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ITORS:

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Pror. C. M. WEED, HEET, N.H., PROF. W S. BAYLEY, W tek ies Maine, Pror. E. A. ANDREWS, Halting /
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Vol. XXX. JULY, 1896. No. 355 —

CONTENTS

Clarence J. Elmore. 520
(Continued.)
Mark Baldwin:

CEE).

THE CLASSIFICATION OF, DIATOMS (BACILLARI-
A New FACTOR IN EVOLUTION.
A 536

THE PATH OF THE WATER CURRENT IN CucuM-
BER PLANTS. (Continued.) Ær win F. Smith.

‘Eprror’s TABLE.—The Spoliatio
The American Association at Bu

554

n of seve
z

falo. iea pi

RECENT LITERAT — Surface Colors — The
Whence and Whither of Pine Opi on
? ic Evolut (Ilus-

t

trated. )— The
aoe EM RE on nee casei of ge
| _ Mar
~ RECENT Boos | AND PAMPHLETS. 2 ES - 570
_ GENERAL NOT

Wins EPA ntact Goniometer with tw
aduated Circles.—Crystallographic Proper-
Sulphonic Acid Derivatives of Cam-

e;
Ha

or
=J
Or

' Galena Limestone—Miscellane
Petrog iy A a e Rocks Tuffs ix

PAGE
lee te Gta: Dykes near Lake Memphrem-

—The Origin of the bashes Granites—
Potebariutien 1 Notes:

Geology and Pak saat load dian Palei
: opo-

ogy—Jackson on the Hevelopeeate ligo
rus—American Fossil Cockroaches he =
manche Cr she ihre its laian Take

- 579

ays Argentir
Tilden’ Ampak Aii saie

tam bines of North America—Sets of No es

Am n Plants—Botany in a

for a Plant Analysis” —Botanical New i
Zoology —J apanese VENET Orient of g

Tail- orms The Spermatheca

can Newts and Salamar ndere- 7
E hesola Tae Asy

to Pelyxenus—
North American Sey w—New MODUN

—Entomological N

Em iey ~ Protoplasmie Continnity-—C ell
Studies in elid Eg

Psych ae oars Study in Morbid Peschology sy
with some reflections. (Continued). —

Aare gy—Mr. Kean on Paleolithic’ ie
—Cave Cave Kepti by ee RA a
Peauaybean iain Tennessee. be ustrated..

i nd
’ Prussia—Igneous Rocks of British Columbia—
k Ciaseions “Ganeretione in Obsidians from

SCIENTIFIC te Ms ie ue

PHILADELPHIA, U. S.A

THE EDWARDS & DOCKER oa

518 ano 520 MINOR STREET.

7”

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST
ee

? DES:
Vor XIX, July, 1896. 355

THE CLASSIFICATION OF DIATOMS (BACIL-
LARIACE).

By CLARENCE J. ELMORE.

There have been many systems of classification employed
for the Bacillariacex, but very few of these have any valid
claim, to be regarded as natural systems. They may be divided
into three classes; (1) those based on the structure of the valves,
of which Kuetzing’s, Prof. H. L. Smith’s, and that employed |
by Kirchner are examples; (2) those based on the form of the
frond, the connecting membrane, and the gelatinous envelope,
represented by Rey. Wm. Smith’s; and (8) those based on the |
_ structure of the endochrome and the manner of forming auxo-

~ spores, represented by that of Paul Petit. The following i is me
brief outline of the systems mentioned.

‘Kirchner divided the Bacillariacex into two groups’ those os

' Read before the Botanical Seminar of the University of Kapukai d March 21. -

crypt ora von Eichleaien ; TES m eee 1878.
ey iat Leipsic, Pu

a whose markings are bilateral, that is, arranged on two sides of _
a longitudinal line or raphe, and? those with radial markings. oe

530 The American Naturalist. [July,

Those with bilateral markings he divided into two subdivisions
the first comprising those with a central nodule, and the second
those with none.

Kuetzing divided the Bacillariacex into three tribes ; I, Stri-
atx, that is those with transverse striations; II, Vittatz, that is
those with longitudinal stripes ; and III, Areolatæ, that is those
whose surfaces are divided into angular areole. The first-
two tribes, Striate and Vittate he divided into two orders
each, viz.; I, Astomatice and II, Stomatice. The Astomatice
included those with no central nodule, or as he understood it,
with no central opening, while the Stomatice included those
with a central nodule. If the central nodule were really a
stoma or aperture as Kuetzing considered it, this grouping
might have been a natural one; for this difference in structure
might have connoted important physiological differences, but
it is generally conceded that the nodules are merely markings
on the valves, and it is likely that they indicate nothing as to
the physiology of the plant. Sono higher groups than genera,
or possibly species, can be based on this character. His third
tribe, Areolatx, he also divided into two orders; I, Disciformex
that is, those of a circular or angular form, and, II, Appendi-
culate, or forms with appendages, as Biddulphia.

The classification of Prof. H. L. Smith‘ is one that has had
considerable following. Bessey’s Botany® was the first American
textbook to adopt and give an outline of the system. It was
adopted by Van Heurck®, Wolle and De Toni®. To say the
least, it is a good practical system of classification, and prob-
ably this is the most that can be said for it, though in some
points it seems to approach a natural system. Smith divides
the Diatoms into three tribes, the Raphidex, Pseudoraphidee,
and Cryptoraphidex. The Raphidex are all supposed to possess
a raphe. The Pseudoraphidex are usually elongated, have no
raphe, but in its place there is a blank space resembling a

t Conspectus of the Families and Genera of the Diatomacee in The Lens, I: 1
1872 and II: 65, 1873.

5 Botany for High Schools and Colleges, pi Holt and Co., New York, 1880,

ê Synopsis des Diatomées de Belgique, 188

1 Diatomaceæ of North America, 1890.

8 Sylloge Algarum, 1891.

1896.] The Classification of Diatoms. 531

raphe. The Cryptoraphidee are usually circular or angular and
have nothing resembling a raphe. Upon the supposition that
the raphe is an essential organ, and that it is present in one
tribe, replaced by another structure in the second, and “ hid-.
den” in the third, this might be a natural classification. But
if the raphe is known to exist only in the first tribe and its
existence in the others is wholly theoretical, it will hardly serve
as a character on which to base a classification. It is true that
the genera brought together by this system appear to bear
more or less relation to each other, but if we knew as little
about Phanerogams as we do about Diatoms, we should think
that a division of them into Arboræ, Frutices, and Herbx placed
related genera together, for it would be easy to see that Salix
and Populus are related, and also that Solanum and Physalis
are more or less closely allied. I venture to regard the Raph-
idex, Pseudoraphidex, and Cryptoraphidex as having no greater
naturalness than the divisions Arborx, Frutices, and Herbz ;
and it is to be hoped that they will soon be consigned to the
same botanical limbo in which the latter have long since found
obscurity.

It is true, however, that in the Raphidex, there seems to be a
trace of naturalness in the system. The author begins with
the bilaterally symmetrical forms, that is those in which the
raphe is a median line, as for example, Navicula. Those with
the raphe at one side of the center, as in Cymbella, he considers
a modification of the first type by a curving of the frustule and
thus bringing the raphe nearer the concave side. And in the
third division the raphe has approached so near to the concave
margin that it fuses with it, asin Amphora. If this is to be
considered simply as a modification of a typical form, it means
little. But if this modification shows the course of develop-
ment from the Navicula form to the Amphora form, it means a
great deal. In Navicula and Cymbella two auxospores are
formed from two mother cells without conjugation, and in Am-
phora two auxospores are formed from two mother cells by
conjugation. It is probable that the method of reproduction
found in the derived form is a development from that found in
the primitive form. If then the Amphora form has developed
from the Navicula form, there is reason to believe that the for-

532 The American Naturalist. [July,

mation of auxospores without conjugation is the primitive
method, although Murray’ holds that the formation of auxo-
spores by conjugation is probably the original method, and
that their formation without conjugation is the derived method.

Wm. Smith” divided the Diatoms into two tribes in the first
of which the frustules are free, and in the second imbedded in
a gelatinousenvelope. Under the first tribe he makes five sub-
tribes, depending upon the form of the connecting membrane
and the relation of the frustules to each other. The second
tribe he divided into four subtribes based on the form of the
fronds. This arrangement seems not only extremely artificial
but also very impractical. Nothing about Diatoms is more
variable than the form of the fronds; and where it is at all con-
stant, such a system places closely related genera far apart; for
example, Cymbella and Encyonema, Nitzschia and Homæocladia
are placed in separate tribes, while in structure they are very
similar, the main difference being that in Encyonema and
Homeocladia the frustules are arranged in rows, while in Cym-
bella they are free or stipitate and in Nitzschia they are free.
This method of classifying Diatoms may be likened to a separa-
tion of Grasses into those forming a dense sod and those not
forming a sod; or of Dicotyledons into those exuding a
resinous fluid and those that do not. Wm. Smith places
Gomphonema in his first tribe, that is, the one having no gela-
tinous envelope; but some species of Gomphonema are-stipitate
while others are enclosed in an amorphous mass of jelly. The
latter species would have to be placed in his second tribe, thus
dividing the genus. It would lead to even greater difficulty
than this, for the same species is sometimes stipitate and some-
times imbedded in a gelatinous envelope.

Of all existing systems that of Paul Petit seems to approach

° An Introduction to the Study of Seaweeds, p. 195, 1895.

1 For a synopsis of Smith’s classification see Pritchard’s History of the Infus-
oria, 191, fourth edition, 1861.

^ Liste des Diatomées et des Desmidées observées dans les Environs de Paris
precedée d’un essai de classification des Diatomées. Bull. Soc. Bot. France, tom.
XXIII-XXIV, Paris, 1877.

An Essay on the Classification of the Diatomacee translated by F. Kitton,
Monthly Microscopical Journal and Transactions of the Royal Microscopical
Society, XVIII, 1877, pp. 10, 65.

ceen, in Schenk’s Handbuch der Botanik, Breslau, 1882.

1896.] The Classification of Diatoms. 533

most nearly to a natural one because it is based on characters
having physiological significance. It is based primarily on
the structure of the endochrome, and secondarily on the method
of forming auxospores and the general shape of the frustules.
Van Heurck does not employ this system in his Synopsis
because of the large number of fossil specimens and those from
deep-sea soundings to which it could not be applied. But this
is not a valid objection, for all the genera are represented by
modern species, and these are sufficient for a basis of classifica-
tions, and since the specific characters are based mainly on the
structure of the valves, there will be no trouble with the fossil
forms. The following synopsis of Petit’s system includes the
higher divisions only.

I. Bacillariaceæ coccochromatice.
With numerous endochrome granules.

A. Frustules concentrically constructed. One mother
cell forming asexually a single auxospore. Melosi-
res, etc.

B. Frustules bilateral, one or two mother cells forming
two auxospores, as far as known asexually. Fra-
gilariex, etc.

II. Bacillariacee placochromatice.
With one or two large endochrome plates.

A. One endochrome plate lying against the convex
valve; one mother cell forming one auxospore
asexually. Cocconeidex.

B. A single endochrome plate extending diagonally
across the cell cavity, or lying next the girdle. Two
auxospores formed from two mother cells, with or
without conjugation. Nitzschiex. Amphorex, Cym-
belles, ete.

C. Two endochrome plates lying next the two valves.
Two mother cells forming two auxospores by con-
jugation. Eunotiex, Synedricx, Surirayex.

D. Two endochrome plates lying next the two girdle
bands; two mother cells forming two auxospores
without conjugation. Amphiplewree, Naviculex, etc.

534 The American Naturalist. [July,

Although Petit’s system is by no means perfect, it is at least
a step in the right direction. He bases it upon characters that
have some physiological significance, while the other systems
are wholly or in greater part based on merely accidental char-
acters. A clue to the genetic relationships of Diatoms, as of
other plants, will be most certainly found in their method of
reproduction. The shape of the frustules, or their markings,
will serve for specific, or in some cases for generic characters,
but they have no significance that will warrant their use in the
erection of higher groups. Absolute shape and size will not
serve as definite characters, for a single species between one
auxospore stage and the next varies greatly in both these
respects. Owing to the peculiar mode of cell division in which
each new valve is formed inside the old one, each new frustule
is smaller than the parent, hence the size gradually decreases
until an auxospore is formed. Schumann”, out of 470 species
found ten in which the length of the largest was five times
that of the smallest; twenty-nine in which the largest were
from three to four times as long as the smallest, and the rest
showing less variation. The variation in form is even as great
as the variation in size. This is probably due to the difference
in the thickness of the girdle, 7. e. the part of the valves that
overlaps, in different parts of the frustule. Navicula iridis Ehr.
is a good example of a variable species. Its different forms
have been described as species by most writers. In the typical
form the valves are elliptical with gracefully curved margins.
The first variation from this type has apices cuneate, and a still
further deviation shows them acuminate-cuneate ; and from this
it varies to rostrate or capitate ; and a diminution in size goes
step by step with this change in form. These forms are repre-
sented by Navicula iridis Ehr., N. amphigomphus Ehr., N. affinis
Ehr., N. amphirhynchus Ehr., and N. producta W. Sm. If the
overlapping portions of the valves are slightly thicker near the
ends than elsewhere, this variation would be the necessary
result, for each new valve formed inside an old one would be
slightly constricted opposite this thickened place, at first chang-
ing the rounded ends to cuneate, and as the narrowing pro-

12 Pfitzer, l. c., p. 441.

1896.] The Classification of Diatoms. 535

ceeded still further, the cuneate form would become rostrate
and a still further narrowing would give a capitate form. So
form and size, although they have a certain significance, are
not to be considered infallible characters.

The geological records throw no light upon the relationship
of the Bacillariacex, for when this family first appeared, we find
the same genera, and largely the same species as in our modern
ones. This is probably due to the fact that their ancestors
lacked the siliceous covering, and hence were not preserved.
Diatoms evolved the same as all other plants until they devel-
oped their shells, but these put a stop to their further evolu-
tion, at least they show no trace of evolution since their first
appearance. So the question arises whether the Diatoms repre-
sent the ends of several closely related genetic lines the further
development of which was stopped by their siliceous shells, or
whether we may trace the development of one form from an-
other. The former supposition is the more probable, for the
form of the earliest fossil specimens is identical with that of
modern specimens of the same species; and the same genera
are found among fossil as among modern Diatoms. If one
genus of Diatoms developed from another, we ought to find the
more primitive forms in the earlier strata, for there is little
chance that their remains would not be preserved had they
existed. But instead of this, Diatoms of all forms appear
almost simultaneously. We may conclude then that the
Bacillariacex represent the silicified ends of several closely allied
genetic lines and that they have not changed in form since
they acquired their siliceous covering. The structure of the
valves it follows will tell us practically nothing of their rela-
tionship.

There are five methods by which auxospores are formed”.
In the first the protoplasm of one frustule simply escapes from
the valves, grows to a certain size, and then invests itself with
new valves. In the second, two auxospores, instead of one,
are formed in the same way by the dividing of the protoplasm
of a single plant. In the third, the protoplasm of two Diatoms
unites to form an auxospore. In the fourth, the protoplasm of

18 Murray, 1. c.

536 The American Naturalist. [July,

two Diatoms emerges from the valves, and placed by side, but
without conjugation, forms each an auxospore. In the fifth,
two Diatoms divide transversely and the two halves of each
conjugate, each half with the corresponding half of the other
and thus form two auxospores. Before any truly natural
classification can be made the significance of these various
modes of producing auxospores must be understood. Whether
the sexual or the asexual] method is the primitive one must be

known, or whether the different methods are so many expedi- >

ents to overcome the difficulties imposed upon these plants by
their siliceous shells. At present our knowledge of the struct-
ure and physiology of Diatoms is not sufficient to enable us to
construct a perfectly natural system of classifieation, and until
something better is proposed, Petit’s may well be adopted, for
although it is not wholly natural, it is more so than any which
has preceded it.

A NEW FACTOR IN EVOLUTION.
By J. Mark BALDWIN.
(Continued from page 451).

ITI.

Social Heredity.—There follows also another resource in the
matter of development. In all the higher reaches of develop-
ment we find certain co-operative or “social” processes which
directly supplement or add to the individual’s private adapta-
tions. In the lower forms it is called gregariousnes, in man
sociality, and in the lowest creatures (except plants) there are
suggestions of a sort of imitative and responsive action be-
tween creatures of the same species and in the same habitat.
In all these cases it is evident that other living creatures con-
stitute part of the environment of each, and many neuro-gen-
etic and psycho-genetic accommodations have reference to or
involve these other creatures. It is here that the principle of
imitation gets tremendous oo intelligence and vol-

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 537

ition, also, later on; and in human affairs it becomes social
co-operation. Now it is evident that when young creatures
have these imitative, intelligent, or quasi-social tendencies to
any extent, they are able to pick up for themselves, by imitation,
instruction, experience generally, the functions which their
parents and other creatures perform in their presence. This
then is a form of ontogenetic adaptation ; it keeps these crea-
tures alive, and so produces determinate variations in the way
explained above. It is, therefore, a special, and from its wide
range, an extremely important instance of the general principle
of Organic Selection. ;

But it has a farther value. Jt keeps alive a series of functions
which either are not yet, or never do become, congenital at all. It
is a means of extra-organic transmission from generation to
generation. It is really a form of heredity because (1) it isa
handing down of physical functions ; while it is not physical her-
edity. It is entitled to be called heredity for the further rea-
son (2) that it directly influences physical heredity in the way men-
tioned, i. e., it keeps alive variations, thus sets the direction of
ontogenetic adaptation, thereby influences the direction of the
available congenital variations of the next generation, and so
determines phylogenetic development. I have accordingly
called it “ Social Heredity ” (ref. 2, chap. xii; ref. 3).

In “Social Heredity,” therefore, we have a more or less con-
servative, progressive, ontogenic atmosphere of which we may *
make certain remarks as follows :—

1) It secures adaptations of individuals all through the anina
world. “Instead of limiting this influence to human life,
we have to extend it to all the gregarious animals, to all
the creatures that have any ability to imitate, and finally to
all animals who have consciousness sufficient to enable them
to make adaptations of their own ; for such creatures will have
children that can do the same, and it is unnecessary to say that
the children must inherit what their fathers did by intelli-
gence, when they can do the same things by intelligence ”
(ref. 6).

(2) It tends to set the direction of phylogenetic progress by
Organic Selection, Sexual Selection, etc., i. e., it tends not only

538 The American Naturalist. [July,

to give the young the adaptations which the adults already
have, but also to produce adaptations which depend upon social
coöperation ; thus variations in the direction of sociality are selected
and made determinate. “When we remember that the per-
manence of a habit learned by one individual is largely con-
ditioned by the learning of the same habits by others
(notably of the opposite sex) in the same environment, we
see that an enormous premium must have been put on varia-
tions of a social kind—those which brought different indi-
viduals into some kind of joint action or coöperation. Wher-
ever this appeared, not only would habits be maintained,
but new variations, having all the force of double hereditary
tendency, might also be expected” (ref. 3). Why is it, for
example, that a race of Mulattoes does not arise faster, and
possess our Southern States? Isit not just the social repug-
nance to black-white marriages? Remove or reverse this in-
fluence of education, imitation, etc., and the result on phylogeny
would show in our faces, and even appear in our fossils when
they are dug up long hence by the paleontologist of the
succeeding aeons !

(3) In man it becomes the law of social evolution. “ Weis-
mann and others have shown that the influence of animal
intercourse, seen in maternal instruction, imitation, gregarious
coöperation, etc., is very important. Wallace dwells upon the

* actual facts which illustrate the ‘imitative factor, as we may
call it, in the personal development of young animals. I have
recently argued that Spencer and others are in error in hold-
ing that social progress demands use-inheritance; since the
socially-acquired actions of a species, notably man, are socially
handed down, giving a sort of ‘social heredity ’ which supple-
ments natural heredity ” (ref. 4). The social “sport,” the
genius, is very often the controlling factor in social evolution.
He not only sets the direction of future progress, but he may
actually lift society at a bound up to a new standard of attain-
ment (ref. 6). “So strong does the case seem for the Social
Heredity view in this matter of intellectual and moral progress
that I may suggest an hypothesis which may not stand in
court, but which I find interesting. May not the rise of social

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 539

life be justified from the point of view of a second utility in
addition to that of its utility in the struggle for existence as
ordinarily understood, the second utility, ʻi. e., of giving to each
generation the attainments of the past which natural inherit-
ance is inadequate to transmit. When social life begins, we
find the beginning of the artificial selection of the unfit;
and this negative principle begins to work directly in the
teeth of progress, as many writers on social themes have re-
cently made clear. This being the case, some other resource
is necessary besides natural inheritance. On my hypothesis it
is found in the common or social standards of attainment
which the individual is fitted to grow up to and to which he
is compelled to submit. This secures progress in two ways:
First, by making the individual learn what the race has
learned, thus preventing social retrogression, in any case; and
second, by putting a direct premium on variations which are
socially available ” (ref. 3).

4. The two ways of securing development in determinate di-
rections—the purely extra-organic way of Social Heredity, and
the way by which Organic Selection in general (both by social
and by other ontogenetic adaptations) secures the fixing of
phylogenetic variations, as described above—seem to run
parallel. Their conjoint influence is seen most interestingly
ingly in the complex instincts (ref. 4,5). We find in some in-
stincts completely reflex or congenital functions which are
accounted for by Organic Selection. In other instincts we find
only partial coédrdinations ready given by heredity, and the
creature actually depending upon some conscious resource
(imitation, instruction, ete.) to bring the instinct into actual
operation. But as we come up in the line of phylogenetic
development, both processes may be present for the same func-
tion ; the intelligence of the creature may lead him to do con-
sciously what he also does instinctively. In these cases the
additional utility gained by the double performance accounts
for the duplication. It has arisen either (1) by the accumula-
tion of congenital variations in creatures which already per-
formed the action (by ontogenetic adaptation and handed it
down socially), or (2) the reverse. In the animals, the social

540 The American Naturalist. [July,

transmission seems to be mainly useful as enabling a species
to get instincts slowly in determinate directions, by keeping
off the operation of natural selection. Social Heredity is then
the lesser factor ; it serves Biological Heredity. Butin man, the
reverse. Social transmission is the important factor, and the
congenital equipment of instincts is actually broken up in
order to allow the plasticity which the human being’s social
learning requires him to have. So in all cases both factors are
present, but in a sort of inverse ratio to each other. In the
words of Preyer, “ the more kinds of co-ordinated movement an
animal brings into the world, the fewer is he able to learn
afterwards.” The child is the animal which inherits the
smallest number of congenital co-ordinations, but he is the one
that learns the greatest number (ref. 2, p. 297).

“It is very probable, as far as the early life of the child may
be taken as indicating the factors of evolution, that the main
function of consciousness is to enable him to learn things which
natural heredity fails to transmit; and with the child the fact
that consciousness is the essential means of all his learning is
correlated with the other fact that the child is the very crea-
ture for which natural heredity gives few independent func-
tions. It is in this field only that I venture to speak with
assurance; but the same point of view has been reached by
Weismann and others on the purely biological side. The in-
stinctive equipment of the lower animals is replaced by the
plasticity for learning by consciousness. So it seems to me
that the evidence points to some inverse ratio between the im-
portance of consciousness as factor in development and the
need of inheritance of acquired characters as factor in develop-
ment ” (ref. 7).

“ Under this general conception we may bring the biological
phenomena of infancy, with all their evolutionary significance :
the great plasticity of the mammal infant as opposed to the
highly developed instinctive equipment of other young; the
maternal care, instruction and example during the period of
dependence, and the very gradual attainment of the activities
of self-maintenance in conditions in which social activities are
absolutely essential. All this stock of the development theory

is available to confirm this view ” (Ref. 3).

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 541

But these two influences furnish a double resort against Neo-
Lamarkism. And I do not see anything in the way of con-
sidering the fact of Organic Selection, from which both these
resources spring, as being a sufficient supplement to the prin-
ciple of natural selection. The relation which it bears to
natural selection, however, is a matter of further remark be-
low (V).

“ We may say, therefore, that there are two great kinds of
influence, each in a sense hereditary; there is natural heredity
by which variations are congenitally transmitted with original
endowment, and there is ‘social heredity’ by which functions
socially acquired (i. e., imitatively, covering all the conscious
acquisitions made through intercourse with other animals) are
also socially transmitted. The one is phylogenetic ; the other
ontogenetic. But these two lines of hereditary influence are
not separate nor uninfluential on each other. Congenital varia-
tions, on the one hand, are kept alive and made effective by
their conscious use for intelligent and imitative adaptations in
the life of the individual; and, on the other hand, intelligent
and imitative adaptations become congenital by further prog-
ress and refinement of variation in the same lines of function
as those which their acquisition by the individual called into
play. But there is no need in either case to assume the
Lamarkian factor ” (ref. 4).

