by which in
other groups digit I is first to disappear and then V. Fur-
ther, when further reduction occurs in birds, and a single digit
is left as in the Apteryx and the Cassowaries, the reduction has
oceurred on both sides of the persisting digit, which, according
to my nomenclature, would be digit III. This implies a sym-
metrical reduction, the other view involves the disappearance
of digits I, III, IV and-V, a condition, so far as Iam aware,
without parallel. :

Then too, Archaeopteryx, in the light of Hurst’s later
studies presents some evidence. As noted above, Owen
thought he had found evidence of a true digit I in the British
Museum specimen, but on the discovery of the Berlin speci-
men this idea was dropped and the conditions presented by
the new example form the chief argument in Jeffries’ summary
already alluded to. It would, however, appear that most recent
figures of the Berlin specimen and the conclusions based upon
them are not to be relied upon. This can be at once seen by
comparing for instance the figure of Archaeopteryx given by
Zittel in his Paleontologie with the photographic reproduction
which illustrates Hurst’s article? In the Berlin specimen
three digits in the wing are clearly visible, and it has been
assumed that these were the only ones. Hurst, however,
points out that the position of the feathers is such that they
could not have been borne on these digits as in ordinary birds,

"The plate in the Standard Natural i ( Vol. IV, facing p. 22, — ap-
proaches very closely the figure of Hurs

p Re eee re en Aiea ene cs i anne DORE Ler aie RNC A onde
x E OLAN T AE ES E a A A E SD cata A RANDA
Na E A T EM t a ai AE a rM a Sek E ai — MERE VT NETS r T

MEET ee

Sa a i a

1894.] Development of the Wing of Sterna wilsonii. 771

but that there must be (at least one) digits buried beneath the
feathers, and in just the place where the missing finger or fingers
should come is an evident ridge in the stone.

If we may call upon the effects of use and disuse, the con-
ditions presented would also tend to favor the reduction of the
digits on the radial side, for it is the ulnar phalanges which
must bear the stress of the wing; the fingers on the radial
side, having but few small feathers, would be most likely to
disappear.

Jeffries invokes also the distribution of the nerves, but to
my mind his evidence is not conclusive; besides it is directly
negatived by the distribution of the blood vessels as was
pointed out above.

We may conclude, then, that the only conditions possible
are either I, II and III, or II, III and IV, and that until some
evidence be found of the actual appearance of a fifth digit on
the ulnar side, that there is at least as much reason for the
second as for the first formula. In regard to the first, Hurst
remarks, it “isin no ease, so far as I am aware, supported by
any evidence whatever. I believe it to have originated from
the pre-Darwinian statement that the Ala spuria is ‘ analo-
gous to the thumb; while the other two digits are called
simply ‘second’ and ‘third ; that is, second and third digits
not of the pentadactyle but of the tridactyle fore-limb. Such
phrases written on the then undoubted hypothesis of special
creation and of fixity of species, could obviously not mean
that the three digits called ‘thumb’ and ‘ second’ and ‘ third’
had been evolved from the digits T, IT, III of the pentadactyle
fore-limb of an ancestor; the author did not believe that
birds ever had such an ancestor. The transcription of such
phrases into post-Darwinian treatises, without consideration of
the new meaning which they would thus gain from the new
context, appears to have been the origin of the error."

CONCLUSIONS.

Carpats. There are at least seven elements in the carpus.
In the proximal row there are two free elements (intermedio-
radiale and centralo-ulnare) both of which are divided in the

772 The American Naturalist. [September,

early embryo, and represent, morphologically, the radiale,
intermedium, centrale and ulnare. In the distal series there
are also two free elements, one of them (carpal II-III) being
evidently compound.

Diaorrs. There are four distinct metacarpals. The first (II)
supports two phalanges, the second three, the third one, and
the fourth none. The distal phalanges of m. c. II and III
are furnished with claws. M. C. V arises as a distinct digit,
subsequently becomes free, and finally unites with m. c. IV.

NuwBERING OF Diaits. The persistent digits of the birds
wing are either I, II and III or II, III and IV, the bulk of
evidence being in favor of the latter enumeration.

LITERATURE CITED.

'66 Coues, Elliott. The osteology of Colymbus Me :
with notes on its myology. Memoirs Bost. Soc. N. Hist.,
131, 1866.

'87 Coues, Elliott. Key to North American Birds. Third
Edition. Boston, 1877.

'00 Heusinger, C. F. Zootomische Analekten. II. Ein Bei-
trag zur Metamorphose des Vogel-Flügels. Meckel's Archiv f.
d. Physiol., vi, 546, 1820.

"2 Huxley, Thomas Henry. A manual of the anatomy
of vertebrated animals. London, 1871.

'93 Hurst, C. Herbert. Biological Theories, VIII. The
digits in a bird's wing; a study of the origin and multiplica-
tion of errors. Natural Science, iii, 275, 1893.

'88 Jackson, W. Hatchett. Forms of Animal Life... by
thelate George Rolleston. Second Edition. Oxford, 1888.

'83 Johnson, Alice. On the development of the pelvic gir-
dle and the skeleton of the hind limb in the chick. Quar.
Journ. Micr. Sci., xxiii, 399, 1883.

'81 Jeffries, J. A. On the fingers of Birds. Bulletin
Nuttall. Ornith. Club, vi, p. 6, 1881.

"2 Morse, Edward S. On the Tarsus and Carpus of
Birds. Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist., N. Y., x, 1872.

'06 Owen, Richard. Aride * Aves" Todd’s Cyclopedia
of Anatomy and Phys., i, p. 265, 1836.

CN EE eer

— EET NO PPRICUN

e SUR TESTES a ini

Pe Te E AT

1894.] Development of the Wing of Sterna Wilsoni. 718

'68 Owen, Richard. On the Archeopteryx of von Meyer,
with a description of the fossil remains of a long-tailed speci-
men, from the lithographic stone of Solenhofen. Phil. Trans.,
Vol. 153, p. 33, 1863.

'89 Parker, William Kitchen. On the structure and de-
velopment of the wing in the common fowl. Phil. Trans.,
Vol. 179B, p. 385, 1889.

'90 Parker, William Kitchen. On the morphology of the
duck and auk tribes. Royal Irish Academy, * Cunningham
Memoirs," No. VI, 1890.

'97 Rosenberg, Alex. Ueber die Entwicklung des Extrem-
ititen-Skelettes bei einigen durch Reductionen ihrer Glied-
massen characterisirten Wirbelthieren. Zeitsch. wiss Zool.,
xxiii, 116, 1873.

'82* Shufeldt, R. W. Osteology of Speotyto cunicularia
hypogeea. 12th Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, (Hayden) p. 593,
1882

’82° Shufeldt, R. W. Osteology of the North American
Tetraonide. t. c., p. 653, 1882.

’89 Studer, Th. Die Forschungsreise S. M. S. “Gazelle”
in der Jahren 1874 bis 1876. Herausgegeben von den hydro-
graph. Amt der Admiralitüt. III Theil: Zoologie und Geolo-
gie. Berlin, 1889. (Cited from R. Wiedersheim, 1893).

’°89 Tschan, Alfr. Recherches sur l'extremité antérieure
des Oiseaux et des Reptiles. Dissertation, Genéve, 1889.
(Cited from Zehntner, 1890).

93 Wiedersheim, Robert. Grundriss der vergleichenden
Anatomie der Wirbelthieren. Dritte Auflage. Jena, 1893.

'00 Zehntner, Leo. Beiträge zur Entwicklung von Cypse-
lus melba nebst biologischen und osteologischen Details.
Archiv für Naturgeschichte LVI, I, 189, 1890.

EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES.

The illustrations in the text show the embryos natural size.
It is to be noted that fig. A, showing a smaller embryo, had a
wing more developed than fig. B. Allother figures are pro-
jections of camera drawings and are each magnified 22 diam-
eters. ‘

774

The American Naturalist. [September,

REFERENCE LETTERS.

c carpale m. c. metacarpal.

h humerus u ulna.

r radius ue ulnare.

re radiale II-IV and I-IV digits.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Manus, stage I, showing carpus and digits as pro-
cartilage with several cartilaginous elements. Digit
V is plainly shown.
Manus, stage II. Three carpals are now seen and
metacarpal V has become distinct from the carpal
mass.
Manus, stage III. The digits are now broken into
phalanges and the flexure of the hand to the ulnar
side is forcing the ulnare out of its normal position.
Manus, stage IV. The radiale shows tendency to
division into radiale and intermedium.
Manus, stage V. Elements now beginning to ossify.
igits II and III are terminated with claws.
Carpals and metacarpals, stage VI. Carpals united ;
metacarpal V approximate to metacarpal IV.
Conditions just before hatehing. Metacarpal V
joined to metacarpal IV.

,

PLATE XXV.

=
ES
Dw
>
a
t
RE
|
=
S
=
>
S

1894.] Dr. Anthony Robinson.

A LITTLE KNOWN JAMAICAN NATURALIST, DR.
ANTHONY ROBINSON.

By T. D. A. CocKERELL.

There are, in the library of the Institute of Jamaica, some
interesting old manuscripts, together with a number of draw-
ings which constitute almost the sole record we have of the sci-
entific labors of Dr. Robinson intheisland. The drawings are
original but the manuscripts are copied from the papers left
by the learned doctor, which latter appear to have been lost.
The following notice is appended to the copy:

“ This [is a] faithfull transcript of Mr. Robinson’s loose un-
connected and detach’d papers, by Rt. Long, who has revised
the whole and corrected the errors of copyist thro-out. Septr.,
1769.

“ Anthony Robinson, Chirurgeon, formerly of Sunderland
by the Sea in Durham, but lately of Jamaica.”

In the Jamaica Institute is a pencil drawing of the doctor,
by Edward Long, in connection with which Mr. F. Cundall
has written the following biographical note:

“Anthony Robinson, surgeon and botanist: a native of
Sunderland, England, where he was apprenticed to his father,
a surgeon and apothecary: early turned his attention to bot-
any: came to Jamaica: made a collection of several hundred
figures and descriptions of Jamaica plants and animals: the
drawings are in the Institute of Jamaica, with a copy of the
MS. made under the supervision of his friend, Robert Long.
(The original MS. is lost). His notes were used by Lunan in
his * Hortus Jamaicensis,” and by Gosse in his “ Naturalist's
Sojourn” and “ Birds of Jamaica.” The House of Assembly
voted him £140 in 1767 for his discovery of the method of
making soap from the juice of the Coratoe. d. 1768." (Journ.
Inst. Jamaica, Vol. 1, p. 327).

Although Dr. Robinson did not himself publish, some of his
notes have been used by later writers, as stated above. The

51

776 The American Naturalist. [September,

greater part of the manuscript, however, is still unpublished,
and not long ago it was debated whether the ornithological
observations should not be issued by the Institute, accompan-
ied by a selection from the colored drawings. This project
after consultation with an experienced ornithologist, was
abandoned, at least for the present, as so large a portion of the
manuscript consists of elaborate descriptions which would
practically duplicate those in existing works. Had these de-
scriptions been published when Dr. Robinson wrote them,
their value would have been very different.

The extracts from the manuscript by Gosse in his well
known works sufficiently testify to the scientific zeal and
knowledge of Dr. Robinson, although his methods were rather
those of an age now past. I brought with me from Jamaica
copies of several unpublished portions of the manuscript, and
will give a few extracts, both to illustrate the character of the
man and put on record observations which, although so old,
have not lost their value.

1. The Alligator (so-called) of Jamaica, Crocodilus ameri-
canus. The following selections are from a long account of
this animal :

“ A very small alligator was put into rum by Mr. Walker,
then of Old Harbour, now of Kingston, and according to the
nicest reckoning with a watch or other time’s measure, liv’d
about a quarter of an hour in that spirit.”

Of another specimen, “the stomach’s contents were bird’s
feathers (aquatic most probably), joints of crabs claws, and
little living white slender worms, with some small pebbles.”

The parasitic worms deserve attention; have they been de-
scribed? In the horned lizard (Phrynosoma) of this part of
the world (N. Mex.) one finds also such worms.

Dr. Robinson proceeds to describe the crocodile’s external
features and anatomy: “The guts measuring from the stom-
ach to the end of the intestinum rectum were fifteen feet long,
uncoil’d.

“The time the young alligator continued under water was
to the outmost but two minutes, as we proved by repeated
trials, puddling and disturbing the water in order to keep him
under thro’ fear as long as his nature would admit. —

Pee RS SE Rt Cad »

—————— —E€— — —————

TS DP EARS TRO MIO diede Mea p ui

ARES RE ER RT DET HE

1894.] Dr. Anthony Robinson. 777

“ He seldom raised more than his nostrils above the water,
he ever delv'd at the near approach of any person.

“Taken out of the water, the creature breath’d or made an
indraught of air to his lungs, from five to ten slow and regu-
lar respirations, and at the end of the fifth, or the tenth time,
was a total cessation from breathing for about one minute.”

In another place he writes: “Once this animal was observ'd
to continue under water upwards of ten minutes.

" I turn'd the alligator on his back and while I staid by him
he lay as if lifeless without the least motion, as I observ’d liz-
ards do when turn'd on their backs; I retir'd for about three
minutes out of his sight, and on my return he had recover'd
his first situation.

“ The tail’s extreme I caus'd to be broil’d on the creature's
dying, and ate of it. The flesh was extremely white, firm,
Sweet, moist and juicy, as turtle in whiteness but not so dry,
not the least musky in taste or smell. My little spaniel dog
ate very greedily of it." This alligator was a young one.

The true alligator, it should be remarked, is not found in
Jamaica.

2. Elaps, probably E. fulvius ; not Jamaican.

“A snake known by the name of the poison snake among
the Indians, but among the Europeans by that of Barber's
pole. The Indians have no cure for the bite of this creature,
it being mortal in 10 or 15 minutes, the patient bleeding at
mouth, eyes, and nose, and thus letting out his life."—(Charles
Harris).

“The gentleman who wrote the above is son to Revd. Mr.
Harris, late Rector of St. Elizabeth [Jamaica] who was in
company with an Indian that died from a bite of the above

snake, which he takes to be a species of that received from

Walrond Teason, Esq., which came from the Spanish main. I
have described it the Ring Snake because its body is sur-
rounded with black and yellow rings. Mr. Harris saw the
above on the Moskito shore."

The snake is now commonly called the coral snake, but the
title mentioned, “ Barber's pole,” is more suggestive of its ap-
pearance. No poisonous snake inhabits Jamaica.

778 The American Naturalist. [September,

3. Names of lizards. Dr. Robinson writes Guana uniformily
for what is now called the Iguana; and for what Gosse writes
Galliwasp (Celestus occiduus), Robinson has Gully Wasp. In
another place Robinson calls the same lizard Gully Asp,
which explains at once the origin of the name. He observes:
“The lizard tribe in general have nothing poisonous in their
bite, but the Gully Wasp isstrongly suspected. Cattle and
mules are said to be often bit by them and so swell and die."

‘This notion reminds one of that current in New Mexico, of
the fatal effects of Phasmids on cattle when eaten by them.

4. The Gully Asp, Celestus occiduus.

“The Gully Asp inhabits morasses and the banks of rivers,
and gullys in the plains and mountains. They live upon fish,
* fruit and even human excrements. They stand upon the
banks of rivers, etc., and watch for the fish coming within
reach, when they suddenly spring upon them into the water
and bring them out in their mouths to the shore, where they
eat them. I have been informed that they are oviparous and
lay eggs as big as those of a pullet, but I have not yet seen
them. I have often been inform’d that no animal will eat the
carcass of this creature, and the following instance seems to
prove them unwholesome :

“ Dr. David Miller inform'd me that a few days ago an ac-
quaintance of his in his way to Mr. Miller's happen'd to kill a
small Gully Wasp of about fifteen inches long and brought
him to his house and flung him into an inclos'd square where
he kept a young alligator of about five feet long. "The alliga-
tor immediately swallow'd the Gully Asp. This was about 11
o'clock in the forenoon. About four hours after, the alligator
(Robinson writes it aligator) was observ'd to jump and flounce
about the square, knocking its head and tail against the stock-
ades, seeming to be quite mad and frantie with pain, and con-
tinued in the manner till night, when he died. "Therefore,
the Dr. concluded that the Gully Asp had poison'd him; he
says besides that no creature will touch the dead Gully Asp.
it should seem that most animals by a natural instinct shun
the carcass, and therefore avoid the certain Gepienetion that
would happen to them by eating them.

iere a woke ea

PEAS Mi c

1894.] Dr. Anthony Robinson. 779

* Yet I believe it is not the flesh of the Gully Asp that is
pernicious for two reasons. First, because the negroes at
Egyp(t) Plantation often eat them, and secondly, I cannot
think that any of the fleshy part could be dissolved in the
cold stomach of the alligator in so short a space of time as
four hours, besides the hard scales of the Gully Asp’s skin
would hinder the digestion not a little. What part of this
animal is poisonous? perhaps the viscera, but which? This
might be known by giving some creature, as a dog or cat, the
different parts of the animal to eat at separate times.”

Gosse does not admit that this lizard has any injurious
properties. The above anecdote about the alligator (crocodile
rather) though interesting, is hardly conclusive by itself.
Later, Dr. Robinson writes :

“ May the 25th, 1760. I was at St. Tooley's, where the over-
seer, Mr. Watson inform'd me that the Gully Asps about that
estate were very fierce and would seize a man, and that their
bite, he assur'd me, was certainly venomous. Memorandum
to inquire more strictly into this matter.” Later he writes:

“ A gentleman in St. Elizabeth's informs me that in the
niountains there they have a Gully Asp entirely black, which
is said to be poisonous, and that if it bite either man or beast
they certainly die. He gave me an instance of one biting a
girl on the toe (I think), who expir'd a few hours after receiv-
ing it. . . . However, this gentleman and almost all other |
considerable persons in this parish and the next seem to look
upon the Great Morass Gully Asp, which I think it may prop-
erly be call’d, as an inoffensive creature; the above-quoted
person tells a story of a person who while he slept in the
morass one night, laid hold of his cap and endeavour'd to pull
it off. The gentleman observing this after the first tug, lay
close, and quite mistaking it for a negro, resolving to wateh
him; and the next pull the Gully Asp gave he laid fast hold
of him, but perceiving his error throw him backwards some
yards. He says he has often fed them with offal, when he has
been eating, and suffer'd them to run over his legs."

5. The following observations on a Ccelenterate which I will
not pretend to determine, seem to have a bearing on some
quite recently published researches.

780 The American Naturalist. [September,

“Small, clustering Actinea. Amongst the surrounding
rocks of Booby Quay, Actinia minima viride racemosa, the clus-
tering small green Actinea. These grew many together, they

were about an inch long, of a round form like an earthworm.

Their arms extended themselves to the diameter of one's
thumb-nail, and nothing could be more pleasing than to lean
down and observe some hundreds of these animals with their
arms extended in the form of a stellate flower with its disc,
which the mouth represents, and its rays the extended arms
of a various green color as deeper and paler in circles, sup-
ported by deep green pedicels smaller than the fore-quill of a
goose, and waving to and fro by the undulating motion of the
water.

“From their bases are produc'd young ones, and from
thence others which never fall from the mother or parent ani-
mal, asin the polypus, by which means, they grow in vast
numbers, together so thick as to hide the rocks they grow
upon entirely, and may be rais'd up as one body, where their
bodies are observ'd to unite to one another. "Their bodies are
firmer and harder in handling than those of the common Ac-
tinea, nor do they shrink so much but only close their arms.
They growing upon naked rocks so that they are always visi-
ble and taken by the incuriose (sic) to be a kind of sea-moss;
at low water many of them are bare, at such times they never
disclose or expand their arms.”

Perhaps some reader will be able to supply the name of this
“ Actinea.”—Agricultural Experiment Station, Las Cruces,
New Mexico, March 4, 1894.

VENE ES iE E : x: :
MEL Ru catty wipes LL cuacadir ming rol eng eM

1894.] Editorials. 781

EDITORIALS.

—Tue Forty-Third Meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science took place in Brooklyn, commencing on
August 15. The weather was propitious and members attended to
the number of 475. Many meritorious papers were read, and the ad-
dresses of the Vice-Presidents presented science in its varied aspects.
The introductory address, in reply to the welcome of the citizens of
Brooklyn, by the President, Dr. D. G. Brinton, was an admirable ex-
position of the methods and aims of science. Four lectures were deliv-
ered in the evening—the address of the retiring President, Professor
Harkness, and three by Messrs Fernow, DuChaillu and Cope. The
citizens of Brooklyn entertained the Association with unusual hospi-
tality in the matter of excursions. The neighborhood of New York
offers many opportunities in this direction, of which the Association
freely availed itself.

The Association has, for several years, missed from its meetings an
important contingent of the workers of the country. We refer espe-
cially to the anatomists, embryologists and physiologists. The princi-
pal object of the Association is to present to the American public an
illustration of the work done by the investigators of the country, that
they may, in some degree, understand its value. The absence of these
gentlemen reduces the value of the Association as an object lesson, and
detracts from the force of the impression which the Association should
make. Their absence diminishes the prestige of the workers in sci-
ence in this country. Original research is but little endowed in Amer-
ica, and it is likely to remain so unless the investigators make them-
selves and their needs known.

The newspapers of Brooklyn gave good reports of the meeting, but
those of New York, with some few exceptions, burlesqued the Associa-
tion. This shows that mental degeneracy is not confined to the rulers .
of Néw York, but has gotten a strong hold on the alleged intelligence
of the city, viz.: the Press. As New York, however, is not the United
States, this matters little, except to New York.

Tue tariff bill which has just passed Congress contains the follow-
ing provisions, which benefit scientific work in this country. The Con-
gressional Committees which have. prepared it have been interviewed
from timeto time by members of the committee appointed for that pur-

782 The American Naturalist. [September

pose by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, with

the result of placing on the free list the following items: Scientific books
and periodicals devoted to original scientific research, and publications
issued for their subscribers by scientific and literary associations or acad-
emies, or publications of individuals for gratuitous private circulation,
and public documents issued by foreign governments; books and pam-
phlets printed exclusively in languages other than English.

All manufactures of metals not otherwise provided for, reduced from
45 to 35 per cent. ad valorem, or a reduction of 22 per cent.

These provisions almost remove the onerous and disgraceful tax on
education and science, which characterized the McKinley bill. It only
remains to continue the work, so well begun, of the removing the
tax on philosophical apparatus. The Association continued the
committee.

Tue address of Lord Salisbury at Oxford before the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, as its President, is a general
review of the present status of selected leading questions in all of the
great departments of scientific research. "These are treated in a sim-
ple and straightforward manner, so as to be fully comprehensible to the
lay member. The value of such an address, in informing the publie
of the nature of the problems which have been solved and are await-
ing solution by scientific research, is great. It wili also benefit the
cause of science in England that so distinguished a member of the
ruling class should espouse it in so conspicuous a manner. Lord Salis-
bury adopts the hypothesis of organic evolution, but, like Lord Kel-
vin, declines to regard Darwinism as a full exposition of it. Against
it he appeals to the evidence of intelligent design to be seen in the or-
ganic world. He does not refer to the doctrine of kinetogenesis, which
so well explains the nature of design. He is not, however, prepared to
accept as a necessary corollary of the fact of evolution, the origin of
man from preéxistent Quadrumanas, but calls it “not proven.” This
is probably as much as we can expect at this time from any one who
is not a specialist in biology.

We understand that among the animals imported from India by W.
K. Vanderbilt for his park near Newport, R. L, are several mangooses.
It is important that these animals should not escape from confinement,
as they will inflict great injury on the native and domesticated fauna
should they do so. They multiply rapidly and devour every living
thing sufficiently important to serve them as food, whether they live
under the ground, on the ground, or at a distance above the ground to

-

a a le TUTTA

1894.] Editorials. 783

which they can climb. Having no natural enemies in the country,
they would become a much greater evil than the English sparrow.
Their importation, except for zoological gardens, should be forbidden.

Some industrious persons are endeavoring to utilize parts of the
great Palisade dyke of the Hudson for paving-stone. The New York
journals are publishing protests against this vandalism, which will, we
hope, have the effect of preserving this imposing feature of the scenery
of that region.

784 The American Naturalist. [September,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Bateson, W.—Materials for the Study of Variation, treated with special —

regard to the discontinuity in the origin of species. London and New York,
1894. From Macmillan and Co. Publishers

Biological vci delivered at the Menos Biol. Lab. Wood's Holl, 1893.
From the Laboratory.

Bulletin Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Station, No. 58, 1893.

Bulletin Wyoming Experiment Station. No. 14, 1893.

CALVERT, P. P.—Catalogue of the Odonata (Dragon-flies) in the vicinity of
ot dies an Introduction to the Study of this Group of Insects. Extr.

m. Soc., Vol. 20, 1893. From the author.

CAMPBEL CE beating in the Nervous Organization of Man and Woman.
London, VeL From H. K. Lewis, Publisher.

Cross, W.—Intrusive apre Dykes in Granite. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am., Va. V,1894. From the Society.

Fepororr, E.—Nouvelle merca pour l'étude goniométrique et optique des
cristaux appliquie à la mineralogie et à la Erie dt Mém. du Comite Géol.,
Vol. X, 1893. From the Geol. Surv. of Russ

FriNT, W.—Statistics of Public Libraries in cde United States and Canada.
Bureau of Ed., Cir. Inform., No. 7, 1893. From the Bureau of Education.

Gace, S. P.—The Brain of Diemyctylus viridescens from Larval to Adult Life,
and comparisons with the Brain of Amia and Petromyzon. Extr. Wilder
Quarter-Century Book, 1893. From the author.

HAECKEL, E.—Metagenesis und Hypogenesis von Aurelia aurita. Ein Beit-
rag zur Entwickelungsgeschichte und zur Teratologie der Medusen. Jena, 1881.

——Zur Phylogenie der Australischen Fauna. Abdruck aus Semon, Zoolo-
gische Forschungsreisen in Australien und dem malayischen Archipel. Jena,

HARSHBERGER, J.—Maize. A Botanical and Economic Study. Contr. Bot.
Lab. Penn. Univ., 1893. From the author.

Howes, G. B.—Notes on the Variation and Development of the Vertebral and
Limb-skeleton of in Amphibia.—— Notes on the Abnormal Sternium of Hapale

jacchus oceeds. London Zool. Soc., 1893..—On the Mammalian Pel-

vis with pilil ilaia to the young of Ornithorh; cade anatinus. Extr.
Journ. Anat. and Physiol., Vol. XXVII, 1893. From the a

LANE, A. C.—Geologic Activity of the Earth's Ado Dei Gases.
Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. V, 1894

Lawson, A. C.—The Aietes of the Minnesota Coast of Lake Superior.
— The Laccolite Sills of the Northwest Coast of Lake Superior, with a Prep-
atory Note on the Norian of the Northwest. Bull. No. 6, 1893. Minn. Geol.
and Nat. Hist. Surv. From the Survey.

LINTNER, J, A.—Fourth and Fifth Reports on the Injurious and other Insects

of the State of New York. Extr. 41st Rept. New York State Mus. Nat. Hist.
From the author.

eta T Selita
Conus fioi es i

S Nd
kc ru Fi gane

E S E
CRESS M dp ES PRIME IE M ER DU

aa

ee Ne ee a ET NES ee

1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 785

Lockwoop, S.—Some Phenomena in Exuviation by the Reptiles. New York,
1893. From the author.

Lupin, D. A.—Proposition Revolutionizing the Distribution of Wealth, Sacra-
mento, 1893. From the author.

OssoRN, H. F.—Fossil Mammals from the Upper Cretaceous Beds. Extr.
Bull Am. Mus. Nat. Hist, Vol. V, 1893.—— The Rise of the Mammalia in
North America. Extr. Proceeds, A. A. A. S., 1893. From the author.

PirLiNG, J. C.— Bibliography of the Chinookan Languages, including the
Chinook Jargon. Washington, 1893. From the Bureau of Ethnology.

SHUFELDT, R. W.—Nesting Habits of Galeoscoptes carolinensis. Extr. Auk,

893.

SIEBENROCK, F.— Zur Osteologie des Hatteria-Kopfes. Aus den Sitzungsb. der
kaiserl. Akad. der Wissensch. Wien. Mathem-naturw. Classe, 1893. From the
author.

SMITH, E. F.— Experiments with Fertilizers for the Prevention and Cure of
Peach Yellows, 1889-92. Bull. No. 4. U. S. Dept. Agric. Div. Veg. Path.,
Washington, 1893. From the Dept. Agric.

SurTH, J. B.—Catalogue of the Lepidopterous Superfamily Noctuidae found
in Boreal America. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus. No. 44, 1893. From the Smithso-
nian Institution.

SMITH, J. P.—Age of the Auriferous Slates of Sierra Nevada. Extr. Bull.
Geol. pin dyes Vol. V, 1894.

SokoLow, N.—Die Untertertiaren Ablagerungen Siidrusslands. Mém. du
Comité Geol, Vol. IX, 1893. From the Geol. Surv. of Russia.

Tarr, R. S. —Economic Geology of the United States. New York, 1894.
Macmillan and Co., Pub. From John Wanamaker’s.

ToriNARD, P.—L’ Anthropologie aux Etats Unis. Extr. de l'Anthropol,
1893.

Traquair, R. H.—On Cephalaspis magnifica.—— Achanarras revisited. Extrs.
Proceeds. Roy. Phy. Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. XII. From the author.

TSCHERNYSCHEW, TH.—Die Fauna des unteren Devon am Ostabhange des Ural.
Mém. du Comité Geol., Vol. IV, 1893. From the Geol. Surv. of Russia.

WHITMAN, C. O.— The Inadequacy of the Cell-Theory of Development. Extr.
Journ. Morph., Vol. VIII, 1893. From the author.

Woops, H.—Elementary Paleontology. Cambridge, 1893. From Macmillan

Co.

and
WonTMAN, J. L.—On the Divisions of the White River or Lower Miocene of
Dakota.

———AND EARLE, C.—Ancestors of the Tapir from the Lower Miocene of
Dakota. Extrs. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, 1893. From the author.

ZITTEL, K. A. voN—Die geologische Entwickelung, Herkunft und Verbreitung
der Sáugethiere. Aus den Sitzungsb. der math.-phy. Classe der k. bayer Akad.
d. Wiss., 1893. Bd. XXIII. From the author.

786 The American Naturalist. [September,

RECENT LITERATURE.

Louis Agassiz: His Life and Work; by Chas. Frederick
Holder, M. D! In this volume we have an appreciative history of
Agassiz, in which the characteristics of the man, and the nature and
progress of his work are most happily woven together. His ambitions,
while still under the parental roof in Neuchatel, are recounted, and
his biographer shows how early tbe dominant bias of a man's life may
appear. We are told how his persevering devotion to his favorite pur-
suit did not prevent him from preparing for the practice of the medical
profession, as a means of livelihood ; and how, later, the opportunity
of studying and reporting on the fishes brought home by Von Martius
from Brazil, determined his future course. Every naturalist has been
introduced to his life work in the science by especial facilities enjoyed
for the study of some particular group. To Agassiz this group was
the fishes, and his first works after that on the fishes of Brazil, were
those on the fresh-water fishes of Europe, and the Fossil Fishes. But
his highly appreciative mind was directed to all the problems offered
by nature to human thought, and he quickly saw the importance which
attached to the study of the Swiss glaciers. "The far-reaching results
of this work are now common knowledge; as it contains the key to the
superficial geology of the temperate regions of the earth. The appli-
cation of the glacial phenomena in geology is Agassiz's greatest achieve-
ment.

The history of Agassiz's work in the United States is interestingly
told, and the narration of the Brazilian expedition is charming. The
volume closes with a reprint of some of the memorials which expressed
the feelings of naturalists at the time of his death, and with a bibli-
ography.

The work is handsomely illustrated, largely from photographs made
during the Brazilian expedition. It is a pity that better figures of the
Brazilian fishes and turtles could not have been copied, as those in this
book are mostly bad.

The personal characteristics of Agassiz are pleasantly described, and
for this reason among others the book will be a valued souvenir to the
friends who knew him. The author dwells especially on his great mer-

!8vo, pp. 327, illustrated. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York and London,
1893.

DAE
ibo

open Se a a ar a ee a ls ee Senn nee

1894.] Recent Literature. 787

its as a teacher, which, indeed, cannot be exaggerated. He greatly
popularized the pursuit of science in America, and the effect of his life
and labors in this direction has been greater than that of any man,
probably of many men. The pursuit of science was to him, as it
should be to all, a duty undertaken for the elevation of human thought.
That the visible nature is the material expression of the thoughts of
God, was Agassiz’s oft expressed belief. Doubtless he was correct, but
the proof of it comes in a way different from that which this great
naturalist anticipated ; that is, through the direction of evolutionary
descent. Perhaps if Agassiz had lived longer, he would have adopted
this view, and embellished it as he did all his teachings.—C.

Nuttall’s Ornithology.'— This hand-book of ornithology is pub-
lished in two handsome volumes 8vo, of some 400 pp. each. It is prac-
tically a new edition of Nuttall's Manual, which has been out of print
for several years, to which the editor has added brief notes relating the
results of recent determinations in distribution and habits. The intro-
duction is given exactly as it appeared in Nuttall's second edition, and
the text of the biographical matter has been changed but little. To
this Mr. Chamberlain adds a description of the plumage, nest and eggs
of each species.

In his treatment of the subject, the author covers the entire area of
the Eastern Faunal Province from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic
Ocean. The nomenclature adopted is that of the Check List issued by
the American Ornithologists’ Union. The illustrations are mostly
drawn especially for the work. They are of excellent quality and are
of size appropriate to that of the pages.

Nuttall’s Manual was fora long time the only text-book of American
ornithology available to pockets of limited resources. Its style and
treatment of the subject are most attractive, and it has probably done
more to diffuse a knowledge of the subject than any other work. Boys
read it who had access to no other, and many naturalists of to-day
date their interest in their science to the charm of its pages. Although
the excellent works of Coues and Ridgway have made us better ac-
quainted with the science of ornithology, nothing has superseded Nut-
tall’s work as a delineator of habits and manners of birds. It was a
happy thought that resulted in the publication of this new edition un-
der Mr. Chamberlain’s editorship.

? A Popular Hand-book of the Ornithology of the United States and Canada,

based on Nuttall’s Manual. By Montague Chamberlain. Boston: Little, Brown
& Co., 1891.

788 The American Naturalist. [September,

Seeley on the Fossil Reptiles: II. Pareiasaurus; VI. The
Anomodontia and their Allies; VII. Further Observations
on Pariasaurus.’—Professor H. G. Seeley has again made the scien-
tific world his debtors by his descriptions of new forms of South Afri-
can fossil reptiles; by his extensive comparisons of the characters of
these, the oldest known members of the class; and by his very full
study of that remarkable form, the Pariasaurus of Owen. These works
are valuable to students of the Reptilia of corresponding age in other
parts of the world, and especially to those of the American forms. The
descriptions are elucidated by cuts and plates.

Prof. Seeley has shown that the genus Pareisaurus is allied to the
American Diadectidx, and that it represents a distinct family of the
same order, the Cotylosauria. His proposition of a new ordinal name,
Pariasauria, is perhaps due to the fact that the original definition of the
Cotylosauria was defective in one respect. The corrected definition
was published later, and in the same year as the proposal of the new
name by Dr. Seeley.

Several important points of both anatomy and taxonomy are pre-
sented in these memoirs, on which I propose to touch. In the first
place, no one had, at the time that these memoirs were written, distin-
guished between roof-bones and the bones of the brain case, in the Rep-
tilia. Although the two series are to be entirely distinguished in all
vertebrates which possess them, the same names have been used vari-
ously for opposite or adjacent elements of both. The names squamosal,
epiotic and opisthotic have thus been used in double senses. For the .
posterior bones of the temporal roof I have adopted the terms zygo-
matic, supratemporal, supramastoid* and tabulare? The supratem-
poral is called squamosal by Seeley. But the squamosal is a bone of
the lateral wall of the brain case, and cannot be identified with any
one of the three possible post-orbital bars of the Reptilia, which may
be composed posteriorly of either the zygomatic, supratemporal or sup-
ramastoid. The epiotic of Seely and of some others is the tabulare m.,
and has nothing to do with the original epiotic of Huxley.

Prof. Seeley describes the Placodontia as possessing two occipital
condyles, which have the position of zygapophysial articulations. The
basioccipital he describes as presenting “a thin film of bone” poster-
iorly on the middle line. Perhaps the basioccipital bone with its con-

? From the Philosoph. Transac. Royal Society of London, 1888, p. 59; 1889, p.
215, and 1892, p. 311. Illustrated.

* Transac. Amer. Philosoph. Soc., 1892, 11.

5 Proceeds. Amer. Philosoph. Soc., 1894, 110.

1894.] Recent Literature. 789

dyle is caducous, as it is in the Diadectidx, and has been lost from the
specimens Dr. Seely has examined. It is this peculiarity that led me
into error in my first diagnosis of the Cotylosauria.

Prof. Seeley makes quite full comparisons with the forms of the
American Permian. ,He seems impressed with reptilian affinities in
Eryops. But this genus is a true Stegocephal in every respect, and
has no greater affinity with the Cotylosauria than any other member of
the order. In quoting my description of the tarsus of the Clepsydro-
pide, he falls into error in stating that I allege that “the tibials and
centrals united to form an astragalus." I have stated that the inter-
medium and centrals unite to form the astragalus. He also states that
I have not figured the intercentra of the Pelycosauria. He will find
that my figures of Clepsydrops and Dimetrodon represent them.

Dr. Seeley shows that the structure of the vertebral column and pel-
vic arch have a close similarity in the Cotylosauria, Anomodontia and
Theriodonta of South Africa. I have discovered the same characters
of these regions in the Cotylosauria and Pelycosauria of North Amer-
ica. For the order which is to include these divisions, Seeley, like
Lydekker, retains the name of Anomodontia of Owen. But Owen
originally proposed this name for the group which includes the genera
Oudenodon, Dicynodon and Lystrosaurus (Ptychognathus Owen). Fur-
ther, in his work of 1876* on these reptiles, he continued this use of
the name, making it of equal rank with the Theriodonta. It being
evident that the entire division required a name, I gaveit that of Thero-
morpha (Proceed. Amer. Philosoph. Soc., 1880, p. 38); (subsequently
altered to Theromora, on account of preoccupation.) The use of the
name Anomodontia for this order has no support in the rules of nomen-
clature.

Dr. Seeley discusses the possible relation of the Pelycosauria of the
American beds with the African Theriodonta. There are important
resemblances between these groups. Unfortunately, corresponding
parts of the two are in several cases unknown. Thus the shoulder
girdle and tarsus of the Theriodonta have not been yet obtained. Un-
til these lacun: are made good we cannot determine the mutual affin-
ities of the two. We naturally look to Prof. Seeley for more light on
this subject. It is possible, also, as I have suggested, that the postor-
bital arch of the Theriodonta is the superior arch (supratemporal),
and not the inferior arch (zygomatic), as in the Pelycosauria.

NoTE.—In my paper on the Plesiosaurian skull (Proceeds. Amer. Philos.
Soc., 1894, p. 111, line 10), by a lapsus calami, I wrote Proterosauria for

* Description of the Fossil Reptilia of South Africa in the British Museum.

790 The American Naturalist. [September,

Procolophonina. In my paper on the postorbital bars of Reptilia (Trans.
Amer. Philos. Soc., 1892, p. 16, bottom) I refer to the postorbital bar of

the Theriodonta, meaning the Pelycosauria. This is due to the premature :

assumption by English authors, to which I at the moment assented, that
the two groups are identical.—E. D. COPE.

Scott on the Mammalia of the Deep River Beds.'—In this
handsome memoir of 130 pages we have recorded the results of the
Princeton College expedition of 1891. The region explored is the val-
ley of Deep River, one *of the upper tributaries of the Missouri in
Montana. This formation was observed to contain fossils by Grinnell
and Dana in 1875, and was explored by a party sent by the present
reviewer in 1878. The latter reported from it twelve species of Mam-
malia all of which were new except a Prothippus of Loup Fork age,
and a Protolabis of uncertain species. The Princeton expedition ob-
tained twenty-two species, of which eight are new to science. Prof.
Scott prefers to call this formation by the name of Deep River, rather
than the Ticholeptus bed, as it was originally named by Cope. This
is because the name Ticholeptus, as a paleontological term, is a syno-
nym of Merychyus. However, as applied’ to a formation, it was not
preoccupied, and it is doubtful whether, under the rules, it can be
changed.

The new forms belong to the following orders : Carnivora, 2 ; Glires,
1; Perissodactyla, 2. Artiodactyla, 3. The most important addition
to the Carnivora is a new genus of Canidz, Desmatocyon, which agrees
with Canis, except in the possession of three longitudinal convolutions
of the cerebral hemispheres. The Glires are represented by a new
Steneofiber. The most important novelties are two species of three-
toed horses, which are named respectively Desmatippus erenidens and
Anchitherium equinum, the latter the largest known American species
of its genus. Prof. Scott takes occasion to present a new classification of
the genera of American three-toed horses, distinguishing four genera
in species formerly referred to Anchitherium. These are Mesohippus,
Miohippus, Desmatippus (nov.) and Anchitherium. Scott has already
shown that Mesohippus differs from the other genera in the absence of
pits of the ineisors, and he assumes that Miohippus, named but not
distinguished by Marsh, possesses those pits, although he states that its
upper incisors are not known. I can state that this supposition is per-
fectly correct, as they are present in the species I have called Anchi-

‘From the Transactions of the American Philosophicel Society, 1894, Vol.
X VII, p. 55.

ES.

NS s dca dE
Willan a> nh lpia) o adh OE PES

sl dup | te a ich ie ia E ES hg Sas e mer E EST Rr RI Rela NEN S O Sa

3
|

1894.] Recent Literature. 791

therium equiceps, A. longieriste and A. praestans, from the John Day
Beds of Oregon, the horizon of Miohippus. The separation of Mio-
hippus from Anchitherium is proposed by Prof. Scott, on the relative
size of the conules of the molars, on the form of the external face of
their external wall, aud on the separation or confluence of the posterior
transverse crest with the latter. The first two characters do not appear
to me to be of generic value, while the third is probably a valid one.
On this basis the John Day Anchitheria equiceps, brachylophum, and
longicriste must be referred to Miohippus, while A. praestans is an An-
chitherium. Thatis, supposing Marsh’s type of Miohippus possess the
character referred to, which is unknown. The same character will re-
fer Desmathippus to Anchitherium ; and the other characters regarded
by Prof. Scott as distinguishing the two, do not seem to the reviewer
to be of sufficient value to forbid such reference.

The Anchitherium erenidens (as we would call it) presents especial
interest in the strong crenation of the anterior border of the metaconule,
offering the earliest example of this structure known, and pointing to the
origin of the similar structure seen in later horses of several genera.
In the A. equinum we have the American form nearest to the European
A. aurelianeuse. The American (White River) A. exoletum Cope (not
A. cuneatum, as stated by Scott) has superior molars of similar char-
acter.

In the Artiodactyla, the most important discovery is the presence of
an ossified thyroid cartilage, and a probable rudimental clavicle in am
Oreodontid, which but for these characters would be an Eporeodon.
To this form Prof. Scott gives the name of Mesoreodon.

We expect thorough and intelligent work from Prof. Scott, and im
this memoir we are not disappointed. It is by papers of this kind
that our knowledge of the evolution of organie life is really advanced.
The illustrations are every way worthy of the text.—E. D. Corr.

Von Jhring on the Fishes and Mammals of Rio Grande do
Sul.'—These two brochures are valuable as bringing the subject of
which they treat up to a later date than the papers of Hensel, who
wrote in 1870-2-9. The species are not all described, and some of the
notices embrace descriptions of habits, while the known distribution
is given, with pretty full references to the literature. The species of

5 Die Süsswasser Fische von Rio Grande do Sul; von Dr. H. von Ihring, 12mo,
36 pp. ; Rio Grande, Jan. 1893.
Os Mammiferos do Rio Grande do Sol, pelo Dr. Herman von Ihring, 12mo, pp-
30; Rio Grande, Apl. 20, 1892.
52

792 The American Naturalist. [September,

fishes enumerated are chiefly those of the Atlantic streams. They are
included in the following orders: Nematognathi, 23 sp.; Plectospon-
dyli, 14 sp.; Holostomi, 1 sp.; Percomorphi, 8. A new Gobius is
described. The Mammalia number 92 species, of which 11 are Marsu-
pialia, 5 Edentata, 23 Glires, 16 Chiroptera, 20 Carnivora, 17 Diplar-
thra, 3 Quadrumana, and 2 Cetacea. An interesting feature is the
number of species of Didelphyidae, of which a new species is described.
The author includes without hesitation the Felis braccata Cope in the
F.jaguarondi, probably because in the original description it is said to
be allied to that species. As matter of fact, however, it is very little
allied to that species, and has no close relationships to any other. It is
remarkable for the large size and pointed outline of its ears, which are
sharply bicolor on the upper surface. The mounted skin shows faint
oblique bands on the sides. Its very obscure colors render it easy of
concealment, which, perhaps, with its apparent rarity, accounts for its
having so long escaped the observation of naturalists. Von Ihring also
asserts the identity of the Sphingurus sericeus with the S. villosus. If
the latter is, as generally asserted, identical with the S. insidiosus, the
S. sericeus is distinct enough.—E. D. Corr.

1
4
1
1
E
1
1

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 793

General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Geologic Time indicated by the Sedimentary Rocks of
North America.—Various geologists have speculated as to the age of
the earth, basing their estimates on both geologic and paleontologic data.
The latest contribution to the subject is from Dr. Charles Walcott. His
unit is the aye of the Paleozoic rocks of the Cordilleran area in western
North America. A careful consideration of all the factors of denuda-
tion and deposition leads him to consider that it would have required
17,500,000 years for the deposition of the calcium and the mechanical
sediments of Paleozoic time. He concludes his paper as follows:

“ Taking as a basis 17,500,000 years for loce we inen the time
ratios 12, 5 and 2 for Paleozoic, M g Plisto-
cene) respectively, the Mesozoic is given a time duration of 7, 240, 000
years, the Cenozoic of 2,900,000 years, and the entire series of fossiliferous
sedimentary rocks of 27,650,000 years. To this there is to be added
the entire period in which all of the sediments were deposited between
the basal crystalline archean complex and the base of the Paleozoic.
Notwithstanding the immense accumulation of mechanical sediments
in this Algonkian time, with their great unconformities and the great
differentiation of life at the beginning of Paleozoic time, I am not
willing, with our present information, to assign a greater period than
that of the Paleozoic—or 17,500,000 years. Even this seems excessive.
Adding to it the time period of the fossiliferous sedimentary rocks, the
result is 45,150,000 years for post-Archean time. Of the duration of
Archean or pre-Algonkian time, I have no estimate based on a study
of Archean strata to offer. If we assume Houghton’s estimate of 33
per cent. for the Azoic period and 67 per cent. for the sedimentary
iin Archean time would be represented by the period of 22,250,000
yea

" T estimating for the Archean, Houghton included a large series
of strata that are now placed in the Algonkian of the Proterozoic of
the U. S. Geol. Survey; and I think that his estimate is more than
one-half too large; if so, ten million years would be a fair estimate, or
rather conjecture, for Archean time.

794 The American Naturalist. [September,

Period. Time Duration.
Cenozoic, including Pleistocene . i à . 2,900,000 years.
Mesozoic, : ; : : : : : 7,240,000 =
Paleozoic, . x i i > : : e 110500000 .*
Algonkian, ‘ A : : i 4 : 17,500,000 “
Archean, . ‘ ‘ : i : i . 10,000,000(?) “

* [tis easy to vary these results by assuming different values for area
and rate of denudation, the rate of deposition of carbonate of lime,
etc. ; but there remains, after each attempt I have made that was based
on any reliable facts of thickness, extent and character of strata, a
result that does not pass below 25,000,000 to 30,000,000 as a minimim
and 60,000,000 to 70,000,000 as a maximum for post-Archean geologie
time. I have not referred to the rate of development of life, as that is
virtually controlled by conditions of environment."

* [n conclusion, geologic time is of great but not of indefinite duration.
I believe that it can be measured by tens of millions, but not by single
millions or hundreds of millions of years" (Journ. Geol, Vol. I,
1893.)

For the latest estimates as to the duration of the Glacial period see
AMERICAN NATURALIST, March, 1894, p. 263.

The Lignites of Southern Chili.—After having made a field
study of the lignitic formation in the southern part of Chili, M. Noguès
reports to the Société Scientifique of Chili that these lignites certainly
do not belong to the Permo-carboniferous age, as has been stated, but
are of a much later age. They constitute a long band extending in a
north and south direction, parallel with the Pacific Ocean, and have
been dislocated by a complex series of faults. M. Noguès extended
his observations to the schisto-arenaceous system, which is found around
the river Bio-Bio and its affluents, La Quilacoya and the Rio Grande,
and which contains beds of true anthracite coal. Paleontological evi-
dence shows that this system corresponds with the lower beds of the
lignitic formation above mentioned. Like the lignite, also, it rests
unconformably upon granite rocks and the old schists of the Cordil-
leras, and been subjected to movements which have produced folds,
swellings and anticlinals. (Actes de la Soc. Sci. du Chili, Santiago,
1894.)

Lower Cretaceous Fossils from the Black Hills of
Dakota.—A recent]find of cycadean trunks near Hot Springs, South
Dakota, led Mr. Lester Ward to investigate that locality with the view

re nae

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 795

of determining the stratigraphical position of the beds in which the
fossils occur. The whole of this region consists of a series of sandstones
that have been treated in the Black Hills report as the “ Dakota Group.”
In examining a locality two miles west of Minnekahta Creek, Mr. Ward
found, interstratified with the sandstones, some argillaceous shales con-
taining a fossil flora of ferns, coniferous twigs and cycadean remains,
which the author refers to the Lower Cretaceous. A further study of
the plants by Prof. Fontaine and Prof. Knowlton confirms this refer-
ence. Between the horizon where these fossils were found and that of
the true Dakota Group there are some hundreds of feet of sandstone
and shales. (Journ. Geol., Vol. II, 1894.)

Lower Eocene Mammals near Lyons, France.—A pre
liminary note published by M. Charles Deperet in Comptes Rendus,
April, 1894, states that a remarkably rich deposit of Eocene Verte-
brates has been discovered in a quarry at Lissien, near Lyon. The
author proposes to make these fossils the subject of a special memoir,
but meanwhile, he gives the following brief summary of the most im-
portant facts :

“ The [Perissodactyla] are the most numerous. At the head of the
list stands Lophiodon, represented by three forms: one, having molars
of the type named by M. Riitimeyer, L. rhinoceroides, but the body not
quite so large. A second species resembles in form L. isselense, but is
distinguished by its inferior premolors which have the cingulum very
attenuated, recalling in this particular L. euvieri of Jouey. The third
form has a large premolar furnished with a rudimentary internal pos-
terior cusp, as in L. lautricense.

“The American genus Hyrachyus is represented by a type that I
believe to be identical with Lophiodon cartieri Egerkingen, and also a
species of Argenton, named by M. Filhol Hyrachyus intermedius.

“The group [Lophiodontidae] is still more abundant. I can only
mention two Paloplotheria, one large (P. magnum Rütimeyer), the
other hardly larger than P. codiciense Gaud. to which it is evidently
related, from the structure of the premolars.

“The genus Propalaeotherium is represented by two species, one
large, indentical with P. isselanum Cuv.; the other small, suggesting
P. minutum Egerkingen. A small Anchilopus seems to be related to
A. desmarestii Gerv. Finally, there are some inferior molars which
correspond to those of the ill-defined genus Lophiotherium Gerv.

“Among the Artiodactyla I have noticed the molars of Acotherulum
saturninum Gerv., and one fine demi-mandible of a Dichobune smaller
than D. leporinum.

796. . The American Naturalist. [September,

“Of the group of primitive ruminants, there are only some molar
teeth which seem to be identical with Dichodon cartierii Egerkingen.

“But the most interesting discovery among the Ungulates is a single
upper molar, differing only by its smaller size from that of the animal
of Egerkingen, referred by Rütimeyer to the American genus Phena-
codus, under the name P. ewropeus.

“The Carnivora are represented by several types, among others a
Pterodon, a primitive Viverra, with the heel of the sectorial tooth very
short, as in V. angustidens.

“ Finally, of the group of rodents, there is a fine demi-mandible of a
Sciuroides, related to Sc. siderolithicus of Egerkingen.

“ Among the undetermined species are some bones of Birds and
Reptiles.”

Geological News, Paleozoic.—According to Mr. C. Schuchert,
a collection of fossils, comprising about thirty species, most of which
are corals, demonstrate the undoubted presence of middle Devonian
deposits in northern California. All the fossils studied are from lime-
stone, nothing as yet being known from a sandstone or shale fauna.

The localities in which these collections were obtained have been
examined by Mr. J. S. Diller. They are in Shasta and Siskiyou coun-
ties, California, and as the general strike of Devonian rocks near Ken-
nett is in a line with outcrops of Hazel Creek and Soda Creek, over
thirty miles away, it is thought that these rocks may be continuous.
This would be an additional evidence for Mr. Diller's theory previously
stated “that the axis of folding joins the Klamath Mountains to the
Coast Range rather than to the Sierra.” (Am. Journ. Sci., June,
1894.)

Dr. Ludwig von Ammon has published a memoir on the Stegocephali
of the Rhein-pfalz known to him. These include nine species which
are referred to the following genera: Branchiosaurus, 2; Apateon, 1 ;
Anthracosaurus, 1 sp.; Archegosaurus, 2 sp.; Sclerocephalus, 2 sp. ;
Macromerium, n. g. von Ammon, 1 sp. The most abundant remains
belong to Sclerocephalus, which includes also the the largest species.
Macromerium gumbelii von Amm. was also a large species. The mem-
oir (published at Munich) is in 4to, and is handsomely illustrated.

Dr. Hermann Credner published in the XXth Volume of the Ab-
handlungen of the Royal Saxon Society of Science a beautifully illus-
trated memoir on the histology of the teeth of the Paleozoic Stego-
cephali with plicate dentition. The investigation is confined to the

a E a ee UE S

ONT A Cae AEA

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 797

genus Sclerocephalus. By removal of the osseous structure, Credner
obtains beautiful casts of the vascular structures of the teeth. From this
study Dr. Credner concludes that the large teeth of the Stegocephali
are formed by the fusion of small teeth, such as are frequently present
on the palatine and splenial bones of these animals.

Mesozoic.—The eastern boundary of the Connecticut Triassic is
defined, according to Messrs. Davis and Griswold, by fault-lines—a
combination of several intersecting faults, rather than asingle irregular
fault. The inferred faults may be divided into two sets, those of one
set trending about north and south, and represented by three members;
those of the other set trending northeast and northwest, and including
two members. All five faults are believed to extend beyond the parts
of the border line that they determine into the area of the crystalline
or Triassic rocks. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Ann., Vol. V, 1894.)

In a paper in the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy, Prof. Cope
describes several Pycnodont fishes from the Wichita Cretaceous bed of
western Oklahoma, and a Lepidotid from the Trinity formation of
Texas. He also describes part of a tarsometatarse of a bird from a
probable neocene bed of Vancouver Island, under the name of Cyphor-
nis magnus. He thinks it is allied to the Pelicans, but the bone is as
large as the corresponding part of the American Ostrich.

A collection of Neocomian invertebrates from Kansas yields upon
examination 17 new and 4rare species. Among them is a large, appar-
ently nereid, worm, and a well-preserved specimen of Trochus texanus
Roem. The fossils are described and figured by Prof. F. W. Cragin
in the Am. Geol., Vol. XIV, 1894. Prof. Cragin also reports from the
same formation two new reptiles, Pleisiosaurus mudgei and Plesiochelys
belviderensis ; and three fishes hitherto undescribed, Mesodon abrasus,
(? Lamna) quinquilateralis and Hybodus clarkensis. "am Ann. Pub.
Col. Sci. Soc., 1894.)

Cenozoic.—In the fourth part of the * Materiaux pour l'Histoire
des Temps Quaternaires,’ MM. Gaudry and Boule describe bones of
Mammalia from the caves of Gorgas in the Hautes Pyrenées. They
found there Ursus spelaeus, Crocuta maculata spelaea, and Canis lupus.
They embrace the opportunity of showing the graduated dentition of
the Canidae from Canis through Hemicyon and Hyaenarctus, of which
they give instructive figures.

138 The American Naturalist. [September,

M. Harlé calls attention to the discovery of fossil Hyaenas of the
striped type, in the grotto of Montsaunés (Haute-Garonne). With the
exception of a specimen found in the grotto of Lunel-Viel by Marcel,
at the beginning of this century, there is no record of this Hyaena
having ever been found in a cavein France. (Comptes-Rendus, Paris,
1894.)

Professor Dames, of Berlin; describes some remains of a Zeuglodon
from Fayoum in Egypt in the Paleontological Abhandlungen for 1894.
They consist of a left mandibular ramus and vertebrae of a species of
medium size, which he regards as belonging to a species previously un-
known. He calls it Z. osiris. He makes some suggestions as to the
systematic of the Cetacea, proposing to divide the order primarily on
the characters of the teeth. This view will not, however, probably
replace the customary one, which regards as of more importance the
skeletal characters of the Archsroceti, and relegates the dentition to a
place of secondary value.

Dr. G. Capellini had added much to our knowledge of the extinct
Cetacea of Italy in a number of illustrated papers. He describes sev-
eral species of Ziphius and Mesoplodon, some of which are new; a
Delphinoid with along muzzle; a Tursiops; and the Balena etrusca
Cap. He also describes the remains of a new Halitherium (Metaxy-

therium), and a crocodile with a slender muzzle, which he refers to the -

genus Tomistoma, under the name of T. calaritanum Cap. The latter
is represented by a fine skull, and some vertebre and dermal scuta,
and other important pieces.

POM EY SUPE TIDE

——a —————

Se eee

1894.] Petrography. 799

PETROGRAPY:

In a long and extensive article, Miigge’ treats of the keratophyres of
the Lennethal in Westphalia, and the neighboring regions, and their
tuffs. The rocks have been considered as fragmental schists by some
observers and as squeezed eruptives by others. They are known gen-
erally as the Lenneporphyries. Miigge finds that some of them are
genuine eruptives and some are the tuffs of these. The massive rocks
are keratophyres and quartz-keratophyres, sometimes carrying large
phenocrysts of quartz and feldspar and at other times free from these.
The groundmass of the keratophyres is made up of bleached biotite,
sericite, feldspar, opal and glass, with traces of spherulitic structure.
Schistose varieties of the quartzose varieties have become foliated
through pressure, as shown by the fractured quartzes and feldspars
that occur so abundantly in them, the presence of lenticular areas of
quartz mosaic and the greater abundance of sericite. The most char-
acteristic of the lenneporphyries are tuffs in which the ash structure
is very well exhibit. The typical tuff structure is described by the
author as due to the accumulation of glass particles with concave
boundaries. These are mingled with complete and broken crystals of
various minerals and often with sedimentary material. Rocks com-
posed of intermingled volcanic and sedimentary fragmental material
the author would call tuffites; when metamorphosed, tuffoids. Many
of the rocks in the Lenne district have suffered dynamic metamor-
phism with the production of secondary quartz, feldspar, sericite, car-
bonates and chlorite. They are, therefore, tuffoids. The new material
was formed partially from the decomposition of the rock’s materials
and partially with the aid of alkaline solutions originating outside of
the metamorphised rocks.

Nepheline-Melilite Rocks of Texas.—Osann’ finds a melilite
nepheline basalt occurring as dykes in the Cretaceous of Uvalde Co.,

exas, and nepheline basanites forming buttes and hills in the same
region. The basalts are typical melilite varieties, containing pheno-
erysts of olivine and micro-porphyritie crystals of melilite with all
the characteristic features of this mineral. Perofskite is a common

' Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby agerem Waterville, Me.

*Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc. B. B. viii, p. 525

*Jour. Geol, Vol. I, p. 341.

800 The American Naturalist. [September,

accompaniment of the melilite. The basanites have an andesitic habit

and since they contain more or less sanidine, they approach phonolite

in composition. Hornblendes, two monoclinic augites and nepheline

are common as phenocrysts, while sanidine, plagioclase and olivine are

scarce. The rock of Pilot Knob, near Austin, is a porphyritic neph-
eline basalt.

Eleolite Syenite from Eastern Ontario.—Adams, while
making a geological reconnaissance in the township of Dungannon,
Ontario, discovered a large area of eleolite syenite in the Laurentian

of the region. The rock is notable especially for the fresh scapolite

and calcite present in it and for the fact that its feldspathic constituent
is an albite. Petrographically the syenite is an aggregate of the min-
erals above mentioned and hornblende, biotite, sodalite, garnet and
zircon. The nepheline is fresh. It occurs in large quantity, and
sometimes in individuals two and a half feet in length. Its composi-
tion according to Harrington is

SiO, ALU, Fe,O, s MgO K,O Na,O Loss Total
43.51 33.78 15 tr 540 1694 .40— 100.34

The mica is a dark yellow-brown variety. It is present in small
quantities only. Hornblende is also comparatively rare. It occurs in
two varieties in different specimens. One variety has a large optical
angle and a pleochroism of deep green and pale yellow tints. The
other is allied to arfvedsonite. It has a small axial angle, and is pleo-
chroic in deep bluish-green and yellowish-green tints. The scapolite
is inlarge colorless grains that are fresh and seem to be original, and
the calcite in more or less rounded individuals, often included within
the other constituents. The feldspar is largely albite. A small quan-
itity orothoclase occurs, especially associated with the sodalite. This
orothoclase is thought to be secondary.’ An analysis of the sodalite
gave:

SiO, ALO, FeO NaO KO Cl SO, xx Ins. — Total
36.58 31.05 .20 2481 .79 688 19 2 80 = 101.50
O= Cl 1.55 — 99.95.

Petrographical News.—The basic dyke material at Hamburg,
Sussex Co., N. J., which was thought to be leucite tephrite by Hus-

*Amer. Jour. Sci., 1894, XLVIII, p. 10.

*Cf. also Geol. Surv. of Can., Vol. VI, Pt. J

A rianan td onis r pd i

1894.] Petrography. 801

sak* and declared by Kemp’ to be an aggregate of pyroxene, biotite
and analcite has been examined at another place by the last named
geologist. It has been found by him to contain leucite. Hussak’s
determination is thus confirmed. The rock is a leucite tephrite.

A spherical granite from a boulder discovered on Qonochontogue
Beach in Southwestern Rhode Island is described by Kemp’ as a
eoarse granitite, with nodules from two to three inches in diameter
scattered through it. These consist of a center of coarse plagioclase
with a little quartz, surrounded by a concentric zone of biotite and
magnetite, and a peripheral one of radiating plagioclase, whose laths
end sharply against the granite matrix. The author explains the nod-
ules as centers of crystallization.

The rocks that have for the past few years been called muscovadite
by the Minnesota Geological Survey have recently been examined by
Grant," who finds among them several distinct rock types. Some of
muscovadites are fine grained aggregates of pyroxene, quartz and
feldspar, containing in their midst large flakes of biotite. Others are
composed of quartz and biotite, etc. These are considered as contact
rocks. A second class of the muscovadite comprises granulitic gab.
bros and norites.

The siliceous oolite of State College, Pa., is composed of radial
spherules of fibrous chaleedony forming bands around fragments and
rounded grains of quartz. Between the spherules are bundles of
chalcedony fibres placed normal to the surface of the spherules nearest
them, and intermingled with these are granular chalcedony and quartz.
An oolite from the Tertiary beds of New Jersey is an aggregate of
sphero-crystals of chalcedony, usually without nuclei. Occasionally
a cone of fine grained quartz is to be seen, but thisis rare. The
matrix between the spherules is partly chalcedony and partly quartz.”

Dupare and Mrazec" refer very briefly to the mineralogical compo-
sition of an occurrence of Serpentine at Geisspfad in the Swiss Alps.
The rock now contains hornblende, chromiferous diopside, diallage and
some secondary substances in addition to serpentine. The rock was
probably originally'a Lherzolite.

*Amer. Naturalist, 1893, p. 27

Tb. 1893, p. 563.

*Amer. Jour. Sci, XLVII, 1894, p. 333.

"Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XIII, 1894, p. 140.

1'21st Ann. Rep. Minn. Survey, p. 147.

NE. O. Hovey: Bull. Geol. Soc. page Vol. 5, p. 627.
"Bull. Soc. Frane d. Min., XVI, p. 2

802 The American Naturadist. [September,

Phillips? has analyzed specimens of Pele’s hair (I) and of lava
stalagmites (II) from the caves of Kilauea, Hawaii, with these results:

SiO, Alo, FeO, FeO MnO P,O, CaO MgO Na,O K,O Total
50.76 14.75 2.89 9.85 .41 26 11.05 6.54 2.70 .88 — 100.09
51.77 15.66 8.46 6.54 .82 9.56 4.95 2.17 .96 = 100.89

Lacroix" finds specimens of nepheline basalt from Saint Sandoux,
Puy-de-Dom, France, in an old collection preserved in the College of
France.

Some of the trap dykes of the Lake Champlain region are campto-
nites. Others consist of monchiquite, fourchite or bostonite. All are
described by Kemp and Marsters” in a recent Bulletin of the Survey

Amer. Jour. Sci., XLVII, p. 473.

“Bull. Soc. Fred Min., XVII, p. 43.
Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 1 107.

3539 aim a 2 cha o Ca

————

gE ee A PNET Ra ON ARA Mc one

/
3
3
1
3
7

1894.] Botany. 803

BOTANY.

Notes on a Few Shrubs of Northern Nebraska.—Of 50
shrubs that grow in the northern tier of counties west of Antelope
County, some few have interested the writer and may prove of general
interest. The observations extend over a period of six years. They are
likely to be continued with equal profit in the years to come. The
order followed is that of Professor Bessey's * Native Trees and Shrubs
of Nebraska."

The only shrub representing the Coniferae is Juniperus communis L.
I have seen it only in Hat Creek Basin, Sioux County. There it grows
in prostrate ascending form, exactly like the juniper of Connecticut,
in dry pastures. I have no specimen of the latter, but suppose it to be
var. alpina.

Corylus americana Walt. is chiefly remarkable for its absence in
this region. I have found it only in Cherry County, ten miles east of
Valentine and 20 miles southwest on the Niobrara and its tributaries.
It is flourishing and abundant where it occurs. Its lack of distribution
may be partly accounted for by the late frosts of this high altitude
(2600 ft.), which, as this year, destroy the flowers.

Salix tristis Ait. is very common over the sand-hill portion of Cherry
County, also in Brown and Holt Counties. When it was sent to Mr.
M. S. Bebb from Long Pine, Brown County, he stated that that was its
western limit, so far as he knew. It is probable that Cherry County
furnishes the limit sixty miles further west. Gray’s Manual gives
the height * 1-13 ft. high.” It grows 5 feet high at Long Pine, in the
brush.

Salix cordata is represented by var. angustata Anders., though the
State claims var. vestita Anders. in the other portions. Mr. Bebb
(Coulter's Man.) says: “It is altogether incredible, however, that any
form of S. cordata ever attains tree-like size." I have a specimen at
Ewing, Holt Ccunty, about twenty feet high and eight inches in diam-
eter—a pretty sizable shrub! I shall measure it and take specimens
this season. I will state, however, that it retains its shrubby character
by branching ten or fifteen times just above this diameter, some of the
branches being five or six inches through.

!Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska,

804 The American Naturalist. [September,

Rhus toxicodendron L. As an instance of adaptability to environ-
ment, this species is noteworthy. It is very common on the sandy
prairie of this region, perfectly upright, seldom over one foot high,
with no tendency to creep, fruiting freely. Even in the brush you will
seldom see it as a climber. It deserves more attention than most col-
lectors would care to give it.

The wild crab is represented in these counties by Pyrus ioensis
(Wood) Bailey. It has been commonly called, heretofore, P. coronaria
L. but is much too white-wooly. It forms large patches covering
several acres in extent, and, when not browsed by cattle, produces use-
ful fruit. Its western range, so far, is northern Brown County.

Crataegus coccinea L. also represents the family with its beautiful
scarlet clusters of edible fruit. While stray trees have been found in
Cherry County, probably coming south from Rosebud Agency, where
it is said to be common, I have not found it common west of Holt
County.

Amorpha microphylla Pursh. is a new shrub in Nebraska. I found
it last year (1893) on the gumbo hills of Holt and Boyd Counties,
very common, but quite confined to that soil. It was reported also
from another section of the State.

Up to the present time, no species of Oenothera has been reported
as shrubby so far as my reading extends. I have seen indications in
past years that caused me to suspect Oenothera serrulata Nutt of having
the character, to some extent. This year, I have abundant confirma-
ion. Here at Valentine. after a dry, hard winter that has killed whole
timber claims of forest trees by freezing dry, a plant of this species has
bloomed vigorously on shoots six inches long, starting from last year's
stock five to six inches above the ground. The situation was fully ex-
posed to all the rigors of the season. I have found several other plants
sprouting vigorously two and three inches above ground. It shows
about the same degree of hardiness as half the plants of Amorpha
canescens Nutt., and quite as much as Gutierrezia euthamiae Torr. &
Gray in this climate, both of which have long been classed as shrubs.

ee Neb. —J. M. BATEs.

Botany at Brooklyn.—The recent scientific meetings in Brook-
lyn brought out a good number of botanists, whose papers and discus-
sions touched upon nearly all parts of the subject of Botany, from
Bacteriology to Paleobotany. That all were of a high order of merit
could not be truthfully affirmed, but that all were creditable, and some
of unusual interest is true. The botanists of the country have no rea-

m

1894.] Botany. 805

son for feeling ashamed of their work as represented in these meet-
ings.

In the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science nearly
every paper dealt with some question more or less botanical. Here of
course, the treatment was economic rather than strictly scientific, and
yet in every case there was much of interest to the botanist. Thus
there were papers on “The Vitality of the Seeds of Red Clover”
(Beal); “The Russian Thistle in Nebraska ” ( Bessey) ; “ A possible
Relation between Blights and Exceptional Weather” (Halsted) ;
“The Growth of Lettuce as affected by Physical Properties of the
Soil” (Galloway) ; ete., ete.

The Botanical Club of the Association held several interesting ses-
sions, and took active part in a delightful excursion by boat to Cold
Spring Harbor on the north shore of Long Island. Among the
notes presented before the club were the following: “The Prothal-
lium of Marsilia vestita" (Bessey); “Notes on Oat-Smut” (Jones) ;
“The use of Formalin as a Preservative Agent ” (Galloway) ; “ Spo-
rangial trichomes on Ferns” (Durand) ; “ The Significance of Stipules
from the standpoint of Paleobotany ” (Hollick); * A Plea for the bet-
ter Pronunciation of Botanical Names” (Bessey) ; “ A Species of
Olpidium parasitic on Spirogyra” (Durand) ; * A method of making
pure cultures of Fungi” (Smith) ; etc., etc.

A Committee on the pronunciation of Botanical Names was ap-
pointed ‘consisting of Charles E. Bessey, N. L. Britton and E. L.
Greene. The officers for the next year are Douglas H. Campbell, of
Palo Alto, California, and Frederick C. Newcomb, of Ann Arbor,
Michigan.

Twenty-six papers were read before Section G, beginning with the
opening address by Vice-President Underwood, upon * The Evolution
of the Hepatiez." In this the speaker traced in a masterly way the
evolution of the several groups of the liverworts, pointing out their
mutual relationships, as well as their affinities with higher and lower
plants.

The other papers were as follows:

B. T. Galloway, “The Growth of Radishes as affected by the Size
and Weight of the Seed”; Katherine E. Golden, * The Movement of
Gases in Rhizomes”; A. D. Hopkins, “Some Interesting Conditions
in Wood resulting from the attacks of Insects and Woodpeckers ” ;
W. J. Beal, “The Sugar Maples of Central Michigan”; John
M. Coulter, “Some Affinities among Cactaceæ "; Charles E. Bessey,
“Simplification and Degeneration ” ; Frederick C. Newcomb, “ Regu-

806 The American Naturalist. September,
[Sey ,

latory Growth of Mechanical Tissue”; Charles E. Bessey, “ Further
Studies of the Relationship and Arrangement of the Flowering
Plants"; Erwin F. Smith, “The Watermelon Disease of the South " ;
L. H. Bailey, * The Relation of Age of Type to Variability "; L. H.
Bailey, “ The Struggle for Existence under Cultivation " ; “George F.
Atkinson, “ Relation between the Functions of the Vegetative and
Reproductive Leaves of Onoclea”; H. H. Rusby, “ Lophopappus, a
new genus of Mutisiaceous Composite and Fluckigeria, a new genus of
Gesneriacee " ; George F. Atkinson, “On the Swarmspores of Pythium
and Ceratiomyxa” ; Elizabeth G. Britton, * A Revision of the genus
Scouleria" ; B. G. Wilder, * Evidence as to the former existence of
large trees on Nantucket Island” ; N. L. Britton, ‘ Notes on Primary
Foliage and the Leafscars in Pinus rigida" ; Byron D. Halsted,
“Notes upon Chalara paradoxa” ; Elizabeth G. Britton, * A Hybrid
among the Mosses”; Byron D. Halsted, * Notes upon a Root-rot of
Beets”; N. L. Britton, “On Torreya as a Generic Name" ; Elizabeth
G. Britton, “Some Notes on the genus Encalypta” ; Jed. Hotchkiss,
“The Growth of Forest-trees illustrated from marked corners 107
years old”; Mrs. F. W. Patterson, “Species of Taphrina parasitic
upon Populus”; Albert Mann, “ Products of Metamorphosis and
Monstrosities " (by title only).