“The only hindrance that I see to the child’s learning every-
thing that his life in society requires would be just the thing
that the advocates of Lamarkism argue for—the inheritance of
acquired characters. For such inheritance would tend so to
bind up the child’s nervous substance in fixed forms that he
would have less or possibly no unstable substance left to learn
anything with. So, in fact, it is with the animals in which
instinct is largely developed; they have no power to learn
anything new, just because their nervous systems are not in
the mobile condition represented by high consciousness. They
have instinct and little else ” (ref. 3).

IV.

The Process of Organic Selection—So far we have been dealing
exclusively with facts. By recognizing certain facts we have

542 The American Naturalist. [July,

reached a view which considers ontogenetic selection an im-
portant factor in development. Without prejudicing the state-
ment of fact at all we may enquire into the actual working of
the organism is making its organic selections or adaptations.
The question is simply this: how does the organism secure,
from the multitude of possible ontogenetic changes which it
might and does undergo, those which are adaptive? As a
matter of fact, all personal growth, all motor acquisitions made
by the individual, show that it succeeds in doing this; the
further question is, how? Before taking this up, I must repeat
with emphasis that the position taken in the foregoing pages,
which simply makes the fact of ontogenetic adaptation a factor
in development, is not involved in the solution of the further
question as to how the adaptations are secured. But from the
answer to this latter question we may get further light of the
interpretation of the facts themselves. So we come to ask how
Organic Selection actually operates in the case of a particular
adaptation of a particular creature (ref. 1; ref. 2, chap. vii,
xili; ref. 6, and 7).

I hold that the organism has a way of doing this which is
- peculiarly its own. The point is elaborated at such great
length in the book referred to (ref. 2) that I need not repeat
details here. The summary in this journal (ref. 6) may have
been seen by its readers. There is a fact of physiology which,
taken together with the facts of psychology, serves to indicate
the method of the adaptations or accommodations of the in-
dividual organism. The general fact is that the organism
concentrates it energies upon the locality stimulated, for the
continuation of the conditions, movements, stimulations which
are vitally beneficial, and for the cessation of the conditions,
movements, stimulations, which are vitally depressing and
harmful. In the case of beneficial conditions we find a general
increase of movement, an excess discharge of the energies of move-
ment in the channels already open and habitual; and with this,
on the psychological side, pleasurable consciousness and attention.
Attention to a member is accompanied by increased vaso-
motor activity, with higher muscular power, and a general
dynamogenic heightening in that member. “The thought of a

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 543

movement tends to discharge motor energy into the chan-
nels as near as may be to those necessary for that move-
ment” (ref. 3). By this organic concentration and excess of
movement many combinations and variations are rendered
possible, from which the advantageous and adaptive move-
ments may be selected for their utility. These then give
renewed pleasure, excite pleasurable associations, and again
stimulate the attention, and by these influences the adaptive move-
ments thus struck are selected and held as permanent acquisitions.
This form of concentration of energy upon stimulated locali-
ties, with the resulting renewal by movements of conditions
that are pleasure-giving and beneficial, and the subsequent
repetitions of the movements, is called the “ circular reaction.”*
(ref. 1, 2). Itis the selective property which Romanes pointed
out as characterizing and differentiating life. It characterizes
the responses of the organism, however low in the scale, to all
stimulations—even those of a mechanical and chemical (phy-
sico-genic) nature. Pfeffer has shown such a determination of
energy toward the parts stimulated even in plants. And in
the higher animals it finds itself exactly reproduced in the
nervous reaction seen in imitation and—through processes of
association, substitution, ete.—in all the higher mental acts of
intelligence and volition. These are developed phylogeneti-
cally as variations whose direction is constantly determined, by
this form of adaptation.in ontogenesis. If this be true—and the
biological facts seem fully to confirm it—this is the adaptive
process in all life, and this process is that with which the devel-
opment of mental life has been associated.

It follows, accordingly, that the three forms of ontogenetic
adaptation distinguished above—physico-genetic, neuro-gene-
tic, psycho-genetic—all involve the sort of response on the part
of the organism seen in this circular reaction with excess dis-
charge; and we reach one general law of ontogenetic adap-
tation and of Organic Selection. “The accommodation of
an organism to a new stimulation is secured—not by the selec-
tion of this stimulation beforehand (nor of the necessary move-

* With the opposite (withdrawing, depressive affects) in injurious and painful
conditions.

544 The American Naturalist. [July,

ments)—but by the reinstatement of it by a discharge of the
energies of the organism, concentrated as far as may be for
the excessive stimulation of the organs (muscles, etc.) most
nearly fitted by former habit to get this stimulation again (in
which the “ stimulation ” stands for the condition favorable to
adaptation). After several trials the child (for example) gets
the adaptation aimed at more and more perfectly, and the
accompanying excessive and useless movements fall away.
This is the kind of selection that intelligence does in its
acquisition of new movements” (ref. 2, p. 179; ref. 6).

Accordingly, all ontogenetic adaptations are neurogenetic* The
general law of “ motor excess” is one of overproduction ; from
movements thus overproduced, adaptations survive; these
adaptations set the determinate direction of ontogenesis; and
by their survival the same determination of direction is set in
phylogenesis also.

The following quotation from an earlier paper (ref. 7) will
show some of the bearings of this position:

“That there is some general principle running through
all the adaptations of movement which the individual crea-
ture makes is indicated by the very unity of the organism
itself. The principle of Habit must be recognized in some
general way which will allow the organism to do new things
without utterly undoing what it has already acquired. This
means that old habits must be substantially preserved in the
new functions ; that all new. functions must be reached by
gradual modifications. And we will all go further and say, I
think, that the only way that these modifications can be got at
all is through some sort of interaction of the organism with its
environment. Now, as soon as we ask how the stimulations of
the environment can produce new adaptive movements, we
have the answer of Spencer and Bain—an answer directly con-
firmed, I think, without question, by the study both of the
child and of the adult—i. e., by the selection of fit movements
from excessively produced movements, that is, from movement
variations. So granting this, we now have the further question :

5 Barring, of course, those violent compelling physical influences under the
action of which the oe is quite helpless.

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 545

How do these movement variations come to be produced when
and where they are needed?® And with it, the question: How
does the organism keep those movements going which are thus
selected, and suppress those which are not selected ?

“ Now these two questions are the ones which the biologists
fail to answer. But the force of the facts leads to the hypoth-
eses of “conscious force,” “self-development” of Henslow
and “ directive tendency ” of the American school—all aspects
of the new Vitalism which just these questions and the
facts which they rest upon are now forcing to the front. Have —
we anything definite, drawn from the study of the individual
on the psychological side, to substitute for these confessedly
vague biological phrases? Spencer gave an answer in a
general way long ago to the second of these questions, by say-
ing that in consciousness the function of pleasure and pain is
just to keep some actions or movements going and to suppress
others.

“ But as soon as we enquire more closely into the actual
working of pleasure and pain reactions, we find an answer
suggested to the first question also, i: e., the question as to how |
the organism comes to make the kind and sort of movements
which the environment calls for—the movement variations when
and where they are required. The pleasure or pain produced by
a stimulus—and by a movement also, for the utility of move-
ment is always that it secures stimulation of this sort or that
—does not lead to diffused, neutral, and characterless move-
ments, as Spencer and Bain suppose; this is disputed no less
by the infant’s movements than by the actions of unicellular
creatures. There are characteristic differences in vital move-

6 This is just the question that Weismann seeks to answer (in respect to the sup-
ly of variations in forms which the paleontologists require), with his doctrine
of ‘Germinal Selection ’ ( Monist, Jan., 1896). Why are not such applications of
the principle of natural selection to variations in the parts and functions of the
single organism just as reasonable and legitimate as it is to variations in separate
organisms ? As against fs germin inal polartion,' hoeners, I may say, that in the
rvival of ph logenetic
Suraos a held in this paper) the hypothesis of germinal selection is in so far
unnecessary. This view finds the operation of selection on functions in ontogeny
the means of securing “ variations when and where they are wanted ;” while Weis-
mann supposes competing germinal units.
38

546 The American Naturalist. [July,

ments wherever we find them. Even if Mr. Spencer’s un-
differentiated protoplasmic movements had existed, natural
selection would very soon have put an end to it. There
is a characteristic antithesis in vital movements always.
Healthy, overflowing, outreaching, expansive, vital effects are
associated with pleasure; and the contrary, the withdrawing,
depressive, contractive, decreasing, vital effects are associated
with pain. This is exactly the state of things which the
theory of selection of movements from overproduced move-
ments requires, i. e., that increased vitality, represented by
pleasure, should give the excess movements, from which new
adaptations are selected; and that decreased vitality repre-
sented by pain should do the reverse, i. e., draw off energy and
suppress movement.’

“Tf, therefore, we say that here is a type of reaction which
all vitality shows, we may give it a general descriptive name,
i. e., the “ Circular Reaction,” in that its significance for evolu-
tion is that it is not a random response in movement to all.
stimulations alike, but that it distinguishes in its very form
and amount between stimulations which are vitally good and
those which are vitally bad, tending to retain the good stim-
ulations and to draw away from and so suppress the bad. The
term ‘circular’ is used to emphasize the way such a reaction
tends to keep itself going, over and over, by reproducing the
conditions of its own stimulation. It represents habit, since

T It is probable that the origin of this antithesis is to be found in the waxing
and waning of the nutritive processes. ‘‘ We find that if by an organism we
mean a thing merely of contractility or irritability, whose round of movements
is kept up by some kind of nutritive process supplied by the environment—
absorption, chemical action of atmospheric oxygen, etc.—and whose existence is
threatened by dangers of contact and what not, the first thing to do is to
a regular supply to the nutritive processes, and to avoid these contacts. But the
organism can do nothing but move, as a whole or in some of its parts. So then
if one of such creatures is to be fitter than another to survive, it must be the
creature which by its movements secures more nutritive processes and avoids
more dangerous contacts. But movements toward the source of stimulation keep
hold on the stimulation, and movements away from contacts break the contacts,
that is all. Nature selects these organisms ; fread — she do otherwise?..- -
We only have to suppose, then, that the by natural
selection drained off in organic expansions, to get the division in movements
which represents this earliest bifurcate adaptation.” (Ref. z p-

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 547

it tends to keep up old movements; but it secures new adapta-
tions, since it provides for the overproduction of movement
variations for the operation of selection. This kind of selec-
tion, since it requires the direct codperation of the organism
itself, I have called ‘ Organic Selection.’ ”

The advantages of this view seem to be somewhat as fol-
lows:

1. It gives a method of the individual’s adaptations of func-
tion which is one in principle with the law of overproduction and
survival now so well established in the case of competing organisms.

2. It reduces nervous and mental evolution to strictly paral-
lel terms. The intelligent use of phylogenetic variations for
functional purposes in the way indicated, puts a premium on
variations which can be so used, and thus sets phylogenetic
progress in directions of constantly improved mental endowment.
The circular reaction which is the method of intelligent adapta-
tions is liable to variation in a series of complex ways which
represent phylogenetically the development of the mental func-
tions known as memory, imagination, conception, thought, ete.
We thus reach a phylogeny of mind which proceeds in the
direction set by the ontogeny of mind,* just as on the organic
side the phylogeny of the organism gets its determinate direc-
tion from the organism’s ontogenetic adaptations. And since
it is the one principle of Organic Selection working by the
same functions to set the. direction of both phylogenies, the
physical and the mental, the two developments are not two,
but one. Evolution is, therefore, not more biological than
psychological (ref. 2, chap. x, xi, and especially pp. 383-388).

3. It secures the relation of structure to function required by
the principle of “use and disuse” in ontogeny.

4, The only alternative theory of the adaptations of the in-
dividual are those of “ pure chance,” on the one hand, and a
“creative act” of consciousness, or the other hand. Pure
chance is refuted by all the facts which show that the organ-
ism does not wait for chance, but goes right out and effects new
adaptations to its environment. Furthermore, ontogenetic

8 Prof, C. S. Minot suggests to ne that the terms “ontopsychic” and “ phylo-
psychic” might be convenient to mark this distinction.

548 The American Naturalist. [July,

adaptations are determinate; they proceed in definite progres-
sive lines. A short study of the child will disabuse any man,
I think, of the “pure chance” theory. But the other theory
which holds that consciousness makes adaptations and changes
structures directly by its fiat, is contradicted by the psychology
of voluntary movement (ref. 4, 6, 7). Consciousness can bring
about no movement without having first an adequate experi-
ence of that movement to serve on occasion as a stimulus to
the innervation of the appropriate motor centers. “This point
is no longer subject to dispute; for pathological cases show
that unless some adequate idea of a former movement made
by the same muscles, or by association some other idea which
stands for it, can be brought up in mind the intelligence is
helpless. Not only can it not make new movements; it can
not even repeat old habitual movements. So we may say that
intelligent adaptation does not create codrdinations; it only
makes functional use of coérdinations which were alternatively
present already in the creature’s equipment. Interpreting this
in terms of congenital variations, we may say that the varia-
tions which the intelligence uses are alternative possibilities of
muscular movement” (ref. 4). So the only possible way that
a really new movement can be made is by making the move-
ments already possible so excessively and with so many varieties of
combination, ete., that new adaptations may occur.

5. The problem seems to me to duplicate the conditions —
which led Darwin to the principle of natural selection. The
alternatives before Darwin were “pure chance” or “special
creation.” The law of “ overproduction with survival of the
fittest ” came as the solution. So in this case. Letus take an
example. Every child has to learn how to write. If he de-
pended upon chance movements of his hands he would never
learn how to write. But on the other hand, he can not write
simply by willing to do so; he might will forever without
effecting a “special creation” of muscular movement. What
he actually does is to use his hand in a great many possible ways as
near as he can to the way required ; and from these excessively pro-
duced movements, and after excessively varied and numerous
trials, he gradually selects and fixes the slight successes made

s

1896:] A New Factor in Evolution. 549

in the direction of correct writing. It is a long and most
laborious accumulation of slight Organic Selections from over-
produced movements (ref. for handwriting in detail, 2, chap.
v; also 2, pp. 373, ff.).

6. The only resort left to the theory that consciousness is some
sort of an actus purus is to hold that it directs brain energies or
selects between possible alternatives of movement; but besides
the objection that it is as hard to direct movement as it is to
make it (for nothing short of a force could release or direct
brain energies), we find nothing of the kind necessary. The
attention is what determines the particular movement in
developed organisms, and the attention is no longer con-
sidered an actus purus with no brain process accompanying it.
The attention is a function of memories, movements, organic
experiences. We do not attend to a thing because we have
already selected it, or because the attention selects it; but we
select it because we—consciousness and organism—are attending to
it. “It is clear that this doctrine of selection as applied to
muscular movement does away with all necessity for holding
that consciousness even directs brain energy. The need of
such direction seems to me to be as artificial as Darwin showed
the need of special creation to be for the teleological adapta-
tions of the different species. This need done away, in this
case of supposed directive agency as in that, the question of
the relation of consciousness to the brain becomes a meta-
physical one, just as that of teleology in nature became a meta-
physical one; and it is not to much profit that science meddles
withit. And biological as well as psychological science should
be glad that it is so, should it not?” (ref. 6; and on the meta-
physical question, ref. 7).

y.

A word on the relation of this principle of Organic Selection
to Natural Selection. Natural Selection is too often treated as
a positive agency. It is not a positive agency; it is entirely
negative. It is simply a statement of what occurs when an
organism does not have the qualifications necessary to enable
it to survive in given conditions of life ; it does not in any way

550 The American Naturalist. [July,

define positively the qualifications which do enable other or-
ganisms to survive. Assuming the principle of Natural Selec-
tion in any case, and saying that, according to it, ifan organism
do not have the necessary qualifications it will be killed off,
it still remains in that instance to find what the qualifications
are which this organism is to have if it is to be kept alive. So
we may say that the means of survival is always an additional
question to the negative statement of the operation of natural
selection.

This latter question, of course, the theory of variations aims
to answer. The positive qualifications which the organism
has arise as congenital variations of a kind which enable the
organism to cope with the conditions of life. This is the posi-
tive side of Darwinism, as the principle of Natural Selection is
the negative side.

Now it is in relation to the theory of variations, and not in
relation to that of natural selection, that Organic Selection has
its main force. Organic Selection presents a new qualification
of a positive kind which enables the organism to meet its -
environment and cope with it, while natural selection remains
exactly what it was, the negative law that if the organism does
not succeed in living, then it dies, and as such a qualification
on the part of the organism, Organic Selection presents several
interesting features.

1. If we hold, as has been argued above, that the method of
Organic Selection is always the same (that is, that it has a
natural method), being always accomplished by a certain
typical sort of nervous process (i. e., being always neuro-genetic),
then we may ask whether that form of nervous process—and
the consciousness which goes with it—may not be a variation
appearing early in the phylogenetic series. I have argued
elsewhere (ref. 2, pp. 200 ff. and 208 ff.) that this is the most
probable view. Organisms that did not have some form of
selective response to what was beneficial, as opposed to what
was damaging in the environment, could not have developed
very far; and as soon as such a variation did appear it would
have immediate preéminence. So we have to say either that
selective nervous property, with consciousness, is a variation,

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 551

or that it is a fundamental endowment of life and part of its
final mystery. “ The intelligence holds a remarkable place.
It is itself, as we have seen, a congenital variation; but it 1s
also the great agent of the individual’s personal adaptation
both to the physical and to the social environment ” (ref. 4).

“ The former (instinct) represents a tendency to brain varia-
tion in the direction of fixed connections between certain sense-
centers and certain groups of codrdinated muscles. This
tendency is embodied in the white matter and the lower brain
centers. The other (intelligence) represents a tendency to varia-
tion in the direction of alternative possibilities of connection
of the brain centers with the same or similar codrdinated
muscular groups. This tendency is embodied in the cortex of
the hemispheres ” (ref. 4).

2. But however that may be, whether ontogenetic adaptation
by selective reaction and consciousness be considered a varia-
tion or a final aspect of life, it is a life-qualification of a very
extraordinary kind. It opens anew sphere for the application of
the negative principle of natural selection upon organisms, i. e.,
with reference to what they can do, rather than to what they
are; to the new use they make of their congenital functions,
rather than to the mere possession of the functions (ref. 2, pp.
202 f.). A premium is set on congenital plasticity and adapta-
bility of function rather than on congenital fixity of function;
and this adaptability reaches its highest in the intelligence.

3. It opens another field also for the operation of natural
selection—still viewed as a negative principle—through the
survival of particular overproduced and modified reactions of
the organism, by which the determination of the organism’s
own growth and life-history is secured. Ifthe young chick
imitated the old duck instead of the old hen, it would perish ;
it can only learn those new things which its present equip-
ment will permit—notswimming. So the chick’s own possible
actions and adaptations in ontogeny have to be selected. We
have seen how it may be done by a certain competition of
functions with survival of the fit. But this is an application
of natural selection. I do not see how Henslow, for example,
can get the so-called “self-adaptations”—apart from “ special

552 The American Naturalist. [July,

creation ”—which justify an attack on natural selection. Even
plants must grow in determinate or “select ” directions in order
to live.

4. So we may say, finally, that Organic Selection, while it-
self probably a congenital variation (or original endowment)
works to secure new qualifications for the creature’s survival ;
and its very working proceeds by securing a new application
of the principle of natural selection to the possible modifica-
tions which the organism is capable of undergoing. Romanes
says: “it is impossible that heredity can have provided in
advance for innovations upon or alterations in its own ma-
chinery during the lifetime of a particular individual.” To
this we are obliged to reply in summing up—as I have done
hefore (ref. 2, p. 220)—we reach “just the state of things which
Romanes declares impossible—heredity providing for the
modification of its own machinery. Heredity not only leaves
the future free for modifications, it also provides a method of
life in the operation of which modifications are bound to
come.”

VI.

The Matter of Terminology—I anticipate criticism from the
fact that several new terms have been used in this paper. In-
deed one or two of these terms have already been criticised. I
think, however, that novelty in terms is better than ambigu-
ity in meanings. And in each case the new term is intended
to mark off a real meaning which no current term seems to ex-
press. Taking these terms in turn and attempting to define
them, as I have used them, it will be seen whether in each case
the special term is saatited- if not, I shall be only two glad to
abandon it.

Organic Selection—The process of ontogenetic adaptation
considered as keeping single organisms alive and so securing
determinate lines of variation in subsequent generations.
Organic Selection is, therefore, a general principle of develop-
ment which is a direct substitute for the Lamarkian factor in
most, if not in all instances. If it is really a new factor, then
it deserves a new name, however contracted its sphere of ap-
peene may finally turn out to be. The use of the word

1896.] A New Factor in Evolution. 553

“ Organic” in the phrase was suggested from the fact that the
organism itself codperates in the formation of the adaptations
which are effected, and also from the fact that, in the results,
the organism is itself selected ; since those organisms which do
not secure the adaptations fall by the principle of natural selec-
tion. And the word “Selection” used in the phrase is appro-
priate for just the same two reasons.

Social Heredity —The acquisition of functions from the social
environment, also considered as a method of determining
phylogenetic variations. It is a form of Organic Selection but
it deserves a special name because of its special way of opera-
tion. It is really heredity, since it influences the direction
of phylogenetic variation by keeping socially adaptive creat-
ures alive while others which do not adapt themselves in this
way are cut off. It is also heredity since it is a continuous
influence from generation to generation. Animals may be
kept alive let us say in a given environment by social co-
operation only; these transmit this social type of variation to
posterity ; thus social adaptation sets the direction of physical
phylogeny and physical heredity is determined in part by this factor.
Furthermore the process is all the while, from generation to
generation, aided by the continuous chain of extra-organic or
purely social transmissions. Here are adequate reasons for
marking off this influence with a name.

The other terms I do not care so much about. “ Physico-
genetic,” “ neuro-genetic,” “ psycho-genetic,” and their correla-
tives in “ genic,” seem to me to be convenient terms to mark
distinctions which would involve long sentences without them,
besides being self-explanatory. The phrase “circular reaction ”
has now been welcomed as appropriate by psychologists.
“ Accommodation” is also current among psychologists as
meaning single functional adaptations, especially on the part
of consciousness ; the biological word “adaptation” refers more,
perhaps, to racial or general functions. As between them,
however, it does not much matter.

9I have already noted in print (ref. 4 and 6) that Prof. Lloyd Morgan
and Prof. H. F. Osborn have reached conclusions similar to my main one on
Organic Selection. I do not hice whether they approve of this name for the
“ factor ;” but as I suggested it in the first edition of my book (April, 1895) and
used it earlier, I venture to hope that it may be approved by the biologisst.

554 The American Naturalist. [July,

THE PATH OF THE WATER CURRENT IN CUCUM-
BER PLANTS.

By Erwin F. SMITH.
(Continued from page 457).

3. DOWNWARD MOVEMENT OF ONE PER Cent EosINE WATER
IN Cut Stems Not SEVERED From THEIR Roots.

(No. 17). This was a young vine, 120 centimeters long, full
of blossoms and young fruits and very thrifty; it bore about
24 leaves, the largest five averaging 20 cm. in breadth.
March 23, 3:20 P.M. The terminal 12 cm. of the stem was
cut away under water and the stump bent over and plunged
into 1 per cent eosine water. The sun shone hot and the air
of the house was rather dry. 4:20 p.m. No trace of stain in
the veins of any of the leaves. March 25, noon. It is now
over 44 hours since the cut stem was plunged into the eosine
water and judging from the quantity remaining in the bottle
no measurable volume has gone down the stem. The external
appearance, proceeding from above downwards, is as follows:
The first internode (the one in the eosine and just above it) is
badly shriveled and diffusely stained. The first leaf (9.5 em.
from the cut end) is not quite as turgid as the rest, and its veins
show a faint stain. The second internode (10 cm.) is pinkish
green and in the grooves of the stem pink, especially toward
the upper: end, seeming to indicate that most of the stain has
passed through the inner ring of bundles. The veins of the
second leaf are also distinctly but faintly pink. The petiole
of this leaf is 9 cm. long and its blade 12 cm. broad, and the
same pale stain is to be seen in all of the veins. Further down
there is no external evidence of stain. The downward move-
ment of the stain has, therefore, been very slight. 1:30 p. m.
A long tendril from the second node shows a faint internal
stain outward for a distance of 10 cm. On cutting, this is
seen to be due to stain lodged in the bundles, while at its base
there is also a little diffuse stain. The stain now shows

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 555

through the interior of the third node which is 9 em. long.
1:35 p.m. The stem was now cut for examination. The sur-
face of the eosine water in the bottle has not lowered percep-
tibly. The diffuse stain in the first internode includes
everything; the tissues are shriveled and seem to be dead.
In the petiole of the first leaf there is a faint stain of the xylem
part of each bundle; no diffuse stain into the phloem or any
of the tissues outside of the bundle. At the base of the second
internode (9 cm farther from the cut stem) the entire xylem
of each bundle shows a pale red stain and this has diffused out
from three bundles into the surrounding tissues. The second
petiole, cut in the middle, shows a faint pink stain, best seen
under the lens. It is sharply restricted to the bundles, but
occurs in each one and includes the whole of the xylem. At
the base of the third internode (9 cm. farther away from the
fluid) the stain is fainter and is restricted to the xylem. It
is in all of the bundles and is sharper (?) in the spirals of some.
Apex of third petiole (down) shows faintest trace of color in 3
bundles, only to be seen under the lens. Color more distinct
in the middle part but very faint. Base of fourth internode
(9 cm. further from the eosine) there is a very faint stain
sharply restricted to the xylem of 6 bundles, all of which is
stained. Middle of next lower petiole shows barest trace of
stain in two bundles, not visible without a lens. Stain visible
‘in ten bundles of a small fruit from the same node. The base
of the next internede (10 cm. further down) shows not a trace
of stain. Five cm. farther up, no stain. Additional 3 cm.
up, i. e., close under the node, there is a faint stain in the
xylem of three bundles and this is not restricted to the spirals.
One-half centimeter closer to the node the color is faint and is
still restricted to the three bundles.

The stain seems to have travelled in all of the lignified walls,
and it appears clear that the spirals did not carry it more
than the other woody parts of the bundle. The movement of
the eosine water down these stems, contrary to the water cur-.
rent, was scarcely more abundant than the upward movement
past the gelatine plugs. Judging from this, the very slow
downward movement of the stain apparently follows another

556 The American Naturalist. (July,

law than that governing the rapid upward movement of the
transpiration water, i. e., that of surface tension or capillarity.

o. 19). This was a large old vine, nearly destitute of
leaves, the only large one being 8 centimeters below the cut
stem. March 23, 4:06 p. m. The tip of this stem was cut
under water and immediately transferred to 1 per cent eosine
water. 4:15 p.m. No stain in the veins of the first leaf, 8
em. from the cut. March. 25, 12:45 p. m. The leaf, 8 cm.
from the cut end, is flabby and its veins show a very decided
stain. Farther down there is no stain visible externally. The
stem was now removed from the fluid and cut open for exam-
ination. At5 cm. down there was a diffuse stain involving
the whole stem, but it was not dense and the bundles were not
deeper stained than farther down the stem. At10 cm. the
sieve tube tissue was stained as well as the xylem and there
was also a slight diffuse stain into the parenchyma, but the
general tone of the stem remained green. At 20 cm. from the
cut tip one of the 9 bundles (outer ring) showed nostain. No
stain outside of the bundles. At 40 cm. from the cut all of the
bundles showed the stain but in one (outer ring) it was much
fainter than in the rest. The color was a decided pale red,
including the whole of the xylem but not extending to any
other part of the stem. At 80cm. down, the stain was restricted
to 4 bundles (the whole of the xylem part) and was barely dis-
cernable. At 85 cm. there was still a trace in these bundles—
stain in the whole of the xylem and not brighter in the spirals.
At 90 centimeters, and farther down, the stain was wholly ab-
sent.

This also proved a very instructive stem. The fact that at
remote distances the stain was not restricted to the spiral ves-
sels of the stem but tinged the whole xylem equally (the lig-
nified walls) is very striking and decidedly different from the
results obtained by passing the stain up the stem, in which
case the spirals are stained ahead of the pitted vessels and are
clearly seen to be the carriers of the eosine. In this case that
portion of the stem in the fluid was not shriveled, probably
because it was old and mousy

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 557°

4. MOVEMENT oF WATER THROUGH BoILED STEMS Nor
SEVERED FROM THE PLANT..

(No. 11). A fine thrifty vine, 180 centimeters long, bearing
18 large leaves and half as many more small ones. The larg-
est leaves have a spread of 17 to 19 centimeters. March 21,
4:00 p.m. About 35 cm. from. the earth, the bright green
stem was bent over and immersed for a distance of 20 cm. in
hot water. An attempt was made to boil this water but the
heat under the basin was not sufficient, although ample to
kill the stem. 4:30 p.m. The temperature of the water dur-
ing the last half hour has risen from 71° C. to 75° C. There
is no change in the color of the immersed part of the stem,
nor any change in the foliage above, but the effect of the hot
water is already noticeable in the very decided shrinkage of
the immersed stem. It has shrunk in diameter nearly one-
half. 4:50 p.m. During the last 20 minutes the temperature
of the water has risen only one degree. This was now poured
out and water at 89° C. substituted. In pouring, the temper-
ature fell to 85° C. In this hotter water the stem quickly be-
came paler green. 4:58 p.m. Temp. of water 80° C. The
- Immersed part of the stem has now shrunk to one-third of its
normal diameter, and this shrinkage has extended both up
and down, for a short distance out of the water (a few centi-
meters). 5:15 p.m. Temp. now down to 76° C. Stem taken
out. Except the apex of one leaf, 15 cm. up, the foliage did
not become flabby. Below the boiled part is a small branch
with half a dozen leaves, sufficient to carry the roots. March
22,11 a.m. The boiled part of the stem, which is now dry
and greenish-brown, was wrapped in many folds of rubber
cloth. The foliage of this vine shows no wilt, except parts of
5 small leaves, which were near the boiled part and may have
been injured by the heat of the lamp. It is windy and sunny
and the air of the house is rather dry so that transpiration
is active. Temperature in shade, 1 foot above the bench, 26°
C. Noon. A check vine (cut off at base, yesterday p. m.) has
wilted and shriveled. Temperature three feet above the bench,
among the leaves, 30° C. 1:20 p.m. No change. What is

"558 The American Naturalist. [Julys

especially surprising is that the tender terminal leaves show
no signs of wilt. 4:15 p.m. This vine has stood up remark-
ably to-day. The transpiration demands have been large and
there has been no wilt—not a trace—that mentioned as occur-
ring on a few of the small basal leaves being evidently due to
imperfect protection from the heat of the lamp when the stem
was boiled. March 23, 11a.m. Sunny and hot; some wind;
air of the house rather dry, and transpiration large. No wilt
of the foliage except the margins and tips of the blades of
three big leaves midway up the stem. These are slowly dry-
ing out. 12:30 p.m. The greater part of the foliage on this
vine is still turgid and normal in appearance. The tips and
margins of the three leaves above mentioned are crisp, but
this injury involves only a small part of each leaf. Transpira-
tion active. Temp. in sun 30° C. Dry bulb 26.5° C.; wet
bulb 22° C. 3:00 p.m. Slight, if any, change. Nearly all of
the leaves are turgid and entirely normal in appearance, in-
cluding all at the top of the vine. 4:20 p.m. No change
since the last record. The vine stands up well. Temp. now
24° ©. Active transpiration all day. March 25, 1:15 p. m.
The vine stands up well. Nearly all of it is perfectly healthy,
including the tender upper part, but portions of the lower
leaves already mentioned are slowly drying out and in a very
interesting manner, i.e., after the fashion of the California
vine disease, the larger veins and their branches and a little
of the adjacent parenchyma remaining green, even dark
green, while the parenchymatic areas between the veins, espe-
cially at the apex of the blades and on the margins, are be-
coming first yellow and then a dead brown. 5:30 p.m. Vine
stands up beautifully. It is four days since the stem was
killed by the hot water. March 26, 2:45 p. m. A great
change for the worse since yesterday. All of the foliage has
now wilted (as yet only the blades) and the large leaves mid-
way down as well as the smaller lower ones are rapidly drying
out. March 27, 1:20 p.m. All of the leaves are now crisp, ex-
cept a few very small flabby ones which are in the vicinity
of a half grown fruit from which they are drawing water. —
The stem is still turgid but some of the petioles begin to droop. —

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 559

The leaves below the boiled part are still healthy. March 28,
1:30 p.m. The stem and the petioles are still green but the
latter are becoming more and more flabby, most of them at
the top of the vine having lost all of their turgor.

This vine was able to draw all the transpiration water nec-
essary to supply a large leaf surface (more than 3.000 sq. cm.)
through about 25 centimeters of dead stem for a period of four
days, during a part of which time the transpiration was very
active. All of this water must have passed up through the
bundles, since all the outer parts were dead and dry and
shriveled down onto the bundles, the vessels of which preserved
their shape unaltered as shown by subsequent examiuation.

(No. 13). This vine was 130 centimeters long. It bore six
small leaves and 12 large ones, the best averaging 17 em. in
breadth. March 22, 1:02 p.m. The stem was bent over near
the earth and inserted for a distance of 18 centimeters into
water at 90° C. In two minutes the temperature rose to 95°
C. 1:07 p.m. Water simmering; temp. 97° ©. Boiled part
not yet noticeably smaller. 1:10 p.m. Stem shows shrinkage
and change of color. 1:15 p.m. Slight loss of turgidity in
most of the leaves. 1:20p.m. A marked shrinkage of the
diameter of the stem is now first visible. The flabbiness of
the foliage is increasing rapidly, every leaf is affected. 1:27
p.m. Water has remained at 97° since last record. Stem
taken out because of the marked wilt of the foliage. This
wilt appears to be due to the transpiration of hot water. The
wilt is too sudden and decided to be due to anything else.
The stem has not only shriveled in the water but also for a dis-
tance of 10 cm. up and 5 em. below, making a total of 33 cm.
of dead stem. Sun hot; earth and air of house rather dry ;
transpiration active. Such an experiment were better tried
when the air is nearly saturated and transpiration slight.
1:45 p.m. Stem wrapped in many folds of rubber cloth.
Roughly estimated it has shrunk to about one-third its nor-
mal diameter. The leaves seem to be recovering their turgor.

2:00 p.m. The lowest leaves are still flaccid but the upper
ones have fully regained their turgor. 3:45 p.m. The lower
leaves have now also regained their turgor. Its loss was

560 The American Naturalist. [July,

clearly due to the transpiration of hot water. (Subsequent ex-
periments showed that it is very easy to push this wilting be-
yond the power of the plant to recover). 4:15 p. m. The
plant stands up well. There is no trace of wilt. March 23,
11 a.m. No sign of wilt. Noon. The lowest five leaves
show distinct signs of wilt at the tip of the blade. None of
the upper leaves show any trace of it. 12:25 p.m. The wilt-
ing is worse but is still confined to the lower leaves. It is
very decided on the lowest one which is exposed to the bright
sun. The tender apical leaves are turgid, as well as those in
the mid part of the stem. 1:20p.m. The leaf next to the
lowest one begins to crisp. 3:00 p.m. Blade of lowest leaf
but one is now crisp, and the blades of the other four are dry-
ing out at the apex and on the margins and between the
larger veins. 4:30 p*m. No change. The bulk of the foliage
stands up well, including all of the upper leaves March
25, 1:20 p.m. The lower leaves of this plant are dried out to
a greater extent than are those of No. 11, but the major part
of the foliage is normal and the tips of both vines are notice-
ably turgid. The drying out of the parenchyma between the
veins is also to be seen in the affected leaves of this vine, the
larger veins and a narrow border of theleaf parenchymaremain-
inga brightgreen. 5:40p.m. Thevinestandsup well. Itis
three days and four hours since the stem was boiled. March
26, 3:00 p.m. The vine begins to show symptoms of collaps-
ing. All of the petioles are turgid, but the blade of the low-
est leaf is nearly dry, that of the next up is wholly dry; those
of the next three above are crisp at the apex and on the mar
gins (one-fifth to one-third the surface); the three next up
show a trace of drying on their margins, and in all the rest
there is a faint suggestion of loss of turgor. March 27, 2:00 p.
m. All of the leaves on this vine are now crisp-dry except
three at the top which are flabby. The stem and the petioles
are still turgid. March 28, 1:30 p.m. The upper three leaves
are still flabby, and all of the petioles are still rigid except the
tips of some of the lower ones which begin to droop.

This vine gives results confirmatory of the preceding. For
more than three days the plant was able to draw all of the

1896.] Water Current in Cucumber Plants. 561

water necessary for its use through 33 cm. of dead stem.
Probably if air could be prevented from gradually passing
through the shriveled stem into these water carrying vessels
and interfering with the normal condition of things the plant
might continue to draw its water through a dead stem almost
indefinitely."

5. Tue RESULT oF PARASITIC PLUGGING OF THE VESSELS.

From these experiments and those upon the cucumber wilt,
which I have published elsewhere, it follows that the down-
ward path of Bacillus tracheiphilus from the inoculated leaf
blade into the stem of the cucumber (for an account of this
disease see Centr. f. Bakt. u. Par. Allg. I, No. 9-10, 1895) is ex-
actly that made use of by the ascending water current, just as
I stated it to be at the Brooklyn meeting” of the A. A. A.S.,
and the general wilt of the foliage may be explained, first, by
a functional disturbance, due to the more or less complete
clogging of the lumina of the spiral vessels with countless
millions of these bacteria which thrive in the alkaline fluid of
the vessels, and, second, by a structural disturbance, due to
the breaking down (dissolving) of the walls of these spirals
and the flooding out and subsequent growth of the bacteria in
the surrounding parenchyma and in the pitted vessels, accom-
panied, of course, by the more or less free entrance of air into
the spirals. It is probable, although not enough examinations
have yet been made to render this certain, that no leaf wilts
from secondary infection until the water carrying spirals in
its petiole have become clogged by the bacillus, i. e., that the
wilt of the leaf is not induced by the partial clogging of the
vessels farther down inthestem. This is the more likely, first,
from the fact that there is always a progressive wilt, leaf after
leaf, beginning with the ones nearest the point of infection
and moving both ways therefrom, and, second, from the fact
that very rarely are all of the pitted vessels filled, so that
water lifted up from the roots has always the opportunity to

1 Those who wish to follow these subjects may consult the above mentioned
work by Strasburger, pp. 510-936, where many interesting experiments are
detailed.

39

562 The American Naturalist. [July,

pass around the clog in the spirals by way of the unfilled pit-
ted vessels and to enter the spirals once more farther up.
Were this not so, i. e., were pitted vessels filled as readily, as
quickly, and as fully as the spirals, we should have not the
gradual wilt of leaf after leaf up and down the stem, but the
sudden collapse of all the leaves beyond the original point of
attack. This is exactly what does happen in watermelon
vines attacked by Fusarium niveum, (for a brief account of this
parasite see Proc. Am. Asso. Adv. Sci., Vol. 48, 1894, p. 289, and
Ibid, Vol. 44, 1895, p. —_-) where the pitted vessels appear to
fill with the fungus as soon, if not sooner, than the spirals.
These two diseases of cucurbits are very interesting from
a physiological standpoint, and both parasites lend themselves
readily to infection experiments, their slightly different be-
havior being, perhaps, accounted for by the fact that the fun-
gus is strictly ærobic, while the bacillus is facultative anærobic.
Whatever be thought of butter or gelatine, it certainly cannot
be maintained that the mere presence of these parasites in
the lumina of the vessels destroys the carrying capacity of the

uninjured walls, and yet they act quite as effectually as gela-

tine, paraffin, or cocoa butter plugs, causing, when they fill the
vessels only incompletely, a flabbiness of the foliage, which is
proportionate to the extent of the plugging and to the activity
of the transpiration, and which may give place to complete
turgor in periods when the transpiration is small (night, early
morning, or damp days), and producing, when they com-
pletely fill the lumina of the vessels, an entire collapse of the

foliage, from which there is no recovery. In case of the cu-

cumber this collapse takes place as soon as the spiral vessels
leading into any petiole are filled by the bacillus.

1896.] Editor’s Table. 563

EDITOR’S TABLE.

—PrRoressors in the scientific departments of our schools should
exercise their influence to prevent the spoliation of nature that is going
on at so rapid a rate in our country. We do not especially refer at
present to forest fires which involve so much financial loss that our
state and general governments are moving in the direction of their
prevention. In passing, however, we must refer to the railroad com-
panies as delinquents in this matter, and insist that heavy fines be im-
posed on them in all cases where fires can be shown to have originated
from locomotives. We counted from the car windows of a train not
long since, twelve distinct fires burning near the track in the space of a
few miles, in a forest covered region not far from Philadelphia, and no
one appeared to pay any attention to them.

We wish, however, to refer to the destruction wrought near our cities
by the uprooting of plants and the breaking off of branches for pur-
poses of decoration of public and private houses. Within reasonable
bounds the vegetable world furnishes material for such decoration, but
the practice is carried beyond the rich resources of nature to meet.
Our woods are being rapidly stripped of ornamental plants for miles
all round our large cities. In many regions the Epigea repens is com-
pletely destroyed, and the blooms of the dogwood and kalmia no longer
appear. Lycopodia are uprooted over large tracts, and must now be
brought from considerable distances. Some of the ruin is wrought for
church decoration, and the girl-graduate is responsible for more of it.
Teachers of the natural sciences can teach their hearers that this cannot
go on forever. Especially can they point out that botanical classes
should not gather arm-loads of orchids of fastidious habits if they do
not wish to see the localities destroyed or the species well nigh exter-
minated.

The authorities in charge of our public parks might, in some places,
profitably change their point of view. A park should not consist prin-
cipally of graded paths lined with stone curbs or walls, separated by
tracts of close shorn grass. Shrubberies of nature’s planting should
remain, and the vines with which nature festoons the forest should not
be cut down. No harm is done if there are places where rabbits may
hide, and wild birds may nest. Even an owl or two might be permit-
ted to keep down so far as he or she can, the English Sparrow nui-
sance. In fact, a park is not necessarily a place from which nature is

564 The American Naturalist. [July,

excluded. The perpetual clearing of undergrowth means also the ulti-
mate destruction of forest, as the natural succession is thus prevented.

As an offset to this public and private vandalism, we have near our
cities a goodly number of citizens who preserve more or less of nature
in their private parks. It will be to these to whom we must look to
replenish our stock of native shrubs and herbs, if the vandal continues
to have full swing elsewhere.

Tue forty-fifth meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science to commence at Buffalo, N. Y., on August 22d,
will be characterized by one feature which is deemed by the society
an improvement over previous meetings. No excursions will be made
during the working hours of the day during the session, only those
occupying evening hours being acceptable. At the close of the meet-
ing the field for such diversions will be clear. The geological excur-
sions have been so arranged as not to conflict with the meetings; and
the six scientific societies, which meet about the same time, it is hoped
will contribute to the importance of the general gathering. It is an-
ticipated that these arrangements will arrest the tendency to dissipation .
of energy which has been apparent during the last few years. If the
habit of many of the embryologists to absent themselves could be
overcome, the full force of the Association would be represented. It is
expected that a number of evening lectures will present to the public
the latest results of research in America.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Surface Colors :—The object of the little book on this subject! by
Dr. Walter, of Hamburg is apparently to furnish zoologists, mineralo-
gists, and chemists with an accurate explanation of certain color

phenomena which are not as yet universally understood, and which are
incompletely treated even in the best text-books on Physics. The key-
note of the whole book is given in a single sentence of the introductory
chapter. “The intensity of the light reflected from any body may be
calculated by Fresnel’s ordinary formule for ‘colorless substances, in
the case of those rays which are slightly or not at all absorbed by the

1 Die Oberfliichen-oder Schillerfarben, yon Dr. B. Walter, pp. VIII + 122,
Braunschweig, F. Vieweg und Sohn, 1895.

1896.] Recent Literature. 565

body in question; but for wave-lengths which are strongly absorbed by
the given substance, Cauchy’s formule for the intensity of metallic re-
flection should be used.” It appears from these formule that the
intensity of the reflected light depends on the index of refraction and
on the coëfticient of absorption of the substance presenting the reflect-
ing surface. Since both these factors are different for light of different
colors, it is shown that white light must be reflected with some of its
“ components ” relatively weaker than others, i. e., no longer in the
proper proportion to give the sensation of white light. The application
to the colors seen in the mineral kingdom is illustrated by the example
of magnesium cyanplatinite, Mg Pt (CN),, where,—as is true of most
crystals,—the index of refraction and the coéfficient of absorption vary
with the direction in which the light vibrates, as well as with the wave-
length of the light. The extent to which true surface color is observ-
able on minerals is not indicated, though the possibility of a very wide
application is clearly shown.

In the appendices, certain mathematical aspects of the subject are
treated in a manner suited to the requirements of physicists.—A. C. G.

The Whence and Whither of Man.’—This book comprises a
series of lectures dilivered at Union Theological Seminary, with some
additional matter. The author discusses the doctrine of Evolution
from the standpoint of a theologian. He endeavors to show that the
great law of animal and human development as revealed in the sequence
of physical and mental development is that those species survive which
are best conformed to their environment; that this law holds good in
the development of the rational, the dominant faculty in man; and
finally, to become higher man he must develop a moral-nature by
attaining a knowledge of himself as a moral agent, and while not dis-
regarding the body, he must subordinate its appetites to the higher
motives furnished by right and duty. It is in following this line of
thought that the author hopes for a definite answer as to the future
destiny of man. :

The closing chapter deals with the present aspects of the theory of
evolution, He here compares the various hypotheses of evolution and
considers their merits. He judiciously selects the good elements of all
of them, concluding that “ each theory contains important truth.” He
concludes that Nägeli’s view of “ initial tendencies ” is too often under-
valued. “My own conviction is steadily strengthening that without

*The Whence and Whither of Man. By John M. Tyler, New York, 1896,
Charles Scribner’s Sons, Publishers.

566 The American Naturalist. [July,

some such original tendency or aim, evolution would never have reached
it present culmination in man.” He quotes Boveri that “ there is too
much intelligence in nature for any purely mechanical theory to be
possible.” It is curious that these authors do not perceive that the
sensation of protoplasm, (consciousness), furnishes the basis for the
exhibition of the intelligence which they observe, and which has itself
undergone evolution coincidentally with the organism. Both orthodox
and heterodox evolutionists (theologically speaking) seem equally slow
to adopt this view.

Prof. Tyler’s book is eminently moderate and senscinable, and will
introduce evolution to a large class of readers in an agreeable form.

Mg
3
a
a
i

Cope on the Factors of Organic Evolution.’™—This book is :
divided into three parts: I, The nature of variation; II, The causes of ;
variation ; III, The inheritance of variation. In the first part it is
endeavored to show that variation is not promiscuous or multifarious,
but pursues direct courses towards definite ends. This is done by pre-
senting the variations of existing species as to color and structure, and
by an examination of the series presented by the forms of vertebrate
life in past geologic ages. The latter presentation is a general phy-
logeny of the vertebrata, with special sections on that of the horse and
that of man. The second part is divided into chapters which deal
with the physical energies as causes of variation, and the effects of
molar motion as seen in variation. These methods of evolution are
termed respectively physiogenesis and kinetogenesis. Especial atten-
tion is given to kinetogenesis in connection with the phylogeny of ver-
tebrates, since it is in these two fields that most of the original work of —
the author has been done. The author has demonstrated that the
. primary cause which has moulded the vertebrate skeleton is molar
motion. In the third part, the inheritance of the characters so ~
produced is shown to be the rule, thus demonstrating the inheritance
of acquired characters. Theories of inheritance are discussed, and that
one which asserts the transmission of energies to the germ plasma is _
defended. These energies are believed to be the results of a composi-
tion between inherited and acquired energies, the whole of them being
_ referred to a class distinct from the inorganic energies, which he has —
named Bathmic. The last chapter in this part is devoted to a considera-
tion of the relation of consciousness to movements, and hence as a cause

3 The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution, by E. D. Cope, Professor of Zo-
ology and Comparative e Anatomy in the eny nem of Pennsylvania. Chicago :
= Court Pub. Co., is 1896, ppa

ee) T eee TE

0 A.

PLAT

Feet of Proterotheriidae from Ameghino. A, fore foot of Proterotherium cavum A megh. B-C, Fore and hind feet of
Diadiaphorus majusculus Amegh. D-E, Fore and hind feet of Thoatherium crepidatum Amegh.

1896.] Recent Literature. 567

of progressive evolution. The author holds that sensation is a cause of
effects which would not appear in its absence, and that its presence
conditions progressive evolution. The author holds this to be proven
not only by the direct effect of consciousness as observed, but also on
the other ground that there is no sufficiency in the inorganic and un-
conscious organic energies to effect progressive evolution. This is be-
cause the well-known tendency of the latter is to the integration of
matter and the dissipation of energy, which leads always away from
vital phenomena. The author believes the entire vegetable kingdom
to be degenerate, its vitality being the expression of automatic energy
which derived its self-sustaining character from ancestors endowed with
sensation which oecupied a position between animals and plants. The
‘Mycetozoa he believes to be existing near relatives of these types.