Reports of progress were made by several of the Committees ap-
pointed last year, and they were continued for further work.

The Committee of the charter members of the Botanical Society of
America held several meetings persuant to a call of the Chairman, Dr.
Trelease, and perfected the organization of the Society. Much time
was spent in discussing the details of the organization, and in per-
fecting plans for work. The officers for the ensuing year are as fol-
lows: President, William Trelease, St. Louis; Vice-President, N. L.
Britton, New York; Secretary, Charles R. Barnes, Madison, Wis.;
Treasurer, John D. Smith, Baltimore.

Provision was made for a meeting sometime during the sum mer of
1895, the time and place to be announced later by the Executive
Committee.

CHARLES E. Bessey.

1894.] Zoology. 807

ZOOLOGY.

On the Vertical Distribution of Pelagic Crustacea in
Green Lake, Wisconsin.—Green Lake is the deepest body of
water in the State of Wisconsin, having a maximum depth of about 60
meters. Because of its great depth it has not only the litoral and pela-
gic faunz of the shallower bodies of water, but also the true abyssal
fauna which is characteristic of the deeper lakes. In fact, the crusta-
cean fauna of Green Lake is almost identical with that of the great
lakes.

In the deeper waters of Green Lake are found fifteen species of crus-
tacea. Of these, twelve may be fairly considered as belonging pecu-

* liarly to the deep water fauna. Most of these can be captured in very
large numbers at night by means of the skimming net. During the
day, very few are found at the surface, some few never come to the
surface, and are only obtained by dredging in the deep water.

Of course, an open dredge, dropped from the surface to the bottom
and then hauled up, will collect from all depths. After a little experi-
ence, the collector has no difficulty in distinguishing between pelagic
and abyssal species, and can even draw inferences, with a reasonable
degree of accuracy, in regard to the general vertical distribution of
species. So far as I know, however, very little exact work has
done to determine the vertical limits of the various species. By means:
of dredges which could be closed at any required depth, it has been.
found that in the deep sea there is a surface fauna and a deepwater
fauna, but that the immediate intermediate region is barren of animal
life. According to Agassiz, the surface fauna extends to the depth of
200 fathoms, and the bottom fauna is limited to about 60 fathoms.

Is there a similar condition in the waters of our lakes? With a view
to answering this question, I made some preliminary collections in the
summer of 1893.

I used, for the collections, a vertical dredge, so constructed that it
could be closed at any desired depth. The collections upon which this
paper is based were made in the latter part of August, at all hours be-
tween five o’clock in the morning and nine o’clock at night. Each
series included collections for every five meters in depth. Of course,
until a much larger number of collections is made, and at different sea-
sons of the year, no final conclusions can be drawn. But the results

808 j The American Naturalist. i [September,

thus far are interesting, and I think later collections are not likely to
modify, to any great extent, the conclusions I have formed.

'The results were a little disappointing to me at first, I must confess.
I had made up my mind that I should find the three regions character-
istic of the deep sea—the pelagic, intermediate and abyssal. It was
rather discouraging, then, when I found material in my dredge from
all depths. Not only that, but when I began to examine the collec-
tions under the microscope, I found certain species, which I had con-
sidered peculiar to the surface—like Diaptomus minutus—occurring all
the way from the surface to the mud of the bottom. The barren inter-
mediate zone, then, does not exist in Green Lake. It is true, however,
that the numbers of individuals are less at intermediate depths than
near the surface or near the bottom, and that some species are vastly
more numerous in the upper zone, while others are almost entirely con-
fined to the lower.

I counted the number of individuals in each haul, and after reduc-
ing the numbers to percentages, tabulated the results. :

I will give brietly the conclusions I reached in regard to those spe-
cies which are found most commonly.

The species which is found in the greatest numbers is Diaptomus
minutus. In one haul this was associated with D. sicilis (a somewhat
rare form in Green Lake), and in my computation I did not separate
the two, as their habits are identical. On the average, 46 per cent of
this species is within five meters of the surface, and 59.4 per cent within
ten meters. Within ten meters of the bottom are only 7.37 per cent.
It is evident that more than one-half of the individuals of these species
are found within ten meters of the surface, and that from that point to
the bottom, the numbers steadily decrease.

Daphnella is more exclusively pelagic—79 per cent being found
within ten meters of the surface, and only 5.6 per cent at the bottom.

Epischura is still more distinctly pelagic—81 per cent being in the
first ten meters, and 3.3 per cent in the last ten.

Leptodora, Bosmina and Cyclops fluviatilis are also found much more
abundantly near the surface. Leptodora rarely goes below fifteen
meters.

Daphnia kahlbergiensis seems somewhat erratic in its distribution.
On the average, nearly 43 per cent are found within the first ten
meters, but nearly 25 per cent are found in the last ten. Generally
speaking, they appear more numerous near the surface and the bottom,
but less so at intermediate depths. But they may occur at all depths,
and sometimes quite numerously in the intermediate region.

1894.] i Zoology. 809

Limnocalanus macrurus rarely, if ever, comes to the surface, and is
found most abundantly within.20 meters of the bottom. Nordqvist
states that he found L. maerurus in Finland, in June, most abundant
at twelve meters below the surface, where the total depth was 25 to 26
meters. j

Pontoporeia and Mysis live at the bottom, and belong to the true
abyssal fauna. :

In regard to the diurnal migrations of the pelagic species, I found it
difficult to fix any exact limits. As has been before stated, they come
to the surface at night. In the daytime, few of them go below ten
meters. Daphnia kahlbergiensis, however, seems to be an exception,
for, apparently, its migrations are limited only by the depth of the
lake, and sometimes from 40 to 80 per cent are in the last ten meters.

As a result of these collections, I was led to doubt the value of
“ Plankton” determinations, at least so far as crustacea are concerned,
All such determinations must start with the assumption that the life of
the deeper waters is distributed uniformly. If this were true, succes-
sive hauls in the same depth of water would contain approximately the
same number of individuals. This was far from the case in my collec-
tions. The position in the successive collections varied only as the
boat drifted very slowly; yet the number of Diaptomi varied from
291 to 2,966 ; Daphnella from 0 to 122; Daphnia kahlbergiensis from 6
to 103, and Epischura from 7 to 105. It seems probable that they are
present in swarms, and that the positions of the swarms are continually
changing.

Zacharias, in his last report from the biological Station at Plón, has
reached the same conclusions, not only in regard to the crustacea, but
also the other pelagic organisms. “Plankton” determinations, in order
to have much value, must be almost infinite in number.

Beginning with the fall of 1894, systematie work of a more detailed
character will be carried on at Green Lake, as the Trustees of Ripon
College have made an appropriation for the purpose.

—C. Dwicur Marsa, Ripon College, Wisconsin.

Rotatoria of the Great Lakes.—The Michigan Fish Commis-
sion have issued, as Bulletin No. 3, a list of the Rotatoria found in
Lake St. Clair and some of the inland lakes of Michigan, prepared by
Mr. H. S. Jennings. Of the 122 rotifers named in the list, 6 are here
described and figured for the first time. Strongly swimming forms,
commonly found in the open water, are designated pelagic ; those found
among the vegetation of the shores and bottom, littoral. Of the former,

810 The American Naturalist. [September,

20 were observed in Lake St. Clair. In the case of the inland lakes,
collections were made from the shore only. The most abundant pelagic
species are Polyarthra platyptera Ehrbg., Anuraea cochlearis Gosse,
and Asplanchna priodonta Gosse, which agree, in this respect, with
the condition found in European lakes.

The Internal Anatomy and Relationship of Pauropus.—
According to Peter Schmidt, whose preliminary paper appeared in the.
Zoologischer Anzeiger, the internal anatomy of Pauropus allies it most
closely with Polyxenus among the Diplopoda. The absence of trachea,
of malpighian tubes and of a circulatory system, together with the
presence of a rather complicated genital apparatus in the male, seem to
show that it is very degenerate. That it belongs along with the Dip-
lopoda—a fact that has been questioned—the presence of the ovary
below the intestine, of the genital openings in the third body segment
behind the second pair of legs, and of only two pairs of oval append-
ages, abundantly testify. The biramose antenns may possibly be ex-
plained by a comparison with the sense papilla at the end of the
terminal joint of the Diplopod antenna, the more readily, too, since,
according to Schmidt, the distal portions of the rami, the geisseln of
Latzel appear to be finely ringed and not segmented.

Several peculiarities are interesting. The mid-gut is without a mus-
cularis and its epithelial cells are filled with rhomboid crystals with
double refractive powers. The supra- and sub-cesophageal and the
first body ganglia are fused into one mass which is pierced by a very
short fore-gut. The small processes on the first segment bre rudi-
mentary legs and possibly function in respiration like
the abdominal sacs of Thysanura, Symphyla and cer-
tain Diplopods. The sense organ of the antenne,
the globulus of Latzel, consists of an outer and inner
capsule with the intervening space filled with a fluid.
The whole is surrounded by ten or twelve bristles
while the nerve passes into the inner capsule and ex-
pands into a nail-like head. (Fig: 1.) Fig. 1.

The female genital apparatus consists of an unpaired ovary lying,
beneath the intestine, an unpaired receptaculum seminis and an oviduct
opening to the exterior by an unpaired opening to the one side of the
median line in the third segment. In the male there is an unpaired
testis above the intestine, a complicated pair of ducts, a pair of seminal

‘Zur Kenntniss des inneren Baues des Pauropus huxleyi Lubb. Zool. Anz.,
XVI, 189

1894.] Zoology. 811

glands, and a pair of genital openings. Near the middle the testis
communicates with the two small vasa deferentia that open into two

deac, depe Ava. vs

Diagrammatic representation of the n Pauropus huxleyi Lubb.
A. From the left side, II-IX the coxa pos the II-IX | kein legs; t, testis; v.d, vas
deferens ; W.S., FAEN seminales ; an, anastomosis; d.e.p., Ductus E pos-
terior ; o, opening between the d.e.p. ; d.e.p.c., Duct. ejac. post. communis ; d.e.a.c.,
Duct. ejac. anterior communis ; gl., glandula accessoria ; d.e.a. um ejac. anterior;
£9, genital opening ; nis.

B. From the right, Pulvis shortened.

C. The anterior part from above.

large tubes which are bent upon themselves. These open posteriorly into
two ducts that run forward beneath the intestine. The anterior half of
each of them is double. In the fourth segment they unite into a short
tube on the side of the body. This communieates with a transverse tube
into which the seminal vesicles open, and which opens to the exterior
by two openings.

The spermatozoa are pod-like. —F. C. Kenyon.

Thysanura from the Cave of Central France.—M. R.
Moniez describes three new species of Thysanoures from the grotto of
Dargilan in the Department of Lozére, France. The first, Qampodea
dargilani, appears to be the third of a series of forms adapted progres-
sively for a life in darkness. That is, the characters of C. staphylinus,
the type of the genus living in open air, are more accentuated in C.
eoopei, a cave form, and are carried to an extreme in C. dargilani.
The second, Sira eavernarum, is white, covered with transparent scales,
and is entirely blind. The third, Lipura cirrigera, is characterized by

812 The American Naturalist. [September,

tufts of 6 or 7 cirrhi at the base of the second joint of the attenne.
These cirrh: are spaced at their insertion and recurved. These organs
are jpresent in the other Lipurae, but in so rudimentary a state that
they have heretofore escaped observation. (Revue Biol. de Nord.,
Dec., 1893

Result of a Comparison of Antipodal Faunas.—Prof. Gill’s
paper on a comparison of the piscine fauna of the British island with
that of the New Zealand waters contains some important deductions.
An analysis of a tabulated list of the families of these two regions
shows that twenty-five families are represented in the New Zealand
seas and not in the British; of these eleven are peculiar to the South-
ern Hemisphere; four are represented in the Northern Pacific, but not
in the North Atlantic; and ten, although not represented in the Brit-
ish seas, have quite a general distribution.

Of the fresh-water species, those characteristic of the Northern
Hemisphere are, with the exception of the Argentinidae, entirely un-
represented in the Southern, while the Antipodal types are wanting in
the Northern zones.

According to Professor Hutton, the New Zealand Fishes belong to
no less than six distinct geographical realms: Notalian, Antarctalian,
Pelagalian, Bassalian, Tropicalian and Ornithogsan. A consideration
of these various elements and comparison of them with those of other
regions leads Dr. Gill to the following conclusions :

e main marine fauna of New Zealand is derived from represen-
tatives of the general stock which has become developed in the great
Notalian realm. The number of species apparently peculiar to the
province, and, therefore, modified from other or earlier representatives,
indicates a long period of isolation in accordance with its distance
from the nearest continents and the depth of the intervening ocean.
The percentage of such peculiar species seems to entitle it to rank as a
distinet region (or subregion) rather than as an integral portion of the
Notalian region composed of the isothermal portions of Australia and
Tasmania, as has been generally done. A more extended study and
actual comparison of the species of the two regions may, however, com-
pel a reconsideration of this view."

“ The fresh-water fishes must have been derived from the same com-
mon source as those of the isothermal portions of Australia (of course,
including Tasmania) and South America. There may not have been
a continuity of land at any one time between South America, Austra-
lia and New Zealand, but, at more remote period in the past, it is, at

1894.] Zoology. 813

least, possible that there was a region in which the Galaxiids and
Haplochitonids were developed, and subsequently representatives of
those families might have found their way into the regions where they
now abound."

In the discussion of the possibilities of the origin of the present
types of the fresh-water fishes of New Zealand, it appears that Dr. Gill
is of the opinion that “community in type must be the expression of
community of origin, and the presence of fishes of long-established fresh-
water types must imply continuity or at least contiguity of the landsin
the midst of which they occur at some time or other.” He then adds:
“ We may be permitted to postulate (fishes being congeneric in New
Zealand, Australia and South America), that there existed some ter-
restrial passageway between the several regions at a time as late as the
close of the Mesozoic period. The evidence of such a connection
afforded by congeneric fishes is fortified by analogous representatives
among insects, mollusks, and even amphibians. The separation of the
several areas must, however, have occurred little later than the early
Tertiary, inasmuch as the salt-water fishes of corresponding isotherms
found along the coasts of the now widely separated lands are to such
a large extent specifically different. In general, change seems to take
place more rapidly among marine animals than fresh-water represen-
tatives of the same class.” (Fifth Mém., Vol. VI, Natl. Acad. Sciences.)

The Carotid, Thymus, and Thyroid Glands form the sub-
ject of a rather lengthy paper by A. Prenant.’ He had a good series of
embryos, and studied carefully the histological changes during de-
velopment. According to him the carotid gland originates from the
third entodermal branchial pouch, and at first becomes closely con-
nected with the primitive carotid artery, but later loses this connection
and becomes united with the head of the thymus. In regard to the
lymphoid transformation of the thymus, he says that in embryos, from
25 and 85 mm. in length, there appear small nuclear elements among
the primitive epithelial cells, which stain deeply and are comparable
to lymphocytes. The thymus in embryos of 85 mm. and upwards be-
gins to differentiate itself into an outer cortical portion and an inner
medulary portion. "The latter is clearer, looser in texture and poorer
in lympathie elements than the cortical portions. This further be-
comes differentiated into a peripheral and an inner portion. The
former stains less, is richer in karyokinetic figures than the latter. It

"Contribution à l’etude de développement organique et histologique des Thy-
mus de la glande thyroid, et de la glande carotidienne. A. Prenant, La Cellule, X.

814 The American Naturalist. [September,

is doubtless a germ of proliferation. Nothing surrounding the organ
authorizes the supposition that this is a muscular connective tissue
which produces the lymphocytes that fill the organ. It is probable
that epithelial cells after multiplying actively by mitosis, give rise to
the lymphocytes by simple division (stenose). For large nuclei with
small buds frequently occur and small nuclear bodies may be seen by
the side of large nuclei and within the same. This mode of division is
more common in the earlier stages. In older embryos the lymphocytes
are formed karyokinetically. The epithelial cells that probably persist
even in the completely developed organ he compares with the cells
forming the matrix of the testis and the coveys of lymphocytes aris-
ing from them with the seminal elements.

The lateral portions of the thyroid develop from the fourth entoder-
mal branchial pouch, which is forked. From the angle of this there
grows up an organ that in structure and appearance is comparable
with the carotid gland. This he calls the glande thyroidienne. It
finally comes to lie outside of the vascular-connective hilum of the thy-
roid. During development an anfractuous cavity appears in the thyroid
and is prolonged in every direction by deep diverticula. At first its walls
are stratified and then simple. The superficial cells disappear after a
transformation comparable to that which occurs in the internal assizes
of the epithelium of the esophagus. The wall produces around itself a
cellular reticulate structure of dense aspect, which later disappears.
Whether the lateral gland gives rise to buds that become confusingly
anastomosed and eventually transformed into thyroid vesicles, or
whether the lobes of the median gland solder themselves to the tissue
of the lateral gland, it is impossible to say.

There is very little of a comparative nature in the paper beyond an
attempt to introduce a formula to represent the number and position of
the glands in invertebrata. This is not nearly as readily understood
as a simple diagramatic figure; moreover, it is entirely unnecessary.

Of possible interest in connection with the work of Prenant is a
short paper by J. Beard on the Development and Probable Function
ofthe Thymus? In Raja he declares that the epithelial nature and
appearance of the cells composing the gland is lost very soon after their
formation. Their nuclei stain intensely, and the cell-body, i. e., the
protoplasm, is very scant from the start. It is clear that there is no in-
wandering of lymph cells, but that these elements are the direct off-
spring of the epithelium of the gill cleft.

*Anat. Anz., IX, p. 476.

Wis

Bc E ea ET
BC ECRIRE Eee ee ene

1894.] Zoology. 815

As to the function of the gland, bearing in mind the observations of
Stóhr and Killian on the tonsils, he concludes that the thymus exists in
fishes for the protection of the gills from bacteria, etc., by the forma-
tion of leucocytes. With the disappearance of the gills of fishes and
perrennibranchiate amphibians, the gland undergoes a restriction in
the area of its formation and its functions are transformed to other
organs. In the higher vertebrates this protective function is trans-
ferred to the tonsils at the opening of the respiratory passage.

—F. C. Kenyon.

816 The American Naturalist, ~ [September,

ENTOMOLOGY.

On the larvæ and pupæ of Hololepta and Pyrochroa.—
Aside from those of direct economic importance, the larvæ of North
American Coleoptera have received too little attention from entomolo-
gists, and many of our common beetles are quite unknown in their early
stages, while others have received passing notice in text-books or agri-
cultural reports, with here and there a figure, and sometimes a few words:
of description, more or less vague. Many of the injurious ones have
been, however, investigated in the most thorough manner by our best
students of insect life.

The two species treated of in the present paper have not before been

given space in our literature beyond, in one case,a short note. It has,

therefore, been thought fit to furnish detailed descriptions and figures
for the use of those who may wish to indentify specimens in their pos-
session.

HoroLEPTA FossULARIS Say. Plate XXVI, figs. 1, a, b, c, d.

Color of larva nearly white, head chestnut, prothorax with a trian-

gular space, occupying most of the upper surface, a little lighter than
the head. Back with a dark line for the greater portion of the length
where the viscera show through.

Form elongate, somewhat flattened ; length 17.5 mm.

Head castaneous, quadrate, broader than long; above strongly flat-
tened, with four impressed lines on the front and an impressed space
near the base of each antenna, from which a line of punctures runs to
the base. Anterior margin produced, truncate in front, and with a lobe

over each mandible. Beneath, less flattened, with a broad, deep im- -

pressed space on the gular region, extending in the form of a narrow
groove to the base.

Antenne arising from the sides of the head, immediately behind the
base of the mandibles, four-jointed, the first joint very short, sunken,
the second long, the third shorter, subtriangular, with three papillz at
end, fourth joint again shorter, elongate oval. There are, apparently,
no bristles, except two short and inconspicuous ones at the tip of the
last joint.

Eyes are, apparently, altogether wanting.

! Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

1894.] Entomology. 817

Mandibles stout, rather long, curved, with a strong, rounded tooth
before the middle.

Maxillz composed of a long, stout basal piece, heavily bristled, es-
pecially on the inside, a shorter second joint, which bears a one-jointed
appendix, tipped by a bristle, on the outside; third, fourth and
fifth joints subequal, the last two, however, a trifle longer and more
slender.

Mentum borne on a tuberculiform base, elongate, wider near the tip,
palpi two-jointed terminal joint longer.

Prothorax corneous, transverse, sides and base somewhat rounded,
apex nearly truncate, median line distinct, rather deep, a deeper i impres-
sion each side external to which isa vague foveate impression. Beneath
with two deeply impressed lines strongly convergent anteriorly, poste-
rior to which are two foveæ.

Meso- and metathorax much shorter than the prothorax, membran-
ous with a long, crescentic, horny scute at middle, both above and be-
low, and smaller ones at sides. Each of these segments bears a lateral
bristle.

Abdomen of nine segments, which are protuberant near the middle
of the sides and transversely wrinkled, armed with two lateral and one
ventro-lateral bristle on each side. Each segment except the last is
granulato-spinose on the scutes of the under surface; the last bears two
bi-artieulate appendages, each armed with five bristles, as shown in the
figure. The anus is inferior.

Spiracles in nine pairs, the first situated beneath the anterior meso-
thoracic angles, the others in segments 1 to 8 of the abdomen, near the
anterior margins and somewhat ventro-laterally.

Legs small, weak. slender. The cox are rounded, imperfectly chit-
inized, the trochanter distinctly marked, femur somewhat creased on
the edges, tibi: shorter, slightly bristled, claw single with two short
bristles at about the middle of the length

The pupa is white, 10 mm. in length and of the same general shape
as the beetle, but with a more pointed abdomen; the meso-metasternal
area is coarsely punctured.

Nearly full-grown larve of this species were found under the bark
of an old cottonwood log near the end of March, between the thin
layers next to the wood. In captivity they fed upon the pups of
Diptera taken in the same situation. After several days the largest
one constructed a case of small pieces of bark; the dimensions were
14 by 7 mm., the outside rough, but the inside perfectly smooth. In
this case the change to a pupa took place after a rest of above a
week.

818 The American Naturalist. [September,

PvROCHROA FLABELATA Fabr. Plate XXVI, figs. 2, a, b, c, d, e, f.

Color of full-grown larva clear, light yellow, the head, especially the
mouth parts, and theterminal processes castaneous.

Form elongate, much depressed, sides sub-parallel, slightly broader be-
hind, segments with dorso- and ventro-lateral bristles. "Terminal seg-
ment corneous with two stout processes directed upward and backward.
Length 34.5 mm.

Head corneous, free, the sides strongly rounded, front produced at
middle, labrum distinct, tip sinuate more prominent at middle, anterior
margin strongly bristled, suture very slightly sinuate. Top of head
with a depressed space surrounding a large tubercle, anteriorly with
transverse striations and two tolerably distinct longitudinal lines.

Eyes consist of four ocelli on each side of the head, just posterior to
the antenne. The three anterior ones in each group are arranged in
a slightly oblique curved line, back of the middle of which the fourth
is placed.

Antenne lateral, situated behind the base of the mandibles, four-
jointed, the first joint stout, short, the second long, third and fourth
subequal, together somewhat longer than the second. The fourth joint
is much more slender than the third, and all are strongly bristled.

Mandibles extremely stout and heavy, deep, the tip emarginate, inter-
nally strongly toothed, as shown by the drawing.

Maxillz large, strong corneous ; the lobe is sinuate on the inner mar-
gin and armed with bristles, those near the end arrayed in rows, the
inner apical ones recurved. The palpi are stout, the second and
third joints about equal and separately longer than the first; all are

ristly.

Mentum of the form shown in fig. 2 f£. The shaded portion is
thicker and more perfectly chitinized than the remainder, and has
every appearance of being divided by sutures from the underlying and
superimposed pieces.

Prothorax about equal in width to the head, the sides nearly straight,
except at the angles, where they are abruptly directed inwards. Median
line distinet with a fovea each side anterior to the middle and crossed
in front of these by a fine transverse line. Beneath with two strongly
impressed lines which, originating between the coxæ, diverge strongly
in front and attain the margin near the anterior angles, the triangular
space thus enclosed being also bistriate at middle.

Mesothorax broadest near the base, more convex than the prothorax,
with distinct median line, and, on each side of this, a vague double fovea,

es

1894.] Entomoiogy. 819

slightly behind the middle. Anteriorly there is a fine transverse line
crossing the median one at right angles. Beneath is a smooth subquad-
rate space, usually bounded at sides and behind (except for a short dis-
tance at middle) by broad, deeply impressed lines.

Metathorax similar, but the lines beneath effect a junction at the
middle.

Abdomen with the first seven segments quite similar in form, suban-
gulate at the sides, median dorsal and anterior transverse lines distinct,
the former more so. Beneath is a very well marked submarginal plica.
The eighth segment is larger, longer, more perfectly chitinized, sides
slightly rounded. Median dorsal line very distinct, with a less distinct
oblique one on each side. Beneath there is an impressed median line
which has posteriorly a slightly elevated carina on each side; external
to this is a sinuous broader line each side, and outside of this again a
very deep impression which extends from a point distant about one-fifth
from the basal lateral margin to the posterior angle of the segment.
The anal segment is small, carinate, more distinetly at base, visible
only from beneath, being overlaid by a corneous plate bearing two spi-
nose and granulate processes. Viewed from above the space between
these processes is somewhat semicircular in outline, and the two cu/-de-
sacs between them are distinctly visible. From beneath the processes
look almost straight and the cul-de-sacs do not appear. The accompany-
ing figure will give a much better idea of this complicated structure
than a description can conve

Spiracles in nine pairs, the iret situated in the mesothorax under
the anterior angles, the rest abdominal. The pair on the first abdom-
inal segment is dorso-lateral, the next lateral,and the remainder (in
segments 3 to 8) are ventro-lateral; all except the last pair, which are
behind the middle, are placed nearer the anterior than the posterior
margin of the segment.

Legs stout, cox: not very prominent, femora strong, broader at tip
and compressed within, tibial pieces subcylindrical, claws single, long,
curved, with an indistinct blunt tooth and a bristle near the base. The
suture between the femur and trochanter is well marked, and these as
well as the tibiz are rather sparsely bristled.

Larvs of the above mentioned species were taken at Iowa City on
the 13th of April from beneath the bark of a rotting elm log. On the
7th of May one of them changed to an elongate white pupa, 16 mm.
in length, which had the power of moving very rapidly about on its
back, tail foremost. It was very sensitive, a slight touch on any of

820 The American Naturalist. [September, ,

the bristles sufficing to set it in motion. The beetle appeared on May
16th.

In a short note on page 76 of the third volume of Psvcnr, Mr. H.
L. Moody has given us a means of distinguishing the larve of four of
the species of the family Pyrochroide that he has raised. The larva
of Schizotus cervicalis he says is of a smoky tint, while the remaining
three (mentioned hereafter) are yellow ; of these, Dendroides canadensis
has long, slender, curved processes nearly one-third longer than the
basal portion, and the cu/-de-sacs not visible from above; D. concolor
has stouter, nearly straight processes hardly longer than the basal por-
tion, and the tips are obliquely cut off on the inner side, while the cul-
de-sacs are just visible (by the projecting lower margin) from above. In
Pyrochroa flabellata the processes are nearly straight on the inner edge
when viewed from below, and short, strongly dentate; the cul-de-sacs
are very large, plainly visible from above. I notice that the length of
the processes is subject to some little variation, but no doubt these char-
acters will hold good in general.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig.1. Hololepta fossularis Say, larva; a, pupa; b, mouth and an-
tenna from below ; c, anterior leg; d, caudal appendix.

Fig. 2. Pyrochroa flabellata Fabr., larva; a, pupa; b, antenna; c,
mandible; d, terminal portion of abdomen from below; e, maxilla; f,
mentum.

H. F. WicknaM, Iowa City, Iowa.

usc nme se

1894.] Archeolog, and Ethnology. 821

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Gailenreuth Cave in 1894.— Dr. Zittel says (Beiträge zur An-
thropologie und Urgeschichte Baierns ii, p. 226) that the remarkable
discoveries in the English and French caves about 1875, caused the
comparatively recent exploration, notably by Dr. Fraas (about 1877),
of caverns in the limestone valleys of the upper tributaries of the Main
(in the Franconian Switzerland, Bavaria) and along the northern con-
fluents of the Danube (in Würtemberg). But, as he explains, J. F.
Esper (Ausführliche Nachricht von neuentdeckten Zoolithen, 1774),
had scientifically examined several of the Wiesent Valley caves (in
Franconia) more than a hundred years before, and, as far as is known,
had anticipated all investigators—even the Rev. McEnery, the long-
neglected explorer of Kent's Hole—in the discovery of human remains
associated with the bones of extinct Plistocene mammals.

The cave map of Bavaria (Beitrüge zur Urgesch. Bai. 2, plate 14)
is thickly dotted with the red signs for caverns in the mill region north
of the right Danube bank between Ulm and Ratisbon, here and there
in the Alpine valleys of the Iller, Isar and Saal far to the southward,
but thickest of allalong the upper Main Valley by the Wiesent, Ails-
bach and Püttbach tributaries, about a spot twenty miles to the south-
west of Bayreuth. Here it was, in the hill-top cave, one-quarter of a
mile from the Castle Gailenreuth (left bank of Wiesent, two miles
above Muggendorf ), that Esper’s most important work was done. The
entombed bones of legendary Dragons and Unicorns, the extraordinary
teeth exhumed during the Middle Ages to be ground into medical nos-
trums, had not yet been rearranged into the now well-known shapes of
Mammoth, Cave Bear, Hyena and Rhinoceros. Human prehistoric
work in stone was unrecognized, and the existence of River Drift and
Cave Men was unsuspected, when at Gailenreuth, on finding a human

jaw with three teeth and a shoulder-blade in a layer of “Antediluvian "
bones, Esper made the memorable observation :

“Since they (the human remains) lay under the animal bones with
which the Gailenreuth Cave was filled ; since they were found in what,
in all probability, was their original layer, I infer, not without adequate
ground, that these human relics were of like age with the animal re-
mains above them."

This remarkable inference, in 1774, making Gailenreuth classic
ground for the cave explorer, was carried no farther by Esper. Nor

* This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

822 The American Naturalist. [September,

did it impress Buckland who, though he visited the cave in 1816, and
carried a skull afterwards found (now in the Oxford Museum) to Eng-
land, seems to have regarded with indifference the similar observations
of McEnery at Kent’s Hole. No further cave exploration was under-
taken in the Franconian region until 1878.

The Gailenreuth Cave or “ Zoolithenhóhle" enters the top of a gentle
hill separated from the brink of the widest gorge (about 290 feet deep)
by a level plateau. Cold and wet as I found it, in August, 1894, and
accessible from the stream only after a steep climb, with an entrance
(now walled up) invisible from the valley, and not at all conspicuous
from the plateau above, the remote forest-hidden cavern, like Hartman’s
Cave in Pennsylvania, had the look rather of an animal den than a
possible habitation for primitive savages.

Esper found its two spacious chambers as now level-floored with the
entrance and ending in two or more chasms 20 feet deep by 6 to 10 feet
in diameter in the rear. His description makes it uncertain whether
he dug his trenches at the bottom of the chasms or on the chamber
floors, how deep he went, and whether he reached rock bottom. In his
search for bones the following points were noted :

(1) The pottery—The whole cave floor (chambers and chasms) was
covered with a bed of charcoal, above which rested a layer of potsherds.
These he divided into four kinds: (a) rude hand made of red brick
clay mixed with coarse sand ; (b) of rude, sandy clay, with fragments
of quartz ; (c) of finely worked potters' clay, smoked dark and glazed
outside and in; and (d) of carefully worked, fine red potters' clay.

Repeating the notion of cremation of bodies, he supposed that the
potsherds were the remains of the urns in which food had been placed
near sacred fires built by Huns or Wends to the spirits of their kins-
folk 800 to 1000 years before.

This pottery is still abundant. I scratched out several pieces in
the disturbed earth at the bottom of one of the chasms. Esper says
that it does not occur at a greater depth than three feet.

(2) The immense number of animal bones—The fauna afterward
identified, given by Ranke, consisted of Mammoth, Giant Elk, Rein-
deer, Cave Bear (dominant), Gray Bear, Brown Bear, Cave Lion,
Cave Hyena, Woolly Rhinoceros,’ Wolf, Fox, Beaver, Glutton, Cave
Rat and Ground Squirrel. The bones lay in confusion at the bottom
of the chasms and in a thick bed under the potsherds on the chamber

? Ranke (Beiträge 2, p. 196), quoting Dawkins, does not mention Woolly Rhi-

noceros, Glutton (Gulo spelaea), Beaver, Arvicola spelaea, and Squirrel, but I
found them labelled from Gailenreuth in the Schloss Museum at Bayreuth.

Cu. MORE ORARE EIS es a S

PLATE XXVI.

4c.

‘

Hololepta and Pyrochroa.

1894] - r3 eo Archeology and Ethnology. Wie 823

1 . . floors, and how they got there has remained a puzzle to the present day.
I found the gnawed fore-leg bone of Ursus spelaeus at the hottom of
one of the chasms, but the Carnivora or men could not have brought in T OM
the fossils, since none, it seems, have been mentioned as split for the *
marrow and very few gnawed.

If water washed them in (and this has seemed likely from the peb-
bles found mixed with them), then we must imagine a valley nearly
the size of the Niagara Gorge, as yet uneroded, with the Wiesent some- K
how sweeping into the cave the bones and not the carcasses of animals ss p
à that had perished along its shores. e"
Animals often go into caves to die, but Esper urges they could not
|: . have done so in this case, as he found no skeletons entire. He suggests
an immense flood driving them to the cave for refuge, where, being
drowned, their remains were washed about and broken by surging
waters. But, after fairly stating the objections to this and other
theories, he gives up the problem in despair.
sper based his notion of the immense number of animals represent-
ed, not on the fragments found, but upon a white, chalky layer of de-
composed bones, which he does not describe as continuous, discovered
by him in several parts of the cavern. If we give this up as a test of
quantity, we have only left for a witness of the often alleged prodigious
number of individuals im Gailenreuth, the thickly scattered fragments
from 3 to 6 inches long, and in the proportion of about 15 to a half _
bushel of earth, which I saw on seratching with a hoe, at the tete of
| | the chasms
Spite of all the bone hunting done in the cave, there are peobeblg as
.. many of these pieces (which no collector would want) as ever. Andif , |
it is fair to guess at the ratio of bones to earth from them, and from
the odds and ends set in the growing stalagmite of the walls, the num-
|. ^... ber of entombed animals, though great, was not extravagantly so. ut
aoe (3) The human bones.—The jaw and shoulder blade Esper found
at a depth, not exactly stated, of several feet under an extending ledge —
: of rock at'a point not since identified. They were bedded in a layer
u one foot thick of fossils mixed with pebbles, which underlaid the white 5 %
i chalky stratum of decomposed bones above-noted, and have been, un- . a
- fortunately, lost. I found no description of the position of the skull —
mentioned by Ranke as afterwards found in the cave, and taken to -
England by Buckland. —

e Potsherds, according to Esper, were found at depths of three fet, ——

|. . and without more conclusive evidence, it must remain doubtful whether | m

. jn this ease the human bones were not intrusive and to be referred toa

| later time than t that of the fossi] PNE co on 5

=

4 T BA The American Naturalist. [September,

In the bottom of one of the chasms, which had evidently been dis- `
turbed by previous digging to a considerable depth, my scratching
brought to light two teeth, a lower jaw and leg bone of Ursus spelaeus.
The wet stalagmitic walls of the rift were scantily bedded with bone
fragments, and I saw many pieces set in loose fragments of breccia
which recent fossil hunters had gouged out of the walls and found not
worth taking away. No doubt crusts of stalagmite projecting here and
there from the walls over the cave earth had been broken through, but
I saw no signs of previously-existing floors of large extent in the
chasm.

Here, where some loose bones steeped in carbonate of lime were hard
as stone, while others projected from the drip looked comparatively
fresh,’ the value of breccia, of fossilization, and of stalagmitic crusts
covering underplaced layers as tests of age seemed small. Still more
was I inclined to reject such criteria when, a few days later, I was -
shown stalactites 60 centimeters long produced in fifteen years on the

|

reservoir roof at Bayreuth, and when Professor Adami, of Bayreuth, =

told me that he had seen, in 1884, stalactites in a tunnel between Zel-
fenkasten and Conters (in Switzerland) 6 inches long and forty years
old. It was soon apparent that a great deal of digging had been done
in the cave. No doubt the searchers for “ Unicorns horns” had been
there before Esper. Doubtless * Neuhaus Hans " of recent local fame
had found profit in the contents of down-reaching fissures. But, in
` spite of the frequent overturning of mould and breccia, it might not be
impossible still to demonstrate the meaning of the layers at Gailen-
reuth. The bottoms of the chasms have probably, owing to the cramped
space, never been reached, and several places may well exist in the up-
per chamber floors that have not been disturbed at all. However that
may be, Gailenreuth, the starting point of modern cave exploration,
shows well the bearings and the difficulties of real work done in cav- -
erns, and suggests many of the puzzles which still perplex the investi-
gator. . C. MERCER.

*

3 Like the Cave Bear and Lion skulls in the Schloss Museum at Bayrenth.

1894], Microscopy. . 825-

MICROSCOPY?

Notes on Gold Impregnation Technique.—The following
method of using formic acid and gold chloride is a modification, or
adaptation of a method used by Miss Julia B. Platt and kindly sug-
gested by her to me. She refers it to Professor Mark of Harvard
University. I have used it in tracing the nervous system of Nephelis
lateralis and have found it reliable. In leech tissues, it differentiates
all nerve tissue, though the histology of other tissues is poor. After
more than a year's use of this method without a complete failure
among my preparations, I feel that Lee's characterization of the other
methods of gold staining does not apply to this method.

It has been used successfully on larval vertebrate material as well as
on leech tissue, by varying the strength of the formic acid, or the time
of its applieation. "The other factors are to a great extent indifferent
as to strength used or time employed. If maceration occurs, lessen
the action of the formie by weakening or by shortening the time. If
the impregnation is slight, increase the action. The thickness of the
piece stained should not exceed 5 mm., and the tissue must be living.

The following i is the process euiployed with Nephelis :

The leech is put into twenty or thirty times its bulk of 10% formie
acid and left from 3 to 5 minutes. It dies well extended. Transfer
without washing to 1% Gold chloride (of commerce) for 25 minutes; -
then without washing into 1% formic acid for 24 hours, or until reduc-
tion is complete. This is indicated by a rich purple color over the
whole specimen. Wash slightly in tap water; run up through the
alcohols to chloroform; to chloroform saturated with hard paraffine.
My sections are usually cut 16% thick. * When the impregnation
appears to be very light—almost a failure, stain the sections on the
slide with erythrosin or some other deep red anilin stain for contrast. .

These sections will often show the most exquisite details. |

Transparent larve 5 to 10 mm. long require a milder treatment,
— such as the following: 5% formic acid 2 or 3 minutes, 1% or }% gold
chloride 10 minutes, weak formic 1 to 4 hours. If the specimens are

= watched from time to time under the dissecting lens, it will be seen :
that the central nervous system stains first and then the peripheral. —

The reduetion of the gold chloride: may POUE of course, at any
point by transferring to alcohol.
‘Edited t by C. O. Whitman, University of Chicago.

8360 . The American Naturalist. [September,

*

,

All the operations described above were conducted in diffuse day-
light and the gold chloride solution was exposed to sunlight for some
time before using. This may not be an essential factor to the process,
but Dr. L. Lindsay Johnson, in the third edition of Lee's Vade
Mecum, suggests that failure to’ ripen the solution by sunning may be
the cause of many of the failures in gold staining.

| C. L. BRISTOL.
University of Chicago, April 14, 1894.

Gold Chloride-Formic Acid Staining of Sections after
Fixation in Sublimate Alcohol.—S. Apathy in the the Zeitschrift,
für Wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie. Bd. X, 1893, p. 348.
The following method i is extracted from an article on the muscle
fibres of Ascaris. -
_ Take equal parts of a saturated solution of corrosive sublimate in a `
a 3 per cent solution of common salt and absolute alcohol ; or dissolve 3
| per cent of corrosive sublimate and 3 per cent common salt in 50 per
-eent alcohol. Use the liquid boiling hot for Ascaris, cold for leeches,
and leave the animals i in it for 24 pours, or at least 12 hours. Wash
out in 50 pe l untilt y-brown color of an iodine-
* aleohol | solution. remains Quee for a few days. Free the tissues |
-Imbed in paraffin, using chloroform
for the transferring. medium, and fix the sections on the slide. Free
. them completely from paraffine and chloroform, and finally : wash
— Slightly with distilled water.
Put the slide in a 1 per cent gold chloride solution and keep i in the.
dark for 24 hours. Drain the slide and lightly apply a smooth-faced `
blotting paper to take up the surplus liquid. A yy percent solution — —
of gold chloride will answer, and is, of course, cheaper. Without Dt
further washing put the slide i in a large bulk of 1 per cent formic —
x E and leave it for 24 hours. The longer diffuse daylight acts on -
the sections, the better the results. Wash. in distilled water and |
mount in balsam. The sections may be cut very thin or thick—from |
ol ^, but the author mma oue best results from. sections. 2 or 2i

"d eie T

"By thie simple p em ced i jb i foo «edi Wu dees d
produced the most beautiful pietures of the crores of various |
tissues, but especially muscle and nerve. fibres. - ‘he various elements :
paid honest in different tints from rose to cherry red or

1894.] Microscopy. 827

A Rapid Method of Hardening and Sectioning.’ —Every D
practical pathologist must be convinced of the great importance, in i t
many cases, of at once supplementing and completing the naked eve
examination of struetures by a thorough microscopic examination.
Microscopic examination in the fresh state, by teasing up parts of tis-
sues, or by means of scrapings from the cut surface, is in most cases im-
perative if the finer details of the cellular elements are to be fully ap-
preciated, but sections are no less necessary in many cases if the rela-

tions of the various constituents, and the structure with the tissue as a
whole, are to be determined. In order to do this the method óf freez-
ing the fresh tissue, and cutting sections with the microtome is frequent- =>
ly adopted, but it must be the general experience that such sections
are often very unsatisfactory. They are so loose and lacking in cohe-
sion, and the process of freezing alters the tissue so much, that they are
difficult to manipulate and often difficult to interpret. I have occa-
sionally met with errors in diagnosis made by incompetent observers
from the use of such sections. — In order to obtain satisfactory results,
the proeesses of hardening, embedding, section-cutting, staining, and
mounting are all necessary, and these commonly extend over several
days. If the process can be so shortened that the whole investigation
can be completed at one sitting, then a considerable practical advant-
age will be obtained. How often does it happen in the course of a
pathological investigation of parts either obtained post-mortem or from
operation that we wish to be satisfied on the spot as to the realsignific- —
ance of some particular appearance. If the structure is put. aside to `

harden, there is considerable likelihood of some of the points being for-
gotten, and, at any rate, it is not taken up with the freshness of the — —
first examination. I believe also that for purposes of surgical diagnosis | &
an examination made within an hour's time would often be found of E
great value. xp

~ The method I have now to » describe has no claim except as a prac- i

tical working procedure. I have ti -

. have met with a general expression ofi its usefulness. - have used it

pene. — for more than a year, and am. perfectly satisfied that it ful-
fils its purpose. The principles of the method are: (1) rapid harden- —

TT esi in alcohol; (2) eutting with the microtome without | removing the Pe
> alcohol and without freezing the tissue; (3) rapid Msn o

|... 1. The hardening is effected by : absolute alcohol, keptata SANAA ;

bus about. that. of the animal. body. In examining the fresh ;

| Journ, Pathology ar and I Bacteriology; 1, Ne 4 i 1894. oa

828 * The American Naturalist. [September,

with the naked eye the pathologist makes up his mind as to what
exact parts he desires to submit to microscopic examination. With a
sharp knife he takes a thin slice of such a part, not more than two to
four millimetres in thickness and of comparatively small superficial
area. The piece of tissue is placed in a test-tube containing some
cotton-wool at the bottom, and half-filled with absolute alcohol. The
slice is so placed in the tube that it shall lie flat and not be distorted
or curved. The vessel is now to be placed at a slightly elevated tem-
perature, for which purpose a water bath is most suitable. I use a
hand basin, the hot tap of which is left running so as to keep the water
at a temperature which may be judged of by the hand. The slight
current in the water is a distinct advantage. If the piece be at all
bulky it may be well to renew the alcohol after a short interval. In |
the course of half an hour or three quarters the slice of tissue will |
generally be found sufficiently hardened to be proceeded with further. :

2. In the next stage advantage is taken of the fact that anise-oil
freezes at a comparatively high temperature (45° to 70° Fahr.), and

—. that the presence of alcohol does not interfere with the process of freez-

ing. My attention was called to this agent by a paper by Kühne.

. This author recommends anise-oil as an embedding material, but I

have not found the method which he recommends very successful. I
use the anise-oil, not to penetrate the tissue, like celloidin or paraffin,
but rather to hold it and fix it on the plateof the microtome. Having
taken the slice of tissue from the alcohol, I dry it with blotting-paper
or an absorbent cloth. I then pour a few drops of anise-oil on the
plate of the freezing microtome, and place the piece of tissue in the
midst of the oil. It is better to have the oil making one convex drop
with the specimens in the middle of it, asin cutting the sections the less
- oil you take with you the better. A few systoles of ho ether pex
bellows suffice to freeze the oil into a white solid mass. The knife
now used with a considerable sweep, and the section may be cut dry if
dts superficial area be small. lfthis cannot be done without risk of £3

-and any microtome with a sliding knife will serve. “Ibis possible, by ;

. this method, to obtain sections. sufficiently thin for most purposes,
. although not equal, of course, to those Which tioy, be got alter a em-
bedding i in celloidin or in paraffine. “a

.. In regard to the size of the piece of tissue to ie cut, iti is aiy *
etter: to have it of small dimensions, but the method is. perfectly ap- —
re plieable to such a piece as would involve, say, the whole Hk of the :
^ ved ro ds cortex x and dore

VENE ee eee eae re e e ETE RR N eer OUR
zr af NUI AURA au

E with a sharp knife.

1894.] Mieroscopy. 829

After the sections are made they are placed in alcohol, which dis-
solves the anise-oil.

The sections so obtained may be stained with any of the ordinary
agents. I used Biondi's fluid a good deal ; itis rapid and differentiates
well. Perhaps the most generally useful stain is Mayer's carmalum.
This has all the advantages (and they are many) of alum-carmine, and
has some additional ones of its own. Thus it is much brighter in tint,
and so forms a better contrast. "This is of special service when Gram's
or Weigert's method is used for the detection of microbes, as the blue
tint of alum-carmine is often objectionable when the microbes are
stained blue. I commonly use picric acid.as a contrast stain with the
carmalum. The solution used consists of alcohol seventy parts, satur-
ated watery solution of picric acid 30 parts, and hydrochloric acid i
part. I find the results obtained to be much better than those yielded
by picrocarmine in my hands. The whole process of staining by
carmalum and picric acid need not take many minutes. If necessary
a gentle heat may be used to hasten the action. An excellent method
of staining, in many respects, is that described by Nicolle. It is intro- -
duced as a method of staining microbes which do not stain by Gram’s
method. The staining agent is Kiihne’s or Sceffler’s blue. I have
used, chiefly, Kühne's blue, which acts very rapidly, a few seconds
being usually enough. It is so very vigorous, that dilution is
sometimes necessary. The section is then washed in water and treated
with a 10 per cent. solution of tannic acid. This has the effect of fix-

ing the blue color in nuclei and microbes, so that subsequent treatment

with alcohol and oil of cloves will not remove the color. The section
is taken from the tannin solution, washed in water, dehydrated with
alcohol, cleared with oil of eloves, washed in xylol, and mounted in
Canada balsam in the usual way. If a contrast stain he desired, then
eosin or acid fuchsine may be added to the tannin solution. v
To summarise the method it may be put as follows: - quels
1. Select an illustrative part of the fresh tissue, and remove a slice —

2. Place in absolute aleohol and heat the vessel in » water bath to

| S about 40? C. for half an hour to an hour. —

3. Dry the tissue and place on the freezing plate of the microtome

dn a large drop of anise-oil. fe

moistened with alcohol while cutting. - :
5. Place in alcohol to remove aniseoil. —
6. Float out in water and place on slide for staining.

4. Freeze and cut sections. The upper surface of the knife may be

d. Stain by any approved rapid method, and inounk «Joerg 4 dac

The America: an Naturalist. [September,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Walker Prizes in Natural History.—Two prizes are annually
offered by the Böston Society of Natural History for the best memoirs
written in the English language on the subjects given below. For
the best memoir presented a prize of sixty dollars may be awarded ; if,
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i the next memoir, a prize not exceeding fifty dollars may be

arded. Prizes will not be awarded unless the memoirs presented are.

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Vol. XXVIII. OCTOBER, 1894. No. 334

CONTENTS.

! PAGE: AG AGE.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF SNAKES, WE Sei red —New Sulphosinnate from Bolivia —Allanite Pa!
z- D. Cope. 831 | from FranklinFurnace—Miscellaneo 870
Limits OF BIOLOGICAL EXPERIMENT Geology a oou Origin of the Tril-

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- ABALONE OR deae ur SHELLS OF THE CALIFOR , Beds in the Ausian Salzkammer rga t~ Geology

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UNES
pi

PLATE XXVII.

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor. XXVIII. October, 1894. 334

THE CLASSIFICATION OF SNAKES.
By E. D. Cort.

Owing to the absence of limbs and other points in which
diversity is usually apparent, the classification of the snakes
has always presented difficulties to the zoologist. An order
which dates from Cretaceous time and has spread over the en-
tire world, must have differentiated in structure, if its history
has been like that of other orders of Vertebrata. Yet the re-
searches of anatomists have only resulted in finding characters
which define five suborders, and about a dozen families. Of
the natural groups thus defined, one family, the Colubridæ,
embraces three-fourths of the species, and is of cosmopolitan
distribution. So long as this was the principal result attained,
it remained clear that the stronghold of the order had not yet
been taken.

The primary divisions above referred to, are defined by
peculiarities of the skeleton, and these were mostly originally
described by Johannes Müller. In the preparation of their
Herpetologie Générale, Duméril and Bibron made a full study
of the dentition. The results they obtained were important,
but they were very far from expressing an exact and clear eut
classification. The greatest defect of their definitions based on
the teeth is that they too often fail to define. One type passes
by easy gradations into another, so that in many cases it isim-

55

832 The American Naturalist. [October,

possible to determine what type a given dentition represents.
In most cases it is clear that, among Colubrid snakes at least,
no higher groups than genera can be predicated on dentition,
and frequently not even these. Under such circumstances
further structural characters had to be sought for if we are to
have any clear idea of the affinities and phylogeny of this
curious branch of the Reptilia. In any case no systematic
arrangement can be regarded as final until the entire anatomy
is known.

In 1864' I pointed out that certain snakes, notably the water
snakes, have the vertebral hypapophyses continued to the tail,
as in the truly venomous forms. Boulenger has since found
this character in a good many forms which I had not examined,
and which have no affinity to the water snakes. This char-
acter, while important, presents the same evanescent stages in
certain types that the dental characters before noticed exhibit.
It had long appeared to me that the only prehensile organs pos-
sessed by serpents, the hemipenes, might probably present
structural variations expressive of affinity or diversity. In
1893’ I examined these structures in many of the leading
types, and was gratified by the discovery of a great many
structural characters. In fact these organs exhibit a variety
of ornamentation and armature beyond any part.of the
anatomy in the Ophidia, and I am satisfied that they furnish
more important indication of near affinity than any other part
of these reptiles yet examined. No one hereafter can be sure
of the place of a serpent in the system until the hemipenis has
been examined.

Still another part of the structure remained to be studied.
The assymmetry of the lungs of snakes had often been noted
by anatomists, but very little was known as to the range of
variation. Accordingly the present year,’ I undertook a study
of the pulmonary organs. I was able to confirm observations
previously made by Schlegel and Stannius, and to correct some
others, and to add a great number of facts as to species not

! Proceedings Academy of Natural Sciences, Philada.
? American Naturlist, 1893, p. 477.

-3 Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1894, p. 217.

dd MEME C E cma

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1894.] The Classification of Snakes. 833

previously examined. I cannot give here all the details ob-
served, for which I refer to the papers quoted, but I give a
general view of the results. One of these is that I am able to
confirm the conclusion of Boulenger; i. e, that the Colubriform
venomous snakes, the Proteroglypha, (cobras, Elapes, etc.), do
not differ in any fundamental respect from the non-venomous
Colubride, and that they can not be characterized as a sub-
order. The suborders then are:

Catodonta (Type Glauconia).

Epanodonta (Type Typhlops).

Tortricina (Ilysiide and Rhinophidz).

Colubroidea (Peropoda, Asinea, and Proterogylpha).

Solenoglypha (Typical venomous forms).

The hemipenis is a projectile organ in the form of a hollow
tube whose base is on one side of the middle line, and which
opens into the anus. When retracted it lies beneath the tail,
extending for a greater or less distance, and terminating in a
cylindrical muscle. This has considerable length, and is
finally inserted on a caudal vertebra. When the organ is pro-
jected this muscle is drawn forwards, so as to evaginate the
tubular organ. Thus the inside of the tube becomes the out-
side, and the entire organ projects freely from its base ante-
riorly. It finds its way into the corresponding oviduct of the
female (Plate XXVIII, v), and when oncein place it cannot be
tracted in most species, without invagination. This is per-
formed by the contraction of the now internal retractor muscle.
This is inserted on the internal face of the apex, and draws it
inwards, so that it soon assumes the original ensheathed posi-
tion beneath the tail It cannot be withdrawn from the
oviduet without invagination, because it is generally set
with strong bony spines which diverge backwards. They
have a perfect grip on the walls of the oviduct, and would
in some instances lacerate that organ if the two bodies
should be forcibly drawn apart. In other cases the hemi-
penis would be torn off at the base. Snakes sometimes partially
project this organ, apparently in some instances for defence,

. aS the spines are very pungent, and are sometimes curyed

like cats claws. Such at least would seem to have been the

| $34 ^ The American Naturalist. [Ocicber,

‘ease with two Heterodon platyrhinus, (spotted adders), which were
i brought to me with the organs projected so as to present the
spines. They were caught by a cat, and were represented -to
"me as fighting their captor in this and other ways. Snakes
are, however, very careful not to present these organs fully
evaginated so as to expose the delicate structures near the apex.
I have never seen this to be the case in an alcoholic specimen,
(with one possible exception), and I should judgethat this was
the general experience, from the figures given by authors. It
is said that male snakes may be compelled to project the hemi-
penes by holding them before a fire, but I have not seen this.
The hemipenis of the Ophidia is traversed by a groove which
divides the superficial investment to the internal integument
(or external integument when the organ is retracted), which
‘commences at the base internally, and soon turns to the exter-
. nal side of the organ and continues to its extremity. This is
the sulcus spermaticus (ssin Plate xxvii) This sulcus is
always bifureated in venomous snakes, and I find it to be
equally bifurcated in many harmless snakes (Figs. 2, 3, 7).
The investing tissues may or may not correspond with this
bifurcation. Thus the hemipenis may be more or less bifur-
cate (Figs. 1, 2, 7, 9, 10, 11). Schlegel states that it is bifurcate
in venomous snakes, but it is not so in the sea-snake Hydro-
phis hardwickii, nor in Bungarus semifasciatus, Hoplocephalus
coronatus, ete., while it is bifurcate in many non-venomous forms.
Next to the bifurcation of the sulcus in importance, is the
nature of the surface of the external investment (internal when
retracted). In the most perfect types both venomous and non-
venomous, this surface is reticulate like tripe, the enclosed
areas forming calyces, which may have a suctorial function
(Figs. 6, 9, 10, 11). Their borders are often papillose, and are
sometimes so deeply divided into papille as to lose their
original character. These papille may be the seat of osseous
deposit, becoming bristles or spines, (sp), which become larger
toward the middle of the length, and lose their mutual mem-
branous connections. These isolated spines may extend to the
apex, but they rarely extend to the base. The surface may,
however, be laminate and not reticulate, and the laminz may

a es

Te aa A ar ee ee a ee ee Oe a

1894.]. The Classification of Snakes. 835.

be longitudinal (Figs. 4, 7) or transverse (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 5). In
either of these cases they may not be spiniferous. The apex.
or apices of the organ may be furnished with a rigid papilla
(Fig. 5) or awn.

In the Tortricina and Peropoda (the constrictors), the hemi-
penis is not spinous, and the sulcus is bifurcate (Figs. 1, 2, 3),
and in the Boidae the hemipenis is bifurcate also, although in
some genera (Xiphosoma, Ungualia) the branches are very
short. The external integument is never reticulate, but is
always laminate with elongate papille at the extremities, in
Epicrates (Fig. 2), Xiphosoma, and Ungualia. The lamin: are
pinnate from the sulcus as an axis, in Morelia, Enygrus, Lich-
anura and Eryx, and are transverse (flounced), in Charina
(Fig. 3. In Ilysia they are pinnate (Fig. 1), with a few lon-
gitudinal plicæ below.

Similar gradations in the characters of the hemipenis are to
be seen in the types of venomous snakes. Thus in the Pro-.
teroglypha this organ is spinous to the tip, on a calyculate
basis, in Hydrophis, Elaps, (surinamensis); Dendraspis. It. is
reticulate at the extremities and spinous below, in Callophis
(bivirgatus) ; Naja (Fig. 9); Acanthophis; Bungarus and Sepe-
don; the apex smooth in the two genera lastnamed. In Elaps
nigrocinctus the organ is smooth below, with spines at the

apex.

In Solenoglypha the genus Atractaspis is spinous to the
apex, apparently on a longitudinally laminate basis. In the
Viperide and Crotalidz the spines are on a flounced basis,
The apices are calyculate in Bitis, Clotho (Fig. 10), and Vip-
era, and spinous in Cerastes. They are calyculate in Crota-
lide in Bothrops, Ancistrodon, Crotalophorus, Crotalus and
Uropsophus (Fig. 11). In Crotalus (durissus ofthe Neotropical
fauna), the papillae are not ossified; in all the other genera
they are spinous.

The condition of knowledge as to the lungs of snakes was
stated by Stannius, in 1856, as follows: “The detailed ac-
counts as to the single or double chardeter of the lungs
leaves much to be desired. Among Ophidia Angiostomata
there possess a single sack, Rhinophis and all Typhlopida

836 The American Naturalist. [October, |

which have been examined; as to the Tortricide [Ilysiide],
there are apparently species with two lungs (T. zenopeltis)
[=-Xenopeltis unicolor], and others with a single lung (T.
scytale) [=Ilysia scytale]. Among Eurystomata, all the Per-
opoda (Boa, Python, Eryx) possess apparently two lungs.
The Calamarina that have been investigated have one lung.
Among Colubrina and Glyphodonta, there are great varia-
tions. All the Coronelle of Schlegel possess, according to
Schlegel, a single lung. I find the lung single in Rhachiodon
séaber [ Dasypeltis]. Tropidonotus natrix [ Natrix vulgaris] has a
very small rudiment of a second lung. Coluber [Spilotes] vari-
abilis possesses, according to Schlegel, the rudiment of a second
lung. According to the statement of Meckel, this rudiment is
common in Coluber. The Xenodons have, according to
Schlegel, a single lung (X. severus and X. rhabdocephalus). In
Heterodon I find a rudimental second lung. The Lycodons,

according to Schlegel, possess a single lung; as also do Psam-

mophis and Homalopsis. In Dendrophis colubrina Schlegel
found the rudiment of the second lung. In Dipsas, according
te Schlegel, there are variations; but he states that D. multi-
maculata, D. levis and D. annulata [Sibon annulatum], have but
one lung. The Achrochordina have but one lung. Among
Hydrophide I found in three species of Hydrophis the lung-
sack simple. Meckel states that Platurus has a very small
rudiment of a second lung. Among the remaining poisonous
snakes there is an insignificant rudiment of the second lung
in the Elapina and Crotalina; while the Viperina possess an
entirely simple lung.”

An examination of about one hundred and fifty species of
nearly all types yielded the following results.

The snakes with rudimental posterior limbs (Peropoda),
show in the character of their lungs, what they show in the
rudimental limbs themselves, and in the hemipenis, the near-
est relationships to the Lacertilia. They possess, with an
exception to be noted later, two well-developed lungs, one of
which is larger than the other. The smaller lung lies to the
right side and ventrally, while the larger one lies to the left
side and dorsally. In some species the dorsal and ventral

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1894.] The Classification of Snakes. 837

relation is more pronounced than in other. In the Colubroidea
the right or ventral lung is generally present, but of very
much reduced proportions, the usual size being from two to
five millimeters in length (Plate XXVIII RL). Itis connected
with the other lung by a foramen which perforates the tracheal
cartilage at a point a little beyond the apex of the heart, and
opposite to the proximal part of the dorsal lung. It is some-
times connected to the dorsal lung by a short tube, in which
cartilaginous half rings are seen in but two of the genera ex-
amined, viz., Heterodon and Conophis. The lumen of the
rudimental lung may be lined by the same reticulate structure
as is seen in the dorsal lung, or its walls may be smooth. In
some Colubroidea the rudimental lung is absent, but such
species are relatively few.

The dorsal lung may present proximally alongside of the
trachea an auricle or pocket, and this is so developed in the
genus Heterodon (Plate XXVIII), as to reach to the head, with-
out communication with the trachea, other than that furnished
by the normal’ portion of the lung. In the Solenoglypha,
without exception, this extension of the dorsal lung is present,
and extends to the head, and its lumen is continuous with the
trachea throughout its length. The same structure exists in
the genera Hydrus and Hydrophis; and also in the West
Indian'peropodous genus Ungualia, which differs besides from
other Peropoda in having but one posttracheallung. Finally
the tracheal lung, as I shall call it, is distinct from the true
lung in the water snakes Platurus and in Chersydrus. In the
former of these genera the trachea is not separate from the
lumen, while in Chersydrus it is distinct. It, however, com-
municates with the cells of which the lung consists in this
genus by a series of regularly placed foramina on each side.
There is no lumen in the tracheal lung of Chersydrus. In the
blind burrowing Typhlops we have a still further modifica-
tion of the tracheal lung. It is without lumen, and is com-
posed of coarse cells of different sizes. These have no com-
munication with the trachea or lung that I can discover. It

. has occurred to me that this structure, which extends from the

heart to the throat, may not be a pulmonary organ.

838 The American Naturalist. [Oetolier,

I have referred to the dorsal and ventral positions of the two
lungs. The rudimental lung is to the right of the dorsal lung
in the Colubroidea, but in the Ilysiide it is to the left. It is quite
questionable which lung this rudiment in this family really
represents. In the Typhlopide, the single lung is on the right
side and extends from the heart to the liver. It has the posi-
tion of the rudiment lung of the Colubroidea, and may repre-
sent it. I cannot decide this question without further material.
In Glauconia there is but one true lung, and this is ventral in
position, and originates to the right of the heart, so that in
this genus also it may represent the rudimental lung of the
Colubroidea. There is here no tracheal lung or organ.

I have no doubt of the propriety of the separation of the
Ungualiide from the other Peropoda, on account of its pul-
monary characters. Nor is there any doubt in my mind of
the necessity of the separation of the Leptognathinz from the
Xenodontinz, on account of its large tracheal lung. The genus
Heterodon differs very much from other Xenodontinz, in the
possession of an enormous diverticulum of the lung, but as it is
not present in the allied genus Lystrophis Cope, its wider dis-
tinction may be a questionable proceeding. The very marked
characters of the genus Chersydrus characterize the family, as
well as the osteological characters. It remains to be seen
whether the family I termed the Nothopidex, but which Bou-
lenger unites with the Chersydridi, agrees with it in pulmo-
nary characters. The remarkable tracheal lung or gland dis-
tinguishes the .Epanodonta from the Catodonta, emphasiz-
ing the differences observed in the osteology of the skull.

The value of the rudimental right lung as a character of the
Colubroidea is increased by my investigations. In only two
genera have I found it present or absent, viz, Halsophis and
Pityophis. Iam not sure but that I may yet find it in the
P. melanoleucus, where I have failed hitherto, but I am sure
that it is present in some species of Halsophis and wanting in
others. A natural group of American Colubrins, appears fo
be characterized by its absence, viz., Rhinochilus, Cemophora
and Ophibolus; all genera with an entire anal shield. The
development of cartilages in the bronchial foramen or tube of

=.

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1894.] The Classification of Snakes. 839

the rudimental lung is not a constant character. I found it
in one Heterodon platyrhinus and not in another; it is present
in Conophis pulcher, but absent in C. sumichrastii.

The rudimental lung is often concealed from view and diffi-
cult to discover.. The best test of its presence is the foramen
which connects it with the trachea, which will generally be
found piercing the cartilage of the latter near the apex of the
heart. The rudimental organ may then be found by inserting
a bristle, and observing its destination through the more or
less transparent tissues. In but one instance have I found a
rudimental lung without a connecting foramen, viz, in the
Mexican Ficimia olivacea. On the other hand, the foramen
may terminate in a small blind sac.

The pulmonary characters may be determined without
much dissection. The position of the heart must be first as-
certained, and a longitudinal median incision made in the
abdominal wall In all forms except the Epanodonta and
Catodonta, the trachea will be found passing to the left side of
the heart, and entering the lung near its apex. By splitting
the trachea, not too near its abdominal border, on turning the
free margin upwards as the snake lies on its back, the foramen
bronchiale will be seen and its lumen can be explored. The
trachea is concealed by the cesophagus, which must be drawn
to the left side of the body in order to make the examination.
The examination of the tracheal lung requires the division
of the abdominal wall farther towards the head.

The tracheal lung greatly extends the surface available for
blood aération. This is necessary to snakes for the reason that
the huge masses of food which they ingest, so compress the
true lung that another organ is necessary. Most snakes
whether they have a tracheal lung or not, have the pulmonary
organ greatly elongated, so that while one portion is compressed
by the contents of the alimentary canal, another part is free to
function. The tracheal lung enables the snake to inflate the
anterior part of the body. This is conspicuous in the true
venomous sp lypha) Inthesame way Heterodon
inflates its huge diverticulum. In the marine water snakes

Chersydrus and the Hydrophidae, these organs serve as floats.

840 The American Naturalist. - [October,

In the fresh-water snakes (Natricine) there is no tracheal
lung. The hemipenis of this group is very characteristic;.
(Plate XXXVII fig. 8).

As an illustration of the modifications in classification
necessary in view of the characters which I have observed, I
give an analysis of the genera of the group which I have
called the Xenodontinze. These genera belong mainly to the
southern Hemisphere, and chiefly to the Neotropical Realm, a
few genera occcuring in Africa and North America. The
characters of the division are as follows.

Hemipenis with bifurcate sulcus spermaticus, and armed
with well developed spines, which are developed from the
marginal papille of calyculi, when the latter are present.
Hypapophyses of the vertebre generally present only anter-
iorly.°

. A. Lung without large proximal diverticulum.
I. Apex of hemipenis without calyces or spines but with a
membranous disc. (Disciferi Fig. 7),
e. Rostral plate not recurved.

Hemipenis undivided, no scale-pits ; Aporophis Cope.
Hemipenis divided ; no scale-pits ; Opheomorphus Cope.
Hemipenis divided; one scale-pit ; Xenodon *Boie.
vv. Rostral plate recurved.
Hemipenis divided; one scale-pit ; Lystrophis Cope.
II. Hemipenis transversely plicated (divided): (Flabellati).
Plicæ not pappillose ; diacranterian ; Helicops Wagl.
Plicee not pappillose ; isodont ; Pseudoeryx’ Fitz.
Plicze pappillose ; isodont ; Rhabdosoma’ D. & B.

III. Calyeulate, and not capitate (Calyculati).
v. Hemipenis undivided.
Fusiform ; isodont ; Carphophiops Gerv.
Colnbriloria : madoni. two nasals; Diadophis B. & G.
Colubriform ; diacranterian; one nasal; Amastridium Cope.
* American Naturalist, 1893, p. 481.
5In Helicops they are continued to the tail.
5 Including Liophis Wagl.
t Dimades Gray.
8 Catostoma and Adelphicus are closely allied.

1894.] The Classification of Snakes. 841

Colubriform ; diacranterian ; two nasals; Hypsirhynchus Gthr.
esc. Hemipenis double.
Fusiform ; isodont; Farancia Gray.
Colubriform ; diacranterian; no scale pits; ^ Dromicus Bibr.
Colubriform ; diacranterian ; one scale pit; JMonobothris Cope.
Colubriform ; diacranterian ; two scale pits; ^ Halsophis Cope.
. IV. Capitate (or pocketed) (Capitati).
gy. Hemipenis undivided.

Scale pits single; scales smooth ; Pliocercus Cope.

No scale pits; scales smooth ; Rhadinza Cope.

Scales keeled; prenasals in contact; Tretanorhinus D. & B.
ev. Hemipenis divided.

Rostral normal; isodont ; Ninia B. & G.
V. Pappillose at apex. (African) (Papillati).

Hemipenis single; ayia Gthr.

Hemipenis bifurcate ; Theleus" Cope.

. VI. Calyculate with spinous bands to apex. adr ttt
Subisodont ; attenuate ; omacer D
VII. Exclusively spinous to apex ; (diacranterian). cedes
Anterior teeth wanting; — Cope.
Anterior teeth present; anal divided; no scale pits
Echinanthera Cope.
Anterior teeth present; anal entire; one seen pit ;
Acanthophallus Cope.
À A Left lung with a proximal diverticulum, extending to
the throat.
. VIII. Calyculate and capitate.
Rostral recurved ; hemipenis divided ; ——ÀÀ
terodon Beauv.
CARY one familiar with these genera will perceive that they
are not represented in a linear series in the table. He will
also observe that genera of probably not very close affinities

? Gen. nov. Type, Dromicus chamissonis Auct.
19 Amer, Naturalist, 1893, p. 482.
1 Gen. nov.; type- Aporophis eyanopleurus Cope. This species is thought by

Boulenger to d Natrix melanostigma Weg; bat that pecie is represented
as unicolor above. T} t l bands, one median

Lu E

and one on each side.

842 The American. Naturalist. [October;

are placed close together, as for instance Tretanorhinus and
Helicops" and their associates. This is, however, a necessity
of an artificial key and is not new in zoólogy. The charac-
ters presented by the hemipenis are more readily determinable,
and are more constant that those to be found in any other
part of the structure.

In furthez illustration of the same subject I present a

synopsis of another tropical group, this time entirely Amer-

ican, which only differs from the Xenodontine in the grooving

ofthe posterior maxillary tooth, i. e., the Scytalinz.

. I. Apex without calyces or spines, but with a membranous
disc. (Disciferi).

Hemipenis divided ; Erythrolamprus Boie.

IL Hemipenis transversely or obliquely plicate ; (divided).
(Flabellati).

No calyces ; rostral plate normal ; Jaltris Cope.

Calyces at apex ; rostral plate produced ; Conophis Peters.
III. Calyeulate and not capitate. (Calyculati).
e. Hemipenis divided.

Rostral recurved ; Rhinostoma W agl.

Rostral normal; pupil erect; Oxyrrhopus Wagl.

Rostral normal; pupil round ; Philodryas Wagl.
gg. Hemipenis undivided. _

Rostral normal ; Thamnodynastes Wagl.

IV. Capitate (also calyculate). (Capitati).
Hemipenis undivided; colubriform; ^ Coniophanes? Hallow.

Hemipenis undivided ; fusiform ; Hydrocalamus Cope.
V. Spinous to apex ; (divided). (Spinosi).

Two nasal plates ; Tachymenis Wiegm.

One nasal plate ; Tomodon D. & B.

VI. Apex smooth, or with one row of spines; (divided).
(Levi).
Urosteges one rowed ; a band of minute advan: Scytale Wagl.

Urosteges two rowed ; no calyces; Lygophis“ Tsch.

1? Helicops is certainly to be placed in this family and has no relationship to the
Natricine with which it has been hi therto rto associat ted.

p 5 PY oe T y Py SUNG | E E with
which I have proposed to unite it. j
“Type Lygophis elegans Tsch.— Dryophylax poecilostornus Cope.

PTs Se A =

1894.) The Classification of Snakes. - 843

Comparison of this table with that of the genera of Xeno-
dontinz, shows. that ‘both present identical modifications
of structure in the case of five of the subdivisions. Only
_ two types, (V.and VI), of the Xenodontine have not been
found in the Scytaline; and one, (no. VI), of the latter group
has not been found in the Xenodontine.”

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
PraTE XXVII.