The book is illustrated by 120 plates and cuts. One of these illus-
trative of homoplassy, we extract from the chapter on kinetogenesis,
with the following explanatory remarks :

“ Before reviewing the subject, I cite what is the most remarkable
example of homoplassy in the Mammalia which has yet come to the
knowledge of paleontologists. Ameghino has discovered in the cenozoic
formations of Argentina a group of Ungulata which he calls the Litop-
terna, and which I regard as a suborder of the Taxeopoda, allied to the
Condylarthra (p. 128). Ameghino placed the group under the Perisso-
dactyla, but the tarsus and carpus are of a totally different character,
and indicate an origin from the Condylarthra quite independent of
that division. The carpal and tarsal bones are in linear series, or if
they may overlap, it is in a direction the opposite of that which char-
acterizes the order Diplarthra (=Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla).
But the Litopterna present a most remarkable parallelism to the
Perissodactyla in the characters of both the feet and the dentition. No
genus is known as yet which possesses more than three toes before and
behind, and these are of equal length (Macrauchenia Owen). In this
genus the teeth are not primitive, but are much modified. The most
primitive dentition is seen in the genus Proterotherium (Ameghino)
where the superior molars are tritubercular, as in many Condylanthra.
In this genus (PI. X, fig. A) there are three toes, but the lateral ones
are reduced, about as in the equine genus Anchitherium (p. 148). In
the next genus, Diadiaphorus Amegh., the superior molars are quadri-
tubercular and crested, while the lateral toes are reduced still more,
being quite rudimental (figs. B C), as in the equine genera Hippo-
therium and Prothippus. The superior molars have not progressed
so far as in these genera, but are not very different from those of

568 The American Naturalist. [July,

Anchitherium. In the third and last type (Thoatherium Amegh.)
the lateral digits have disappeared from both fore and hind feet (figs.
C D), so that the condition is that of the genus Equus (fig. 81), but
the splints in the Thoatherium crepidatum Amegh. are even more
reduced in the known species of horse. The superior molars have not
assumed the pattern of the genus Equus, but resemble rather those of
Macrauchenia, and could have been easily derived from those of
Diadiaphorus.

Here we have a serial reduction of the lateral digits and their con-
nections with the leg, and increase in the proportions of the middle
digit and corresponding increases in the proximal connections, exactly
similar to that which took place in the horse line, in a different order
of Mammalia.”

The publishers have done their work well, and are especially to be
commended for having made the book of a convenient size to be car-
ried in the pocket or satchel.

The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought.—(The Child in
Primitive Culture); by A. F. Chamberlain; New York, Macmillan &
Co., and London, 1896. Pp. x and 464; with bibliography and three
indexes; price $3.

Dr. Chamberlain’s work is not, as its chief title might lead one to
suppose, a mere collection of folk-lore about the child. It is rather an
attempt by this means to study the position of the child in primitive
society. The author has brought together a great mass of material
from every hand, and arranged it systematically under appropriate
headings ; as a result we find every phase and aspect of childhood re-
presented in his book.

The opening chapters, on the Lore of Motherhood and Fatherhood,
have in some places only a remote bearing upon the main topic, but
they may be regarded in the light of a general introduction. Follow-
ing these are a number of chapters which aim to show the attitude of
society toward the child; folk-lore on the soul of the child, legends
connecting children with animals or plants, stock answers of the adult
to the child’s questions, superstitions concerning children, ete., together
with stories of education and training among uncultured races. A
large part of the work deals with the influence of the child upon society

_—the effect of child-language in modifying adult language; the child’s
position in many tribes as oracle, judge, physician, or priest, etc. The
final chapters are a selection of popular proverbs and sayings bearing
upon childhood, from the literature of various races, cultured as well as

1896.] Recent Literature. 569

uncultured. The bibliography at the end is thorough, if not exhaus-
tive ; it consists of over 550 titles, covering the entire field.

The author claims no originality of investigation ; but he has culled
his material from a host of authorities, and his selections are well made.
He has no conclusions to draw; he simply presents the material as
data, with a view to a complete survey of the subject. The chief critic-
ism that can be made upon his method is that it frequently leads to a
curious intermingling of fables and traditions with actual race customs.
Thus in the chapter on the Children’s Food is described (p. 150) the
practice which holds among several tribes of placing food on the grave
of a dead child, to refresh its soul on the way to the spirit-land, and
almost immediately after follows the legend of how the infant Hercules
obtained immortality. The book is exceedingly interesting ; it treats
its subject as thoroughly as the breadth of the task together with the
limits of the volume permit ; and it is wonderfully conducive to further
reading. —H. ©. WARREN.

Stockham on the Ethics of Marriage.‘—This book is written
with the view of securing an excellent object, the increase of the
happiness of marriage. As the authoress is an M. D., and as she
treats the subject at the outset with a seeming respect for scientific
truth, we anticipated something valuable from her point of view. But
we are compelled to say that the grains of truth are overlaid with such
a quantity of error, rhapsody and sheer silliness, that we can only
recommend the book as a study in feminine psychology. That there
is one element of common sense running through it we are glad to
admit. The authoress sees nothing degrading or indecent in the sexual
relation. For this we must praise her ; but it was surely not necessary
for her to apologize for her good sense, by pages on pages of religious
rhapsody. The gist of her method of promoting marital happiness is
that sexual intimacy may take place without completing the act. This
proposition is as old as the rational faculty of man ; but, as rationality
is usually less directed to sexual subjects than to any other, it is quite
possible that her advice on this point may do some good. There
are some amusing passages. Fearing to appear to fall into the
Charybdis of “ hedonism ” she runs high and dry on Scylla, as follows :
“ Before and during the time some devotional exercises may be partici-
pated in, or there may be a formation of consecration of an uplifting
character in which both unite!”

t Karezza ; Ethics of Marriage, by Alice B. Stockham, M. D., Chicago. A. B.
Stockham & Co.

570 The American Naturalist. [July,

The authoress labors under several physiological errors, which should
be pointed out. She thinks in common with the ignorant classes gen-
erally, that the orgasm is concerned in impregnation, which is well
known not to be the case. She also asserts that the secretion of the
testis is produced at the time it is needed for use, an idea promulgated
several years ago in a silly book called Diana. This is also untrue;
its elaboration requires some days, and when the gland is full the secre-
tion makes its presence known and demands expulsion. The present
book should have stated also, that the practice she recommends, which
she calls “ Karezza,’ is a most potent stimulant of the secretion in
question, and does in some men produce enlargement of the prostate
gland and orchitis, so that every man must be in this matter his own
doctor. But one will not find logic in this book. In view of what
precedes one wonders where the authoress got her degree of M. D., and
who is responsible for her education. We must, however, once more
commend the spirit of the book, and hope that she will be instrumental
in teaching some men and women ordinary temperance. But it must
be borne in mind that medical writers chiefly deal with pathological
conditions, and that the persons she writes about are mostly abnormal
through excess or deficiency.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS. a

ANDREW, WM.—Gravitation and What itis. No Ice Age. Dodgeville, 1895-
From the author.

ANDREWS, C. W.—The Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles of a, ee plicatus.
Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. S. 6, Vol. XVI, 1895. From the aut

ASHLEY, G. H.—The Neocene of the Santa Cruz Mountains. mit Leland
Stanford Jr, Univ. Pub. Geol. & Paleon., No. 1, 1895. From the Univ.

Baker, F. C.—A Naturalist in Mexico, being a visit to Cuba, Northern Yuca-
tan and Mexico. Chicago, 1895. From the Chicago Academy of Sciences i

Biological Lectures delivered at the Marine Biological pore at Wood's
Holl, 1893. Boston, 1894, Ginn & Co. From Prof. C. O. Whitm

BOULENGER, G. A.—Addition to the Fauna of India (Tarbophis rhinopoma a

Read before Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Jan. 28, 1895.

—Rettili e Batraci. Esplorazione del Giuba e dei suoi Affluenti compiuta
del Cap. v. Bottego durante gli anni, 1892-98. . Por, Ann. Mus. Civ. Storia
Nat. di Genova. S. 2, Vol. XV, 1895. From the auth

Brinton, D. G.—Report upon the Collections a at the Columbian aE :
torical Exposition. Extr. Rept. Madrid Com., 1892. S 1895.

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 571

Aims of ee Proc, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. X LIV, 1895.
From the autho

Check-List of N orth American Birds prepared bya Committee of the American
Ornith. Union. 2d Ed , 1895

Cook, O. F.—Notes on Myriapoda from Lond, sg collected by Mr. Heli
Chatelaine, including a Description of a new Genus an ri e cies. Extr. Pro-
ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVI, 1893. From ragi

Cook, O. F. AND A. C. CooK.—A Monograph of te Extr. Ann. N.
Yo pee Sci., VIII, 1895. From the authors.

Cox, PH.—History and Present State of the Ichthyology of New Brunswick,
with a Catalogue of its fresh water and Marine Fishes. St. John, N. B., 1895
From the author

CULIN, ree n-Games, with Notes on the arepe tine Games of China
and Japan. Philadelphia, 1895. From the aut

DAvenporT, C. B.—A Preliminary Catalogue at je Processes concerned in
Ontogeny. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Coll., Vol. XXVII, 1895. From
the author.

Dawson, G. M.—Glacial Deposits of Southwestern Alberta in the Vicinity of
the Rocky Mts. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, 1895. From the Soc

Deran, B.—Fishes, Living and Fossil. Now York and London, 1895. Mac-
millan and Co. From the author

DEwoLETZKY, R.—Neuere forschungen über das Gebiss der Saiiger. Aus Jahr-
esb. der k. k. Staats-Obergymnsiums in Czernowitz f. das Schuljahr, 1894-95.
From the author.

DumĮmBLE, E T.—The Soils of Texas. Extr. Trans. Texas Acad. Sci., 1895.

—— Notes on the Texas Tertiaries, l. c. From the autho

Eimer, G. H. T.—Eine Systematische Darstellung der hinds Abarten
und Arten der Schwalbenschwanz-iihnlischen Formen der Gattung Papilio. Die
Artbildung und Verwandtschaft bei den Schmetterlingen, If, Theil. Jena, 1895.

rom the author

Frores, E.—Sulle Ossa di Mammifera in essi Rinvenute. Estr. Bol. Soc.
Geol. Ital, Vol. XIV, Roma, 1895. From the author

FURBRINGER, M.—Ueber die mit dem Visceralskelet verbundenen spinalen
Muslseln bei Selachiern. Abdruck Jenaisch. Zeitsschr f. Naturw., Bd. XXX,
N. F., XXIII. From the author.

Gapow, H. anv E, C. Assotr,—On the Evolution of the Vertebral Column of
Fishes. Extr. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 1895. From Prof. Gadow.

GUNTHER, A.—Report on a Collection of Reptiles and Batrachians sent by
Emin Pasha from Monbuttu, Upper Congo. _ Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc. Lon-
don, 1888.

——Report on a Collection of Reptiles and Batrachians transmitted by Mr. H.
H. ences C. B., from Nyassaland. Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London,
189

ee tes on pa and Frogs from Dominica, West Indies. Extr. .Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist.,

— Notice of Benet and Batrachians ias in the eastern half of Tropi-
cal Africa. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist

.

572 The American Naturalist. [July,

Heap.ey, F. W.—The Structure and Life of Birds. London and New York,
1895, Macmillan and Co.

Howarp, L. O.—Revision of the Aphelininae of North America. Tech.
sg No. 1, U. S. Dept. Agric , Div. Entomol. Washington, 1895. From the

Dep

a TCHINSON, Wo. ee of Grasses. New York, 1895, Macmillan and
Co. From J olen Wanamaker

JOHNSTON-LaAvIs, H. J. "Notizie sui depositi delgi Antichi Laghi di Pianure
— e di Melfi (Basilicata). Estr. Bol. Soc. Geol. Ital., Vol. XIV, Roma,

1895. From the author.

Kurtz, F.—On the Existence of the Lower Gonawanas in Argentina. Trans.
by John Gillespie. Extr. Records Geol. Surv. India, Vol. XXVIII, 1895.
From the author.

Lanbots, H.—Die Riesenammoniten von Seppenrade. Anis, XXIII, Jahresb.
Westfälischen Prov. Vereins fiir Wissenschaft und Kunst Münster, 1895. From
the author

Leche, W.—Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Zahnsystems des Siugethiere,
Erster Theil. Ontogenie. Stuttgart, 1895. From the author

Leverett, F.—On the Correlation of New York Moraines with Raised Beaches
on Lake Erie. Extr. Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. L, 1895.

——Soils of Illinois. Extr. Final Rept. Ill. Board World’s Fair Commission,
1895.

——Preglacial Valleys of the Mississippi and Tributaries. Extr. Journ. Geol.,
Vol. III, 1895. From the author

Lewis, W. D.—The Sacitle. of Society to its Environment. Pub. of the
Amer. Acad. Political and Social Science, No. 109. No date given. From the
author.

MatTHEw, W. D.—The Effusive and Dyke Rocks near St. John, N. B.

McGeer, W. G.—The Beginning of Agriculture. Extr. Amer. Anthropol.,
1895. From the author.

Meyrick, E.—A Handbook of British Lepidoptera. London and New York,
1895, Macmillan and Co. From the Publisher.

MoLLIER, Dr, S.—Das Cheiropterygium. Weisuaden, 1895. From the
author.

Pitspry, H. A.—Catalogue of the Marine Mollusks of Japan, with Descriptions
of New Species and Notes on Others collected by F. Stearns. Detroit, 1895.
From the author.

Report of the Biological Dept. of the New Jersey Agric. Coll. Exper. Station
for the year 1893.

Report of the Commission, U. 8. Commission Fish and Fisheries for the year
ending June 30, 1893. From the Dept

Smit, T.—Additional Javebtigations concerning ERSE Swine Diseases.
Bull. tei 6, 1894, U. S. Dept. Agric. From the

Densercu, J.—A Review of the eiD ob Limot Caliieets,-. 7%
IL Pistisdhikas. Extr. Proceeds. Cal. Acad. Sci. S. 5, Vol. V, 1895. From the
author.

WALcoTT, C. D.—Sixteenth Annual Report of the Director of the U. S. Geo-
logical Harvey for 1894--95. Extr. Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Surv. From the U.8.
Geol. Survey.

1896.] Mineralogy. 573

General Notes.

MINERALOGY.

Contact Goniometer with two Graduated Circles.—In pur-
suance of the idea already applied to the reflection goniometer (ref. in
this journal, 1895, p. 266) Goldschmidt? has designed a contact gonio-
meter with two graduated circles. The horizontal circle carries the
support for the crystal, which can thus be rotated about a vertical axis.
The vertical circle is a metallic band carrying a moyeable block.
Through the block asmall metal rod passes radially toward the center,
and on the inner end of the rod a small plate is fixed. By movement
of the crystal about its vertical axis and of the block on its arc, the
plate may be brought to parallelism with any face on the upper side of
the crystal, Actual contact of the plate with the crystal face is effected
by sliding the rod through its block. Readings on the two circles give
data for computing the position of a plane, exactly as in the case of the
reflection goniometer to which reference was above made.

Crystallographic Properties of the Sulphonic Acid Deri-
vatives of Camphor.—A bout 17 of these compounds are mentioned
by Kipping and Pope? with much detailed information concerning the
erystallograpy of several of them. As might be expected from the
fact that the solutions of many of these substances exhibit the phenom-
enon of circular polarization, the crystals furnish examples of a num-
ber of the Jess common low symmetry grades, Among these are hemi-
morphism in the monoclinic system (sphenoidal class of Groth), sphen-
oidal hemihedrism in the orthorhombic system (bisphenoidal class),
and probably hemihedrism in the triclinic system (pedial class). Such
crystallographic studies must be of great value to stereo-chemistry.

Optical Properties of Lithiophilite and Triphilite.—On
these two minerals Penfield and Pratt‘ have based an interesting in-
vestigation of the change of optical properties due to the mutual re-
placement of manganese and iron in isomorphous mixture. It is found

1 Edited by A. C. Gill, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
* Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, p. 321, 1

* Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 225-256, 1895.

t Am, Jour. Sci., L, pp. 387-390, Nov., 1895.

574 The American Naturalist. [July,

that with increasing percentage of iron the index of refraction increases,
while the plane of the optical axes is changed from the base (001) to
the macropinacoid (100). A specimen containing 26.58% FeO shows
an optical angle of 21° 53’ in the basal plane for thallium light, is uni-
axial for sodium light, and has an angle of 15° 3’ in the macropinacoid

With 35.05% FeO the crystals are found to be negative, whereas those
with less iron are optically positive. It is suggested that in the pure
manganese molecule, the change may be.found so great that the brachy-
pinacoid is the plane of the optical axes.

Native Sulphur in Michigan.—Scherzer® reports an occurrence
of sulphur a mile west of Scofield, Monroe Co., Michigan. It is found
in a stratum of impure cavernous limestone about one to three feet in
thickness. The pockets, varying from a fraction of an inch up to three
feet in diameter, are often lined with calcite and celestite crystals with
bright lustrous masses of sulphur toward the center. The removal of
about an acre of this bed has yielded 100 barrels of pure sulphur. The
sulphur seems to have originated from hydrogen sulphide which is
abundant in the waters of the neighborhood. The hydrogen sulphide,
in turn, may be a product of decomposing organic matter.

Leadhillite Pseudomorphs at Granby, Mo.—The occurrence
of leadhillite at Granby in the form of pseudomorphs after calcite and
galena is made the subject of a note by Foote. Scalenohedrons in a
chert calamine rock are composed usually of pure cerussite; more.
rarely the substance is found to be leadhillite. Galena cubes replaced
by leadhillite were also observed. In these cases the secondary min-
eral is usually mixed with remnants of the original galena, producing
a “gray amorphous mass.” In a few specimens the leadhillite is
pure.

fora hs oi on

Celestite from Giershagen.—According to Arzruni and Thad-
déef* the axial ratio of “normal” celestite is a: b:¢e— .78093:1:
1.28324. The mineral from Giershagen, which appears to be chemically
pure Sr SO,, has the ratio a: b: c = .77962 : 1: 1.28533. The mean of
four determinations places the specific gravity at 3.9665. The optical
angle of “ normal ” celestite is given as 2 V,x,==50° 34’. This inves-
tigation adds another to the list of chemically pure compounds whose —

EA
D A a NN a EREN TEAN Sa SEUA aP EE e a EN A Saa T gr

5 Am. Jour. Sci., L, pp. 246-248, Sept., 1895.
€ Am. Jour. Sci., L, p. 99, August, 1895.
t Zeitschr. f. Krd. XXY, pp. ~a 1895.

1896.] Mineralogy. 575

molecular volume may be considered as accurately known, and allows
of comparison between the various physical constants of this and iso-
morphous substances.

Minerals from the Galena Limestone.—Hobbs*® gives a de-
tailed description, with many drawings, of the crystallized minerals
from the galena limestone of southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois.
The habitus of the various crystals is made prominent in the discus-
sion of them. New forms are reported on calcite (24.0.24.1), on cerus-
site (0.25.4), and on azurite (307), (203), (205) and (9.12.8).

Miscellaneous Notes.—Becke’ shows that the center of symmetry
may be used as a fundamental conception in developing the 32 classes
of crystal symmetry, notwithstanding the fact of its abandonment by
Groth and Fedorow.—Sylvite from Stassfurt, investigated by Schimpff”
with special reference to the impurities of the same, gave K Cl 99.239,
Na Cl .242, Mg Cl, .089, Ca SO, .073, H,S .0023, residue .108, loss on
melting .2847. The foreign substances seem to occur chiefly as inclu-
sions with the mother liquor. These figures doubtless give a very good
idea of the amount of impurity present, but the extreme right hand
digits must be looked upon as mathematics rather than chemistry-—
Igelstrém™ finds molybdenum, probably present as Mo,O,, in the hem-
atite from the “Sjégrube,” Gouv. Örebro, Sweden. One specimen of
the same material showed spectroscopically the presence of thallium.—
Niven” notes the discovery on New York Island of numerous interest-
ing specimens of the rare earth minerals xenotine and monazite. Tit-
anite, epidote, beryl and menaccanite are also mentioned.—The mineral
named schneebergite by Brezina” on the basis of an apparently faulty
qualitative investigation is shown by Eakle and Muthmann”™ to be in
reality a very pure lime-iron garnet, or topazolite, instead of a calcium
antimonite. The specific gravity is 3.838, and the chemical composi-
tion:

8 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 257-275, 1895.

9 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 73-78, 1895.

1 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, p. 92, 1895.

1 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, p. 94, 1895.

12 Am, Jour. Sci., L, p. 75, July, 1895.

18 Vehr. d. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1880, p. 313.
u Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 244-246, 1895.

576 The American Naturalist. [July,

found calculated for

-m Ca, Fe, Si,O,,
SiO, 35.45 35.43
Fe,O, 32.33 32.11 31.50
CaO 32.58 33.07

— Foote” gives some details concerning a new mineral which he pro-
poses to name Northupite. It was found by Mr. Northup in the “ tail-
ings” from a boring made at Borax Lake, Cal. The crystals are reg-
ular octahedrons reaching rarely 1 cm. in diameter. The substance
seems to be a double chloride and carbonate of sodium and magnesium.
Cleavage imperfect, H = 3.5 to

PETROGRAPHY.’

Volcanic Rocks and Tuffs in Prussia.—In the hills east of
_Ebsdorf, near Marburg, Prussia, are large areas covered by basalt flows,
flows of dolerite, and others of rocks intermediate in character between —
these two, both of which are pre-Tertiary in age, or at any rate are
older than the Tertiary beds with which they are associated. The vol-
canic rocks are cut by dykes of very basic rock resembling limburgite.
The little hill west of Wittelsberg, near the northern edge of the basalt
area, and the flank of the hill near Kehrenberg, are composed largely
of basalt tuff.

The basalt consists of phenocrysts of augite and olivine in a dense
felt of augite microlites, biotite and magnetite, in the spaces between
which is a colorless glass containing xenomorphic feldspar, leucite and
nepheline. Inclusions in the basalt are very common. They comprise
besides fragments of Foreign rocky; concretions of olivine and of augite.
The olivine con more or less bronzite, and usually
they are surrounded by a violet-brown rim similar to the rims found
surrounding the augite phenocrysts in the basalt. Even those concre-
tions that are composed almost exclusively of bronzite are surrounded
by rims of this character. The principal component of this rim is a
monoclinic augite, so that it appears here that the bronzite, which must
have been one of the earliest separations from the magma, was, after

its crystallization, changed into augite. Other concretions show the

1 Am. Jour. Sci., L, pp. 480-488, Dec., 1895.
1 Edited by Dr. W. 8. Boi Colby Univesity, Waterville, Me.

1896.] Petrography. 577

alteration of the bronzite into olivine. -+ By complete fusion one concre-
tion, which is thought. by the author to have been a bronzite-augite
aggregate, has been changed to a mass of rounded augite and olivine
grains imbedded in a glass which locally is replaced by nepheline. The
alteration of the bronzite, as indicated by the study of a number of
sections, is into olivine, augite, magnetite and glass. Among the rare
constituents of the olivine concretions are chrome diopside and pico-
tite. The augite concretions or inclusions, consist almost exclusively
of a monoclinic augite with which is usually associated a little olivine.
In the interiors of the concretions the augite contains fluid enclosures,
but toward their peripheries the enclosures are all of glass. Often bé-
tween the augite grains are little nests of calcite. One of the inclusions
observed. by the author is abnormal in that it is composed of a small
nucleus of augite surrounded by a zone of brown biotite.

Of the foreign inclusions, the author describes two kinds—the calea-
reous and the granitic. The basalt in the neighborhood of limestone
inclusions loses its biotite and magnetite. Nearer the inclusions the
augite microlites become light colored and magnetite grains are again
developed. At the boundary of the limestone fragment is a rim of
large augites, whose ends are directed toward the center of the inclu-
sion. . This latter itself is composed of the remnants of calcite grains
imbedded in a brown glass, in which are also well formed crystals of a
scapolite. The sandstone inclusions have been changed to a mass of
quartz grains lying in a brown glass, the whole being surrounded by
the usual zone of augite microlites. The granite inclusions first lose
their mica. The old feldspar has given rise to newly developed feld-
spar.

The dolerite seem to occur as a number of small flows that have run
together. It presentsno special peculiarities.: The dyke basalt cutting
the tuffs and dolerites. sometimes contains well defined crystals of
olivine, which occasionally occur as interpenetration twins.

Igneous Rocks of British, Columbia.—The petrographiecal
characters of the principal rocks occurring within the area of the
Kamloops. Map-sheet of British Columbia are described by Ferrier,’
These rocks embrace feldspathic actinolite schists, diabase porphyrites,
harzburgite, amphibolites, diabase tuffs, cherts, gabbros, orthophyres,
augite-porphyrites, porphyrites, basalts, pecrite-porphyrites, andesites,
trachytes, dacites, diorites, granites, syenites, quartz-porphyries, alnoite
and a series of much altered rocks. The descriptions are all brief.