(From an unpublished Bulletin of the U. S. National

Museum). Hemipenes of distinct types of Ophidia. The
organ is split and the entire surface exposed. The student

must remember that the lateral borders are artificial, and are
continuous on the middle line behind the center of the figure
in the projected organ. When the organ is bifurcate, but one
branch is split; (figs. 1- 2-7-9-10-11)

Fig. 1. Ilysia scytale L. Brazil.

Fig. 2. Epicrates angulifer D. & B. Cuba.

Fig. 3. Charina botte Blv. Oregon.
Holarchus ancorus Gird. Philippine Ids.
Oligodon subquadratus D. & B. Java.
Bascanium constrictor L. N. America.
Opheomorphus alticolus Cope. Peru.
Natrix fasciata sipedon L. N. America.
Naja haje L. melanoleuca Hallow. W. Africa,
Fig. 10. Clotho arietans L. S. Africa.
Fig. 11. Uropsopus confluentus Say. Texas.

ke
Rano os
O oN Dop

LETTERING.

ss. Sulcus spermaticus; f, flounces; p, papillæ ; cl, calyces
or calyculi (ruches); /, laminæ ; sp, spines; spl, spinules.

Ld

Pirate XXVIII.

(From the Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society, 1894). Viscera of Heterodon platyrhinus Beauv. The

% Reflection has caused meto drop the major division Xenodontide, and to refer
its two subfamilies to the Colubride.

844 The American Naturalist. [October,

heart is turned partly over, and the esophagus is separated by
being drawn to the left of the other viscera. One oviduct is
split at the base so as to disclose the vaginal portion. In con-
sequence the rectum is displaced to the right. The lettering
is as follows.

Tr, trachea; Car, Carotid artery; Hy sheath containing
hyoid cornua; Oe, oesphagus; Vr, vertebral artery: A. P,
arteria pulmonalis; L. L, left lung; R L, right, (rudimental)
lung; H, heart; A R, left aorta root; V C, vena cava ascend-
ens; JZ, liver; St, stomach; G B, gall bladder; Sp, spleen;
F, fontanelle of oviduct; J, intestine; Ov, ovary ; C A, corpus
adiposum; K, kidney; Od, oviduct; R, rectum; U, ureter;
V, vaginal portion of oviduct; CI, cloaca.

EDEN Tae uL

1894.] Limits of Biological Experiments. 845

LIMITS OF BIOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS:
By Dr. Manty Mies.

The proposition to test theories in evolution by direct exper-
iments on living organisms which has been favorably noticed,
and the numerous futile feeding experiments that have been
made at the Government experiment stations, raise the ques-
tion as to the probable limits of direct experimental methods
in dealing with biological problems. The “whirligig of time,”
in connection with a certain uniformity in the outcome of the
modified processes of nutrition and reproduction in a number
of individuals, must be regarded as essential elements in
bringing about the gradual aggregation and perpetuation of
the minute changes in living organisms which we recognize as
processes of evolution.

Aside from these significant factors, which cannot be
neglected, the exceedingly complex conditiens involved in all
biological activities appear to be formidable difficulties to
‘overcome in attempting a direct experimental verification of
theories relating to the various agencies concerned in evolu-
tion, or, in determining the relative value of foods in the pro-
cesses of nutrition.

Intelligent breeders of domestic animals have no doubts in
regard to the heredity of acquired characters, which, in the
light of their experience, they look upon as a fundamental
principle in stock breeding and one of the most important
factors in the available means of improvement. The direct
proof of this principle by experimental methods must, how-
ever, be difficult, if not impossible, notwithstanding the
cumulative and apparently conclusive evidence presented in
the history of the improved breeds, and the experience of suc-
cessful breeders who have recognized its importance in the
improvement of their animals.

The dominant influence of other known biological factors
may completely obscure well marked special characters that

‘(Abstract of a paper read at the Brooklyn meeting A. A. A. S., Aug., 1894).

846 _. The American Naturalist. [October,

have undoubtedly been inherited, as in the familiar facts of
atavism, and they must effectually prevent the detection of
the initialstages in the development of any new characters
under investigation, which may in fact have been potentially
transmitted for a number of generations.

Reversion, prepotency, and the influence of a previous im-
pregnation, are conspicuous obstaclesin the way of tracing the
immediate, or incipient indications of the inheritance of any
particular acquired character which it may be desirable to
perpetuate by judicious selections.

In many of the arguments relating to the heredity of
acquired characters it appears to be tacitly assumed that each
particular character is transmitted as an entity, regardless of
its interdependent relations to other parts of the organism,
and especially with the specific functional adaptations of the
organs of nutrition which have made its development possi-
ble.

As pointed out in a paper read in Section F, at the Rochester
meeting of the Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., physiological changes in the
organism must precede any manifest modification of structural
characters, and the transmission of a morphological peculiar-
ity must, therefore, involve the transmission of the functional
activities through which it has its origin. It was also shown
that a habit or bias of the nutritive processes in a certain
direction, may be transmitted for a number of generations
without any visible morphological evidence of its existence,
and that, in thelapse of time, it may lead to the development
of obvious structural changes that are recognized as new
characters. Experimental methods in biology are too crude
to admit of a recognition of these preliminary steps in the
development of new characters, which must be taken into
account in making a satisfactory verification of any of the
processes of evolution.

The artificial conditions to which our domesticated plants
and animals are subjected, intensifies their susceptibility to
variation, and there appears to be a constant tendency to re-
version when any unfavorable conditions prevail in their
treatment. Underordinary management, repeated systematic

Tr

PLATE XXVIII.

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ti- |
Son
a | |
-A |
gs
x
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a i
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. N
E
ik
LAS 5E ie
E
wes
PM ^
dd
he i
y =
YY !
W^ SE
VISA
=<)
FOR, ah

Heterodon platyrhinus Latr.

1894.] Limits of Biological Experiments. : 847

selections are necessary in order to maintain the highest
development of the most desirable characters, and: a consider-
able number of individuals will be required to make any
marked improvement in special qualities, as all do not respond
alike to the artificial modifying conditions of their environ-
ment.

There are also individuals that retain a tendency to the pre-
potent transmission of the old race characters, notwithstand-
ing the high development of the particular improved charac-
ters they possess, and a pedigree, showing that all known
ancestors have had the desired qualities, is looked upon as a
valuable index of the dominant inherited characters.

Even the best established breeds fail to exhibitthe uniform-
ity in their general characteristies which prevails in wild spe-
cies that have been subjected to the more rigorous and dis-
eriminating processes of natural selection. The methods of
artificial selection in the breeding of animals, are lacking in
the inexorable consistency and comprehensiveness that char-
acterize natural selection. The breeder of improved animals
is unable to perceive all of their innate and acquired physio-
logical tendencies, and his selections are made with reference
only to the most obvious peculiarities, or qualities, and he
overlooks and neglects many of the factors concerned in deter-
mining the correlated relations*of the sum of their charac-
ters.

Feeding experiments to ascertain the relative nutritive
value of different articles of food and the advantages of dif-
ferent methods of feeding, or, to determine the relative merits
of different breeds, are especially liable to mislead, from the
complexity of the problems presented—the small number of
facts under observation—and the practical difficulties in the
way of tracing the obscure relations of the most significant
factors in the phenomena under investigation, to say nothing
of the fallacious and obsolete chemical theories of nutrition
that are too often adopted in a popular discussion of the re-
sults. ;

It is not my purpose to enter upon an exhaustive discussion
of the limits of experimental biology, but to point out some

56

848 The American Naturalist. [October,

of the practical difficulties involved in its methods and results.
Without further reference to particulars, it must be evident
that biological activities have such complex interdependent
relations, that theories relating to evolution cannot all be veri-
fied, or practical problems in nutrition — solved, by
direct experimental methods.

ee ee eye RET ae ty NE RENT

f
1
1
[
;

ee ee RATED TNI CUPIS

1894.] Abalone or Haliotis Shells of the Californian Coast. 849

ABALONE OR HALIOTIS SHELLS OF THE CALIFOR-
NIAN COAST.

Mns. M. Burton WILLIAMSON.

Although the coast of California produces, as a rule, dull or
sombre tinted shells, yet in one family of molluscs the Califor-
nian province stands preéminent. This family is composed of
shells familiary known on the West Coast as Abalone or
pearly-ear shells. Among scientists the shells are called Hal-
totis and the family Haliotide. In the size of all its species of
Haliotide California rivals the world. Japan has one fine
species Haliotis gigantea Chemnitz, that compares very favor-
ably with the large shells of California, and this species is also
represented on the West Coast of the U. S. by a variety.
Another fine shell that compares favorably with the Califor-
nian shells is Haliotis mide, the first shell of this family named
by the great Linneus or Linné, who described it in 1758.
Australia also produces a large species, but for the most part
shells collected on other coasts are small, ranging from four
to one inch in length.

In the geographical distribution of this family, the “ center
of distribution is in the Australian and adjacent seas." Be-
sides those collected on the coast of California and Lower Cal-
ifornia, these shells are found as far north as Alaska, also on
the coasts of Kamtchatka, Japan, China, Philippine Islands,
New Hebrides, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Aukland, Id.,
Australia, Malay Archipelago, Ceylon, Red Sea, West Coast of
Africa and at the Cape of Good Hope, Canary Islands, Medit-
erranean and Adriatic Seas, French and English Coasts of the
Atlantie, and also at the Cape region of South America. It
has often been remarked that “not a single species " has been
“found upon either coast of South America, or upon the East
Coast of North America," but, in 1869, Pourtales dredged a

small Haliotis in 200 fathoms nearthe Florida reefs The

1Pilsbry.

850 The American Naturalist. [October,

shell was named by Dr. Wm. H. Dall Haliotis pourtalesii, but
in the great fire of 1871 in Chicago, this little specimen to-
gether with the “ entire collection of Pourtales and Stimpson,”
was burned. In 1887-88 the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer
Albatross dredged a number of shells on the West Coast, and,
at the Galapagos Islands, in the Pacific, on the West Coast of
South America, two specimens of Haliotes were dredged. And,
what is remarkable, the shell found in Florida from the bed
of the Gulf Stream and the one from the Galapagos group were
pronounced by Dr. Dall the same species with scarcely a
-doubt. The latter did not contain the animal and was not
quite one inch in length.

In the Manual of Conchology, Mr. H. A. Pilsbry says of the
family Haliotide in geologic ages: “Of the genealogy of the
family little is known. A few fossil forms not differing
materially from the recent ones, have been discovered in the
Pliocene and Miocene and one in the upper Cretaceous of Ger-
many. Others will probably be found when the Australian
Tertiary and secondary strata are more fully explored.” Two
species of Abalones are found in the Quarternary or Plisto-
cene formation in Southern California.

There are about 85 species and well defined varieties of
shells in this family. On the Californian coast six distinct
‘species are collected and also two or three varieties. Some of
these species are found as far south as Cape St. Lucas, Lower
California, and one species extends to Alaska; this is supposed
to be a variety of the Japanese species, reaching the Califor-
nian coast by way of Alaska. The species is Haliotis gigantea
Chemnitz var. H. kamtchatkana Jonas. Besides this northern
species, H. rufescens Swainson, H. fulgens Philippi; H. corrugata

ray, H. cracherodii Leech and H. assimilis Dall are collected.
The last named is a deep water species.

The generic name Haliotis was also given by Linné in 1758.
It is from the Greek hals, sea and ous ear, but wherever
these shells are found they have local names. In California
they are popularly known as “ Abalone,” of “uncertain ety-

*See Preliminary Report on Albatross Mollusca by William Healey Dall, Curator
Dept. Molluses. (Proc. Nat. Mus., Vol. XII, )

1894.] Abalone or Haliotis Shells of the Californian Coast. 851

mology.” Some writers think the name is of Spanish origin?
but a well known Spanish scholar, one of the Jesuit Fathers,
told me he thought the name was a “ provincialism." It is
said these shells are called * Awabi"in Japan. The local
names given to the shell in different countries refer usually to
the shape of the shell, and, being translated, mean ear-shell,
ear-of-the-sea, Venus' ear, etc.; also on aecount of its nacreous
lining, Mother-of-pearl-shell, and because of the holes in the
shell, “six eyes.” The beautiful nacre or mother-of-pearl in
the interior of these shells, and the rich colors visible when
the epidermis or outside layer has been removed, has given
rise to color names. The most beautiful shell, in the interior,
is the green abalone (Haliotis fulgens). The green and blue
nacre is as effectively blended as the colors in a peacock, and
is indiscribably rich in tone. The centre is especially rich in
iridescent effect. This center is scientifically known as the
“ muscular impression " for it is at this place that the animal
is firmly adherent to its shell, though young shells are not
marked by this “ area of the muscular impression." In some
specimens it is horse-shoe-shaped. In an article on the Aba-
lone Fishery in “ The Fisheries and Fishing Industries of the
U. 8.” (U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries 1887), Earnest
Ingersoll says in referring to this muscle sear: “In aged spe-
cimens the part to which the muscle is attached is raised
above the level of the rest of the interior and presents a
roughened or carved surface of irregular shape, often fancifully
imitative of some other object. The writer has seen one which
thus contained a singularly correct profile of Napoleon I."
Instead of the muscular impression being “raised above the
level," my observation has led me to conclude that with age
the muscle scar is, as a whole, depressed.

. The red abalone (H. rufescens) does not receive its name from
the eolor of its mother-of-pearl, as does the green shell, but
from the red margin that outlines the aperture and the beau-
tiful red displayed on the outside when the shell is decortica-
ted by the use of acids or the grindstone. Another species
(H. cracherodii, named for a Mr. Cracherod) when submitted

3From au/on or aulone.

852 The American Naturalist. [October,

to the same treatment shows a black exterior and this is the
“black abalone.” It is also called the “white abalone” in
reference to its pearly interior and exterior, if the calcareous
layers have been ground off leaving only the mother-of-pearl
on the outside, as is often the case. A species with corruga-
tions (H. corrugata) presents a reddish-purple color when
ground off by a skillful workman. All these shells take a
beautiful polish, but, while the shells are made more attract-
ive to the popular taste, scientifically their value is depreciated
after they fall * victims," as Carpenter expresses it, ^to the
grindstone and acids" Physicists tells us that the play of
tints visible in the nacre or mother-of-pearl is caused by the
action upon light of the tiny layers composing the nacre.
“These layers are microscopically corrugated and their edges
meet the rays of light and partly decompose them as do the
rain drops in a rainbow producing a play of colors" (I once
dissolved the inner layers of an abalone shell in muriatic acid,
the dish was placed aside for,several hours and on seeing it
again I wassurprised to find a beautiful sediment of iridescent
mother-of-pearl; pressure was applied, and the play of colors
was gone. The result was new to me at that time and was a
pleasant surprise).

Typical shells of the Gastropoda (so named because the
" under side of the body forms a muscular foot for gliding
along”), the class to which abalones belong, are spiral in their
form. Although these shells appear flat,a close inspection
shows a well developed spire, but in most species, the spire is
small and the basal or body-whorl is unusually developed and
depressed, and this gives the shell an appearance as though it
were only one valve of a bivalve, for which it has often been
mistaken when seen by persons unacquainted with these
forms. The shells have a row:of open holes usually from five
to nine, on one side, but these vary in number as the animal
grows older; the holes close, until old shells have been seen
with only one or two holes left open.* These holes are on the
left side of the shell and through them the tentacles of the
animal are often protruded. When the animal is resting upon

*A California Conchologist has a shell with 2// the holes closed.

1894.] Abalone or Haliotis Shells of the Californian Coast. 853

a rock, a slight blow upon the shell often causes the shell-fish
to adhere more firmly to the rock and at the same time dis-
charge jets of water out of every hole. When entirely at rest
the abalone adheres to the rock and is as completely covered
by his shell as a watch would be under an inverted saucer,
excepting thatthe five or more holes in the shell admit the
entrance and exit of water. 'The large muscular foot with its
epipodial ridge bordered with cirri extends outside of the
shell when the animal is gliding along. This foot is to all
appearances only a muscular expansion of the body. The
animal has no operculum or trap-door, as in most families of
this class, as it is like the limpet in having no use for an
opereulum. Abalones have a short head and eye peduncles.
The gills or branchia, intestines, etc., are all on the same side
of the shell as the holes, and the * columellar margin is pro-
duced into a flattened spiral plate," that forms a ridge suffi-
ciently broad to protect all the digestive organs. The heart
has two lateral auricles. The mantle is cleft at the row of
holes extending thus “as far back asthe last open hole.” The
odontophore or radula is large, and the variety and size of the
teeth on this lingual ribbon can be seen without the aid of a
microscope. A section of the odontophore makes one of the
most attractive mounts furnished by the radula of molluses.

Reference was made to the fact that sometimes old shells
had only one or two holes open when the animal was very old;
when such is the case the shell is usually covered with a
growth of vegetation, worms, or other molluscs. Whole colo-
nies of Serpulorbis attach themselves to one shell making a
very heavy load for a shell-fish to carry, even one so muscular
as the abalone. Although they do travel somewhat, it is not
improbable that with age the animal becomes more and more
sedentary until almost incapable of locomotion. An abalone
brought from the Pacific, about 24 miles away, after it had
shown very little appearance of life, crawled from a pail of
sea water, eighteen inches in one night, where it was found
dead in the morning. The abalone marks his passage by a

5The ondontophore, sometimes called the **tongue" or “lingual ribbon" is set with
rows of sharp siliceous teeth. In a large abalone it is about 3 inches in length.

854 The American Naturalist. [October,

trail of mucus in the same way that a land snail (Helix)
leaves a trace of secretion in his wake. Besides the extra-
neous growth on these shells, they are the home of numerous
pholads which burrow into the shell the same as into soft rock.
The little domiciliary squatters often cause protuberances in
the interior of the shell where the borer has drilled through
the epidermis and calcareous portions into the nacre, which is
always supplied sufficiently to resent the encroachments of
domiciliaries. Dr. Robert E. C. Stearns of the National
Museum has written an interesting paper on animals that
encroach. on the domain of others,’ and it is illustrated with a
plate showing these protuberances in an abalone shell. A red
abalone that showed, on the inside, the raised nodule or pro-
tuberance indicative of the presence of a small rock-borer, on
the outside of the abalone showed no perforation as usual, but,
instead, there was a round depression of nacre, the pholad
(? Penitella parva Tryon) had been completely covered with nacre,
but a hammer and a chisel discovered the little bivalve that
had been sealed up in his own domicile. AsI broke the little
pholad in getting it out of the abalone shell it could not be
identified otherwise than doubtfully.

As pearls consist of coatings of nacreous secretion they are
sometimes found in abalone shells. "These will not compare
with pearls found in the pearl oyster, as the latter areunrival-
led. Pearls in abalones are often pear-shaped and green in
color, in fact some of these so-called “pearls” are peculiar
rather than beautiful. One fine pearl baroque (irregular) was
taken from under the columella margin of a green abalone.
It is the property of Mrs. Prof. Lowe of Pasadena, S. Califor-
nia, and is about 2? inches long; it is three-cornered in shape,
and atthe widest and thickest part it is 2} inches around.

As is well known the habitat of abalone is among rocks,
where, at very low tide, they may be found huddled together
in a corner of a rock in a rock pool, or hedged in between fis-
sures of immense rocks, always as though hiding from the

rtain Parasites, Commensáls and Domicilíaries in the Pearl Oyster, etc.
eed € 1886, pages 339-344, with three plates).

PIG MT asit Ar ee

1894.) Abalone or Haliotis Shells of the Californian Coast. 855

light. Their dingy exterior almost of the same color as the
rocks on which they rest, make them scarcely noticeable save
for the protuberances that are visible on the rocks from which
they are very difficult to remove, a trowel or wedge, ete., being
necessary to dislodge them. Fishermen and Chinamen are
the principle collectors of abalones. To illustrate the strength
of muscle developed in this shell an anecdote is sometimes
told of a man who was collecting some shells, when one of the
shell-fish drew his shell so closely to the rock the man’s hand
was securely pinned to the rock and he was drowned. At
one time the man is a Mexican, at another a Chinamen; the
occurrence at one period is at Santa Barbara, at another San
Pedro, but, the story always begins with “I have heard, etc.”
Any one who has collected these muscular fellows would be
wary about allowing even a finger to be in close proximity to
the shell, nor is it necessary to do so, the trowel or tool used
to dislodge the shell is all that is needed. That men have
lost their lives while collecting these shells there is no doubt
at all, as the tide sometimes comes with fearful force on the
slippery rocks. Three or four years ago the local papers re-
ported the drowning of a young fisherman while getting aba-
lones at San Pedro, Last spring a San Francisco paper told
how a coyote was entrapped in a Haliotis which the coyote
found partly raised from a rock, and, on inserting his muzzle
underneath to secure a breakfast, the abalone had “ closed
down on him and kept him a prisoner.’

As an article of food it is the general impression that the
Chinese are the only consumers, but this is a mistake, although,
as an article of commerce only the Chinese seem to value it
highly. Ata lonely “point” in one of the Palos Verdes Hills
we once found a large number of abalone shells around a de-
serted camp-fire, the fish had evidently been cooked on the
fire, then eaten from the shell by the fishermen. A slice of
abalone, before it is cooked, laid upon a platter might easily
be mistaken for a slice of fish. They are pounded before
cooking. As a soup this shell-fish is said to be very palatable
and it has frequently been mistaken, by the uninitiated, for
clam soup. Asan export the fish is dried after being removed

856 The American Naturalist. [Oetober,

from theshell I have seen three and four dozen abalones
dried and strung on a cord, in Mexican grocery stores, hung
beside dozens of strings of red peppers or chilles so gratifying
to the Mexican palate. Abalones, when dried, have the ap-
pearance of leather, excepting that they are oily in their ap-
pearance. In shape they are nearly oblong and two or three
inches thick. The great muscular foot slopes backward over
an inch before it is enlarged by the epopodial ridge with its
numerous cirri, and this contraction is noticeable in the dried
fish.

As an article of commerce the shells are of considerable
importance, or rather have been, as it is said, the immense
traffic has almost “stripped the coast as far south as Cerros
Island,” Lower California. Three hundred tons are said to
have been shipped from the coast in one year. Fifty tons
being handled by one man in a month’s time. “The greater
portion of these are (in 1889) collected on the coast of Lower
California. The Chinese are the principal gatherers, notwith-
standing they are probibited by the Mexican laws. The
shells are sold at $20 to $35 per ton, according to the quality.”
When shells are sold by the bulk there is always a large per-
centage of dead and imperfect specimens, as the best shells.
are picked out and sold to retail dealers on the coast. A shell
that is perforated by worms or molluscs is of no value as a
polished shell. When the animal has been removed from the
shell and the latter has laid on the beach subjected to the sun
and the weather, the mother-of-pearl becomes dull and unat-
tractive, and such shells are known as dead shells.

In California dead shells collected on the beach are often
used, instead of stones, for rockeries, and also as borders for
flower beds. It would be impossible to enumerate the orna-
mental uses to which abalones are applied. “In China they
are broken up and used for inlaying in connection with lac-
quer work for which the Chinese are famous. The Mosaics of
Europe are often adorned in the same way.” Although the
pearl oyster (Maleagrina margaritifera) is used where a pearly-
white tint, such as seen in the pearl handles of silver table

"The West Amer. Scientist, April, 1889, p. 12. :

1894.] Abalone or Haliotis Shells of the Californian Coast. 857

knives, etc. is desired, yet in mosaies and work enriched by a
display of iridescent tints the nacre of abalone shells stands
preéminent. Inlaid work is so universally used that an enu-
meration of articles ornamented in this way is unnecessary,
but mention may be made of one use of these shells in lac-
quer that to an American or European may seem unique; its
use in a “ pillow end." When we think of a pillow we imag-
ine a billowy roll all done up in white, but, a Japanese or
Korean has a very different idea. In the Korean collection in
the U. S. National Museum are some small pillows and the
following description is given of the ends of. two of them ê
“ Pillow end (Be-ga-mo). Circular piece of wood, lacquered,
incrusted with Haliotisshell. Figures represent a tiger under
a pine tree; along the border is a band of arabesque.” “ Pil-
low end (Ja-ga-be-ga-mo). Disk of wood fastened in the end
of a cylindrical pillow case, in black lacquer with Haliotis
shell. Subject, the great dragon rising from the sea into the
sky in the spring season.” In describing these pillow ends
Mr. Walter Hough says: “The Korean pillow is a cylindri-
cal case stuffed with hair or rice straw. It has ornamented
ends. The first one mentioned is 8} inches in diameter, but
is ‘not part of a regular pillow, being used as a ‘ arm-rest.’
The second one is 8 inches in diameter.”

As a medium for trade among the Aborigines of North
America, abalones have been highly esteemed both for their
beauty and importance when used as ‘shell money. The shells
in the latter case being cut “into oblong strips from one to
two inches in length, according to the curvature of the shell,
and about as third as broad as long.” These were strung on a
string and were used both as money and ornaments. Dr.
Robert E. C. Stearns, Adjunct Curator of Molluses in the
National Museum, has written a comprehensive monograph
upon the use of shells by the Indians, entitled “ Ethno-Con-
chology, a study of Primitive Money,” and in it is figured
money made from abalones, which the Indians termed “ Uhl-
lo.” In the recent excavations at the old historic town of

*Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1891, page 465.

858 The American Naturalist. [October,

Pachacamac, near Lima, Peru? squares of mother-of-pearl
were found in the graves of the Incas. These squares are
only half the length of those figured in Dr. Stearns’ paper.
The pieces look like the nacre of abalones and each square has
two holes drilled in it. As the graves, or burial place of
Pachacamac is supposed to be over four hundred years old,
these shell pieces are very interesting, revealing also the fact
that the Incas considered shell ornaments valuable enough to
be buried with their bodies. As these strips of solid silver,
done up in a loosely woven cloth, were found in a mummy’s
hand, the pieces of shell were evidently not used as money,
the silver having been cut for that purpose.

Dr. Stearns instances the purchasing power of an abalone
from the fact that in New Mexico a horse had been traded for
a shell. I was relating this incident toa friend who had
spent some years with the Pueblos in New Mexico, and my
friend said that that was not surprising, as, when she first went
to New Mexico, some years ago, her brother bought her a good
Mexican horse for $6.00, and the Indians were always as glad
to receive attractive shells as money. This would not bea
very extravagant price for an Indian to pay for a fine Haliotis,
as a shell dealer once listed to me H. fulgens as high as $10.00.
Whether any conchologist paid such price is unknown to me,
but, a red abolone, when decorticated, has sold in Los Angeles
for $5.00, but it was a large specimen and beautifully pol-
ished.” Like other commodities abalone shells are variable
in price according to the demand, as well as quality.

%In the private collection of C. F. Lummus, Los Angeles, Cal.

“It is related that as high a price as $25.00 has been asked for an abalone having
a peculiar muscular impression outlined in the interior of the shell.

Med eme EE PM

1894.] The Duration of Niagara Falls. 859

THE DURATION OF NIAGARA FALLS.
By Dr. J. W. Spencer.

For the past century Niagara Falls has been considered a
time measurer, but its greatest interest has risen since the
growth of our knowledge of the Ice Age on acconnt of the
expectation that in some way it can be made to tell something
of the date of that period and indirectly of the advent of
man, or his restrictions on account of the glacial conditions.
The paper of which this is an abstract was primarily a physical
study, setting forth the changing episodes in the history of the
falls, and computing the age of the river, but leaving to others
the application of the results in the question of early man.

The method of determining the age of the falls is the appli-
cation of the mechanics of the river to the various conditions
during the changing episodes of its history, in a large measure
discovered by the author during the last fifteen years. The
investigation differs from those of other writers who have
simply divided the length of the chasm, excavated by the re-
treating falls, by the imagined or measured rate of the reces-
sion of the cataract. At a glance, even the most superficial
reader can understand that if the height of the cataract be first
reduced to one-half, and then again doubled, or if the volume
of the river be reduced to one-fourth, such variations are
bound to produce as great changes in the rate of recession as
are indicated by the mechanical laws; and that if the condi-
tions have not always remained constant, then the present rate
of retreat has not always obtained—sometimes slower and
sometimes faster. It is this question that the paper considers
for the first time. In the much written, but, until recently al-
most unknown, history of Niagara River, we find that an ap-
proximately correct estimate of the age of the falls was made
half a century ago by Lyell, upon a conjecture of the rate of re-

1 Abstract of a paper read before the Am. As. Ad. Science at Brooklyn,
August, 1894.

860 The American Naturalist. [October,

cession now known to be wholly erroneous. Again, within the
last eight years, there have been several writers who have been
using corrected céefficients of retreat, still their results are
more inaccurate than the guesses, as to the age of the falls,
made a hundred years ago, yet they may be said to have ap-
proximated the truth within their observations, but the obser-
vations have become enlarged.

A hundred years ago, Andrew Ellicott estimated the age of
the falls at 55,000 years. Forty years later, Bakewell made
the falls about 12,000 years old. Over fifty years ago, Lyell
conjectured the age at 35,000 years, and this estimate was
commonly accepted until about a decade ago. The founda-
tions for the measurements of the retreat of the cataract were
laid by Professor James Hall, when he made the first preserved
instrumental survey of the cataract in 1842. Since then,
measurements have been repeated in 1875 by the Lake Survey?
in 1886 by-Professor W. S. Woodward, and in 1890 by Mr.
Aug. 5. Kibbe. From these surveys the mean rate of modern
recession of the falls is found much more rapid than was form-
erly supposed, as it amounts to 4.175 feet a year, and if the
history of the falls had been uniform, then the age would
have been only 9,000 years—not so different from the guess of
half a dozen years ago, which took the maximum medial re-
treat of the cataract, and made the age only 7,000 years. Had
the gentlemen taken the mean rate as then known, which the
scientific, methods dictated and since supported by the action
of the river, they should have made the age of the falls 11,000
years, near which estimate some did. This point is noticed on
account of many secondary writers finding the number 7,000
years as agreeable to their theories.

Owing to some structural variations, I have taken 3.75
feet a year as the mean rate to be adopted for the retreat
_ of the falls mechanically applied to the different conditions of
the river. These have been occasioned by the changing
heights of the falls and the volume of the water. With regard
to the latter point, it has been found that for three-fourths of
the duration of the river, the drainage of Lake Huron and the
upper lakes was by way of the Ottawa River, and not by way

B tes Oa ee eae eS

1894.] The Duration of Niagara Falls. . 861

of Lake Erie and the Niagara. Under these conditions only
Yr of the present discharge of the Niagara River cascaded over
the falls. The episodes of the river are as follows: First epi-
sode: water descending 200 feet, volume j4 of the present
(when the falls was of about the magnitude of the present
American cataract) chasm excavated (as shown by the posi-
tion of terraces) 11,000 feet; time required, 17,200 years.
Second episode: descent of the river in a series. of three cas-
cades aggregating 420 feet at first with only the Erie drainage
(during the recession of 3,000 feet) and afterwards the present
volume of water (when the recession amounted to 7,000 feet)
duration 10,000 years. Third episode: river descending 420
feet in one cascade with the present volume; time required,
for the recession of 4,000 feet, only 800 years. Fourth episode
was somewhat complieated, with the water mostly descending
920 feet, and during this condition the falls have receded
11,500 feet, and required a period of 3,000 years. Thus the
age of the falls has been computed at 31,000 years. Butat the
beginning, the river flowed from lake to lake without a falls,
and this time has been taken as 1,000 years; accordingly, the
age of the river is computed at 32,000 years. The record
of the changing levels may be seen in the deserted beaches
now high above the lakes which have already been described
in scientific journals. The investigations doubtless contain
some errors which may be corrected in the future, but in
the history of the lakes the present computations are very
strongly confirmed by much cumulative evidence so that the
present results appear to be approximately correct. It is fur-
ther estimated that with the earth movements continuing as
at present, the end of the falls will be effected by the change of
the drainage from the Niagara River to the Mississippi, by way
of Chicago, owing to the rise of the eastern rim of the Erie
basin above the barrier now separating the lake waters from
the Mexican drainage. With the present rate of elevation con-
tinuing, the future life of the river ought to be 5,000 or 6,000
years.

In regard to the relation of Niagara River to the Ice Age, I
estimate that the lake epoch commenced from 48,000 to

9602 Ci The American Naturalist. [October,

64,000 years ago, and that for several thousands cf years before
the birth of the river there was open water far northeastward
of the river. Some writers think that the St. Lawrence Valley
was obstructed by ice until a late date. This is a question to
be determined; but however it may be, there has been free
communication for the drainage of the Ontario basin for at
least 14,000 years. Whether the end of the Ice Age were
60,000 or 14,000 years ago, all glacial obstructions had re-
treated to at least from 400 to 600 miles to the north and east
of the Great Lakes fifty milleniumsago. The lake region was
roamed over by mastodons, elks and beavers, but we do not
know of the presence of man. If such be found, anthropolo-
gists will have all of these years to consider in fixing the an-
tiquity of man. The story of Niagara River forms an interest-
ing chapter in the physical growth of the lakes, and gives us
an approximate idea of the duration of the lake epoch which
was characterized by the last touches in the fashioning of the
continent, and fixes the height of the Ice Age a very long time
ago.

One point more should be noticed. An error has prevailed
for fifty years in that it was supposed that the ancient Niagara
drainage was by way of the Whirlpool, (St. David’s) Ravine.
This has been found erroneous, owing to the occurrence of rock
across the Whirlpool Ravine at an elevation of about 170
feet above the surface of Lake Ontario.

+ AOS ion cs Te TEL Md

1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 863

ie aena T BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

R, H.—Alternating Generations. A Biological Study of Oak Galls and
ene Taria and Edited by Mr. C. R. Stratton. Oxford, 1894. From
the Pub., McMillan & Co.

ANDREWS, C. W.—On some Remains of Æpyornis in the British Museum (Nat.
Hist.). Extr. Proc. Zool. London, 1894. From the author.

BATHER, F. A.—Natural Science in Japan. Extr. National Science, Vol. IV,

1894. From the author.

BITTNER, A. VON.— Zur neueren Literatur der Alpinen Trias. Separat. Ab-
druck aus dem Jahrb. z k. k. geolog. Reichsanstalt, 1894. Bd. 44, Heft. 2.
Wien, 1894. From the a

Brown, A. P.—A a rs d of the Chemical Behavior of Pyrite and
Marcasite. Reprint, June 19, 1894, from Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc, Vol.
XXXIIL From the author.

Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission, Vol. XI,-1891. Washington, 1893.
From the Smithsonian Institution.

CHAMBERLAIN, M.—A Popular Handbook of the Ornithology of the United
States and Canada, based on Nuttall’s Manual. Vol. I, Land Birds; Vol. II,
Game and Water Birds. From the author.

Congrés Géologique International, Compte Ten de la 5me Session, Washing-
ton, 1891. Washington, 1893. From the Burea

Davis, W. M. AND GRISWOLD, L. "psi ene Mousdnty of the Connecticut
Triassic. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the author.

Dereret, C.—Sur un gisement siderolithique de Mammifères de l'éocéne
moyen à Lissien, prés Lyon. Extr. Comptes-Rendus, Paris, 1894. From the
author.

Fifth Annual Report of the Missouri Botanical Gardens. St. Louis, 1894.
From the Trustees of the Garden.

Gace, S.—The Microscope and Microscopical Methods. Ithaca, 1894. From
the author.

* Garman, H.—The Orthoptera of Kentucky. Extr. Sixth Ann. Rept. Ky.
Agric. Exper. Station. No date given. From the author.

Geological Maps of Schuylkill, Carbon, Berks and Dauphin Counties, Pa.——
Topographical Map of the Blue Mt. and Port Clinton, Pa., in two sheets, 1891.
— Atlas Summary Final Report, 1893. From the Posstinnls Geol. Surv.

Pase E.—Découverte d'ossements d'Hyénes rayées dans la grotte de Mont-

saunés (Haute-Garonne) Extr. Comptes-Rendus, Paris, 1894. From the
author.

Keyes, C. R.—Coal Deposits of Iowa. Iowa Geol. Surv., Vol. II. Des
Moines, 1894. From the author.

Lypekker, R.—Life and Rock. London, 1894. From the author.

. Lyman, B. S.—Some New Red Horizons. poe? June 19, 1894, fen. Pron:
Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XXXIII. author.

Mason, O. T.—Migration and the Food Quest. i aid inthe Peopling of

America, Extr. Amer. Anthrop., 1894. From the
51

864 The American Naturalist. [October,

Merriam, C. H.—Abstract of a Study of the American Wood Rats, with
Descriptions of fourteen new species and subspecies of the Genus Neotoma.——
Preliminary Descriptions of eleven New Kangaroo Rats of the genera Dipodomys
and Perodipus. Extr. Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, 1894. From the author.

NEHRLING, H.—Our Native Birds of Song and Beauty, Vol. I. Milwaukee,
1893. From the author

NissET, J.—Studies in F Foray. Oxford, 1894. From Macmillan & Co.,
yN

PACKARD, A. S.—On the Inheritance of Acquired Characters in Animals with
a Salas Metamorphosis. Extr. Proc. Amer. Acad., 1894. From the author.

Ravurr, H.—Paleospongiologie; in Paleontographica herausgegeben von K. A.
v. Zittel. Vierzigster Band, 56 Lief. Stuttgart, 1894. From Herr von Zittel.

Report of the Commissioner of Réunion 1890-91, Vol. I, Vol. Il. Wash-
wem 1894. From he Bureau of Ed.

OMANES, G. J.—Darwin and after Darwin. Chicago, 1893. From the

Scott, D. H.—Structural Botany. Flowering Plants. London, 1894. From
Macmillan & Co, Publishers

SCUDDER, X. H. .—Tertiary Tipulidae, with Special Reference to those of Floris-
sant, Olvido. Extr. Proceeds. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. XXXII. From the
author.

SPRATT, L. Manin Continuation at this earth of a Nature of Reality Through-
out the Universe by "um of that Reality from its Original Universe of
Force. ie Gites

Tenth Annual Report of Ethnology, 1888, 1889. Washington, 1893. From

the Smithsonian Institution.
E. 8. T.—Two Spheres or Mind versus Instinct. London, 1894. From the

author

Thirty-sixth Annual Report of the State Horticultural Society of —
1898. Jefferson City, 1894. From the Soc.

Topp, J. E.—Pleistocene Problems in Missouri. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.
Vol 5, 1894. From the Society.

Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. vem Survey, 1890-91. Part I,
Geology; Part II, Irrigation. From the U. S. Geol. Surv

UDDEN, J. Aciadiiedon ; Transportation and Sediaientatíon Performed by the
Atmosphere. Extr. Journ. Geol, Vol. II, 1894. From the author.

Vines, S. H.—A Student's Text-Book of Botany. London, 1894. From Mac-
millan & Co., Publishers.

Warn, L. ¥—The Cretaceous Rim of the Black Hills. Extr. Journ. Geol.,
Vol. II, 1894. From the author .

^. WATERS, B. H.—Some additional points on the Primitive Segmentation of the
heit peer MK Abd. aus dem Zool. Anz., No. 362, 1891. From:the

1894.] Recent Literature. 865

RECENT LITERATURE.

The Colorado Formation.'—This memoir by T. W. Stanton is
published as Bulletin, No. 106 of the U. S. Geol. Survey. It comprises
the descriptions and illustrations of all the species that can now be as-
signed to the fauna, thirty-nine of which are believed to be new to
science. In an introductory chapter the author defines the Colorado
formation, describes local sections, and gives faunal lists that show
the vertical range and areal distribution of most of the species. This
formation has been recognized by means of its characteristic fossils in
Iowa, Minnesota, the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming,
Montana, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico. Emquivalent strata exist in
Texas and the adjacent regions, and over large areas in British Amer-
ica. As yet it is unknown east of the Mississippi, but it may have an
equivalent on the Pacific coast, as one of its most characteristic fossils,
Inoceramus labiatus is reported from the Upper shales and sandstones
of the Queen Charlotte Island.

= Mr. Stanton considers the fauna, a as a whole, the taxonomic equiva- -
lent of the Turonian, as first pointed out by Co

The memoir is richly illustrated with 45 page plates of drawings
carefully finished in detail.

Our Native Birds of Song and Beauty.’—This work by Mr.
Nehrling is designed to awaken a love for nature among young people
and particularly to interest them in bird-life so that they will not only
` protect it, but they will also study the habits and learn the haunts of
birds with the view of fostering them by providing suitable nesting-
places. Itis issued in quarto form and the publishers have left nothing
to be desired in the way of paper, type, and all that goes to present a
book in an artistic form. The complete work will be a treatise on all
the native North American Birds from the Thrushes to the Parrots.
Vol. I, which is now at hand, carries the reader through the Swallows.
An introductory chapter contains brief remarks on birds prized for
their song or beauty, their habits, migration, their utility, their enemies,
their protection ; and the acclimatization of exotic birds. Then follow

E The Colorado Formation and Invertebrate "men By T. W. Stanton. Bull.
of the U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 106. Washington,
? Our Native Birds of hd and Beauty. Vol. E D Henry N — Mil-
"^waukee, 1893.

866 The American Naturalist. [October,

descriptions of species and with each description the author gives an
account of the habits and habitat, based chiefly on his own observations.
In every case the loca] name is given in addition, and no effort is
spared to combine scientific accuracy with popular diction. The plates
by Ridgway and Miitzel are admirable specimens of color printing.

Cartailhac’s Prehistoric France.’—This work forms one of the
Bibliothéque Scientifique Internationale Series, and like the rest of
that set aims to embody the leading facts of the subject treated in brief
essay which shall be at once both popular and scientific. M. Car-
tailhac’s opening chapter is a history of the progress of the science of
archeology, and contains a resumé of the important discoveries made
in France. Then follows a discussion of the evidence for the existence
of preglacial man, and a presentation of the undoubted facts concern-
ing his PAORO during cany Pae Under the "-— * artistic
manifestations," are described t] ings and t y primitive
man, and the conclusions drawn from a comparison of the ‘work with
that of uncivilized man of the present day. A chapter on human bones
discovered in the Alluvium and another on the mortuary customs as evi-
denced by the position, condition and surroundings of the skeletons dis-
covered in caverns and burial-places closes the history of Paleolithic
man.

Of Neolithic man M. Cartailhae makes alongerstory. The grottoes,
both natural and artificial, used as sepulehres, and the strange megali-
thic crypts, are very fully described, together with the funeral rites of
the ancient Gauls. Ethnographic comparisons are made with living
races, particularly as to the custom of erecting stones as monuments.
Finally a discussion of the type of Neolithic man as revealed by the
Cro-Magnon and other skulls found within the last few years brings to
a close this interesting work on prehistoric man.

The volume forms one of the series edited by M. Lanessan, and it is
of importance as furnishing a review of what has been discovered in
that richest of all fields, France.

Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1892.'— This report
comprises the Reports of the Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution upon the condition and progress of the Museum ; Reports of
the Curators; Paper’s illustrative of collections in the Museum; A
Bibliography ; and List of Accessions. Shufeldt’s Paper on scientific

*La France Agree ti les Sépultures et les Monuments. Par
EmileCartailhac. Paris, 18

1894.] Recent Literature. 867

taxidermy is beautifully illustrated. The author criticises the results
attained by workers in the Museum, viewing the subject from the
standpoint of an artist and biologist. Other important and interesting
papers are Dr, White’s discussion of Biology in its relation to geological
investigation, and a description of Japanese Wood-cutting and Wood-cut
Printing by T. Tokuno, chief of the Bureau of Engraving and Print-
ing of Japan. This paper is also finely illustrated.

Marsh on Tertiary Artiodactyla.’—In this paper we have an-
other characteristic production of its author. Thirteen alleged new
species, three alleged new genera, and three alleged new families, are
named. To point out how far they are described, and are not duplica-
tions of other work, is the object of the following pages. The
three * new " families are not described at all, not a single character
being assigned to any of them. No reasons are given to show that they
differ from each other or from familiesalready known. The three new
genera are described, but are not compared with genera already known
out of North America. One of them (Agriomeryx, p. 270) is identical
with the Coloreodon Cope, described in 1879* and figured in 1884 and
1858". In addition to these three genera, references are made to nine
other alleged genera named by the author in previous publications,
Taking these up seriatim, the first in order is called Eohyus, which
name was used without accompanying description in an address
delivered by Prof. Marsh and published in 1877. The introduction of
this and other new-names in this way in that address gave them no
authority, and other names applied to the same types at subsequent
dates, if accompanied with a description, would necessarily be used,
But if not so replaced, this rehabilitation afterseventeen years, should
be such as to satisfy the rules of nomenclature. But what is now offered
tous? The only diagnosis of Eohyus vouchsafed to us, is that “ the
type specimen is a last upper molar and the characters of its crown are
well shown in the figure," which accompanies the text. This will
scarcely do as a generic diagnosis, and no other specimens represent the
species and genus! Yet on the strength of this material he bases the
“new” and undefined “family Eohyid:e." The spécimen comes A
the Wasatch of New Mexico. He then d tly, and
without figure, an alleged second species from the Puerco a
- *Report of the U. S. National Museum for the year ending June 30, 1892.
Washington, 1893.

5 Description of — Artiodaetyles by O. C. Marsh. Amer. Journ. Sci.
Arts, 1894. Sept., p. 25 .

. *Proceedings iban Philosoph. Society.

868 The American Naturalist. [October,

which he, as usual, calls the lower Wasatch, (again in defiance of the
rules) thus assuming that a genus of this group is common to the two
formations, an assumption only to be made on far better evidence than
is here offered. He next states that the name of the Puerco genus
Periptychus Cope is“ preoccupied,’ but does not point out how or
where. Scudder’s Index shows that a division (not a genus) of
Lepidoptera has been called Periptyches, which is not preoccupation.
The entire proceeding is an attempt to make something out of noth-
ing and is unworthy of a place in a scientific Journal.

The next genus mentioned is called Parahyus Marsh, which name
was given in 1876. Osborn has regarded it as identical with Achz-
nodon Cope, 1873, and no characters have been assigned which will
distinguish them. The next name is Homacodon, which was given by
Marsh without generic diagnosis in 1872. Two “new species” are
named, but not described, but they are supposed to be introduced to

science by figures of two astragali! The author asserts that the genus-

which I described, also in 1872, under the name of Pantolestes, includes.
species of * Homacodon.” As the type of Pantolestes is from the same
horizon as Marsh’s specimens, it is probable that Homacodon is a
synonym of that genus. If so, the superior molars are quadritubercular,.
since Marsh so figures them in the present paper. It is, therefore
necessary to give the tritubercular form from the older Wasatch horizon
another name. For this genus, whose type is the Pantolestes brachy-
stomus Cope, I propose the generic name of Trigonolestes. The proper
description of the Homacodon vagans by Marsh in 1872 would have
prevented the reference to the same genus of the Wasatch forms in
1884.

The next genus proposed is Nanomeryx, which is defined. The type
and only species is called .N. caudatus, but is not described, except by

the statement that it is half as large as the Pantolestes (Homacodon)-

vagans, and by reference to figures of the inferior end of the tibia, and
the astragalus. Rather hard lines for paleontologists who shall here-
after desire to identify the species! We next reach the so-called genus
Helohyus, which Marsh on a previous occasion alleged to be identical
with Phenacodus. He does not repeat this statement in this paper, but
says that it is suilline and therefore a member of another order,
Two figures show that the two forms are also very distinct as to dentition,
The name was originally proposed by Marsh in 1872 without generic
diagnosis, and no diagnosis is given now, so that the field is still open
to any one who may be able to properly characterize it. The abortion
of another generic name given by himself by its union with
“ Helohyus," is a step made by the author in the right direction.

1894.] Recent Literature. 869

Our author next enumerates certain selenodont Artiodactyla from the
Eocene system. Here we have an attempt to rehabilitate three
generic names, enumerated, but not sufficiently or not at all described
in the address of 1877 before referred to, and without mention of type
species. The first of these (Eomeryx) has been since well described by
Scott and Osborn, (in 1889), who show that the form is allied to Oreodon.
'Their name, ( Protoreadon), has the right of first description and should
be retained. The next genus, Parameryx, is described sufficiently to en-
sure its adoption, if it is distinet from the various allied European forms,
with which, as usual, no comparison is made. The species (“ P. laevis”)
is not described, but future students are expected to identify it from
two figures, one of an upper molar, and tbe other of the astragalus. A
second supposed species is very insufficiently deseribed. Unfortunately
for the adoption of the name Parameryx, the genus was, according to
Marsh, described by Scott and Osborn in 1889 under the name of
Leptotragulus. This publication contained the first description of the
genus, hence the latter name must be retained. The third name of
the address was * Oromeryx." - It was not described, nor was any type
species mentioned. ‘The omission as to description is now supplied, but
specific and family characters are confused by being mixed with the
generic.

Under the head of Miocene Artiodactyles, we find the genus Colore-
odon Cope redescribed under the name of Agriomeryx as already
noted. The only species named is not described, but a part of the skull
is figured, which does not offer any difference of specific value from the
C. feror Cope. The next form referred to is the suilline genus named
but not described by Marsh in 1875 as Thinohyus. It has been im-
possible hitherto to locate this genus from Marsh's paper, but the
figures of a few molar teeth now given throw somelight on the subject,
but as hitherto, no distinct description of the genusis given. Next fol-
lows a fuller description than usual of a new species of Lepto-
choerus Leidy. The author says that the molar teeth resemble those
of the alleged genus Helohyus, but the figures show that they are very
different. A suspicion of this seems to have been present to the author,
who proposes to place the genus in a new family the “ Leptochoeride,”
which as usual, he does not characterize. The last feat of Prof. Marsh
which I shall notice, is that of naming a supposed new species of Pro-
camelus on a figure of the caleaneum only! He states that the bones
were found in the Pliocene of the John Day region of Oregon, meaning
probably Loup Fork. Plivcene beds do not contain the genus Pro-
camelus.—E. D. Corr.

870 The American Naturalist. [October,

General Notes.

MINERALOGY:

Crystallization of Enargite.—Pirsson’ has studied enargite
from two new Colorado localities, viz., the Ida Mine, Summit District,
and the National Belle Mine, Red Mountain. At the former locality
the mineral is deposited in cavities left after the kaolinization of feld-
spar phenocrysts in porphyry. These crystals are tabular parallel to
o; Po, and are bounded by the forms œ P®, oP, oP, and œ P».
At the latter locality two types of crystals are found. One of these is
in thick, striated prisms bounded by the same forms as the Ida
Mine crystals and sometimes in addition PX, Poo, oo P;, and another
brachydome. ‘The second type of crystals from this locality is tabular
parallel to the base and shows hemimorphic development. The forms
observed on this type are oP, o» P o», «P, o P5, Px, ł Ps.

Crystallization of Scolecite and Meta.scolecite.—Rinne'
has investigated crystals of scolecite from Iceland and shown that the
mineral erystallizes in the rare inclined-faced hemihedral division of
the monoclinie system. This fact was developed by etching and bv
study of the pyroelectric properties. The front faces of the prism
have different etched figures from the rear faces, while in twinned
crystals with the twinning plane the ortho-pinacoid, front and rear
faces of the prism have the same figures. In simple individuals the
front and rear faces are pyroelectrically positive and negative poles
respectively. In twinned crystals all prism faces are positive and a
negative zone follows the twinning line on œ P'zz with neutral bands
on either side.

When crystals of the mineral are heated much above 120? C they
become cloudy, and the crystal structures seems at first sight to be
lost, but by brightening up in oil it is found that a molecular re-
arrangement has taken place. This new mineral Rinne calls meta-
scolecite. The inclined-faced hemihedrism of the monoclinic system is
retained, but a remarkable revolution of the molecular groups through
- 'Edited by Dr. Wm. H. Hobbs, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
~ *Am. Jour. Sci., (3) xlvii, pp. 212-215.

?Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral., etc., 1894, II, pp. 51-68..

1894.] Mineralogy. ~ 871

an angle of 90° about the `c axis has taken place. The ortho-pina-
coid has become the clino-pinacoid and vice-versa, The twinning
plane of twinned crystals has undergone the same revolution. By
heating crystals beyond-the temperature required for producing the
first meta-scolecite, the double refraction of the substance steadily de-
creases and the symmetry approaches more and more closely to the
orthorhombic. Below red heat the structure breaks down. As scolecite
possesses three molecules of water of crystallization, Rinne suggests
that the first meta-scolecite contains two, the second one molecule of
erystal water, the crystal structure being lost when all the water has
been removed.

Crystallization of Herderite.—Penfield' has made a study of
herderite from the known localities as well as from a newly discovered
locality at Paris, Me. The herderite from the latter locality as well
as that from Hebron, contains scarcely any fluorine, its place being
taken by hydroxyl, and the author proposes for it the name bydro-
herderite. As the Stoneham herderite contains hydroxyl and fluorine
in the proportions of 3:2, the one apparently replacing the other iso-
morphieally, the name hydro-fluor-herderite is proposed for such inter-
mediate varieties between theoretical fluor-herderite and hydro-herde-
rite. In the crystallographic study the fact is brought out that the
mineral is monoclinic instead of orthorhombic as has been supposed.
This is proven not alone on Paris specimens but on specimens from
the other localities, which were reexamined for this purpose. The
crystals, however, approach closely to the orthorhombic system, the
hydro- fluor-herderite being more nearly orthorhombic than the hydo-
herderite, the substitution of fluorine for hydroxyl tending to increase
the crystallographical axial angle and to shorten the clino-diagonal.
It likewise diminishes the mean index of refraction and the optical
angle.

Composition and Related Physical Properties of Topaz.—
Jannatsch and Locke? have shown that topaz contains water of consti-
tution, from a chemical study of specimens from San Louis Potosi,
Ilmen Mts., Schneckenstein, and Brazil. Penfield and Minor’ have
independently established the same fact by a larger number of analyses,
and shown how this greatly simplifies the formula of the mineral on

* Am. Jour. Sci., (3) xlvii, pp. 329-339.

5Am. Jour. Sci., (3) xlvii, pp. 386-387.

*Ibidem, pp. 387-396.

872 The*American Naturalist. [October,

the assumption that hydroxyl and fluorine are isomorphous. Their
results show that whereas the ratio SiO, : A1,O,: F varies from 1:1:
1.50 to 1: 1: 1.84, the ratio SiO,: ALO, : (F. OH) is constant and 1:
1:2,s0 the formula of topaz becomes (Al'[F. OH] ), SiO, or (Al
[F. OH], Al SiO, Their study of the physical properties of the
mineral establishes a definite relation between them and the per cents
of fluorine and water present, clearly indicating the isomorphous
character of the fluorine and hydroxyl The hydro-topaz has the
smaller optical angle and the smaller specific gravity. The same fact
is brought out by the determined values for a, f, and y, and by exact
. measurements of interfacial angles. The optical anomalies of some
Brazilian erystals are explained by zonal growth of topazes of different
composition.

Composition of Chondrodite, Humite, and Clinohumite.—
Penfield and Howe' have undertaken the study of the composition of
the members of the humite group with the result not only of bringing
order out of chaos, but also of establishing the fact that chondrodite,
humite, and clinohumite constitute an homologous series both in a
chemical and in a crystallographical sense. Sjögren has assumed that
fluorine and hydroxyl are isomorphous, and derived new formulas for
the members of this series, but as the authors point out the older
analyses which Sjógren utilized are low as regards water, and Sjogren
neglected to take into account the replacement of magnesia by ferrous
iron and the consequent lowering of the silica percentage. The for-
mulas derived by the authors, reckoning ferrous iron as magnesia, are
as follows:

Chondrodite Mg, (Mg [F. OH), (SiO),
Humite Mg, (Mg [F. OH], (SiO),
Clinohumite Mg, (Mg [F. OH], (SiO)),

The common difference of this homologous series is a molecule of
chrysolite, Mg, SiO, As shown by Sacchi and vom Rath, if the `c,
axis of ‘crystals of chondrodite be divided by 5, that of humite by 7, and
that of clinohumite by 9, the axial ratios of the three minerals become
practically identical. Now these divisors, 5, 7, and 9, are the same as the
number of magnesia atoms in the formulas of the corresponding min-
erals. A most interesting relation is thus brought out connecting the
erystal forms and chemical compositions of the members of this group.
The authors think it probable that other members of this series will be
discovered, such as a mineral of the composition Mg (Mg [F. OH].

"Am. Jour. Sci., (3) xlvii, pp. 188-206.

1894.] Mineralogy. ` 873

SiO,. This compound should have either orthorhombic or monoclinic
symmetry, with £ equal to 90° and an axial ratio a: b: c=1.086: 1:
1.887. i

Leucite from New Jersey.—Kemp* argues for the presence of
partially decomposed leucites in a dyke rock at Rudeville, Sussex Co.,
N. J., from a micro-chemical test indicating the presence of potassium,
and from remains of leucite twinning, in spheroids now largely made
up of analcite, calcite, feldspar, and other supposed secondary pro-
ducts.

Variscite from Utah.—Packard?® gives an analysis of a specimen
of compact or cryptocrystalline variscite from a quartz vein near Lew-
iston, Utah. The analysis is as follows:

H,O 22.95 P,O, 4440 . ALO,(By difference) 32.65.

Utilization of Auerbach Calcite for Nicols.—An attempt
has been made" to utilize the clear calcite from Auerbach on the
Bergstrasse, Germany, for Nicol's prisms. Four ordinary Nicols with
inclined end faces were prepared by Schmidt & Haensch of Berlin,
and although these are equal to the medium quality Nicols prepared
from Iceland spar in the matter of extinction, they nevertheless con-
tain inclusions, air bubbles, etc., which are visible even to the naked
eye. Dr. Hoffman, the owner of the Auerbach quarries, still hopes to
secure material pure enough to take the place of Iceland spar. The
material already tested will suffice for technical purposes.

Crystallization of Willemite.—Willemite has been supposed to
have rhombohedral tetartohedral symmetry from the similarity of its
rhombohedral angles to those of phenacite. Penfield” studies crystals
from the Merritt Mine, N. M., Sedalia Mine, Salida, Col., and Frank-
lin, N. J. In the specimens from the first and last mentioned locali-
ties, rhombohedrons of the second and third orders were observed and
measured, showing that the system is what has been supposed. On
the crystals from the Merritt Mine the second and third order rhombo-
hedrong are# P 2! and $ P$! respectively. One of the types from the

4 a1

Franklin Mines is terminated by a third order rhombohedron 3717

alone, thus resembling the phenacite crystals from Mte. Antero, Col.

*Am. Jour. Sci., (3) xlvii, pp. 339-340.

*Am. Jour. Sci., (3) xlvii, pp. 297-298.

Zeitschrift für Instrumentenkunde, 14te Jahrgang (1894), p. 54.
Am. Jour, Sci., (3), xlvii, pp. 305-309.

874 The American Naturalist. [October,

The authof shows that the cleavage of willemite is like that of troost-
ite, indistinct cleavages parallel to both the base and prism being
made out in willemite.

Composition of Staurolite and Arrangement of its Inclu-
sions.—Exceptionally pure material for analysis was obtained by
Penfield and Pratt’ from St. Gothard, Switz., Windham, Me., Lisbon,
N. H., and near Burnsville, N. C. A powder of uniform specific grav-
ity was obtained in each case by the use of fused silver nitrate as a
separating fluid in a specially constructed apparatus, the heavier and
lighter portions of the powder being in this way removed. Reckoning
MnO and MgO as FeO, and Fe,O, as Al,O,, the four specimens yield
results that agree well and indicate clearly that staurolite has the em-
pirical formula H Al, Fe Si,O,, as already suggested by Groth. The
silica alone does not agree closely with this formula, being in every
case about one per cent too high, and the authors think that this is due to
the presence of inclusions of quartz too minute to be separated from
the powder. Carbonaceous inclusions are in the staurolite from Lis-

The explanation of the authors is that the crystals of staurolite in
growing in a solid rock, find it difficult to exclude foreign substances,
the tendency to include them being greatest at the crystal edge and
greatest where the interfacial angle is largest.

Determination of Quartz and the Feldspars in thin Sec-
tion.—Sometime since Becke described a method of distinguishing
quartz from feldspar by treatment with hydrochloric acid and subse-
quently tinting. He now" applies the same method to distinguish
orthoclase from plagioclase and to determine the particular plagioclase
species. Orthoclase is less affected by acid than plagioclase, and the
soda rich plagioclases are less affected than the lime rich species. In
rocks containing quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase, the slide is etched
until by tinting the plagioclase shows an intense color. The orthoclase
will then be faintly tinted and the quartz entirely unaffected

Continuing his study Becke'* has devised methods for the same deter-
minations based on differences of refractive index. The first method
consists in the examination of a perpendicular contact plane between

P Am. ime Sci., z xlvii, pp. 81-89.

Tscherm. min, u. petrog. Mitth. = Heft 3, p. 2 (Notizen).

MSitzungsber. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. i. Wien, Math. Naturw. Classe, Bd. 1,
Abtk. I, pp. 358-376, July, 1893.

1894.] Mineralogy. 875

the two minerals with a cone of illumination of small angle. When
properly focused, this contact appears asa sharp line. On raising the
tube of the instrument, the focus is disturbed and a light band appears
on the side of the contact toward the more refractive mineral, which
band widens and finally fades out as the tube is raised higher. If, on
the other hand, the tube be lowered, the same phenomena appear on
the other side of the contact. The best results are obtained with the
use of high powers and with a cone of illumination of small angle.
Becke recommends the use of the 7risblende furnished with the newer
instruments of Fuess. I have obtained good results with a small
Voigt and Hochgesang instrument by removing the weak convex
lens which covers the polarizer. Becke’s Schlierenmethode makes use
of inclined illumination, which is obtained with the Jrisblende or
with Abbe's Beleuchtungsapparat. With inclined illumination, that
side of a section of strongly refracting mineral toward the direetion
from which thelight comes, shows a light band against the less strongly
refracting mineral surrounding it, while the opposite side shows a dark
band. The author statesthat this method suffices to determine ortho-
clase, quartz, and a plagioclase when they are present together in a
holocrystalline rock, but suggests that it be supplemented by the
Fürbung method. The method of determining the species of plagio-
clase depends on the comparison of the double refraction of the feld-
spar with that of quartz sections. By making per cents of An the
abscissæ, and indices of refraction the ordinates, curves are obtained
for a, f£ and y within the feldspar series. These curves are inter-
sected by the horizontal curves of w and e in quartz. If now a and
y be the less and the greater values respectively of the refraction for the
two principal directions in any section of plagioclase, a' being between a
and 5 and y between £ and y, the curves obtained indicate the follow
ing relations:
Parallel Position Crossed Position Composition.
ec cv boy oy c7» z2' Ab —Ab, An,
ll: w> 6! eom y E d € >’ Ab, An, —Ab,An,
Hb ose ey o xy e>. Ab, An, —Ab,An,
IV wae’ e=7 omy ee Ab, An—Ab, An,
Vaan’ y o< yf e==c’ Ab,An,—Ab An,
Vl oxu’ e« y o< y e<e’ Ab, An—An,

It is seen that these subdivisions of the plagioclases correspond in a
general way to the earlier one of Tschermak, I being albite, II and III
oligoclase, IV and V andesine, while VI includes labradorite, bytoun-
ite and anorthite. As Tschermak's later and more equable subdivi-

*

876 The American Naturalist. [October,

sion of the series has not been generally accepted, Becke thinks the
harmony between his natural table and the olderscheme of Tschermak
a reason for retaining the original classification. The practical method
of utilizing the results in his table, consists in finding contiguous sec-
tions of quartz and plagioclase which extinguish nearly parallel to
one another. By means of the quartz wedge it is then determined
whether the double refraction of these sections is of the same or of
opposite sense. If the former, they are said to have parallel position
and will indicate some of the relations of the first column of the table,
and, if the latter, they have crossed position and their relations will
correspond to something in the second column of the table. The
quartz section always yields w and a value varying but little from e.
This method applies only to holocrystalline rocks which contain
quartz, but it is a discovery of much importance which will doubtless be
of much service in the study of the crystalline schists. The author
has applied the method to the determination of the feldspar in many
rocks of the Rosenbusch collection of B. Stiirz, and printed his list of
determinations. An excellent photogram also accompanies the paper.

Fluid Enclosures in Sicilian Gypsum.—The Cianciana gyp-
sum contains cavities filled with liquid, some of which are 3 cm. in
extent. Sjögren” has analyzed the liquid with the following results:

K,O Na,O CaO MgO Cl SO, Total O deducted for Cl, pen ec
21 409 41 39 449141 110.0 10.1

Corresponding to
K,SO, NASO, CaSO, NaCl MgCl, Total
3.7 11.4 9.7 66.2 9.0 100.0

The saline constituents were 4.023 per cent of the solution. This
fluid is a fossil water of Miocene age, and differs from ocean water
chiefly by containing a greater percentage of sulphates. It agrees
fairly well with the water of some sulphur springs. The author thinks
that the quantity of sulphates present in the water of the enclosure
shows that the gypsum and sulphnr cannot have been derived from a
lagoon of sea water in which organic matters have reduced sulphur
from the contained sulphates. Whether they-are the product of sul-
phur springs or of emanations of H,S in a lagoon of sea water in
which sulphur has been deposited and sulphates formed by action of

.. SO, on marls, the author is unable to determine.

!5Bull. Geol, Inst. Upsala, I, (1893), No. 2, pp. 1-7.

OE WT T AES ee NTR aer E

1894.] ‘ Mineralogy. ; 877

New Sulphostannate from Bolivia.—In 1893 Penfield de-
scribed a new isometric germanium mineral from Bolivia, which had
the formula Ag, Ge S, and which he named.canfieldite. This he
showed to be identical chemically with Winkler’s Freiberg mineral
argyrodite, which that chemist had given the formula Ag, Ge S, and
which Weisbach had considered monoclinic. Weisbach has since
found that his earlier determination of the symmetry was incorrect, it
being isometric tetrahedral and identical with the Bolivian min-
eral whith should hence bear the name argyrodite. Penfield now
transfers the name canfieldite' to a new sulphostannate of silver from
La Paz, Bolivia, having isometric symmetry. A part of the tin is re-
placed by Germanium. The formula of the mineral is Ag, (Sn Ge) S,
argyrodite being Ag, Ge S, The two minerals have similar physical
properties, and are evidently isomorphous.

Allanite from Franklin Furnace.—Eakle" has made a crystal-
lographical study of the allanite from the Trotter Mine, Franklin
Furnace, N. J. The crystals occur in a granite dike associated with
zine ores. They are variable in habit and exhibit in all fourteen forms,
none of which are, however, new to the species. The same author de-
scribes the tourmalines* from Rudeville and Franklin Furnace.

Miscellaneous.—Model” has found molybdenite and molybdite
in the serpentine of the Rothenkopf, Zillerthal—. Carnot” has made
an examination of the composition of wavellite and turquoise. In
four analyses of wavellite from Cork, Ireland; Clomnel, Ireland;
* Chester, Etats unis" (probably from Pennsylvania); and Gar-
land, Arkansas, the fluorine was found to be 1.90, 2.79, 2.09 and 1.81
per cents respectively. Carnot proposes for the mineral the formula
2 (P,O, Al,O,)+Al, (0O,F;)--13 H,O, but in the light of the recent
work of Penfield, it seems more probable that part at least of the
water present, is water of constitution, and thatthe fluorine replaces hy-
droxyl and not oxygen. In two specimens of turquoise of mineral
origin (from Persia and Nevada respectively) no fluorine was found,
Two specimens of occidental turquoise (odontolite) yielded each over
three per cent of fluorine. The entrance of fluorine into odontolite
during its derivation from fossil teeth, the author was led to expect
from his study of the composition of fossil bones of the different

geological ages.

, Am. our, Sci., [8], xlvii, pp. 451-4. : "i
Tra i s N. Y. al ^ L9, xii, p. 102; also Am. Jour. Sci, [3] xlvii, pp.

"Am. Jour. Sci., [3], xlvii, p. 439.
Tscherm. min. u. rog. Mitth., were
Comptes rendus. cxviii, pp. 995-8

878 The American Naturalist, [October,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Origin of the Trilobites.—A study of the appendages of Trilo-
bites leads Dr. Walcott to views confirmatory of those of Bernard in
regard to the origin of the Trilobites. Dr. Walcott considers the
modern Crustacea as “ descendants of the Phyllopod branch, and the
Trilobita form a distinct branch." (Geol. Mag., May, 1894).

Bernard's lastest communieation on the subject, is to the effect that
the great variability in the number of segments shown by Trilobites,
the formation of the head by the gradual incorporation of trunk seg-
ments, the bending round ventrally of the first segment, the * wander-
ing " of the eyes, the existence and modification of the * dorsal organ,”
and especially the character of the limbs, all serve to connect the
Trilobites with Apus. That Apus lies low in the direct line from the
original annelidan ancestor towards the modern Crustacea, and the
Trilobites probably branched off laterally from this line, anterior to
the primitive Apus, as forms specialized for creeping, with the protect-
ion of a hard imbricated carapace. This carapace resulted from the
repetition on trunk segments of the pleurae of the head segments, which
together form the head shield. (Proceeds. London Geol. Soc., March,
1894).

Some New Red Horizons.—A survey of Montgomery and
‘Bucks Counties in Pennsylvania, has shown that the New Red in the
former county is 27,000 feet thiek. This unexpected result harmonizes
with the recorded facts in other States. A study of this region has
been made by Dr. B. Smith Lyman with the view of a better under-
standing of the relative geological position of the different horizons
from which fossils have been reported in the “ so-called American New
Red” of the eastern part of the United States. Mr. Lyman recog-
-nizes in the Montgomery series five distinct horizons which he names
and defines as follows, beginning with the oldest :

Shales mostly soft and red, but in small part dark gray or green, or
blackish with. beds of brown sandstone, and of gray sandstone and
pebble rock, at rita and eastward, about 6,100 feet ; Norristown
Shales.

Shales, in great part hard, dark or greenish-gray and blackish,
partly dark red, at the Gwynedd and Pheenixville tunnels, with traces
of coal, about 3,500 feet; Gwynedd Shales.

p

————Pá

a ee E smsamssnanoniens
aie

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 879

Shales, mostly soft and red, at Lansdale and near it, about 4,700
feet; Lansdale Shales.

Shales, in great part hard and green, partly blackish and dark red,
with some small traces of coal at the Perkasie tunnel and near it, about
2,000 feet ; Perkasie Shales.

Shales, mostly soft and red, at Pottstown and northeastward, about
10,700 feet; Pottstown Shales.

The kator then, from fossil records, traces these horizons in other
Atlantic border States. In Maryland he finds the Gwynedd and
Lansdale Shales represented. In Virginia, while the total New Red
thickness is not so great as in Pennsylvania, there seems to be all five
divisions represented.: The North Carolina fossils all appear to belong
to the Gwynedd Shales. In New Jersey the divisions are traced quite
across the State with the exception of a dozen miles north, south and
west of Somerville where the indications are not quite certain. In
this State it is noticeable that the thickness of the New Red diminishes
toward the northeast, and the variation is due to the absence of the
upper beds, The diminution ‘extends into Connecticut in greater
degree, and still more so in Massachusetts. Almost all of the fossils in
these two States represent the Gwynedd Shales. A list of all the
recorded New Red fossils, arranged by the author according to the
different horizons, facilitates comparison.

Mr. Lyman concludes his valuable contribution to geological litera-
ture with the following remarks:

“Tt is not improbable that the Norristown Shales, with the great

calamite near Doylestown, the apparent Lepidodendron at Newark

and Belleville, and the Palaeophycus at Portland, may after all prove
to be at least as old asthe Permian. It seems highly probable that
the well ascertained great thickness of 27,000 feet in Montgomery
County should represent more than one limited paleontological period,
and not only that it should include the Permian, but that the very ex-
tensive upper third of that space, hitherto almost devoid of reported
fossils, should turn out to be much newer than the Triassic. Those
upper beds have also shown here and there imperfect fossil traces, and
as there are occasional beds of green shale among the predominant red
ones, there is reason to hope that more abundant and perfect fossils
may some day be found.”

As for the trap, the author thinks it impossible to doubt that all the
conformable trap sheets are overflows contemporaneous with the sedi-
mentary beds, and not subsequent intrusions. (Proceeds. Amer.
Philos. Soc., Vol. XX XIII, 1894).

58

880 The American Naturalist. [October,

The Gosau Beds in the Austrian Salzkammergut.— The
extensive literature of the Gosau Beds is a proof of their importance
from a geological point of view. Since 1832 this remarkable forma-
tion with its unique fauna has been under discussion among European
geologists. In a paper published in the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
1894, Mr. H. Kynaston brings together the results of previous investi-
gation on the stratigraphy and paleontology of the Gosau Beds, and
gives an account of his own observations made with referenceto fixing
their geological horizon. The beds are divided into an upper and
lower group, the latter extremely fossiliferous, while the former is
almost devoid of organic remains. On both stratigraphical and pale-
ontological evidence, the author correlates the Lower Gosau Beds with
the Turonian amd Senonian of the south of France. These in turn
represent the English Middle and Upper Chalks. The Upper Gosau
Beds being non-fossiliferous, cannot be located definitely, but the prob-
ability is that they represent the Danian of other districts and are on
the same horizon as the chalk of Maastricht and Aix-la-Chapelle.

Geology of the Rocky Mountains between the Saskatche-
wan and Athabasca Rivers.—During the summers of 1892 and
1893, some explorations were made in the Rockies between Howse
Pass and the Athabasca Pass. This tract of mountains, including
some of the grandest mountain scenery in North America, has been
neglected by scientific observers, so that, maps hitherto published repre-
sent it incorrectly. New lakes and rivers were discovered, heights of
peaks determined, and paleontological collections made. The results
of a geological reconnaisance of this region are summarized as follows
by Professor A. P. Coleman:

“To sum up the geological features of the region examined, we may
describe the southeastern portion, well displayed along the Brazean
River, as consisting of a series of seven or more minor ranges, each
striking northwest and southeast, and tilted 25°-45° toward the coast
line of the Pacific. These blocks, consisting of thousands of feet of
quartzite and conglomerate, often overlain by thousands of feet of
Devonian limestones, appear to have been thrown into their present
attitudes by a series of reversed faults, as described by McConnell in
Bow Pass. The rare folds observed in this portion of the mountains
represent, perhaps, the dying out of such faults. Though no Creta-
ceous rocks have been proved to overlie the Devonian strata, it is
probable that the faulting which produced the mountains took place

IL RM ee CN ee a RE oe nt eee Tee

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 881

since Cretaceous times, for the foothills of Laramie sandstones give
evidence of parallel faulting and tilting.

“ On approaching the watershed of the Rockies west and northwest
of the region just referred to, the regularity of the structure largely
disappears. The direction and amount of dip vary, folds are not un-
common, and the rocks become more or less micaceous and metamor-
phosed ; slates and sericite schists underlie the quartzites and conglo-
merates, and fossiliferous beds were not observed. The apparent
absence of eruptive or plutonic rock is a feature worthy of note in a
region where faulting has taken place on so huge a scale.

“ The evidence of the action of Dr. G. M. Dawson’s Cordilleran ice
mass is distinct; the time which has elapsed since the Tce Age has been
comparatively short, and the innumerable glaciers of the region re-
present the shrinking remnants of the ice sheet."

American Tertiary Aphidae.—It would hardly seem that plant-
lice with their gauzy wings and soft bodies could be preserved in rocks.
Yet they are not infrequently found. In Europethey are reported from
four localities as well as from the Baltic amber. They have even been
found in Mesozoie rocks. In America, Florissant, Colorado, has yielded
107 specimens, and they have been found at Green River, Wyoming, and
Quesnel, B. C. The American Tertiary Aphidae have been described
and figured by Dr. Seudder, and he has recently compiled a list of the
species known, presenting them in a way to render their study compar-
tively easy and their diversity apparent. In the introduction he states
that but one immature plant-louse has been found fossil in America,
all the others are winged and belong to 32 species, divided into fifteen
genera, of which 11 fail into the Aphidinae, the remaining four, with
only five of the thirty-two species, into the Schizoneurinae, which have
but a single branch to the cubital vein.

A characteristic feature of the American Tertiary Aphidae is a
peculiarity in the neuration which is found also in the only wing known
from the Mesozoic rocks. This feature is the great length and slen-
derness of the stigmatic cell. As a rule also the wings are long and
narrow and the legs exceedingly short. Mr. Scudder calls attention
also to the extraordinary variation in the neuration of the wings, which
is strikingly greater than among living forms. (Thirteenth Ann.
Rept. Director U. S. Geol. Surv. for 1891-92).

The Restoration of the Antillean Continent.—The following
paper was read before the Brooklyn meeting of the Geological Society

882 The American Naturalist. [October,

of America. It isa difficult subject of unusual interest, and it promises
to be epoch making in the department of dynamical and recent geology.
Two previous papers by myself have been published by the Society upon
topics leading up to the present investigations, which take into considera-
tion the characteristices of the valleys both of the southern mountains
and the coastal plains,and show how the valley directly due to atmos-
pheric erosion. All of the land valleys become miles in width in their
lower reaches, where they are buried by recent accumulations of sand,
ete., to considerable depths. Off the coast there are broad submerged
plateaus or terraces marking the pauses in the changes of sea level.
Across these plateaus are numerous drowned canons or fjords shown
to reach to very great depths. From their resemblance to the land val-
leys, they are regarded as of atmospheric or erosion origin, After
passing the limits of the sands shifted by the coastal currents and fill-
ing the valleys, it may be said that every great valley has its fjord-like
continuation through the submerged margin of the continental mass,
even to depths of 10,000 or 12,000 ft. or more. From the natural infer-
ence that these valleys were formed above sea level, it would appear
that the land had stood as high as the fjords are deep. But this state-
ment is modified, for the movements have been in unequal undulations,
the amount of which can often be calculated, and thereby the extreme
depth has been reduced so that it seems that the former elevations of
the West Indian region and adjacent parts of the continent may not
have stood more than from 8,000 to 12,000 feet higher than now,
according to the locality. The undulations of the earth’s crust have
been exaggerated by mountain folds in places, but in the great majority
of the drowned valleys, such has not obtained for their direction is not
parallel to the mountain ridges, but across that of the continental mass.
Consequently there is no escape from the conclusion that the late con-
tinental elevation is measureable, but the movement has proved to be
vastly greater than had hitherto been supposed, enough to change the
whole physical geography of the region, the climate and the conditions
of life. During the epochs of elevation, the Mexican Gulf and the
Caribbean Sea were dry plains which extended to and were drained
into the Pacific Ocean. The Antillean Islands formed a plateau-bridge
connecting the two Americas.

At the close of the Miocene period, the Antillean and Central
American lands were represented by only small islands. Then suc-
ceeded the Pliocene period during the earlier and mid portion of which
the great elevation occurred. This was succeeded by the subsidence
about the close of the Pliocene period, long enough to allow the

i
|
|

h
H

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 883

accumulation of the Matanzas limestones (of Spencer), but in amount

not exceeding a depression of from 100 to 1300 feet below the present
level. There was a late Miocene mammalian fauna on the continent,
but it did not extend into the Pliocene period, for no mammals of that
date are known east of the Mississippi River. As the fauna flourished
when the continent was at about the same altitude as now, the great
change in elevation, causing the subtropical climate to become subare-
tic, may have been sufficient reason for the restriction of the earlier
life, whose descendants would have been extinguished by the drowning
of the now insular region and 250,000 square miles of the continent.
Again the continent rose to an altitude about as great as that of the
Pliocene days, when it suffered an enormous erosion. During this ear-
lier portion of the Pleistocene period, there was a rich mammalian
fauna of horses, elephants, tapirs, camels, ete., but these were exter-
minated by the succeeding depression which carried down the Antil-
lean lands to the proportions of small insular masses, and reduced the
plains of the northern continent by 150,000 square miles. Since that
time there have been reélevations and minor undulations, but no con-
nection between the islands and the continent, so that the modern
types of mammals have been unable to reach the West Indies.

The changes which have occurred in the West Indies and those of
the adjacent portion of the continent have been nearly identical, but
the movements in the Antillies appear to have been somewhat more ener-
getic, and the geographical evolution of the continent is best studied
from the West Indian phenomena, but neither region is complete with-
out the other. The general problem could not have been elucidated
until the investigations which I have made upon the fjords.

The connection of the Antillean waters with the Atlantic and the
separation from the Pacific Ocean should be noticed. There was free
communication between the two oceans about the close of the Miocene

riod. The Pliocene union of the two continents separated the two
oceans, although there may have been an enclosed sea between Cuba
and Jamaica. With the subsidence of the land at the close of the
Pliocene period, there was only a narrow and shallow communication,
between the Antillean waters and the Pacific, but the connection with
the Atlantic was more complete than now. These connections were
again closed during the Plistocene elevation. With the depression of
mid-Plistocene days, the Atlantic was again admitted to the Mediter-
ranean Seas, and it is also probable that there were two or three shal-
low passages leading to the Pacific. During the later Plistocene and
modern days there have been no change of level which have effected

884 The American Naturalist. [October,

the oceanic connection. The changes of level have been of two char-
acters ; (a) the epeirogenic or continent-making movements, which
produce broad but gentle undulations, depressing basins or raising up
barriers, but not distorting the topographic features so as to render
them unrecognizable, and (b) orogenic or mountain-making move-
ments, which are most energetic over limited zones, and produce disfig-
uring barriers. Whilst the Antillean region was sinking with gentle
undulations, the Central American mass was slowly rising, but it was
farther deformed by the great mountain making movements and the
late voleanic accumulations, which have completed the separation of
the Antillean Seas and the Pacific Ocean.

The phenomena are extremely suggestive, and from the evidence
brought out it appears that many problems of physical geology will
need readjustment in the light of the changed continental condition,
ocean currents, climate and distribution of life. The subject is important
as a contribution to the structure of land features in their inter-
pretation of geological history.

J. W. SPENCER.

The Drainage of the Great Lakes into the Mississippi
River by way of Chicago.'—I now add another short chapter
to the history of the Great Lakes. The highest beach south of
Chicago is 45 feet above the lake and there are several beaches
just above the present lake level. The divide between the lake and
the Mississippi drainage is only eight feet abovethe lake, and this at
a point 25 miles southwest of Chicago. The succession of beaches
at the head of the lake has led to confusion, as there is an enormous
lapse of time between, for the highest amongst the oldest shore lines of
the later region from its level the lake shrinks to a plain 300 feet below,
whilst the waters were being drained by way of the Huron Basin and the
Ottawa River. Afterwards terrestrial deformation raised the northeast-
ern river of the basins and turned the Huron waters into the Erie
and Michigan basins, and for a time overflowed the Chicago divide,
which became drained about 1500 years ago by the recession of Niagara
Falls through Johnson Ridge. With the terrestrial deformation con-
tinuing as in the past, it is estimated that the drainage of all the upper
lakes may be turned into the Mississippi in about 5000 or 6000 years.

J. W. SPENCER.

Geological News. GrNERAL.— Professor T. C. Bonney calls at-
tention to the possibility that a rock of igneous origin can be so

‘Abstract of paper read before the American Assoc. Adv. Science.

*

"ev AU TT

1894.] .. Geology and Paleontology. 885

changed by pressure and indirect consequences as to be readily mis-
taken for a compact and not very much altered sediment. He instances
particular cases of schistose green rocks in the Alps which upon exam-
ination prove to be the result of crushing without shearing. The
author suggests that modified igneous rocks may form a large part of
the Grüne Shiefer of the Swiss geologists. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
May, 1894).

ARCHEAN.—Evidence is presented by Mr. J. E. Spurr for correlat-
ing the Thompson slates, which occupy an extensive area in eastern
Minnesota, with the Keewatin of the Mesabi Range rather than with
the Animikie of that district. If the suggested correlation is correct,
it will follow that the erosion interval between the Animikie and the
Keweenawan was very great. (Am. Journ. Sci., Aug., 1894).

CENozorc.—M. L. Cayeux calls attention to the presence in the
precambrian formations of Bretagne of Foraminifera of a relatively
complex form associated with a large number of Radiolaria. The
rocks which contain these organisms are quartzites and phtanites
interstratified with the precambrians of Saint Lo. (Revue Scientif.,
1894).

'The discovery of certain fossil corals in Shasta and Siskiyou Coun-
ties in California, demonstrates the undoubted presence of middle
Devonian deposits in that region. Notes on these fossils are given by
Mr. Schuchert in Am. Journ. Sci., June, 1894, together with some cor-
relations of the beds in which they were found with those of other
regions. The Shasta County fossils are believed to indicate the Corni-
ferous terrane as developed in New York, Kentucky, Michigan and
Ontario. Those of Siskiyou County are of younger age, and agree in
a few cases specifically with those of the Devonian of the White Pine
Mining District in Nevada.

Mr. A. Smith Woodward records four new fossil fishes from the
Karoo Formation. The descriptions are accompanied by plates show-
ing the specimens natural size. Three of the fossils are Palaeoniscidae
and the fourth belongs either to that family or to the Platysomidae.
(Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1893).

Newberry’s genus, Spiraxis, is represented in the Devonian of Bel-
gium. M. Stainer in describing this curious spiral fossil agrees with
Newberry in supposing it to be the remains of a species of alga, and
gives it the name Spiravisinterstrialis. (Bull.Soc. Belge de Geol. Pal.

886 The American Naturalist. [October,

et Hydrol., 1894). Dr. Hollick, however, shows that the bodies thus
deseribed are the casts of the spiral intestine of Cladodont sharks.
(New York Acad. Sciences.)

Mrsozorc.—Aceording to M. Lechien, the invertebrate fossils
found in the bed from which the famous Iehthyosaur of Arlon was
taken, indicate a'formation belonging to the middle Lias instead of
lower, as was at first supposed. (Bull. Soc. Geol. Bruxelles, 1894).

CENozorc.— The old theory first advanced by Shaler in 1870, of
the origin of drumlins by a destructive process, that is, a working
over of morainic or other drift deposits, have been revived by Prof. R.
S. Tarr. He brings forward facts to support it, and discusses three ob-
jections to it, but concludes on the whole that this theory forms a good
working hypothesis, even if it is not accepted as the most probable
theory. (Am. Geol., June, 1894).

Mr. Warren Upham offers, as an explanation of the Plistocene
climatic changes, the epeirogenic theory of the Ice age thought out
and formulated by Dana, Le Conte, Wright, Upham and Jamieson.
He conceives the Ice age to have been essentially one and continuous,
with important fluctuations. Soundings off the West African Coast
record a submerged channel of the Congo extending eighty miles into
the ocean to a depth of more than 6,000 feet. Another deep sub-
marine valley having soundings of 2,700 feet is known on the African
Coast 350 miles north of the equator, and there is a similar valley in
the southern part of the Bay of Biscay. These remarkable valleys
beneath the sea level indicate that probably the entire Atlantic side of
the Eastern Continent has been greatly uplifted within late geologic
time. (Geol. Mag., Aug., 1894).

In regard to the “ Black Earth” of Russia, Dr. W. F. Hume sug-
gests (1) the position of Loess has been determined by the manner and
conditions of its origin, and (2) Black Earth is merely a special clos-
ing feature in the sequence of a long history of Loess, and it is merely
that deposit rich in humus resulting from the decomposition through
long ages, of generations of grasses and steppe plants. (Geol. Mag.,
Aug., 1894).

The Yellow Gravel of New Jersey is made the subject of special
discussion in the report of Prof. Salisbury upon the surface geology of
that State. After giving its distribution and its history as inferred

|
|
|

1894.] Geology and Petrography. 887

from its character and position, the author states that the study of this
formation leads to the following conclusions:

(1) The original yellow gravel is Pre-plistocene. (2) The time of
its deposition was followed by an epoch of elevation and extensive
erosion of long duration. (3) Then came a period of depression dur-
ing which the Columbia deposits were made, equivalent in age with the
first glacial deposits. (4) Again an epoch of elevation' and erosion,
when the degradation and redistribution of the original formation went
forward. (5) An epoch of slight depression. (6) Subsequent eleva-
tion to the extent of forty to sixty feet, followed by the present subsi-
dence. (Ann. Rept. Geol. Surv. New Jersey for 1892).

888 The American Naturalist. [October,

ZOOLOGY.

Parthenogenesis among the Acari of Feathers.—In a com-
munciation to the Entomological Society of France, Dr. Trouessart
states that he has observed a parthogenetic manner of reproduction in
the plumicolous Sarcoptide under such conditions as to preclude the
possibility of mistake. In 1888 Dr. Trouessart described an Acarian,
Syringobia chelopus, which is found in the tubes of the feathers of
Totanus calidris, a bird of passage through France in the Spring and
Fall. A study of the life history of this species has developed the
following facts.

In the Spring little colonies of the Acarian are found in the tubes of
the feathers of the migrating wader, evidently having wintered in those
narrow quarters feeding on the pith of the feather. Their numbers
are small rarely exceeding ten or twelve in each colony. The composi-
tion of the colonies is variable, but taking 25 or 30 of the principal
feathers of the wing together there will be found the following eleven
forms. (1) Eggs with a shell; (2) Naked eggs; (3) Normal larve ;
(4) Abnormal larvæ; (5) Normal nymphs; (6) Abnormal nymphs;
(6) Sexually developed females or secondary nymphs ; (9) Abnormal
females; (10) Normal males or heteromorphs ; (11) Abnormal males or
homeomorphs. All of the forms are not found together in the same
feather. The normal form and the abnormal form (which I have
called syringobia) live in separate feathers, and the naked egg belongs
to the latter form. The males in the abnormal series are very rare, only
one or two for one hundred females in that series; while in the normal
series the proportion is one male to three females. Neither normal
males or eggs with a shell are found with the syringobial females.
These lay naked eggs covered only with the thin hyaline membrane
which forms the inner covering of the shelled eggs

In a general way the syringobial form, is distinguished from the
normal by its large cheliceres and by the thin, transparent skin over
the posterior part of the body. The syringobial female is larger and
more elongate than the normal type

The skin left after the final salt, which transforms the syringobial
nymph into an adult female, is totally wanting in the post-anal opening
which corresponds to the copulatory pouch and which is perfectly plain
in the secondary normal nymph or sexually developed female.

The life-history as traced by Dr. Trouessart proceeds as follows:

TRE RETI T vu Ee PT OTe ee A Te ee ee ee TNNT aues
^ ini AM aaa a a a a fame iene
oo o n Vot em emt e.

NT ee ee See eee eS Co NOTET TEST

1894.] Zoology. R89

At the time of the autumn moult which preceeds the departure of
the birds for the warm countries a certain number of young larvæ
or nymphs of Syringobia penetrate the tube of the feather through the
ombilic supérieur. Three or four are thus installed in each feather.
If there is one or more males in the colony the development is normal,
and the fertilized females lay shelled eggs. On the contrary, if there
are no males, the female nymphs having attained the age of the second-
ary nymph, instead of being transformed into normal females continue
growing until the body is nearly double the size of the normal second-
ary females, assuming more and more the characters of the syringobial
form; then they undergo a final moult and are transformed into par-
thenogenic females laying eggs without shells. From these eggs are
developed larvæ, which reproduce the parthenogenetic form during the
migration of the bird. At the end of the journey, either immediately or
during the stay in the warm region, the young issue from the two series
(the normal egg and the parthenogenic egg), leave the interior of the
feather and make their home on the plumage. In fact, Syringobia is
found on the plumage of birds killed in the warm countries, but they
are found in the feather only during migration.

Parthenogenesis, in this case, according to Dr. Trouessart is the
result of the segregation of individuals and the death of males. It is
probable that this phenomenon is more frequent in this group than
has been hitherto supposed. (Bull. Soc. Entomol. Paris, 1894.)

Trionyches in the Delaware drainage.—Turtles of this family
have been supposed to be absent from the Delaware drainage, but the
two following instances show that this view is no longer tenable. In
the latter part of August a specimen of the “ soft shelled turtle”
was captured in the Paulins Kill at Hainesburg, Warren, Co., N. J.
and sent to the museum of the Wagner Institute by Mr. E. B. Allen.
The mounted specimen measures as follows: Total length 18 inches.
Length of carapace 12 inches, width 9 inches. Length of plastron

8inches. The tough integument has shrunken somewhat and its

true measurements exceeds these by about one inch. Color a dark
brown, with black spots, many of these ocellate, under surface white,
feet dark yellow irregularly marked with black.—Cuas. W. JOHNSON.

Nore oN THE ABovE—Two individual Trionychidæ were cap-
tured in a pond near Woodbury, N. J. about a year ago, and are now
living in captivity. I have not seen them, but there is no doubt as
to the fact. —E. D. COPE.

890 The American Naturalist. [October,

The Femoral Gland of Ornithorhynchus and Its Secre-
tions.—At the July meeting of the Linnean Soc. N.S. W. a paper on
the secretions of the femoral gland of the Ornithorhynchus was pre-
sented by C. J. Martin and F. Fidswell The paper contained also
notes of an experimental enquiry concerning the toxie action of these
secretions.

The gland is deseribed as belonging to the compound racemous
variety with large alveoli possessing a wide lumen, and somewhat re-
calling the appearance of a mammary gland. The alveoli com-
munieate with ducts which eventually join at the hilus of the gland to
form the duct leading to the spur.

'The gland is surrounded by a capsule of fibrous tissue, exterior to
which is a thin layer of smooth muscle fibres. A marked difference in
the minute structure of the gland was noted in animals killed in June
and those in April respectively, the former showing the appearance
characteristic of an actively secreting gland, whereas the latter suggested
that of a mammary gland when it had undergone retrogressive meta-
morphosis.

Examination of the poison showed it to consist principally of
albuminous bodies, and the introduction of these into rabbits produced
very marked poisonous results. When injected under the skin, local
swelling and general depression and rise of temperature followed, but
in three days the animal was well again. When the poison was intro-
duced directly into the vascular system, small quantities (3 grain)
caused death in under half an hour. Larger doses so introduced pro-
duced almost immediate death, by producing nearly universal clotting
of the blood whilst travelling in the blood vessels. Such clotting na-
turally soon put an end to all circulation.

In summing up, the authors compare the action of gas lens oh
poison with that of the venousof Australian snakes
to be diluted 5000 times. (Nature, Sept,, 1894) -

e

Change of Color in the Northern Hare.—From the study of »

75 specimens of Lepus americanus collected for the express purpose of
investigating the seasonal change of color, Mr. J. A. Allen arrives at
the following conclusions :

(1) The change of color, both in autumn and in the spring, is due to
change of pelage, and not to a change in the hair itself.

(2) The change is gradual, occupying many weeks.

(3) The method of change, as regards the parts first affected is the
reverse in spring in the order characterizing the autumnal change.

Bes ree ere) WE V.

;
j
|

1894.] Zoology. 891

(4) In the early part of spring, after the white overhair has been
shed, the pelage consists of the heavy coat of soft winter underfur. This
gradually disappears as the summer coat thickens.

(5) In spring the moult occurs quite as early and proceeds just as
rapidly in the females as in the males, and the moult is practically com-
pleted before the young are born.

These conclusions differ widely from views hitherto entertained by
both scientifie and non-scientific writers. (Bull Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist., 1894.)

Zoological News. Morrusca.—The characters in the shell of
Nautilus pompilius, described as sexual by J. Van der Hoeven, are
believed by Messrs. Bather and Buckman to be due to age rather than
to sex. In that case a strong point in favor of sexual dimorphism in
Ammonite shells has lost its value. (Nat. Sci., Vol. VI, 1894.)

In a discussion of the geographic and hypsometie distribution of
North American Viviparid:e, Mr. E. Call recognizes four genera, viz.,
Tulotoma, with two species; Lioplax, with two species ; Vivipara, with
four species; and Campeloma, with nine species. This arrangement is
based upon the examination of several thousand specimens. Of these
species, Campeloma decisum Say has the widest range and Vivipara
troostiana the most restricted. The latter is abundant in a small stream
near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, and there is no record of its being found
elsewhere. Vertically, the most of the species lie between 100 and 700
feet altitude. Here again Campeloma decisum has the greatest range.
(Am. Jur. Sci., Vol. XLVIII, 1894.)

Crustacea.—A_ new species of Tanais (T. robustus) is described by
Mr. H. F. Moore. It inhabits minute tubesin the crevices between the
scales of the carapace of Thalassochelys caretta. (Proceeds. Phila.
Acad. Sci., 1894).

A blind cray-fish from Florida is described by Dr. Lónnberg under
the name Cambarus acherontis. The specimens we obtained from a
subterranean rivulet struck about 30 feet below the surface of the
ground in Orange County. They represent the fourth species of Cam-
barus found in the United States. (Zool. Anz., 1894.)

VERTEBRATA.—Dr. Boulenger describes 13 new species of fresh-
water fishes from Borneo. They are referred to 9 genera of which
one, Nematabramis, is new. Three species, Nemachilus olivaceus, N.
saravacensis and an Acanthophthalmus are of special interest as the first
Cobitines described from Borneo. (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, Vol. XIII,
1894.)

892 The American Naturalist. [October,

Prof. E. D. Cope has recently published a paper on Reptiles and
Batrachians from Costa Rica in which he enumerates fifteen new
species, distributed as follows ; 1 Urodela, 4 Salientia, 3 Lacertilia, and
7 Ophidia. Among them are two new genera; Levirana, identical
with Ranula, but without vomerine teeth, and Pogonaspis, more nearly
allied to Tantilla than to any other genus, but differs from it in the
large single genial plate. (Proceeds., Phila. Acad., 1894.) -

A preliminary list of the Reptiles and Batrachians of the Island of
Trinidad prepared by Messrs. Mole and Urich shows a total of 76
species distributed as follows: Tortoises 6; Lizards 25; Snakes 33,
Batrachians 12. Of these species 21 are recorded for the first time
from the Island and two are new to science. The latter are described
by Boettger under the names Spherodactylus molei and Hylodes urichit
(Journ. Trinidad Field Naturl. Club.)

A small collection of reptiles and fishes from Lake Tanganyika ex-
amined by Dr. Gunther includes a new genus of snakes, Glypholycus,
of which one species only is described, G. bicolor. Two new species of
Mastacembelus which appear to connect the Asiatic species with the
West African, and three species referred to Chromis. (Proceeds.
London Zool. Soc., Nov., 1893.)

According to Dr. Shufeldt the fibula in many birds is complete, nor-
mally reaching the ankle-joint. He cites as examples in the Stegano-
podes, the Snake-bird Plotus anhinga, Phalacrocorax — bieristatus
(almost complete), Sula piscator, S. cyanops, S. bassana, SS. gossii and
Fregata aquila. Judging from the literature upon the subject, this
fact concerning avian anatomy is not generally known. (The Ibis,
July, 1894.)

Among the mammals of Baltistan and the Vale of Kashmir, presented
to the U. S. Natl. Mus. by Dr.W. L. Abbott, are three species of Arvicola,
A. fertilis, A. montosa and A. albicanda, which are new, and also a new
geographical race of Mus arianus. Sminthus concolor in this collection
extends the range of that species a thousand miles. (True in Proceeds.
U.S. Natl. Mus. Vol. XVII, 1894.)

In his studies of North American Mammals Mr. F. W. True finds it
necesssary to place Brewer's mole in a new genus, Parascalops. In the
same paper are given diagnoses of an undescribed race of Albert's
squirrel, S. aberti concolor, a new lemming, Myodes nigripes, and a lem-
ming-like mouse, representing a new genus, Mictomys innuitus. (Pro-
ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., 1894.)

1894.] Entomology. 893

ENTOMOLOGY

North Ameridan Ceutophili.—This interesting group of wing-
less locustarians has been monngraphed in a very satisfactory manner
by Mr. S. H. Scudder.’ “ With the exception of the genus Troglophi-
lus Krauss, with two species from European caverns, and the genus
Talitropis Bol., with a single species from New Zealand, placed respect-
ively at one and the other end of the series, they are known only from
America; and with the further exception of Heteromallus Brunner,
with two species from Chili, they are all peculiar to the United States
and Northern Mexico. Here they include six genera and sixty-seven
species, the genus Ceutophilus al taining above fifty species.
larger proportion of them, if not all (excepting Udeopsylla nigra) fre-
quent dark places, such as burrows, pits, caverns, wells, hollow trees,
and especially the crevices beneath fallen logs.” Thirty-eight new
species are characterized in the present paper, in which the treatment,
except for the absence of illustrations, is all that could be desired.

The Plume Moths.—A study of the biological relations of the
earlier stages of the plume months convinces J. W. Tutt’ that these
insects belong to two distinet families, the Pterophorina and the
Alucitina. The latter (called Orneodine by Fernald and others) “be-
long to the Pyraloid section of the Obtect:e, the larva of which has a
complete circle of hooks to the ventral prolegs, and the pupa of which
is smooth and rounded, laterally solid, inner dissepiments flimsy. The
free segments in both sexes are the fifth and sixth abdominal.

“The Pterophorina belong to the Incomplete and have no affinities
with Alucitina. Both groups have under the same or similar necessi-
ties developed plume wings and this is the only connection. The pupa
is attached by a cremaster, less solid and rounded, appendages often
partially free. Free segments may extend up to the third abdominal."

In emphasizing the necessity of biological studies in classification,
Mr. Tutt quotes with approval, the recent dictum of W. H. Edwards:
“There never will bea final authoritative revision of any genus of
butterflies till the preparatory stages in every species of it are
known."

! Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

"Proceedings Amer. Acad., VXXX, pp. 17-113.
*Ent. News, V, 209.

894 Th American Naturalist. [October,

New Use for Bisulphide of Carbon.—Professor J. B Smith
acting on the suggestion of Professor H. Garman finds by experiment
that bisulphide of carbon can be used to advantage against aphides on

plants above ground. By covering infested melon vines with a tub or .

other closed vessel, and allowing a drachm of bisulphide to evaporate
in a shallow dish beneath it, the pests were killed at the end of one
hour. The coverings were then removed.

Mimicry in Diptera.—Mr. C. J. Wainwright reports‘ interesting
observations ou mimicry of Diptera flying in England in early spring.
Two species of the Syrphid genus Cheilosia so resembled bees of the
genus Andrena as to make it very difficult to distinguish them. “They

particularly resembled Andrena fulva, and we netted far more of the .

bee than of the Dipteron in our efforts to get the latter. The resem-
blance is very strong, color, size, and (to a considerable extent) shape
being much the same; when at rest on a flower the Dipteron curls its
body under a little as the bee does, and folds its wings over its back in
the same manner."

There was also present a species of Echinomyia of the family Tach-
inide, which had a bee-like appearance, differing in this respect from
other members of its genus. “It, however, resembled no species in
particular ; it bore a general resemblance to Bombus muscorum in size,
shape and color, but it was not so hairy and did not fold its wings bee
fashion.”

In commenting on these observations Mr. Wainwright says: “There
is very little doubt that in the spring, when insects are not very num-
erous, and when, therefore, we may reasonably infer that their enemies
are unusually alert in discovering and capturing them, that it must

even more necessary than during the summer, for those insects
which do appear, to be well protected.in some way from their foes, and
especially if they happen to be species which, through feeble reproduc-
‘tive powers or other similar causes, are limited in numbers to commence
with. Now, the two Cheilosiae are distinctly species which are limited
in numbers, in fact, they are somewhat rare species, and may be de-
scribed as occurring singly ; they are not robust species, in fact, rather
the reverse, and, therefore, they are just such species one would expect
to find protected by mimetic resemblances. In every way they may be
said to present all requirements of an ordinary case of mimicry.

“The Echinomyia, however, does not present so ordinary a case. It
isa wonderfully strong and robust species, belonging to a group of

*Ent. Monthly Magazine.

1894.] Entomology. 895

parasitic species, all of which are strong and robust, and ordinarily
neither need nor possess any such protection as a mimetic resemblance.
It is well protected on the body by strong hairs, answering, to some
extent, the purpose of spines, and is very strong on the wing; it is
very large, too, many specimens being 8 or 9 lines long. It, however,
occurs at this time (March) when other insects are scarce, and it must be
conspicuous and so tempt its foes, and although common on this par-
ticular occasion at Wyre Forest, I do not think it is usually a common
species, at least, I never saw it before; altogether, although it does not
answer the usual requirements of a mimetic species, yet there are ob-
viously good reasons why a resemblance to the strong and usually un-
molested Bombi would be an advantage to it. We accordingly find
that it does possess some such resemblance, though imperfect, and it is
just this imperfection which is its most interesting feature, and it is to
some extent the reason for these notes.

* Many or all of the opponents of the theory of mimicry urge very
strongly the difficult question, how does the resemblance arise? In
early stages it can be of no use to its possessor. But here, I think, we
have a case showing how mimicry may arise, and even the early stages
be of use. The Tachinide do not, as a rule, resemble in the least de-
gree any Hymenoptera, they are quite unlike bees. The Echinomyia
are a genus of unusually large and well developed Tachinids, some of
which (fera and ferax for example) are simply ordinary Tachinids in
appearance, though unusually large, and quite unlike bees; they are
summer species; Ursina, however, a spring species, though closely al-
lied to these others by a comparatively slight alteration in color, a
development rather than an alteration, and the inerease of its hairs in
number and size, at once and unexpectedly somewhat resembles Bom-
bus museorum, and almost certainly must derive some protection from
even this superficial resemblance, at a time when food is being so
eagerly sought by insect foes. It only needs a still further increase in
hairiness, and to fold its wings over its body, and it would be an
almost perfect mimic; and supposing its nearest allies to be lost, we
should wonder how the early stages arose.

Description of a New Pelecinus from Tennessee.—The
genus Peleeinus forms a peculiar family allied to the Proctotrupidze, in
the Antigynea, among the highest Aculeate hymenoptera. The costal
vein in rare instances is not developed, showing a transition to the
higher non-aculeate monotrocha or Hymenoptera minuta. The larval
habits are unknown, although the imago has been observed issuing

59

896 The American Naturalist. [October,

from the ground and locust eggs are possibly its food. The discovery
of a new species is therefore of interest.

The antennz are fourteen-jointed in both sexes, those of the male
longer. The mandibles, armed with a tooth near the apex within, and
the labial palpi show no sexual difference. The maxillary palpi, long
in the female, are not visible in the male. The middle and the hind
tibiæ are two-spurred in both sexes; the hind tibiz greatly swollen in
the female, are no more swollen than the femora in the male. The
first joint of the hind tarsi in both sexes is as short as the last joint.

The abdomen of the female is elongate, cylindric, six-jointed, with a
seventh dorsal joint connate with the sixth; sting minute; the abdo-
men of the male is cup-shaped, likewise six-jointed ; claspers directed
forwards beneath. In the male abdomen the first segment is three times
as long as all the rest combined, gradually enlarged towards the ex-
tremity; the third and fourth segments are longer above than beneath ;
the fifth and sixth segments are vertical, invisible from above.
PELECINUS BRUNNEIPES, n. Sp.

Female.—Size of dichrous. Dise of propodeum behind puncto-
retieulate. An oblong brown cloud in the first submarginal cell
behind the stigmal cloud. Legs piceous-brown ; middle and fore.tibise
and tarsi clay-yellow. "Tenth and apical half of ninth joints of atenne
whitish. The whole insect otherwise shiny black.—One specimen col-
lected at Marysville by Prof. E. M. Aaron.

In P. polycerator, which is of larger size, the disc of propodeum behind
is transversely arcuately rugose, the depressions punctate; there is no
separate cloud in the wing; and the legs, except tarsi, are entirely
black.

PELECINUs DICHROUS Klug.

Specimens of this South American species, kindly sent me by Prof.
Carl Berg, of Buenos Ayres, show the dise of the propodeum behind
transversely rugose in the female and longitudinally rugose in the
male. The female has the ocellar tubercle, the clypeus, a spot above
clypeus, a spot at base of mandibles, the thorax (especially above) red;
the legs more or less brownish; the tenth joint and apex of ninth joint
and base of eleventh joint of &nténüs orange. 'The male has none of
the red shown in the female and the atenn:e are entirely black.

Wm. Hampton PATTON.

Flight of Locusts.—Mr. C. B. Mitford pra. an interesting ac-
count’ of what was, he says, a m any he has ever

ML

1894.] Entomology. 897

seen. The changed appearance of the “bush” at Freetown, Sierra
Leone, on the 25th of November, 1893, led him to call the attention of
a native, who told him that locusts were coming. Ina short time
huge black clouds appeared above the hills, and these first seen gave
the idea that the whole of the sides of the hills, three miles off, were
on fire; at 2.45 p. m. these supposed clouds reached Freetown and
proved to be a continuous mass of locusts, which passed without in-
termission till 5.10 p. m. Myriads settled, but made no apparent dif-
ference in the size of the swarms. The whole town was covered with
their excrement. At 9.45 a. m. the next day the stream began again,
but not in such dense masses, and continued up to 1 p.m. The spe-
cies has been found to be Pachytylus migratoroides originally described
from Abyssinia.—Journal Royal Microscopical Society.
5Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1894, p. 2.

898 The American Naturalist. [October,

PSYCHOLOGY.

The Habit of Amusement in the Lower Animals.—In some
former papers which have already been published in this journal and
elsewhere, I have shown that animals exceedingly low in the scale of
animal life possess the five senses, sight, smell, taste, hearing, and
touch, or senses akin to them; also that these animals evince a high
degree of intelligence, One would naturally expect to find in animals
biologically so akin to man, some evidences of enjoyment other than
the mere gratification of animal desires. This expectation or surmise
is undoubtedly correct, and it is the purpose of this article to demon-
strate this truth. We are all familiar with the pastimes of the higher
animals such as the dog, the cat, the horse, the squirrel, the rabbit, the
monkey, etc. We do not question the fact that these animals
do amuse themselves in many a frolic and wild romp; they form
a part and parcel of our lives, consequently their pastimes are not con-
sidered remarkable. I propose, however, to show that animals much
lower in the scale of life—animals so low and so minute that it takes
a very high-power lens to make them visible, likewise have their pas-
times and amusements. Also, that many insects and even the slothful
snail are not so busily engaged in the struggle for existence that they
can not spare a few moments for play. In our researches in this field
of animal intelligence we must not attribute the peculiar actions of the
males in many species of animals when courting the females, to simple
pastime, for they are the outward manifestations of sexual desire, and
are not examples of psychical amusement. I have seen, in actinophor-
ous rhizopods, certain actions, unconnected with sexual desire or the
gratification of appetite, which lead me to believe that these minute
microscopic organisms have their pastimes and moments of simple
amusement. On several occasions while observing these creatures, I
have seen them chasing one another around and around their minature
sea. They seemed to be engaged in a game of tag. This actinophrys
is not very agile, but when excited by its play, it seems to be an entirely
different creature, so lively does it become. These actions were not

! North rid Review: ** The Senses in the Lower Animals."
American Naturalist: ** Animal M ”

Atlantic Sera Contrib. Club: “ Animal Letisimulants."
Worthington's Magazine: ‘‘ The Emotions in the Lower Animals.”

1894.] Psychology. 899

those of strife, for first one and then another would act the pursuer and
the pursued. There were, generally, four or five actinophryans in the
game. One of the rotifers frequently acts as if engaged in play. On
several occasions I have observed them perform a kind of dance, a pas
seul, for each rotifer would be alone by itself. Their motions were up
and down as if exercising with an invisibleskipping-rope. They would
keep up this play for several minutes and then resume feeding or
quietly remain at rest. This rotifer goes through another performance
which I also believe to be simply a pastime. Its tailis armed with a
double hook or forceps. It attaches itself to a piece of alga or other
substance by this forceps, and then moves its body up and down in the
water for several minutes at atime. The snail (H. pomatia) likewise
has its moments of relaxation and amusement. The following instance
of play may be considered to be gallantry by some, but I do not believe
that I am mistaken, however, when I consider it an example of animal
pastime. Two snails approproached each other, and, when immedi-
ately opposite, began slowly to wave their heads from side to side.
They then bowed slightly several times in courtly salutation. This
performance they kept up for quite a while and then moved away in
different directions. At no time did they come in contact, and careful
observation failed to reveal any excitement in the genitalia. I have
witnessed the embraces of snails, and the performance described above
does not resemble in the slightest degree, the manouvres executed at
such times by mating individuals.

Swarms of Diptera may be seen on any bright day dancing in the
sunlight. Naturalists have heretofore considered this swarming to be
a mating of the two sexes. This is not the case, however, in many
instances. On numerous occasions, and at different seasons of the year,
I have captured dozens of these insects in my net and have examined
them microscopically. I found them all to be unimpregnated females ;
l have never yet discovered a male among them. In some of the
Diptera the males emerge from the pupa state after the females; I
therefore believe that the females await the presence of the males, and,
while waiting, pass the time away in aerial gambols.

Forel, Lubbock, Kirby, Spence and other naturalists have declared
that ants, on certain occasions, indulge in pastimes and amusements.
Huber says that he saw a colony of pratensis, one fine day, “ assembled
on the surface of their nest, and behaving in a way that he could only
explain as simulating festival sports or other games." On the 27th of
last September, the males aud females of a colony of Lasius flavus
emerged from their nest; 1 saw these young kings and queens con-

900 The American Naturalist. [October,

gregate about the entrances of the nest and engage in playful antics
until driven away by the workers. The workers would nip their legs
with their mandibles until they were forced to fly in order to escape
being bitten. On the 19th of this month (July) I saw several Lasius
niger come out of their nest accompanied by a minute little beetle
( Claviger foveolatus) ; the ants caressed and played with this little insect
for some time, and then conducted it back into the nest. Many little
animals are kept by ants simply as pets. Lubbock says of one of them,
a species allied to Podura, and for which he proposes the name, Beckia.
“Tt is an active, bustling little being, and I have kept hundreds, I may
say thousands, in my nests. They run in and out among the ants,
keeping their antennz in a perpetual state of vibration." I have fre-
‘quently noticed an insect belonging to the same species as the above,
in the nests of F. fusca and rufescens. They reminded me very much
of the important-looking little dogs one sees running about in the
midst of a crowd on market-day. In the November issue of the Na-
_turalist, I describe a spider which indulgesin a peculiar pastime. This
spider spins a web where the rays of the early morning sun strike.
Through the long diameter of the web, she spins a narrow ribbon, and,
as soon as the sun shines upon it,she goes out on this ribbon and prom-
enades up and down. She never takes food caught in this web; her
hunting- or trap-web is generally several feet away, but connected with
her pleasure resort by a bridge.

Sometime ago I witnessed a bit of malicious sport, in which, the
participants were fleas. I was observing a Pulez sleeping beneath the
‘short hairs of a dog's axilla. | My lens was a good one and I could
-clearly make out the body and limbs of the little sleeper. Suddenly ,
there appeared another flea, which stopped short as soon as she dis-
covered her sleeping comrade. She remained quiet for several seconds
and then nimbly bounded on the others back. Clasping her body with
her hind legs, she began vigorously “to touzle the hair” of her surprised
‘sister. She then sprang away into the thicker hair, closely pursued by
the thoroughly aroused and evidently angry victim of her sport.

The females of the coleopterous Coccinelle frequently congregate
and indulge in performances that can not be anything else save
pastimes. A beech tree in my yard is called “ladybug tree" be-
cause, year after year, these insects collect there and hold their
curious conventions. They caress one another with their antennse,
and gently shoulder one another from side toside. Sometimes several
will get their heads together and seem by their actions to be holding a
-confidential conversation. These conventions always take place after

enim ee "e

1894.] Psychology. 901
oviposition, and careful and repeated observation has shown me that
they are not connected with procreation or alimentation. I have
witnessed many other instances of true psychical amusement in the
lower animals but do not think it necessary to detail them here. Suf-
fice it to say, that I believe that every living creature, at some period
of its existence, has its moments of relaxation from the cares of life
when it yc the gratification of true psychical amusement.—J As.
LL»

WEIR, JUN.,

902 The American Naturalist. [October,

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.’

Dr. Brinton on the Beginning of Man.’—Dr. Brinton con-
tributes a characteristically readable and inconsistent article to the
Forum on this subject, which is the most important and interesting
among the many presented by the science of biology. It is also at the
same time a prime question among archeologists, but as the archeologi-

cal materials do not lend themselves to its solution, the cultivators of

that science have not generally devoted much time to its investigation.
Archeology begins, as Dr. Brinton says, with the evidence of human
industry ; that is, it begins after man had become man, and not before.
It, therefore, commences where paleontologic biology leaves off, and
does not embrace the question of his ancestry, which belongs to the
latter science. Nevertheless, Dr. Brinton, well known as a distin-
guished archeologist, discusses the question of the ape-ancestry of man
in an entertaining, and to some bere —Ü ——ÀÓ But I
have some fault to find with h t, and
as it is caleulated to encourage some uode i olives, I propose to
state them.

First there is to be noticed throughout, the flavor of Virchoffism,
which has been so vigorously exploited by Haeckel. Virchow appears
to be unalterably opposed tothe hypothesis of the ape-ancestry of man,
and he uses frequent opportunities of casting ridieule on it. He even

oes so far as to ignore, when convenient to his argument, such evi-
dence as there is in support of it, in a way which does not impress me
with his capacity for fairness. His conspicuous fallacy is his neg-
lect of the biological evidence for the doctrine of creation of organic
species by descent, so far as regards man. This isso overwhelming, that
biologists area unit in Meery in it. are cannot be excluded, for his
zoological affinities with th Man
is not an example of an isolated type, of which many can be found among
animals and plants, but his relatives are conspicuously close to him in
structure, so that if evolution is true, man is one of the most evident

illustrations of it. Yet Brinton says “a dozen years ago when Dar-

winism was at its height, an advanced scientific thinker would have
felt compelled to maintain that the species man was necessarily a de-
| This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.
"The Beginning of Man and the Age of the Race by Dr. D. G. Brinton; Zhe For-
um, Dec., 1893, p. 452.
^

1894.] |». Archeology and Ethnology. 903

velopment of some lower mammal.” I do not hesitate to say that
Darwinism (i. e. evolution) was never at a greater “ height " than it is
at present. It is also highly uncomplimentary to the “scientific
thinker ” to charge him with holding views on account of the “height”
ofany opinion, rather than on the evidence.

The type of man of the paleolithic age, is stated by Brinton to be a
fiction which “ furnished imaginative writers with the compound creat-
ure they pictured in their books as our commou ancestor,” etc. e
then proceeds to discredit this “compound " by showing that some
mistakes were made by some investigators in some points, although
when he says that that the Neanderthal remains belong to a visibly dis-
eased subject, he asserts more than has been proven. He also alleges
that the depressed forehead and prominent superciliary ridges of
various paleolithie skulls that have been discovered, are no indication
of pithecoid origin, since they can be found occasionally among men
of existing races! An argument of no value whatever, since if all
ow types necessarily disappeared, man would be the only animal ; no
monkeys ought to exist; no insects,no Amoebas! Evolution does not
attempt to prove that nothing has stood still! But our author has
nothing to say about the jaws of Naulette and Shipka, and the man
and woman of Spy. It ison just these important remains that Virchow
is silent also !

But he does have something to say on the tritubercular superior
molar? and the lemuroid affinities of the Anthopomorpha (man and
ape). Referring to the author of the present review, he says: “ An
eminent naturalist discovered that in a considerable number of people
the tubercles on the teeth resemble those of lemurs more closely than
those of monkeys. Hence he promptly drew the concluslon that
the descent of man was directly from the lemurs and not from the
monkeys, as the prevailing impression has been.” Dr. Brinton has
advanced in his views alittle. He at one time declared that this state-
ment as to the structure of the molar teeth in the higher as compared
with the lower races and the apes had been “ refuted " by Allen and
Virchow. Soon after this, my statements were entirely confirmed by
Topinard, who after a full examination of six hundred dentitions de-

3 The reviewer of my paper in the April, ’93 Naturalist on The Genealogy of Man,
says of the tritubercular molar, that it is only the long known ‘‘ microdontie " of
civilized races, (Archiv. für Anthropologie, 1893). The reviewer evidently does
not know what the tritubercular molar is nor what it signifies. It is not necessarily
microdont, nor is it confined to civilized man. He has evidently not read my paper on
the subject or he would not have remarked that I give no figures as toits predominant
occurrence in the Esquimaux. (See Am. Journ. Morphology, July, 1888).

904 The American Naturalist. [October

clared that man from having had four tubercles above and five below,
would in some distant future have three above and four below. But
he added that the theory of descent from lemurs is “ not sustained ” or
“is premature.” This latter question is one for paleontological biolo-
gists to decide, and Prof. Topinard did not even discuss the evidence
from this standpoint. There is, however, good reason to suppose that
the anthopoids (not man only) did descend from lemuroids and not
from monkeys. Since Dr. Brinton’s article was written, Dr. Forsyth
Major has described an extinct plistocene lemur from Madagascar
nearly as large as a chimpanzee, with tritubercular superior molars. I
look for future discoveries to demonstrate the truth of the lemurine
descent of the Anthropoids, and that the monkeys (Ceropithecidae) are
a side branch and not in the direct line.

The descent of man from the Anthopoidsis antagonized by Virchow
because some of the pithecoid characters of man are not prenatal, but
only appear in later growth stages and cannot therefore be inherited
And if he can find a mechanical cause for the character, so much the
more certain is this conclusion in his opinion. An example of this is
the ape-character found among various men ancient and modern,
the platyenemic or compressed tibia. This Virchow alleges is not
a mark of affinity to the apes, where it is universal, but that it is
produced by a peculiar use of the muscles of the lower leg,
especially of the anterior ones. This, however, only transfers the
evidence from the bones to the muscles. The tibial form of the apes,
it may be inferred, is produced in the same way as in man, and if it is
so produced in men, we learn that in such cases the muscles and their
use are like those of the apes. Prof. Virchow does not probably
know, that if inheritance be believed, the entire osseous skeleton of the
vertebrata has been moulded by the strains, pressures and impacts to
which it has been subjected, and that these are directly or indirectly
due to muscular contraction. The supposition that prognathism is
not inherited from apes because it is not present in the foetus, is
equally untenable. The change of shape of the relations of the
cranial bones called prognathison, is common to all vertebrata, and is
only delayed, more in apes, most in man.

.. But Dr Brinton, like many other objectors to evidence of a plain and

unadorned character, has his Deus ex machina. “ Genius is ever inex-
plicable” he says. True; but the shapes of bones and teeth are not,
and the brains of the geni tain the structural for their funct-
ions, although we have not yet seen them. “A family of, we know not
which of the higher mammals, perhaps, the great tree ape, which then

ag

a ee a dium actum: c o MiCAMdE ii od UE

1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. . 905

lived in the warm regions of central France, may have produced a few
* sports,’ widely differing physically and mentally from the parents,
and these ‘ sports’ were the ancestors of man." Here we have a the- |
ory submitted to biologists, which is not supposed to be Darwinism or
apeism, and yet it bears a strong family resemblance to both. To my
vision, it appears inconsistent with some of what has gone before. Its
special mission appears to be, to get rid of the “ missing link.” But
he cannot be gotten rid of so easily’ “This is a theory " Brinton says
“which is as good as another.” But it is not as good as another, until
all the ape characters of man, recent and paleolithic, are explained
away. In fact I suspect that the “sporting ” is altogether confined to
the theory! for paleontology does not give any ground for supposing
that sports have any part in the general advance which we call
evolution. The process has been by the gradual accumulation of
increment after increment. Besides, the “tree ape” turns out to
have been a baboon!

E. D. Core.

906 The American Naturalist. [October,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Danish government has decided upon a deep-sea exploration of
the waters of Greenland and Iceland. The work will be carried on
during 1895 and 1896. A botanist will accompany the expedition.

The American Museum of Natural History has organized an expe-
dition, under the direction of Professor Rudolph Weber, to make col-
lections and a scientific exploration of the Island of Sumatra.

An expedition has been organized in Australia for a scientific ex-
ploration of the mountains of Macdonnell near the centre of the con-
tinent. The party will be equipped and directed by Mr. W. Astin
Horn, a wealthy colonist. The scientific corps is strong and numbers
among its members Mr. Winnecke, geographer; Mr. E. C. Strisling,
naturalist ; Professors R. Tate and Baldwin Spencer, paleontologists ;
Mr. J. A. Watt, mineralogist.

The American Association for the Advancement of Science has
again subscribed $100 for a table at the Marine Biological Laboratory
at Woods Holl. Last year it did the same, but, we learn, some of
those who should have been consulted concerning its disposition were
left in absolute ignorance of any award. This year the table has cer-
tain conditions attached, which it is hoped will settle the question of
responsibility. These conditions are :

1. That the table shall be known as the American Association for
the Advancement of Science table.’

2. That the table shall be awarded by a committee of five, consist-
ing of the vice-president and secretary-elect of each of the two sections
(F and G), and the director of the Marine Biological Laboratory
(at present, Dr. C. O. Whitman).

3. That any member or fellow of the Association may. apply for the
table (an applicant for membership to the Association will be consid-
ered as a member and is therefore eligible).

4. Applications for the table are to be made to the permanent secre-
tary of the Association (F. W. Putnam, Cambridge, Mass.), who will
forward them to the chairman of the committee of award, the chairman
being the senior vice-president of sections F and G, seniority being de-
termined by continuous membership.

1894.] Scientific News. 907

9. Holders of the Association's table will be expected to give due
credit in published results of investigations carried on at the Associa-
tion's table.

The death of the venerable D. C. Danielssen of Bergen, Norway, on
July 13th, removes one of the ablest of the Scandanavian systematists,
Most of his zoologieal work was done on the marine Invertebrates and
was of an exceedingly careful character. He was besides a physician
in regular practice, was the chief of the Leprosy Hospital at Bergen,
and since 1864 has been the president of the Bergen Museum. He
was born in 1815.

Gustave Honoré Cotteau, the well known paleontologist is dead,
aged seventy-six. His principal work was done in the Echinodermata,
of which subject he was the leading student in France.

Two of the American Arctic exploring expeditions have come to
grief. The vessel of the Chicago newspaper enterprise under Wellman
was crushed in the ice and some of the party returned to the Spitzber-
gen islands, while the leader with others was picked up and landed at
Tromsoe, Norway. The Cook expedition which consisted mostly of
scientific men, went in an iron vessel in oppostion to the advice of ex-
perienced arctic navigators. In her first contact with the ice a hole
thirty feet long was torn in her side. She subsequently ran on a rock near
to Sukkertappen and subsequently sank. The passengers were
brought to Labrador by a passing vessel, but lost all their property.

The Salt Lake Literary and Scientific Association, a body incorpo-
rated for scientific pursuits, with headquarters at Salt Lake City,
Utah, has recently endowed a chair of Geology in the University of
Utah. The endowment is made in the handsome sum of $60,000, the
proceeds of which are to be used in the support of the professorship.
The chair has been named the “ Deseret Professorship of Geology,”
and Dr. James E. Talmage has been appointed to the position. The
rich collections of the Deseret Museum, belonging to the Salt Lake
Literary and Scientific Association, have been placed at the disposal
of the growing University of Utah. Such a movement is commenda-
ble. Utah isa rich field for the geologist, and any substantial en-
couragement of the science there is an effort wisely directed.

Dr. Chas. L. Edwards, lately of the University of Texas has been
eleeted Professor of Biology in the University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati,
Ohio.

The American Naturalist.

reg As the year 1894 is now drawing to a close we would

respectfully ask the many delinquents to send in.
their subscriptions, that we may close our books for
. the year with a clean bill.

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CONTENE ITS, APRIL. 1894.

A Shore-Collecting Trip to Jers
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Notes das Jeginners in Microsc R. Reynolds, M. D

s the Use of the Study of Dirona Bee ? A. C. Smith,

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‘taining Tubercle Bacillus. H. Heiman, M. D.
Cre ae Method of Staining ‘Tubercle Bacilli. Fannie L. Bishop.
of oo Microbes.

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AMERICAN
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i : A MONTHLY JOURNAL

NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE.

NAGING EDITORS:
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ASSOCIATE EDITORS

H. C. MERCER, Philadelphia.

eb.,
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Pror. W; H. HOBBS, Madison, Wis.

Some BIRDS OF PARADISE FROM
( Ilustrated).

YEW -GUI
Ch st S. Mead 915

l South Wales — Fossil. Tipulidae — Diatoms—
| Scott on Agriochoerus—The At on enis asa

Vol. XXVIII. NOVEMBER, 1894. No. 335 .
| — CONTENTS.
| PAGE E. i
THE MECHANICAL CAUSE se ps A. z iis APER- Geology and Paleontology—The Canttwinn $
E SHELL O | Roeks of uu bou from the Susqueh 1
(Tllustrated).- "Wn. H ae 909 | to the aw athurst, New z
ON

ir dots temo palm M

THE PsycHoLocy or Hy
as.

, MICHIGAN, 1894.

Gru EUR TE SEE 28 137 ca ee
t 4

Eorronuus. —A Museum Doorway—Newspaper

Mend adiit. sett. ———— "eod of
_ Oysters—Parity of Vertebra . 937
OOKS AND PAMPHLETS. 940

. Recent LITERATURE— Amphioxus and the An-
iig the. Vertebrates — Correlation
rs ofthe U. S. Geol. Survey: Archean

3S Mosikas T nomic Geol the
Titium veg ge Invertebrate dor)
.9

ne
os

| lee

+ P Petoraphy koe duri, os einer te
oleanie Rocks—The Basic Rocks of
‘ham.

Augite Granite of Keka-
eee — Pe Petrographica

» 946 |

> Wei, Jr. M. D. 921 |

RULES OF NOMENCLATURE ADO BY THE ne

. TERNATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL st ot S,

. p 3N Moscow, Russta, 1892. Moritz F eher. 929 |
i x On CHICKEN AND WILD PIGEON IN JACKSO |

L. Whitney Watkins. 984 |

actor in namical Geology — Geological
i aE Dsoscic -Megosolc- Gerold ic. . 950

Zool
—lImm
Curare List of Ophidia found near Vincennes, sx
—Zoological Ne ide aec oon —Pisces 9.

| Mas min HC s 907. xe
om — Bi olds ets thé Glowworm — den
onic Developement o: —The .
Cuterebra cuniculi € Clark— ;

ch Bug Diseases
|Jan cts—Habits- of Larval Cole Coleoptera
| Biology of the Horse Bot. . 961
| s. Vua! "Tienes ective Tetai in lie Lowie
d j riminal Skul. ‘(llustrated)

| Ame Mabie ‘of SIBDISMORIN - eS

| Habits of Ophibolus ge ^. eae d
| Mech ses Bloc Tian. oen in. E a
| 4 971 zd

| Cytological: Methods - Neutral Se
Bii cron Or ol for Nuclei—Iron-hema- -+ -
ES mi eig : e Egg-Centro- iex

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eesample Se Laboratory, 28 Prince St., New York, |

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL AA VIIL November, 1894. 335

THE MECHANICAL CAUSE OF FOLDS IN THE APER-
TURE OF THE SHELL OF GASTEROPODA.

By WM. H. Darr.

. The folds which are frequently present on the columella
and the lip of the aperture of the shells of Gasteropoda, may,
I think, be traced to a mechanical cause. In considering the
dynamie relations of the animal to its shell we may obtain
satisfaction on this point. In the fusiform rachiglossa an
anatomical difference exists to which I believe attention has
not hitherto been called. Indeed, unless the principles of
dynamic evolution are granted it is a difference which would
appear to have little or no significance. These principles,
however, afford a key which seems to unlock this and many
other mysteries. In the plicate forms of this sort the adductor
muscle, which in all gastropods is attached to the columella
at a certain distance within the aperture, is attached deeper
within the shell than in non-plicate forms. The point of attach-
ment may be an entire turn, or even more, behind the aper-
ture, while in short globose few-whorled shells and in the non-
plicate forms it is, as a general rule, little more than half a
turn within the aperture.

‘Adapted from the Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of Science, Phila-
delphia, Vol. III, 1890, p. 58.
60

910 The American Naturalist. : [November,

Now let us consider the dynamics of the case. We have,
reduced to its ultimate terms, a twisted shelly, hollow cone,
sub-angulate or even channelled at two extremes correspond-
ing to the canal and the posterior commissure of the body and
outer lip. Inside of this we have a thin, loose epithelial cone,
the mantle, of which the external surface especially toward the
margin, is shell-secreting ; lastly, inside of the mantle-cone we
have a more or less solid third cone, consisting of the foot and
other external parts of the body of the animal, which can be
extended beyond the mantle-cone outwardly, as the mantle-
cone can be beyond the shell-cone. The body-cone and the
mantle-cone are attached at one of the angles of the shell-cone
some distance within the opening of the spiral of the latter.
The two outer cones constitute a loose, flexible funnel within
a rigid, inflexible funnel, while the body-cone forms a solid,
elastic stopper inside of all.

What will happen according to mechanical principles
(which can be tested by any body with the simplest apparatus)
when the mantle-cone is withdrawn into a part of the shell-
cone too small for the natural diameter of the contracted
mantle-cone? It must wrinkle longitudinally. Where will
the wrinkles come? They will come at the angles of the shell-
cone first; they will be most numerous toward the aperture,
since toward the aperture the mantle-cone enlarges dispropor-
tionately to the caliber of the shell, owing to its processes, the
natural fold of the canal, etc., etc.; the deepest and strongest
wrinkles will be over the pillar, owing to the fact that the
attachment of the adductor prevents perfect freedom in
wrinkling, and the groove of the canal will mechanically in-
duce the first fold in that vicinity. The most numerous small
wrinkles will be near the aperture opposite the pillar, because
of the mantle-edge this is the most expanded part, and there
will be a tendency to a ridge near the angle of the posterior
commissure. Repeated dragging of a shell-secreting surface,
thus wrinkled, over a surface fitted to receive such secretion,
will result in the elevated shelly ridges which on the pillar we
call plications, and on the outer lip lire, if long, or teeth if
short. The commonly existing subsutural internal ridge on

394.) Cause of Folds; Shell of Gasteropoda. 911

the body of the shell near the posterior commissure will mark
the special conditions in that part of the aperture.

When the secreting surface is thus wrinkled or corrugated
longitudinally the wrinkles and ‘the concave folds between
them will be directed in the sense or direction in which the
body moves in emerging from or withdrawing to the whorl.
The summits of the convex wrinkles will be appressed more
or less forcibly against the shell-wall exterior to them in
which they are contained. The semi-fluid, living secretion of
which the shell-lining is built up, exuding from the whole
surface of the mantle, will be rubbed away from the lines of

the summits of the wrinkles and tend to accumulate in lines
‘corresponding to the concave furrows between the wrinkles.

This secretion hardens rapidly, and these lines would become
somewhat elevated ridges which would by their presence

(when once initiated) tend to maintain the furrows and

wrinkles in the same place with relation to the thus-initiated
liree, as these elevated lines are called when on the outer lip;

or plaits, when situated on the pillar.

The modification referred to generally takes place during
resting stages of the animals’ growth, since while the animal is
rapidly extending its coil the secretions seem to be concentrated
along the mantle margin, while the general mantle-surface
resumes its secretive function (or the latter becomes active)

‘somewhat later, after the formation of a definite shelly varix, or

thickened margin, indicating a resting stage in the animal's
career. Itis probable also that during rapid growth there is
less compression of the tissues than during the resting stages.
The external sculpture and some of the modifications of the

-aperture are connected with the functions of the extreme edge

of the mantle; those we are at present considering relate more

-especially to the function of its general surface by which the

layer whieh lines the whorls, the pillar, plaits and lire are

Solely secreted and deposited.

In species with the adductor muscle attached to the pillar
near the aperture the wrinkles would be fewer, and their
action, if any, confined to the vicinity of the margin of the

-aperture. The deeper the attachment the greater will be the

912 The American Naturalist. [November,

compression of the secreting surface and the distance over
which it is constantly dragged back and forth, and the conse-
quent length of the ridges of shelly matter deposited. If the
inner or mantle-cone had.the whole cavity to itself, it is evi-
dent that it could and would infold itself in a manner which
might not appress its folds against the inner surface of the
rigid outer or shell-cone. But there the mass of the solid and
elastic foot and external body comes into play, and by its
withdrawal inward forces the wrinkled mantle-cone against the
shell. The mantle is thus confined between a rigid outer and

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Fusus parilis Conr. a gastropod in which the caliber of the spire
contracts uniformly within the x ida but which, having a short retractor
muscle develops no plications on the

Fig. Mitra lineolata Heilprin, a Qu ot ise similar, , but in which
the retractor is long and deep seated and in which the axis becomes plicated.

. 3. Siphocyprxa problematica Heilprin, a gastropod in which the aper-
ture is contracted and the cavity within ample so that plications are developed on
the sides of the aperture but not on the axis within

Se

I E i LL

5S '

1894.] Cause of Folds; Shell of Gasteropoda. 913

an elastic inner surface, with the result that it cannot recoil
from the former and that a certain uniformity of size and
direction is imposed upon the wrinkles, except where the
recess of the canal allows them to become more emphatic, or
toa less degree, the posterior angle permits a slight expansion.
The mechanical principles involved may be readily illustrated
by the experiment of pulling a handkerchief through the neck
of a bottle, or funnel, followed by a cork in the center. Of
course, the more nearly the apparatus conforms to the form
and twist of a spiral shell the more nearly the results will ap-
proximate to those of nature. It is difficult, however, to find
any artificial tissue which will correspond in elasticity, or ca-
pacity for partial self-contraction, to the living tissues con-
cerned in nature. Hence an exact conformity is not to be
expected though the mechanical principles may be reasonably
well illustrated.

A comparison of specimens will show that the results exhi-
bited agree with marvellous precision with the results called
for by the preceeding hypothesis, based on the dynamical
status of the bodies concerned, their motions and secretions.
The agreement is so complete as to amount to a demonstration,
though in certain cases there may be complications which
need additional explanation.

A point which may be noted in regard to the Volutide, to
which my attention was called by Mr. Pilsbry, is that in this
group the mantle is greatly extended and there would be more
of it to be wrinkled than in such forms as Buccinum, etc. It
may be added that the forms in which we note the beginning
of plaits for this family, many of them, such as Liopeplum
and Volutomorpha, had the mantle so extended as to deposit
a coat of enamel over the whole shell, as in the modern Cyp-
reea, so that here we have an additional reason why plication
should be emphasized in this group.

Of course, as before noted, the mechanical principles are the
same in any group of gastropods, but among those in which
the wrinkling is confined to the region of the aperture or those
shells which are lirate or dentate as opposed to plicate, several
other principles come into play which may be briefly referred

914 The American Naturalist, (Norah,

to in passing. In the first place, those species which have a
very extended mantle, with hardly an exception have a lirate
aperture (Oliva, Olivella, Cypræa, Trivia, etc.). With species
in which there is a widely extended mantle and yet no lira-
tions, it will usually be found that the mantle is not entirely
withdrawn into the shell in such forms, or is permanently ex-
ternal to the shell (many Opisthobranchiata, Marseniidz, Sigare-
tus, Harpa, etc.). In a group, like the: Cyprzide, where nearly
all the species are lirate on both lips, there are a few which
want these lirz, and these are species which have a wider aper-
ture in the adult than most of the genus, and in which we
should expect the wrinkles to be less emphatic.

1894.] Some Birds of Paradise from New Guinea. 915:

SOME BIRDS OF PARADISE FROM NEW GUINEA.
By Geo. S. MEAD.

Of that class of the feathered creation to which the term
Birds of Paradise has been applied, and which they certainly
most appropriately bear, New Guinea with its adjacent islands
is the home, or at least the greater number of the dozen or
more species of this unrivalled family belong to these regions.
Mr. Wallace, a recognized authority on these birds, as well as
on the Malay Archipelago, seems to limit their range to the
northern side of the mainland. Other travellers, however,
have found them on the southern side, as well as in other parts
of New Guinea. The Italian naturalist, D’Albertis, for exam-
ple, encountered several species, notably Paradisea raggiana,
along the Fly River—a large stream flowing southeast from
the mountains of the interior and emptying into the Gulf of
Papua, to the right of Torres Straits.

Yet the northern side, as Mr. Wallace points out, certainly
presents as safe a retreat as could be found for these lovely and
much prized treasures of the feathered world. Impenetrable
swamps, the rugged coast, impassable mountain ranges, fierce
tribes of natives, illimitable forests—all these and other bar-
riers are so many means of protection which it is to be hoped
will long preserve a wild life that possesses the fatal gift of
beauty, against utter extermination.

There is nothing perhaps but physical difficulties or the
subsidence of a fashion that can save birds of paradise from
the destruction which a barbarous propensity, and the careless:

! * On the south coast of N. G. the vegetation is generally of the most lux-
uriant character, even for the tropics. One vast dark jungle spreads over its:
muddy shores, abounding in immense forest trees, whose trunks are hidden by
groves of sago palms, and myriads of other heat and moisture-loving plants.
Unlike the eastern and southern coasts of N. G., the northwestern part is described
as being generally covered with timber, but having no underwood or dense jun-
gle, so that it is very easy travelling under the shade of the lofty trees. The
country is said to abound with small fresh-water streams, and patches of good.
grass." Polynesia, p. 175.

916 The American Naturalist. [November,

cruelty of women seem to make inevitable. Nature herself,
therefore, must shield her own from the complacent notion that
everything living is subservient to the whim or caprice of
civilization or to the savage who ignorantly ministers to it.

These favored regions, besides those of the Aru Islands,
where birds of paradise also abound, are rich in vegetation
beyond even the usual fecundity of the tropics. Almost as
unique, varied and lovely, are other forms of animal life—
butterflies, dragon-flies, lizards, insects great and small, and
countless tribes of the feathered race.

In the eyes of lovers of the gorgeous, among birds the
king bird of paradise, Cicinnurus regius, is without a rival. It
is indeed of surpassing loveliness, if, as some one says, an ad-
jective so distinctive can properly be applied to any species
when all are so lovely. The bird itself is of small size, nor
does the plumage stand forth to that extent it reaches in other
species, but within this compass the most perfect, soft and daz-
zling effects of delicate tints are displayed. While the plum-
age of all the birds of paradise is singularly beautiful, still
more beautiful and magical is the play of shifting lights. The
least movement on the part of the bird, the slightest displace-
ment of a feather, the turning of a leaf or the letting in of
a sunbeam, produces a wondrous and entrancing change. After
death the colors pale,in many inst iately,and
of course the evanescent hues lose their startling brilliancy.
Over the prevailing tint of red on the king bird, “a gloss as
of spun glass wavers.” The head is of deep orange, the throat
cinnabar, the breast snow-white; between the breast and throat
is a dividing belt of rich green. Like silk with its sheen and
softness is the white breast; white also is seen over each eye.
On either side of the lead-colored legs, at times hidden under
the wings, tufted, white-tipped feathers, puffed out like the
down on the soft powder-brushes ladies use, are to be noted,
for they form a curious adjunct to the dress of the male bird.
From the tail-feathers a pair of wire-feathers, five or six inches
long, project; these are separated at their ends by an equal
distance, and are webbed outwardly so as to form two circlets
about the size of a coat-button. Capt. Moresby, in his inter-

1894.] Some Birds of Paradise from New Guinea. 917

esting book, “ Discoveries in New Guinea,” gives so admirable
a description of the king-bird of paradise as to deserve quota-
tion here:

“This bird," he says, “is as large asa small thrush, the
back glossy erimson, the head feathers being soft, and deep in
tone like velvet, the throat crimson, and separated from the
pure white breast by the wide band of green. It has the long
wire tail of all birds of paradise, terminating, however, in two
circular feathers, about the size of a sixpenny piece, of a bur-
nished green. But its peerless ornaments are two small feather
fans of intense emerald color, set in the upper joint of the
wing, and eapable of being spread or folded at pleasure."

Not unlike the best known of all the birds of paradise, P.
apoda, is the red-bird, Paradisea sanguinea. It cannot, however,
be considered as the peer in beauty, its resemblance consisting
chiefly in the fall of long plumes from the back, giving that
appearance, so characteristic and so attractive, as of a cataract
of feathers falling in a maze of wavy lines and spray. Where
these soft plumes are golden in Apoda the red-bird has a deep
crimson. Yellow prevails on the head and neck, extending a
short distance on the back. A yellow band passes across the
breast, flanked by green and brown. All these tints blend
into each other, the line of division never being closely marked
excepting on the throat. A corrugated arrangement of short
velvety feathers gives a singular appearance to the head; this
and the long filaments reaching beyond the loose wing plum-
age serve in making it one of the most striking ornaments of
the bird creation.

The size of Sanguinea or Rubra is about that of a robin,
perhaps a little larger, and its favorite resort the recesses of
Waigiou Islands.

Paradisea apoda, the great paradise bird, has become a famil-
iar object of admiration in museums of natural history and
collections. In no other bird is the coloring so rich and the
blending of browns, purple, green and orange so alluringly
beautiful. Add to this the long, curving fall of plumes be-
hind, and one of the most entrancing spectacles animate nature
has to show is vouchsafed.

918 The American Naturalist. [November,.

This is the species early brought to Europe by travellers, and
even made an object of commerce. No wonder that, deprived
of its sturdy, somewhat ugly legs and feet, people fabled the
lovely creature to be not of earth but aerial, never settling on
gross, material things, nor living on terrestrial food, but pass-
ing its halcyon existence above mundane growths, or like
matchless Belinda’s lock, wafted to the skies:

“A sudden star, it shot through liquid air,
And drew behind a radiant trail of hair."

Which last line, it has always seemed to me, fairly well de-
scribes the appearance of a shafted bird of paradise while in
flight.

In his travels along the Fly River, N. G., in 1872-5, D'AI-
bertis found (what he considered new to science) Paradisea
raggiana, so named by Mr. Sclater, after Marquis Raggi, of
Genoa. This beautiful bird of paradise the Italian explorer
described by its differences from P. apoda and P. minor rather
than by any special marks of itsown. Itis less in size than the
great-bird, but in luxuriance of plumage almost its equal. In
opulence of colors, too, it vies with the loveliest. A golden belt
widening above divides the green throat from the ruby breast ; a
splash of the same color appears on the wings, while the back is
untinged. Red prevails on the side wings running along the
floating plumes. It is very probable that P. apoda and P.
raggiana, interbreed ; possibly other varieties. D'Albertis notes.
several evident instances of hybrids, and names the character-
istie markings of those specified—the yellowish tinge at the
back of the throat, the small wing feathers banded with gold,
etc. The velvety softness of the feathers is as observable in
Raggiana as in all birds of paradise, while the exquisite inter-
mingling or suffusion of vivid colors, although at the same
time these are quite distinct, is just as inimitable. Long, curv-
ing wire-shafts adorn this species also.