2 Annual Rep. Geol. Surv. of Canada, Vol. VU, Pt. B,, p 349,

40

-

578 The American Naturalist. [July,

Chalcedony Concretions in Obsidians from Colorado.—
Patton? describes the occurrence of large opal and chalcedony concre-
tions or geode-like bodies in beds of a decomposed obsidian on Ute
Creek in Hinsdale Co., Colorado. The concretions are most common
in the upper scoriaceous portions of the flows. Similar concretions
were also found in a rhyolite at Specimen Mountain. The concretions
are composed of radial fibres of chaleedony. The flowage lines that
are common to the rock pass uninterruptedly through them, and in
them are trichites exactly like those in the body of the rock. The con-
eretions are regarded as secondary in origin—and as due to the perco-
lation of silica-bearing waters through the rock. The same author
publishes some photographs of erosion forms produced by the weather-
ing of the volcanic conglomerates in the San Juan Mountains.

Basic Dykes near Lake Memphremagog.—<According to
Marsters‘ the Chazy limestones of Lake Memphremagog are cut by
granite, olivine, diabase and lamprophyre dykes. The latter comprise
dark rocks containing phenocrysts of augite, hornblende or olivine.
The olivine, when it occurs, is always situated in the central portions
of the dykes. Sometimes its crystals are one and half inches in diame-
ter. Petrographically these rocks are augite camptonites, fourchites
and monchiquites. The augite camptonite contains both augite and
hornblende in two generations and in varying quantities. Only two
fourchite dykes were observed. Their material presents no unusual
features. The paper is interesting as bringing to our knowledge
another area in which these peculiar and interesting dyke rocks occur.

The Origin of the Maryland Granites.—The last article writ-
ten by the late Dr. Williams’ is an introduction to Keyes article on
Maryland granites. In this paper the author explains the criteria by
which ancient plutonic rocks may be recognized in highly metamor-
phosed terranes, and applies the principles thus established to prove
the eruptive nature of many of the Maryland granites. The pegma-
tites of the Piedmont plateau were tested by the same criteria, with the
result that these too are pronounced to be eruptive. Many handsome
plates embellish this portion of the papet. In the main portion of the
article Keyes describes the petrographical features of the different types
of granite, giving special attention to the original allanite and epidote
found in them. There is little that is new in the paper, most of its

3 Proc. Colo. Scient. Soc , Nov. fl 1895.

t Amer. Geol., July, 1895, p.

515th Amn, Rep. U.S. G. S., D 653.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 579

essential points having already been discussed by Hobbs, Grimsley and
others.

Petrographical Notes.—The rocks of the Laurentian area to the
north and west of St. ies eromë, Quebec; are briefly referred to by Adams’
as gneisses, tl , limestones, quartzites, ete. Some
` of the gneisses are eruptive and others are probably sedimentary.

Miller and Brock’ have found in Frontenac, Leeds and Lanark
Counties, Ontario, granites, gabbros, scapolite and pyroxene rocks of
Laurentian age cut by dykes of quartz gabbro containing re
of pyroxene and plagioclase.

Keyes? declares that the granites and porphyries occuring in the
eastern portion of the Ozarks, in Missouri, “ are very closely related
genetically, and are to be regarded as facies of the same magma,” the
porphyry being the upper and surface facies of the granite.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Canadian Paleontology.—In addition to the vertebrates (rep-
tilia and batrachia) and land snails discovered by Sir Wm. Dawson in
the interior of erect trees in the coal formations of Nova Scotia, and
described by him in various scientific publications, fragments of arthro-
pods have been found in the material collected. These were submitted
for examination to Mr. Samuel Scudder who published a preliminary
report in 1882, and now, after completing his study, gives these addi-
tional facts. A few species of Myriapods show traces of the bases of
spines; the ventral plates in Archiulus are very broad ; two new spe-
cies of this genus are recognized ; two species of Mazonia are indicated,
one of which (M. acadica) confirms the separation of this genus from
Eoscorpius ; a facetted eye taken from a reptilian coprolite shows the
presence of a true insect, probably a cockroach.

A report upon the Cenozoic Hemiptera of British Columbia, by the
same author, comprises descriptions of nineteen species. Mr. Scudder
calls attention to the great variety among these insects. Among the
Homoptera, every specimen must be referred to a distinct species, and

6 Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. of Can., Vol. VII, J., p. 93.

7Can. Record of Science, Oct., 1895.

ê Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, p. 363.

oa

580 The American Naturalist. [July,

in only one case can two species be referred to one genus, In the Ful-
goridae each of the three species belongs to a different subfamily.
Another striking feature of the fauna is the size of the individuals
which compose it. The majority of them represent the most bulky
species of their respective families. The average length of these
Cenozoic species of Fulgoridae and Cercopidae is not less than two
centimeters, and there are some that are double that length.

The author states that this insect fauna indicates that the deposits in
which they occur are at least as old as Oligocene, but no definite state-
ment as to the age of the beds can be made.

A third interesting paper in this series on Canadian fossil insects
sums up the present knowledge of the Coleopterous remains of Canada.
These have been found in seven distinct localities in that country, and
at three very different horizons. The greatest interest attaches to the
collection made at an interglacial locality near Scarboro’ Ont., which
yielded twenty-nine species, and is the largest assemblage of insects ever
found in such a deposit anywhere. Forty-five species from the various
localities are described by Mr. Seudder. They are referred to 27
genera, 2 of which are new. (Contrib. Canadian Paleontol., Vol. II,

Pt. I.)

Jackson on the Development of Oligoporus.—The fol-
lowing is an abstract of the results of the recent studies of the Palæoe-
chinoidea. In Oligoporus the interambulacra terminate ventrally in
two plates, which present on their oral faces a reéntrant angle for the

reception of a single initial plate of the area. Proceeding dorsally,

new plates and new columns of plates are added, accenting by their
appearance stages in growth, as he had previously shown in Melonites,
until the full compliment of the species is attained. The single initial
interambulacral plate of Oligoporus was compared with a similar plate
in Melonites, Lepidechinus, young modern Cidaris, etc. At the ventral

or younger portion of the corona of Oligoporus there are only two
columns of ambulacral plates. The four columns characteristic of the

adult are derived from these two by a drawing-out process. The four
columns of ambulacral plates of adult Oligoporus are the equivalent
of the two outer and two median columns of Melonites. These four
columns in both genera are the morphological equivalent of the two

columns seen in the ambulacra of Bothriocidaris, Cidaris, ete. a
Oligoporus, as shown by the development of both ambulacral alla

interambulacral areas, is a genus intermediate between Palsechinus
and Melonites. During the nother of a it. —

eae ee Oe

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 581

through a Rhoéchinus stage, and later a Paleechinus stage. Melonites
in its development passes through an Oligoporus stage.

An early stage in developing Echinoderms was named the “ pro-
techinus” stage, At this stage are first acquired those features which
characterize the developing animal as a member of the Echinoidea.
The protechinus stage in Echinoderms is directly comparable to the
protoconch of Cephalous Mollusca, the protegulum of Brachiopods, the
protaspis of Trilobites, ete. The Echinoderm at this period in its
growth has a single interambulacral plate (representing a single column
of such plates), and two columns of ambulacral plates in each of the
five areas. This stage is seen in Oligoporus, Lepidechinus, Goniocidaris
and other genera ; it finds its representative in an adult ancestral form,
in the primitive, oldest known genus of the class Bothriocidar is of the
Lower Silurian, which has but one column of interambulacral and two
columns of ambulacral plates in each area.

Species of Oligoporus and Melonites with few interambulacral
columns are considered the more primitive types, as they are repre-
sented by stages in the development of those species which acquire a
higher number of columns in the adult.

The structure of the ventral border of the corona of Archzocidaris
was described. It presents a row of plates partially resorbed by the
encroachment of the peristome, as in modern Cidaris, ete. Ambulacral
and interambulacral plates on the peristome were described in Archzeo-
cidaris, also teeth and secondary spines on the interambulacral plates
of the corona.

This paper contains a classification of Palseozoic Echini based on the
structure and development of the ambulacral and interambulacral areas
and the peristome. It will be published in the Bulletin of the Geolog-
ical Society of America.—Science, Nov. 22, 1895.

American Fossil Cockroaches.'—This memoir, published as
Bulletin 124 of the U. S. Geological Survey, is a revision of the known

species of American fossil cockroaches to date. The descriptions of —

new forms are interpolated in a systematic list of all the species yet
recovered from the rocks, and such tables have been added as may en-
able the student to readily determine any new material. With the
publication of this essay all species hitherto described will have been
figured.

RP; Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, No. 124. Revision of the
American Fossil Cockroaches, with Descriptions of New Forms, By Samuel H.
Scudder, Washingtou, 1895.

.

582 The American Naturalist. [July,

The new forms are Paleozoic, and are mostly from two new locali-
ties—Richmond, Ohio, and Cassville, West Virginia. There are, how-
ever, a number of new species from old horizons.

Tables of the geographical and also of the geological distribution of
both American and European genera are given in the introduction,
followed by a statement of the characteristics of the Mylacridae and a
discussion of some of the anatomical features of paleozoic cockroaches.
In this connection the author calls attention to possible mimicry
among these old forms of insect life, and figures side by side a cock-
roach wing and a fern frond found associated in the same beds, to show
how close is the resemblance between them in the general distribution
of nervures and in outline.

The illustrations comprise twelve page plates and three figures in the
text.

The Comanche Cretaceous.—Prof. R. T. Hill has found some
outlying areas of the Comanche series in Barber and Comanche Coun-
ties, Kansas, and in G County, Oklahoma, and in the Tucumcari re-
gion of New Mexico. These strata are identified from paleontological
evidence.

The importance of a correct determination of these beds is evident
from the following concluding remarks of the author.

“ The geology of the outlying areas of the Cretaceous preserved in the
scarps of the Plains adds greatly to our knowledge of the distribution,
variation, paleontology and history of the beds of the Comanche series,
and of the progressive oscillatory conquest of the Great Plains region
by the sea in Cretaceous time. The Belvidere (Kansas) beds have re-
vealed the following additions to our knowledge of Cretaceous paleon-
tology : First, a lower stratigraphic occurrence of the dicotyledonous
Dakota flora than known, whereby we may now say that dicotyledons
make their first appearance before the beginning of the Washita sub-
epoch, instead of in the Dakota as hitherto believed. Second, a simi-
lar downward range in the geologic scale of the ichthyic vertebrates
of hitherto supposed Upper Cretaceous range. Third, intermingling
of these plants and fishes with molluscan species and other vertebrates
of the Washita division such as has not hitherto been found in the
Comanche series.” (Amer. Journ. Sci., Lol. L, 1895).

Kolguev Island, which lies 130 miles southeast of Novaya Zemlya,
differs, according to Col. Feilden, in geological structure, both from
mountainous islands of its neighbor and from Russian Lapland. The |
entire elevated region of the island is composed of beds of sand contain-

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 583

ing erratic boulders, to a depth of not less than 80 feet, and these sandy
beds rest on the Kolguev clays. These in turn are 50 miles long by
- 40 wide, with a thickness of not less than 250 feet, probably more.
This great mass is evidently a glacio-marine deposit. A few molluscan
remains were found in it, all well known boreal forms existing at the
present time, but no vertebrates nor drift-wood. A collection of
erratics made by the author are identified by Prof. Bonney as rocks of
Mesozoic age, either Jurassic or Wealden. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
1896.)

Palezontologia Argentina.—Vols. I (1891), II (1893), and III
(1894).—The Museo de la Plata of Argentina has progressed thus far
with the publication of monographs illustrative of its magnificent col-
lection of fossil vertebrata of that country. The style of the publica-
tion is worthy of the subject; the size selected being folio, and the
plates phototype reproductions of the originals, often of the natural
size. The whole is issued under the supervision of the director of the
Museum Dr. Francisco P. Moreno, who contributes some of the articles
in connection with M. Mercerat; while Dr. Lydekker, of London, fur-
nishes the greater number.

The first volume, on the extinct birds of Argentina, consists solely of
plates, with pages of names referring to the figures. These plates
depict objects of great interest, many of the bones belonging to the
extraordinary family of the Phororhacide of Ameghino, which seem
to be nearly allied to the existing Cariamide of South America. Most
of these birds are of gigantic size, and their powerful legs and hooked
beaks indicate that they were quite competent to maintain their place
in the fauna of which they form a part. We have waited for some
years before noticing this valuable publication, in hopes that the text
would appear. It seems, however, that there is no intention of pub-
lishing a descriptive part. Under the circumstances we must regret
that names were attached to the figures, for, although figures may give
currency to specific names, they cannot do so for names of any higher
grade, and a considerable amount of synonymy has been thus created.
Dr. Ameghino has also subsequently shown, that in this atlas a good
many duplicate names have been given to the same species.

In the second part are published three memoirs by Dr. Lydekker.
These include figures and deseriptions of Dinosauria and Cetacea from
Patagonia, and mammalia Ungulata from the same region. The mag-
nificent plates are accompanied by descriptions, and this volume is
therefore more valuable than its predecessor. Unfortunately the de-

584 The American Naturalist. fJuly,

scriptions are quite inadequate, and the specimens will have to be more
fully described before their characters can be sufficiently known.

The third volume is chiefly occupied with the Edentata, and this
memoir is admirably illustrated. The descriptions (by Dr. Lydekker)
are rather more full than those of Vol. II, but not full enough. They
are marred by frequent supercilious references to Dr. Florentino Ameg-
hino, who is the most competent paleontologist of the vertebrata in
South America, and whose descriptions compare very favorably with
those of other paleontologists in all respects. His figures are not so
good as those of the work now under review, for here we have a case
in which the most skilful hand has not had the financial advantages it
ought to have had. From our past experience we should say that when
Dr. Lydekker states that organic forms are distinct species he is apt
to be correct; but when he identifies forms alleged to be distinct,
further examination is in order.—C,

BOTANY?

Tilden’s American Algæ.—The first century of this distribu-
tion by Josephine Tilden, of Minneapolis, was sent out about a year
ago, but has not hitherto been noticed in these pages. The specimens
are very neatly prepared, and are attached to cards or mica slips. In
most cases they contain an abundance of material, but, in a few in-
stances, we might wish for more generous specimens. The species
represent the following genera:

`. Oedogonium (4), Sphaeroplea (1), Hormiscia (2), Chaetophora (4),
Drigtirndbilta (3), Stigeoclonium (6), Conferva (1), Microspora (1),
Urospora (1), Cladophora (15), Pithophora (1), Vaucheria (5), Botry-
dium (1), Hydrodictyon (1), Tetraspora (2), Palmella (1), Protococcus
(3), Euglena (1), Spirogyra (10), Cosmarium (1), Porphyrosiphon (1);
Symploea (2), Lyngbya (2), Phormidiwn (1), Oscillatoria (8), Spirulina
- (1), Gloeotrichia (2), Tolypothriz (1), Nostoc (8), Anabaena (2), Meris-

mopedia (1), Navicula (1), Pleurosigma (1), Gomphonema (2), Coc-
` coneis (1), Nitzschia (1), Odontidium (1), Synedra (2), Fragilaria (1),

‘Cystopleura’ (1), Lysigonium (1). `

The introduction of Euglena among plants is, in our opinion, a mis-
take, although one which will probably do ‘no harm, since it will be
difficult if not impossible to` recognize them from dried specimens. ove

i Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

1896.) Botany. 585

Century II is announced to appear soon. We bespeak for it a
liberal patronage——Cuarurs E! Bessey.

The Columbines of North America,—Thirteen species of
Aquilegia are described as occurring in North America in Robinson’s
edition of Gray’s Synoptical Flora (1895).

These fall into two types, as follows :

A. Old World type, with hooked or curved spurs

A. brevistyla, Rocky Mountains of British Ammeeiea, and the Black
Hills of South Dakota.

A. saximontana, Rocky Mountains of Colorado.

A. flavescens, Pembina and British Columbia to Oregon and Utah.

A. micrantha, southeast Utah.

` A. ecaleatata, southwest Colorado.

A. jonesii, northwest Wyoming and Montana.

B. American type, with straight spurs:

A. canadensis, common east of the Rocky Mountains.

A. formosa, Alaska to northern California, Idaho aia Utah.

A. truncata, California.

A. caerulea, Rocky Mountains from Montana tò New Mexico:

A. chrysantha, southern Colorado to New Mexico and Arizona.

A. pubescens, California.

Ai longissima southwest Texas.

It is interesting to note that in aT Orns ii and Guay s Flora of North
America (1840) here were but four species described, viz, : A. cana-
densis, A. formosa, A. caerulea and A. brevistyla. It is possible that
some of these species may be reduced to varieties upon a more critical
study of the genus, but even with the most rigid reduction we should
still be left with a large representation of these interesting plants.
Their curious beauty and comeliness, with their general distribution,
may well warrant the suggestion which has been made to make the
Columbine our national flower.—CHARLES E. Bessey,

Sets of North American Plants. — Two sets of ‘panty i in-
teresting North American fl flowering pl
rium curators at this time. They consist very largely of species from
Florida, that wonderfully rich semi-tropical region whose botanical
treasures we are just learning to appreciate. The first is a set of 400
specimens by the veteran collector A. H. Curtiss, of Jacksonville,
Florida. A personal examination of the specimens warrants the same
high commendation which all of m Curtiss’s work has hitherto 1 Te-
ceived.

586 The American Naturalist. [July,

The second set is published by G. V. Nash, of Washington, D. C.,
and includes the same number of specimens. A glance at the list
shows it to include many rare and a considerable number of new spe-
cies. Either set would be a valuable acquisition to any college herba-
rium.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

Botany in Buffalo.—The Secretary of the Section of Botany (G)
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Professor
George F. Atkinson, of Ithaca, N. Y., is making an effort to provide a
good programme for the meeting in August (24 to 28). Titles and
abstracts of papers are to be sent to the Secretary not later than July
1, in order that they may be arranged and forwarded to the Permanent
Secretary of the Association for printing and distribution. It is the
purpose of the Association to issue such a list of Section programmes
not less than a month preceding the meeting. Let every botanist who
has something of importance send in his title and abstract on or before
the first day of July.

The second annual meeting of the Botanical Society of America
which will be held on August 21 and 22, in connection with the Asso-
ciation, should attract a good number of the more advanced men in
the science. Dr. Trelease, the retiring president, will deliver his ad-
dress on “ Botanical Opportunity ” at 8 P. M. of the 21st. On the 22d
there will be forenoon and afternoon sessions for the reading of papers
and discussions—Caar.es E. Bessey

Blanks for ‘‘ Plant Analysis.’’—For some time there has been
an encouraging decrease in the annual crop of blanks for “ plant analy-
sis,” and we hoped to be able soon to announce the complete extinction
of the species. It appears, however, that there are certain intellectual
soils in which they still thrive, in spite of the fact that, like the Rus-
sian Thistle, they are outlawed in most communities. We have before
us two which bear the date 1896, one from U. O. Cox, of Mankato,
Minnesota, and the other from H. J. Harnly, of McPherson, Kansas.
If one may distinguish between things which are necessarily bad, it
may be said that the first is the better of the two. Its fault (which is
fatal) is that it enables the pupil to “analyze” a plant with the least
possible thinking: he does not have to remember anything ; he merely
reads the question, looks at his plant, and makes his entry on the proper
line. The second blank (which is “copyrighted ”) adds to the fore-
going much which is confusing and scientifically vicious. Thus the
pupil finds the questions “ Flowers, Regular or Irregular? Why?”
which he is expected to answer in a line just two and a half inches long!

Dae cama eros the AW ua ie wat i oe ee ee te a ain at ne Me Sti. ay ORS TEES y le ENT

rs nal ake peep Teer

1896.] Zoology. 587

Again he is asked, “ Flowers, Complete or Incomplete? Why?” and
is allowed a line exactly two inches long in which to give an answer to
a question before which the wisest botanist may well quail. When will
teachers realize that botanists are not made by the use of such “ helps ”
any more than Latin scholars are made by the use of “ ponies”?
—CHARLEs E. Bessey.

Botanical News.—The Director of the Missouri Botanical Gar-
den at St. Louis calls attention in a printed circular to the advantages
for study afforded by this important institution. Its herbarium includes
nearly 250,000 specimens, and its library about 10,000 volumes and
11,000 pamphlets.

A. H. Curtiss, of Jacksonville, Florida, is distributing fine sets of the
Marine Algæ of Florida. Each set contains fifty species and is sold
for five dollars.

Professor Bruce Fink, of Fayette, Iowa, offers sets of Iowa Lichens,
ineluding about 200 species which he sells at the low price of six cents
eac

We are glad to see another number of Pittonia, the very useful
periodical which Professor E. L. Greene issues from time to time. The
new. part (13) contains papers on the Nomenclature of the Fuller’s
Teasel, a Proposed New Genus of Cruciferae; New or Noteworthy
Species ; New Genus of Polemonianae, and New Mexican Eupatori-
acee—CHARLES E. Brssry.

ZOOLOGY.

Japanese Leeches.—The discovery of three new land leeches in
Japan is of interest to geologists since but one species, Haemadipsa
japonica Whitman, is all that has been known to occur in that country.
The three new species are members of a genus separated from all the
genera of land leeches hitherto defined. An account of their external
characters and a general outline of their internal organization are pre-
sented by Dr. Asajiro Oka in a recent number of the journal published
by the Imperial University of Japan. For the new genus the author
proposes the name Orobdella. The species of this genus are found in
various mountainous parts of Japan, crawling under moss and fallen
leaves, or in moist earth, in the same manner as earthworms, which con-

588 The American Naturalist. [July,

stitute the chief source of their nourishment. Having no jaws, these
leeches can neither bite nor suck blood, but swallow the worms entire.
O. octonaria is one of the largest leeches known. The dimensions of
one specimen found by the author is given, length 270 mm., width 14
mm., depth 10 mm.
Dr. Oka adopts the classification of R. Blanchard (1894), and shows
the systematic position of Orobdella in the following synoptical table:
Ordo Hirudinea.
a. Subordo. Rhyncobdellae.
b. Subordo. Arhyncobdellae.
1. Fam. Gnathobdellidae.
Aquatic: gen. Hirudo, Haemopis, ete.
Terrestr. gen. Haemadipsa, Xerobdella, Mesobdella.
2. Fam. Herpobdellidae.
Aquatic: gen. Herpobdella, Dina, Trocheta.
Terrestr: gen. Cylicobdella, Lumbricobdella, Orobdella.
(Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Japan., Vol. VIII, Pt. 2, 1895.).

The Origin of Tail-forms.—The use and meaning of the asym-
metrical types of tail-fin which are so commonly met with among
fishes—e. g., the upturned tail of the shark and sturgeon, and the
downwardly extended fin of the flying-fish, are explained by Dr. F.
Ahlborn by comparisons founded on experience in rowing. Every
tyro knows the consequences which ensue if he holds his blade too
obliquely in the water. If the upper edge is inclined too much towards
the stern of the boat a brisk pull upon the handle results in the blade
jumping out of the water ; if, on the other hand, the blade is inclined
too much in the pen direction, it digs into the water and the oars-
man “catches a crab.” The relevance of these illustrations is found
in the fact that the skeletal support of the asymmetrical tails of fishes —
is generally such that either the upper or lower border of the fin is
more resistant to the pressure of the water than the opposite border, a
fact which causes the fin in action to assume an oblique instead of a
vertical position. The result of such a disposition is that in those cases
where the upper part of the tail is stiffer than the lower, the tail in
locomotion is driven upwards, as the oar is driven out of the water
(heterocereal tail of shark and sturgeon); while in cases where the
lower part of the tail is firmer than the upper, the tail tends, in action,
to assume a lower position than the rest of the body (flying- fish). The
body of the animal, in fact, is made to swing vertically about a hori-
‘zontal axis running through the center of gravity: in the first group

T3907] Zoology. 589

the tail becomes elevated aboye the head, in the second group the head
becomes raised above the tail. The utility of these types of organiza-
tion becomes obvious when the habits of the creatures which exhibit
them are considered. The first group consists of bottom-haunting fish,
which are thus enabled to give free play to their tails while scouring
the sea-bottom in search of food ; the second consists entirely of surface-
swimming forms which are enabled, by this beautiful adaptation of
structure, to swim swiftly beneath the surface of the water without the
risk of their tails emerging, and so cause inconvenience and waste of
force. The tails of many air breathing aquatic animals, such as the
sea-snake and the extinct Ichthyosaurus are constructed upon this
latter principle. (Nature, Feb., 1896.)