Of less flaming colors than the last mentioned species, al-
though the transition of hues is even still more wonderful,
and lacking the flowing train of plumes and caudal append-
ages of other members of its kind, the Lophorhina superba or

EEG CORRUIT et 3
le

— tet

Melissa mener D Lies opi
— PORE

X

1894.] . ^ Some Birds of Paradise from New Guinea. 919

atra hardly falls behind its congeners in beauty and attract-
iveness. Instead of the radiant splendor of the Apoda or
Raggiana, the colors of Superba are darker but marvellously rich,
—purple,violet, green, bronze, blue—ever varying and shifting
in changing lights, the whole shot over with satin sheen, while
silken gleams run fitfully along the compact feathers which,
nevertheless, never lose their velvety softness. While to com-
pensate for waving plumes, we have a gorgeous green bifur-
cated shield for the breast and two pseudo wings or wing
coverings raised or depressed at will. The head glistens as
with scales of dark green or blue, according to the reflections.
It is not without the singular crests or protuberances which
distinguish certain birds of this family, and it is not unlikely
that the feathers are at times also erected when the bird is
excited or pleased.

The unique adornment, however, of Superba, not omitting
the curious extensions of metallic green athwart the breast, is
the half-united pair of mock wings spreading out when raised,
from the shoulders above the head and shadowing the back
and sides. The color is black, but blazing with lustre, so that
as the light strikes the tips of the feathers they become bronze
or blue, or even green, almost iridescent, always resplendent.
In size, shape and indescribable coloring, this mantle forms one
of the most remarkable combinations of feathers which even
a bird of paradise can show, this, too, on a little creature not
more than nine inches in entire length.

D'Albertis informs us that the natives of New Guinea call
the bird niedda, “from the sound of its notes.” If this is so,
its voice is materially different from the discordant ery of other
Paradisea.

We hear from the incomparable emerald bird of paradise
(Apoda), for instance, only a hoarse “ wok, wok,” or a succes-
sion of cawing, unmusical sounds.

In the Golden bird of paradise, Paradisea sexetacea or Parotia
sefilata, we find another example of dark, rich clothing in
contradistinction to the gay apparel of other species of the
race. The somewhat misleading appellation, golden, is de-
rived from the flashing colors of the gorget or escutcheon

920 The American Naturalist. [November,

below the throat. The rest of the bird is invested in more
neutral tones—black, purple, bronze and green—lighting up
into metallic brightness or deepening into dark, funereal vel-
vet with every movement.

As the superb-bird is glorious with great shoulder-crests
waving like a duplicated fan, and a two-fold breast shield, so
the Golden has its own peculiar mark of uniqueness in the six
long threadlike shafts projecting, three on either side, from
the head, and terminating in an oval web. These wire feath-
ers are movable and can be thrust at pleasure straight out or
thrown back upon the body. The head is still further orna-
mented with the usual erectile feathers brushed back, as it
were, from the beak; some gray in coloring or white shine
like jewels or precious stones. On the sides, soft, massive
pectoral plumes, jet black, pass beyond and over the wings,
covering them when lowered and almost concealing the
rounded tail as well.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PrarE XXIX. From Brehm’s Thierreich.
Fig. 1. Paradisea apoda.
Fig.2. Parotia sefilata.
Fig. 3. Cieinnurus regius.

Prare XXX. From Brehm’s Thierreich.
Seleucides alba.

PLATE XXXI.

Paradisea raggiana Scl. from the Natural History of New Guinea.

€

mme tat

1894.] The Psychology of Hypnotism. 921

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HYPNOTISM.
By Jas. Wetr, JR., M. D.

The various phenomena accompanying animal magnetism,
so-called, have been observed and commented on by man
since a very early era in his history. Our savage ancestors,
whose psychical development had just begun, considered these
manifestations to be a direct evidence of the supernatural, and
those individuals who, either actively or passively, gave evi-
dences of this, to them, occult power, to be directly influenced
by supernatural agencies. This manner of regarding these
phenomena has, in a measure, descended to us, and the vast
majority of civilized beings of to-day look with a certain awe
on the person who is laboring under hypnotic influence. The
sceptieal minority, however, generally regard hypnotism as a
baseless fraud and imposture. Both classes of individuals are
in error; the first, because there is nothing supernatural in
the phenomena of so-called animal magnetism; the second
because these phenomena really do exist and are the result of
perfectly natural causes. The term, animal magnetism, owes
its origin to a tradition which came into existence about the
middle of the sixteenth century. Atthattime, man conceived
the idea that he could influence his fellows in a manner
analogous to that of a magnet, attracting some, and repelling
others. The first written evidence of this belief occurs in the
works of Paracelsus. He maintained that “the human body
was endowed with a double magnetism, that one portion
attracted to itself the planets, and was nourished by them,
whence came wisdom, thought and the senses; that the other
portion attracted to itself the elements and disintegrated them,
whence came flesh and blood; that the attractive and hidden
virtue of man resembles that of amber and the magnet; that by
this virtue, the magnetic virtue of healthy persons attracts the
enfeebled magnetism of those who are sick.” The latter part
of this doctrine is believed by many people at the present

922 The American Naturalist. [November,

time; witness the widespread belief that an enfeebled person
should not occupy the same bed with a strong, lusty individ-
ual, lest the enfeebled vitality of the one should be overcome
and absorbed by the stronger vitality of the other. Many
scientists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, notably
Glocenius, Fludd, Kircher, Burgrave, and Maxwell accepted
the doctrines of Paracelsus, and declared that all natural
phenomena could be explained through magnetism. These
learned gentlemen thought that by magnetizing talismans and
hanging them about the persons of the sick, that the vital
spirit could be infused thence into the bodies of invalids, thus
effecting cures.

Anthony Mesmer, who was born in Germany in 1734, dis-
carded the talismans and magical boxes of his predecessors
and applied this, so-called, universal principle directly to the
bodies of the sick through the agency of passes and contact.
In the beginning of his career, however, Mesmer used the
magnetic steel tractors of the Jesuit, Father Hell. He soon
abandoned them and confined himself to manual manipula-
tions and passes, asserting that animal magnetism was entirely
distinct from the influence exerted by the magnet.

In 1779 Mesmer left Vienna and came to Paris, where he at
once began to give lectures on his theory of the magnetic
fluid. In these lectures he declared that “he had discovered
a principle capable of curing all diseases.” Says Binet and
Feré: “He summed up his theory in twenty-seven proposi-
tions, or rather assertions, most of which only reproduce the
cloudy conceptions of magnetic medicine.” These propositions
while they are full of the mysticisms, the errors, and the super-
stitutions naturally belonging to the period at which they
were formulated, yet contain the germs of scientific truths. As
I wish to establish, later on in this paper, the fact that cer-
tain individuals are more susceptible to hypnotic influence
than are others, I will here introduce evidence obtained from
the writings of one who witnessed Mesmer’s seances. Says

illy: ... “They are so submissive to the magnetizer that
even when they appear to be in a stupor, his voice, a glance,
or sign will rouse them from it. It is impossible not to admit,

ee I ee ee a e Ku lO

1894.] The Psychology of Hypnotism. 923

from all these results, that some great force acts upon and
masters the patients, and that this force appears to reside in the
magnetizer. It has been observed that many women and few

men are subject to such crises.” These crises were character-
ized by “ convulsions, cries, shouts, and groans.” The same
writer says elsewhere: “It has been likewise observed that

they (crises) are only established after the lapse of two or
three hours, and that when one is established others soon and
successively begin.” (Certain words and expressions are here
and elsewhere italicized for future reference). Mesmer’s treat-
ment became exceedingly popular. He, consequently, incurred
the jealousy and hatred of the Academy of Science and the
Academy of Medicine, these academies emphatically declar-
ing that there was nothing in his method and that his theory
was arrant nonsense. Where upon Mesmer left France, not-
withstanding the fact that the government offered him a life-
pension of 20,000 francs on the sole condition of his remaining
and continuing his method of practice. He returned, how-
ever, at the solicitation of his admirers who offered him a
purse of 10,000 louis for a series of lectures on magnetism.
These lectures were published and set the kingdom into a
ferment, many declaring that Mesmer was a chaflatan and a
fraud, while as many more declared that he was a great dis-
coverer and a benefactor of the human race. In 1784 the
government ordered an investigation and appointed a com-
mission to inquire into magnetism. Their report is exceed-
ing interesting, in as much as it shows how very near, indeed,
these men of wisdom were, in grasping the salient features of
hypnotism. Benjamin Franklin was a member of this com-
mission, his name being signed first of all. A translation of
report reads as follows: “ The commissioners have ascertained
that the animal magnetic fluid is not perceptible by any of the

Senses ; that it has no action, either on themselves or the patients

subjected to it. They are convinced that pressure and contact

effect changes which are rarely favorable to the animal system,
and which injuriously affect the imagination. Finally, they

have demonstrated, by decisive experiments, that imagination
apart from magnetism produces convulsions, and that

924 The American Naturalist. [November,

magnetism without imagination produces nothing. They have
come to the unanimous conclusion with respect to the existence
and utility of magnetism, that there is nothing to prove the
existence of the animal magnetic fluid; that this fluid, since
it is non-extistent, has no beneficial effect; that the violent
effects observed in patients under public treatment are due to
contact, to the excitement of the imagination, and to mechan-
ical imitation which involuntarily impels us to repeat that
which strikes our senses. At the same time, they are compelled
add, since it is an important observation, that the contact and
repeated excitement of the imagination which produce the
crises may become hurtful; that the spectacle of these crises is
likewise dangerous, on account of the imitation faculty which is
a law of Nature; and consequently that all treatment in public
in which magnetism is employed must in the end be produc-
tive of evil results.
(Signed) B. FRANKLIN, MAJAULT.
Bairnry, LeRoy, D'Anckr.
DrBory, GUILLOTIN.
. LAVOISIER.

Shortly after this report was presented, the Royal Society of |
Medicine filed their report in which they came to the same .
conclusions, one member, however, Laurent de Jussieu, dis-
senting. De Jussieu filed a separate report in which he fore-
shadowed several points now universally acknowledged to be
established truths. He declared that the experiments de-
monstrated the fact that man was capable of producing a
sensible impression on his fellows through the agency of fric-
tion or, contact. Charcot has shown that “ the efficacy of con-
tact and friction is proved by the existence in certain subjects
of hypnogenic zones, of which the slightest stimulation pro-
duces somnambulism; that the irritation of hysteriogenic
zones produces convulsions, and that these zones are generally
seated in the hypochondriac, or in the ovarian regions, on
which Mesmer preferred to exercise his manipulations.” M. de
Puységur of Buzancy, near Soissons gave, in 1784, the first
account of hypnotism produced by manipulation, and the
sequent phenomena of healing by suggestion. He discovered

i :
Paradisea apoda.

PLATE XXIX.

2. Parotia sefilata.

8. C

/

einnurus regius.

From Brchm’s Thieileben.

1894.] The Psychology of Hypnotism. 925

that a patient, whom he was treating for inflammation of the
lungs, was thrown into a condition resembling sleep, yet, who
retained conciousness, spoke aloud, and attended to his every
day affairs. De Puységur discovered that, by suggestion, he
could change the current of this patient’s thoughts and make
him do his bidding, at one moment, weeping as if itin great
sorrow, the next, laughing as if convulsed with joy. “In his
waking state he was simple and foolish, but during the crisis his
intelligence was remarkable.” From 1784 to 1882 the science
of hypnotism and the treatment by suggestion was undergoing
a slow evolution which finally culminated in the work of M.
Charcot, who at last took this beneficial therapeutic agent
from the hands of charlatans and quacks, and placed it where
it belongs—among the remedial agents of reputable, scientific
physicians. I have shown in this brief resumé of the history
of hypnotism that certain classes of individuals were more
susceptible to this influence than others, and that gender was
a great and favorable factor. The words previously italicized
show that women more frequently than men were influenced
by hypnotic suggestion, and that these favorable subjects
always gave evidences of hysteria or kindred neurotic lesions.
The observations of Charcot and his pupils substantiate the
experiences of the older scientists in this respect, and my own
experience tallies with that of Charcot. I, therefore, deem it
safe to advance the proposition, that the individuals who yield
to the influence of hypnotism are always those who are neuro-
pathic ; Prof. Charcot wrote me, a short while before his death,
that “he had come to the conclusion that all hypnotic subjects
were the victims of neurotic lesion in some form or other.”
When we come to study the psychological phenomena accom-
panying hypnotism, we at once discover that this is a perfectly
natural and absolutely truthful conclusion.

Man possesses two kinds of conciousness—an active, vigilant,
co-ordinating conciousness, and a passive, pseudo-dormant,
and, to a certain extent, incoherent and non-co-ordinating
conciousness. We can readily prove the truth of this by ob-
serving certain phenomena which are to be noticed daily
among ourselves. A man falls into a “brown study,” and, if

61

926 The American Naturalist. [November,

gently approached without being startled, he may be asked
questions which he will answer intelligently without any con-
cious act on his part. Hissubconciousness, for the time being,
holds him beneath its sway. Yet his active conciousness is
not so much obtunded but that he can answer questions
intelligently. Again, if a musician seated at a piano and im-
provising, be approached and gently questioned, he will
answer the questions intelligently without ever ceasing his
improvisation. His subconciousness is elaborating the sweet-
est harmonies, yet his active conciousness is not so far away but
that it can give utterance to co-ordinating thought action.
Again, when the active conciousness is stilled in slumber, sub-
conciousness sometimes remains awake and makes itself evi-
dent in dreams. The lack of rational thought—co-ordination
in subconciousness is shown by the more or less extravagance
and incoherence of dreams. Everything, no matter how un-
natural and extravagant, occurring to the dreamer, is accepted
by him as being natural and consistent. When, however, his
active conciousness is aroused, he at once recognizes the inco-
coherence of his dreams. I hold, emphatically, that all dreams,
when closely studied, will show extravagance and incoherence.
A dream may seem, at first glance, to be entirely coherent, but,
if the remembrance of the dream be perfect and it be closely
studied, numerous incoherences will always be discovered.
We know how easy it is for us to lose ourselves in abstrac-
tion. We will sit for several moments seemingly in profound
thought, yet when suddenly aroused and asked what engaged
our thoughts, we are unable to tell. We have been in a sub-
concious state, probably revelling in the wildest vagaries.
Fortunately for us, degeneration has left no weakened spot in
our active conciousness on which to engraft the erotic im-
aginings of our non-coordinating subconciousness, conse-
quently our moments of subconciousness are blanks. The
favorable hypnotic subject is easily thrown into the subconcious
state. The sudden entrance of a bright light into a darkened
room; a loud noise; a sudden stillness after prolonged noise;
the crackling of a lighted match ; a breath of cold or warm air
is all that necessary, sometimes, to bring about hypnosis. I

SSS ces

a at at bch ai

1894.] The Psychology of Hypnotism. 927

regard hypnosis as a state analogous to that of the “brown
study " in which active conciousness is obtunded or asleep.
It is, however, an intensified and aggravated form of mental
abstraction, in which active conciousness is, more or less, pro-
foundly affected. Why is it, that in the case of the favorable
subject of hypnotism, the active conciousness can be so easily
overcome? Simple because it is weakened by neurotic degen-
eration. That portion of the psychic system in which dwells
active conciousness is always the first to degenerate and lose

its tonicity. This is shown by the thousands of erotic mental

habitudes and perversions that are to be noticed in neuro-
pathic and psychopathic individuals. Active conciousness—
the balance-wheel of the psychic system, becomes disordered
and at once a flood of erotic fancies make themselves evident.
It stands to reason that, in an individual, who shows by his

actions and his thoughts that he is the victim of nervous degen-

eration, his active conciousness would be easily obtunded and
put to sleep. This is, emphatically, the case, a fact that is clearly

demonstrated by the favorable hynotic subject, who is always

neuropathic. We know that subconciousness is capable of
receiving an impression and of acting entirely independent of
active conciousness-—witness the phenomena of somnambulism.

When this fact is admitted the phenomena of hypnotic sug-
gestion are readily accounted for and understood. We have
seen that many subjects fall into the hypnotic state when
excited by the most trivial extraneous influences such as the
scratching of a match ; a sudden noise; or a sudden stillness
coming after long and continuous noise. Again, hypnosis can
be produced by the favorable subject, sometimes, without the

aid of extraneous influences. A patient of mine, an hysterical

woman, would seat herself in a chair, “look cross-eyed,” and,
in a very few moments, become hypnotized. On one occasion,
in order to test her condition, I commanded her to repeat the
following lines, in lieu of the usual blessing, the next morning
at breakfast: “Juro tibi sanctz per mystica sacra Dianz me tibi
venturam comitem sponsamque futuram." I wrote these lines on
a slip of paper and gave it to her husband, a good Latin

Scholar, who declared that she repeated them word for word,

928 The American Naturalist. [November,

giving the correct pronounciation, adding, however, the word
“amen.” This lady had never studied Latin and was not
familiar with the quotation. Another patient, a young girl,
who was psychopathic and neurothenie, could hypnotize her-
self by gazing at the brass ring of a window curtain. Both she
and I discovered this fact accidently, I, having discovered her,
on one occasion, in a hypnotized state, intently gazing at the
brass ring just mentioned. By a systematic course of fasting
and mental abstraction, thus weaking active conciousness,
the tchogis and fakeers of India are enabled to throw themselves
into a hypnotic condition at will. I haveseen so-called spirit-
mediums and clairvoyantes who could bring about hypnosis
a dozen times daily if necessary. Surely no one will assert
that these subjects are influenced by magnetism emanating
from themselves or from outside objects. One might just as
well accept the doctrines of Paracelsus and his disciples of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. We have seen that the
usual avenues to the hypnotic state lie through the senses of
sight and hearing, yet the sense of touch affords another avenue.
On the bodies of favorable subjects there are certain areas
called hypnogenie zones. When these zones are rubbed or
tickled the subject immediately passes into the hypnotic state.
In conclusion let me state, that I am confident that hypnosis
can be produced in the favorable subject, through many differ-
ent avenues or agencies, and that every one of these agencies
will be absolutely devoid of magnetism or any occult force.

NT E Ee TEE ee

1894.] Rules of Nomenelature. 929

RULES OF NOMENCLATURE ADOPTED BY THE IN-
TERNATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL CONGRESS, HELD
IN MOSCOW, RUSSIA, 1892.

Part II.

TRANSLATED BY Moritz FiscHer.’

I. NOMENCLATURE OF HYBRIDS.

1. (a) In the naming of hybrids the name of the male
should preceed that of the female, and be united with the lat-
ter by the sign of multiplication. The use of the astronomical
signs to indicate sex can be dispensed with. Of the two ex-
amples following, either can be used, as Capra hircus $ X Ovis
aries 9 , or Capra hircus X Ovis aries.

(b) Another method can be employed for this purpose. The
two names can be represented as is a fraction, the name of the
male forming the numerator, and that of the female the de-
nominator, as Owais. This second method possesses the
advantage that the name of the observer can be indicated
whenever such indication is desirable, as ierosmes ^ Rabé.

(c) The second method should be employed where either
one of the parents is a hybrid, as Gaius gaiinaseus — s

(d) In ease the parents of a hybrid are unknown, it pro-
visionally takes a simple specific name like a true species, but
the generic name is preceded by the multiplication sign, as
x Salix erdingeri Kerner.

II. Generic NAMES.

2. Every foreign word employed, either as a generic or
specific name, should retain the meaning it has in the lan-
guage from which it is taken, if in this language it denotes an
organized being, as Batrachus bdetta.

III. Sprecirric NAMES.
3. The geographical names of uncivilized countries, and of
such peoples as do not use the Latin alphabet, should be tran-

! The E" part of these rules was published in the AMERICAN NATURALIST for
May, 18
From al Revue Scientifique, No. 15, tome 50.

930 The American Naturalist. [November,

scribed according to the rules adopted by the Geographical
Society of Paris.

4. Both the preceeding article and article 21 of the rules
adopted by the Zoological Congress of Paris, in 1889, are ap-
plicable to names of persons, as Boydanovi, Metcknikovi.

5. The virginal spelling and all diacritic signs must be pre-
served in the Roumanian and certain other Slavonic languages
(Polish, Croatien, Bohemian), and likewise in those which use
the Latin alphabet, as Tania Medici, Congeria CZjzzki.

6. Specific names may be formed from feminine patrony-
mics or from common nouns. In such cases the genitive takes
the ending oe or orum to the full name of the person to whom
one dedicates, as Merianoe, Pfeifferoe.

IV. SPELLING or GENERIC AND SPECIFIC NAMES.

7. (a) Patronymies or surnames used for specific names must
always be spelled with a capital letter, as Rhizostoma Cuvieri,
Francolinus Lucani, Laophonte Mohammed.

(b) A capital letter can be used with certain geographical
names, as Antillarum, Galliae.

(c) In all other cases, the specific name is spelled with a
small letter, as Oestrus bovis, Corvus corax, Inula helenium.

8. If the name of the subgenus is cited, it should be placed
in parenthesis between the generic and specific names, as
Hirudo (Haemopis) sanguisuga.

9. If the name of a subspecies or variety is cited, it follows
the specific name without any inter-punctuation. The name
of the author of this subspecies or variety can be cited likewise
without inter-punctuation, as Rana esculenta marmorata Hallo-
well.

10. If a species has been placed in a genus other than the
one to which it was assigned by its author, the name of this
author is retained in notation, but placed in parenthesis, as
Pontobdella muricata (Linné).

V. SUBDIVISION AND CONSOLIDATION OF GENERA AND
SPECIES.

11. If a species is subdivided, the limited species to which is
applied the name of the original species receives a notation

Or ROT SNMP qu Eia

1894.] Rules of Nomenclature. 931

indicating both the name of the author who established the
same and the name of the author who subdivided the species.
as Taenia pectinata Goeze partim Riehm.

According to article 8, the name of the first author is put in
parenthesis if the species has been placed in a different genus,
as Moinezia pectinata (Goetze partim) Riehm.

VI. . FAMILY NAMES.

12. A family name must be discarded and replaced by
another if the generic name from which it was formed is a
synonym, and is itself discarded.

VII. Law or PRIORITY.

13. Zoological nomenclature dates from the issue of the sixtlr
edition of Systema naturae, published in 1758. This is the
standard work to which that zoologist must refer who wishes
to investigate and employ the oldest generic and specific
names, provided they conform to the fundamental rules of
nomenclature.

14. The law of priority is applicable to family names or to
those of higher groups, as well as to the names of genera and
species, provided groups are concerned which have a similar
extension.

15. A species which has been wrongly identified, must take
its correct name, according to article 35 of the rules adopted
by the Zoological Congress of 1889.

16. The law of priority must obtain, and consequently the
oldest name must be retained.

(a) When some part of a creature has been named before
the creature itself was known, as in the case of fossils.

(b) When the larva, supposed to be an adult form, has been
named before the adult form was known.

Exception should be made for the Cestodes, the Trematodes,
the Nematodes, the Acanthocephales, the Acariens and, in fine,
for all animals passing through metamorphic and migratory
stages. Many of these species are now being revised, and their
nomenclature will possibly undergo a complete change.

932 The American Naturalist. [November,

(c) When the two sexes of the same species have been con-
sidered as distinct species or as belonging to different genera.

(d) When the animal presents a regular succession of unlike
generations, which have been considered as belonging to divers
species or even genera.

17. It is very desirable that each new description of a genus
or species be accompanied by a diagnosis in Latin, or, at least,
a diagnosis in one of the four best known European languages,
i. e., French, English, German, Italian.

18. In works not published in one of the above-mentioned
languages, the explanation of the plates should be translated
entire, either into Latin or one of the continental languages.

19. When several names have been proposed simultaneously,
and priority for any one cannot be established, there should
be adopted—

(a) That name which is applied to a well-characterized and
typical species, in case of a generic name.

(b) That name which is accompanied by either figure,
diagnosis or description of an adult form, in case of a specific
name.

20. Generic names already employed in the same kingdom
cannot be used.

21. The use of those names should be avoided which can
only be distinguished by their gender endings or by a simple
orthographic change.

22. Specific names already employed in the name genus
cannot be used.

23. The generic and specific names which become non-avail-
able through the application of the foregoing rules cannot be
employed anew, even if they express a new meaning in the
same kingdom, if the name is generic; in the same genus if
the name is specific.

24. A generic or specific name once published cannot be
withdrawn, even by its author, on account of ambiguity.

25. All barbarisms and solecisms must be corrected; hybrid
names, however, such as Geovula, Vermipsylla should be re-

ined.

1894.] Rules of Nomenclature. 933

VIII. ALLIED QUESTIONS.

26. The metric system is the only one employed in zoology.
Foot and span, pound and ounce should be banished forever
from scientific language.

27. Heights and depths, speed and all other common meas-
ures are expressed in metres. Fathoms, knots, nautical miles
and like terms should disappear from scientific language.

28. The one-thousandth part of a millemeter (Omm, 001),
represented by the Greek letter », is the unit of measure
adopted in micrography.

29. Temperatures are expressed in degrees of the centigrade
thermometer of Celsius.

30. The indication of the enlargement or the reduction of an
illustration is indispensable to its correct understanding. This
indication is expressed in numbers and not by noting the
number of the objective which was employed in producing the
illustration.

31. It is proper to indicate whether a linear or a surface en-
largement has been employed. These notations can easily be
abridged, as: X 50 (J, indicating a surface enlargement of-
fifty times; X 50 — indicating a linear enlargement of fifty
times.

934 The American Naturalist. [November,.

PRAIRIE CHICKEN AND WILD PIGEON IN JACKSON
COUNTY, MICHIGAN, 1894.

By L. WuirNEYy WATKINS.

It has been nearly twenty years since the last prairie
chicken, Tympanuchus americanus, was seen in this or neighbor-
ing localities. Occasionally reports have come to me of their
presence still, in the vicinity of Freedom Swamps Washtenaw
. County, and Portage and Wolf Lakes Jackson County. Care-
ful investigation, however, has found these reports founded,

usually, upon the exaggeration of some hunter, possessed of

an enthusiastic turn of mind, and entirely lacking in substan-
tial evidence.

In 1893 we have the following notes on this species from
neighboring counties: “ Extinct at Ann Arbor, Washtenaw
County," Dr. J. B. Steere. “Extinct for more than thirty
years in Monroe County," Jerome Trombley. Authorities
have generally regarded them as a game bird figuring only in
the romantic past of this part of Michigan.

On April 22, 1894, Charles V. Hay, a clever sportsman of a
town near at hand, brought me the welcome news that on the
day previous he had actually flushed sixteen “chickens” in
Merrill’s cranberry marsh of about thirty acres extent and
not a mile from the village of Norvell. As Mr. Hay has
hunted these birds on the western plains there could be little
doubt of the identity, and sure enough they were easily found,
in all their old-time glory, a few days later. Local hunters
were much excited as the news spread, and old followers of the
“sport with rod and gun” shook their gray heads in silent
amazement. They would as soon have expected to again wit-
ness the running ascent of the wild turkey among the broad-
topped trees of the “ Oak Openings,” as the plunging rise of
the prairie hen from the adjoining meadow. These birds are
now nesting and once again the loud “ booming” of the cocks

HDi m:

1894.] Prairie Chicken and Wild Pigeon. 935

has resounded back and forth among the hills which have
not known the old familiar sound for many a year before.

Adolphe B. Covert, the veteran ornithologist and taxider-
mist of Washtenaw County, tells me that a small band of
prairie chickens has continued to live in a tract of marsh
land some distance from Ann Arbor, notwithstanding Dr.
Steere's notes to the contrary. Thus it is very probable that
our immigrants, unless they switched off from some western
contigent of Coxey’s Army, came from some such isolated
locality where yet a few pairs nest, rather than in a long flight
from the southwest as many would believe.

On June 13, 1894, late in the afternoon, as I was returning
from an interesting day among the late-nesting water birds, a
fine male wild pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, was startled from
a plowed field, lately sown to buckwheat, and rose in full view
not more than thirty feet away, affording identification of
which I am positive. He flew a few rods and dropped grace-
fully into the dense foliage of a maple tree by the roadside.
Then as I approached, wondering at the presence of the beau-
tiful bird, now so rare, whose garnished plumage turned the
rays of the sun into a thousand bright reflections, and ina
land over which, in numbers eclipsing all other species, his
ancestry once fairly swarmed, he again took wing and with a
rapid, measured tread of his pointed pinions disappeared in
an instant over the wooded hills beyond. But the old-time
flights of pigeons are forever of the past. It had been nine
years since the last few were seen here, and we had begun to
think it very probable that they would never again be noted.

On June 16, a pair were seen in the same field and on June
18 three were noted by my brother, two of which he was very
certain were young of the year. Perhaps a pair of “$2.00
eggs” were hatched in this very locality.

Of the disappearance of the wild pigeon in Southern Michi-
gan, we have the following notes: “ Extinct at Ann Arbor in
1875,” Dr. J. B. Steere. “ Extinct in Monroe County in 1885,”
Jerome Trombley. “Last seen at Morrice, Mich., in 1881,"
Dr: W. C. Brownell.

936 The American Naturalist. [November,

We thus see that birds long supposed to be of the past may
yet linger with us in a few lonely specimens. Oh! that we
might reinstate again the proud hosts of the mystic past in
the lands they once adorned, and in whose ornithological
features they once figured so prominently. To this land a
few still cling in loving faithfulness to the traits of an innu-
merable ancestry.

1894.] Editorials. 937

EDITORIALS.

We have frequently complained in these columns of the exclusive
conduct of scientific enterprises by persons not acquainted with the
sciences and not engaged in their pursuit. We will not enumerate the
blunders committed by such persons under such circumstances, as
they have recently come under our observation; but only refer
now to a question of taste in which some of these well meaning
persons have immortalized themselves in stone. A new building
for the use of the collections of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia was recently erected, chiefly from money appro-
priated by the Legislature of Pennsylvania. An entrance door-
way was devised, andin order that it should represent the uses of the
building, it was adorned with figures and reliefs of animals. Persons
possessed of the least spark of originality would have seen the propriety
of representing in these figures something appropriate to the country,
and if possible the institution. Nothing would have been easier than
to have placed at the entrance of the Museum, figures of some of the
forms of life discovered by its members. The idea was suggested to
the gentlemen in charge of the construction, but to commemorate in so
conspicuous a manner the services of the naturalists of the Academy
it did not strike them favorably. So it came that the apex of the en-
trance was surmounted by, not even an African lion, but an official
British lion, with his mane brushed into a collar like Punch’s
dog, such as one sees on Government buildings in Great Britain. On
each side isa lioness similar to those seen on buildings all over the
world. At the summit of one lateral column is a head of a hound, and
on the other side a ram with very unsymmetrical horns, both foreign
importations. Of the animals in relief above the door, the only Amer-
ican animal is a crab, Lupa diacantha, which is indeed, very appropri-
ate to the building commission, as it generally goes backwards, and
pinches its nearest neighbors.

—Wnurxs the natural sciences are taught in our publie schools, there
will be fewer absurd and untrue stories published in the newspapers.
Thus a recent Philadelphia paper tells of a man in Arizona who had
two Helodermas (“Gila monsters ”), each three feet in length, which
acted as watch-dogs for him, and which killed a would-be assassin who
entered his house at night. From New York comes a story of a physi-

938 The American Naturalist. [November,

cian who fed his guests with cholera bacilli, and thus caused their
deaths. This doctor is said to reside in Buenos Ayres, and his name
is given. A New York paper publishes a reporter’s interview with the
Governor of Illinois, in which that worthy is made to say that he is
afflicted with locomotor ataxia. According to the Governor, the inter-
view never took place. Here inaccuracy has passed into mendacity,
as in the case of the New York World’s interview with the astronomer
Secci, which were shown to have been pure inventions. One o
the editors of this journal thought he would investigate the source
of stories as to the frequent appearance of an alleged ghost on a moor
south of Brooklyn last August. These stories had been published in a
conspicuous way in several papers of New York and Brooklyn for
several weeks, and it seemed worth while to look into a matter which
they published as serious news. Nothing was seen, however, but a few
young men, among whom were reporters of the Brooklyn Eagle, the
New York Sun, and the New York World. The last-named confessed
to having himself filled the róle of ghost on one night by using news-
papers, so that this ghost, like most others, appears to have been of
& purely subjective origin on the part of one newspaper at least.

— LIEUTENANT PEARY’s party has returned, leaving him to prose-
ute his researches with only two companions. The results to geogra-
phy are not great, as he was compelled to abandon the expedition to
the northeast coast of Greenland, owing to extreme severity of the
weather. Some ofthe men who have returned, have been talking in a
way which shows that they are not adapted for service on an exploring
expedition, and Lieutenant Peary is, apparently, well rid of them. It
is hoped that the next season will be more propitious. We express
here our regret that the Academy of Natural Sciences of this city has
not contiuued to interest itself officially in this important enterprise,
as it did in the beginning.

—AN artificial taste or custom has often interfered with healthy
natural processes in human affairs. The follies of human fashions are
innumerable. We refer now to one of minor importance, and yet one
which well illustrates'the proposition—that is, the alleged fattening of
oysters for the market: The nearer the habitat of an oyster approaches
salt water, the better will its flavor be, as, for example, the Blue Points
of Long Island Sound, the Chincoteagues of the Maryland Coast, the
Norfolks of Virginia and the Baratarias of Louisiana. "These oysters
all have, in the natural state, a brownish or yellowish tint, which, to
the connoisseur, is a sure indication of their superior merits. Here,

m enis TEETER: nae

=

1894.] Editorials. 939

however, the perversity of an artificial taste enters. Many people must
have them white. Such persons prefer a comparatively fresh water
oyster, as the Maurice River Coves of the Delaware and those of the
upper Chesapeake. Also, if they are not fat they must be made so.
To accomplish these two most undesirable ends, the oysters are supplied
with fresh water so gradually as not to kill them immediately. They
lose the russet tint of health if they have it, and become swelled up
by endosmosis. Their flavor is destroyed and is replaced by one that
strongly reminds one of that of the leueomaines produced in the stomach
by indigestion. "The oysters are thoroughly sickened, and in this state
are sold and eaten in large numbers by multitudes who do not know
the flavor of that most excellent molluse, a healthy salt water Ostrea
virginica.

—Tuis year was very wet during the spring in the Eastern States,
and this period was followéd by one of the severest draughts known in
our history, which is now, fortunately, broken. The heat of the sum-
mer was nearly or quite equal to that of 1876. Whether these peculiar
conditions be the cause or not, the scarcity in the same region of batra-
chians, reptiles and birds during the past season has been exceptional.

940 The American Naturalist. [November,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, J. A.— Description of Didelphis (Micoureus) canescens sp. nov., from the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico.—On Birds from Matto Grosso, Brazil.

—— Further Notes on Costa Rican Mammals with Description of a New Species
of Oryzomys. Extrs. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist, Vol. V, 1893. From the
author.

ALLEN, J. A. AND CHAPMAN, F. M.—On a Collection of Mammals from the
Island of Trinidad, with descriptions of New Species. Extr Bull. Am. Mus.
Nat. Hist., Vol. V, 1893. From the author

Banos, O.—Description of a New Field-mouse (Arvicola terrenove) from
Codroy. Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc., Washington, July, 1894. From the author.

Bett, R.—Pre-Paleozoic Decay of Crystalline Rocks north of Lake Huron.
Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.. Vol. 5, 1894. From the Society.

BogrTGER, O.—Eine neue Eidechse aus Südwest Africa. No. 5 Abhandl. und
Ber. d. Königl. Zool. v. Anthropol. Mus. zu Dresden, 1892, 1893.

-——H. A. Fen und die Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen der Helices im Ter-
u rat-Abdruck aus Nachrichtsblatt der Deutschen Malakozool.
Gesellschaft, No. 5 u 6, 1894.

—— Diagnosen eines Geckos und eines Chamelons aus Süd. Madagaskar. Sep-
arat-Abdruck aus dem Zool. Anz., No. 445, 1894.

BOULENGER, G. A.—On Remains of an Extinct Gigantic Tortoise from Mada-
gascar (Testudo grandidieri Vaillant). Extr. Trans. Zool. Soc. London, 1894.
From the author.

Brown, A. E.—Species of North American Bears. Extr. Forest and Stream,
Dec., 1893. From the author.

Bulletin No. 101, 1894, North Carolina Agric. Exper. Stat.

Bulletin No. 51, 1894, Massachusetts State Agricultural Experiment Station.

Catt, R. E.—On the Geographic and Hypsometric distribution of North
American Viviparidae. Extr. Am. Journ. Sci., Vol. XLVIII, 1894. From the
author.

CHAMBERLAIN, T. C. AND LEVERETT, F.—Further Studies of the Drainage
Features of the Upper Ohio Basin. Extr. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLVII, 1894.
From the author. :

CHAPMAN, F. M.— Description of a New Subspecies of Oryzomys from the
Gulf States. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, 1893. From the author.

Corr, E. D,—New and Little-known Paleozoic and Mesozoic Fishes.——On
Cyphornis, an extinct genus of birds.—— Extinet Bovidae, Canidae and Felidae
from the Plistocene of the Plains. Extrs. Journ. A. N. S. Phila., Vol. IX.

CREDNER, H.—Die Stegocephalen und Saurier aus dem Rothliegende des
Plauen'schen Grundes bei Dresden. Aus der Zeitschr. d. Deutschen geologisch.
Gesell. Bd. XXXIII, XLV, und aus der Naturwissensch. Wochenschrift Bd. V,
Berlin, 1890, From the author.

Dawson, J. W.—New species of cretaceous Plants from Vancouver Island.
Extr. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada Sect. IV, 1893. From the author.

Ds rel ES e e LN T RENE

PLATE XXX.

= iF
‘ M RS
> ]
Y

d

NSeleucides albu. Firem Brel m's Thierleben.

1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 941

Dereret, M.—La Classification et le Parallélism du System Miocéne. Extr. du
Bull. de la Soc. Geol. de France T. XXI, 1893.——- Sur un gisement sidérolith-
ique des Mammifères de l'éocéne moyen à Lissien, prés Lyon. Extr. Comptes-
Rendus de'l'Acad. de Sci. Paris, 1894. From the author.

Dorro, L.—Nouvelle Note surl'osteologie des Mosasauriens. Extr. Bull, Soc.
Belge Geol. Paleon. et. Hydrol. 1894. From the author.

FüiEck, Ep.— Vorkommen und Lebensweise der Reptilien und Batrachier.
Sonderabdruck aus Ber. Senckenb. naturf. Gesell. in Frankfort A. M., 1894.
From is author.

GARMAN, H.—A Preliminary List of the Vertebrate Animals of Kentucky.
Extr. Ball, Essex Inst. Salem, 1894. From the author

HAECKEL, E.—Bericht über die feier des sechzigsten EA Ee iii Jena, 1894.

Hosss, W. H.—Volcanite, an eee rt En Rock chemically like the
Dacites. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. 5, 1893. From the author.

Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports, Vol. $4 Nos. 4-5, 1894. Reportin Neurol-

ogy.

JORGENSEN, A.—Hansen’s System of Pure Yeast Culture in English Top-Fer-
mentation. Extr. Trans. Inst. Brewing No. 8, Vol. VII, 1874. From the
author.

_ Lams, D. S.—The Female External Genital Organs; a criticism on current
anatomical description. Extr. New York Journ. Gyn. and Obstet., Aug., 1894.
From the author

Locy, W. A.—The rtis of the Pineal Eye. Extr. Anat. Anz. IX, Bd.
Nr.5&6. From the an

Mirzs, M. Dr.—How Pn and Animals did Extr. Pop. Sci., 1893.

MILLER, G. S., JR. AND Bancs, O.—A new Rabbit from Western Florida.
Extr. Proceeds Biol. Soc. Washington, June, 1894. From the author.

MowLoN, M.— Discours prononcé aux Funérailles de P. J. Van Beneden,
Membre dela Classe des Sciences. Extr. Bull. Acad. Roy. de Beligique 3d série
t. XXVII, 1894. From the author.

MouRLoN, M.—Sur la création d'un Bureau International de Bibliographie.
Extr. Acad. Roy. de Belgique, 1894. From the aut

PFEFFER, G.—Die inneren Fehler der Weismannschen Keimplasma-Theorie.
——Die Üstwabdieng der Arten ein Vorgang funktioneller Selbstgestaltung.
Sonderabzug aus den Verhandl. des Naturwiss. Ver. Hamburg, 1894. From the
author.

PowzLL, J. W.—The Geologic Map of the United States. Extr. Trans Amer.
Inst. Mining Engineers, 1893. From the author.

Reports on the Aquarium of the U. S. Fish Commission at the World's Colum-
bian Exposition. Extr. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1893. From Dr. S. A
Forbes.

Report of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries on Investigations in the
Columbian River Basin in regard to the Salmon Fisheries. Washington, 1894.

Russet, H. L.—Dirt in the Dairy and what it does for Milk. Extr. Wisc.
Farmer, 1894. From the author.

SEELEY, H. G.—On a Reptilian Tooth with two Roots. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. Vol. XII, 1893. From the author.

62

942 The American Naturalist. [November,

SHUFELDT, R. W.—On cases of Complete Fibulae in existing Birds. Extr.

The a July, 1894. From the author
—The Post-Eocene F oratióne of the Costal Plain of Alabama.
no Au Toii Sci., Vol. XLVII, 1894. From the author.

STEARNS, W. A-sDeseription of Atherina penikesea Stearns. No date given.
From the author.

Tarr, R. S.—Lake Cayuga a Lake Basin. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. 5,
1894. From the Society.

TowNsEND, C. H. T.—A new Trypetid from Chacaltinanguis, Mexico, with a
Note on Hexachaeta amabilis L.W. Extr. Loe. Vol. IV, 1893.—— Comments
on Mr. Van der wu —— c — of new species of Mexican Phasiidae,
Gymnosomatidae, Ocypter d Phaniidae. Extr. Can. Entomol., 1893.
A. Cabbage-like LA cru Gallon Bigelovia. Extr. Psyche, 1893. From
the author.

Twenty-second Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the Zoological
Society of Philadelphia.

WADSWORTH, M. E.—A Paper on the Michigan ae School. Lansing,
1894. From the author.

Ward, L. F.—Fossil Cycadean Trunks of North America, with a Revision of
the Genus Cyeadeoidea Buckland. Extr. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. IX, 1894.
From the author.

Wuite, C, A.—Memoir of Amos Henry Worthen 1813-1888. Washington,
1893. From the author.

Wituston, S. W.—A New Dicotyline Mammal from the Kansas Pliocene.
Extr. Science, Vol. XXIII, 1894

WiNsLow, A.—The Art and Development of Topographic Mapping. Extr.
Engineering Mag., 1893. From the author.

WzaicHT, G. F.—Continuity of the Glacial Period. Extr. Am. Jour. Sci.,
Vol. XLVII, 1894. From the author.

- tA Ree ANH Zu UL imp) RONMENT n

1894.] Recent Literature. 943

RECENT LITERATURE.

Amphioxus and the Ancestry of the Vertebrates.'— This
important monograph will be welcomed by all students of zoology as
as a valuable accession to the literature of the theory of descent.
More than this, the volume bears internal evidence throughout of pains-
taking care in bringing together, in an exceedingly readable form, all
the essential details of the structure and metamorphosis of amphioxus
as worked out by anatomists and embryologists since the time of Pallas,
its discoverer. The interesting history of the changes it undergoes

during metamorphosis, especially its singular asymmetry, is clearly
described and ingenious explanations of the phenomena are sug-

gested
Most important, perhaps, are the carefully suggested homologies of
the organs of Amphioxus with those of the embryos of the vertebrates

-above itin rank, especially those of the Marsipobranchs and Selachians.

Though the comparisons with the organisms next below amphioxus,

‘such as the Ascidians, Balanoglosus, Cephalodiscus, Rhabdopleura and

the Echinoderms, will be found no less interesting. In short, the book
may be commended to students already somewhat familiar with zoolog-
ical facts and principles, as an important one to read. They may thus
be brought to appreciate to what an extent the theory of descent is
indebted to the patient labors of the zoologists of the last forty years

for a secure foundation in observed facts, seen in their proper correla-

tions, according to the comparative method.
The figures are good and there is very little that can be adversely

criticised in the book. On page 176 it is stated that the ectoderm is

not ciliated in any craniate vertebrate. To this statement exception
must be taken in regard to the ectoderm of the sides of the body and
especially the tail of young tadpoles just hatched. Born in his experi-
ments, in grafting pieces of young tadpoles upon one another, found
that the tail,when cut off and lying on its side, had a power of
movement, in the cephalad direction, that could be explained only

-on the supposition that the ectoderm of the sides was more or less ex-

tensively covered with cilia. This observation the writer has confirmed
in repeating Born's experiments in just hatched tadpoles of Rana. The

! Volume II of the Columbia University Biological Series, by Arthur Willey,
B.Sc. 8vo, pp. 316, 135 figures. New York, MacMillan & Co., 1894.

944 The American Naturalist. [November,

volume, however, brings together everything essential that has ever
been made out in regard to Amphioxus, so that zoologists will every-
where feel grateful to Mr. Willey for placing in their hands this very
useful summary of its life history. The work contains not alittle that
is new, and some new figures not hitherto published. A very complete
bibliography and index completes the volume. One hundred and
thirty-three titles are comprised in the list of papers and works con-
sulted in the preparation of the volume. If the other volumes in
course of preparation by the professors in biology of Columbia Uni-
versity are up to the high standard of the present one, that institution
is to be congratulated upon the enterprise of those who have initiated
the project.—R.

Correlation Papers of the U. S. Geol. Survey: Archean
and Algonkian.'— This memoir, written by Prof. C. R. Van Hise,
is the seventh of the Correlation Papers series, and is, perhaps, one of
the most important of that valuable set. The pre-Cambrian rocks of
the United States and Canada, for convenience, are considered under
the heads of seven districts, which are severally discussed in as many
ehapters. Each chapter is prefaced with abstracts of all the articles
pertaining to the subject considered, classified by dates, together with
summaries of the conclusions which appear to be established. Chapter
VIII summarizes the various successions proposed, suggests one, and
discusses the principles of pre-Cambrian stratigraphy. The Archean
is the basal complex of America. It has everywhere, if large areas
are considered, an essential likeness. It consists mainly of granitic,
gneissie and schistic rocks, among which are never found beds
of indubitable clastics. When different kinds of rocks are asso-
ciated, their structural relations are intricate, which, together
with the crystalline schistose character of the rocks, the broken and
distorted mineral constituents, and involuted foldings are evidences
that these rocks have passed through repeated powerful dynamie
movements.

In regard to Algonkian stratigraphy, the writer accepts the struc-
tural and lithological principles enunciated by Irving, Pumpelly and
Dale. It remains to be demonstrated, however, to the satisfaction of
most geologists that the formation termed Algonkian, is not a part of
the Cambrian.

* Bulletin of the Geological Survey, No. 86. eepe Peer Archean
and Algonkian. By Charles R. Van Hise. Washington, 18

—É

Di ia rt ripe: aka SIL
: * an” nce

1894.] Recent Literature. 945

Economic Geology of the United States.—In a volume of
509 pages, Mr. R. S. Tarr has compiled the information, up to 1893,
concerning the mineral resources and industries of the United States.
Although intended as a text-book to supplement a course of lectures
at Cornell University, the style of the writer makes it of general inter-
est. Part I treats of the common rock and vein-forming minerals and
ores, the rocks of the earth's crust, physical geography and geology of
the United States, origin of ore deposits, and mining terms and meth-
ods. Part II takes up metalliferous deposits in detail. The statistics
are almost all compiled from the standard sources. An appendix con-
tains the literature of the subject and a list of authors and works re-
ferred to in the text. A number of cuts illustrate the text.

Woods’ Invertebrate Paleontology.'—This crown octavo of
222 pages, by Professor Henry Woods, is the first of the Cambridge
Natural Science Manuals. In it the author presents a condensed ac-
count of the invertebrate paleontology necessary for a geological stu-
dent, limiting himself for space reasons to a consideration of those
fossil animals that are most useful to a stratigraphist. Each group is
discussed according to the following general plan: first, its general
geological features; secondly, the classification, characters and time
range of the geologically important genera; thirdly, the distribution
of each group. The text is abundantly illustrated and well indexed.

3 Economie Geology of the United States with briefer mention of Foreign Min-
eral Products. By R. S. Tarr. New York, 1894. MacMillan & Co., Pub-
lishers

+ Riementary Paleontology for Geological Students. By Henry Woods, B. A.,
F.G.S. Cambridge, 1893.

946 The American Naturalist. [November,

General Notes.

p

PETROGRAPHY.

Zirkel's Petrographie.—The second volume of Zirkel's treatise
on Petrography? has recently appeared in America. It treats with
such fulness of the massive rocks that an epitome of its contents is out
of the question in this place. The volume discusses the composition,
mineral and chemical, the structure and the distribution of the various
types of the eruptive rocks with a thoroughness found only in German
text-books. The descriptions of their important occurrences will be
especially valuable to the student who has not a library at his disposal ;
and to the investigator, the large and accurate lists of references scat-
tered through the book are very welcome, Many petrographers will
differ with the author as to the importance and desirability of some of
his types, and others will find fault with him concerning some of histhe-
ories, as, for instance, that of the origin of olivine aggregates in basalts.
'The volume is, however, on the whole quite free from theoretical dis-
cussions. While it loses something of its interest in consequence of
this lack of theory, the book gains the confidence of the reader, who
desires more particularly an account of the work done in the different
provinces, where the rocks in which he is interested are to be found.

Inclusions in Volcanic Rocks.—T wo articles on the petrograph-
ical changes affected by the partial or entire solution of foreign inclu-
sions in voleanic rocks have recently appeared. The first is an essay
by Dannenberg, and the second a volume of 710 pages by Lacroix.*
Dannenbergs í article pena more particulari of the inclusions in the

l trachytes. Zircons, corundum, mag-
netite, pyrite, feldspar. sillimanite, quartz, sandstone, schists and gran-
ite were found included in both basic and acid rocks of the region.
Those inclusions that were most similar to the including rocks suffered
much less alteration than those that differed most in chemical compo-
sition from the lavas. The aluminous compounds frequently yielded

IEdited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2F, Zirkel: Lehrbuch der oo Leipzig, 1894, pp. iv and 941.
?Min. u. Petrog. Mitth. XIV,

*Les Enclaves des Roches poda Macon, 1898, pp. 710, pl. vii, fig. 84.

SERO VERRE NUN RIT T ERE NIE TT a ET

1894.] Petrography. 947

spinels as a consequence of the contact action. In many instances
different combinations of inclusion and including rocks gave rise to:
the same new products, so that it is difficult to discover the exact law
governing the changes. In the basalts the principal inclusions con-
sisted of single minerals, while in the more acid rocks they comprised:
largely rock fragments—a fact probably attributable to the different.
solvent powers of the including material. Lacroix's volume is a
nearly complete treatise on the subject of which it treats, which is lim-
ited, as the title indicates, to the study of inclusions in volcanic (effu-
sive) rocks only. The author separates inclusions into two classes.
The first comprises fragments of an entirely different nature from that
of the enclosing rock, as granite in basalt. These he calls enalloge-
nous (enclaves énallogénes). The second class comprehends inclusions
more or less similar in composition to the including material. These
he terms homogeneous inclusions (enclaves homoeogéues). Thesecond
class embraces aggregates formed by segregation and by liquation, as
well as true inclusions. The including rocks are also separated into
two groups, the basaltic and the trachytic. In the first part of the
book the enallogenous inclusions are discussed with great thoroughness.
In the second part the homogenous inclusions are studied. In a third
part are collected the general conclusions. Chapters are devoted to
each class of rocks and divisions of the chapters to the character of
the inclusions in them. Resumés and paragraphs embracing the
results of the studies are scattered through the volume at convenient
intervals, and a geographical index concludes the book. The number
of discoveries made by the author in the course of his work is too
large for discussion in this place. The book bears evidence of thorough-
ness throughout. It is an excellent contribution to the subject of con-
tact action.

The Basic Rocks of the Adirondacks and of the Lake
Champlain Region.—Kemp? gives a brief account of the coarse
basic rocks of the Adirondacks of which the well known norite is a phase
Associated with the norite are anorthosites, gabbros and olivine gabbros,
all of which are more or less schistose. The anorthosites are crushed,
and where the shattering has been most intense their plagioclase has been
changed to a fine grained aggregate, thought to be saussurite. Augite
and brown hornblende are present in these rocks, but not in large
quantity. Garnets are always present. The more basic gabbros are
dark rocks, whose plagioclase has a greenish tinge due to the abund-

5Bull, Geol. Soc. Amer. 5, p. 218.

948 Th American Naturalist. [November,

ance of dust inclusions scattered through it. The special features of
the gabbros are the reaction rims around pyroxene and magnetite. A
zone of small brown hornblendes is often found between the first named
mineral and plagioclase. Between magnetite and feldspar are usually
three zones, of brown hornblende, pink garnet, and quartz, respectively,
the last named mineral occurring nearest the feldspar. Sometimes the
order of the zones is different. The quartz may appear within the
zone of garnets, in which case the latter mineral may replace the feld-
spar in part, as alternate lamellae between lamellae of plagioclase.
The gabbros contain large bodies of titaniferous magnetite. On the
contact of the eruptive with limestone the latter rock has been crystal-
lized and silicified. The same author, associated with Marsters,’ has
described the trap dykes of the Lake Champlain region as camptonites,
fourchites, monchiquites and bostonites.

The Augite Granite of Kekaquabic Lake, Minnesota.—
The granite of Kekaquabic Lake in Northeastern Minnesota, occurs
in granitic and in porphyritic phases, according to Grant.’ In both
varieties the constituents are quartz, anorthoclase and other feldspars,
augite, a little hornblende, biotite, apatite and sphene. The granitic
variety needs no further mention. In the porphyritic phase the quartz
and feldspar form a fine grained groundmass in which lie phenocrysts
of feldspar and augite. An analysis of this feldspar, whose density is
2.58-2.62 gave:

SiO, ALO; Fe, d MgO KO Nao HO Total
67.99 19.27 8 02 3.05 623 .90 — 99.03

The augite comprises from 5-20 per cent of the rock. Its tint varies
from green to colorless, the lighter colored portion often lying within
a darker outer zone. Analysis of the augite yielded:

SiO, AlO, FeO FeO CaO MgO K,O NajO H,O Total
19 2.38 925 5.15 17.81 943 .38 263 .01— 10033

The rock, which is an augite soda-granite, has the following composi-
tion :

SiO, ALO, FeO, FeO CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O P,O, Total
66.84 18.22 2.27 20 331 81 2.80 5,14 46 tr = 100.05

5BullU S. Geol. Survey, No. 107.
7Amer. Geol., XI, 1893, p. 383,

1894.] Petrography. 949

Petrographical News.—In a series of articles recently published
Vogt? diseusses the formation of oxides and sulphide ores around basic
eruptive rock bodies, describes all the known occurrences of the nickel
sulphides with reference to their mode of origin, and reviews critically
the literature treating of the differentiation of rock magmas. e
shows that the nickel ore deposits that are peripheral must be due to
differentiation of rock magmas. He further shows that the laws gov-
erning the processes of differentiation are very complieated and that
neither Soret's principle nor any other single physical or chemical
principle will satisfactorily explain the phenomena.

Dr. G. H. Williams? reports the occurrence of volcanic rocks at
many localities in the eastern crystalline belt of North America. The
rocks in question comprise tuffs, glass breccias, devitrified obsidians and
fine grained crystalline flow rocks with many of the characteristics of
modern lavas. All these have heretofore been regarded as sedimentary
in origin by most of the geologists who have studied them. The
author gives his reasons for concluding that they are volcanic, and de-
clares that, not before their true character is recognized will the struct-
ure of the crystalline areas of the Appalachians be correctly under-
stood.

Lang" discusses the conclusions of Rosenbuch" with respect to the
chemical nature of the crystalline schists, and criticizes Linck’s prin-
ciples governing the mineralogical composition of eruptive rocks. In
his article, which is well worth reading, the author shows conclusively
that the mineral composition of rocks is -not determined by their
chemical composition.

*Zeits f. prakt. Geol., 1893, Jan., April.

?Journ. of Geol., Vol. 2, p. 1.

‘Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., XIII, p. 496.

UCf. American Naturalist, 1891, p. 827.

950 The American Naturalist. [November,.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Cambrian Rocks of Pennsylvania from the Susque-
hanna to the Delaware.—Mr. C. D. Walcott has published his
notes on the basal quartzites and limestones of the lower Paleozoic
rocks that extend across Pennsylvania, from the Susquehanna river to
the Delaware river, and across New Jersey to Orange County, New
York, on the north, and into Chester County, Pennsylvania, on the
east. The paper is concluded with the following brief summary of the
results of the author’s observations :

“ The discovery of the Olenellus or Lower Cambrian fauna in the
Reading sandstone practically completes the correlation of the South
mountain, Chickis and Reading quartzites of Pennsylvania, and estab-
lishes the correctness of the early correlations of McClure, Eaton,
Emmons and Rogers. They all considered the basal quartzite as the
same formation from Vermont to Tennessee; and the discoveries of recent.
years have proven that the basal sandstone of Alabama, Tennesseé
and Virginia (Chilowee quartzite) ; Maryland, Pennsylvania and New
Jersey (the Reading quartzite); New York and Vermont (Bennington
quartzite) ; were all deposited in Lower Cambrian time, and that they
contain the characteristic Olenellus fauna throughout their geographic
distribution. "The superjacent limestones carry the Olenellus fauna in
their lower portions, in northern and southern Vermont, eastern New
York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. To the south of Pennsylvania
the lower portions of the limestones appear to be represented by shales,
and tbe upper and middle Cambrian faunas are found in the lower
half of the Knox dolomite series of Tennessee, and they will probably
be discovered in the same series in Virginia and Maryland, when a
thorough search is made for them. "The same may be predicted, but
with less assurance, for the northern belt of limestone crossing Pennsyl-
vania and into New Jersey, as the limestones between the Olenellus
zone and the Trenton zone represent the intervals of the middle and
upper Cambrian and lower Ordovician, or the Caleiferous and Chazy
zones, of the New York section. The working out of the details of
this section in southeastern Pennsylvania is an interesting problem,
left for solution to some geologist who has the necessary paleontologic
training and who will not be discouraged by the prospect of a good deal
of hard work before the desired result can be obtained."

^ Dai ap A LA Nes

BC DANIE Oe ee

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 951

“The problem of where to draw the line in this series of limestones,
on a geologic map, between the Cambrian and the Ordovician, is one
that will seriously embarrass the geologist, but I anticipate that either
lithologie or paleontologie characters will be discovered by which the
two groups can be differentiated. If not, the limestones must be col-
ored as one lithologic unit or formation and the approximate line of
demarkation between the Cambrian and Ordovician indicated in the
columnar section accompanying the legend of the map.’

Geology of Bathurst, New South Wales.—Bathurst is the
centre of a region of considerable geological importance, and geologists
are indebted to Mr. W. J. C. Ross for a detailed account of the forma-
tions of that district. The Bathurst Plains is a tract of undulating
country surrounded by hills. The Plains form an extensive granite
area estimated at 450 square miles, while the hills are of metamorphic
rock, probably all Silurian. To the east of Bathurst they are backed
by an escarpment of Devonian quartzites and sandstones. <A few of
the western hills are capped by basalt resting on Gravels, indicating
‘volcanic eruptions in the district.

In discussing the age of the Granite, the author states that it is newer
than the Silurian, but its relative age with respect to the Devonian is
uncertain. He is inclined to think that there have been two intrusions,
one subsequent to the Silurian and prior to the Devonian ; and tke
second disturbed the Devonian strata, converting the sandstones into
quartzites, A series of veins which traverses the central mass of gran-
ite is probably connected with the second intrusion. (Quart. Journ,
Geol. Soc., Vol. L, 1894.) -

Fossil Tipulidae.—In a paper on Tertiary Tipulidae recently
published by Samuel H. Scudder, the author describes twenty-nine new
species of 10 genera of Limnobinæ and twenty-two new species of 5
genera of Tipulidæ from Florissant, Colorado, only. From facts now
known Mr. Scudder concludes that three principal insect localities in
western Colorado and Wyoming are deposits in a single body of water,
the ancient Gosiute Lake. To the fauna of these deposits he applies
the term Gosiute Fauna, in distinction from the Florissant or Lacustrine
Fauna in central Colorado. No single species of the Lacustrine fauna
occurs in the Gosiute, and among the few genera found in two of the
localities of the Gosiute fauna, the species of each locality are distinct
from those of the other,

952 The American Naturalist. [November,

As a summary of general results obtained from the study of these
remains, Mr. Scudder submits the following propositions:

1, The general facies of the Tipulid fauna of our western territories
is American and agrees best with the fauna of about the same latitude
in America.

2. All the species are extinct.

3. No species are identical with. any of the few described European
tertiary Tipulidae.

4, Of the Florissant genera, eight out of fifteen are extinct.

5. All the existing genera, except Cladura (American) of the Amer-
ican tertiaries are genera common to the north temperate zone of
Europe and America, and are generally confined to those regions,
Hence a similar climate is inferred; at least, there are no certain indi-
cations of a warmer climate.

Mr. Scudder is fortunate in having such beautifully preserved speci-
mens with which to illustrate his paper. The delicate appendages, the
markings and venation of the wings, and even the facets of the com-
pound eyes are shown. The reproduction of the drawings of such
delicate fossils reflects great credit upon the lithographer. (Proc.
Amer. Philos, Soc., Vol. X XXII.)

Diatoms.—A deep-sea dredging in the Atlantic Ocean, off Dela-
ware Bay, yielded 145 species of diatoms comprising not only marine
forms, but a large number that are known to be fresh-water, and some
found hitherto only in a fossil state. They were submitted to Mr.
Albert Mann for examination, who reports an entire absence of new
species. This fact, taken in connection with the depth of the water
(318 fathoms), and the number and variety of species, leads the author
to conclude that the deposit is composed of fine detritus sifted down
upon the sea bottom, and conveyed there by currents from a consider-
able distance. A list of the genera and species is given, with references
to the drawings and descriptions in published works by which they were
identified. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., 1893.)

Scott on Agriochoerus.—Some fragmentary skeletons of Agrio-
cheerus, associated with the teeth from the White river bad lands of
South Dakota, have confirmed a conjecture made by W. B. Scott that
Artionyx O. & W. is a synonym of Agriochoerus Leidy. This new
material permits Dr. Scott to determine the relation that Agriocherus
bears to the Oreodontide, by comparing the points of resemblance and

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 953

difference. These are given in detail and then summarized up in the
following paragrap

“In brief, the ee Gis and skeleton of Agrioclicerus shows a large
number of close correspondences with the oreodonts, and especially in
those particulars in which that group differs from other artiodactyl
families. On the other hand, there are significant deviations from the
oreodonts, which are to be found more particularly in the structures
correlated with the curious change in foot structure. It seems on the
whole highly probable that the two families are not distantly related,
especially if the somewhat intermediate character of Protoreodon be
considered."

The conclusion arrived at by Dr. Scott as to the systematic position
of Agriochcerus is that it is the last term in a succession of species
which form a curiously specialized offshoot of the Oreodontide, its
divergences from that family being principally the results of a change
in the functions and uses of the feet. (Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol.
XXXIII, 1894.)

The Atmosphere as a Factor in Dynamical Geology.—
The line of inquiry pursued by Mr. J. A. Udden, concerning the work
performed by the winds of the atmosphere is important since this sub-
ject has not received any searching attention from the geologists of
this country. The author states a series of laws which appear to gov-
ern aerial erosion, transportation and sedimentation in general, and
gives the data from which these laws are formulated. The similarities
and differences of wind and water erosion and transportation are
pointed out, and estimates, based on experiments, of the relative values
of the work accomplished by each. From these considerations impor-
tant deductions are drawn. (1) Since the velocities in the atmosphere
are greater than those in water, the distances over which materials
may be transported in it are correspondingly greater. (2) The depth
of the aerial ocean renders it but little dependent in its movements
on the elevations of the land. (3) While the conditions requisite for
aerial erosion are limited to rather small areas on the land of the
globe, deposition is much more general and widespread. Hence accu-
mulations of atmospheric sediments are insignificant, as a rule, only
accumulating in exceptional cases. :

In conclusion, Mr. Udden suggests that from a dynamical point of
view the wind theory would appear to furnish an adequate explanation
of the joceurrence of the loess in the Mississippi valley, at least as to

954 The American Naturalist. [November,

most of its phases, and gives the following facts as the basis of the
suggestion :

“The recent denudation of the western plains, of the bad lands, and
of the Cordilleran plateau is extensive enough to furnish the materials
many timesover. The different rocks in these regions, and the change-
ability of the atmospheric currents would combine to bring together
and thoroughly mix a variety of materials, like those of which the
loess is composed. The winds would naturally distribute over wide
areas the heterogeneous but uniform mixture thus produced. When
not taken close to exposures of other materials ninety-nine per cent.
by weight, of the loess, is composed of particles below the size of .1 mm.,
and it contains only a small proportion of the finest materials common
in clays and residuary earths, just as must be the case in an atmos-
pheric sediment. It is best developed along the westernmost north-and-
south drainage valley, that of the Missouri-Mississippi river. Almost
everywhere it is heaviest nearest the water-courses. (Journ. Geol.,Vol.
II, 1894.)

` Geological News. Patxrozoic.— According to Mr. Winslow,
the Coal Measures of Missouri occupy the whole western and north-
western portions of the State and embrace an area of 25,000 square
miles. This region is a plateau of moderate elevation in which denu-
dation has not progressed very far. The strata have a slight dip to
the west. Their estimated maximum thickness is 1900 feet. The
€oals oceur in basins of limited dimensions, and are chiefly bituminous
in character. The beds range in thickness from one inch to about
five feet.

Mesozorc.—F orty-six additions have been made to the Cretaceous
paleobotany of Long Island through the researches of Prof. Hollick.
Of these nine are recognized as new species and are described and fig-
ured in the Bull. of the Torrey Botanical Club for 1894.

A new Plesiosaur, Cimoliosaurus caudalis, is described by Captain
Hutton. The specimen, now in the Canterbury Museum, was found
in the Cretaceous rocks near the Waipara river in New Zealand. It
represents an animal about the size of Pleisosaurus australis, and is
distinguished by the long and powerful tail. (Trans. New Zeal. Inst.,
1893.)

Two new and interesting forms of Reptiles have been added to the
group from the Elgin Sandstone described by Prof. E. T. Newton. One

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 955

is a small Parasuchian Crocodile, allied to Stagonolepis, and is named
Herpetosuchus grantii; the other reptile Prof. Newton considers interme-
‘diate between the Dinosaurians and Crocodilians, and refers it provi-
sionally to the Theropodous Dinosauria under the name Ornithosuchus
woodwardii. (Proceeds. Roy. Soc., Vol. 54, 1893.)

Crnozorc.—The reports upon evidence as to glacial action in Aus-
tralia are as follows: In Queensland and New South Wales, while
there is both stratigraphieal and biological evidence of a Pluvial epoch,
it cannot yet be demonstated whether this epoch belongs to Plistocene
or Pliocene time. For Victoria the evidence is equally unsatisfactory.
In Tasmania and South Australia glacial action is demonstrated be-
yond a doubt by the researches of Mr. Johnson, Mr. Montgomery and
Prof. Tate. In New Zealand, according to Captain Hutton, the evi-
denee is confined to moraines, surface-till and * roches moutonnées."
These indicate that during the ice-age there was an extension of the
valley glaciers of the South Island, but there is no proof that they
reached the sea. (Proc. Austral. Assoc. Adv. Sci, Adelaide
Meeting.)

Mr. E. H. Williams' investigations of the extramorainie drift be-
tween the Schuylkill and the Delaware, result in the conclusion that
the great moraine was formed immediately after the withdrawal of the
ice from the Lehigh, and that it and the extramorainic deposits of the
region were part of the same ice invasion, which was of recent age and
Short duration. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894.)

A tabulated list of the species of Coleoptera prepared by Dr. Scud-
der shows the effect of the Glacial Period on the present fauna of N.
America. The list comprises the species east of the Rocky Mountains,
with the exception of the “barren ground” of the high north, the
immediate vicinity of the Rocky Mountains and the extreme south
of Florida and Texas. West of the Sierra Nevadas the region is
limited on the south by Los Angeles, and on the north includes Van-
couver Island. In both of these areas, one of which may be termed
the glaciated, the other the driftless,a comparison is instituted between
the northern and southern regions of each to discover how many gen-
era and species are common to both, and how many peculiar to each.
In the eastern area the terminal moraine is the dividing line; in the
western, the northern part of California. Finally, the results of these
comparisons are balanced with each other. This, according to the

956 The American Naturalist. [November,

author, should be a guage of the effect of the Glacial Period upon the
present faunal distribution of life. The tables indicate that on the
whole the fauna of the East has nearly or quite recovered from its
enforced removal from the northern States and Canada at the time of
the Glacial Period, and that the Glacial influence is seen now only in
minor features, such as boreal faunas lingering in favorable spots amid
temperate surroundings, and the similar features induced by the latitu-
dinal trend of our great mountain chains. (Am. Journ. Sci., Vol.
XLVIII, 1894.)

A mong the fossils recently found in the cavern de L’ Herm (Ariége),
France, are two that M. Boule considers worthy of special attention.
The first is the lower jaw of a Glutton (Gulo luscus), the other the
left inferior mandible of a Felis of enormous size. A comparison of
the former with fossil Gluttons from other caverns in France, and the

Ferest-bed of England, shows a difference in size only. This, M. Boule
thinks, does not warrant the new species name, Gulo speleus, applied
to it by Goldfuss. M. Boule is opposed also to making a distinct spe-
cies of the Cave Lion, preferring to consider it a varying form of Felis
leo, and agrees with the English paleontologists in designating it Felis
leo var. spelea.

1894.] Zoology. 957

ZOOLOGY.

A New Etheostoma from Arkansas.— Etheostoma pagei sp.
nov. Head 33 in length of body; depth 4to 41; eye 33 in head;
snout 32; dorsal fin with nine or ten spines and 12 or 13 soft rays;
anal spines 2; soft rays 7; scales 8-56 to 61-13.

Body robust, snout abruptly decurved but not blunt; mouth rather
large terminal, maxillary reaching vertical from pupil ; premaxillaries
not protractile; lips thick; gill-membranes not connected; cheeks,
opercles and breast naked; nape scaled: lateral line imperfect, de-
veloped on only about 12 scales.

Color of male: belly bright red, extending on sides to upper rays of
pectoral fins ; above the red is a yellowish band on the sides about as
| wide as diameter of eye; upper part of body olivaceous with darker
| markings, each scale being provided with a black spot, these making
| faint lateral streaks along the rows of scales, about 9 dark blotches on
the side, resembling faint bars. Caudal and soft dorsal fins barred ;
pectorals faintly barred ; anal ventrals plain; a dark numeral scale.
The female has the underparts whitish, the sides olivaceous, much
mottled with darker; otherwise as in the male.

Length, 2 inches.

1 Only the types known. Two specimens taken in the spring branch
on the U. S. Fish Hatchery grounds, at Neosho, Missouri.

(Named for William F. Page, Superintendent of U. S. Fish Hatch-
ery, Neosho, Missouri.)—S. E. MEEK. i

"—"--— aaa

Immunity of Salamanders in Respect to Curare.—In a
paper read before the French Academy of Sciences, March 14th of
this year, MM. C. Phisalix and Ch. Contejean demonstrated that
salamanders have the power of resisting, to a remarkable degree, the
action of certain poisons, particularly that of curare. A salamander
weighing 28 grammes, was completely curarised only after receiving 43
millegrammes of curare, a quantity sufficient to poison 80 frogs. This
immunity exists, but to a less degree, in the larva of the salamander,
and to a still less degree in the tadpole of the frog. In order to study
the cause of this immunity, the authors undertook a series of experi-
ments. Their researches were conducted on the theory that there might
exist a relation between the presence of venomous glands and this im-

63

2 RR - uU 1

958 The American Naturalist. [November,

munity, since the resistance of the toad is greater than that of the frog.
In such a case, the immunity of the salamander would be due to the
presence in its blood of a substance which would be an antidote or
would neutralize the effects of curare. To verify this hypothesis, they
innoculated a frog with the blood of a salamander, and obtained the
following results :

1. The mixture of the blood of a salamander and curare in the proper
proportions does not affect the frog.

2. The blood of the salamander provokes a physiological reaction an-
tagonistic to curare.

These results show that the blood of the salamander contains a sub-
stance anti-toxic to curare; this substance exercises a protective action
not only over the animal which secretes it, but also over the frog, in
which it produces a true physiological reaction against curare.

The experiments of MM.C. Phisalix and Contejean were made in the
laboratory of comparative physiology which is in charge of M. Chau-
veau, of the Museum of Natural History of Paris. (Revue Scienti-
fique, 1st Sept., 1894.)

List of Ophidia found near Vincennes, Indiana.— I do not
offer the following as a complete list of the snakes to be found in the
neighborhood of Vincennes, but have included only such as I have
taken myself. The region was once a very paradise for the herpetolo-
gist, but in the past few years many large swamps have been drained
and cleared and animals once common are now rare, if not wholly ex-
terminated. Still a more careful search would doubtless lengthen my
list considerably.

The Aneistrodon contortriz, Sistrurus catenatus and Crotalus horridus
‘were certainly once abundant, and are still reported as numerous,
though I have never succeeded in finding a specimen of any one of
them, and therefore do not include them in my list.

1. Carphophis amoena (Say), found under overhanging rocks.

2. Farancia abaeura (Holb.), swamps.

3. Bascanium constrictor, numerous.

4. Diadophis punctatus (Linn.) found in rotten logs; rare.

5. Liopeltis vernalis (DeK.), abundant.

6. Cyclophis aestivus ( Linn.), abundant.

7. Storeria dekayi Holb., among high grass in swamps.

8. Storeria oceipitomaculata (Storer), stony ground.

— iis

Nonsense c os e o

1894.] Zoology. 959

9. Coluber vulpinus (B. & G.), pugnacious and regarded with super-
stitious dread.

10. Coluber guttatus (Linn.), found in dusty roads; enters yards and
gardens at night.

11. Coluber obsoletus (Say), decidedly reddish from the blotches on
base of scales. Have found it only on trees. Hisses with considerable
force. A captive ate sparrows, but declined mice and eggs.

12. Natrix leberis (Linn.), “striped water snake."

13. Natrix kirtlandii (Kenn.), “spread head ;" rare.

14. Natrix sipedon (Linn.), large; typical variety of our most com-
mon snake; variously colored. I found one that would flatten its
head and anterior portion of its body like the N. kirt/andii or the
Heterodon platirhinus. I have seen the two extremes of color, the red-
dish brown and the black spotted in the brood of one female captive.

15. Heterodon platyrhinus, common. A friend found a spotted and
a uniformly colored specimen copulating and kept them, hoping to
raise a family of cross breeds, but his neighbors threatened to prosecute
him for keeping such venemous serpents in town, and at length some
one broke open his box and killed the “deadly spreading adders."
The snakes were strictly diurnal in their habits. They were voracious
and preferred toads, but when pressed by hunger would eat frogs and
small snakes.

16. Ophibolus doliatus (Linn.) common. A boy killed one in the
woods, and I went out to examine it, and found beside the dead snake
a live one of the same species. It was examining the body and
showed fight when disturbed. Was it a mourner guarding the corpse,
or a ghoul disturbed at its feast? I do not know.

17. Ophibolus getulus, less common.

18, 19, 20. Eutainia saurita, radix and sirtalis, the latter in great
variety.

Mr. Robert Ridgway says that he was informed that the Ancistrodon

piscivorus (LaC.) was abundant about Vincennes. He was probably

misinformed. a ue
"The Natrix sipedon is called the “ water moccassin " jn this locality,
and is much dreaded. A man near here is reported to have died re-

cently from the effects of its bite, aud, strange to say, this story is be-

lieved.
The coral snake, Elaps fulvius, has been twice reported from this
State, but no one in this locality, so far as I can learn, has ever heard

-of such an animal.— AnGus GAINES.

38 Locust St., Vincennes, Ind.

960 The American Naturalist. [November,

Zoological News. — Mollusca. — According to MM. Bornet
and Flahault, the chief cause of the disappearance of shells in quiet
bays where they are not subject to wave action is the constant gnawing
away of the calcareous matter by shell-boring algae and fungi. Ten
genera of boring plants are described, and, in some cases, the life-
histories are narrated. (Bull. Soc. Bot. France, t. 36.)

Pisces.—The Bull. U. S. Fish. Com. for 1892 includes a paper by
Dr. Eigenmann on the viviparous fishes of the Pacific Coast of North
America. The author reviews the Embiotocidae, gives a bibliography
of the viviparous fishes, and a detailed accout of the development of
Cymatogaster from fertilization to hatching, and the details of the de-
velopment of the intestine and Kupffer’s vesicle. Outlines of the post-
embryonic development are also presented.

According to Dr. Gill, the proper generic name of the Tunnies
is Thynnus. A discussion of the question is followed by a list of the
synonyms. (Proceeds. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, No. 965.)

The same author has published a provisional arrangement of the
families and subfamilies of fishes which includes the names of the pro-
posers and modifiers of family names with the dates of naming. (Sixth
Mem., Vol. VI, Natl. Acad. Sciences.)

Mammalia.—Dr. J. A. Allen calls attention to the cranial varia-
tions due to growth and individual differentiation, and instances the
species Neotoma micropus as a case in point. In a series of fifty skulls
of this species it would be easy to select extremes that depart so widely
from the average in one or more characters that they might readily be
supposed to represent distinct species. Hence the determination of the
status of a species described from one or two specimens must depend
upon the subsequent examination of a large amount of material bear-
ing upon this and its closely-related forms. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.
Hist., Aug., 1894.)

eas ee eee

1894,] Entomology. 961

ENTOMOLOGY."

Biology of the Glowworm.—Some interesting observations on
the New Zealand Glowworm ( Bolitophila luminosa) are recorded by A.
Norris? The larvs secrete a mucus, on which they slide, leaving a
mucus track like the snail. The mucus is also used to make luminous
webs. * When the larva is making a fresh web, it raises its head and
the first four or five segments in the air, and reaches round about till
strikes something. It then draws its head back a little way, thus
making a very fine thread of mucus. It then passes it to the thick
mucus on the first segment, then slides out a little way and makes
another thread on the other side in the same way, fastening each to the
thick mucus on the body. When it has made a sufficient number of
these braces, it begins to make the strings of beads which hang down-
ward from these braces by gliding out on the braces and lowering its
head and about half the body. It then works its head up and down as
if to vomit. You can see the mucus gathering on the body. Then it
draws its head right back into the first two segments, as if it were
turning inside out. It then catches hold of the mucus on the edge of
the segment and forces it forward. Now the head is out straight, with
a large drop of mucus all round it, like a drop of water. Then it
draws its head gently out of the mucus, thus making a short, fine
thread from it. It then makes another drop and another short thread ;
then a drop and so on until it has made several of these pendents of
beads, which vary in length. I have seen them from one inch to four
or five inches.” In the small caves where the larva lives, these webs
reflect the light from the shining glowworm.

Mr. Norris believes the webs are formed to entangle insects and
Crustacea, as he has found many of these dead in the webs, and some
were hollow as if the body contents had been eaten. “When the
insects are alive, the larva may be seen smothering them with mucus.”
One was also seen actually feeding on the inside of a Crustacean.

Embryonic Development of Tortrix.—As a result of recent
studies of Tortrix ferrugana, J. W. Tutt says? “ It appears certain that

! Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

?Ent. Mon. Mag., Sept., 1894.
3 Ent. Record, V, 215, Sept., 1894.

962 The American Naturalist. [November,

there are in its embryo four distinct cephalic segments, which, in the
early stages of embryonic development are large (compared with the
other segments which are developed later), and are made still more
distinct by the possession of buds or processes. As development goes
on, these four segments get welded together, and become not only pro-
portionately, but absolutely smaller than at first. When the abdominal
segments are in course of development, there certainly appear to be
eleven of them. The three thoracic segments are, in the early stages
of development, large and almost circular, and the next segment (1st
abdominal) is of the same character, looking at this time much more
like a thoracic than an abdominal segment, though it has, of course, no
appendages. The eye spots in this species are remarkably conspicuous
as two reddish patches, and become apparent at about the same time
that the abdominal segments first show. As development proceeds,
the cells of the developing 7. ferrugana appear to be stained here and
there with red patches, especially along the ventral area of the alimen-
tary canal, but differently distributed in different examples. These
afterward spread over the whole of the embryo.” It was suggested
that this color was connected with the skin. The. thoracic legs de-
velop when the embryo begins to show segmentation. The embryo is
then somewhat curved, ** with the head slightly bent round toward the
anal extremity, but with the legs outside, i. e., the larva is bent back
upon itself so as to form a curve agreeing roughly with the curvature
of the shell, with what afterwards becomes the ventral surface of the
larva outside and the dorsum towards the centre. The embryo then
gradually changes its position, the anal segments curling around and
being pushed by the growth of the preceding abdominal segments
slowly up the ventral surface of the larva whilst the dorsum gets
pushed out, as it were, towards the centre of theegg. During this pro-
cess the embryo becomes shaped something like the letter S, the move-
ment continuing until a complete reversal of the embryo has been
affected

The Rabbit Bot Fly—Cuterebra cuniculi Clark.—We are
greatly indebted to Mr. Percy Selous, of Greenville, Mich., for speci-
mens, notes and drawings of the rabbit bot fly, Cuterebra cuniculi.
The larva of this species is quite often taken from the rabbit, though
few persons are successful in rearing the fly from the larva, and Mr.
Selous is to be congratulated on his success.

The notes of Mr. Selous on the rearing of the bot are as follows:
‘The ripe larva dropped from a rabbit I shot last September. The

MM. i A 7 ——-
x w 2 "

1894.] Entomology. 963

grub was between the fore legs rather high up, and when expelled, the
pocket in which it had lived had just the appearance of the interior of
the anus in mammals. I took the grub home and let it burrow into a
box of earth from which the fly emerged, something like what I have
shown in my sketch, on the 22d of May. As a naturalist, I am deeply
interested in such matters as this, and the fact that I have been able to
follow my bent in South Africa, South America and many other coun-
tries does not tend to make me less so."

The grub, as shown by Mr. Selous in the accompanying drawings, is:
over an inch and a half long and nearly an inch broad. The pupa
case is very thick and heavy, with blunt, thick-set tubercles covering
the outside of it. The fly has the head, legs, ventral region and all of
the abdomen, except the first segment, black. "The thorax and the first.
segment are thickly covered with fine silken yellow hair. The wings
are dark and smoky.

This species of grub is quite common in the front quarters of rabbits:
this time of the year, and no doubt if more hunters and naturalists
knew of its presence in the rabbit and how to save and rear the grub,
more of the flies might be reared. Mr.Selous has made a start; who
will follow ?—G. C. Davis. Agr'l College, Mich.

Insects’ Vision.—Mr. A. Mallack adds another paper to the
voluminous literature of vision in insects His observations and cal-
culations, as we learn from the “Journal of the Royal Microscopical
Society," have led him to conclude that “ Insects do not see well; at
any rate, as regards their power of defining distant objects, and their
behaviour, favors this view. They have, however, an advantage over
simple-eyed animals in the fact that there is hardly any practical limit
in the nearness of the objects they can examine. With a composite
eye, the closer the animal the better the sight, for the greater will be
the number of lenses employed to produce the impression. In the
simple eye, on the other hand, the focal length of the lens limits the
distance at which a distinct view can be obtained. Of the various.
forms of insects examined, the best eye would give a picture about as
good as if executed in rather coarse wool-work, and viewed at a dis-
tance of a foot.”

Chinch Bug Diseases.—Professor F. H. Snow makes an elabor-
ate report? of his recent extended experiments with the fungus Sporo-

. Soc. Lond., LV, pp. 85-90.
* Univ. e Kansas Exp. Station, Third Rept., 1894.

"d

964 The American Naturalist. [November,

trichum which causes a fatal malady of chinch bugs. More than three
thousand experiments are reported, more than half of which were be-
lieved to be successful. The great difficulty in the practical use of the
fungus was the dry weather, during which no progress could be made.

Greenland Insects.—In reporting on a small collection of Micro-
lepidoptera from McCormick Bay, Professor C. H. Fernald remarks ê
* One of the most interesting features of this small collection is the very
dark color of the insects. The specimens of Laodama fusca and also
of Pyrausta torvallis are much darker than any I have ever seen before,
either of those taken in New England or Labrador, but when we recall
that Mr. Mengel states that they rest on the lichen-colored rocks, we
have not far to seek for the cause of this dark color." These lichens
are dark brown or black, and the laws of natural selection would lead
to the establishment of a dark race through the elimination of the
light-colored individuals. Professor Fernald describes one new species
—BSericoris mengelana.

Habits of Larval Coleoptera.—F. M. Webster reports’ that
larvee of Leptotrachelus dorsalis Fab. feed on larve of Isosoma tritici
Riley, and pupate in wheat stubble, after plugging up open end. The
larva of Phalacrus politus Mels. develops in smut of rye and Indian
corn. A female Neoclytus erythrocephalus was seen ovipositing in trunk
of dead apple tree, and Bruchus mimus Say was reared from seeds of
Cercis canadensis. The larva of Disonycha caroliniana Fab. feeds on
foliage of Portulaca oleracea, and Apion segnipes Say develops in pods
of Tephrosia virginiana.

Biology of the Horse Bot.—From observations on the eggs of
the common horse bot fly, Professor H. Osborn reaches the following
conclusions ? “(1) That the eggs do not hatch, except by the assist-
ance of the horse's tongue. (2) That hatching does not ordinarily
occur within ten or twelve days, and possibly longer, or, if during this
period, only on very continuous and active licking of the horse. (3)
That the hatching of the larve takes place most readily during the
third to fifth week after deposition. (4) That the majority of the
larvee lose their vitality after thirty-five to forty days. (5) That the
larve may retain their vitality and show great activity upon hatching

5 Ent. News, V, 132.
7 Ent. News, V, 140.
*U. S. Dept. Ag., Div. Ent., Bull. 32, p. 48.

1894.] Entomology. 965
as late as thirty days after the eggs were deposited. (6) That it is
possible, though not normal, for eggs to hatch without moisture or
friction. (7) That in view of these results, the scraping off of the eggs
or their destruction by means of washes will be very effective, even if
not used oftener than once in two weeks during the period of egg
deposition, and probably, that a single thorough removal of the eggs
after the period of egg deposition has passed, will prevent the great
majority of bots from gaining access to the stomach.”

966 The American Naturalist. [November,.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Subjective Defense in the Lower Animals.—In this paper
I use the word “ defense" in its broadest sense, not only as the ante-
thesis of offence, but in the sense of protection. The instinct of de-
fense or self protection is greatly developed in the lower animals, so
much so,that the observant naturalist finds evidence of it even in
microscopic organisms.

On one occasion I opened the burrow of an itch insect (Acarus), and
allowed the serum to float out the little parasite which dwelt therein.
I could, with the assistance of a good French lens (X 15 diameters)
closely see it moving along on the surface of the skin. I touched it
with the point of a needle, and at once it stopped all motion and
feigned death. In a few moments the little animal regained its feet.

and slowly moved off, only to again feign death as soon I touched it with
the needle. This habit of letusimulation (letum, death, and simulare,
to feign), I have noticed in much lower animals, and am convinced
that they make use of this strategy for the purpose of self-protection.

A minute fresh water animacule (rhizopod) retracts its hair-like feet,
feigns death and sinks, whenever its enemy, a water louse, approaches
it. I have witnessed this occurrence on several occasions, and have,
likewise, seen Rhizopoda return to their feeding-grounds as soon as their
enemy has disappeared. A fresh-water worm practices letusimulation
when approached by the giant water-beetle, and many of the micro-
scopic infusory animalcules likewise make use of the same sagacious
subterfuge when surprised by their enemies. Death-feigning is prac-
ticed by most of the slow-moving beetles, especially is this noticeable
in the tumble-bug and bombardier-beetle. "This last-mentioned insect,
notwithstanding its disgusting odor, is the favorite food of some of the
birds, noticeably, the jay and the cardinal. They will not touch it if
killed and offered to them; numerous experiments have taught me that
these birds regard it as unsuitable food unless taken alive. There is,
probably, some post-mortem change in the juices of the beetle, which
renders it unpalatable. The object of letusimulation in this beetle is
made perfectly obvious. In a paper on “Animal Letusimulants," pub-
lished in the March number of Atlantic Monthly, I account for the
origin of death-feigning in animals, as follows: ‘ Most animals are
slain for food by other animals; there is a continual struggle for exist-
ence. Most of the carnivora and insectivora prefer freshly killed food

pere TT D

1894.] Psychology. 967

to carrion. It isa mistake to suppose that carnivora prefer carrion,
though the exegencies of their lives in their struggle for existence often
compels them to eat it. Dogs will occasionally take it, but sparingly,
and apparently as a relish, just as we ourselves eat certain odoriferous
cheeses. Carnivora and insectivora would rather do their own butch-
ery; hence, when they come upon their prey seemingly dead, they will
leave it alone and go in search of other quarry, unless they are very
hungry. Tainted flesh is a dangerous substance to go into most stom-
achs, certain ptomaines rendering it, at times, virulently poisonous.
Long years of experience have taught this fact to animals, therefore,
most of them let dead or seemingly dead creatures severely alone.”
The larv: of many of the moths and butterflies are pronounced
letusimulants. In fact, I may say that all edible larvæ practice this
cunning trick. -Take a caterpillar in the fingers, or touch it with a
stick, and it will at once curl up and feign death. They invariably
assume that shape which rigor mortis occasions in real death. Mr.
George D. Mattingly, of Owensboro, Ky., related to me the following
instance of letusimulation in a caterpillar : This larva had fallen acci-
dently into a conical depression in a sand-heap. 1t attempted to crawl
up the north side of the pit, but, owing to the rolling of the sand
beneath its feet, slipped back. It then tried the west side, and almost
reached the top. Here, however, it dislodged a lump of agglutinated
sand-grains, and rolled, together with the lump, to the bottom of the
hole. The caterpillar, imagining the clod of sand to be an enemy, at
once curled up and feigned death. It remained quiescent for several
minutes, then tried the south side, mounted safely to the top, and went
on its way rejoicing. The fact that this larva tried three different.
routes before reaching the top, shows a high degree of conscious deter-
mination. Many of the thousand-legs have this habit, and practice it
whenever the occasion demands. The toad is a gifted letusimulant ;
when it sees that it cannot escape its enemy, it ducks its head, draws
in its legs close to its body, and feigns death. It may be turned upon
its back, or thrown to some little distance, or handled freely, yet it will
give no sign of life, unless pain be inflicted.
Some of the snakes have acquired this habit, notably the moccasin
CAneistrodon). Last August I discovered a moccasin in an open field
where there were no sheltering rocks, bushes, weeds, etc. I teased it.
for quite a while with my stick, driving it back whenever it attempted
to escape. Suddenly it bent its body backwards and seemingly in-
flicted a severe bite on its own back. Immediately it turned over on
its back, belly upwards, to all appearances dead. I retired some little

968 The American Naturalist. [November,

distance and seated myself on the ground. After five or six minutes
the snake turned upon its belly and glided rapidly away.

Mr. John Cheatham, of Owensboro, Ky., informs me that on Septem-
ber 23, he and Mr. John Harrison came suddenly upon a black or
blowing-viper in a field. Mr. Harrison remarked that he could make
the snake commit suicide; whereupon, he picked up a long stick and
began to annoy it, driving it back whenever it endeavored to escape.
In a few moments “the snake bent back and drew his widely open
mouth violently along his body as if endeavoring to rip himself open.
He then turned upon his back and died at once.” ‘This act of letu-
simulation was so perfect that Mr. Cheatham and friend walked away,
thoroughly convinced that they had seen a suicide enacted. It is

ardly necessary to remark that the snake in question is perfectly
harmless, having neither fangs nor poison glands. Many of the higher
animals make use of the simulation in order to deceive their enemies
or their prey.

The Criminal Skull.—I give a figure of a model in clay of the
skull of Jeff. Diggs who died at the age of fifty, having passed, accord-
ing to his own statement, thirty years of his life in reformatories, work-
houses, jails and penetentaries. This model is made to scale and is

The Criminal Skull.

1894.] Psychology. 969

exact in every particular. A Photograph of the original skull does
not bring out the detail, hence I made the model in clay. It should
have accompanied the text of “ The Recidivist," American Naturalist,
June, 1894, but an injury to my right hand prevented a completion
of the model in time.

Pornts TO BE NOTED.

. Flattening of the cranial arch.

Shallowness of brain-pan.

Dolichocephalism.

Prognathism.

Enlargement of orbital arches.

Smallness of orbicular cavities.

Highness of cheek bones.

Bowing of zygoma.

. Bagging of occiput.

10. Heaviness and projection of lower jaw.

11. General asymetry of skull.

12. Resemblance to the prehistorie skull of the Man of Spy.
See “ The Recidivist” American Naturalist, June, 1894.

Jas. WEIR, JR., M. D.

SO ata ah tS cult ae S9 r^

The Habits of Amblystoma opacum.—I once secured a num-
ber of marbled salamanders (Amblystoma opacum), and kept themin a
small enclosure where they lived under chunks of wood. They did
not curl up as they are said to do, but lay stretched out, showing but
little sign of life. Their food was larve and earthworms; I believe
they will not eat flies nor ants. They are so soft, weak and helpless,
that I thought that they could not dig deeper than merely sufficiently
to hide themselves, but, out of deference to the opinion of Mr. Nicho-
las Pike, who says that they will burrow to a depth of three feet, I
sunk a board two feet deep around their enclosure. I was absent for
a time, and returned to find my salamanders missing. On digging
carefully, I found unmistakable signs of their burrows extending
beneath the sunk board. They had burrowed out and escaped, cor-
roborating two feet of Mr. Pike’s story —ANnous GAINES.

Habits of Ophibolus getulus.—Early in July I captured an
Ophibolus getulus, a small but very fine specimen, answering perfectly
to the description of the type given by Dr. O. P. Hay, in the Seven-
teenth Annual Report of the Indiana Geologist.

‘970 The American Naturalist. [November,

The little reptile fought fiercely when first picked up, but was per-
fectly docile the next day. I kept him in an enclosure with a number
of other snakes of various species, but he appeared to dislike their
society and appeared reluctant to share their bed of loose cotton. He
refused all food and took no notice of the earthworms, insects, minnows
and small frogs and toads with which my other snakes were fed, and
paid no attention to a Natrix sipedon much smaller than himself,
When placed in a box with a large number of small toads, he appeared
frightened and tried to escape. Acting upon a suggestion offered by
Professor Cope in his article on “Critical Review of the Characters
and Variations of the Snakes of North America," I kept him supplied
with a saucer of milk, of which he took no notice.

After he had been in my possession for 25 days, I captured a Eute-
nia radix which I put in the same enclosure. The other snakes paid
no attention to the newcomer, but the Ophibolus roused at once, as if
scenting a natural enemy, and seized the Eutenia. The fight was long
and fierce, for the Eutenia was strong and active, and was five inches
longer than his assailant, but the Ophibolus gained the victory and
undertook the seemingly impossible feat of swallowing his victim.
This task occupied the whole night, but he actually succeeded in
swallowing the snake five inches longer than himself. This very hearty
meal distorted him beyond recognition, and he gave no signs of life
except by a slight twitching of the tail. After an absence of some 40
hours I revisited my terrarium, and found that he had disgorged his
prey and resumed his proper shape.

Since that time the Ophibolus has taken no food, though he is still
strong and active; his spots, however, which were originally of ivory
whiteness, have assumed a sulphur yellow hue.

I tried placing a looking-glass in my terrarium, and the Ophibolus
showed signs of excitement at the first sight of his reflection, but after-
wards paid no attention to it.

My Ophibolus getulus, 123 inches long, after going fifty days without
food, except the one snake which it subsequently disgorged, killed and
ate a Natrix sipedon over eight inches long, and is doing well.

—Anous GAINES.

eom

See CHE EE A ge graf) a Sc EA La ee eee

4894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 971

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY:

Indian Corn in Italy.—Some Italian Naturalists like Bonafous

(Hist. Nat. Agric. et Economique du Mais, Paris and Turin, 1836)

have supposed that Indian Corn (Zea Mays) had grown in Asia or
Africa before the Spaniards found it in America, but De Candolle

(L'Origine delle piante Coltivate, Milan 1883, p. 519) believes that it

came into the Old World from the New after the discovery by Colum-
bus, and that Rifaud, who in 1819 found maize in an Egyptian tomb at

‘Thebes, was deceived by an Arab.

Signor Goiran, of Verona, supposes that the plant was first largely
cultivated near Verona about 1647, and Signor Anelli, the inventor of

* Anellis maize-bread," informs me that it was not used for human food
in the Milanese until about 1817. Harschberger in his recent import-

ant investigation of the history of the grain (Zea Mays—A Botanical
Study, Philadelphia, 1892) while tracing the source of the American

grain to Southern Mexico does not believe in its extra American origin,

but whether we may suppose it to have grown in any corner of the
Old World before 1492 or not, there is no question that the Spanish

discoverers brought specimens of it from America to where it was noticed

in cultivation near Seville about 1527. How it got into Italy from
Spain, (granted that it came thence) whether directly, or by the round-

about way of Arab commerce through Morocco, Africa and the Levant,

no one seems to have informed us, though if by the latter route, we may

guess that it found its way into Lombardy through Venice.

However and whenever it appeared on the Lombard plain, the well pre-
served architectural decorations, frescoes, paintings and book illumina-
tions of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Italy might throw an
unexpected light upon the date and direction ofits first importation. The
frescoes of Mantegna (1451—1517) often adorned with borders of plants

and flowers might reveal maize. There is no maize, lam informed,

among the plants and fruits painted on the leaf margins ofthe magni-
fieent 15th eentury Missal known as the Breviario Grimani by Hans
Memling (died before 1499) at the library in Venice; and I failed to find
signs of the use of Indian Corn in the farmyard pictures of Jacopo
Bassano (1510-1592) at Venice and Verona, or in the throng of stoop-
ing figures and animals by him known as “ The Fair " at Bassano, where

' This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

972 The American Naturalist. November,

the turkey appears then as new and as American as maize. I found it,
however, abundantly used in the Stucco ceiling decorations (by Vittorio,
middle of 16th century) of the Villa Masser near Castel Franco.

If there remains any doubt as to the genuine antiquity of the grains
in Rifaud’s Egyptian tomb no better evidence for or against the Amer-
ican origin of the plant now grown in Europe could be looked
for than what these unransacked pictures and ornaments may offer,
where at slight pains and by a turn of the head, any traveller will settle
the question beyond all dispute if he discovers maize in color or stone
before 1492

While common parlance in the Old World has so often held to a
geographical name for the strange grain, dubbing it in Lorraine
“Roman grain,” in Tuscany “Sicilian grain,” in Sicily “ grain of
India,” in the Pyrenees “Spanish grain," in Provence “ Barbary or
Guinea grain,” in Turkey “ Egyptian grain,” and in Egypt “Syrian
grain," these Folk names have seemed by implication to deny, in
every case, an American origin to the plant. But the fact in De Can-
dolle's opinion proves no more than that the English name “ Turkey "
has appeared to deny an American parentage to the familiar Meleagris
gallopavo.

According to Professor Keller of the University of Padua, the
human consumption of maize ceases south of Bologna, and in my con-
versations with townspeople a slight notion of something ridiculous
seemed to attach to the grain, as of a food fit for hogs and cows, rather
than men. Notwithstanding this, some of the peasants eat maize in
the common form of Polenta (boiled mush) to such an extent in the
Novarese, Bergamasco, Milanese, Comasco, Bresciano, and Tremonese,
and in Mantua, Veneto and Vercelli’ that a sickness called Pelagra,
showing itself in shrunken skin, emaciation, dizziness, intense thirst,
and a desire to plunge into pools of water, is the result.

Leaving out the alcohols, oils, colors and glucose extracted from
Italian maize in recent years, the most considerable and important of
all the human uses of the grain in Italy is

(1) Polenta, the universally mill ground meal boiled with salt and
water for balf an hour, large doughy loaves of which, saffron yellow or
white, can be found in almost any peasant's cupboard from Venice to
Piedmont.

Sometimes cut slices of it are found, as I saw them at Venice, fried,
like American fried mush.

*For this and the following information as to Anellis Bread and Pane Mistura Iam
indebted to the Rey. Signor Anelli of Monza.

1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 973

Now and then a ta maize aus goes with farina, salt and water
into a soup and

(2) Polentina d Cittadella. The further uses of maize in northern
Italy for human food are as follows:

(3) Pane Giallo, of Milan, a baked loaf made half of maize and
half of wheat meal.

(4) Pane Mistura, of Milan and the Veronese, a baked loaf of varied
sbape made of one-third maize and two-thirds wheat meal.

(5) Pane Mistura Con Uva which is No. (4) mixed with rasins.

(6) Foccacia, (Fogassa, Verona city dialect; Pissotta or Pinze, Coun-
try, Veronese dialect). As Isaw it made in a peasant's kitchen near
Verona, it is produced as follows: Take one pint of yellow maize
meal, mix it with two pints of wheat flour. Pour upon the mixture
half a teacupful of melted butter; add then two tablespoonfuls of
white sugar and one tablespoonful of soda; this done, pour on gradu-
ally about a half a pint of hot water and roll and knead the mass well.
Finally having made the dough into a round ball, flatten it into a cake
about # of an inch thick and 10 inches in diameter, both sides of
Which are to be well stippled with the point of a knife. Fry it then
in a pan greased with about a half a teacupful of butter and raised
about two inches over a pile of live but flameless embers.

(7) Cinquantino (Zinquantin, dialect Veronese) as eaten near Padua
and Verona. This is the young, milky ear of the white variety of
maize roasted near the embers.

(8) Melica Dolce. A small sugared cake made of maize meal in
Milan.

(9) Pane d'Anelli, eaten in the Milanese. A mixed bread baked
of two-thirds maize and one-third wheat, recently invented by the Rev.
Signor Anelli, of Monza, as a cheap substitute for Pane Mistura, and
as a cure for Pelagra in distriets where peasants who eat maize four or
five times a day suffer from the disease.

The two well known and commonly used varieties of maize in north-
ern Italy are the bianco (white) producing a white meal but considered
of inferior tlavor as polenta, and the rosso (red) with a very brilliant
reddish-yellow tinge on the cob, and producing a golden yellow meal.

By the tenth of September the russet fields of the ripening grain
are as characteristic of the Lombard plain, as the horizon obstructing
locust hedges, or the pollard trees festooned with grape vines. But the
ears ripen on clipped stalks and we miss the wigwam shaped stacks of
American “fodder.” I saw peasants threshing maize with flails near
Verona, but could hear nothing of pounding the grain with pestle and

64

974 The American Naturalist. [November,

mortar. Hominy large or small and “ash” and “ hoe” cakes seemed
unknown, and the interesting Mexican edible products of maize like
* tortillas," (wafer like cakes of baked maize dough,) or the peppered
dumplings called “ tomales " had no more place in the Lombard kitchen
than the transatlantic art of crushing on metates the water soaked and
softened grains. Near Castel Franco, I saw a large bunch of red ears
hanging by their twisted husks on the wall of a roadside shrine.

An etymology has been suggested for the name Grano Turco, in the
antics of boys when bearded and moustached with maize silk, they
mimic the fierce looks of Turks in the high “corn.” We cannot think
that the Italian lad does not smoke the mock tobacco that must tempt
him uponeach ear. If he does he apes a habit no less American in its
origin than the maize itself. So the American lad playing with a
“shoe string bow” on a “corn-stalk fiddle” would turn to Italy for
his inspiration.—H. C. MERCER.

ME tite sts FUMUS ENESENN mmn onum cM

dee

poe

1894.] Microscopy. 975

MICROSCOPY.’

Cytological Methods.—Jysol_—Friedrich Reinke’ calls attention
to the antiseptic lysol (a solution of Cresol in neutral soap) as a valu-
able reagent for the nucleus. It dissolves chromatin, leaving other ele-
ments intact; and it brings out a new element in the nucleus, to which
the author gives the name, edematin. This substance appears in the
form of granules within the linin mesh-work of the nucleus, remain-
ing after the chromosomes have been completely dissolved. A small
salamander larva, for example, left in about 50 cem. of 10 per cent /y-
sol for from 6 to 24 hours, will have its chromatin dissolved, and its
cedematin granules rendered visible.

(Edematin shrinks greatly in such reagents as alcohol, chromic acid,
and osmie acid, and only now and then appears as a fine granular pre-
cipitate. In lysol, on the contrary, it swells up under the action of
one constituent (the soap solution) and is coagulated by the cresol and
thus made distinct. CEdematin corresponds, in part at least, to
Heidenhain's oxychromatin, Pfitzner's parachromatin, and Frank
Sehwarz's paralinin. Reinke remarks that this substance is absent, or
nearly so, from ova and spermatozoa. It is well developed in most
somatic cells: e. g., epithelium, connective tissue, leucocytes, etc.

In the action of lysol, three stages are to be distinguished : (1) solu-
tion of the chromatin ; (2) appearance of edematin granules; and (3)
further changes of the cedematin.

The time required to reach the second stage varies with the tissue.
The epithelium of the salamander larva requires at least six hours. In
connective tissue the second stage is quite short and transitory.

The method does not admit of permanent preparations.

Neutral versus Acid Fixatives for Nuclei.'—Professor Alt-
mann claims that the usual acid reagents, among which he reckons
sublimate, platinum-chloride, gold-chloride, etc., disturb nuclear struc-
ture, reducing the chromatic elements to compact, structureless masses.
On the other hand, neutral reagents, among which are placed osmie
acid, and a mixture of chromic acid with a molybdenum salt, preserve
the structure of nuclei. At first sight, and under low powers, nuclei
present a homogeneous appearance. But this homogeneity is not

1Edited by C. O. Whitman, University of Chicago.

^ Anat. Anz. VIII, Nos. 16 and 18, 1893, and Arch. f. m. Anat. XLIII, No. 3,
1894.

Altmann. Verhandl. d. Anat. Ges. Mag., 1893, p. 50.

976 The American Naturalist. [November,

real ; for structure is there and it can be made out, although with some
difficulty. Cell nucleus and cell body, although chemically different,
exhibit the same morphological structure, consisting of granula and
inter-granular net-work. Altmann was able to demonstrate the granu-
lar structure of the chromosomes.

Heidenhain (Arch. f. mik. Anat., XLIII, 3, p. 428) maintains, in
opposition to Altmann, that with sublimate the granula and net-work
are demonstrable; and further, that acid reagents are, after all, supe-
rior to neutral reagents.

Iron-hematoxylin and Centrosomes.‘—-Iron-hematoxylin
has been used by Heidenhain in the study of the centrosomes and as-
trospheres.

The original process, which is also repeated in the new modification,
was the following: |

Fine sections of preparations in sublimate are fixed on the slide by
means of distilled water, dehydrated with alcohol containing iodine,
and exposed to a 13 per cent solution of ammonio-ferric alum? The
slide is next washed with distilled water and then placed in a 1} per
cent solution of Hematozylinum purissimum (Griibler). The over-
stained sections are then again treated with the iron-alum solution used
before, in order to remove the superfluous color. The process of ex-
traction must be followed under the microscope and continued until
the cell protoplasm is completely decolorized, and the chromatin net-
work of the nucleus becomes clear. One may interrupt the differenti-
ating process any moment by washing with fresh water, and then con-
tinue it. When the extraction of the stain has been carried far
enough, the slide should be washed fifteen minutes in fresh water and
mounted in the usual way in balsam.

Heidenhain noticed that when the differentiation was effected
quickly the centrosomes were stained in greater number than when
the process occupied a long time. It seemed, therefore, that the de-
fects of the method might be corrected if a way could be found by
which the decoloring process could be hastened. How could the cyto-
plasm be freed from the stain in the shortest time ? Assuming that a
stain acts by chemical combination, it seemed probable that the pro-
cess of extraction might be hastened, if the receptivity of the cytoplasm
could be at least partially saturated before the application of the hem-
atoxylin. Accordingly, Heidenhain selected as preliminary stains

“Arch. f. m. Anat. Vol. XLIII, part 3, p. 434.

"The crystals of this salt should be clear violet in color; if they are yellowish
and opaque, they have suffered from exposure to air and are no longer fit for use.
The solution must be made cold, as the salt is decomposed by heat.

PS EERE PM NC EMEN ME illt rode ciate a t

anri (E UAUSUIA UK PINIREMBUAN AUI Rn a
jp suene ias T 3 * rae sue

1894.] Microscopy. 977

<“ Vorfarben ") such as affect the cytoplasm and the nucleus, and
leave the centrosomes unstained. Thus the chemical affinities of the
centrosomes for the hematoxylin would remain at full strength, while
those of the cytoplasm and nucleus would be more or less saturated,
and to the same extent weakened for the hematoxylin. In this way
the process of extraction was brought under some control, and the
method greatly improved.

Stains reached in this way are called “subtractive.”

Bordeau R., Anilin blue and Methyl-eosin were employed as pre-
liminary stains. Bordeaux R. proved to be the best. In preparations
that have been successfully differentiated as to the centrosomes, the
nucleus and its chromatin are almost colorless, so that the centrosome
may be easily studied, even when it lies behind the nucleus. The nu-
€leoli remain strongly stained. F

The Chromatin—Heidenhain shows that there are two kinds of
chromatin to be distinguished, namely: an oxychromatin brought out
by acid anilin stains (e. g., Rubin S.), and a basichromatin which is
brought out by basic anilin stains (e. g., Methyl green). The “ basi-
chromatin " is the chromatin of Flemming and authors in general.

The differentiation of the two chromatins can only be accomplished
when the nucleus is exposed at the same time to both acid and basic
anilin colors, asis the case when Biondi's solution and Ehrlich's triacid
are used.

If one mixes ammonium vanadate with hematoxylinum pur (Grübler)
a blue stain is obtained which stains cytoplasm and oxychromatin

strongly, while the basichromatin is often left nearly colorless.

The two chromatins probably differ only in the amount of phosphorus
present, basichromatin containing more, oxychromatin less.

The Egg-Centrosome.'—Dr. H. Mertens finds that the so-called
“ yolk-nuclei," so generally known in both vertebrate and invertebrate
eggs, represent, in the case of the mammals and birds, two very differ-
ent elements. Sometimes they are chromatin granules eliminated
from the nucleus; at other times they represent centrosomes. The
identification of these bodies with the centrosome is the point of chief
interest. The method employed was as follows: The material was
prepared in Hermann’s fluid. Three precautions were observed: (1)
The object must remain a long time in the fluid—for weeks or even
months. (2) Transfer to pyroligneous acid (1-3 ds.). (3) Wash
thoroughly in running water. foes

The preparations were imbedded in celloidin and stained with safra-
nine,

*H. Mertens, Arch. de Biologie, XI, 3, '94, p. 394.

978 The American Naturalist. [November,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Dr. Carl Róse, so well known for his investigations on the structure
and development of the teeth, has issued, in connection with Dr. A.
Gysi, of Zürich, a set of twelve microphotographs of the histology of
the teeth. The photographs are 18 cm. square, and are sold at 12
marks ($3.00) the set. Dr. Rése’s address is Friedrichstrasse, 12,
Freiburg i B, Germany.

Professor Lamson Scribner had his entire herbarium which was
especially rich in grasses, stored in the Knoxj warehouse which was
burned in August. The entire collection except the genus Panicum
was destroyed.

Mr. T. H. Kearney, Jr., has been appointed Curator in the Colum-
bia College New York Herbarium.

Dr. Harrison Allen has resigned the directorship of the Wistar In-
stitute of Anatomy in Philadelphia, and Dr. Horace Jayne has taken
his place.

Prof. Chas. T. Prosser has left Washburn College;Topeka Kansas,
and has taken a position at Union College Schenectady, New York.

The Academy of Sciences} of San} Francisco has;{published an
illustrated volume of Proceedings consisting}largely of important con-
tributions to the zoology of Lower California.

Errata.—In the Article “Abalone or Haliotis Shells of the Cal-
ifornian Coast,” on page 858, ninth line from top,4“ Asithese'strips of
solid silver,” should read “As thin strips of solid silver.”

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Æditor’: DR. PAUL CARUS. Associates » VRE C. HECELER. |

Vol. IV. APRIL, 1894. No. 3. |

CONTENTS. |

THREE AsPECTS OF MONISM, boron ` Lloyd Morgan, Ching igi i
THE PARLIAMENT OF RELIGIONS, Gen. M. M. Trum se "uen

KaNT's DOCTRINE OF THE SCHEMATA, H. H. Wi pg Vave of nies Carolina.

THE EXEMPTION OF WOMEN FROM LABOR, Lester ard, Washington D. C.

NOTION AND DEFINITION OF NUMBER, Prof. Hermann Schubert, Hamburg, Germany.

ETHICS AND THE COSMIC “heen Editor

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Edited by STEPHEN D. PEET, Goon Horg, Itt,

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The First Magazine Devoted to Archadlogy and Ethnology established in America. It has now
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Among the Attractions for 1894 are the following:

A series of articles, accompanied with ~~, on the eut "vts mim loeations of Indian tribes,
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By Rev pes M. Beauchamp, Prof. A. F. Chamberlain, Dr.
tan iam Wallace hol cngedae X PAW Watkins) Rev. "George Patterson, and her specialists. Also a series of
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M
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The editor of the American Antiquarian is publishing a series of books on PRI
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ORIGINAL ARTICLES by the best writers. Descriptions of Microscopical
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progress in botany, entomology, agriculture and the study of all life by the
aid of the grandest of instruments, Recreative Microscopy or the entertain-
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III DI BROWN, hor Montreal Micro Soc., Montreal, Canada.
ILANDRO VICENTINI, , Chieti, Italy.

ASSOCIATE
EDITORS:

ee gd TS, APRIL, 1894.
A Shore-Collecting Trip to Jers
The Extent of the pacte and the Function of the different parts of the Sporangium of
G.
The Sense- Organs on he Doi. of our White Ants, Termes fiavipes. ds Plate. d
r. A. C. Stokes,
agn Vio mig Vorige with Chloral Hydrate
acts and Arguments a eg Vegetarian Theory. Mrs. Alice Bodington.
Draenio Phelondiin
Bacteria of the Sputa anal C TENERE Flora of the Mouth. (Large NM: Plate.)
centini,
Predacious and Parasitic Enemies of the Aphides. (With Plate.) H. C. A. Vine.
o
The Technology of Diatoms. (With Plate.) M. J. Tempere.
The Value of Low Amplification.

rated.)
Combination Hot sra and i Gderitini (With Plate.) F. W. Malley.
The Solandi Proc of Sun = nting.
Notes for Beginners in Microscopy. R. Reynolds, M. D.
What is the Ue of the Study of Diatoms? Rev. A. C. Smith.
Frogs’ Fer under cie
Microscopical Techni
Staining Tubercle Bacillus, H. Heiman, M. D.
Kaufmann’s hey d of Staining T wes ^ Bacilli. Fannie L. Bishop.
New V gi Pg trating Microbes
evie

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Walker Prizes in Natural History.

By the provisions of the will of the late Dr. William Johnson Walker
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SUBJECTS For 1895 :—

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(2) A study of the Devonian formation of the Ohio basin.

(3) Relations of the order Plantaginaceae.

(4) Experimental investigations in morphology or embryology.

SUBJECTS FOR 1896 :—

(1) A study of the area of schistose or foliated rocks in theeastern United
States.

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area or folded or faulted Appalachian’structure in Pennsylvania, Virginia, or
Tennesee.

(3) An experimental study of the effects of close-fertilization in the case
of some plant of short cycle.

(4) Contributions to our knowledge of the general morphology or the
general physiology of any animal except man.

NoTE—In all cases the memoirs are to be based on a considerable body of original work,
ás well as on a general review of the literature of the subject.

SAMUEL HENSHAW.
Secretary.
Boston Society of Natural History,
Boston, Mass, U. S. A.

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VoL. E cu December, 1894. 336

QUATERNARY TIME DIVISIBLE IN THREE PERIODS,
THE LAFAYETTE, GLACIAL, AND RECENT:

By WARREN UPHAM.

According to definitions in text-books by Dana, Archibald
Geikie and Etheridge, the Quaternary era began with the
change from the mild Pliocene climate to that of the Glacial
period, with its accumulation of the vast sheets of land ice in
high latitudes, and has continued to the present time. We
are living in the Quaternary era, as thus defined, and it must
extend far into the future to be at all proportionate in length
with the previous co-ordinate divisions of geologic time.
Le Conte and Prestwich, however, consider the Quaternary
division of time as completed at the dawn of civilization, with
traditional and written history; and they assign recent geolo-
gic changes to a new era, named by Le Conte the Psychozoic,
which is separated from the preceding principally on account
of the supremacy of man. The former’ view seems preferable,
because man is known to have been contemporaneous with the
Ice age.

Quaternary time, therefore, is here assumed to include (1)
the period of changed conditions causing the accumulation of

‘Presented before Section E of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science at the Brooklyn meeting, August 20, 1894; also partly contained in a
paper read before the Geological Society of America, August 16, 1893, as pub-
lished in = Bulletin, Vol. V, pp. 87-100, January, 1894.

6

980 The American Naturalist. d [December,

the ice-sheets; (2) the Glacial period, when the glacial and
modified drift were formed ; and (3) the Postglacial, Recent,
or Present period, bxterdias from the departure of the ice-
sheet until now. The first and second of these periods, which
were comparatively long, constitute the Pleistocene division,
while the third and very brief period is the Present or Psy-
chozoic division, of the Quaternary era.

THE LAFAYETTE PERIOD.

The broad lower part of the Mississippi Valley, from the
southern boundary of the glacial drift to Louisiana, contains
avery extensive unfossiliferous deposit of sand and gravel,
designated formerly from its prevailing ferruginous color as
the Orange sand, later called by McGee the Appomattox for-
mation in its development on the costal plain of the Atlantic
and Gulf States, but recently named the Lafayette formation,
from Lafayette County in northern Mississippi, where it was
earliest discriminated by Professor E. W. Hilgard in 1855 and
1856. This formation was spread across the valley plain 50
to 150 miles or more in width along an extent of 600 miles
from the mouths of the Missouri and Ohio Rivers to the Gulf
of Mexico, during the closing stage of the Tertiary era and
the beginning of the Quaternary, to each of which it has been
assigned. McGee, Chamberlin? and Salisbury,‘ hold that it is
probably referable to the Pliocene period ; while Spencer,’ Hil-
gard, E. A. Smith’ and others, as it seems to me preferably,
have considered it asthe earliest of our Pleistocene formations.
Its northern continuation beneath the glacial drift is recog-
nized by Salisbury? in western Illinois to a distance of a hun-

"Am. Journ. of Science, III, Vol. xxxv, February, April, May and June,
1888 ; Vol. xl, July, 1890. U.S. Geol. Survey, Twelfth An. Rep., for 1890-91,
pp. 347-521, with 10 plates, and 45 figures in the text.

‘Bulletin Geol. Soc. of America, Vol. i, 1890, pp. 469-480. Am. Jour. Sci.,
III, Vol. xli, May, 1891.

*Article last cited. Geol. Survey of Arkansas, An. Rep. pi 1889 (published
1891). Vol. ii, “ The Geology of Crowley's Ridge," pp. 224-24

*Geol. Survey of Georgia, First An. iens for 1890-91, p. 6

*Am. Jour. Sci, II, Vol. xlii, May, 1866; Vol. xlvii, Jan., A Vol. xlviii,
Nov. 1869; III, Vol. ii, Dec., 1871; S rtis May, 1892. Am. Geologist, Vol.
viä, Aug., 1891, pp. 129-131. |

m. Jour. Sci., IHI, Vol. xlvii, April, 1894.
"Bulletin Geol. Bolar of America, Vol. iii, 1892, pp. 183--186.

1894.] Quaternary Time Divisible in Three Periods. 981

dred miles northward from the Missouri River and boundary
of the drift, and gravels believed by him to be probably of
the same formation occur in the Wisconsin and Minnesota
driftless area, while northeastward he has observed the Lafay-
ette gravels in the Ohio Valley in southern Indiana about 150
miles from the Mississippi. McGee states that the Lafayette
beds attain their maximum thickness, which is 200 feet or
more, in the region about the mouth of the Mississippi, and that
they vary thence toa thin veneer, the thickness being propor-
tional directly with the volume of neighboring rivers and
inversely with the extension inland.

Previous to the maximum advance of the ice-sheet, the
Mississippi River and all its large tributaries eroded deep and
broad valleys through the Lafayette formation and underlying
strata, cutting at New Orleans to a depth at least 760 feet
below the present sea level. Along the central valley, from
Cairo to the Gulf, this erosion averages probably 200 feet in
depth upon a belt 500 miles long, with a width of 50 to 100
miles, excepting isolated plateau remnants of the Lafayette
and older beds, of which the largest are Crowley's and Bloom-
field ridges, in Arkansas and Missouri. The land during the
valley erosion was certainly 760 feet higher than now, but
this I think to be only a small fraction of its uplift. From
the transportation of northern Archean pebbles and cobbles
of erystalline rocks to the Lafayette beds of the lower Missis-
sippi and of Petite Anse Island, on the Gulf shore, in the direct
line of the axis of the Mississippi Valley, Hilgard believes
that during the deposition of these beds the valley had a
greater descent and stronger currents of its river floods. He
suggests that the increased altitude of the interior of the con-
tinent needed to give these formerly more powerful currents
may have been 4000 to 5000 feet, being sufficient, probably, to
bring the cold climate and ice accumulation of the Glacial
period. :

Marine submergence of thelow coastal and Mississippi Val-
ley areas oceupied by the Lafayette formation is supposed by
McGee and Spencer to have been requisite for the deposition
of its sand and gravel beds, but they see that immediately

982 The American Naturalist. [December,

afterward the land was much higher than now, to permit the
extensive and deep erosion of that time. A simpler view of
the epeirogenic movements, closing the Tertiary era and
inaugurating the Quaternary, seems to me to be found in
ascribing these beds to deposition on land areas by flooded
rivers descending from the Appalachian mountain region and
from the Mississippi basin, spreading gravel, sand and loam
over the coastal plain and along the great valley during the
early part of a time of continental elevation. The land
had lain during the long Tertiary periods at lower altitudes,
and its surface was largely enveloped by residual clays and
by alluvial sand and gravel. With the elevation of the con-
tinent, increased rainfall and snowfall and resulting river
floods swept away these superficial materials from the higher
lands and spread them on the coastal plain and along the
Mississippi Valley, where the streams expanded over broad
areas with shallow and slackened currents. As the elevation
increased, however, the rivers would attain steeper slopes and
finally erode much of the deposits which they had previously
made. During the culmination of the uplift, which the writer
believes to have been the chief cause of the Ice age, Chesa-
peake and Delaware Bays were excavated and erosion was in
progress at a far more rapid rate than with the present low
altitude of this region.

The Lafayette formation seems to me more closely related
to the Glacial period and the conditions producing the ice-
sheets than tothe preceding very long Tertiary era, and for the
same reasons which have been well stated by Hilgard and
Spencer, namely, their dependence alike on the epeirogenic
elevation? With the Ice age we should unite this probably

*That epeirogenic movements of land elevation caused the accumulation of the
Pleistocene ice-sheets, and conversely, that the end of the Glacial period was
due to land depression, I have shown in an appendix of Wright's * Ice Age in
North America," 1889, pp. 573-595; the Am. Geologist, Vol. vi, pp. 327-339,
Dec., 1890; and the Am. Journal of Science, ITI, Vol. xli, pp. 33-52, Jan., 1891;
and same, Vol. xlvi, pp. 114-121, Aug., 1893. This view, which may be ‘called
the epeirogenic theory of the causes of the Ice age, has been gradually thought
out in America by Dana, LeConte, Hilgard, Wright and others, and in Scotland
by Jamieson. Its earliest announcement was in 1855, by Dana in his Presidential

Address before this Association (Proc. A. A. A. S., Vol. ix, for 1855, pp. 28, 29;
. Am. Jour. Si., IT, Vol. xxii, pp. 328, 329, Nov., 1856).

DM M c e a MEE E C QU LL d LM cM c M lab diia a a

1894.] Quaternary Time Divisible in Three Periods. 983

much longer preglacial time of gradual uplift of the continent,
and the Postglacial or Recent period in which we live, to form
together the three suecessive parts of the Quaternary era. How
long the early part comprising the epeirogenic uplift, repre-
sented by the deposition and erosion of the Lafayette forma-
tion, may have been, we can only vaguely or perhaps approx-
imately estimate. During the beginning of the uplift its effect
would be probably to increase the transportation and deposi-
tion of gravel and sand by the rivers many times beyond
their present action. The rate of average land erosion now
prevailing throughout the drainage area of the Mississippi is
supposed by McGee to be competent to supply in about 120,000
years a volume of river gravel, sand, and silt equal to the
original Lafayette formation in the Mississippi Valley. With
the greater altitude and increasing slopes of the land during
the deposition of the Lafayette beds it may have required a
third or a sixth of the time here mentioned, that is, some
40,000 or 20,000 years. As the elevation continued, however,
rapid fluvial erosion of these deposits and of the underlying
strata ensued, which was extended over so long and broad an
area of the lower Mississippi Valley, and to such depth, that,
even with the high continental elevation of 2000 to 3000 feet,
known from submerged valleys off both the Atlantic and
Pacifie coasts, it must have required a long epoch. Perhaps
it may be reasonably estimated twice as long as the time of the
deposition, or somewhere between 40,000 and 80,000 years.
The Lafayette period thus comprised two parts or epochs, the
first characterized by deposition of the formation, the second
by its extensive erosion and the culmination of the continental
uplift.

THE GrACIAL PERIOD.

Comparison of the work of the glaciers and ice-sheets of the
present time with those of Pleistocene time seems to me best
accordant with a reference of all our glacial drift to a single
continuous period of glaciation, which, though occupying
probably 20,000 years or more, was yet brief as compared with
the duration of most other recognized geologic periods or

984 The American Naturalist. [December

epochs. The outflow of the upper part of the Pleistocene ice-
‘sheets probably exceeded the currents of narrow alpine glaciers,
but was less than the advance of broad and deep polar glaciers
which end in the sea. For the journey of Pleistocene bould-
ders 1000 miles in the ice-sheet, somewhat less than 3000
years would be required if the average of the glacial currents
was five feet per day. The amount of the glacial erosion and
of the drift, when compared with the erosion by the Muir
glacier in Alaska, imply a short rather than a long duration
of the Ice age. This conclusion is further affirmed by the
continuance of the same species of the marine molluscan
faunas from the beginning of the Glacial period to its end and
to the present day.

The duration of the Ice age, if there was only one epoch of
glaciation, with moderate temporary retreats and readvances of
the ice-borders sufficient to allow stratified beds with the
remains of animals and plants to be intercalated between
accumulations of till, may have comprised only a few tens of
thousands of years. On this point Prestwich has well written as
follows: “For the reasons before given, I think it possible
that the Glacial epoch—that is to say, the epoch of extreme
cold—may not have lasted longer than from 15,000 to 25,000
years, and I would for the same reasons limit thetime of . ...
the melting away of the ice-sheet to from 8000 to 10,000 years
or less."

Very gentle currents of broad river floods in the Missouri
and Mississippi Valleys deposited the North American loess,
attending the maximum extension of the ice-sheet and accom-
panying its departure up to the time of formation of the
great marginal moraines. The loess thus testifies that pre-
vious to the farthest glacial advance the land sank to its pres-
ent altitude, and probably somewhat lower on the area of the
early drift, but not to the sea level. The vast weight of the
continental glacier seems to have been the chief or only cause
of this subsidence, as was first pointed out by Jamieson for
the similar depression of the British Isles and Scandinavia at

"Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London, Vol. xliii, 1887, pp. 407, 408. Geology
Vol. ii, 1888, p.534. —

1894.] . Quaternary Time Divisible in Three Periods. 985

the time of final melting of the European ice-sheet. The ex-
‘planation of this continuance of the ice accumulation and
advance after the depression of the land began and until the
maxima, beth of the land subsidence and ice extension, were
attained, with a low altitude and even less descent of the lower
Mississippi than now, has been well given by LeConte.” The
subsidence was doubtless slow, even though probably many
times faster than the preceding uplift. It may have occupied
only 5000 years, being at a yearly rate of a half a foot to one
foot; but possibly it was two or three times as long. While
the slow sinking of the land was taking place, the accumula-
tion of the ice by snowfall may have proceeded at a somewhat
more rapid rate, so that the thickness of the ice-sheet and the
altitude of its surface were increasing up to a maximum
nearly coincident with that of the subsidence. Finally, how-
ever, the subsidence brought a warmer climate on the south-
ern border of the ice, causing it to retreat, and giving to it in
the region of the marginal moraines a mainly steeper frontal
gradient and more vigorous currents than duringits growth
and culmination.

The time of general retreat of the ice-sheet in North Amer-
ica, with low altitude of the land and marine submergence of
the coastal borders of northeastern New England, northward
from Boston, and of the eastern provinces of Canada, with
ingress of the sea along the valleys of the St. Lawrence and
Ottawa Rivers and the basin of Lake Champlain, has been
named by Dana the Champlain epoch. It was the final stage
of the Glacial period, and was characterized by the rapid de-
position of the glacial and modified drift, whose materials had
been contained in the lower part of the ice-sheet.

Tue POSTGLACIAL, RECENT, OR PRESENT PERIOD.

Closely following the deposition of the modified drift as
wide and deep flood-plains in the principal river valleys
draining away from the departing ice, these beds were deeply
eroded by the streams as soon as the ice-front had so far

"Bulletin Geol. Soc. of America, Vol. ii, 1891, pp. 329, 330. Elements of
Geology, third edition, 1891, p. 589.

986 The American Naturalist. [December,

receded that the supplies of water and drift from its melting
ceased. Much of the valley drift was soon removed by the
river channelling, and its remnants, being left as terraces on
the sides of the valleys, caused this first stage of the Post-
glacial period to be long ago named by Dana the Terrace
epoch. In less vigorous action the streams have continued at
the same work to the present day, so that this term may be
extended also to comprise this whole period.

In various localities we are able to measure the present
rate of erosion of gorges below waterfalls, and the length of the
postglacial gorge divided by the rate of recession of the falls
gives approximately the time since the Ice age. Such meas-
urements of the gorge and falls of St. Anthony by Professor
N. H. Winchell, show the length of the Postglacial or Recent
period in Minnesota to have been about 8000 years; and from
the surveys of Niagara Falls, Mr. G. K. Gilbert estimated it to
have been 7000 years, more or less. From the rates of wave-
cutting along the sides of Lake Michigan and the consequent
accumulation of sand around the south end of the lake, Dr.
E. Andrews believes that the land there became uncovered
from its ice-sheet not more than 7,500 years ago. Professor G.
Frederick Wright obtains a similar result from the rate of
filling of kettle-holes among the gravel knolls and ridges
called kames and eskers, and likewise from the erosion of
valleys by streams tributary to Lake Erie; and Professor Ben.
K. Emerson, from the rate of deposition of modified drift in
the Connecticut Valley at Northampton, Mass., thinks that the
time since the Glacial period cannot exceed 10,000 years. An
equally small estimate is also indicated by the studies of Gil-
bert and Russell for the time since the last great rise of the
Pleistocene lakes!Bonneville and Lahontan, lying in Utah and
Nevada, within the arid Great Basin of interior drainage,
which are believed to have been contemporaneous with the
great extension of ice-sheets upon the northern part of the
North American continent.

Professor James Geikie maintains that the use of paleolithic
implements had ceased, and that early man in Europe made
neolithie (polished) implements, before the recession of the

1894.] Quaternary Time Divisible in Three Periods. 987

ice-sheet from Scotland, Denmark and the Scandinavian pen-
insula; and Prestwich suggests that the dawn of civilization
in Egypt, China and India may have been coeval with the
glaciation of northwestern Europe. In Wales and Yorkshire
the amount of denudation of limestone rocks on which drift
boulders lie has been regarded by Mr. D. Mackintosh as proof
that a period of not more than 6000 years has elapsed since
the boulders were left in their positions. The vertical extent
of this denudation, averaging about six inches, is nearly the
same with that observed in the southwest part of the Province
of Quebee by Sir William Logan and Dr. Robert Bell, where
veins of quartz marked with glacial strie stand out to various
heights not exceeding one foot above the weathered surface of
the enclosing limestone.

From this wide range of concurrent but independent testi-
monies, we may accept it as practically demonstrated that the
ice-sheets disappeared only 6000 to 10,000 years ago. Within
this period are to be comprised the successive stages of man's
development of the arts, from the time when his best imple-
ments were made of polished stonethrough the ages of bronze,
iron, and finally steel, to the present time when steel, steam
and electricity seem to bring all nations into close alliance.

EstiMATED DURATION OF THE QUATERNARY Ena.

Arranged in chronologic order, we have derived for the
three parts of the Quaternary era, as here defined, the follow-
ing estimates of their duration: the Lafayette period or time
of preglacial epeirogenie elevation, with the deposition and
erosion of the Lafayette beds, some 60,000 to 120,000 years ;
the Glacial period, regarded as continuous, without interglacial
epochs, attending the culmination of the uplift, but terminat-
ing after the subsidence of the glaciated region, 20,000 to
30,000 years; and the Postglacial or Recent period, extending
to the present time, 6000 to 10,000 years. In total, the Quater-
nary era in North America, therefore, has comprised probably
about 100,000 or 150,000 years, its latest third or fourth part
being the Ice age and subsequent time. The Tertiary era
appears by the changes of its mollusean faunas to have been

988 The American Naturalist. [December,

vastly longer, having comprised, perhaps, between two and
four million years, of which the Pliocene period would be a
sixth or eighth part, thus exceeding the whole of the ensuing
era of great epeirogenic movements and resulting glaciation.

DivisroNs OF QUATERNARY TIME.

The following table of the several divisions, periods and
epochs of Quaternary time, as reviewed in this paper, is
arranged in the descending stratigraphic order of their geo-
logic formations.

f Recent or Present epoch.
Terrace epoc
f Glacial d d hamplain epoch.

Taie peto Glacial epoch.

| Lafayette period f Epoch of great elevation and erosion.
1 Lafayette epoch.

Psychozoie division | Recent period {

Pleistocene division

ee eee

1894.] The Homologies of the Uredineae. 989

THE HOMOLOGIES OF THE UREDINEAE
| (THE RUSTS).

By CHARLES E. Bessey.

The place of the parasitic plants constituting the Order Ure-
dineae (The Rusts), in a natural system of classification, has long
been in doubt, botanists not being fully agreed as to the hom-
ologies existing between these and other fungi. In a study
of this group, extending over many years, I have been led to
a view of the homologies between these plants and the Asco-
myceteae and Basidiomyceteae, somewhat at variance with the
theories of most recent writers; and itis probable that the time
has come for a more definite statement of this view than has
yet been given.

GENERAL STRUCTURE.

The Uredineae are parasitic within the tissues of higher
plants, for the most part Anthophyta. They consist of sep-
tated branching threads which vegetate for some time within
the host, and eventually produce spores (conidia) in chains, by
abstriction. These spores develop upon numerous, crowded,
parallel, terminal branches, within the tissues of the host, at
length bursting through the epidermis. The outer conidial
branches are modified into a “ peridium,” which surrounds
the erumpent spore-mass like a tiny cup, whence the common
name, “ Cluster-cup,” in allusion also to the fact that the spore-
cups usually appear upon the leaf in clusters. For a long |
time these cluster-cups were supposed to have no connection
with the rusts, and they accordingly were described under the
generic names Aecidium and Roestelia. The first of these
names is preserved in the term “ aecidiospore,” by which the
spores are often designated. (Figs. I and II of Plate XXXII.)

Somewhat later, spores of another kind are produced singly
upon the ends of other branches in the tissues of the host.
These, while occurring in clusters, are by no means as closely

990 The American Naturalist. [ December,

and regularly crowded as the aecidiospores, so that when they
burst through the epidermis of the host they constitute elon-
gated or irregular shaped spore-dots (sori) instead of definitely
outlined cups. Here again, the spores of this kind were re-
garded by the earlier botanists as belonging to a distinct
genus, Uredo : hence we commonly still speak of them as ure-
dospores. They are also known as “ stylospores,” in allusion to
the fact that they are stalked. (Figs. III and IV of Plate
XXXII.)

Still later, a third kind of spore is produced, often in the
uredosori, which bear some resemblance to the uredospores in
being stalked, and in some cases, one-celled (Uromyces, Melamp-
sora), but differing often in being two or more celled, and usu-
ally having a thicker wall. These are the last to develop upon
the mycelium within the host, and when they have ripened,
usually the parasite dies. Since these spores appear to complete
the development of the parasite, they have long been known
as teleutospores (res, ^completion.") They germinate (in
many species after a period of rest through the winter months)
by the production of a short, several-jointed filament (the
promycelium), from each cell of which short lateral branches
develop, upon whose summits single minute spores (sporidia)
are formed by abstriction. When these sporidia germinate
upon the proper host they form parasitic threads which pene-
trate its tissues and give rise to the aecidia described above,
thus completing the cycle of life. (Figs. V to XIII of Plate
XXXII.)

The life history here sketched may be taken as typical, but
it is subject to several modifications, e. g., (a) the omission of
the aecidial stage; (b) the omission of the uredo stage; (c) the
omission of both the aecidial and the uredo stages. Moreover,
in many species the aecidial stage occurs upon a different
host from that which supports the uredo and teleutospore
stages, this condition being known as heteroecism, a familiar
example of which may be seen in one of the common rusts
of wheat (Puccinia graminis), where the aecidiospores develop
on the leaves of the Barberry (Berberis vulgaris), the uredospores
and teleutospores alone occurring in the leaves and stems of

"n " RM Ai Ane
ESRC A SLL Se HERRAMIENTAS liy ION of stern c ERI PA CH RTRMRIETTSEEISSUUTRECTSAOAMEN AUSTRUM em n UN
OUS es

opt mde Lar rire mds al IE alert MAE

1894.) The Homologies of the Uredineae. 991

the wheat. In many heteroecismal species it has hitherto been
found impossible to determine the aecidium belonging to it,
and for many aecidia occurring upon common plants, the
uredo and teleutospore stages are not known. The difficulties
surrounding this problem are so great as to discourage the
attempt to solve them.

Howorocv or PARTS.

Having now a general idea of the structure of the Uredineae,
we come to the important question of the homology of their
parts. Here, again, we are beset with difficulties, No sexual
organs have yet been discovered, and there has been very much
structural degeneration of the whole plant.

In their general structure the Uredineae show clearly that
their relationship is with the Ascomyceteae or Basidiomyceteae
rather than with the Phycomyceteae, and upon this point there
has been little disagreement among recent botanists. Some
authors regard the aecidium as a kind of degenerated apothe-
cium, in which each conidial chain is a modified ascus. In
this view, the aecidium is the result of an obsolete or obsoles-
cent sexual aet, as in the Discomyceteae, and the uredospores
and teleutospores are considered to be conidial structures.
Accordingly, those who hold this view quite consistently set
off the Uredineae in a class bearing the name Aecidiomycetes.
By far the greater number of botanists, however, now regard
the teleutospores as basidia, homologous with the basidia of
the Hymenomyceteae and Gasteromyceteae, and they therefore
place the Uredineae in the class Basidiomyceteae. In this view,
the sporidia which develop upon the germination of the teleu-
tospore are basidiospores, homologous with those of mushrooms
and puff balls, and the uredospores and aecidiospores are forms
of conidia. It is needless in this paper to set forth these views
at length, since they may be found in almost any common
text-book of botany.

Briefly stated, the view which I wish to present 1s that the
" teleutospore," so-called, is a tightly fitting aseus, containing
one or more large spores; the teleutosorus is à reduced apo-
thecium ; the aecidiospores are the normal conidia; and the

992 The American Naturalist. [December,

uredospores secondary or accessory conidia (stylospores) In -
many cases the ascus-wall is readily separable from the con-
tained spore or spores; but for the most part, the ascus-wall
is so closely adherent as not to be distinguished from the
spore-wall without treatment by potassic hydrate or other
reagents.

In one genus, Uropyzis, the ascus is much larger than the
double spore it contains, and may be observed very easily
without special preparation. (Fig. VIII of Plate XXXII.)
In Gymnosporangium in fresh material an ascus cavity con-
siderably larger than the double spore can be seen in carefully
made preparations. Young *teleutospores " of Phragmidium,
in which the spores have not yet attained full size, show the
ascus-wall very clearly, (Fig. IX of Plate XXXII), although
in mature specimens by the enlargement of the spores it can be
seen with difficulty, if at all. By careful examination, one may
make out the ascus-wall in a good many cases where other-
wise it might be overlooked. I have little difficulty in dis-
tinguishing it in some species of Uromyces (where the ascus
contains but one spore) and Puccinia (where the ascus con-
tains one double spore, or more accurately speaking, two
spores), especially after the application of strong potassic
hydrate.

THE QUESTION OF RELATIONSHIP.

The view here set forth, that the so-called “ teleutospore " is
an aseus with its contained spore or spores, involves the sup-
position that the Uredineae have suffered much structural de-
generation. When we consider the fact that they are, as we
may say, intensely parasitic, there is no improbability that we
are dealing here with a greatly reduced plant structure. One
has but to contrast a Dodder with a Morning Glory, or a
Broom-Rape (Aphyllon) with a Figwort (Scrophulariaceae) in
order to realize what great changes are produced by a para-
sitic habit. It has long been well known in biology that the
greater the parasitism of an organism the greater is its degen-
eration. Some plants take but little from their hosts, and still
maintain their roots, stems and leaves with so little change

1894] ` The Homologies of the Uredineae. 993

thatit is scarcely perceptible. It is said that some of the
Gerardias are parasitie, and yet who can perceive in the coun-
tenance of any of our species any evidence of this partieular
vegetable sin? The closely related painted cups (Castilleia),
however, give evidence in their appearance that their habits
are not what they should be. It is even more so with Coman-
dra, while the Mistletoe bears the marks of degradation upon
every organ. lt is not otherwise with the Carpophytes. When
some ancestral seaweeds became saprophytic and parasitic, .
that structural degeneration of parts began which gave us the
many kinds of fungi. No one may now trace with certainty
the genetic line of the fungi, but that they originated from
holophytic ancestors cannot be doubted; nor can there be rea-
sonable doubt that they have become structurally more and
more modified the further they have departed from holophytic
habits. The holophyte requires masses of chlorophyll-bearing
cells, or as we commonly express it, its vegetative organs must
be well developed, but the hysterophyte has no use for such
tissue, and consequently, its vegetative organs are undeveloped.
The more perfectly the parasite adapts itself to its host the
greater may be its departure from the structure of its vegeta-
tive organs which its holophytic ancestors developed. In like
manner, the more perfectly the parasite merges itself into its
host, and in a sense becomes a part of it, the more may it
use the host tissues for protection and support, and the less is
it necessary for it to develop protective tissues of its own.
Thus we have in the fungi not only a degeneration of the
vegetative tissues, but the reproductive organs have likewise
undergone much degenerative modification.

We here regard the Uredineae as degenerated Cup-Fungi
(Discomyceteae), with their cups (apothecia) obsolescent, and
constituting the vaguely defined teleutosori. As suggested
above, there is here no need of that abundant accessory tissue
which in the Cup-Fungi forms a protective envelope (exciple)
around the hymenial mass, since the asci (“teleutospores”)
develop beneath the protecting epidermis of the host. The
host-tissues in the case of the Uredineae, act the part of the ex-
ciple in the normal cup-fungi. The apothecia of the cup-

994 The American Naturalist. [December,

fungi are therefore homologous with the “sori” of the teleu-
tospore stage of the Uredineae. Instead of.the large eight
spored asci, which are so common in the Discomyceteae, we find
in the Uredineae that they are much reduced, both in size
and the number of spores which they contain, there being
rarely more than one or two. And here we may propose, in
the light of the view here adopted, that the term “ teleutospore,”
while a misnomer as usually applied, be retained with a re-
stricted application to the spore or spores within the ascus.
Thus we may say that the ascus of Uromyces contains but one
teleutospore, while in Phragmidium it contains several. If
necessary (which I doubt) to distinguish these reduced asci
from normal ones, we may employ the convenient term teleuto-
asci. We may thus have teleutosorus, teleutoascus and teleuto-
spore.

PLACE IN THE SYSTEM OF PLANTS.

It remains to say a few words as to the place in the system
of plants to be assigned to the Uredineae in accordance with
these views. From what has been said, it follows that they
are to be regarded as Ascomyceteae, instead of Basidiomyceteae,
as so many recent botanists assert. Further, it is held that
they are degraded and much modified forms standing at or
near the end of a long genetic line, and not primitive or an-
cestral forms from which higher and more complex ones have
sprung. The cup-fungi have not been derived from the Ure-
dineae, but rather we may say that, in all probability, the lat-
ter have been derived by degeneration from the former. We
must, therefore, assign the Uredineae to a place in the Ascomy-
ceteae, after the Dicomyceteae. All may well agree to assign the
Perisporiaceae to the first (or lowest) place in the class on account
of their slight modification from the type of the holophytic
Carpophytes. From this primitive group we pass easily along
three somewhat divergent genetic lines, viz.: the Tuberoideae,
Pyrenomyceteae, and Discomyceteae, and from the latter have
sprung the Uredineae. The arrangement will then be as
: follows: :

aere AN AE T CPI NOE

Sg? TA eg A De moist Y M

PLATE XXXII.
2

ee a ee

Uredinee.

|
|
|
|
f

eo
eo
e

1894.] The Homologies of the Uredineae.

CLASS ASCOMYCETEAE.

Order Perisporiaceae,
Order Tuberoideae,
Order Pyrenomyceteae,
Order Discomyceteae,
Order Uredineae,
Order Ustilagineae.

CrLAss BASIDIOMYCETEAE.

Order Gasteromyceteae,
Order Hymenomyceteae.