The Spermatheca in some American Newts and Salaman-
ders.—The term receptaculum seminis has been used to designate cer-
tain structures in the cloacal wall of the female Necturus maculatus,which
serve as reservoirs in which the zodsperms of the male are received.
In order to have a better understanding of the function of these struc-
tures, Dr. Kingsbury undertook a study of the cloaca in the female of
six species of Urodeles (American). The chosen species represent fiye
families, and two orders of Batrachia, and present a good series from a
purely aquatic to as purely a terrestrial existence. The general result
has been a recognition of these organs in one form or another in all
the species under observation, but there is no unity of structure, hence
the term receptalum seminis is not strictly applicable, and the mono-
nym spermatheca is proposed instead. In some forms many sperma-
thecas would be recognized. —

In Diemyctylus, Amblystoma and Necturus the spermathecas assume
the form of individual tubules. In Amblystoma the tubules are ar-
ranged around depressions. In Spelerpes, Plethodon and Desmogna-
thus consists of a tubular depression of the cloaca into the end of which

the clustered tubules open. |
' As to how the spermatozoa find their way into these resting places,
the author suggests that while the theory of Pfeffer of * positive chemo-
taxis” is highly probable, yet it is also possible that the entrance of
the zoisperms may be solely due to their own activity assisted by mus-
cular contractions of the cloaca and spermatheca.

The results of Dr. Kingsbury’s observations are thus nig eal

1. In the genera Necturus, Amblystoma, Diemyetylus, Plethodon
and Desmognathus, spermathecas are found in the dorsal wall of the

590 The American Naturalist. [July,

cloaca of the female, containing zodsperms. Internal fertilization is
therefore proven for these forms

A spermatheca occurs in Spelerpes; in the single specimen examined
(taken in the fall) no zodsperms were contained.

In Necturus, Diemyctylus and Amblystoma, there are several tubules
or spermathecas opening upon the cloacal epithelium, which serve as
reservoirs for the semen.

In Desmognathus, Plethodon and Spelerpes, there is a single mesal
spermatheca.

The condition in Spelerpes would seem to indicate that the organ in
these latter genera equals the group of tubules found in the first genera
plus and exaggerated and modified depression of the cloacal epithelium,
such as occurs in Amblystoma.

2. No gland-like structures in addition to the spermatheca occur in
the female of Plethodon and Desmognathus.

3. In all the remaining genera a ventral cloacal gland is present.

4. In Amblystoma, Spelerpes and Necturus, in addition to the sper-
matheca tubules, other tubules occur on the dorsal side of the cloaca.

5. The secretion of the cloacal glands is employed at the time of
ovulation.

6. The three glands of the male recognized in the Triton, the cloacal,
abdominal and pelvic, occur and are well developed in the five genera
examined. This suggests that by all of these spermatophores are de-
posited.

7. A résumé of the literature and foregoing facts points to a uniform
mode of mating and fertilization in all urodeles.

8. Dorsal and ventral ciliated tracts occur in the male of all the
genera examined. Cilia in the cloaca of the female were detected only
in Amblystoma and Plethodon glutinosus, where the tract was not as
extensive as in the male. (Proceeds. Amer. Microscop. Soc., Vol.
XVII, 1895.)

Zoological News.—A second species has been added to the genus
Opletharaaraie founded by Verrill to receive a West Indian species
named O. agassizi. The new acquisition was obtained by a Misaki
fisherman with a hook at a depth of about 25 fathoms in Iagami Bay,
Japan. It is described and figured by Dr. Ijima and S. Ikeda under
the name O. depressa. (Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. of Japan, Vol.
VIII, Pt. 2, Tokyo, 1895.) This genus is characterized by the fact
that the alimentary canal passes directly through the body, instead of

iy oe

1896.] Entomology. 591

returning to issue near the mouth. Ferrill regards it as the most
primitive form of the Cephalopoda.

A new genus of Cottoid fishes from Puget Sound is described by Mr.
E. C. Starks. The type species, Jordania zonope is in the Museum of
the Leland Stanford, Jr., University. (Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Nat.
Sci. [1895] 1896).

Mr. J. A. Allen emphasizes the fact that the change of color in the
plumage of birds without moulting is due to the gradual wearing off of
the light colored edges of the feathers, combined with the more or less
blanching of the color of certain parts. Exposure to the elements and
friction also produce more or less marked changein color. The author
prefaces his remarks with a brief history of origin and persistence of
the theory unwarranted by the facts that the feathers of birds change
color with the season independent of the process of moulting. (Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, 1896.)

ENTOMOLOGY:

The Asymmetry of the Mouth-parts of Thysanoptera.—In
the Bulletin of the Essex Institute, for 1890, Vol. X XII. the writer
published a brief account of some peculiarities he had observed in the
mouth-parts of members of this order of insects, and ventured in ex-
planation, the hypothesis that, in these insects the mandible of the
right side of the head is wanting, and that the parts commonly re-
garded as mandibles are lobes of the maxillæ. Subsequently the
writer called this anomalous condition of the mouth-parts to the atten-
tion of members of the Entomological Club of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science (Indianapolis meeting, August,
1890) and presented slides showing the peculiarities described. (See —
Canadian Entomologist, 1890, Vol. XXII, p. 215.)

Nothing, so far as I know, has appeared in American literature
since that time with reference to the matter, and the old view concern-
ing the structure of the mouth seems to be still current. In Prof.
J. H. Comstock’s excellent manual, recently issued (1895) the labrum
is represented as perfectly symmetrical, the parts considered by him to
be mandibles are incompletely represented, and no mention is made of

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

592 The American Naturalist. [July,

any unusual feature of the mouth structure. In giving the characters
of the order, he says: “The mouth-parts are probably used chiefly for
sucking ; they are intermediate in form between those of the sucking
and those of the biting insects; the mandibles are bristle-like ; the
maxillæ are triangular, flat, and furnished with palpi; the labial palpi
are also present.”

I have just examined a copy of Jindrich Uzel’s “ Monographie radu
Thysanoptera,” 1895, perhaps the most extensive work yet published
on the Thysanoptera, in which the view of the mouth structure de-
scribed by me in the Bulletin of the Essex Institute and before the
Entomological Club is adopted, though Uzel is disposed to take a dif-
ferent view of the homology of the unpaired mouth-part. His words
are (Ibid, p, 25): “In der Höhlung des
Mundkegels bewegen sich die Mondibeln
in Form zweier Stechborsten und der
unpaare Mundstachel (wohl ein umge-
bildeter epipharynx) welcher linker-
seits liegt und den fiir die Thysanop-
teren characterischen Unsymmetrischen
Bau der Mundwerkzenge bedingt.” In
order to show more clearly what the un-
paired part is like, I have made a draw-
ing from his Figure, 161, Tab.: IX,
which is here reproduced.

Of the interpretation Uzel is disposed
to put upon the unpaired part, I have
only this to say: It is plainly closely
adapted to the left side of the head, and
the parts belonging to the region in
which it lies are closely adapted to it.
It is very evident that it was made. to
fit in the angle formed by the hard parts
: bali ' of the head on the left side; the labrum

is, on this side, shortened and: otherwise suited to accommodate it... A
reéxamination of my slides shows the adjustment more complete even
than represented in Uzel’s figure. Coupled with this is a manifest. de-
ficiency in the head on the right side at the place where.a correspond:
ing structure should be. ; It is evident that something is lacking on the
right side. Ifthe unpaired organ is an epipharynx that has been diss
placed, why should the cranial structure of the right side be altered?

Pe peoa

1896.] Entomology. 593

The further question arises, why should an epipharynx be pushed to
one side and completely shaped to the structures there ?

I have suggested that the pair of slender parts, called by Uzel and
others mandibles, may be lobes of the maxille, and urged in explana-
tion that they are attached to parts regarded by everybody as maxillz,
and besides that they are composed of two divisions (Professor Com-
stock does not represent the basal piece at all and hence the slender
distal part appears in his figures as if free from the maxilla). Uzel
figures this pair of mouth organs, as I have done, attached to the
bases of the palpus-bearing parts, and as composed of a short basal
piece and a long slender distal one. He says nothing of their jointed
character but represents an articulation in the right one of his figure
161. They appear to me to be two-jointed and with this true, to con-
sider them mandibles is to assume a departure from the one-jointed
condition of the mandible prevailing in Hexapoda.

_ In the proceedings of the Entomological Club of the American As-
sociation (Can. Ent., Vol. XXII, p. 216), I am reported as stating that
two unmistakable teria claws are present in Pleothrips and that the
vesicle is probably a modified pulvillus. Prof. Comstock says: “ The
tarsi are two-jointed, bladder-like at the tip, and without claws.”
Uzel, on the contrary, states that claws are more or less developed in
all Thysanoptera. “ Beine Kurz; der eine-bis zweigliedrige Tarsus
am Ende mit zwei mehr oder wenlger deutlichen Klanen, welche an
Blase anwachsen.”

Prof. Comstock’s work has been quoted simply because it represents
the established American view of the structure of Thysanoptera, a
view which must certainly be changed in some particulars. To what
extent the asymmetry referred to has been studied by foreign ento-
mologists I am unable to say, since I have not been so situated as to
be able to keep close track of the foreign literature. Thus far I have
seen no reference to it except that in Uzel’s work.

EXPLANATION OF THF FIGURE.

Front view of head of Aeolothrips fasciata. A, the unsymmetrical
labrum; B, the unpaired mouth-part (mandible, according to my in-
terpretion, epipharynx according to Uzel) ; C, lobe of maxilla (man-
dible of Uzel and other authors); D, the maxilla; E, the maxillary
palpus ; F, the labial palpus—H. GARMAN.

-A New African Diplopod Related to Polyxenus.—While
collecting insects in the darker parts of the Liberian forests, I have on

41

594 The American Naturalist. [July,

a few occasions noticed what appeared to be large individuals of Poly-
xenus of a dark brownish color, running about on the smooth leaves of
the shrubby undergrowth, several feet from the ground. To preserve
and carry to America specimens in satisfactory condition is not easy,
and hence the present purpose of describing the external features of
one found yesterday and having nearly all the bristles still in place.
SAROXENUS g. n.

Body minute, tapering caudad.

Head rounded, not as broad as the first segment ; between the eyes
with an anterior crescentic tiara of long upright serrate bristles: on
each side between and above the eyes a short curved line of similar
hairs elsewhere the head is smooth.

Eyes of a few (six ?) small ocelli clustered on lateral prominences of
the head.

Antenne long and slender, distinctly clavate; sixth joint longest
and much the thickest ; seventh slightly longer than any of the proxi-
mal ; eighth joint distinct, minute, several times smaller than the sev-
enth.

First segment with six tufts of bristles, two in front, two behind and
one on each side ; the dorsal tufts are broader transversely ; the lateral
are raised on large projections, as in Polyxenus, and include more nu-
merous and longer bristles.

The following six segments have each four tufts of similar bristles,
two lateral and two posterior, the latter broad, as on the first segment ;
the bristles are longer and the tufts larger on posterior segments. .

Last segment with a nearly complete transverse row of divergent
bristles just in front of the dense brush of much finer, closely com-
pacted bristles which compose the terminal fascicle.

Saroxenus scandens sp. n.

General color dark grayish brown, the terminal fascicle nearly
white; in alcohol and under the microscope, the bristles of the head
and segments are seen to be dark brown; the distal joints of the an-
tennz and legs are pinkish brown, and the exposed portions of the in-
tegument have a tinge of the same color; integument generally waxy
or dirty white, and transparent so that the contents of the alimentary
canal are visible as a dark line ; eye spots dark brown.

Segments 8, though the specimen may not be mature; ten pairs of |
]

Length 3.5 mm., or with the terminal fascicle 4 mm.; width 1.2 |
mm., including the bristles. 4

1896.] Entomology. 595

Locality, Running about on the leaves of undergrowth, in the forest
on Cape Mesurado, Liberia.

Under sufficient magnification the bristles of the head and segments
appear as round hollow structures with about four longitudinal rows of
very fine appressed teeth directed distad. The bristles of the terminal
fascicle are more slender and have for a part of their length large ap-
pressed spines in opposite pairs something as shown by Latzel for Poly-
xenus lagurus. Nothing was seen similar to the apices of the hairs as
figured by the same author.

This new genus is to be distinguished from Polyxenus and Lopho-
proctus’ by the form of the antennæ and the distribution of the dorsal
sete. In Polyxenus the antennz are short ; in Lophoproctus they are
long, but the apical joint is subequal to the penultimate.

Polyxenus has two transverse dorsal rows of rather remote short
clavate and strongly serrate setæ, while Lophoproctus has a single row.
The type of the latter genus is eyeless, although Mr. Pocock proposes
to iuclnde a species with eyes, Polyxenus lucidus Chalande.

From the West Indes Mr. Pocock has described another Polyxenus’
which, to judge from the drawing, has four tufts of sete on each seg-
ment, and also a scattering row along the posterior margin. The an-
tenn are said to be very long, but appear not to be clavate, and the
relative proportions of the joints are not stated. It is probably the
type of a new genus having affinities with the African rather than
with the Europear forms.

By the discovery of Saroxenus the distribution of the Pselaphog-
natha is considerably extended. Should members of the group be
found in other tropical regions there will be added assurance of the
antiquity of the subclass, and of the probability ~ relationship with
such fossils as Paleoocampa.—O. F. Coox.

Monrovia, 1 Feb., 1896.

North American Crambidz.—Dr. C. H. Fernald publishes as
a bulletin from the Massachusetts Agricultural College an important
Monograph of the Crambidæ of North America. The author has long
been recognized as tne leading authority on the micro-lepidoptera.
The new genera Eugrotea and Pseudoschcenobius are characterized as
well as several new species. The bulletin is admirably illustrated by
three plates in black and white and six plates in colors, beautifully
printed. This will certainly prove one of the most satisfactory ento-
mological publications ever issued from the Agricultural Colleges.

-Poe®ck, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, XXXIV, 506

at V'yxenus longisetis, Journ. Linn. Soc., XXIV, 474,

596 The American Naturalist. [July,

New Mallophaga.—Much the most important paper as yet pub-
lished in America concerning the Mallophaga is the recent contribu-
tion from the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory, in which Prof. V. L.
Kellogg treats of New Mallophaga, with special reference to a collec-
tion made from Maritime birds of the Bay of Monterey, California.
In the 140 pages of print the author presents descriptions and figures
of one new genus and thirty-eight new species of Mallophaga, together
with twenty-two species previously described by European authors, but
now, with few exceptions, first determined as parasites of American
birds. In addition, the paper contains an excellent general account
of the Mallophaga and fourteen admirable plates. It can be obtained
for 50 cents by addressing The Registrar, Stanford University, Cali-
fornia.

Entomological Notes.—Professor D. S. Kellicott publishes* the
second part of his excellent Catalogue of the Odonata of Ohio. It
deals especially with the species of the southern part of the State.

In Bulletin 32 of the Iowa Experiment Station, Messers. Osborn and
Mally treat of the chinch bug, four-spotted pea-weevil, the imbricated
snout-beetle and other injurious species.

Bulletin 62 of the Vege Station contains a discussion of the San
Jose Scale, by Wm. B. Alwood

In Bulletin No. 2 of the Technical Series from ie U. S. Division of
Entomology, Mr. L. O. Howard publishes a careful account of The |
Grass and Grain Joint-worm Flies and their Allies, being a considera-

tion of some North American Phytophagic Eurytyminæ.

In the issue of the Entomologist’s Record for May 1st Mr. J. W. —

Tutt begins an interesting series of articles upon Mimicry.

In Bulletin 69 of the Ohio Station, the Chinch Bug is discussed at

length F. M. Webster.

Prof. 8. W. Williston publishes a useful Bibliography of North —
American Dipterology, 1878-1895, in the January Kansas University —
Quarterly. In the same issue W. G. Snow gives a List of Asilidæ —
supplementary to Osten Sackens Catalogue of North American Dip-

tera, 1878-1895.
t Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., XVIII, 105-114.

1896.] Embryology. 597

EMBRYOLOGY.

Protoplasmic Continuity.—Prof. Hammar, of Upsala,’ empha-
sizes by figures and description the connection of the cells of the egg of
a cleaving sea urchin known to Selenka and others, but hitherto re-
garded as of no importance. He finds a thin outer layer on the cells
of the early and later cleavage cells and even on the cells of the blas-
tula. This layer is seen both in living and in preserved and sectioned
material. Its appearance is not that of a membrane but, the author
thinks, rather that of an “ ectoplasmic” outer part of the protoplasm
of the cell. This outer layer is very thin and might be easily over-
looked.

It extends continuously over the entire egg and as it seems to be a
part of each cell, all the cells are thus held together by a continuous
outer pellicle that the author thinks is a protoplasmic layer.

This actual connection of the cells at their outer surfaces, if really a
protoplasmic connection, should, as the author insists, be of great im-
portance in the interpretation of the results of experimentation upon
echinoderm eggs. He suggests that it offers a suggestion towards the
explanation of the interaction believed to exist between the cells of a
cleaving egg. Moreover such a connection would make clear why very
different results have been obtained after shaking eggs and separating
the cells more or less.

Cell Studies in Annelid Eggs.—Prof. E. Korschelt, of Mar-
burg,’ has made a most detailed and thorough study of the maturation
and fertilization of the eggs of the small polychxtous annelid, Ophryo-
trocha puerilis with special reference to the number of chromosomes
concerned in cell divisions at different phases of the life history.

Many of the interesting facts described cannot be here referred to,
but only some of those that bear upon the question of the value of
chromosomes as permanent individuals.

The number of chromosomes found in dividing cells in the adult is
four, in certain ectodermal, entodermal and mesodermal structures.
This same number is found in the cells of the ovary and of the testis,
the ancestors of the eggs and sperms. The same number is found in

‘Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to "n abstracts reviews and
preliminary notes may be sent.

? Archiv f. mik. Anat., Marz 2, 1896.

* Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. 60, Dec. 31, 1895, pps. 543--680, pls. 28--34.

598 The American Naturalist. [July,

the early stages of cleavage and, asa rule, in the later stages and in
the blastula, but in the later stages of cleavage and in the blastula
there are often cells that contain eight. |

In the maturation of the egg four chromosomes come out of the net
work of the resting nucleus and eventually four go into the first polar
body and two into the second. This is brought about as follows: The :
four very long chromosome loops shorten and divide lengthwise into 3
four cleft rods. When these come to the equatorial region of the first
maturation spindle they have again closed together so as to form four :
simple rods. These separate in pairs and move towards the poles of
the spindle without presenting any true mitotic division. The first
maturation division is, therefore, a reducing division. Yet the first
polar body receives four chromosomes, since the pair that approaches
that pole divides, as if opening out where previously split, and thus
four rods are formed. The same takes place atthe inner pole and four
are left for the second maturation spindle. In the second polar body
two chromosomes enter by moving away from the other two left in the
egg. Asit cannot be determined whether the pair entering the second
polar body are two halves of one of original ones or halves of two
original ones it is not certain whether the second maturation division
is a reducing or an equating division,

Though the chromosomes are usually short rods or elongated gran-
ules during the maturation division, there are many eggs in which —
they appear as long, bent or horse-shoe shaped rods.

Some exceptions to the above account must be emphasized as show-
ing the inconstancy of number of chromosomes resulting from lack of ©
synchrony between chromosomal divisions and other phenomena of the
cell.

Thus in some cases the first polar body has but two chromosomes, —
since the preceding division of chromosomes is left out. In others —
eight chromosomes are found at the equator of the first polar spindle, ©
formed by a precocious division of the four chromosomes ! 3

Fertilization takes place normally just after the eggs are laid and
the sperm enters, while the first maturation spindle is still patent. In _
abnormal cases fertilization may take place inside the parent which is —
hermaphrodite and may ripen sperms and eggs simultaneously. Such
cases, however, lead to abnormal cleavages and even to fusion of sepa- _
rate eggs, and seem due to some pathological state of the egg. =

When the sperm enters the egg radiations are formed behind it, and
later in front of it, so that the middle piece of the sperm may be re-

PP a tee

1896.] Psychology. 599

garded as introducing the centrosome or the archoplasm, and it is
probable that the sperm revolves through 180°

The male and the female pronuclei both move toward the centre of
the egg and combine, but not till they have both gone through com-
plex and similar changes, including the appearance and dissolution of
an enormous nucleolus. The two nuclei finally fuse when each con-
tains two long, thread-like chromosomes.

The centrosome or archoplasm of the maturation spindle disappears
and that of the sperm divides and furnishes the first cleavage spindle.
At the equator of this spindle are found the four chromosomes, two
of male and two of female origin. Each splits lengthwise and the eight
separate, so that each daughter nucleus obtains two chromosomes of
male and two of female origin.

For many important facts not mentioned here the reader is referred
to the two hundred remarkably clear figures and the judicial state-
ments found in the original.

PSYCHOLOGY.

A Study in Morbid Psychology, with some reflections.—
(Continued from page 518). With regard to the religious (?) ex-
periences of Ansel Bourne, I am not so shallow as to think we can
determine in the case of hallucinatory voices whether or no the
phenomena are entirely subjective. An attitude of what the late
G. J. Romanes has called “ pure agnosticism ” seems the only philosoph-
ical one in these difficult cases." There has arisen a dogmatism in
science as narrow and as mischievous as that of the straitest sect
amongst theologians.

1“No one is entitled to deny the possibility of what may be termed an organ of
‘Spiritual discernment. In fact to do so would be to vacate the position of pure
agnositicism in toto, and this even if there were no objective or strictly scientific
evidence in favour of such an organ, such as we have in the lives of the saints,
and in a lower degree, in the universality of the Jie sentiment.” A Candi
Examination of Religion, p. 149, G. J. Romin

asac class,
They professed to be agnosti ies, at the very time he were aa evi
that philosophy by their conduct.” Ibid., pp. 107-9.

+1 Jaat ai: + ms

690 The American Naturalist. [July,

But we can, I think, establish it as a law that “supernatural revela-
tions” invariably take their colour from the preconceived ideas of the
recipients. Probably, upon any hypothesis, they could do no other-
wise.

One antecedent factor, in sudden conversions from the worldly to
the religious life is often found in the physical effect of a severe illness ;
also those who have been rich in spiritual (?) experiences have often
had indifferent health from childhood, with a liability to neurotic
attacks. Butthere are too many exceptions to spiritual (?) experiences
being the result of either temporary or permanent ill health, to enable
us to say that such experiences are simply the result of disordered
health, though they may be coincident with it.

I suppose that Socrates would universally be accepted as a type of
moral and physical healthiness. Yet throughout his life he was sub-
ject to the promptings of what he himself calls an “ inner, divine voice,”
which warned him if any evil were likely to befall him. In his sub-
lime address to the judges who had just condemned him to die Socrates
said that his “inner divine voice” had given him no warning of evil
when he had left his house that day on which he was condemned to
death, yet as it had always hitherto warned him of danger even on the
most trifling occasions, he took its silence to mean that death was a good
and not an evil. For even if death be a dreamless sleep, is it not a real
and precious boon; and if it be as some say (and as Socrates himself
hoped) only a passage from one state of being to another, to a place
where all who have left this life are assembled, what greater good could
man desire? To attain such happiness, Socrates would himself die
many times.? Only in his own mind could the great philosopher seek
for evidence of the one Supreme Being; for he could not believe in the
popular theology which accepted gods who had committed acts which
would have been disgraceful in the vilest of men. Therefore, it is not
surprising that his “inner divine voice ” did not profess to come from
any supernatural power, but simply warned him of evil.

In the case of Mahomet we have a man of great strength of constitu-
tion, but one who was subject to strange attack, whether of epilepsy,
catalepsy or hysteria is still a subject of doubt. What is certain is that
he had a tendency to see visions, and suffered from fits which threw
him at times into a swoon without loss of inner consciousness.

Through his intercourse with certain holy ascetics of the desert
known as Hanifs, Mahomet became possessed with a profound sense of
dependence on the omnipresent and omnipotent God. He withdrew to

2 Apologia, XXXI, XXXII.

ay BO oes ei
Bi ae Aa N ga a E

1896.] Psychology. 601

the solitudes of the bare and desolate Mount Hira, and meditated there
with prayers and ascetic exercises. This state of things continued for
many years, when in the month of Ramadan [which it will be remem-
bered entails the severest form of fasting] the final revelation came
which converted an illiterate Cameldriver® into one of the great
religious teachers of the world. As he was repeating his pious exer-
cises and meditations on Mount Hira the “divine voice” came to him.
The angel Gabriel held a silken scroll before him, and bade him, though
he could not read, recite what stood written init. The words with
which Gabriel had summoned him remained graven on his heart, and
are found—as Mahomet at least imagined he heard them—in the 96th
Sura of the Koran.

Mahomet returned to his wife Khadijah in great distress imagining
he was possessed. But she comforted him and impressed upon him
the belief that he had received a message from God.

Yet his doubts returned again and again, and reached a distressing
height so that he was tempted to cast himself down from Mount Hira
and this conflict lasted for two or three years.