Of the relationship of the Uredineae to the Ustilagineae I
need say no more at the present time than that the latter are
here regarded as still further degradations of the Discomyceteae;
nor is this the place in which to take up a discussion of the
homologies between the Ascomyceteae and the Basidiomyceteae.
Upon the latter point it is sufficient to say that the ascus and
the basidium are regarded as morphologically equivalent, the
ascus subdiving its protoplasmic contents into spores by an
internal division (forming ascospores) while the basidium
accomplishes the same thing by the growth of protrusions
(“ sterigmata ") into whose enlarged ends the protoplasm passes,
after which they separate as spores (basidiospores).

ExPLANATION OF Prare XXXII.

I. Cross section of a Barberry leaf; a, a cup of aecidio-
spores; b, spermogones of Puccinia graminis, after
Luerssen X

II. Rows of aecidiospores (conidia) of P. graminis upon their
conidiophores, after De Bary x 150.

III. Uredospores of P. graminis, the shaded one ripe, after
De Bary, x 390.

IV. Germinating uredospore of P. straminis, after De Bary,
X 390.

V. Cross section of a teleutosorus of P. graminis, after De
Bary, X 200.

996

VL

Vib

VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

The American Naturalist. [December,

Teleutoascus of P. graminis, external view, after Lud-
wig, X 450.

Teleutoascus of Uromyces fabae, optical section, after
Ludwig, X 450.

Teleutoaseus of Uropyxis amorphe, optical section, after
Ludwig, X 450.

Teleutoascus of Phragmidium subcorticium, external
view, after Ludwig, X 450.

Immature teleutoasci of Phragmidium subcorticium, after

essey, X

Germinating teleutospores (still within the ascus) of
Puccinia graminis ; s. sporidia, after Tulasne, X 400.

Germinating. teleutospores (still within the ascus) of
Puccinia moliniae, after Tulasne, X 400.

Germinating teleutospore (within its ascus) of Uromyces
appendiculatus, after Tulasne, < 400.

1894. ] On the Evolution of the Art of Working in Stone. 997

ON THE EVOLUTION OF THE ART OF WORKING
IN STONE. A PRELIMINARY PAPER BY
J. D. McGUIRE.

A REPLY BY CHarues H. Reap.

In the American Anthropologist for July, 1893, appeared an
essay with the above title. The writer, with whom I am per-
sonally unacquainted, was good enough to send me a separate
copy of it. I read it with some interest, for the efforts of an
earnest worker, who attempts, by novel methods, to solve a
difficult problem, cannot fail to be of interest to any one who
has given attention to the problem itself.

The question of paleolithic man in America has, moreover,
given rise to such fierce discussion that it seemed necessary to
point out the danger that|lies in the use of improper or irrel-
evant evidence. Such methods can only serve to mislead
enquirers and to delay the solution of the puzzle. The paper
now in question is so persistent in its pursuit of will-o’-the-
wisps that a better text could scarcely be found.

The problem Mr. MeGuire has set himself to resolve, stripped
of all redundant matter, is this: whether the so-called palæo-
lithie remains of Europe are necessarily older than the so-
called neolithic? Incidentally he implies that “ from a purely
archeological standpoint, the paleoliths of Europe and the
similar American implements are in all particulars, identical,
and are productions of man existing under like conditions."
What he understands by an archeological standpoint we shall
see later, but first I would deal with the main contention.

Noscitur a socii is an axiom of archeology. When an object
is found in the earth, and is dumb as to its own history, we
naturally and justly turn to its companions to help us. This
is good so far as it goes, and in an isolated case we may go
wrong. But when we multiply the single case with fifty or a
hundred, finding in all the same association of objects, and

the circumstances attested by persons of known observation
and probity, what before was probability is turned into as

998 The American Naturalist. [December,

great certainty as humanity can attain over the past. This, in
a few words, is the foundation upon which paleolithic man in
Europe now stands. This foundation might be broadened by
much geological addition, but the argument would be none
the more forcible. To put it more directly, certain flint imple-
ments are found in a stratum of a known age, so that this par-
ticular stratum comes to be recognized by all observers as
their habitat. They are found elsewhere, truly, but when so
found they usually bear indications of the vicissitudes they
have undergone since leaving their home. Such flint imple-
ments, further, are found associated with the remains of ani-
mals which are universally admitted to belong to a given
geological epoch. Here again they are so associated with such
persistency, noted by such widely separated and independent
observers, that the possibility of universal error is as wildly
improbable as that of universal conspiracy. Such being the
class of evidence upon which the antiquity of paleolithic man
is founded, it is obvious that any attack, to be effectual, must
be made on the premises. If it could be shown either that
the paleeolithic implements were not found in their undisturbed
bed, or that the animal remains near them had no connection
with them, then any conclusions based upon such association
would necessarily fall to the ground.

Mr. McGuire takes, however, an entirely different stand:
His theories are based upon his own experience as an amateur
maker of stone implements, and his experiments have led him
to the belief that it is far easier to make a polished stone im-
plement than a chipped one, and that therefore polished flint
implements are at least as old as those that are only chipped
and not polished !

Has Mr. McGuire ever seen a specimen of Kafir or Polynes-
ian carpentry? In the British Museum is a Kafir copy of a
common European chair, made in the usual fashion as to
shape, with slender spars for a back, a solid seat and spidery
legs. This is cut from one solid block of wood, surely a far
more difficult task than to make the chair by joining in the
usual manner. Applying Mr. McGuire’s argument to this

case, and it does not seem an unfair application, for both the

ENA inp ipn as

1894.] On the Evolution of the Art of Working in Stone. 999

Kafir and the Polynesian cuts everything from the solid,
where does it land us? Are we to think that they began with
joining, without doubt the easier method, and finally came to
the more difficult, the cutting from the solid? Surely not;
the natural explanation is the best, simply that the easier
method of work did not occur to them.

From another point of view Mr. McGuire’s experience is
somewhat at variance with that of others. Paleolithic im-
plements in Europe, and I would prefer to speak of Europe
only at present, are made of very few materials, chiefly flint
and quartzite. Mr. McGuire knows and admits this fact, but
seems to assert that it is easier to form an implement by bat-
tering than by chipping. If the implement is to be of flint, I
greatly doubt it, but if of certain stones of difficult or uncertain
fracture, it may well be the case! It seems inconceivable that
such a statement could be calmly made, seeing how entirely
contrary it is not only to the experience of all who have tried
the experiment, with the single exception of Mr. McGuire, but
also in direct opposition to all the evidence on the subject.
Can Mr. McGuire point out a single instance of a polished im-
plement being found on an admitted paleolithic site? He
gives no such instance, and as it would form the strongest
point in his whole argument if he could quote one, we may
presume that he does not. That being so, surely it is fighting
the air to bring a long array of his own experiments to prove
that paleolithic man ought to have found out what he con-
siders the easiest way of making his tools.

It may be well to make the point at issue quite clear by
stating that there is no question of the polishing or grinding
of an implement caused by use. Such an instance, probably
more than one, of the chipped edge of a tool of palzolithie age
being worn or ground by applying it to its destined work, has
occurred. But it has never been urged that the effect thus
produced was part of the original design.

Before leaving this branch of the enquiry I would fain
quote Mr. MeGuire's peroration. He saysthat palaeolithie man

1T say “seems to assert," for though the point at issue is the making of palaeo-
lithic implements, yet Mr. McGuire uses the indefinite term “stone” when he
should say * flint."

.

1000 The American Naturalist. [December,

“had knives with which he could cut various articles and
needles with which to sew; he knew the art of making and
burning pottery ; could and did make fire; he drilled holes of
large and small size in bones, antlers, shells and fossils, and
was familiar with the art of engraving at a period contempor-
aneous with the Mousterian implement and a quaternary
fauna. With such evidence can it be argued that man was
ignorant of a knowledge of the process by which stone was
battered and ground in to shape and yet familiar with the
more complicated art of chipping?”

On the other side I would put the man of the eighteenth
eentury. He was familiar with the learning of two thousand
years preceding his own time; he knew and practised the art
of printing ; he was an accomplished chemist and astronomer ;
he was an admirable artist in painting, sculpture and music;
was a student of the forces of nature; traversed the whole
world for the improvement of his mind or the bettering of his
fortunes; he was expert in the beautifying of his every day
surroundings of furniture and the accessories of a luxurious
home. With such evidences should it not be argued with far
greater force that he must have known that under the lid of
his boiling tea-kettle, a utensil of daily use, lay a force that
would carry him over land or sea five times more swiftly than
the swiftest horse? Yet it is remarkable that he never thought
of the application of the power of steam.

One word about the “ purely archeological standpoint.”
This seems, in Mr. MeGuire's view, to resolve itself into “the
character and size of the chips detached appearing identical
as do the so-called implements when laid one beside the other; "
for, on the same page, he says, “ Taking the type of the imple-
ment as a criterion of antiquity, America, Europe and Asia
stand on the same footing.” This, however, is the most dan-
gerous criterion that could be taken. Even in Europe where
the material used and the character of the sites are nearly
alike, the type of implement alone is by no means a certain
indication of age. I have seen hundreds of undoubted neo-
lithic implements of far ruder work than an ordinary imple-
ment from the drift. And there is every reason why it should

1894.] On the Evolution of the Art of Working in Stone. 1001

beso. The material used is the same, and we have no ground
for supposing that the process of manufacture was different.
When, however, the types of one Continent are used as a criter-
ion, by superficial resemblance alone, for determining the
date of similar implements ftom another and distant Conti-
nent, the conclusions arrived at can obviously be of no value
whatever.

I have long thought that a prominence totally undeserved
has been given to the rule of thumb distribution that “ chipped
— polished = palaeolithie, and chipped + polished — neo-
lithic.” Its only virtue is its convenience and that it is easy to
remember. But to exalt it to the dignity of a determinative
factor is, I think, a great mistake, and I feel sure that many
ardent collectors of stone implements cling to this accidental
distinction as their sheet-anchor for data. The fact that pal-
æolithic man overlooked the polishing of his implements is a
mere accident, a subsidiary and incidental peculiarity, and
possesses no right whatever to the importance it has attained.
It has not the least value in determining whether an imple-
ment is of one or the other period. The converse of the pro- -
position does not, of course, hold good in our present state of
knowledge. Ifa polished implement of flint be found, it can
safely be declared non-paleolithic, for the reason that up to
now no implement with a designedly ground surface has been
found on a paleolithic site. It would be of the greatest service
in this particular if some fortunate searcher could light upon
a hoard of polished palæolithic flint tools. Then it is possible
that the true determination of paleolithie as opposed to neo-
lithic would obtain proper recognition; that it does not rest
upon the slender evidence of “chipping only," but upon a far
more solid foundation, to wit, the evidence of the bed in which
it lies. :

To the observer in Europe the whole question of what is
known as palcolithie man in America seems to bein a chaotic
state. There appear to be many reasons for this. One prin-
cipal one is, without doubt, the unfortunate reliance upon a
particular type of implement as a distinguishing character of
paleolithie deposits. Granted that such a type has a deter-

1002 The American Naturalist. [December,

minative value in Europe, by what process of reasoning can it
be argued that man, living thousands of miles away, has pro-
duced the same peculiar variety, simply because he lived with
a similar group of extinct animals? Another reason, perhaps
equally potent, is that only a very limited number of the stud-
ents of early man in America have made any lengthened study
on the spot of the conditions under which these remains are
found in Europe. If the conditions are to be similar in
America, then this would appear to be a necessity. If they are
unlike, as is very possible, yet there must be sundry points of
resemblance, and it is surely of value to proceed to the study
of the unknown by familiarizing the mind with the date of a
known and accepted condition. To sum up in a few words—
let intelligent observers, trained to use their eyes, knowing
what constitutes evidence, and capable of recording it, let
such men work over the possible sites of the American Conti-
nent, and the result of their labors will, without any doubt, be
of the greatest value to science, whether paleolithic man be
found or not. But it is of the first importance that the explor-
ers be trained men. The investigations of men without the
necessary knowledge not only causes the results to be of little
present value, but their work destroys the very evidence upon
which alone true knowledge can be founded.

1894.] Zoology in the Hi igh School. 1003

ZOOLOGY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL:
By CLARENCE M. WEED.

I do not see how the program recommended by the Natural
History Conference of the Committee of Ten? ean escape the
charge of being inadequate and one-sided. According to it,
eight years of study of at least two periods each week are to
be devoted to plants before the high school is reached. This
study includes not only the various parts and functions of the
higher plants, their classification and life-histories, but the
lower plants as well. Then in the high school five exercises a
week for one school year are to be devoted to what can be con-
sidered only as a systematic review of knowledge already ac-
quired. In all the twelve years of school life no provision is
made for the study of animals, except a brief term of physiol-
ogy, unless the advice of the conference is ignored and zoology
is substituted for botany in the high school course. Truly it
would appear that the much abused term—natural history—
is to be restricted once more and become a synonym of bot-
any. That the Conference did not intend to restrict the nature
study of the lower schools to plants is abundantly shown by
their answers to the questions submitted by the Committee of
Ten, in which they distinctly recommend the study of both

plants and animals for these grades.
‘The Conference “agreed that the year of study in natural
history, recommended as a minimum for the high school,
should be a consecutive year of daily recitations or laboratory
work, and it is better to have the year’s work devoted to one
subject, either botany or zoology, than to have it divided be-
tween the two.” Two years have passed since this opinion
was promulgated, and while it may have represented the best.
educational ideas concerning the study of biology then, there

! From a paper read before a High School Teachers! Institute, Concord, N. H.,
Sept. 21, 1894.

2? Rept. of Committe on Secondary School Studies,
of Education.

pp. 138-158., U. S. Bereau

1004 The American Naturalist. [December,

is abundant evidence to show that it does not to-day. For
there are many indications that biological teachers are accept-
ing and adopting the dictum long since enunciated by Huxley

that “the study of living bodies is really one discipline, which |

is divided into zoology and botany simply as a matter of con-
venience.” Nothing shows this more clearly than the general
adoption of such books as Huxley & Martin’s Course of Ele-
mentary Instruction in Practical Biology, Parker’s Lessons in
Elementary Biology, Dodge’s Introduction to Elementary
Practical Biology, and Boyer's Laboratory Manual in Element-
ary Biology. These books are designed for use in the high
schools and colleges, and unquestionably represent the consen-
sus of opinion among the most successful biological teachers.
They show that the study of living things can easily be car-
ried on in a consecutive course in which the student may ob-
tain a basis of sound biological knowledge concerning the
organisms on both sides of the imaginary fence which separ-
ates the plant and animal world. I doubt if any fair-minded
zoologist would think of insisting on confining the biological
training of high school students to animals, for it would be a
one-sided and inadequate training introducing the pupil to
one phase of nature when he is entitled to an introduction to
both. No more should the botanist claim an exclusive privi-
lege in this respect. :
The reasons given by the Conference report for choosing
botany instead of zoology are three, viz.: (1) “ Because the
materials for the study of that subject are probably more easily
obtained than those for the study of zoology; (2) Because the
study of plants is more attractive to the average pupil; and
(3) Because, in the study of animals, many prejudices or aver-
sions have to be overcome.” Obviously, these last two causes
should be considered as one, the explanation of the greater
attractiveness of plants must largely be found in the prejudices
'and aversions to animals. My own experience in teaching
both subjects leads to the opinion that there is little weight to
be given the argument on either side: some students prefer
one subject and some the other, but the greatest enthusiasm is
. always aroused by the study of animals like Vorticella, whose

4
3

Ree T

*

1894.] Zoology in the High School. 1005

life processes are watched in the field of the microscope. As
to the first reason, the probable greater ease of procuring bo-
tanical material, the probability was not justified by the recent
experience of Mr. C. H. Clark and myself at the New Hamp-
shire College Summer School of Biology. We there went over,
with nearly twenty teacher-students, the work in botany and
zoology recommended in the programs of the Natural History
Conference Committee, the afternoon sessions being devoted to
botanical instruction by Mr. Clark, and the morning sessions
to zoological instruction by myself. We both spent much of
our spare time foraging for supplies, but I think Mr. Clark
had the more difficult task of the two. Evidently these rea-
sons are open to question, and, in any event, as mere reasons
of expediency, they should give way to the larger considera-
tions involved in other phases of the subject.

The limits of time forbid present discussion of the many
claims of biology as a whole upon modern education, but I
May say in passing that one of the most important of these
claims is to be found in the relations of biological science to

_ the philosophical problems of the day. Our philosophy is so

permeated with the evolutionary phraseology that a knowledge
of biological terms and processes is essential to the daily read-
ing of an intelligent man. Such knowledge cannot be ade-
quately obtained from the study of either plants or animals
alone.

I believe that the position of a large proportion of biological
teachers in America concerning biology in the high schools may
fairly be represented by the following propositions: (1) That
biology should be taught rather than either botany or zoology
alone; (2) That the course should cover two years of at least
three periods a week if possible, if not, that it cover as much
time as can be spared to it, the minimum being one year ; (3)

. That in general the time should be about equally divided be-

tween animals and plants, and that the study of the latter should
come first, although some simple animal cells may well be stud-
ied at the start in connection with the lowest plants; (4) That
the instruction should be given by means of the laboratory
method of individual study of organic types, beginning with

1006 The American Naturalist. [ December,
\

the lower forms and proceeding upward in the scale of life ;
(5) That the methods employed should aim to develop the
faculties of the student as well as to add to his store of knowl-
edge—should be educative as well as instructive; and (6)
That the laboratory work should be supplemented to as great
an extent as possible by field excursions and outside reading.
It is scarcely necessary at this time to emphasize the impor-
tance of the laboratory method of studying biology. It is the
only possible way ; and if it cannot be adopted the boys had
better be turned out in the woods to study nature first hand
there. They will thus gain more useful knowledge and ex-
perience than they possibly could from the old-fashion text-
book of zoology in which the student was introduced through
a dead language to a much deader world. The equipment of
a biological laboratory need not be very expensive. The
essential furniture will consist of low simply-constructed
tables with accompanying chairs, shelf-room and window-
space. Each student should be provided with a compound
microscope which can be purchased for $17 .00, and a few sim-
ple accessories. Glass jars of some form—nests of beakers of
larger sizes are excellent—should be provided for aquaria,
and some simple reagents and dissecting dishes are necessary.
The logical method of commencing the study of zoology
unquestionably is to study the lowest forms first and proceed
in natural sequence to the higher ones. The student thus
acquires a philosophie view of the animal kingdom and of the
method of its development. He studies first the cellin the
manifold modifications which it assumes in the one-celled
animals; then he sees cells remaining connected superficially
to form the simplest metazoa, and finally studies their myriad
combinations in the higher animals, He proceeds from the
simple to the complex—studies the materials of construction
before studying the completed structure. The chief objection
that has been raised to this method is that the student is re-
quired to begin the subject with high powers of the microscope
—an instrument with which he may not be familiar—and
that by means of it he is suddenly introduced to new and
Strange forms of life. "This objection has been urged with

*

:
4
F
4
*
$
4

guo d euo ra MENT Le n RO NEEPHPPIPEPOPEPIDTPRPTUC aa

1894.] Zoology in the High School. 1007

force by the master-teacher of modern biology, Professor Hux-

ey, who, in the revised edition of his Course in Practical
Biology, begins with the frog and works downward. That
the experience of American teachers does not lead them to
attach so much importance to the objection is shown by the
fact that all of the authors of our best laboratory manuals—
such as those of Dodge, Bumpus, Brooks and Boyer—have
adopted the method of proceeding from below upward, and I
think the practice of a majority of biological teachers points
in the same direction. Possibly the aptness of American
boys and girls in mastering such details as those of micro-
scopic technique may account for the difference in the prac-
tice.

A serious objection to beginning the study of zoology with
the frog or any higher animal is that it involves putting the
student to the work of dissection before his interest is aroused.
To many boys and more girls this is sufficient to give them a
dislike to the whole subject. But if they first study living
animals by watching their movements beneath the microscope,
their interest can be so aroused that they can be led to simple
dissections without difficulty. Many of them, indeed, will be
so charmed with the work that they will echo the sentiment of
the young lady at a leading New England college who „is
credited the enthusiastic remark that “ Earthworms are per-
fectly lovely, especially the inside.”

The teacher should adopt one of the newer laboratory
guides, selecting the one that seems best adapted to the needs
of the class and the time to be given to the subject, and having
devoted a preliminary exercise to the use of the microscope,
should start the students in individual studies of the types
treated of in the guide. Abundance of material should be
provided, and the students should be taught to rely upon their
own resources to as great an extent as possible. At first they
will need constant assistance, but later they will become more
independent. Drawings and full notes are to be required.

An important part of the educational value of a laboratory
course in biology depends on the requirements as to the stu-
dent’s notes. If one adopts the somewhat common practice of

1908 The American Naturalist. [ December,

allowing the student to follow the laboratory guide in his note-
book, often answering questions by number with a yes or no,
the results will be far from satisfactory. In my own classes I
have adopted the method of writing upon the blackboard
a definite subject, e. g., “A Description of the Structure and
Biology of the Amoeba,” upon which I require an original
essay embodying the results of the student’s observations, and
such additional explanations as I have given the class at the
time the animal was studied. These essays are written upon
one side of the letter size paper that goes between clip binders.
The drawings are incorporated in the proper places with ex-
planations beneath, the aim being to make all as clear and con-
cise as it should be ina book. These essays are submitted
once a week, and if not satisfactory are rewritten. I hope soon
to arrange a cooperation with the English department so that
the essays may count as English exercises and be reviewed
from the rhetorical point of view. Very decided progress has
resulted from this method which seems to me the most desira-
ble mode of note-keeping in such laboratory work.

But the ordinary laboratory manual by no means includes
all of the “ pedagogical contents of zoology.” In general it
confessedly covers with fair completeness only the morpholog-
ical side of the subject and leaves almost or quite untouched
important phases of the science which should never be ignored.
To guide astudent along the morphological road is unquestion-
ably the safest and surest way of leading him to a sound basis
of biological knowledge, but every opportunity should be taken
to point out to him the objects of fascinating interest that are
found beside the way. Failure to do this leads to the produc-
tion of those near-sighted naturalists, who, in the expressive
words of Professor Forbes, ^ must have nature boiled in cor-
rosive sublimate solution and fried in paraffine and sliced by
a microtome before they care for it.” These are not the nature
students the high schools wish to produce. Broadness, not
narrowness, is here the aim; and the results in this respect
will depend largely on the culture, enthusiasm and prepara-
tion of the teacher.

The most important general result to be taught in connec-

JEU ae Ae gh ea Pe ARE AS T Se ee a o TS ne LR MEE A ee M ERROR
*

1894.] Zoology in the High School. 1009

tion with morphology is that of physiology. So far as possible
the study of function should coincide with the study of form.
To à considerable extent the newer laboratory manuals pro-
vide for this, especially in the lower groups of animals. Em-
phasis should be laid upon this side of the subject, and expla-
nations be reiterated until the student masters each detail. In
the same connection—and here is one of the most important
phases of zoology—the teacher should develop those laws of
life which give to biology its greatest interest, such as the law
of the physiological division of labor and of structural progress
from simple to complex ; the relation of the one-celled animal
to the multicellular one; the similarity of individual develop-
ment to that of the group; the significance of the nucleus;
the phases of reproduction; the facts of biogenesis and abio-
genesis, of homogenesis and heterogenesis; the relations of
parasitism to degeneration; the differences between plants
and animals; the infinity of variations; the main facts of
mimicry and protective resemblance; the effects of heredity
and environment; the elements of natural selection, and an
outline of the theory of organic evolution.

Perhaps you think this is laying too great a burden upon
the teacher: it need not, for he may find an admirable,
though concise discussion of these principles in Parker's Ele-
mentary Biology, and a more elaborate account of many of
them in Lloyd Morgan’s Animal Life. He should also have
at hand for familiar reference Wallace’s Darwinism, Poulton’s
Colors of Animals, Beddard’s Animal Coloration, Rolleston’s
Forms of Animal Life, the Standard Natural History, the
important zoological text-books, and as many other similar
works as possible.

Perhaps the next most essential feature of the zoological
course is a knowledge of the main outlines of animal classifi-
cation. Not many years ago zoology was taught as if it con-
sisted only of classification, and the inevitable reaction has
gone so far that at present there is a tendency to ignore it
altogether. This, however, is to bedeplored. Classification is
an essential feature of the science and should receive due con-
sideration. Here the safest guide for the American teacher is

1010 The American Naturalist. [Decemper,

the Standard Natural History which should be in every school
library as a work of reference.

Much can be done in arousing the student's interest by
means of field excursions and outside reading. "These excur-
. sions should be taken as frequently as they conveniently can
be, and be under the personal supervision of the instructor.
Inland schools should plan, if possible, at least one trip to the
seaside, choosing a time when the tide will be out during the
visit, where crabs, sponges, starfishes; sea-urchins and ane-
mones may be studied as well as sea-lettuce, rock-weeds and
many other forms of plant and animal life.

The amount of collateral reading that may be done will
vary with the conditions of the school and the interests of the
individual student. Biology opens to one an enormous field
of literature of fascinating interest in which the teacher should
always be browsing; and if wise he will lead his flocks to the
feet of the master-minds who have ever found joy and inspira-
tion in the green pastures and beside the still waters, where
dear old Mother Nature is always ready to receive our worship
and breathe a benediction upon our holiest aspirations.

New Hampshire College, September, 1894.

Sse ho NECEM Rr ET E RT a

1894.] Editorials. 1011

EDITORIALS.

- —Tar International Geological Congress met at Zurich, commencing:

on August 29th, and continuing until September 1st, inclusive. On
the third of September the Congress started on an extended excursion
through the Alps for examination of the geological features en route.
Numerous important papers were read, but no official expression as to
rules or modes of proceedure in geology were issued or discussed.
The most important proposition in this direction had reference to the
organization of the congress itself. Dr. Fraser of this city offered the
following resolution, “with reference to the organization of the next
congress.” “(1) To what extent does the Congress recognize the right
of Government bureaus as such, or of societies, or any other organiza-
tion, to send delegates to the congress? (2) Within what limits does
the Congress recognize the right of these representatives, or of*a part
only of the members of the Congress which come from the same
country, to desighate the Vice-President representing their country, or
to aet without coöperation with their compatriots in the Congress. ? "

This resolution was rendered necessary by the arbitrary action of
the president Prof. Renevier, in electing as Vice-President represent-
ing the United States, a person who was not present, but who had been
recommended for the place by letter. The person so elected is a
member of U. S. Geological Survey, and although this fact could not
debar him from the position, his appointment under such circumstances
brought into prominence the question as to the relative claims of
various bodies to appointment to the official positions in the Congress.
Since the Committee which originally represented the United States
was driven out of existence, owing to the contributive neglect of some of
its members, this country has no official representation in the Congress.
Hence the propriety of the resolution offered by Dr. Fraser. An easy
solution of the question would appear to be suggested by the language of
the resolution. That is that the members in attendance from a given
country, should get together in advance, and nominate their candidates
for presentation to the congress.

— lr is proposed by the Filson Club of Louisville, Kentucky, to
publish a work on the life and writings of Constantine Samuel Rafin-
esque by the well known zoologist, Dr. R. Elleworth Call. An extract
from the preface says:

67

1012 The American Naturalist. [December,

“This memoir had its inception in an attempt to clear up certain
matters connected with the synonymy of a large and important group
of fresh-water mollusks—the Unionide. A number of very remarka-
ble facts connected with the personality of its subject were thus inci-
dentally learned. As the collation of data proceeded, the facts learned

* seemed of sufficient importance to group them for presentation to the
literary and scientific world in the hope that a better and more intel-
ligent understanding of the work of this eccentric naturalist might re-
sult. A number of impressions were forced upon my attention as the
work proceeded; among other conclusions reached, was the one that
Rafinesque had not been always fairly treated by his cotemporaries.
Resulting from this was the conviction that many naturalists now liv-
ing have formed opinions concerning the nature and value of Rafin-
esque’s work which appear to me to be quite erroneous. In the hope that
some of these misapprehensions might be corrected, the task of writing
his life, which is quite a labor of love, was undertaken.”

The prospectus goes on to say “ the publication will be in the sump-
tuous quarto form adopted by the Filson Club, and issued in paper
only. It will contain several full page illustrations, one of which will
be a portrait of its subject. A complete bibliography of the writings
of Rafinesque on every subject, comprising over four hundred titles,
will be included, together with a certified copy of his will, one of the
most remarkable testamentary documents ever probated,” ete.

The gentlemen engaged in this enterprise probably think that they
are conferring a benefit on contemporary and future science by issuing
this publication. We wish to state that in our opinion the money
devoted to it might be expended in a much more profitable direction.
A reprint of Rafinesque’s botanical and zoological papers, so that they
can be made accessible to students, would be far more useful to science,
and we are glad to notice that the same publishers (Jno. P. Morton &
Co.) propose to issue a reprint of the Ichthyologia Ohiensis. We do not
mean to intimate, in making this suggestion, that the works of Rafin-
esque ever had more than a very moderate scientific value, but he has
added so much to the nomenclature that it ought to be possible to re-
fer easily to them, whereas now many of them are inaccessible to most
naturalists.

Rafinesque is well known as a most careless writer who inflicted
endless difficulties on his successors. Some of the matter of his papers
is fictitious, and much of it of such an indefinite character that it
should not be admitted into scientific literature. Some naturalists
have been at great pains to identify his species, but such identifica-

ESTE

1894.] Editorials. 1013

tions will be ultimately set aside, when a more critical spirit prevails
among species zoologists. Money is so badly needed for scientific re-
search and its publication, that it is melancholy to notice its perver-
sion to such an object. It is also difficult to understand how any one
who understands the true needs of science can devote his time to writ-
ing such a book. In concluding these remarks, we wish to emphasize
the fact that Mr. Rafinesque was not a Kentuckian, nor an American,
so that patriotic (!) motives can scarcely enter into the proposition.

—lr is greatly to be hoped that the newly established Botanical
Society of America can be induced to hold at least some of its meet-
ings at the same times and places as the societies of Naturalists,
Morphologists and Physiologists, for not a few will be members of
more than one of these organizations, while there are many questions
like those of evolution, heredity, geographical distribution, studies
of the cell and of protoplasm, which, whether presented from the zo-
ological or the botanical side are of equal interest to all. We notice
that the provisions of the constitution of the new society are in effect
that annual and special meetings are to be held at times and places
appointed by the council, so that there is, in this respect, no trouble in
affiliation with the older organizations.

—Proressor W. W. Norman of De Pauw University goes to the
place in the University of Texas recently vacated by C. L. R. Edwards,
now of Cincinnati. In view of the treatment experienced by Dr.
Edwards, the position can hardly be said to be a desirable one, and
we withhold our congratulations until we see whether the university
authorities know more or are more sensible of the advances of science
than they were a faw months ago. The best we can do is to extend
our sympathies.

The numbers of the American Naturalist for 1894 were issued at
the following dates: January, Jan. 25; February, Feb. 17; March,
Mch. 8; April, Apl. 2; May, May 4; June, June 1; July, July 15;
August, Aug. 14; September, Sept. 15 ; October, Oct. 10; November,

ov. 8; December, Dec. 5.

Ld

1014 The American Naturalist. [December,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, H.—A Monograph of the Bats of megi America. Bull. No. 43, U. S.
Natl. Mus. From the Smithsonian Institutio

ALLEN, J. A.—Cranial Variations in d micropus due to Growth and
Yndividgal Differentiation. —— Remarks on Xii of ken tanc TUN ginosus
from Western Mexico, and on the Color Phas P vy Extr.
Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, 1894. deos the author.

BARCENA, M.—El Clima de la Cuidad de Mexico. Mexico, 1893.

—Selvicultura Breves Consideraciones sobre Explotation y formacion de los

ues. Mexico,1892. From the autho

Becker, G, F.—On certain Astronomical Conditions favorable to Glaciation.
Extr. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLVIII, Aug., 1894. From the author

Brown, A. E.—On the True Character and Relationships of Ursus cinnamo-
meus And. and

BUCKMAN, S. S. AnD BarHrn, F. A.—Can the Sexes in Ammonites be distin-
guished? Extr. Nét. Sci., Vol. IV, 1894. From the authors

e de la France dressée edi le Service vicinal par ordre du Ministre de l'in-

térieur r^ Y Echelle du 100,000 ém

Day, D. T.—Mineral pare aie of the vanes Lt for the calendar year 1893.
Washington, 1894. From the U. S. Geol. Surv

Dean, B.—Contributions to the pein eee s Cladoselache. Extr. Journ.
Morph., Vol, IX, 1894. From the author.

DILLER, J. 8. AND SCHUCHERT, -Diere əf penar ar in California.
Extr. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLVII, 1894. From C. Schuc

GUYARD, Js Cobpuralecn schematique du soleil de a id Paris, 1894.
Froin the suite:
EIGENMANN, C. H.—On the Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast of North

America. Extr. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1892. Washington, 1894.
From the author.

Eleventh Annual Report of the Board of Control of*the State Agricultural
Experiment Station at Amherst, Mass. 3

Erniorr, W. C.—A History of Reynoldsville and Vicinity. Reynoldsville,
1894.

Emmons, S. F.—Geological Guide-Book for an Excursion to the Rocky Mts.
Extr. Compte-Rendu of the Fifth Internatl. Congress of Geologists. New York,
1894. From the author.

HERRERA, A. L.—El Hombre Prehistorico de Mexico. Extr. Mém., de la Soc.
Alzate de Mexico, T. VII. From the author

Hinricus, G.—Centenary SETE of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier. St.
Louis. 1894. From the autho

Houck, A.—Additions to de Paleobotany of the Cretaceous Formation on

Jiná. Extr. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, Feb., 1894.——Some Further Notes
on the Geology of the North Shore of Lous Island. Extr. Trans. N. Y. Acad.
Sci., XIII, (1894). From the author. ;

1894.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 1015

Jouv, P. L.—Notes on Birds of Central Mexico with Descriptions of Forms
believed to be new. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus, Vol. XVI, 1894. From
the Smithsonian Inst.

Kemp, J. F.—Gabbros on the western shore of Lake Champlain. Extr. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894. From the Geol. Dept. of Columbia College

Kemp, J. F. anD HoLLicK, A.—Granite at Mount Adam and Eve, Warwick,
Orange Co., N. Y., and its contact phenomena. Extr. Ann. New York Acad.
Sci, Vol. VII. From the author:

Kemp, J. F. AND MARSLERS; V. r .— Trap Dikes of the Lake Champlain Region.
Bull. No. 107, U. S. Geol. Surv. Washington, 1893. From Mr. J. F. Kem

Lawprs, C. K.—Autobiographical Sketch of a Tree. No date. From the
author.

Locy, W. A.—Metameric Segmentation in the epo: ve. and Embry-
onic Rim. Extr. Anat. Anz, IX, Bd. Nr. 13. From the a

LowNspALE, E. H.—Southern Extension of the ricas in Town Extr.
Proceeds. Iowa Acad Sci. 1893. From the author.

Mantra, P. 17 Eredita et L'Origine delle Specie. Palermo, 1894. From the

Misi, O. T.—Migration and the Food Quest. A cmd in im nop of
America. Extr. Amer. Anthropol., July, 1894. From the au

MocQUARD, M.—Sur l'existence d'une poche axillaire chez edid caméléons.
Extr. Compte-Rendu Soc. Philom., Paris, 1893. From the author.

Ninth Report on the Injurious and other Insects of New York for the year
1892. Albany, 1893. From J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist.

Pierre, E.—L/Epoque Eburnéenne et les races humaines de la periode glyp-
tique. Saint-Quentin, 1894. From the author.

Report for the year 1893-94, presented by the Board of Managers of the Ob-
servatory of. Yale University to the President and Fellows

Report of the U. S. National Museum for the year andit June 30, 1892. From
the Smithsonian Inst.

:R, M.—Literaturbericht für Zoologie in Beziehung zur Anthropologie
mit Einschluse der lebend und fossilen Süugethiere für das Jahr, 1891. From
the author.

Scorr, W. B.—Mammalia of the etg River Beds. Extr. Trans. Amer.
Phil. Sos. Vol. XVII, 1893. From the author

Second Weekly W — -— Ralletin ERN by the North Carolina State
Weather Service April 16,

SEELEY, H. G.—Furt eher peii on the ce os ag and Clavicular
Arch in the Ichthyosauria and Sauropterygia. ——Researches on the Structure
and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia. "pet VIII.— On F Gita Evidences
of pera and Rhopalodon from the Permian Rocks of Russia. Extr.
Proceeds. Roy. Soc., Vol. 54. From the author.

SMITH. E ^ — Geologiesl Surveys in Alabama. Extr. Jour. Geol., Vol. II,
1894. From the author.

Spurr, J. E.—The Iron-Bearing Rocks of the Mesabi Range in Minnesota,
Bull. No. 10, Geol. and Nat Hist. Surv. Minn. From Prof. N. H. Winchell.

Stanton, T. W.—The Colorado Formation and its Invertebrate Fauna. Bull.
No: 106 U. S. Geol. Surv. Washington, 1893. From the Surv

1016 The American Naturalist. [December,

'TROUESSART, E.—Appendice à la Révision des Acariens des Régions Arctiques,
— —Acariens des Régions Arctiques recueillis pendant le voyage de “La Vega.”

Extr. Mém. de la Soc. nat. des Sci. nat. et Math. de Cherbourg, T. XXIX.
From the author.

Truer, F. W.—Diagnosis of North dene — Extr. Proceeds. U.
S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1894. From thea

Wers, DR, W.—The Shell Heaps of the ue Const of Florida. Extr. Pro-
ceeds. U.S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From the Smithsonian Institution.

Wuite, D.—Flora of the "icio Carboniferous Basins of southwestern
Missouri. Bull No. 98, U. S. Geol. Surv. Washington, 1893. From th
auth.

or.
Wortman, J. L.—On the Affinities of Leptarctus primus of Leidy. Extr.
Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, 1894. From the author

4 1894.] Recent Literature. 1017

, RECENT LITERATURE.

Seitaro Goto.— Studies on the Ectoparasitic Trematodes
of Japan.'—This volume forms one of the most important pieces of
work which has ever been written on the ectoparasitic trematodes, and
is the result of about four years of careful and exact study. In the
first part (176 pgs.) of the work, the author treats the anatomy in
detail; then follow several pages of biological notes, a detailed account
(pp. 182-253) of the classification, analytical key (pp. 254-261) to
genera and species described, bibliography (pp. 262-267), and 27
finely drawn and well executed plates. Revised generic and specific
diagnoses are given, together with a historical review of the different
genera.

The following genera and species are described :—
i EE & H., 1863:

E caudi p., gills if Sebastes at :
2. M. dai n. tah gills of Sebastes 8
3. M. elegans n. sp., gills of Scombrops T od eroin ;
. M. reticulata n. sp., gills of Stromateus argenteus ;
5. uncata n. sp., gills of Pristipoma Japonicum ;
6. M. fusiformis n. Sp., gills of Centronotus ertet
7. M. chiri n. sp., gills of Chirus hexagrammu
Lene n. Sp., gills of Sciena sina;
bods

at
R
`
hi

. heterocerca n. sp., gills of Seriola vei gor see
10. pde errans n. Sp., gills of Belone schisma niche "s;
ll. A. triangularis n. sp., gills of Anthias pem
: Gaeorins Dies., 1850 :—
12. O. major ., gills of Scomber colias ;
minor n. gio iy one of tender colias ;
ies., 185

E
im

z
zien
owt
e
Jr
aS.
©

51
. D. smaris Ijima MS., mee ity of Smaris vulgaris, on caudal segment of a
ymo
15. D. conte n. ee MRT Me of Pagrus tumifrons, occ castonally on the Cymothoa
the oral cavit
I- 16. D. sessilis n. SP., sbi eu ity of Choerops Faponicus ;
ee 17. D. tetrodonis n. sp UN M Tetrodon sp. , SP- ;
E. V. HEXACOTYLE Blainv., 1828:
I^ is H. acuta n. Sp., gii of Piynane sibi
| a 9. H. grossa n. Sp. Least des
VI. ox HOCOTYLE Dies., 1850 :
. sPinacis n. idm gi. of Spinax sp.;
VE: Sn ICOTYLE Dies., 185

_
gi

. Mitsukurii n. SP., pes of Rhina sp.?;
VIG: MoNOCOTYLE Tohr. 18 878: —
22. M. Ijimae n. sp., oral cavity of Trygon pastinaca ;

1 Journ. College of Science, Imp. Univ., Tokyo. Vol. VII, Part I, 1894,
273 pgs., 27 plates.

1018 The American Naturalist. [December,

IX. EPIBDELLA Blainv., 1828: —
23. E. Ishikaxwae n. Sp., gills of Lethrinus sp.? ;

E. ovata n. sp., gills of Anthias Schlegelii ;

25. 7. LERNEN rahi gill-plates of Aistiophorus sp. ;

26. T. ovale n. sp., oral cavity of H. orientalis, H. sp., and? Cybium ;

27. T. rotundum n. sp., gills of Aiphias gladius ;

28. 7. foliaceum n. sp., gills of gen. sp. (Japanese Hazara);

T. Nozawae n. sp., fins of. Thynnus sibi;

30. T. Biparasiticum n.sp., carapace of a copepod (Parapetalus) and gills of. Thynnus
albacora.

It is somewhat striking that of all the thirty Japanese species de-
scribed, the author does not consider a single one identical with any
forms heretofore mentioned, but when one looks at the magnificent
anatomical work contained in this volume he certainly feels very far
from calling specific determinations into question.

Several points in Goto’s interpretation of anatomical and histolog-
ical structures are worthy of special notice: —

1. The prismatic, refractive fibres, which constitute the wall of the
suckers in the genera Amine, Microcotyle, Octocotyle, Diclidophora,
Hexacotyle and Onchocotyle, are usually looked u pon as muscular fibres,
but Goto agrees with Wright and Macallum (in Spyranura) in con-
sidering these fibres more of a non-contractile supportive, connective
tissue nature. .

. The penis “is to be regarded as formed by an elevation of the
wall of the genital atrium around the opening of the vas deferens
and a simultaneous displacement of the latter from the base of the
penis towards its top; so that the cavity of the penis is morphologi-
. cally speaking as much the external surface of the body as the genital

atrium, and the prostate glands are therefore to be regarded as a special
modification of the dermal glands,—a view clearly in accordance with
some facts observed [by -Haswell] in Temnocephala."

3. Agreeing with Looss, Goto considers the vagina of the Cestoda
homologous with the uterus of the Trematoda. Laurer's canal of the

igenea is homologized with the genito-intestinal canal of the ecto-
parasitic Trematoda, the receptaculum vitelli of Aspidogaster and
the “anterior blind vagina" of Amphilina. While Looss looks upon
the uterus of the Cestoda as homologous with the Laurer’s canal of
distomes, Goto homologizes the uterus of the Cestoda with the vagina
of the monogenetic Trematoda. These homologies are discussed at
length and are diagrammatically figured on Pl. XXVII.

For important and interesting discussions of other histological and
anatomical structures we must refer to the original work,
b "

W. STILES.

1394.] Petrography. 1019

General Netes.

PETROGRAPHY:

Composite Dykes on Arran.— Professor Judd? describes a num-
ber of * composite" dykes on the Island of Arran, in which the well-

. known “Arran pitchstone” and a glossy augite-andesite occupy differ-
ent portions of the same fissure, either rock appearing in the center of

the dyke, with the other on one or both of its peripheries, or the one
rock cutting irregularly through the other. The relations of the rocks
indicate that there was no regular sequence in the intrusion, the pitch-
stone having been intruded sometimes before, sometimes after the and: -
site. Each rock contains fragments of the other (in different dykes),
and the two rocks are always separated by a sharp line of demarkation.
The andesite is a basic rock containing about 56 per cent of silica,
while the pitchstone is a pantellerite with 75 per cent of SiO, or an

augite-enstatite-andesite with 66 per cent of SiO, and 4.13 per cent

K,O. The andesite is well characterised. It passes into a tholeite
with intersertal structure, by a decrease in the glassy component, and
upon further loss of glass it passes into diabase. The pitchstone is
largely an acid glass, surrounding crystals of quartz, and microlites of
augite, feldspar, magnetite, ete. The author adds to the list of individ-
ualized components already known to exist in the rock hyalite and

tridymite. The latter mineral occurs in plates aggregated into spher-

ules and globules that surround quartz crystals, and the hyalite forms
globules scattered here and there through the glass. The author thinks
that materials of such widely different nature as that existing in these

dykes could not have been formed by the differentiation of a magma

after its intrusion into the dyke fissures, but that the differentiation
must have taken place while the magma was still in its subterranean
reservoir.

Analyses of Clays.—Hutchings' quotes a series of analyses of

carboniferous clays to show that these substances possess the requisite
composition to become clay slates upon compression. He ascribes the

small percentages of alkalies shown in most clay analyses to the fact

‘Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby ne Waterville, Maine.
? Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., xlix, 1893, p. 5
* Geol. Magazine, Jan. add Feb., 1894.

a

1020 The American Naturalist. [ December,.

that these analyses are of commercially valuable clays, selected for
their small alkali contents. In the course of his article the author cor-
rects some of the statements made in earlier papers and amplifies
others. He declares that newly formed feldspar is present in the slates
metamorphosed‘ by the shap granite and in other contact slates. In
the spots of the shap rocks, and in those of other contact slates, there
is always present, in addition to its individual components, more or less
of a yellowish-green very weakly polarizing substance in which the
other components of the spot are imbedded. This is believed to pos-

sess an indefinite composition, and to be the result of aqueo-fusion of

some of the constituents of the original rock and the solidification of
the product in an amorphous condition. The paper concludes with a

statement of the author’s views concerning the transformations that.

rutile, biotite, quartz, feldspar, cordierite and other contact minerals
undergo in cases of contact metamorphism.

The Phonolites of Northern Bohemia.—The phonolites of

the Friedländer district of North Bohemia are nosean bearing trachy-
tic phonolites and nepheline-phonolites, according to Blumrich? The
latter contain phenocrysts of anorthoclase in a groundmass of sanidine,

nepheline and aegerine crystals and groups of a new mineral which the:

author calls hainite. This hainite is a strongly refracting but a weakly
doubly refracting colorless substance. It occurs in tiny triclinic need-
les with a density of 3.184. These unite into groups. It is found also
as well-developed wine-yellow crystals forming druses in cavities in the

rock. The mineral has a hardness of 5, and it is optically positive..

It is supposed to be closely related to rinkite, hjortdahlite and the other
fluorine bearing silicates common to the eleolite-syenites. In addition
to hainite the druse cavities contain albite, chabazite and nosean. In
the trachytic phonolites a glassy base was detected.

Spherulitic Granite in Sweden.—Loose blocks of spherical

granite are reported by Backstróm* from Kortfors, in Orebro, and
Balungstrand in Dalekarlien, Sweden. The rock from Kortfors is a

hornblende granitite containing concentric nodules composed of four

zones. e inner one consists of oligoclase, microcline and quartz ;
the second of oligoclase in radial masses and small quantities of horn-
blende, biotite, magnetite, orthoclase and quartz; the third of horn-

blende, biotite, oligoclase and a little biotite, and the peripheral zone

* Cf. American Naturalist, 1892, p. 245.
5 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., xiii, p. 465.
* Geol. Foren. i. Stockh. Fórh. 16, p. 107.

1894.] Petrography. 1021

of magnetite in a matrix of oligoclase. The structure of the spheroids,
with the younger minerals nucleally and the older ones peripherally
distributed, indicates to the author that they were produced by liqua-
tion processes. The rock from Balungstrand possesses a coarse ground-
mass consisting almost exclusively of microcline and quartz. The
spheroids are essentially oligoclase spherulites peripherally enriched by
biotite. They are clearly older than the groundmass.

Diabase and Bostonite from New York.—A few dyke rocks
cutting the gneisses of Lynn Mountain, near Chateaugay Lake, Clin-
ton Co., N. Y., are described by Eakle’ as consisting of olivine diabase’
and of bostonite. The latter rock is porphyritie with phenocrysts of
red orthoclase in a fine-grained groundmass with the trachytic struct-
ure. It differs from the other bostonites of the region in the presence
of much chloritized augite in its groundmass. It is also more acid
than these. Its analysis gave:

SiO, AlO, FeO, CaO MgO K,O Na,O Loss Total

67.16 1453 417 136 41 610 5.55 1.10 = 100.28

The olivine diabase differs from the ordinary ophitic diabases in that
much of its augite is in idiomorphic forms. They thus resemble Kemp’s
augite camptonites.

Petrographical News.—A very interesting series of analyses of
rocks from the central and northeastern portions of the Mittelgebirge is
given by Hibsch? The series includes analyses of phonolites, doler-
ites, camptonites, nepheline and leucite tephrites, augitites and basan-
ites. Many of the rocks have been described in the literature.

Cohen’ has obtained from the Transvaal, Africa, specimens of a cal-
cite bearing aplite and of a melilite augite rock of a somewhat abnor-
mal character. The aplite is from the mine of the Iron Crown Gold
Mining Co., near Hamertsburg, and the melilite rock from near Pala-
bora. The melilite rock is a fine-grained aggregate composed largely
of honey-yellow melilites and black augites. On its druse walls are
little crystals of the first-named mineral, and through the druse cavi-
ties extend thin plates of copper. In the thin section, clear, colorless
melilites, with rounded outlines and olive-green grains of augite are
seen to lie in an opaque granular groundmass in which are dots and
flakes of copper.

T Amer. Geologist, xii, p. 31.
* Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., xiv, p. 95.
? Minn. u. Petrog. Mitth., xiv, p. 188.

1022 The American Naturalist. [December,

Backstrom” fused feldspathic phonolite and obtained as the product
upon cooling a colorless glass filled with microlites of oligioclase,
nepheline, small microlites of colorless pyroxene and tiny grains of
picotite and olivine (?). Upon fusing a leucite phonolite, containing
nosean, SO, is driven off and the resulting product is a glass enclosing
microlites of oligoclase, a few prisms of nepheline and abundant crys-
tals of a yellow pyroxene with the properties of aegerine.

1 Bull. d. 1. Soc. Franc. d. Min., 1893, xvi, p. 130.

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 1023

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Ancient Conglomerates.— The presence of intra-formational
conglomerates is a not uncommon phenomenon. Dr. Walcott notes
several localities where this form of conglomerate occurs in Paleozoic
limestone formations, and describes typical ones found in Vermont and
New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Tennessee. The author de-
fines this species of conglomerate as one formed within a geological
formation of material derived from and deposited within that forma-
tion. As to their origin, he offers the following theory. Low ridges
or domes of limestone were raised above the sea level and were sub-
jected to the action of sea shore ice and the aerial agents of erosion.
In the intervening depressions of these ridges calcareous mud was be-
ing deposited which was solidified soon after deposition. The material
forming the conglomerate was transported from the shore line and
dropped upon the sea bed by floating ice. The facts from which these
inferences are drawn are given in detail. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol.
5, 1894).

Subterranean Waters on the Coastal Plain.—N. H. Darton
has published a brief review of the geological conditions under which
subterranean waters oceur in the Coastal Plain region of the middle
Atlantic slope, together with an account of wells bored. He shows
that the geological relations are favorable to the wide circulation of
waters at several horizons, and gives the approximate vertical posi-
tions and general areal distributions of these horizons. In southern
New Jersey, Delaware and a portion of Maryland, the sand series of
the Chesapeake formation are the principal water producers. Along
the western edge of the Coastal Plain from Petersburg to Staten
Island, the basal members of the Potomac formation yield water at
moderate depths. The author gives also the “ prospects” in several
distriets. About Norfolk, water will probably be found on the crys-
talline floor, 1,500 feet below the surface; in the peninsula region of
eastern Virginia and Maryland, at the base of the Chesapeake beds at
depths varying from 100 to 400 feet ; on the eastern shore " of Mary-
land there are many favorable prospeets, suecessful wells being in -
operation, drawing their supplies from the Chesapeake, 200 to 300 feet
below the surface, and from the Pamunkey sands, reached by 350, 440
and 910 feet boring. (Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Eng., 1894).

1024 The American Naturalist. [December,

The Shasta-Chico Series.—The protracted investigations of
Messrs. Diller and Stanton concerning the Cretaceous formations of
western United States result in an accumulation of data on which are
based a number of interesting conclusions. The Knoxville, Horse-
town and Chico beds of northern California and Oregon are found to
be continuous series of deposits and the authors accordingly propose
for them the name Shasta-Chico series. The Wallala beds represent a
phase of the Chico. The Mariposa and Knoxville beds are distinct
faunally and are unconformable. Ther former is Jurassic, the latter
Cretaceous. The attentuation of the Shasta-Chico series westward from
the Sacramento Valley and the overlapping of the newer beds upon
the older crystalline rocks of the coast range shows that the coast
range was formed before the deposition of the Shasta-Chico series, and
probably at the close of the Jurassic when the Mariposa beds were
upturned.

The subsidence of the whole Pacific coast from Alaska to Mexico
is shown by the successive peripheral attenuation of the lower beds
and the landmark overlapping of the upper ones. The subsidence was
probably not uniform throughout the whole region.

The final folding of the Sierra Nevada rocks and an uplifting of the
range occurred at the close of the Jurassic.

The Shasta-Chico series represents the Cretaceous time from the
beginning of the Lower Cretaceous to the Middle of the Upper Creta-
ceous, and it may be closely correlated with the Queen Charlotte
Island and Nanaimo groups.

The evidence from fossil plants indicates that the Potomac epoch is
included in that represented by the lower part of the Shasta-Chico
series. It is also highly probable that the Comanche series of Texas
and Mexico is contemporaneous with a large part of the Shasta-Chico
series. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894).

A Gypsum *'' Cloche."—While excavating stone for plaster in
the southern borders of the forest of the Montmorency à Taverny
(Seine-et-Oise) a eloche, or natural cavity, was found in a mass of gyp-
sum. This cloche is ellipsoidal in form, about 10 metres in length, and
9 to 6 metres high. The top of the cavity presents the peculiar
. appearance resulting from the slow dessication of the homogeneous
rock. The sides are polished, with the edges of all the angles rounded
off. The floor is an irregular heap of gypsum blocks of various sizes.
Certain parts of this cavity are lined with small gypsum crystals.

SS eS o er

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 1025

That the cavity is the result of the action of water is undoubted,
and three hypotheses are given as to the manner of erosion. (1) The
water may have entered from above or laterally and slowly dissolved
the gypsum. (2) The water may have entered from below through a
fissure acting as a natural siphon. (3) There may exist, beneath the
mass exploited, a subterranean stream flowing over a second deposit of
gypsum. The second mass having been dissolved and carried away by
the water would leave a cavity into which the first mass would fall.
The cavern thus formed would fill with water percolating through the
fissures, from which would result the phenomena of solution and curious
recrystallization of gypsum observed on the roof and sides of the
cloche. (Feuille des Jeunes Naturalitses, no date).

The Malaspina Glacier.—The term Piedmont has been applied
to glaciers formed on comparatively level ground at the bases of mount-
ains where the ice is not confined by highlands. They are fed by
Alpine glaciers which spread out and unite with each other on leaving
the valleys through which they descend from snow fields at higher ele-
vations. The only known example of this class is the Malaspina gla-
cier which occurs in Alaska, on the plain intervening between the Mt.
St. Elias range and the ocean. A detailed description of this phenom-
enon by I. C. Russell was recently published, of which the following is
an abstract.

The Malaspina glacier extends westward from Yakutat Bay for 70
miles, with an average breadth of 20 to 26 miles. — It is a nearly hori-
zontal plateau of ice. The general elevation 5 or 6 miles from its
outer border ‘is about 1,500 feet. It consists of three lobes, each of
which is practically the expansion of a large tributary ice stream. The
largest has an eastward flow toward Yakutat Bay, and is fed by the
Seward glacier. It ends in a low frontal slope, while the southern bor-
der skirts the coast and forms the Sitkagi bluffs. The middle lobe is
the expanded terminus of the Agassiz glacier flowing toward the south-
west. This lobe is complete, and is fringed all about its outer border
by broad moraines. The third lobe results from the union of the
Tyndall and Guyot glaciers; it has a general southward flow and
pushes out into the ocean, breaking off forms of magnificent ice cliffs.

On the north border of the glacier the surface-melting gives origin
to hundreds of rills and rivulets of clear sparkling water which course
along in channels of ice until they meet a crevasse or moulin and
plunge down into the body of the glacier to join the drainage beneath.
In the southern b portion of the glacier abandoned tunnels 10 to 15 feet

1026 The American Naturalist. [December,

high made by englacial streams are sometimes revealed. The rapid
melting of the surface ice produces curious phenomena. Where the
ice is protected by belts of stone and dirt from the action of sun and
air, the adjacent surface wasting away leaves ridges, while large isola-
ted stones give rise to pinnacles and tables, but smaller ones, especially
those of dark color, cause depressions.

The great central area of the glacier is composed of clear white ice
which is bordered on the north by a broad, dark band of boulders and
stones. Outside of this, forming a belt, concentric with it, is a forest
covered area, in many places four or five miles wide. The forest grows
on the moraine which rests upon the ice of the glacier.

The Malaspina glacier, in retreating, has left irregular hillocks of
coarse débris which are now densely forest-covered. These deposits do
not form a terminal moraine, but a series of irregular ridges and hills
with a somewhat common trend. They indicate a slow general retreat
without prolonged halts.

The outer portion of the barren moraine and the forest covered
area characterized by innumerable lakelets from 100 feet to 200 yards
across. They are generally circular and have steep walls of dirty ice
which slope toward the water at high angles. ‘Their presence in large
numbers indicate that the ice must be nearly or quite stationary,
otherwise the basins could not exist for a series of years.

On the west and north sides of the Chaix hills several typical * mar-
ginal lakes " oceur similar to the well known Merjelen See of Switzer-
land.

'Ihe drainage of the Malaspina glacier is englacial or subglacial.
Along the southern margin hundreds of streams pour out of the es-
earpment formed by the border of the glacier, or rise like fountains
from the gravel accumulated atits base. All are brown and heavy
with sediment. The most remarkable of these springs is Fountain
Stream. ‘It comes to the surface through a rudely circular opening,
nearly 100 feet in diameter, surrounded in part by ice. Owing to the
pressure to which the waters are subjected they boil up violently, and
are thrown into the air to the height of 12 or 15 feet and sends jets of
spray several feet higher. The waters rush seaward in a roaring stream
200 feet broad which soon divides into many branches, spreading a
sheet of gravel and sand right and left into the adjacent forest.

About the southern and eastern borders of the glacier osars and
alluvial cones abound. It is in this region that the ideal conditions
for these formations exist. Here the ice sheet is stagnant on its bor-

der, and is retreating; it rests on a gently inclined surface, higher on — — :

"ysre]y votaj 8272/01410

IHXXX WLV'Id

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 1027

the southern margin than under its central portion, with high lands
on the upper border from which abundant débris is derived.

There has been a recent advance and subsequent retreat of the
glacier on its eastern margin. During its advance it probably extend-
ed to the ocean. There are several indications that the coast in the
vieinity has been rising and that the process is still continuing.

Plistocene Problems in Missouri.—The three hypotheses as
to the origin of the Boulder Drift and Loamy Clay in Missouri, north
of the Missouri River, are briefly styled by J. E. Todd, the subglacial,
the lacustrine and the fluviatile. The objection to the first is the great
difference in altitude of the drift in Missouri and that in Illinois not
fifty miles away, together with the absence of drift over Saint Louis
County and down the valley of the Meramee, and also the apparent
impossibility of the land ice reaching central Missouri without over-
flowing the Wisconsin driftless area. To the second and third hypoth-
eses are opposed the nature of the deposits and the great width and
depth of the troughs of the Missouri and the Mississippi Rivers. Todd
confines himself to stating the problems without advancing any theory
of explanation. Further research, he thinks, may remove the objec-
tions he finds in the last two and it is not improbable that the deposits
may be accounted for by acombination of the lacustrine and fluviatile
theories. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1894).

Wortman on the Creodont Patriofelis.—Dr. J. L. Wortman
has published, in the Bulletin of the Amer. Museum Nat. History of
New York, a study of a remarkably perfect skeleton of the Patriofelis
ferox Minh, which he found in the Bridger beds of S. W. Wyoming.
The species was described by Marsh under the name Limnofelis feroz.
Limnofelis Marsh is shown, by the material described, to be synony-
mous with Patriofelis Leidy of earlier date, and Protopsalis Cope of
later date turns out to have been founded on a species of the same
genus. Wortman remarks of the genus: “ The larger species, P. feroz,
is one of the largest Credonts known, and equalled in size a full-grown
black bear. The head was disproportionately large and massive, al-
most equalling in this respect an adult lion. The smaller species, P.
ulta Leidy, was almost one-third smaller. In both there were a long
and powerful tail, and broad plantigrade feet, which, together with
other characters presently to be considered, lead to the conclusion that.
they were aquatic in habit.”

68

*

1028 The American Naturalist. [ December,

As regards the systematic position of Patriofelis, Wortman says:
* [ts general skeletal structure is so much like Oxyzena, that notwith-
standing the differences in the teeth they must be placed in the same
family. Oxysena is the older form and has the more primitive dentition
but the differences are not greater than we would lead to anticipate in
the ancestral genus. I think that it can be aecepted as demonstrated
that Patriofelis is the direct descendent of Oxyzna, which may likewise
have given off a branch which terminated in the modern seals. It is
somewhat doubtful whether this branch leads through Patriofelis.”
Concerning the habits of the Patriofelis, Wortman remarks: “ From
the structure of the limbs more than any other feature, I am led to
conclude that it was aquatic or semiaquatic in its habits. The broad,
flat plantigrade feet with their spreading toes suggest at the first
glance their use for swimming. The eversion of the feet, together with
the general clumsiness of the limbs, point, moreover, to the fact that
the animal was not an active runner. Now, if the animal was aquatic,
what was the nature of its food? It certainly could not have been
fish, for the reason that the remains of fishes are very scarce in the
Bridger sediments. If, however, we can form any judgment from their
remains, the Bridger lake literally swarmed with turtles, and if Patrio-
felis frequented the water, it is highly probable that they formed a
staple article of its diet.”

Through the kindness of the American Museum authorities, we are
able to give a figure of the restoration of the P. feroz (Plate XXXIII)
which accompanies Dr. Wortman’s article.

Geological News. Crnozortc—The fossil flora collection from
Herendeen Bay, Alaska, embraces 115 forms. These forms, according to
Prof. Knowlton, are so closely related to those of Greenland, Spitz-
bergen and the Island of Sachalin that without doubt they grew under
similar conditions and were synchronously deposited. The author
agrees with Sir Wm. Dawson in regarding these floras of Eocene age
rather that Miocene to which they have hitherto been referred. (Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 5, 1893).

Prof. O. C. Marsh has recently given a brief description of a pha-
lange of a large bird which was found in the Eocene of New Jersey.
This is an interesting discovery. Unfortunately Prof. Marsh gives it
a new specific and even a new generic name. As neither species nor
genus can be recognized from a phalange, these names constitute an
unnecessary addition to the waste basket of scientific literature.

1894.] Geology and Paleontology. 1029

Prof. Shaler offers additional evidence of orogenic action in produc-
ing the folds of the Cretaceous and early Cenozoic beds on the Island
of Martha’s Vineyard, Mass. As to the origin of those movements,
the author inclines to the hypothesis that transfers of sediment tend to
excite mountain building action. The exposures at Gay Head and
elsewhere show that a great mass of sediment accumulated in that area
in a brief period, and the orogenic movements of southeastern Massa-
chusetts occurred shortly after this importation of detritus. (Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 5, 1894).

The record of stri: made by Mr. Tyrrell, during his exploration of
N. W. Canada and Hudson Bay, shows that one of the great gather-
ing grounds for the snow of the Glacial period in North America was
a comparatively short distance west of the northern portion of Hud-
son Bay, and that from that centre the ice flowed not only towards
the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay, but it extended a long distance
westward towards the Mackenzie River, and southward towards the
great plains, while Hudson Bay was probably open water. (Geol.
Mag., Sept., 1894).

1030 The American Naturalist. [December,

BOTANY:

Dr. Kuntze's ** Nomenclatur-Studien.'' *—Dr. Kuntze's latest
contribution to the nomenclature problem is in the form of a reply to
certain criticisms of Pfitzer upon his alterations of names in the
Orchidaceae. Pfitzer's criticisms are to be found in Engler's Jahr-
buecher XIX, 1-28. Kuntze answers him in the Bulletin of the Bois-
sier Herbarium, II, No. 7, issued in July, 1894, in an article entitled
Nomenelatur-Studien. While this article was provoked by the strict-

-ures of Pfitzer and deals principally with the nomenclature of the
orchids, it is of especial interest to American botanists on account of
-some criticisms of two rules adopted in this country.

The first section of the article deals with names applied by Thouars
to the orchids, which Pfitzer would reject. Dr. Kuntze discusses the
matter thoroughly, although he had already gone over the ground in

.1891 (Rev. Gen., II, 645-650), and certainly makes a convincing
argument. In the course of his reply to Pfitzer on this point, he is led
to restate his position on the question of *species-majority vs. place-
priority,” and to criticize the rule adopted by American botanists.
This is done in the second section.

Section II, entitled “ priority in place at all events and Article 55,”
is one of considerable importance. Dr. Kuntze in his Codex Emenda-
tus (Rev. Gen., III, 1, CCCCV) proposes the following additions to
article 55 of the Paris Code (I quote from his English text) :

“ A deviation from strict priority is necessary for genera published
on the same day and united afterwards:

(iy they got no species at their first publication, the genus
name to diss in 1753 or afterwards was put the first specific name is
legitim

(2) “ T they got also their first species on the same day, the genus
name having received most species on that day must be preferred”. .

Instead of this criterion of * species-majority," American botanists
have taken priority of place in the book in which both names were pub-
lished. This criterion is undoubtedly simple, easy of application, and
one obviating all discussions to which the application of the other
might give rise. But Dr. Kuntze proceeds to make some applications

'Edited by Prof. C, E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska,

Read before the Botanical Seminar of the University of Nebraska, Sept. 22,
1894,

1894.] Botany, 1081

|. of the rule which, as he says, operate as a reductio ad absurdum. He
makes a list of genera subject to the operation of the rule, taken only
from Linne's Species of 1753, and including good sized genera only.
From this list it appears that the American rule will require the use of
Phaca instead of Astragalus—involving the change of 1300 names—
of Sarothra for Hypericum, and of Amygdalus for Prunus. In his list,
taken only from the 1753 edition of the Species plantarum, and not an
exhaustive one, the American rule will alter the names of 20 genera
and 4600 species. None of these are affected by the species-majority
rule; Phaca, which appears on page 755 of the Species above Astraga-
lus, has there but 2 or 3 species, while Astragalus has 33. Pirus
on page 479 with 4 species, would have to yield to Sorbus on page 477
with 2—necessitating a change of 55 species at the present time. Are
American botanists prepared to follow this rule consistently ?

Section III is entitled “ Compulsory Index for Plant-names.”’ Dr.
Kuntze points out that the enormous increase in botanical literature
(there are 7000 titles a year at the present time), has made it impossi-
ble for any one to go over everything page by page as botanists could
do formerly, and that what would have been gross carelessness at one
time is almost a necessity now. He therefore proposes for discussion
an article to the effect that articles, magazines and works, unless they
have an index of names, including synonyms, to each volume, shall
not be considered. It is certainly desirable that every work be well
indexed. A book without an index, especially in these unsettled times
when no one knows where anything will be placed to-morrow, is as good
as sealed. But we may well doubt whether the corrective proposed is
not too severe. Such penalties are not readily enforceable; and in the
future, should a reaction setin against the rule, as usually happens
with arbitrary rules of the sort, it would result in no little confusion
by reason of the scope given for interference with established nomen-
clature.

- The next two sections deal with some rejections of names made by
Pfitzer. One point is of interest, —Pfitzer in rejecting Kuntze's name
Sirhookera takes occasion to make fun of it, a sort of objection to
which, it must be confessed, too many of Dr. Kuntze’s names are
liable. Incidentally he compares it to “ Amtsgerichtsrathschultzia.”
Dr. Kuntze, as usual, comes back at him with a long list of such names
coined by others, which must stand without doubt. And he points out
in addition that Pfitzer retains a number of names with du, de, O',
and Van prefixes, which are not dissimilar to Sir in Sirhookera. As
far as the validity of such names goes, Dr. Kuntze is doubtless quite

1032 The American Naturalist. [Deimhin

right. Thatthey are not to be'commended and that we have far too
many already without any fresh creations of the same sort, is readily
apparent from an inspection of the list which he cites in his justifica-
tion.

Section VI is devoted to a discussion, apropos of certain changes
made by Pfitzer, of the “once a synonym always a synonym ” rule.
This rule is one which!commends itself to all who have had anything
to do with nomenclature. In their determination to confer upon some
one the honor of a genus dedicated to his memory—a doubtful honor
since it has been so frightfully abused—botanists have multiplied
homonyms in some cases toJan incredible extent. The rule seems to.
have been “if at first you don't succeed,” try again indefinitely till
you succeed in making the name stick. In Section 9 of the introduc-
tion of his Revisio Generum, Dr. Kuntze referred to this practice as.
an “abiding source of danger to botanical nomenclature" And in
the same place he gives a list of 150 personal genus names which have
been repeated in this manner, two seven times, two six times, and four-
teen five times. One of the most confusing results of this species of
synonyms is the condition of oscillation in which it often places a
name. A recent case may serve as an example. In his monograph of
the Onagrariae in the Pflanzenfamilien, Dr. Raimann in subdividing
the genus Oenothera, revived Spach's genus Kneifia. This name is
one year older than Kneiffa of Fries, so that K. setigera Fr. must
have a new name. But supposing future monographers should differ
with Raimann as to the limitation of Oenothera and Kneiffia Spach
should become a synonym once more, then, according to the ordinary
rule, we should have to restore Kneiffia Fr., and the new name would
serve only to swell the crowded ranks of synonyms. In this way the
name of a genus of fungi could be kept in a state of oscillation for an
indefinite period, depending all the while on the views held by phane-
rogamists as to the limitations of a genus of flowering plants. This is
a state of affairs which mycologists cannot be expected to tolerate, and
ean result only in disregard on the part of monographers of the rules
which permit such things. Many similar cases might be cited. It is
apparent, then, that some rule is necessary by which this difficulty of

nus-names in a state of indefinite suspension can be obviated. The
plan which at once suggests itself is to invalidate all subsequent homo-
nyms, so that after a name has been once used it cannot be applied to
another group. This is done by the “ once a synonym, always a syno-
nym” rule.

X "ond Cs MEETS R5 Deag.11 eee cn CT

1894.] Botany. 1035

But Dr. Kuntze, while recognizing the necessity of some such rule,
points out that if given retroactive force, the rule in question will
involve us in no little difficulty. He givesa list of 200 generic names,
all personal names, which must be rejected under the rule, and states
that an exhaustive list would include from 500 to 606 generic names
and involve about 7000 species. To this formidable number, should
be added a large number of species which will be affected by the appli-
cation of the rule to specific names. Not only is the rule open to this
objection, but Dr. Kuntze makes the further point that, like all retro-
spective legislation, it does great injustice to past workers who knew
no such rule. He, therefore, objects strenuously to any retroactive
application of it. But, on the other hand, he recognizes the necessity
of making provision for cases like the one detailed above, and he has a
suggestion which is well worth considering. In his Codex Emendatus-
(Rev. Gen. III, 1, CCOXIIT), he proposes the following addition to `
Article 60 (I quote from his English text): “ Existing homonyms
invalidate such homonyms as are in future competitory, or newly
established, or renewed." That is, he proposes that the rule be applied
to all future cases, and that a name valid now shall not in the future
be superseded by any revived homonym. That would obviate the dif
ficulty suggested in regard to Kneiffia above, and would certainly .
accomplish all of what is intended by the American rule, without nec-
essitating so many alterations. Dr. Kuntze points out in the present
article the impossibility of any permanent nomenclature in large gen-
era without some rule against the revival of homonyms. As an
instance he mentions the genus Panicum. He says that in working
over the species of this genus in his collections * when I found an
older name for a species, there were generally also homonyms of other
species forthcoming ; about which, however, one did not know whether
they were valid or not.” The only solution of this is a rule which
makes a synonym once a synonym for all time. Whether this rule
should be made retroactive, or should be applied only to future cases,
i. e. to prevent the renewal of existing homonyms and the creation of
new ones, is a question which must be decided by those who, from their
investigation of the matter, are competent to pass upon it. Dr. Kuntze’s
suggestion seems to be a wise one and seems to cover all that is re-
quired.

'The remainder of the article is taken up with the nomenclature of
the orchids, and a concluding section relating to a future congress.

Dr. Kuntze has been subjected to a great deal of criticism, some of
it unnecessarily severe, though his controversia! methods are not always

1034 The American Naturalist. [December,

calculated to placate his opponents. But whatever may be thought of
some of his suggestions, we can have little sympathy with those who,
as Pfitzer seems inclined to do, charge him with wanton alterations or
selfish motives. On the contrary, there is every reason to accept his
statement that he was led into the work of reforming nomenclature in
the course of the investigation of his collections, a natural thing when
. dealing with plants collected in every quarter of the globe, which
would bring out the defects of our present nomenclature in a most
striking manner. After all his work has but served to bring vividly
before us what all were dimly conscious of before. Every man for
himself was the principal rule of nomenclature in practice. We must
at least admire Dr. Kuntze's persistence in endeavoring to bring about
uniformity and a better state of things.
Roscor Pounp.