Then one day he came to Khadijah in a state of great excitement
exclaiming “ Wrap me up, wrap me up!” (which was done when he
fell into a fit, or swoon) and then the angel Gabriel appeared a second
time, and revealed to him the Sura beginning “ O thou enwrapped one!”
* Henceforth there was no interruption and no doubt, the revelations
followed without a break, and the Prophet was assured of his vocation.

The revolt of the idolatrous arabs against a creed of pure monotheism
caused Mahomet at one time to yield to the temptation to humour
them, and this temptation took the form of voice from the evil one,
causing him to say in the pulpit that two of the heathen goddesses were
sublime beings whose “ intercession might be hoped for.” His auditors
were surprised and delighted, but the prophet went home disquieted. In
the evening Gabriel came to him and Mahomet repeated the new Sura,
whereupon the angel said “ What hast thou done? Thou hast spoken
in the ears of the people words I never gave thee.” Mahomet now fell
into deep distress fearing to be cast out from the Lord. - But the Lord
took him back to his grace and raised him up; the Sura of diabolical
suggestion was erased, and the fury of the idolatrous party broke out
with fresh violence. Mahomet was long and salutarily humbled by the
remembrance of his temptation and fall, but he never abandoned faith

3 It is still a subject of dispute amongst Moslems whether Mahomet couid read

it seems, however, more probable that he could not.
*Sura, 75 of the Koran.

602 The American Naturalist. [July,

in his vocation, and through evil report and good report believed that
he had a Divine message to deliver.

The earliest and simplest accounts of the life of Buddha [Siddhartha
Gautama] all agree in describing the four visions which led to the
renunication, by that religious teacher, of all the greatest goods the
heart of man could desire. Some accounts make all four visions
appear on the same day, others on different days, but all agree is making
the four visions phantoms which were visible only to Buddha and his
charioteer Channa. As Buddha was driving in his pleasure grounds
he was struck by the sight of a man utterly broken down with age;
on another occasion by the sight of a man suffering from a loathsome
disease, and some time afterwards by the horrible sight of a decompos-
ing corpse. Then an ascetic appeared walking in a calm and dignified
manner, and the charioteer explained to the young prince the character
and aims of the ascetics.

5s Subjectively though not objectively,” says Mr. Rhys Davids, “ these
visions may be supposed to have appeared to Gautama,” and undoubt-
edly at this time the mind of the young Rajput had become deeply
stirred. The birth of his son did not deter Gautama from his resolu-
tion to lead an ascetic life, so that he might some days return to his
loved ones not only as husband and father but as teacher and saviour;
and on the night of the full moon in the month of July the young chief
left his father’s home, his wealth and power, his wife and child behind
him, and with Channa as his sole companion, went out into the wilder-
ness to become a penniless and despised student and a homeless wan-
derer. It would take too long here to attempt to explain the reasons
which made the visions of Buddha naturally relate to the sorrows and
emptiness of life, and not to the joys and promises of a future state.
The great object to be attained was to put an end for ever to the cycle
of births and deaths to which all human beings were considered subject,
and to pass this life in such a manner that complete absorption into
the World-Soul (Nirvana) should follow death.’ The aim was not that
conscious personal immortality, or that rejoicing in the love of a God
who loves his creatures, which is the strong desire of the heart of West-
ern peoples,

But in order to teach (what to him seemed) the way of salvation to

his fellow creatures, Gautama made the greatest and most complete — :

self sacrifice ever recorded of any human being; and for this great
renunciation his memory cannot be too highly honored.

5T. W. Rhys Davids, Buddhism. Ene. Bri., Vol. IV.

ê The Nirvana of Buddhism is simply extinction, op. cit., p. 434, and note 1.

4 Peay

i $ é
ae LY ns pea Os eigen cE CER RA,

1896,] Psychology. 603

Augustine, the great stay ad of Hippo may be taken asa type of the
‘mens sana in corpore sano.’ He was a man who drank deeply of all
joys, both of the body and the mind, which the cup of life could offer.
Yet his great powers and commanding intellect did not prevent his
hearing a “ divine voice ” which then and there influenced him to take
up the religious life. It is true that the mind of Augustine had been
deeply exercised by the search for truth, which ever seemed to elude
his grasp. Plato and St. Paul opened the way for higher thoughts, and
words of the latter were driven home with irresistible force to his con-
science, as with his friend Alypias he was studying the Pauline epistles.
The thought of divine purity fought in his heart, with the love of the
world and of the flesh which were sore temptations to a man so admir-
ably fitted to enjoy both. He burst into a flood of tears, and going out
into the garden flung himself under a fig tree that he might give his
tears full vent, and pour out his heart to God. Suddenly he heard a
voice calling him to consult the scriptures. * Take up and read, take
up and read.” He left off weeping, rose up and returning to his house
took up the volume from Alypius, and read in silence the words to be
found in Romans XIII, 13th and 14th verses. Augustine adds “I had
neither desire nor need to read further. As I finished the sentence the
light of peace had poured into my heart and all the shadows of doubt
dispersed. Thus hast Thou converted me to Thee . . . standing
fast in that rule of faith which Thou so many years before had revealed
to my mother.” (Confessions, VIII, 30). This appears to have been
the only occasion when a hallucinatory (?) voice was heard by Augus-
tine, but its influence lasted for his whole life.

For that experience which points to the state commonly known as
ecstacy, I shall take the experience, not of a saint, nor of a prophet,
but of a plain American citizen of our own day, a locomotive engineer
who worked chiefly in Ohio and Indiana.

| eoplatonism was a philosophical religion, in no way founded on any revela-
tion real or imagined. Its great expounder Plotinus says simply of his own ex-
perience of “ecstacy ” [that is of the sense of absorption into the Divine Beings] _
“ I myself have experienced it but three times.” But his pupil and disciple Por-

hyry says that on four occasions eaen six years of their intercourse Plotinus
attained to the ecstatic union with God

It is surely contrary to the t tific spirit to i this strong, overmaster-
ing instinct of the human mind towards union with some “Power, brh itself,
which makes for righteousness,” and which appears in equal strength in the
Hindoo, the Mahometan, the mediæval saints, the taion mystics; and in the
Neoplatonists—who had no “religious superstition” to influence them, and no
hell to terrify them, but who were possessed only with the sense of an overwhelm-
ing need for union with the Divine.

604 The American Naturalist. [July,

This engineer, whose name was Skilton, was engaged with two other
men in unloading a freight car. Just as he had lifted a barrel out to
the platform he saw a “ person standing” “on his right hand clothed
in white” “and with a bright countenance”; and “ putting his hand on
my shoulder.” ‘He said ‘Follow me’.” A long description ensues
of the happy and beautiful place to which this personage led him; a
place where the inhabitants did not converse by sound but knew each
other’s thoughts on the instant, and where he saw his mother, his sisters
and his child. In fact the heaven it was natural for the percipient to
to imagine, though—be it remarked not the heaven of harps and white
nightgowns of popular theology—but such a heaven as the seer might
naturally desire. Mr. Skilton describes the earth on his return as ap-
pearing to be seen from a great height, trees buildings, etc., gradually
came into sight, and finally he reached the car which he had begun to
unload, and then the guide vanished. “I spoke then” he says (just as
I opened my watch and found it had been just twenty-six minutes that
I had been engaged with that mysterious one) and said I thought I
had left this world for good. One of the men said: “ There is something
the matter with you ever since you opened the car door; we havn't
been able to get a word out of you” and that I had done all the work
of taking out everything, and putting it back into the car. I told them
where I had been and what I had seen, but they had seen noone. He
adds: “This I count the brightest day of my life, and what I saw is
worth a life time of hardship and toil. Being in good health, and busy
about my work and my mind not more than ordinarily engaged on the
great subject of eternal life, I consider this a most extraordinary
incident.” ê

If it be said there is no corroboration of Mr. Skilton’s statements
neither is there any corroboration of any other similar statement; and
if I have chosen his experience from among many others, it is simply
to show that whatever religions (?) experiences occurred to persons in
past times, occur in precisely the same way now.

As an exemplification of the law that all spiritual (?) experiences are
coloured by the prepossessions of the percipients, I may take the
numerous cases of the alleged appearances of the Virgin Mary. The
apparition to Bernadette Soubirons is only one amongst many, and in
this case as in most others expectant attention is not a factor. The
Virgin appeared to Bernadette when she was certainly not expecting to

8 Communicated to Professor James of Harvard by Mr. Skilto

*The exaggerations found in legendary times constitute a totally different
branch of T

1896.] Psychotogy. 605

see anything; and the crowds of pilgrims who have gone to Lourdes in
a state of vivid expectant attention haveseen nothing.

I have no space to describe the many instances I have met with of
recent appearance of the Virgin Mary, under circumstances where
there can be no reasonable doubt of the good faith of the pereipients,
nor do I recall any circumstances of religions exaltation accompanying
these visions. Where pious Catholics see the Virgin Mary or the
saints, equally devout Protestants see Christ or an angel, and both see
spirits which they believe to be those of the blessed dead.

My own mind in regard to the question of religions experiences is in
the state of suspense of judgment,—the state of “pure aguosticism ”
advocated by G. J. Romanes. [I need hardly say that this is not the
agnosticism of scientific orthodoxy].

If in the present stage of our study of these phenomena we leave the
stage of pure agnosticism, one of two hypotheses must, it seems to me,
be accepted. Either such experiences are due (in persons otherwise
rational and capable of carrying out the business of life) to some “ organ
of spiritual experience,” or they are allin the domain of morbid psycho.
logy. The evidence is of a similar nature in all these cases, whether of
Paul, or Mahomet, or Ansel Bourne, or Bunyan or Socrates or Mr.
Skilton; the hallucination (?) visual or auditory or both is only mani-
fest to the percipient, and to him appears objective. In the case of
what are called “ collective hallucinations ”—which are not uncommon,
we have also only the evidence of the percipients, who see what others
do not see. The great difficulty in accepting the hypothesis that there
is some real communication possible from “a Power not ourselves
which makes for righteousness,” is the frequent association of religions

‘hallucinations with insanity. But if there be an “ organ of spiritual
insight ” it can act only subject to the general functions of the organ-
ism, and must be liable to partake of its disorders; it can only be the
frail machinery through which an Unknown Energy is acting.

So I leave the question, the most important, it seems to me, with
which Science can deal. The history of Ansel Bourne is extracted
from the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research.

ALICE BODINGTON.

606 The American Naturalist. [July,

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Mr. Keane on Paleolithic Man.—Mr. A. H. Keane in his re-
cent publication “ Ethnology ” takes serious exception to my denial of
there having been a paleolithic period, and says“ Paleolithic necessarily
antedates Neolithic Culture.” In what does this necessity consist? Why
should Paleolithic precede Neolithic Culture? The names it is true
signify old and new, but are at best arbitrary, being a suggestion of
Sir John Lubbock to distinguish a supposed “chipped” from a
“polished” stone period. Mr. Keane says “ where there is a time
sequence, the chipped stones being of ruder and simpler formation, nat-
urally precede the more perfected polished objects.” The proof of a
“time sequence ” is by no means a settled question, this assertion being
negatived in one way or another by every writer on Archeology. The i
chipped stones are not “ruder” than. polished stones, nor are they :
_*“simpler ” in shape, material or facility with which the shape may be
given. I have only attempted to discuss the subject from a technical
standpoint and from the writings on the subject generally, from either
of these points, however, or from both together I contend my position .
is sustained. Chipping stone is a more difficult mechanical process than
grinding and pecking stone, it is more complicated in its minutis, in-
volving, it is true, blows with a hammer, the difference being that the
chipper’s blow is of necessity more deliberate, slower and of necessity |
more accurate than the blow given in pecking. A doubt of the ;
accuracy of this proposition may be solved by taking a flint anda
diorite and attempting with any hammer to shape them. If ordinarily
careful the diorite will be worn into shape, while on the other hand
the chances are many to one that the flint is destroyed before comple-
tion.

Mr. Keane objects that “European archeologists are asked to re-
consider their own conclusions.” Undue weight being shown to — :
have been given certain evidence, European archeologists owe it to
themselves to reconsider their conclusions. Up to a recent period it |
was believed generally that to shape a Neolith or ground implement :
was more difficult than it was to shape a Paleolith or chipped imple- |
ment, and such difficulty was used as the main evidence upon which to :
support the theory of a chipped preceding a polished stone age. Hav- |
ing been shown that the contrary was the case, one would presume

! This department is edited by H. C, Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

1896.] Anthropology. 607

European archeologists would seek to examine their error without be-
ing forced to do so. Mr. Keane says “ There is necessarily a time
sequence wherever the two cultures have been developed.” The mis-
take the author falls into is in declaring that to chip a stone or to
grind and peck a stone constitute two cultures, for experiment proves
the contrary ; try to chip a diorite and you only shape it by powdering
the surface, for it does not chip, try to batter a flint and it breaks
through the ordinary lines of cleavage and is destroyed, for it does not
peck.

Again the author of Ethnology says “that until it is shown that fire
arms are as old as paleoliths, no European archeologist will ever believe
that polished implements are as old as the chipped stones.” Though
this will hardly pass as scientific argument we would say, here again
Mr. Keane is in error, for instances of chipped and polished stones
being found in the same layer with fossil bones has been recorded
on too many occasions to leave room for doubt to one who would
decide on written authority alone. Up to this time Mr. Keane has
argued in favor of the simpler process preceding the complex, but here
he says “it is a fallacy to suppose that the easier process comes first,”
and instances “transport by wheeled vehicles or by steam as immeas-
urably easier than pack animals.” If we are to construe the word
“ easier ” as being synonomous with “simpler” it opens a new field of
argument to assert that the complex precedes the simple in machinery,
or that the machine of many parts is the ancestor of the machine of few
parts, this proposition will not meet with many supporters.

My views concerning the mechanical status of primitive peoples has
been formed solely from experiment with primitive tools and reading
the literature of archeology. The technology of archeology appears to
be little understood in Europe, its importance being almost ignored, as
is evidenced by the apparent inability to grasp the plainest mechanical
propositions. The results of my experiments are sustained by my field
discoveries as they are by research in the library, and considered from
any of these positions the fact that an identical mechanical culture
produced, chipped or polished stone appears to be indisputable. The
earliest cave remains show man to have made the best use of material
at his command. Where he had flint he chipped it ; if on the contrary
he lived in a region of metomorphic stone he would of necessity
hammer it into shape; if horn and ivory were plentiful he would saw
and grind it. If one will make experiments with primitive imple-
ments in reproducing primitive work they will not fail to appreciate
the correctness of the views here expressed. As illustration take

608 The American Naturalist. [May,

material from Magdalen Cave, from Les Eyzies, from St. Acheul,
from Moustier, from Chelles, even from Cissbury or from where one
will, and try to make from it arrow heads of a different type from
that usually found in the locality from which the material is brought
and examine the result. One finds that flint chips within certain lim-
its, for it depends even more on the material than on the workman as
to the shapes the nodules work into. The difference in the tool with
which the stone is worked is secondary to the texture of the stone.
One of the best illustrations of this is in the obsidian spear heads from
Easter Island. They are of a gritty texture, extremely rude, fully as
rude as the rudest paleolith, and are chipped almost entirely from one
side. Try to improve the shape of one of these implements and rude
as they are, failure is the inevitable result; try to chip it from the
wrong side and it breaks through and destroys the specimen, the best
and most expert workman cannot improve its shape. Take, however,
one of the obsidians from Mexico of even texture and to shape it in
most graceful form is most easy, but with such material it would be
almost impossible to imitate the rough arrow heads of Easter Island.
The same stone varies enormously in its fracture in different layers, yet
archeologists do not appear to have noticed the fact.

nly a few years since it was argued that paleolithic man was
primitive man, man low in the scale of human development, to-day
paleolithic man is apparently only primitive as a flint chipper, but an
artist as a bone or ivory worker; the fact that technically considered
the work necessary to shape a so-called “ Baton of Command,” itself
probably a chipping tool, was identical with the chief work on the

ELEA a | Me ie rene ah eon nents Lio ade ger nf Se EAR ee AR Sa tela >

ec eae et

by many it was admitted, yet even now many deny that pottery is as
ancient as many of the paleolithic cave strata,

J. D. McGuire. ©

Cave Exploration by the University of Pennsylvania
in Tennessee.—Preliminary Report——To learn that the remains
of Plistocene Man have been abundantly found in the caves
Europe ; that equally significant remains of later savage, barbarous
and civilized peoples have been similarly discovered in the caves
of Europe, Asia and Africa; and that the remains of the Indian
and the recent White Man have been found in caverns in No i

1896.] Anthropology. 609

_ America; warrants the supposition, that in the subterranean floor
deposits of the new world, the problematic existence of Plistocene
Man might be soonest and easiest demonstrated, while with hardly
less ground we may urge as valuable testimony in the American
region the absence of such remains in significant underground shelters.
Not unreasonably such absence, occurring invariably at these immem-
orial halting places of men and animals, might indicate that Plistocene
Man had never existed in the adjacent regions.

By this course of reasoning and investigation the University of Penn-
sylvania has sought to solve definitely the question first to.attract and
last to puzzle American students—How long has Man existed in the
New World? Striving to limit the speculations of archeologists, the
work has proceeded by degrees to reconcile with geology their study of
pre-Columbian peoples, which, fascinating as it is, has lacked thus far
subdivisions, landmarks and starting point, while an effort to eliminate,
through the investigation of significant caves, one region after another
from the field of search, has sought to narrow the area of possible
discovery from the point of view explained. Having shown on the
one hand that certain caverns like the fissure at Port Kennedy, (right
bank of Schuylkill River, 3 miles below mouth of Perkiomen Creek,
Montgomery County, Penna.,) containing in large quantity the remains
of Plistocene animals without relics of Man, are geologically ancient,
on the other hand, a fact of much significance has been demonstrated
for the first time, namely, that a considerable number of other caves
are modern, since their floors, well supplied with the refuse of Indians
and later White Men, below which remains of geologically older
peoples would not have been lacking in Europe, have failed to reveal
any relic of Plistocene Man.

In these several instances the geologically modern remains (human)
and the geologically ancient remains (animal) have lain apart in dis-
tinct caves, and hence less ayailably for comparative study, but the
recent expedition in Tennessee, resulting in the examination of three
caves in which the old and new deposits lay in juxtaposition, has
enabled us to push the question farthur by studying the relation between
the ancient and modern strata where, at their point of contact, it was
most significant.

More broken and scattered even than at the remarkable tomb of
extinct animals at Port Kennedy, were the remains of the Tapir, Pec-
cary, Bear and smaller Mammalia at Zirkel’s Cave, (left bank of
Dumpling Creek, about 5 miles above its mouth in French Broad

42

610 The American Naturalist. [July,

River, Jefferson County, Tennessee,) visited by Professor Cope in 1869.
Dislocated as before after the flesh had rotted, the bones were crushed
= by a force which had split them into fragments, and were deposited
with a mass of clay mixed with lime, which filled the descending cave.
Hardened finally into breccia not easily broken with the pickaxe,
this bone bearing earth had disappeared at many points to make
room for a deposit of cave earth containing the remains of the Rattle-
snake, Woodchuck, Opossum, Rabbit and Cave Rat. It is the

important relation of this latter modern earth, with its bits of mica

and Indian pottery, to the older breccia that will constitute the
material for a final report.

Previous examination, in 1893, at the Lookout Cave, (left bank of
the Tennessee River, one-quarter of a mile below Chattanooga Creek,
Hamilton County, Tennessee,) had revealed the bones of the Tapir
and Mylodon in the lowermost zone of a floor deposit of Indian refuse,
and upon the recent expedition the cave earth with its“ culture layer”
was entirely removed for 58 feet inward from the entrance to settle
beyond doubt the relation of these fossils to the Indian remains resting
upon them. At this significant spot, where again the Plistocene and
recent deposits lay in contact, and where the specimens found were
labeled according to their position, whether from the black (modern)
earth above or the yellow (ancient) earth below, a completed examina-
tion should decide whether Man had or had not encountered the Tapir
and Mylodon in the Valley of the Tennessee.

After a visit to “ Indian Cave” on the Holston River, Carrol’s Cave,
and the Copperas and Bone Caves, near Tullahoma and Manchester,
Tennessee, a new set of conditions was presented at Big Bone Cave

(1 mile from the left bank of Caney Fork and about 2 miles above its — :

-mouth in Rocky River, Van Buren County, Tennessee.) There the

bones of the Gigantic Fossil Sloth (Megalonyz,) still retaining their —
cartilages, were exhumed from a dry deposit of the refuse of Porcu- `

pines and Cave Rats, mingled with fragments of reeds used as torches

by Indians in a gallery 900 feet from the entrance, thus presenting us

< in the final summing up of this strange evidence a new notion of the

relation of the modern Indian to this extinct animal, whose remains @

outnumber all its fossil contemporaries at Port Kecsedy.

Thanks are due to Dr. William Pepper, to the Board of Managers
and to Professor E. D. Cope for their kind co-operation in the expedi-
tion thus finished, which, at a cost of $300, has presented the Museum
with the specimens now under examination. These, if not attractive,

Seales a ai ge Rs ate

aS ecu aaa Aa oa 8 Sede Bes ih doen Agta RNG Ah ch ae eg a ke

ste Tah a dae

ada S

4896]. Scientific News. 611

are important. For Paleontology they mark in the bone breccia of
Zirkel’s Cave, a distinct stage in the Plistocene series, while for Anthro-
pology they represent data which account for the presence of Man
together with the bones of the extinct Megalonyx. They explain the
relics of savages and the remains of Plistocene mammals at two caves
situated in the Eastern Valley of Tennessee at a height of about 600
to 700 feet above the sea and within earlier reach of an overwhelming
-ocean in Champlain time, and again at a third cave, which, 300 feet
higher on the continental floor and looking westward from the slopes
of the Cumberland table-land, stands for that part of the Appalachian
region whither animals and Man (if he existed) might have found con-
venient refuge when lower areas sunk, as is alleged, beneath the level
-f the invading waters.—HENRY C. MERCER.
Aldie, June 4, 1896.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The proposed general synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (Das Thier-
reich) to be issued by the German Zoological Society, is one of the
greatest undertakings ever planned in the line of bookmaking. It is
proposed to give a short general account of each group, and following
this is a synopsis of all existing forms, including those which have re-
cently become extinct. The general editor of the whole series is Prof.
Franz Eilhard Schulze of the University of Berlin, and he is assisted
by the following department editors: Prof. O. Biitschli, Protozoa;
Prof. C. Chun, Coelenterata; Prof. M. Braun, Plathelminthes ; Prof.
J. W. Spengel, Vermes; Dr. W. Kobelt, Mollusca; Dr. W. Giesbrecht,
Crustacea; Prof. R. Latzel, Myriapoda; Prof. F. Dahl, Arachnida ;
Dr. H. oa Orthoptera ; Mr. A. Handlirsch, Neuroptera, Hemip-
tera; Dr. H. J. Kolbe, Coleoptera ; Prof. C. W. Della Torre, Hymen-
optera; Dr, A. Seitz, Lepidoptera; Prof. J. Mik, Diptera; Prof. F.
Blochmann, Brachiopoda ; Prof. E. Ehlers, Polyzoa; Prof. J. W. Spen-
gel, Tunicata; Dr. G. Pfeffer, Fishes; Dr. O. Boettger, Batrachia and
Reptila; Prof. A. Reichenow, Birds, and Prof. L. Döderlein, Mam-
mals. These will be assisted by a host of collaborators for special
groups, and the names of these, as far as announced, assures us of the

~

: 612 The American Naturalist. (July,

- nell, under the direction of R. S. Tarr, will accompany Lieut. Peary on —

18-20th next, is to be held in the Caruegie Library Building, Pitts —

: ments will be mailed to all members.

_dinary Professor of Zoology in the University of Erlangen.

most authoritative treatment. The whole work will be of enormous
extent, and it is estimated that it will take twenty-five years for its
completion. It will be issued in parts of an average size of 48 pages, —
and the price charged to subscribers for the whole series will be 70 pf. —
(174 cents) for each “signature” of 16 pages; single subjects will be —
sold at an advance of 4 above this price. It is estimated thatthe
Flatworms will occupy 4 parts; the Crustacea 11,the Hymenoptera
13; the Mollusca 15, the Reptiles 3, and the Birds 16. The total will —
be over 120,000 pages, and the series, when complete, in large octavos,
will occupy not far from 30 feet of shelf room. The publishers of the —
series are the well-known R. Friedländer & Sohn, of Berlin, and they —
have already issued a sample number, embracing the group of Helio- —
zoa, treated by Dr. F. Schaudim, of Berlin... This occupies 24 pages. —
It is expected to begin regular publication with the year 1897, and the ,
parts will be issued as fast as possible, without regard to their sequence
in the whole work.