Notes on the Trees of Northern Nebraska.—These notes ap-
ply to the region embraced in Antelope, Holt, Boyd, Rock, Brown,
Keya Paha, Cherry, Sheridan, Dawes, and Sioux Counties. In the
last three my observations have been much more limited, and, I doubt
not, need extension and revision. They are simply good as far as

' the

The country is composed of sandhills interspersed with small lakes,
ponds and streams, hay-flats in the moister valleys, and dry valleys
between the rows of sandhills, with stretches of dry, firm table-lands,
usually abruptly separated from the sandhill portions by a deep cañon
stream. With few exceptions, the trees are confined to these cañons,
which branch out into the hill-sides in long reaches, some dry, others
worn by unfailing spring brooks or “creeks,” as they are generally
called.

There is good reason to believe that this treeless region was not
always thus. On the tops of some of the sandhills have been found
decaying trunks of Pine and Red Cedar buried deep in sand, bearing
witness to a different condition of moisture in years gone by. In com-
mon with most observers, I think, I attribute the change to the de-
structive prairie fires that have swept over this region from time imme-
morial. They form one of the chief obstacles, to-day, to the regenera-
tion of the land. The deep cafions are lined, when dry, from summit
to base, with Pinus ponderosa scopulorum Engelm. A few scattering
specimens are found extending several hundred feet upon the neighbor-
ing table. When the base of the cañon is wet, the Pine is found only
above the line of moisture. It plants its feet in the gray magnesian;

a Se T NE

— —————m

1894.] Botany. 1035

and soft limestone and sandstone rocks, and in the driest season never
seems to lack moisture. It belongs to the foothills of the Rocky
Mountains, but extends eastward as far as the west line of Holt
County in the Niobrara Canon. The coincidence, at this point, of the
Black Walnut (Juglans nigra L.) with the Bull Pine is remarkable.
In the cañon at Long Pine are many flourishing specimens, young and
old, one with the diameter of three feet. The young ones prove that it
sometimes fruits, in spite of the late spring frosts. Its western limit is
nearly coincident with Brown County and the 100th meridian.

A large block of Black Walnut was found in Cherry County five
years ago, not far from Fort Niobrara, and was preserved by Surgeon
Wilcox, showing that it once extended further west. This region
furnishes but one oak ( Quereus macrocarpa Michx.), which grows to a
large size. It takes the moist and the dry portions of the cafions
about equally, where the soil is at all loamy, leaving the most barren
parts to the Pine. Its western limit is about the mouth of Snake Creek,
Cherry County, about ten miles west of Valentine.

A rare and notable tree is the Canoe Birch (Betula papyrifera
Marsh), which flourishes only where a dark and sheltered spot is
ished by a steep declivity with a northern exposure. At Fort Nio-
brara, where these conditions occur in their perfection, surrounded by
rare plants such as Lonicera hirsuta, Cireaea lutetiana, Osmorrhiza
claytoni, Carex eburnea, the two latter not having been found else-
where in Nebraska. You may see noble specimens of this Birch thirty
inches in diameter. It is reported sixty miles west and further east on
the Niobrara. :

The region affords no more useful and hardy tree than the Ash, of
which we have two species:—the common species from Antelope
County west to Brown is Fraxinus lanceolata Borck., from Brown id
west to the Hills, Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh. Itisnot al
distinguish them, as Gray gives a pubescent form of the Green Ash. It
oceupies the same soil as the Oak, running from the water's edge over
the cafion line upon the prairie, where it has been fortunate enough
to escape destruction from fire. We have no tree more capable of en-
during the rigors of drouth, heat and cold. It seldom attains a size of
over thirty inches in diameter.

The Basswood (Tilia americana L.) is found along the Niobrara in
Brown County, and probably further east; apparently reaching its
western limit in Cherry County, about four miles west of Valentine.
It affects the borders of streams.

1036 | The American Naturalist. [December,

I can find but one elm ( Ulmus americana L.), though Ulmus fulva
Michx. has been reported from Long Pine Cafion. This elm is one of
the best trees for the region, not only flourishing on the water line,
but capable of growing on the uplands almost as well, if protected from
fire. It attains a diameter of about four feet, and is universal. The
Hackberry is found with it (Celtis occidentalis L.), but is much less
common and only half the size.

The largest tree of the region is the Cottonwood (Populus monilifera
Ait.), one specimen in Hat Creek Basin, Sioux County, having a
diameter of over five feet. This species is common everywhere along
streams, and quickly establishes itself in low meadows by means of its
tufted seeds, if not destroyed by fire or mowing-machine. In Dawes
and Sioux Counties, Populus angustifolia James is found in similar
situations. One or two others have been reporte

The only tree willow of the region is Salix amygdaloides Anders. I
long supposed that Salix nigra was common throughout the State, but
can find no trace of it here. This tree hangs over the streams, reach-
ing a foot or more in diameter. In this connection it is desirable for
me to state that since writing on the shrubs of this region (September
NaTURALIST, p. 803), in which I mentioned a large willow of the
Cordata angustata variety, at Ewing, Holt County, I measured the
“shrub” in question, and found it twenty-eight inches in circumfer-
ence, and eighteen feet high, several similar trees growing in the one
clump from one root. I think we may say that it has reached “ tree-like
proportions,” though retaining the habit of the shrub.

—J. M. Bares.
Valentine, Nebraska.

Messrs. Rand and Redfield on Nomenclature.’—A new con-
tribution to the nomenclature problem has recently appeared in the
form of a protest against the Rochester Rules in the Introduction to
Rand & Redfield's * Flora of Mount Desert." Although the phases of
the question there discussed are by this time rather hackneyed, the
tone of the article is so confident, and some of its positions are so
amazing, that a few remarks thereon may not be amiss.

Had the authors contented themselves with stating that they adopted
the nomenclature of Gray's Manual because most of those who would

ave occasion to use their book would be likely to use it in connection
with the Manual, nothing could be said. Such a course has much to
be said in its favor. But they have thought best to strengthen their con-

*Read before the Botanical Seminar of the University of Nebraska, Nov. 3, 1894.

1894.] Botany. 1037

clusion by an attack upon the Rochester Rules, upon the principles
upon whieh they suppose them to be based, and upon their framers. In
the course of this they display a most wonderful ignorance of tke whole
subject.

In the first place they assume that there was, up to.the time the
Rochester Rules were framed, a generally received nomenclature, and
that the rules in question have overturned it—or have attempted to
overturn it. To use their own language, they state that the Rochester
Rules are intended to “ upset important results of nomenclature evolu-
tion for a century and a half" The notion that there has been any

"fixed or well-defined set of rules “ generally followed," or any “ gener-
ally received " nomenclature, is mostly confined to those whose acqaint-
ance with botanical literature begins and ends with Gray's Manual.
To othersit has long been apparent that the only generally received.
principle was, for the monographers, everyone for himself, and, for the
rest of the world, follow the latest monographer. It was to put an end
to this, for America at least, and to establish a nomenclature which
might have some chance of becoming generally received, and which
the next editions of our manuals could not overthrow at the caprice of
their authors or editors, that the Rochester Rules were framed.

I have said that the notion that there was a “ generally received "
nomenclature, was confined mostly to the readers of Gray's Manual.
But an examination of that work will speedily show that even the illus-
trious author of the Manual was far from being sure of * where he was
at " in nomenclature.

In the preface to the last edition of the Manual, the editor states
that the nomenclature there used conforms to the latest views of Dr.
Gray. A comparison with the nomenclature of the preceding editions
is, therefore, interesting. One of the first things that one notices is that
many changes in the nomenclature of the fifth edition have been made
to conform to the * Kew Rule." For instance:

In the fifth edition we find: Chiogenes hispidula Torr., Ilysanthes
gratioloides Benth., Xerophyllum asphodeloides Nutt., Bouteloua eurti-
pendula Gray. These specific names represent in each case the oldest
name: Vaccinium hispidulum L., Capraria gratioloides L., Helonias
asphodeloides L., Chloris eurtipendula Michx. In the sixth edition
these appear as Chiogenes serpyllifolia Salisb., Ilysanthes riparia Raf,
Xerophyllum setifolium Michx., Bouteloua racemosa ., the names
allowable under the Kew Rule. In the 1848 edition also, we find Boute-
loua racemosa. That is, in 1848, Dr. Gray followed the Kew Rule in this
particular instance, while disregarding it in the other cases mentioned.

1038 The American Naturalist. [December,

In 1868, he thought otherwise as to this one name and used the oldest
specific name, while adhering to the Kew Rule in many cases (e. g.,

Lophantus anisatus Benth. = Hyssopus anisatus Nutt., 1818, — Stachys -

foenicula Pursh, 1814). In 1889, his editor, representing “ his known
and expressed, views,” changed about as to all of the names in the list
just given, and altered a large number of names to conform to the Kew
Rule, still, however, disregarding it in some cases. At the same time
the editor stated that “reasonable regard ” had been had to the claims
of priority! This last promise was fulfilled by changing about a dozen
specific names and two or three generic names so as to use prior names.
For instance, in the fifth edition we find Nelumbium Juss. In the last
edition, Nelumbo Tourn. The name which the Rochester Rules would
require is Nelumbo Adans. If the editor was willing to alter the
name to which Dr. Gray had given currency for thirty years, and to go
back to Tournefort for a name, others can scarcely be blamed for fol-
lowing his example in similar cases, and going back at least to the
time of Linné. A long list might be made showing the wholly arbi-
trary and personal character of the alterations made in the nomencla-
ture of the successive editions of the Manual. It is needless, however,
since the facts are generally known. No reproach is implied in this so
far as the illustrious author of the Manual is concerned, for he only did
as all others were doing—namely, followed his personal inclination at
the moment in each specific case, But such a condition was a reproach
to botanical nomenclature, and could only result in a revolution.

While American botany was in its infancy, it was natural that all
should follow blindly in the wake of one great man. It is no less
natural that the botanists of to-day should demand something more
than a great name to justify uncertainty and vacillation in nomencla-
ture. It is, in reality, the so-called conservatives who stand for disor-
der and confusion in nomenclature. They are the “ Rip Van Winkles
just awakened from a comfortable nap of years," and somewhat rudely
awakened, too, thanks to Dr. Kuntze, and not over-clear in consequence
as to who or where they are.

It takes but a moment's glance at the successive editions of the
Manual to show how utterly baseless is the notion that the framers of
the Rochester Rules are seeking to overthrow “ well-established prinei-
ples of property rights, custom, usage, and the well-established maxim,
quieta non movere." The greater part of the rules adopted at Roches-
ter were rules which botanists had, for many years, at least professed to
recognize. 'The fact that the only representative body of American
botanists was compelled to legislate on the subject shows of itself that

1—————— o!

1894. ] Botany. 1039

the state of nomenclature was far from quiet. Anyone who thinks that
all was peaceable and serene till Dr. Kuntze and the Rochester Rules
came down upon the fold, should be somewhat cautious in his references
to Rip Van Winkle. When the most conservative of authors fails to
reveal any system or principle consistently followed out in the several
editions of his widest known work, and when contemporary works are
in hopeless disagreement with themselves and with the Manual, it
sounds somewhat strangely to be told that we are cutting “the solid
ground from beneath our feet ” in laying down a set of rules and prin-
ciples and agreeing to abide by them. When everybody made changes
in nomenclature to suit his personal fancy, no one made any remon-
strance, and we all followed the changes of the latest monographer
without hesitation. It is only since this state ofgaffairs has become in-
tolerable to the majority of American botanists, and they have resolved
to make changes in nomenclature according to rule and principle, and
not according to personal taste and caprice, that any complaint has
been heard.
The authors also protest against the representative character of the
a of the Rochester and Madison meetings, and refer to them as
* comparatively few botanists of various degrees of repute.” Whether
this means that Boston still thinks herself the centre and focus of
American learning in all branches, and that the authors regard all of
those poor mortals who do not live in the shadow of Cambridge as in-
truders, or whether it is only another instance of Rip Van Winkle, one
_need not enquire. The remarks of the authors remind one of some editor-
ial sayings in Zoe apropos of the Madison Congress and of the American
Botanical Society. The botanists who dissent from the principles of
the Rochester Rules certainly have not made much “ noise,” and the
world at large is likely to be glad to know who they are. It will also
be glad to know who those botanists are who possess “ that added grasp
of affairs" which, we are told, in addition to mere knowledge of her-
baria and of the literature of the subject, is necessary to qualify a bot-
anist and make him competent to pass on questions of nomenclature.
'The statements as to the personnel of the Rochester meeting fall little
short of impertinence.—Roscok Pouxp.

Botanical News.—The University of Chicago announces botani-
eal lectures and laboratory work by Dr. John M. Coulter, who is styled
the Professorial Lecturer on Botany. This would seem to indicate
that eventually this great University may call Dr. Coulter to build up
a department of botany commensurate with its importance.

1040 The American Naturalist. [December,

In September the National Herbarium in Washington was trans-
ferred from the Agricultural Building to fire-proof rooms in the eastern
pavilion of the National Museum. It will still be under the control
and care of Chief Botanist Coville and his corps of assistants.

Parts I and II of the * Flora of Nebraska" by the Botanical Semi-
nae of the University of Nebraska have been published. They aggre-
gate seventy-eight pages of descriptive text and thirty-six plates, and
include the Schizophyces, Chlorophyce:, Coleochætaceæ, Rhodophyceæ
and Charophyces.

The Proceedings of the Madison Botanieal Congress have been
issued by the Secretary, Dr. J. C. Arthur, of Lafayette, Indiana, in a
neatly printed pamphlet of sixty pages.

.

1894.] Zoology. 1041

ZOOLOGY.

Terminology of the Nerve Cell.— Fish attempts! to avoid some
of the confused terminology of Neurology by proposing a consistent
nomenclature, adopting to some extent existing terms. "Thus he would
callthe entire nerve cell, with its appendages, neurocyte; the axis cyl-
inder prolongation ; neurite; the other processes dendrites, and the neu-
roglia cell, spongioeyte. Nerve cells would then be dendritic or aden-
dritic, mono-or dineuritie, etc., according to the number and character
of the processes concerned.

Structure of Clepsine.—Oka has attempted" the solution of some
of the problems of Hirudinean anatomy. After some remarks on ex-
ternal morphology, he takes up in succession the body cavity, blood

vessels, nephridia and the systematic position of these animals. The
text is rendered much more easy of comprehension from the recon-
structions on the plates. Oka recognizes in the lacuns of the body
the true celom which is broken up into a large number of anastomos-
ing cavities, in which may be recognized the following principal regions:
in the middle of the body, a median dorsal and a median ventral lacuna,
in each of which run blood vessels. In front and behind these fuse
into a “median " lacuna. These lacune are connected by short canals
witha plicated “ zwischen] ," which runs the length of the body
on either side, and this in turn by segmentally arranged tubes with a
lateral lacuna on either side. These various spaces are also connected
with a subepidermal system of lacunæ, the principal canals of which
correspond to the annuli of the external surface. In the blood vascu-
lar system, which is cut off completely from the lacunar cavities, seg-
mentation has largely disappeared. In but few regions can even the
most remote resemblance to a segmental arrangement of vessels be
traced, although the dorsal vessel shows segmental enlargements. The
nephridia are described at length, the account confirming and supple-
menting the descriptions of Whitman, Bourne and others, and disagree-
ing in toto with those of Bolsius, except in that they confirm the latter
in the description of an ectodermal terminal portion.

In conclusion, Oka thinks the Hirudinei nearest the Oligoch:etes,
basing this view upon chiefly three factors: (1) the existence of a seg-

! Jour. Comp. Neurology, iv, 1894.

? Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lviii, 1894.

1042 The American Naturalist. [December,

mented ccelom; (2) a blood vascular system distinct from the celom
and (3) a pair of nephridia in each somite; points which it seems to
the present writer, imply only Annelid affinities since they fit Poly-
cheetes as well as Oligoch:etes.

A new Cambarus from Arkansas.— Cambarus faxonii sp. nov.
Male, form 1, rostrum broad, elongate, deeply excavated above, mar-
ins raised into sharp parallel ridges, each ending in prominent spines
Aeumen very long and slender, curved upwards; post orbital ridges
prominent, each ending in a prominent spine.

Carapax cylindrical, slightly compressed, smooth; cervieal groove
erate, a prominent spine on each side. Distance from cervical
e to posterior margin of carapax 24 to 3 in distance from cervi-
eal Abest to tip of acumen, and equal to length of acumen. Anterior
1-2 of the areola narrow, its posterior portion triangular. Abdomen
broad and slightly shorter than cephalothorax (including acumen).
Outer posterior part of telson ending in a prominent spine inside of
which is a much smaller spine, posterior margin of telson slightly
emarginate. Anterior process of epistoma triangular. Basal segments of
antennules with a spine on under inner border, about middle of segment.
Antenne shorter than the body, antennal scale long and narrow (i

ee

SEKME god.

[i
È
1
$ E
L|
i

1894.] Zoology. 1043

length almost three times its greatest width), slightly curved outward
and ending in a sharp spine, equals the rostrum.

Basal segment of antennal scale with a prominent spines on anterior
lateral borders. Chelipeds slender, not tuberculated, slightly hairy ;
fingers shorter than hand, opposed margins of the fingers straight, hand
smooth; carpus smooth; a spine on inner and outer distal borders.
Meros smooth with one spine on upper and one on outer side, and two
below, all spines on distal 1-3. Third pair of legs hooked, fifth pair
with a small roundish tubercle on basal joint.

Anterior abdominal appendages strong and of moderate length, tips
reaching between third pairs of legs, bifid at apex, apex of inner part
posterior and acute, its tip turned slightly outward, outer bluntish.

Color of this species somewhat mottled with bluish on antennal
scale and rostrum, forming cross bars.

This is apparently a small species. The largest specimens taken were
females, length (from tip of acumen to posterior margin of telson) of
largest specimens, 23 inches. The size of average males, 21 inches.

This species is easily recognized by its long, slender acumen, small hand,
slender antennal scale and its small size. Found in St. Francis River
at Greenway and Big Bay. It is by no means abundant. This and
young of one other species, C. palmeri, are all I found in the St. Fran-
cis River.

Named in honor of Dr. Walter Facon, to whom we owe more than
to anyone else our knowledge of North American crayfishes.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Dorsal view of specimen, x, 1.31.
Abdominal appendage, inner view, x, 4.35.
Abdominal appendage, jess view, x, 4.35.
4. Epistoma, x, 4.

ax

The drawings were made by Miss Allie Simonds, Arkansas Univer-
sity, Class 1895.
S. E. MEEK,
Arkansas University,
Oct. 22, 1894, Fayetteville, Ark.

A New Bassalian Type of Crabs.—In a recent number of the
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (v. 63, part 2, No. 3), a most
remarkable crab has been described and illustrated by Messrs. A.
Alcock and A. R. Anderson. It has been designated (p. 141) as“ Arche-

69

1044 The American Naturalist. [December,

oplax, a Gonoplacid (?) crab of a remarkably antique facies, which
appears to be closely connected also with Cymopolia.” *

The description and figures appear to me to indicate that the new
crab has no close relationships with either the Gonoplacids or Cymo-
polia.

Through the kindness of Miss Rathbun, of the Invertebrate de-
partment of the U. S. National Museum, I have been able to study
specimens of all types and compared them with the data respecting
Archeoplax, and could find no special features of agreement. Archa-
oplaz,it seems to me, must be considered entirely independently of
the types with which it has been contrasted.

I may preface the further remarks I have to make with the statement
that the crab so called by Messrs. Alcock and Anderson cannot retain
the name given to it by them— Archwoplax—as precisely the same form
had been bestowed more than 30 years ago on an extinct genus, also
of the superfamily of Grapsoidea, represented by fossils from Gay
Head, Mass. Archaoplax signifera was the name given by W. Stimp-
son to miocene tertiary remains found there, and described in the Boston
Journal of Nat. Hist. (vol. 7, p. 584, 1863).

As a new name is therefore necessary, I would suggest as eminently
appropriate for the crab made known by Messrs. Alcock and Anderson,
the generic designation Retropluwma (retro, back or backward, and
pluma, a soft feather). The applicability will become evident in due
course

When I first saw the figure of the mouth parts I inferred that the
external pair of maxillipeds had been lost, but Messrs. Aleock and
Anderson expressly declare (p. 182) that “the external maxillipeds
are so small and slender as to leave completely exposed the mandibles,
the wide endostome, and a part of the wide and produced efferent
branchial channels.” They give the figures as those of a perfect
animal, and apparently had a number of specimens. We are, there-
fore, placed in the dilemma of assuming that the crab differs radically
from all others, or that the learned authors may have been mistaken ;
I prefer, in this dilemma, to leave the question open for re-examination
by the original describers.

The new type, however, differs in another character almost as
remarkable as would be such an extreme and anomalous modification
of the maxillipeds supposed by its describers.

* It is later (p. cd suggested that “its nearer affinities are, perhaps, with the
Macrophthalmines.

+“ Bay of Bengal, at almost all stations off the Coromandel coast, from 140
NUMOS, between 100 and 250 fms.” P. 183.

1894.] tone logy. 1045

“The fifth pair of trunk legs is quite unique in form and disposi-
tion: they arise quite close to the middle line of the body and high
up, almost on the back ; they are short, being considerably less than
the breadth of the carapace in length, aud are very slender and flex-
ible; and they are so thickly fringed with shaggy hairs as to appear
like feathers."

This peculiar modification of the last pair of limbs is very unlike
that of the corresponding legs in the notopodous or anomurous brachy-
urans, and indicates that some special function may be assumed. The
loss of geniculation and the straightness, the slenderness and flexibil-
ity, and the dense hairylike covering must mean something. May it
not be that the peculiarly modified limbs have been specialized for
purposes of aérification of an increased vascular supply, and that they
have become functionalized as branchie? Until some better hypoth-
esis can be suggested or tested by histological examination, bold as it
may seem, the explanation cannot be considered irrational.

As has been already remarked, Retropluma has no close relationship
with the forms compared with it or with any other known types, It.
should, therefore, be regarded as the representative of an independent
family— Retroplumide — especially characterized by the peculiarly
modified fifth pair of feet, want of true orbits, and position of the
antenne. For the present it may be retained in the superfamily or
tribe Grapsoidea, on account of the reduced number of branchiz (“six
on each side") and form of body. If, however, the illustrations and
description of the mouth parts are correct, it must be widely removed.
The only known species is Retropluma notopus.

I cannot appreciate any “remarkably antique facies in the new
erab." On the contrary, it Str to be a form excessively modified
for deep sea life.—To.

Note on the Occurrence of Hyla andersonii in New Jer-
'sey.—About the middle of June, 1889, Mr. Louis M. Glackens and
the writer were engaged in general biological studies along the Atsion
and Batsto Creeks, in Atlantic and Burlington Counties, New Jersey.
On the night of June 17th we stopped at Pleasant Mills. Shortly be-
fore sundown a thunder storm arose, just previous to and during which
the frogs became very noisy in a swampy thicket near by.

'The note was an unfamiliar one and invited investigation, which re-
sulted in the capture of two specimens of this handsome and rare spe-
cies. The shrill quack-ack, which at the time was compared to the
note of a frightened guinea fowl, and which is not unlike the call of a

1046 The American Naturalist. [December,

rail, was constant and seemed to come from every tree; but during
our progress through the thicket the voices immediately around us, for
a radius of about 25 feet, were silent. This circumstance and the on-
coming darkness made it difficult to secure specimens, although the
frogs were so abundant. The two secured were found perched on the
lower sides of branches of the pines with dilated and vibrating throats,
though at the moment they were silent; and it was noted that they
emitted an odor which was likened to that of raw green peas. The
color above in life was a bright pea green, quite unlike the dull olive
green of spirit-preserved specimens. The lateral stripe was of a very
rich velvety purple. The following morning we could find no trace
of them, but later in the day heard another chorus in the middle of a
dense swampy thicket. Since then Mr. H. F. Moore and myself have
repeatedly visited the locality in quest of the Hyla and its eggs, but
entirely without success. To the natives the frog is unknown.—J.
Percy Moore.

Yolk Nucleus of Cymatagaster.—J. W. Hubbard, in a
- paper,’ the proof-reading of which could be better, shows that the
yolk nucleus in these fish eggs is produced from the true nucleus,
soon after the cell becomes differentiated as an egg, that it migrates
towards the vegetative pole, and after the closure of the blastopore,
it breaks up and disappears in the yolk. He claims that the same
structure occurs in many eggs and has been mistaken for the
spermatozoon, and thinks it homologous with the meganucleus of the
Protozoa, a conclusion which needs more support than is advanced in
the paper. The review of the literature omits several important
papers.

Zoological News. Prorozoa.—Gruber, in his Amóben-Studien,*
comments on the great rarity of observations on the division of the
Ameeba, and especially calls attention to the absence of any observa-
tions upon the mitotic division of the nucleus. He calls upon other -
observers to make observations on this point. He has had an oppor-
tunity of directly comparing Rhizopods from Massachusetts and from
the Black Forest, and says that the forms from the two localities are
identical. Some remarks are made upon specific characters in the
Rhizopods.

CaLENTERATA.—Grieg, in a paper but recently received,’ cata-
logues 30 species of Pennatulida as belonging to the Norwegian fauna.

* Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., xxxiii, 1894.

* Bericht Naturf. Gesellsch., Freiburg, viii, 1894.

7 Bergens Museums hadenn for 1891, 1892.

1894.] Zoology. 1047

Apellöf, in the same volume, describes several structures in the anat-
omy of Edwardsia. Among the points brought out are the presence of
a nervous system in the capitulum, the absence of siphonoghyphes, of
septal stomata, of acontia. Its nearest affinities appear to be with Pro-
tanthea of Carlgren (1891).

Worms.—Stiles calls attention ° to the discovery in a cat, by H. B.
Ward, of Distoma westermanni,a fluke new to the U. S. The same
species is a common parasite in man in Eastern Asia.

Ward describes? Distoma opacum, parasitic in Amia calva, Ictalurus
punctatus, and Perca flavescens. In its structural characters the species
is closest to D. pygmæum of the eider duck. The fish become infested
by feeding upon crayfish ( Cambarus propinquus), in which the parasite
was found encysted.

CRUSTACEA.—Miss Mary J. Rathbun describes” four new species of
crabs from the Antillean region and gives" a series of notes upon the
species of Inachide in the National Museum. There seems to be a ten-
dency in these and other papers to differentiate genera and species on
too minute and too variable characters, which, we hope, will not be con-
tinued in the promised Synopsis of North American Crustacea.

ARACHINDA.—Purcell's complete paper on the eyes of harvestmen
has appeared," and the illustrations make clear the difficulties of his
previous paper, already noticed (this volume, p. 345).

Bernard" calls attention to the fact that the Galeodid:e, instead of
lacking lateral eyes, have these organs transferred to the lateral surface,
where they look downwards and forwards. Bernard thinksthese organs
are in process of atrophy, although one would not draw such conclusions
from the rough figure of a section which he gives.

Simmons describes'* the development of the lungs and tracheæ
in spiders. The lungs develop on the posterior surface of the
anterior abdominal soidin: and the appendages, sinking i in form
the anterior wall of the pulmonary sac. The tracheæ in their earlier
stages are like the lungs, and later begin to penetrate the body. “ From
this it follows that the lung-book condition is the primitive one, the

* Johns Hopkins oe Bulletin, No. 40, 1894.

* Proc. Am. pes Microscopists, xv, 1894.

10 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, p. 83, 1894.

! Tom. Cit., , p. 43.

® Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., lviii, 1894.

5 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xiii, 517, 1894.

1t Am. Jour. Sci., xlviii, 1894. Tuft's College Studies, No. 2.

1048 The American Naturalist. [December,.

trache of the Arachnids being derived from it. And with these
facts these is left no ground for those who regard the * Tracheata’ as a.
natural group of the animal kingdom."

Hexapopa.—Schott has a monograph of palarctic Thysanures in
Vol. xxv of the Handlingar of the Swedish Academy, 153 species and
varieties are enumerated, of which 9 are new. Seven plates illustrate
the article, which cannot be neglected by entomologists.

A most interesting paper on the relations between attitude and color
of European butterflies is given by Dr. Standfuss in the Zürich Society’s.
Vierteljahrschrift for 1894.

Hexapopa.—Scudder gives ? a synopsis of the ringless locustarians
of the tribe Ceuthophili. Six genera and 67 species are described.

Morrusca.—Dall has monographed " the genus Gnathodon. From
a consideration of large suites of specimens, and of young as well as
old, and also from a study of the soft parts, he concludes that the genus
is distinctly Mactroid in character. Ten species and varieties are enu-
merated.

Dr. Stearns " catalogues, with notes, a collection of shells from "Lower
California and adjacent waters, made b . J. Fisher in 1876, to-
gether with those of other collectors. The paper has great value in
matters of synonymy and geographical limits of species.

A pellóff records * the presence of several North American species of
Cephalopods on the Norwegian coasts, and describes an example of
Eledone cirrhosa in which the third right arm of both sides is hecotoco-
tylized.

Frsues.—Gill shows” that our American pike perches must con-
tinue to bear the generic name Stizostedion, and that the European
Lucioperca marina has more affinities with the other European species
than with any American forms

The same author also pleads” for the use of Pociliidz instead of
Cyprinodontide, and discusses the nomenclature of the Lampreys, dis-
carding his previously advanced name of Ammocotes for the genus

petra. He further makes a family Mordaciide for the genus

'5 Proc, Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, xxx, 1894.
1% Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, 1894.
MTom. Cit., 1894.
18 Bergens Museums Aarbog for 1892, 1893.
19 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, 1894.
L. c.

1894.] Zoology. 1049

Mordacia. In a fourth paper he diseusses the subdivisions and rela-
tionships of the Salmonid: and Thymallide.

. D. Cope catalogues? a collection of 42 Fishes from the Rio
Grande do Sul, Brazil. Of tbese, 17 are new. The species of Chara-
cinide and Siluridæ, 15 and 14 respectively, predominate.

BarRAcHIA.—Miss Platt has published * her complete paper on the
origin of the cartilaginous structures in the head of Nieturus, to which
reference was made on p. 637 of the present volume.

Peter has studied? the vertebre of the Cæcilians, and concludes
that the evidence from these structures justifies the view of Wieders-
heim (1879) and Cope (1884) that these forms should be assigned to
Urodela. Regarding Cope's view, adopted by the Sarasins, that in
Amphiuma we must recognize the ancestral form of the Cæcilians, Peter
says, ^there is indeed a certain similarity in the vertebrze of Apoda
and Amphiumide, but no greater than exists between them and Siren,
so that the view of this student is supported chiefly by developmental.
conditions."

Mammats.—Dr. E. A. Mearns describes * as new, Sigmodon min-
ima, from New Nexico.

Dr. J. A. Allen points out” that the skull in Neotoma is extremely
variable, and that “species” founded on certain cranial characters
are frequently not of varietal rank.

?! Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., xxxiii, 1894.
2 Archiv für mikros. Anat., xliii, p. 911, 1894.
9 Karl Peter. Die Wirbelsäule der Gymnophionen. Dissertation. Freiburg,
1894.
2t Proc. U. S, Nat. Mus., xvii, 1894.
% Bulletin Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vi, 1894.

1050 The American Naturalist. [December,

ENTOMOLOGY.’

Some Observations on the Distribution of Coccide.’—
Being now in the midst of preparing a new list of the known Coccide,
with notes as to food-plants, distribution, etc., I have thought it oppor-
tune to submit to you a few observations which seem to me to be of in-
terest, relating to the geographical distribution of the several genera.
In preparing these notes, I have, moreover, been moved by a lively
hope that some of you who have so much unpublished information re-
garding this group of insects, may be induced to throw a little fresh
light on points which are now obscure. More especially do I refer to
the numerous undescribed species which must doubtless exist in the

colleetions at Washington, information of which would so greatly help
to fill up blanks now too apparent to those who read our lists with a
critical eye.

The following genera, some of them not very well established, are
monotypie aecording to present information.

Walkeriana Sign. ; Ceylon.

Guerinia Sign. ; Mediterranean Region.

Tessarobelus Montr.; New Caledonia.

Drosicha Walk.; Ceylon and China.

Llaveia Sign.; Mexico.

Nidularia Targ. ; Europe.

Capulinia Sign. ; Mexico.

Cerocoecus Comst. ; Arizona, California.

Xylococeus Löw ; Austria.

Callipappus Guér. ; Australia.

Rhizecus Künck., in hort (from Australia ?).

Signoretia 'Targ. ; Europe sud Australia.
Fillippia Targ.; Europe.
Pseudopulvinaria Atkins.; Sikkim.
Vinsonia Sign. ; West Indies, etc.
Physokermes Targ. ; Europe.
Aclerda Sign. ; France.
! Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.
* Read before the Entomological Society of Washington, Oct. 11, 1894.

prone T RUP ——w———ÉÁRÓ EP Te

ie ss

1891.] Entomology. 1051

Spermocoecus Giard. ; France.

Exerectopus Newst.; Channel Is.

Ericerus Guér. ; China.

Fairmairia Sign. ; France. -

Ischnaspis Doug]. ; West Indies, etc.

Frenchia Mask.; Australia.

Of the above twenty-six monotypic genera, most of which are un-
doubtedly valid (seven, perhaps, might be questioned), it will be seen
that just half are European, four are Oriental, four appear to belong
to the Australian region, two are Mexican, two are marked as from
the West Indies, etc., and one is from the arid portion of the United
States. .

Signoretia offers a singular case, the European species being repre-
sented in Australia by a form which Maskell separates from it only as
a variety. Supposed endemic species of Signoretia from Australia
and New Mexico prove to belong to Pulvinaria and Bergrothia re-
spectively ; and it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that S. luzulæ
var. australis Maskell, from Australia, must be S. luzulæ which has
been introduced and has varied from the type under its new environ-
ment. If so, the matter deserves the close attention of evolutionists.

It is curious that the common Physokermes of Europe has no repre-
sentative here in America. We have two species of Lecanium on con-
ifers, one in Canada, the other in California, but they are not like
Physokermes.

So, also, we seem to have no representative of the subterranean
European genera, Aclerda, Spermococeus and Exeretopus. Do our
ants’ nests never harbor such ?

Fairmairia has a close ally in northern Mexico and New Mexico in
Ceroplastodes—the latter with two species. A curiously similar case
is offered by Lichtensia, which has one species in Europe and another
in Vera Cruz, Mexico. The latter, one of the most beautiful of Cocci-
dæ, from its brilliant yellow color, cannot be made the type of a distinct
genus, though it is very different from its European congener.

"insonia and Ischnaspis (the latter near to Fiorinia) are common
on eultivated plants in the West Indies, but the specimens offer no
chance for the separation of even varieties. — Jschnaspis, it will be
noted, is the only monotypic genus of Diaspine.

The Monophlebinz appear to be ancient forms, probably at one time
more abundant than now. They have been found fossil both in
Europe and America; and the existing genera are represented by
comparatively few species widely scattered over the earth, after the

1052 The American Naturalist. [December,

manner of Peripatus. Thus, Palwococcus, to which the fossil species
are assigned, has three living species, one in Europe, one in South
America and one in New Zealand.

Ortonia has also three species; one from Natal, the other two neo-
tropical.

Icerya appears to be neotropical, Oriental and Australian; and
there is an allied genus or subgenus, which I hope Prof. Riley will
soon describe, found here in New Mexico.

Porphyrophora is considered Palearctic, but has its representative
in America in Margarodes, with one West Indian and one Chilian spe-
cies. Cclostoma is confined to Australia and New Zealand, and thus
forms an exception among the polytypie monophlebid genera; but
Monophlebus is recorded from widely separated countries in the East-
ern Hemisphere.

Gossyparia has five species, two Palzearctic, two Australian and one
from New Zealand—truly a curious distribution !

Eriococcus is interesting. Six species are Palearctic; Australia
and New Zealand together have no less than sixteen, only one of which
is common to both these countries, and then the Australian form is a
distinct variety of a New Zealand species. No other species whatever
are known except three from North America, two of which, E. azalee
and E. coccineus, cannot well be native there. In the West Indies,
where Dactylopius abounds, no Eriococcus has been ever seen.

Rhizococeus presents one Palæarctic species, three from Australia and
six from New Zealand. We seem to have in this country two unde-
scribed species, however.

Bergrothia, which is very near to Dactylopius, has one Palæarctic

cies ; while two very nearly allied forms are found in New Mexico,
and referred by me to the same genus. Still another is reported from
Indiana, etc., but is undescribed.

Daetylopius seems to be rich in species in most parts of the world,
but becomes rare and is supplanted by Phenacoccus in the northern
parts of the Palearctic region, such as England. The neotropical
species are numerous, but the nearctic forms are singularly few, and
(excepting introduced ones) all western. Mr. Coquillett has described
them, and I have sent the description of a fourth to the printer,
There are nine known species from Australia and eight from New
Zealand ; for the most part these differ in type from the neotropical
forms, so that it might be proposed to place them in a distinct subge-
nus. The genus Dactylopius, as now understood, contains very diver-
gent forms, but great difficulty is felt in any attempt to separate it into
subgeneric groups.

1894.] Entomology. 1053:

Phenacoccus is rich in Palearctic species, there being eleven or
twelve, several recently (1886-1891) described. In strong contrast,
we have but two endemic nearctic species, both western. There is not
one from the neotropical region, but Australia furnishes two and New
Zealand one.

Ripersia has five Palearctic species, three from New Zealand and one
from Australia. It was thought that we had none in America, but
Mr. N. Banks has discovered a most remarkable maritime species, the
deseription of which now awaits publication. It is very closely allied
to one (R. rumicis) from New Zealand.

Coccus has three races, perhaps not very distinct as species, from the
warmer parts of North America, extending northward in the Rocky
"Mountain Region. C. agavium may be referred to a distinet genus,
Gymnococcus of Douglas, which should be added to the list of mono-
typic genera above. Its native country is unknown.

Kermes has several Palzarctic species; one Ethiopian, not yet de-
seribed ; one Australian; and a problematical number nearctic. In
the last mentioned region only a single species has been deseribed, but
others exist and sorely need attention. No species are neotropical.

Orthezia is doubtless an old form, and certainly a very interesting
one. The number of Palæarctic species is a matter of dispute, but
there are not over half a dozen. Four are nearctic; and here it may
be mentioned that Prof. C. H. T. Townsend has just discovered a beau-
tiful new one in Sonora. ‘Two are neotropical, both described by
Douglas. None were known from the Oriental region, until the other
day Buckton described one from Ceylon. Not one occurs in Australia
or New Zealand.

Prosopophora was described as lately as 1892, but already we know
four species, one neotropical, one nearctic (New Mexico), and two
from Australia,

Tachardia has four American species, one still awaiting publication.
There is, also, one from the Oriental region, while three are Austra-

ian

Pulvinaria is'rich in Palearctic species, but the endemic nearetic spe-
cies are only three or four! Four are neotropieal; two (one unde-
seribed) Oriental; four Australian; and one is from the Sandwich Is.
'The absence of native species in New Zealand is noteworthy.

Ctenochiton, with eleven species, and Lecanochiton, with two, are
strictly confined to New Zealand; and may be set off against the nu-
merous extraordinary gall-making forms of Australia, which are want-
ing in the New Zealand fauna.

1054 The American Naturalist. [December,

Inglisia has five New Zealand species, and until last year was sup-
posed to be confined to that island. But in 1893 Mr. Maskell de-
scribed one from Australia, while this year I have described a species
from Trinidad in the neotropical region.

Ceroplastes has its metropolis in the neotropical region, with thirteen
supposed species, some of the most doubtful validity. One only is na-
tive in the nearctic region, and that to the south (New Mexico and
Northern Mexico), as C. rusci isin Europe. One is Ethiopian, two
Australian, and two Oriental. Of the last mentioned, C. ceriferus,
which produces the Indian White Wax, appears to be also widely dis-
tributed in the neotropical region. Can it be a survival in both re-
gions, like the tapir—though not, like that, differentiated into species ?

Lecanium presents nearly 90 species, several of which, however, may
not be valid. The Eulecanium series is abundant and widely distrib-
uted in the Palearctic and nearctic regions, but I do not know a single
Eulecanium from elsewhere, In the tropics the Bernardia section,
with few but very destructive species, takes its place. The neotropical
species, when we eliminate those introduced from elsewhere, amount to
only eight, only one of which (begoniw) is a Bernardia, and the en-
demic character of that is a matter for serious doubt. But who shall
say that L. olew and hemisphericum, which belong to Bernardia, are
not neotropical, since they are now so widely spread that their native
country cannot be learned? The Oriental species, so far as endemic,
are but six, while three peculiar forms are recognized as endemic in
Australia. In New Zealand, Mr. Maskell has found but one new spe-
cies, and that is extremely near to L. olec.

The above notes will suffice for the purpose intended, though many
genera, including the Diaspins, are passed over. Defective as our
knowledge is, we seem to see some glimmering of light, which should
spur us on to furthet discoveries which will give a sound foundation to
our knowledge of Coceid distribution.—T. D. A. COCKERELL, New
Mex. Agr. Exper. Station. .

Securing Moth's Eggs.—J. B. Lembert describes? the following
method of securing eggs of moths: “ When I take an Arctia ornata 9
and she is ready to lay eggs, the moment she shows signs of being stu-
pefied in the cyanide bottle, I take her out, close the wings over her
back, and placefher in a paper envelope; as soon as she revives she
will commence to scratch the paper with her legs; I then shake the
envelope, and if she has given up some eggs, I take them out, give her

* Can. Entomologist, June, 1894. |

Sea ea INN MESI A IG ded LU Odile Ocio DAR oae nnd B Reda

1894.) . Entomology. 1055

another dose of cyanide fumes, and when she revives a second time I
have found as many as 125 eggs in the paper." The method has also
been successfully used in securing the eggs of butterflies.

American Species of Seira.—In a paper on the American spe-
cies of the Thysanouran genus Seira* Prof. F. L. Harvey describes 5S.
mimica n. sp., which resembles S. nigromaculata Lubbock, but differs
in the color and the arrangement of the color patches. It is found in
warm, dry situations about buildings. S. bulkii Lubbock was also |
found at Orono, Me., under conditions which indicated that it was in-
digenous.

Kentucky Orthoptera.— Prof. H. Garman publishes, in the Sixth
Annual Report of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, a
valuable list of the Orthoptera of that State. In introductory para-
graphs he makes the following remarks which are of general biological
interest :

“The fauna of the State presents no well-marked features of its own.
The eastern half of the State evidently forms part of an eastern zoolog-
ieal region, while the western half is as evidently southern in general
character. The species occurring within our limits fall under five
categories, as follows: (1) Those which occur everywhere in
the United States, such as Gryllus abbreviatus, Hippiscus rugosus,
Chortophaga viridifasciata, Pezotettix bivittatus, P. femurrubrum and
P. atlanis. (2) Those which belong to the eastern region, represented

y Acridium alutaceum, A. rubiginosum and Paroxya atlantica. (3)
Southern species, such as Schistocerca americana, Anisomorpha bupres-
toides and Stagmomantis carolina. (4) Western species, such as Pezo-
tettix differentialis and Mestobregma cincta. (5) Cave species, of
which we have three.

“In Eastern Kentucky the fauna is, as a whole, eastern and
northern in character, rather than southern, probably because of the
greater elevation above sea level of this part of the State. The south-
ern species show a marked increase in abundance in this section as
one approaches the southern boundary of the State. Here the north-"
ern limit of the Austroriparian region may be said to coincide with
the boundary between Kentucky and Tennessee, and so continues to
the headwaters of the Barren River, where a sharp northward exten-
sion occurs, bearing gradually northwestward, and following along the
eastern limits of our western coal fields to enter southern Indiana and

*Psyche, Nov., 1894.

1056 The American Naturalist. [December,

Illinois. I could not pereeive any very decided southern features of
fauna or flora at Campbellsville and Greensburg, near the headwaters
of Green River. At Bowling Green and Glasgow Junction the south-
ern character is decided. At Elizabethtown, farther north and east,
the fauna and flora do not appear to be very different in relative
-abundance of species from those of the region about Lexington. The
eastern limit of the northward extension of the Austroriparian region
would thus appear to follow approximately the meridian marking the
86th degree of longitude west from Greenwich, and accompanies a fall
in altitude to about 500 feet above sea level, the blue-grass region to
the eastward being in the neighborhood of five hundred feet higher
than the region west of Leitchfield. This western region is marked
not only by an increased abundance of southern Orthoptera, but
quite as decidedly by its other insects, its plants, and its vertebrate
animals. Among Lepidoptera, Callidryas eubule and Euthisanotia
tamais become noticeable. The water moccasin (Ancistrodon piscivor-
us) and the shining bass (Centrarehus macropterus) appear. There
is a decided increase in the numbers of such birds as the tufted tit-
mouse, summer redbird and scarlet tanager.

* We find here the spider-lily (Hymenocallis occidentalis), the Amer-
ican aloe (Agave virginica), the willow oak (Quercus phellos), the
water-locust ( Gleditschia aquatica) and the Mississippi hackberry ( Cel-
tis mississippiensis).

“Among the Orthoptera found in this end of the State two are
worthy of special mention because their occurrence is in some respects
exceptional. Mestobreyma cincta is recorded by collectors from Colo-
rado and Wyoming. Dr. Cyrus Thomas obtained examples from
Southern Illinois. I recently collected specimens at Glasgow Junction
and Bowling Green in this State. I have no record at hand relating
to its occurrence in regions between these widely separated eastern and
western habitats. The second species is Pezotettix differentialis, the

Fic. 1. Pezotettix differentialis. After Riley.
large olive grasshopper so common in the northwest. It appears to be
one of a relatively small number of northern species whose distribu-

—

i ' vsu mum e ese

1894.) Entomoiogy. 1057

tion is extended to the southward by the influence of the Mississippi
River. The species is one of the commonest Illinois grasshoppers.
is common locally in Western Kentucky, but has not been seen east-

rd.

“ The peculiar cave Orthoptera of Kentucky are deserving of a word
in this connection. The species are all wingless crickets with greatly
enlarged hind limbs for léaping, and excessively lengthened antennz.
All have eyes of the usual size, and without exception live by prefer-
ence near the cave mouths. The species most completely adapted to
life in the caves is the cave cricket (Hadenecus subterraneus). Tt is a
large brown creature, so fragile that it is almost impossible to get per-
fect specimens. Specimens taken alive from the caves in summer, in-
variably died, probably because of the sudden change of temperature.
I am disposed to think they could be removed in cool weather without

difficulty. I have never seen this species anywhere but in caves. It

occurs in all our larger caverns, however. A second species ( Ceutho-
philus stygius) resembles the preceding in general form, but has the
legs and antennz less lengthened, and is spotted with black. Itis
closely allied, both in structure and color, with species occurring out
of doors under rocks. It is more closely confined to the region near
the entrance of caves than is Hadenecus subterraneus, but appears not
to leave the caves. These two are the only cave crickets I have seen
in Kentucky, but Dr. A. S. Packard, of Brown University, has ob-
tained a third, which he says is astociated in caves with the preceding.
I have a number of specimens that agree perfectly with his description
of this cricket, but they were found in every case under rocks or logs
out of doors

Coleoptera of Lower California.—At a recent meeting of the
Cambridge Entomological Club, Dr. G. H. Horn discussed this subject."
He remarked *that about 800 species were now known to him from
the region whieh may be divided into four faunal provinces: (1) The
San Diego fauna extends down the larger part of the west coast. (2)
The fauna of the highlands (so far as collected, i. e., north of the middle
of the State) seems to be related to that of the Central California Val-
ley. (3) The fauna of the east coast extends through Arizona north-
ward, and eastward down the Rio Grande. (4) The fauna of the ex-

.treme southern end of the peninsula is truly tropical in character."

New Fossil Beetles.—Mr. S. H. Scudder calls attention? to a

5 Psyche, Nov., 1894.
8 Psyche, Nov., 1894.

1058 The American Naturalist. [December,

new family of fossil beetles established by Schlechtendahl in a recent
paper on the fossil insects of Rott on the Rhine (Abh. Naturf. Ges.

Halle, XX). It is named Paleogyrinid:, and the type shows a com.

bination of the characters of Gyrinide and Dytiscide. “ Extinct
types of insects of as high a grade as families are extremely rare in the
tertiaries.”

Reversal of Position in Insect Embryos.— Dr. G. A. Chap-
man summarizes’ his own and others’ observations on the phenomena
associated with the change of position that occurs in the young lepidop-
terous lary within the shell before hatching. “In all cases the larva
first appears on the surface of the yelk-mass as a flat plate, of which
the central line is the middle of the ventral surface, and the margins
are the two sides of the dorsum, still far apart. These margins, how-
ever, rapidly curl in and, at the head and tail, the young embryo soon
has the cylindrical form we associate with the larva, but centrally,
there remains a wide opening through which the mass of the yelk is
continuous: with that portion of it contained in a central cavity of the
larva; this central cavity is the future alimentary canal, not yet pro-
vided, however, with any opening towards either the head or the tail,
The communication between the intestinal cavity and the yelk sac
gradually becomes smaller, and portions of yelk leave the sac and pass
into the intestine, and contribute to the growth of the embryo. Dur-
ing this period, it is easy, in flat eggs like those of the Pyralides, Tor-
trices, Limacodes, etc., to see the embryo curled around a greater or
less portion of the yelk sac, with its ventral surface towards the mar-
gin of the egg, and its dorsal surface (aspect rather than surface, as
the surface is still broken by the umbilical opening) applied to the
yelk sac. There is a little variation in the degree to which the yelk
disappears before the umbilical opening closes, but when this takes
place-the larva forms a horseshoe or circle, with the venter towards the
shell wall and its anterior and posterior extremities in contact. At
this period, also, there are a varying number of globules of yelk free
in the egg cavity around the larva; whether these are set free by the
movement of the larva that now takes place, or still later by the jaw
action of the larva, I am not sure, but after the movement has taken
place the young larva swallows these; this swallowing of the remaining
| yelk may indeed be regarded as a first step towards eating its way out of
the egg. Before the closing of the umbilical opening, the embryo may
be regarded as an appendage to the yelk sac, attached thereto by its

*Entomologist's Record, Oct. 15, 1894.

PLATE XXXIV.

a

2 MT
E

1

From photograph of Stalactite 60 centimeters long and 20 years old;
formed between the years 1873 and 1893 on the ceiling of a

reservoir roof arch at Bayreuth, Bavaria. Scale 3;

1894.] Entomology. 1059

dorsal aspect. As soon as the opening closes, however, the young
larva is truly a young larva, possessing no organic connection with
the other egg structures. The first use it makes of its liberty is to
bend the tail forwards and, as it were, creep up its own ventral sur-
face, assuming in this process an S or pot-hook shape, until at length
its position is reversed, the dorsum being now along the cireumference
of the egg and the venter being central. The head aud tail sometimes
merely meet in the (flattest eggs), sometimes slightly overlap, whilst,
in the dome-shaped eggs the head so overlaps as to take very often a
central position in the vertex of the egg, forming a dark spot there, as
in Acronycta, Skippers, and many others.

* The essential importance of this observation is, that it shows that
the embryonic position of the nervous system is the same in insects as
in vertebrates, and since it must, therefore, be identified also in the
mature animal, it follows that the venter of insects corresponds ana-
tomically with the dorsum of vertebrates, and vice versa.

“As regards the actual change of position itself, and the position
afterwards taken by the larva, it seems to me that the important point
is that the larva whilst still truly an embryo, that is, whilst still attached
to the yelk and egg structures, has the venter outwards, and the dor-
sum towards the center of the yelk or egg ; but when it becomes free
it is no longer an embryo, it moves how it likes, and through the posi-
tion it takes up seems to be very uniform throughout each species and
and even throughout whole families ; still this has little, if any, embry-
ological significance. I have frequently seen larve making this S
movement, and though I have called it ‘creeping up its own ventral
surface, it goes on slowly, without any apparent voluntary or even
movements, and appears to be due to the mere force of the growth and
development of the larva. Sometimes it seems as if the lengthening
of the larva led to the extremity of the tail impinging against the side
of the egg-shell and instead of sliding onwards, being caught and bent
up. It is associated no doubt with the completion of the growth of the
dorsal surface previously defective by the large umbilical opening, and
now more abundant in proportion to the ventral surface. It proceeds
slowly and steadily, so that usually some progress may be noted in five
or ten minutes.

* Very shortly after, what appear to be voluntary movements of
swallowing take place, the remainder of the yelk disappears, and the
remaining fluid is either absorbed by the larva through the skin, or
evaporates through the shell; the traches become visible by getting
filled with air, and the larva begins the process of eating through the
shell." 70

1060 The American Naturalist. [ December,

Cecindelid Larve.—H. F. Wickham describes" the larva of Ce-
cindela as “a somewhat elongate, whitish grub, with a broad, metallic
colored head and prothorax, and a large hump, bearing two hooks,
on the fifth abdominal segment. They excavate holes in sunny spots
and lie in wait for prey, with the head closing up the mouth of the
burrow; when an insect comes within reach, it is seized by the long
jaws of the larva and the juices extracted. I am now rearing larve of
C. limbalis Klug, which I dug from holes in a clay bank on the fif-
teenth of April. They are easily kept in little tin boxes with damp
earth, and feed readily on soft-bodied larvæ of wood-borers. The pupa
is figured by Letzner and is represented as bearing on the fifth abdom-
inal dorsal, two spines corresponding to the hooks on the same seg-
ment in the larva.”

Social Economy of the Hive Bee.—In a recent presidential
address before the Biological Society of Washington, Dr. C. V. Riley
described the social organization of the hive bee “Each bee,” he
said, “ labors for the good of the commonwealth of which it is a mem-
ber. Of them it might well be said :

Saius rei public lex.

It is the welfare of the colony which directs the actions of all, and not
the will of the queen. Indeed, it would seem that the latter performs
her important function—that of supplying the hive with eggs—only
when the workers will it, their own condition of prosperity as regards.
stores, or their anticipations of the future needs of the colony as re-
gards population, causing them to supply the queen liberally with food
rich in nitrogen—a partially digested substance, or a gland product,
or perhaps, a mixture of both, which she alone cannot produce, yet
without which any considerable production of eggs is an impossibility.
. As Evans remarks:

‘The prescient female rears her tender brood
In strict proportion to the hoarded food.’

“ We must, then, credit the industrious and provident workers witl
the chief influence in shaping the policy of the hive. They are the
servum pecus—the living force—of the colony. And to the end that
order and efficiency of effort may prevail, they have, we find, a marked
division of labor. In the normal condition of the hive the young
workers care for the brood—a labor which they take upon themselves

* Can. Entomologist, Tune, 1894.

"Insect Life, September, 1894.

1894.] Entomology. 1061

within two or three days after issuing from the cell. The glands which
secrete a part of the food required by the developing larve are active
during the earlier part of the life of the worker. Later, these nurses
become incapable of doing their work well as the gland system be-
comes atrophied. When a few days old they take short flights, if the
weather favors, but seldom commence gathering stores before they
are fifteen days old. Wax production is more essentially a function
of the workers in middle life, and it is particularly noticeable that
those bees fashioning the wax into combs are principally of this class.
Many of those acting as foragers do, however, secrete wax scales,
which are doubtless, in the main, utilized. Among the outside workers
and hive defenders some bring honey only on certain trips or for a
time, others honey and pollen, others water, and yet others propolis or
bee glue to stop up erevices and glue things fast. Meanwhile, some
are buzzing their wings at the entrance to ventilate the hive, and
others are removing dead bees, dust or loose fibers of wood from the
inside of the hive or from near the entrance, or are guarding this last
against intruders, or perhaps driving out the drones when these are no
longer needed

Notes on New Hampshire Lepidoptera.—Mr. James H.
Johnson, Pittsfield, N. H., in a letter to the editor of this department,
recently, included the following notes on Lepidoptera in his region :
* I have one specimen of Colias interior from Charlestown. This, I
notice, Maynard calls * accidental at Waterville, Me. One specimen
of Debis portlandia I took at Webster, one Limenitis arthemis (proser-
pina) at South Sutton, one Thanaos brizo and several of Neonympha
eurytris at Charlestown. I have a pair of the Chionibas jutta from
Orono, Me.

* Of the moths, I have one each of Catocala relicta and C. relicta
(bianca) one pair of Eacles imperialis. These three were taken at
South Sutton, Va. I find Eucronia maia is quite common in one place
here at Pittsfield. Have not noticed it elsewhere. I see Dr. Harris
called it rare in Mass.”

Hemiptera of Buffalo.—One of the most valuable of recent
faunal lists has just appeared in the Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of
Natural Sciences (Vol. V, No. 4). It is * A List of the Hemiptera of
Buffalo and Vicinity,” by Edward P. Van Duzee. It “ enumerates all
the described Hemiptera to and including the Jassoidea known to in-
habit the vicinity of Buffalo, N. Y. The limit of 70 miles, adopted by

1062 The American Naturalist. [December,

Mr. David F. Day in his Catalogue of the Plants of Buffalo and
Vicinity, has been followed by the author * * * but nearly all the
species have been captured within a radius of 20 miles of this city.”
The Psyllide, Aphidide and Coccide have not been included in the
list which enumerates 378 species, and mentions 25 undescribed spe-
cies that have been found.

In the same Bulletin Mr. Van Duzee publishes Descriptions of some
New North American Hemipterous Insects, belonging to the follow-
ing genera; Idiocerus, Platymetopius, Allygus, Deltocephalus, Athy-
sanus, Entettix, Scaphoideus, Thamnotettix, and the new genera here
characterized, Tinobregmus and Xestocephalus,

1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 1065

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

The Age of Certain Stalactites.'— The fact has been recognized
for some time among scientists that the formation of stalactites, under
favorable circumstances may take place in a relatively short time.

Nevertheless, observations uponthe exact period required for the
growth of given examples have been rather rare, for while there has
been abundant opportunity to compute the age of stalactites at railway
bridges and tunnels, the various dangers which beset these delicate
growths in such places have generally put a considerable limit to their
age, and deprived them of conspicuous size. It may, therefore, be of
interest to state an instance where not only the time of growth but also
the exact size of a stalactite can be given with absolute precision.

In the year 1873 the city of Bayreuth (Bavaria) built a reservoir
for drinking water three kilometers southwest of the town. This so-
called Lasser Reservoir is built in a Keupersand soil which contains
exceedingly slight traces of lime. The water used in the basin comes
out of the Keuper, (the uppermost of the three subdivisions of the
Triassic period), and likewise contains lime, though in very small
quantity. At the point shown in the illustration a spot on the ceiling
of the arch (built across the tank to proteet the water from pollution
H. C. M.) stalactites of remarkable size had formed in 1893. Suppos-
ing that they had begun to form by the infiltration of surface water
through the arch immediately upon its completion in 1873, they could
not have been more than twenty years (1873-1893) old, and as the
photograph recently taken from nature shows their length to be be-
tween 60 and 80 centimeters, they must have grown on an average of
from 3 to 4 centimeters a year. The reservoir was first used in 1874,
the tank under the arch remaining full of water until the present year,
when in the course of the summer, the water was drawn off for repairs,
and an opportunity afforded of observing and detaching some of the
stalactites. A great number of the finest specimens were broken
through the ignorance of workmen. In a damp walled chamber ad-
jacent to, though not included in the area of, the basin, hung whole
rows of stalactites from 20 to 30 centimeters long. These were
extremely fragile and very difficult to remove without breaking.

! This department is edited by H. C. Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

*Translation from the original German.

1064 The American Naturalist. [December,

A careful examination of the structure of the reservoir building
showed that the stalactites must have formed as follows:

The reservoir’s arched roof from which they hung was built of
bricks laid in cement (probably the kind known in America as Ger-
man Portland, H. C. M.). Slight fissures had formed in the cement
through which the water of the surface (rain water H. C. M.) had
trickled. This down trickling water had dissolved portions of the
cement, and then evaporating, had first caused a formation composed
of particles of lime dissolved from the cement. This formation was the
starting point of the stalactites. On it had been precipitated very fine
particles of the reservoir water, leaving after they had evaporated a
further residuum of lime upon the already existent pendant.

This view is strengthened by the fact, that since the building of
another more recent (so-called Fuchstein) reservoir 3 kilometers west
of Bayreuth, stalactites 2.5 centimeters long have shown themselves
hanging in the same way from the cement ceiling of the roofing arch.
Moreover, if indentations are scratched in the cement, pendent accu-
mulations of lime are soon formed, which, however, are not hollow in
the middle like the stalactites.

Finally, as the result of an experiment, the following method for
producing stalactites artificially, may be mentioned :

Take a common hectoliter cask. . Make a hole in its bottom. Plug
this hole with a wooden plug so wound with tow that the water may
trickle through it in very small quantities. Around the end of the
plug on the outside of the bottom of the cask, spread cement (German
Portland cement, H. C. M.) in which a slight fissure should be left.
Then fill the cask with the water containing lime in solution and place
it in the open air. Hang a piece of tow on the fissure in the cement
so that the water trickles upon it, and stalactites will form very rapidly.
In this way I made a stalactite 5 centimeters long inside of 8 weeks.

Franz ADAMI.
Bayreuth, September 30, 1894.

Note by the Editor.—A very hard crust of stalagmite, covering
a loam bed with rhinoceros teeth and human relies, overlaid the cave
floor of Kents Hole (near Torquay, England) in which Mr. McEnery
says (1825) that he found in no instance breaches or openings, “ but
one continuous plate of stalagmite diffused uniformly over the loam.”
Schmerling who (in 1832) used to climb down into Engis Cave (near
Liege, Belgium) by a rope tied to a tree, and after a long crawl, stand
in the mud to superintend by torchlight, workmen digging in a wet

SS VHS =

known geological past, could have been weighed.

1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 1065

hole, had to break through a stalagmitic floor hard as marble and cut
five feet into a breccia nearly as hard, to find the famous skull now in
the University of Liege.

But the presence of these crusts, though serving satisfactorily to sep-
arate diverse accumulations on cave floors one from another, is no
longer regarded in Europe as evidence of the great age of relics so
entombed.

In the Wyandot Cave (right bank of Blue River, 5 miles from its
mouth in the Ohio, Crawford Co., Indiana) a hole has been artificially
battered in the side of one of the innermost large stalactites called
“ The Pillar of the Constitution,"and it appeared from the observations
of Professor Collet (Ind. Geolog. Survey, 1876-77-78, p. 467) and Mr.
Hovey who found (as I did in June, 1894) granite pebble hammer-
stones lying in a mass of splinters near the hole, and Mr. H. W. Roth-
rock, who (in 1877-78) found besides hammerstones, a deer horn
* pick " or prying tool, close by, that Indians had battered out the hole
with the stone hammers to get fragments of carbonate of lime for
some purpose (possibly trinket making) not yet determined.

A crust of stalactite 10 inches thick has since crept over the bruised
edge of this unique quarry, and Mr. Hovey thought (Celebrated
American Caverns, p. 139) that “at the known rate of increase, it
must have required 1000 years for the wrapping to attain its present
thickness of 10 inches, and that length of time has, therefore, elapsed
since this ‘alabaster’ quarry was worked.”

Professor Adami’s above statement which omits, however, a chemi-
cal analysis of the cement referred to, is one of the sort of valuable
observations which hasshaken faith in the worth of all age tests based
on stalagmite or stalactite. If for a thousand years the still standing
forests have helped dampen the roof of Wyandot Cave, if rain has
kept falling at an equal rate all that while, and if water always equally
charged with lime has gone on trickling through the ceilings ever
since, then what happened in twenty years to rain water and cement
at Bayreuth might have taken fifty or a hundred times as long to hap-
pen to rain water and limestone in Indiana. But we can hardly
imagine a case where in a cave care enough would have been taken,
and time enough spent in measuring the yearly increment, or still more
where the inferred conditions of uniformity reaching back into a little

H. C. Mercer.

1066 The American Naturalist. [December,

Indians Mining Lead.—Mr. Benjamin Pursell, of Kintnersville,
Bucks County, Pa., told me in September, 1891, as a well known story
in the Delaware Valley, that Indians in the last century had shown
members of the Ridge family, then living on Ridge’s Island, lead ore
in situ, at a spot never since discovered in the neighboring hills.

More definite still is the lead story of New Galena, Bucks County,
Pa., at third hand. Somewhere in the middle of the century Elijah
and Abraham Campbell, of Plumstead, told John M. Proctor, now of
Blooming Glen, who wrote me in December, 1891, that straggling
Indians coming to hunt along the north branch of the Neshaminy,
between 1790 and 1808, had often taken them as boys to a place near
the mouth of the * Hartyhickon" (now the property of Mr. Arthur
Chapman). "There they disappeared in the woods to return with their
arms full of lead, with which they made bullets.

I took these for loeal tales till I was surprised to hear J. M. Kessler,
at Hummel's Wharf, Snyder County, Pa., tell me the same story,
while pointing to the hills across the Susquehanna as its scene. But I
came nearest of all tothe legend when Reuben Anders, of Little Wap-
walopen, Luzerne County, Pa., gave me it first hand. He had seen
the Indian who had spent the night with his grandfather and offered
to show him a mineral wonder on a hill called Councilkopf. Though
the latter was afraid to follow the red man alone, one Harman had
gone hunting with two others, who when bullets had given out had
gone into the woods and returned with loads of lead. If untrue,it is
hard to see why this lead story has so seized the popular mind. But
when we realize, as I am informed, that lead rarely, if ever, occurs pure
in nature, but as galena, which, if mixed with lumps of limestone,
requires about 1200 degrees (Centigrade) of heat to smelt by drying
out the earbonie acid and removing the sulphur, it is to be doubted
whether, given the galena, any such offhand bullet-making in the
woods could ever have taken place.?

Squier and Davis found galena ornaments in ancient Ohio tumuli.
Mr. Clarence B. Moore showed me a lump excavated by him from a
St. John's River (Florida) mound, and modern Sioux ornament their
catlinite pipes with lead, but no digging has yet proved that mound

"Some specimens of galena, recently obtained through Mr. Alfred Paschall,
from the prospective mine now working in the bed of the North Branch of the
Neshaminy, on the farm of Henry Funk (New Britain Township, Bucks County,
Pa.), would not melt in a red-hot erucible, but splintered into fine fragments, as
did other fragments when held directly in the bellows fire.

1894.] Archeology and Ethnology. 1067

builder or Indian in pre-Columbian times regarded galena as other
than a hard, glittering stone to be pounded or rubbed into trinkets.‘

Still we know that the Rhode Island Indians very soon learned the
art of pewter casting from Roger Williams’ colonists, and the question
therefore, is, had Indians in Eastern Pennsylvania by 1780-90
learned from white men how to smelt bullets from galena for their
newly acquired guns?

Whether or not these lead tales furnish us with an archeological clue
of importance, they seem less strange than the story told me on July
12, 1893, by Charles Keller (now 84 years old), of Point Pleasant,
Bucks County, Pa., as related to him sixty years ago by his father,
Christopher Keller. About the end of the last century Peter Keller,
Christopher’s brother, had refused to do some iron work for a band of
Indians at his blacksmith shop, on Tohickon Creek, above Stover’s
mill (the present Redding Meyers farm,) about six miles above its
mouth on the Delaware River. When he pleaded as an excuse that
his supply of charcoal was exhausted, the Indians went into the forest
and after nearly a day’s absence returned with a basket full of “stone”
(anthracite) coal, with which he did the job.

H. C. Mercer.

‘After the present pages were written, Mr. Walter Chase, of Madison, Wiscon-
sin, showed me a small figure of a turtle of cast lead found by him at a surface
Indian camp site in 1889 on the shore of Lake Wingra, two miles southwest of
Madison. Dr. Hall, of Madison, had another plowed up by a farmer in 1891,
with a stone axe and four or five arrowheads, from an effigy mound shaped, itself,
somewhat like a turtle, on the shore of Lake Mendota, near Madison. Two
perforated dises of cast lead have also been found by farmers in Dare County,
Wisconsin, and are now in the possession of neighboring collectors. Galena
occurs in Southern Wisconsin in small, loose masses in a very pure state.

1068 The American Naturalist. [December,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Boston Society of Natural History, November 7.—The fol-
lowing paper was read: Professor George Lincoln Goodale, An
account of the Ware Collection of Blaschka Glass models of Flowers
in the Harvard University Museum. With illustrations.

November 21st.—The following paper was read: - Dr. George A.
Dorsey, “ The Peruvians, prehistoric and modern.” Stereopticon
views were shown.

SAMUEL HENSHAW, Secretary.

New York Academy of Sciences, Biological Section,
October 22.—The following papers were read: Professor N. L. Brit-
ton, and T. H. Kearney, Jr., “On a Collection of Texano-Mexican
Plants,’ —new species and altitudinal notes; Professor E. B. Wilson,
“ The fertilization and polarity of the egg in Toxopneustes lividus.”
The study of extensive series of sections fixed by sublimate-acetic and
stained by Heidenhain’s iron-hematoxylin fails to give any evidence
of a “quadrille of the centrosomes.” The archoplasm is wholly de-
rived from, or'formed under the influence of a substance derived from
the spermatozoon and situated not at the apex but in or near the mid-
dle-piece. Regarding polarity, the continuous observation of a large
series of living eggs shows that the definitive egg-axis has no con-
stant relation to that passing through the excentric egg-nucleus but
may form any angle with it. The first cleavage passes approximately
through the point of entrance of the spermatozoon as described by
Roux in the frog. Dr. Bashford Dean, “ On the breeding habits of
Lepidosteus from observations at Black Lake, N. Y., May, 1894;”
Professor H. F. Osborn, “ On the Proceedings of the Biological Section
of the British Association.”

November 12.—N. L. Britton, “ Problems in Plant Evolution,” not-
ing from the side of Paleobotany the centralized position of Algse and
the probable affinities of pteridophytes and bryophytes. G. N. Cal-
kins, “ A little known phenomenon in the life history of Stentor coeru-
leus.” ‘The free swimming Lieberkuhnina of Bütschli was shown to
be (as Claparéde and Lachman had earlier believed) an embryo
Stentor. H. G. Dyar, * A classification of Lepidopterous larvæ ac-
. cording to setiferous tubules,” giving data for the establishment of six

1894.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1069

super-families. |. S. F. Clark, “The breeding habits of Alligator." H.
F. Osborn, * The skull structure of Titanotheres."
Basprorp DEAN, Ree. Sec.

National Academy of Sciences.—The following papers were
read at the meeting in New Haven, Oct. 30., Nov. 1.—4An indirect ex-
perimental Determination of the Energy of Obscure Heat, William
A. Rogers; Determination of the Errors of the Circles of an electro-
type copy of Tycho Brahe's Altitude Azimuth Instrument now in pos-
session of the Smithsonian Institution, William A. Rogers; The Win-
nebago County, Iowa, Meteorites and the Meteor, Hubert A. Newton ;
Literal Expression for the Motion of the Moon's Perigee, George W.
Hill; Atmospheric Dust and Aqueous Precipitation in Arctic Regions,
William H. Brewer; Further Researches on the Polar Motion, Seth
C. Chandler; The Relation of Gravity to Continental Elevation,
Thomas C. Mendenhall; The Legal Units of Electrical Measure,
Thomas C. Mendenhall; On derived Equations in Optics, Charles S.
Hastings; On a method of eliminating Secondary Dispersion, using
ordinary silicate Glasses only, Charles S. Hastings; The Chemical
Nature of Diastase, Thomas B. Osborne, (Introduced by S. W. John-
son); Some Features in the Development of Brachiopods, Charles E.
Beecher, (Introduced by O. €. Marsh); On the Presence of Devonian
Fossils in Strata of Carboniferous Age, Henry S. Williams, (Intro-
duced by O. C. Marsh); On the influence of Insolation upon Culture
Media, and of Desiccation upon the Vitality of the Bacillus of Ty-
phoid, of the Colon Bacillus, and of the Staphylococcus aureus, John
S. Billings; Report on Photographing Meteors, William L. Elkin,
(Introduced by H. A. Newton); Biographical Memoir of F. V. Hay-
den, Charles A. White; Geographical and Bathymetrical Distribution
of the Deep Sea Echinoderms, discovered off the American Coast,
north of Cape Hatteras, A. E. Verrill; On the effect of Pressure in
broadening Spectral Lines, A. A. Michelson; Remarks upon the pro-
gress of work upon a Handbook of the Brachiopoda, James Hall ;
Note upon the Occurrence and Distribution of the Dictyospongids in
the Devonian and Carboniferous Formations, James Hall; Infra red
Spectrum, S. P. Langley; On a certain Theorem in Theoretical
Mechanies, J. W. Gibbs.

The Biological Society of Washington, December 1st.—The
following communications were read: Mr. B. T. Galloway, “The
Physiological Significance of the Transpiration of Plants" Mr. F.

The American Naturalist. (December,

H. Knowlton, * The Amount of Water Transpired by Plants,” Prof.
B. W. Evermann, “ The Redfish of the Idaho Lakes.” Mr. Charles

i “ On the Validity of the Genus Margaritan
FREDERIC À. ce Secretary.

ADVE PE TANA

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