PEE I AEO

It will probably be interesting to know that a party of five from Cor- a

the trip to Greenland this summer. The party will be so constituted
that the results will cover the several fields of natural history, although —
the main object will be the study of geology, and especially glaciation. —

The next meeting of the American Microscopical Society, August :

burg. The local Committee on Arrangements is organized: C. ©. i
Mellor, Chairman; Mayness Pflaum, Secretary and Treasurer, and C.
G. Neilnor, Chairman Finance Committee, either of whom will be glad
to give members and others desiring to attend all necessary informa-
tion. As soon as sufficient arrangements are made, special announce

Dr. R. Wagner, of Strassburg, has been appointed assistant in Vege-
table Physiology in the University of Munich, and Dr. A. Y. Grevi
lius, of Upsala, assistant in Botany at Minster.

The Royal Belgian Academy of Sciences has recently elected Pro-
fessors E. Strasburger, E. D: Copė, E. J. Marey and Sir A. eat
honorary membership.

Prof. M. Treub, Director of the Botanical Gardens, at Buitens
who has been spending some time in Europe, has returned to Java.

Dr. A. Fleischmann has been advanced to the position of Extraor-

AL

PLATE

‘mnauBo[ey ‘q ‘snpesuysy ‘Q ‘sesXydida jeaqəaya y ‘J'Y “BIB soĝepuvo aBpnonaE qua uosa fol viuombapg

1896.] ~- Seientifie News. 613

The Royal Irish Academy recently elected Sir Joseph Lister, T. G.
Bonney and Sir W. H. Flower to honorary membership.

Dr. G. A. J. A. Ondermann, Professor of Botany in the University
of Amsterdam, has retired on account of his great age.

Mr. A. Lawson, botanist and director of the Cinchona plantations in
the Madras district, died at Madras, February 14th.

Prof. D. Barfurth, of Dorpat, goes to the University of Rostock as
Ordinary Professor of Comparative Anatomy.

Dr. H. Ph. Foullon von Norbeck has been appointed Chief Geolo-
gist to the Austrian Geological Survey.

Dr. G. Rörig, of Berlin, goes to the University of Königsberg as
Extraordinary Professor of Zoology.

Mr. H. M. Drummond-Hay, ornithologist and ichthyologist, died re-
cently at Perth, Scotland, aged 82.

Dr. J. Briquet, of Genoa, has been ai poibted Director of the Deles-
sert Herbarium in that city.

Mr. J. H. Ashworth succeeds Dr. Hurst as Lecturer on Zoology in
Owens College, Manchester.

Mr. A. S. Olliff, entomologist, died in Sydney, N. S. W., December
29, 1895, aged 30 years.

W. L. Sclater, of Eton College, goes to Cape Town as Curator of the
South African Museum.

Dr. Thilenius has been made privat docent in Anatomy in the Uni-
versity at Strassburg.

Dr. C. Herbert Hurst, of Manchester, goes to Dublin as assistant to
Prof. A. C. Haddon.

Dr. A. Smirnow, of Kazan, goes to the University of Tomsk as Pro-
fessor of Histology.

Col. Plunkett has been elected Director of the Science and Art Mu-
seum in Dublin.

Dr. A. Bogdanof, Profan of Zoology in the University of Moscow,
died in April.

Dr. G. Fatta has been appointed assistant in the Botanical Institute
at Palermo.

614 The American Naturalist. [July,.
Dr. R. Oestreich is now privat docent in Anatomy in the University
of Berlin.

Dr. Szymonowicz is privat docent in Histology in the University of
Cracow.

Dr. Gruner, of Jena, goes on an expedition to Togo, German West.
Africa.

Prof. Ph. C.Sappey, the well known anatomist, died in Paris, March.
13th.

A. Duvivier, student of Coleoptera, died in Brussels, Jan. 14, 1896.
F. Ludy, coleopterologist, died March 1st.

ADVERTISEMENTS. i

Dringende Bitte

Um das Erscheinen des

Botanischen ahresberichts

möglichst zu beschleunigen, wie eine Steigerung der Zuver-

lassigkeit in der Berichterstattung zu erlangen, richten wir
an die

Botaniker aller Lander
die dringende Bitte um gefiillige schleunige Zusendung ihrer
Arbeiten, namentlich auch der Sonderabdriicke aus Zeit-
schriften, etc.
Alle Sendungen sind zu richten an den Herausgeber.

Professor Dr. E. Koehne,

Friedenau-Berlin,
Kirchstrasse 5.

OF INTEREST TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE.

THE OBSERVER
All Departments of Nature Studies.

OUR MOTTO:
“Keep Your Eyes Open”

(To observe the wonders and beauties of Nature.)

o Official Organ of the Agassiz Association.

Consists of Three Departments:
1. The Outdoor World. 2. Agassiz Association.
Practical Microscopy.

E. F. BIGELOW, Managing Editor and Publisher, Portland, Conn.

it ADVERTISEMENTS.

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ADVERTISEMENT». iii

r- .. BIOLOGICAL WORKS.
ON GERMINAL SELECTION. As a Source of Definitely Directed
‘ariation. By Prof August Weismann. With a Preface an Ap-
pendix, giving the history and present pap pr pinion regarding
natural selection. Paper, 70 pages; price,

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NAGING EDITOR
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ASSOCIATE EDITORS:
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Vol. XXX. AUGUST, 1896. No. 356

CONTENTS.

PAGE

P
the Jenny Jump Mountains, New Jersey—Un-
ios from the Trias—The Cadurcotherium—
Notes on the Fossil Mammalia of Europe,

THe OLDEST CIVILIZED MEN. aoa
ope. 616

' ON THE Rote or ACID IN THE bean OF
CERTAIN RHIZOPODS,

i n C. Urs ah D, 619
` THE BACTERIAL PENA OF PLAN es RITICAL
REVIEW oF THE PRESENT As

KNOWLEDGE. Erwin F. ee ts 626 | ted States—Diseases of Citrous ae

THE MEANING AND RERA OF. THE So-CALL- ford’s Agaves of the United States. ... [
ED“ MUSHROOMS uae OF THE HEXA- | Zoolegy—Sense of Sight in Spiders Okamih
C. Kenyon, Ph, D. 643 | cation and Geographical Distribution of the

POD Bra AIN,
Evrror’s TABLE .—Priority 4 Publication ; Vice
residents of the American Association ;
. 651

pugids—The Bears of North America.
ts CENT Books AND PAMPHLETS. - . - 657
GENERAL NoTES

4 Ple Crystalline Rocks from India and Australia
ck frets Png of Diabase-—Petrographice!
: 66

Pai bsd Poleiro- Tbe Daaa of

The Phylogeny of Anoplotherium. .
Botany—De Toni’s Sylloge Aleari SO
Flora of the Black Hills of South

„Reptilia of yaa tae Moulting of ie :

The Florida Dee

. 67
pate iia ae Forbes’ Fighth kiha ;
Back—Proteid Di- —
gesting Saliva in Insect Larve—Weismann on ~
Dimorphism in Butterflies—Note on the Class- Be

077

—Flies Riding on Beetle’s

ification of Diplopoda

Embryology—The Tentacular Apparatus of
Amphiuma. (Illustrated). .

Psychology —Synethesia and Syn

Anthropology—E-xploration by a University.
of Pennsylvania in West Florida.
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104 distinguished writers.

ATURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published 63 specially contrib-
uted Articles in all branches of Zoology, Botany, and Geology,
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say Bates, as and Periodicals,

Js
i's
E p

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ad

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Promecvener poe

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Sumerian Tablets from Nippur. From Hilprecht.

Ai

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vör. KAN August, 1896. 356

THE OLDEST CIVILIZED MEN.
By E. D. CoPE.

Recent explorations in Babylonia have given us much in-
formation as to the characters and customs of the oldest civil-
ized people of whom we have any knowledge. The earlier ex-
plorations were conducted by M. de Sarzec, French consul at
Bagdad, and the report of his work was issued in a magnificent
folio in joint authorship with the distinguished anthropologist
of Paris, M. Leon Heuzey, beginning in 1889. A little later
the department of Archeology and Paleontology of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania sent out Messrs. J. P. Peters and J. H.
Haynes to make excava
plain. They selected Nippur or Nufar as the point of research,
and work has been continued there from 1888 to the present
year. The climate of this place is very trying, and the char-
acter of the people dangerous, but Mr. Haynes on whom much
of the actual labor fell, obtained an amount of material which
in quantity and quality equals that obtained by the museums
of London and Paris.

The Philadelphia m
Herman Hilprecht, Professor of À
Semitic Philology in the University

43

aterial has been investigated by Dr.
ssyrian and comparative
of Pennsylvania, and he

616 The American Naturalist. [August,

has published two memoirs of great interest in the transactions
of the American Philosophical Society, the second of which
was issued in the present year. From this memoir and the pre-
vious one of De Sarzec and Heuzey I compile a few facts regard-
ing the physical characters and habits of the earliest inhabit-
ants of Chaldea, the Sumerians or Accadians. The informa-
tion on these points is obtained largely from statues and picture-
carvings on tablets of a dark limestone, found by De Sarzec at
Tel-lo, and by Haynes at Nippur. The figures of animals of
known species are so characteristic as to prove that the artists
possessed a true eye for form. We may infer that their delin-
eations of man are equally accurate, and that the conspicuous
characters which they exhibit are trustworthy delineations.
The general resemblance between the features depicted show
that we have to do with an interesting and peculiar race.

In the numbers of the Naturatist for January and Febru-
ary, 1893, Mrs. A. Bodington gave our readers a sketch of the
Sumerian question. She followed the belief which had
gained currency at one time, that these people were of Mongo-
lian origin. Others have suggested that they were African.
The drawings and statues described by Heuzey and Hilprecht
show that these ideas were quite unfounded. I reproduce one
of the latter from Hilprecht (Plate XVI, 1. c.), which is known
as the stele of Ur-Inlil. Ur-Inlil was the high priest (or padesi)
of Nippur, and he is represented as making an offering to some
god on the upper half of the drawing. On the lower half a
goat and a sheep are followed by two men, one of whom carries
a vessel on his head, the other carries a stick (Plate XII). An-
other tablet from Nippur displays the same kind of men, and
they are also represented on eleven tablets figured by De Sar-
zec and Heuzey from Tel-lo.

That these represent a race advanced in civilization is clear.
They built temples and palaces on huge plateaus constructed
of brick. They carved statues and vessels and made pottery.
Especially they left records of their history on numerous cy-
linders and tablets of clay of which many have been preserved.
They formed organized armies armed with spears, bows, and
shields. What relation did these people bear to the people

1896.] The Oldest Civilized Men. 617

of Nineveh whose monuments were revealed to Europe by the
labors of Rawlinson, thirty-five years ago? Heuzey declares
them to have been older than the Assyrians, and this position
is proven by Hilprecht, who believes their earliest king whose
name is preserved in the records of Nippur, Enshagsagana, to
have lived 4500 B.C. Many kings intervened between him
and Sargon I with whom Assyrian history for a long time
commenced. These people were predecessors of the Assyrians of
Nineveh, and gave them their cuneiform characters, but they
differed from them in customs, and to some extent in language.
One marked difference of custom, was the fashion of shaving
the hair from all parts of the head excepting the eyebrows.
Everyone knows on the contrary that the Ninevites took great
pride in their hair, and that both on the calvarium and face it
was curled and arranged with great care. The figures also show
that the Sumerians did not practice circumcision as most
Semitic and some other races have done.

The shaving enables as to get a pretty good idea of the form
of the head and face. The skull is oval, rather long and flat,
and probably mesaticephalic. The jaws both upper and lower,
are remarkably small, giving an extreme orthognathic type
The nose is remarkably long, prominent and curved, with a
good bridge. The eyes are large, horizontal, and not bridled.
The cheek-bones are not large, and.in the supposed gods, where
the hair remains, and in a few other unshaved portraits, the
beard is abundant, and the ends of the hair of the calvarium
curled up. The figure of the body is robust, broad and rather
short. The extensor muscles, i. e. gluteus, quadriceps, and
gastrocnemius are well developed. i

From the above it is evident that no thought of Mongolian
(=turanian) or Ethiopian relationship can be admitted. After
a study of some of the least characteristic heads broken from
statues, M. Heuzey remarks, that “ the evidence is not sufficient
to demonstrate the existence of Turanians in Chaldea.” These
people are clearly of the great Indoeuropean subspecies of man
(Homo sapiens caucasicus), so that the question reduces itself to
one of the determination of their race position. Are they
_ Aryans, or Semitics? using these two terms as covering all the
forms of the greater subspecies to which they belong. In the

618 The American Naturalist. [August,

determination of these minor divisions of man,-physical char-
acters begin to fail us. We ean only say that if the term
Aryan is used for the western peoples generally, the Sumer-
ians differ from them in the direction of the Semitics by their
large oval eyes and hooked noses. On the other hand, the
small and delicate jaws are not features of Semitic peoples.
But the people of Persia or Iranians, hold very much this inter-
mediate position between the two peoples. We scarcely know
the shape of the jaws and chins of the Ninevites for they are
never shaved. So far as the visible features go they resemble
the Sumerians. It is on all grounds to be supposed that the
people of Nippur and Tel-lo are the primitive Aryans of the
Iranian or Persian race, and ancestors of the Ninevites.

In any case it is evident that we have in these most ancient
of civilized people, a type of man as high as any that has since
appeared from the point of view of physical evolution. The
extreme orthognathism; the prominence of the nose; the
reduction of the cheek bones, the full beard; and the well
developed extensor muscles of the leg, prove this. Homo
sapiens caucasicus had reached his full characters on the plains
of the Euphrates 6400 years ago.

The relation of time and race of the oldest civilizations to
the prehistoric peoples, is a problem which will doubtless be
solved in time. Did the Neolithic people exist in Europe con-
temporaneously with the Sumerians of Chaldea? The only
light that can be thrown on the question is as follows. The
Sumerians were not stone people, but bronze people. They
had no knowledge of iron. No search has been made for the
remains of animals which were their contemporaries, but
several species are clearly represented on their sculptures. The
most common are the lion and the ox (Bos taurus, not the
buffalo). There is a good drawing of a gazelle in the collec-
tion of the University of Pennsylvania. The goat and sheep
represented on the accompanying Plate XII, are species now
existing in Persia. The goat is near the Capra xgagrus of the
mountains of East Persia, the ancestor of the domestic goat ;
and the sheep is apparently the wild sheep of the same region
Ovis vignei. So from a paleontological point of view, the Sum-
erlans were quite modern.

1896.] Acid in the Digestion of Certain Rhizopods, 619

ON THE ROLE OF ACID IN THE DIGESTION OF
CERTAIN RHIZOPODS.

By Jonn C. Hemmeter, M. D.,

In the “ Annales de l’Institut Pasteur,” for 1890 and 1891,
there are two papers by M. Felix le Dantec on “ Researches on
the intracellular digestion among the Protozoa,” which are de-
tailed accounts of systematic experimentation concerning the
occurrence of acid in the digestive vacuoles of Protozoa.

In 1889, E. Metchnikoff published a discussion of the reac-
tion of plasmodia to ingested litmus, also in the “ Annales de
PInst. Pasteur.”

Miss M. Greenwood and E. R. Saunders, in the “ Journal of
Physiology,” Vol. XVI, 5 and 6, 1894, have published an ex-
haustive account of the function of acid in Protozoan digestion,
of which the following brief abstract is considered necessary
before proceeding to the original part of this report.

It was found that while these protozoa ingest solid matter
constantly and promiscuously, such matter has a determinate
fate. If it is innutritious it is ejected after lying in contact
with the animal’s substance for a length of time which varies
with many changing conditions. Nutritious matter, on the
other hand, during enclosure in food vacuoles undergoes pro-
found change, and this change is effected by something passed
out of the protoplasm into the vacuole, acting in a fluid me-
dium and by its presence making that medium deserving of
the name “secretion.” In Actinospaerium, also, and in Amoe-
ba proteus, digestion in like manner is effected, not by direct
contact with the acting protoplasm but by some constituent of ©
a fluid, the formation of which the presence of food alone is
potent to bring about. These protozoa depend upon the solu-
tion of proteid for nourishment. Starch undergoes no diges-
tive change, and the value of ingested fat globules i is doubtful.

The following is a report on the role of acid in these diges-
tive vacuoles. For method of observation, it may be briefly

1 Phil. D. Etc. Baltimore, Md.

620 The American Naturalist. — [August,

stated, that plasmodia and Vorticellidee were watched for peri-
ods which varied from one to fifteen days; large plasmodia
were isolated or preserved in concave slides. Even on plane
slides the pressure of the cover slip was slight enough to allow
of the emission of short pseudopodia in planes at right angles
to the plane of extension of the slide and the animals, by
means of pipettes, were transferred to fresh water daily.

In a synopsis of the work of Greenwood and Saunders, in a
previous report bearing on this matter, in the Journ. of
Physiol., the changes undergone by litmus, Congo red and
alizarin sulphate, and the solution of the globoids of aleurone
grains, which are composed of a delicate nitrogenous capsule
enclosing pure calcium and magnesium phosphate, were de-
scribed. It was emphasized that the outpouring of acid is un-
accompanied by any digestive change on nutritive matter ;
ingesta may indeed be stored for many hours in vacuoles be-
fore they are dissolved, or digestion may follow rapidly on in-
gestion. But the formation of the digestive vacuole, whether
immediate or delayed, is preceded by the development of acid
reaction and followed by its diminution. Bearing in mind
that litmus is changed from blue to red not only by free acid,
but also by unsaturated compounds of acid with the products
of digestion, i. e., acid salts. And that Congo red changes to
blue in presence of free acid only. Itis apparent that the dim-
inution of acid in a digestive vacuole is at first due to a com-
bination with the products of digestion, for at this stage any
litmus accompanying ingesta is still red, while Congo red has
reverted to that tint from blue. Here free acid is absent but
acid salts are present. But later on the vacuoles and ingesta,
reddened by litmus, become violet and blue so that finally
acid and acid combinations are alike absent. That the acid
is at one time free is indicated unmistakably by the striking
development of violet colors in solids stained with Congo red.
Now as the amount of acid present at any moment must be
very small, and this being so, that the change in Congo red |
should be speedy and striking suggests that it is an inorganic
acid but it is probable that to emphasize such an inference
would be hasty.

1896.] Acid in the Digestion of Certain Rhizopods. 621

In most of the existing records of Protozoan digestion there
are indications thatthe process shows irregularity in its outset
and progress. It is not easy to foretell the immediate fate of
ingested matter though of its ultimate fate there may be little
doubt. There may be marked inhibition of digestive activity
even after free ingestion. In plasmodia ingested nutrient
matter may be actually discharged after very imperfect diges-
tion. One of the most puzzling phenomena, however, that
has been described by all observers in this field, has been
termed by Greenwood and Saunders the stage of storage.
This process consists in the preservation of ingested food
masses, Which on first enclosure have been surrounded by
liquid within a vacuole, in a shrunken seemingly very acid
state. At times 100 non vacuolate, acid ingesta may lie within
the substance of a vorticella, whilst active digestive solution is
going on in other food vacuoles at same time.

The storage of nutritious ingesta for hours and days in a
condition in which acid indicators give evidence of an acid
condition, whilst the same kind of nutritious material will
undergo rapid digestive solution in an adjacent vacuole, nat-
urally excites one’s curiosity. For a long time I had been
looking in vain for some explanation of this phenomenon
when an accident gave opportunity of viewing it in a new
light.

The plasmodia of a large mycetozoon, most probably Lam-
proderma scintillans, had been under observation for about three
weeks. Some of these amoeboid organisms were so large as
to more than cover the field of vision when objective D and
apochromatic eye-piece, No. 4 of Zeiss were used. They
showed a habit of devouring everything in their vicinity in
the ditch water in which they were cultivated, as a result of
which they were at times so filled with debris that no accurate
observations were possible. It was planned to transfer them
gradually by pipettes into clearer and clearer water and by
starvation compel them to rid themselves of the dirt they
contained. This proved successful and after 8-18 days of
transferring the plasmodia were in practically clear water, free
from alge, infusorie, gregarines, bacteria, etc., and the usual

622 The American Naturalist. [August,

fauna and flora of ditch water. It was a surprise to find that
dried egg albumen stained or ingested with litmus and Congo
red, under these new conditions, was as a rule promptly dis-
solved in the vacuoles, taking from 5-24 hours for completion
of the digestive act. The same occurred with stained globoids
of aleurone grains of ricinus and with stained torule. These
experiments were repeated many times on many different
individuals, and though food ingesta were occasionally observed
in astage of storage, this was the great exception. .

The scarcity of storage vacuoles in such plasmodia that had
been kept in clear water for nearly a week and given oppor-
tunity to disgorge the debris with which they were loaded
was conjectured might be brought about by two factors :

(1) The first was that the process of clearing and transfer-
ring them to distilled water (in which they do not thrive as
well as in Pasteur’s fluid with } % Na cl) the organisms had
been starved and in a sense were too hungry to store food par-
ticles, but went to work at them immediately. There is no
method conceivable by which such a supposition could be put
to experimental test, for which reason it cannot be contradicted
or prov

` The second supposition was that (2) absence of storage vac-
uoles might be caused by absence of bacteria, for in their nor-
mal environment the Protozoa are generally in close company
with swarms of Bacieriwm termo, zooglea of micrococei and
manifold spirilli and other schizomycetes, and by cultivation
they had been brought into an almost aseptic, sterile environ-

ment.

The latter hypothesis is capable of experimental testing.
For if bacteria will produce the phenomenon of storage then
the supplying of septic food will be all that is requisite to add
to the sterile solution. Asa matter of fact it will be found
that this is exactly what will happen. In a plasmodium that
had shown 8 storage vacuoles in 24 hours of observation in
a solution of } % sodium chlorde (in distilled water) in which
it had been kept one week, 48 storage vacuoles were observed
in the next 10 hours on supplying dried albumen dust,
moistened with the zoogloea from a Hay infusion.

1896.] Acid in the Digestion of Certain Rhizopods. 623

Vorticellidee which take in food particles readily are remark-
ably free from bacteria in their food vacuoles. Amoeba and
plasmodia alike exercise to some extent a selective ingestion.
Greenwood and Saunders claim to have watched Amoeba pro-
teus for 14 days when surrounded with Bact. termo, vibrios and
micrococci and the absence of bacteria from the endosare was
remarkable. They are taken in, it would seem, as unavoid-
able accompaniments of surrounding food only. Bacteria are
not recorded to have been observed ingested by protozoa per
se.
Another evidence of selective ingestion has been mentioned
by Dantec, l. ¢., as distinguishing between inert and living
matter. Active monads or groups of spirilli are placed in
marked vacuoles of ingestion, containing much of the acid se-
cretion in comparison to inert matter which is usually invested
very closely. We therefore have some evidence for assuming
that plasmodia and Vorticellide distinguish between inert food
and bacteria.

(1) Bacteria are rarely ingested except as unavoidable ac-
companiment of food. (2) Inert food, free from bacteria, is
invested closely. Septic food within wide vacuoles. (3) In
sterile environment, food in the stage of storage is the excep-
tion; in environment of bacteria, storage in acid vacuoles is
frequent. I have brought these facts before you in this in-
complete form, because the results are fairly uniform, and with
the hope of stimulating further observation of the matter.
These studies require no apparatus outside of the microscope
and acid indicators. The general suggestion drawn from the
result has a wider bearing than one would at first sight as-
sume. For if further study will confirm that the ingestion of
bacteria constantly prolongs the stage of maximum acidity
from the usual time of 24 hours to several days in rhizopods.
The suggestion is that the purpose of the acid is one of (disin-
fection) killing off bacteria.

There is a general uniformity of opinion that the presence
of acid is unaccompanied by any digestive change on nutritive
matter, which may be stored for many hours before it is dis-
solved and Greenwood and Saunders intimate that the endo-

624 The American Naturalist. [August,

sare secretes some zymogen which perfects the digestive secre-
tion.

The object to which the acid would seemingly serve in these
organisms, which may be said to be on the very threshhold of
life is the same which Bunge ascribes to it in man. Bunge’s
view is that the HCl has no other purpose than the steriliza-
tion of food. “ Why should a chemical substance be placed in
the entrance to the digestive tract,” he asks, “in exactly the
strength necessary for the destruction of bacteria which is di-
rectly antagonistic to the chemical reaction in which the main
work of digestion must be carried on? The proteids are more
readily converted into a solution lower down in the intestine
and in an alkaline medium than by pepsin and acid. The
object of the acid is, according to him, then, one of steriliza-
tion. This view cannot be denied, at the same time it
must be admitted that HCl serves also a digestive purpose.

In the Rhizopods experimented upon, the observations of
Greenwood and Saunders could be confirmed concerning the
fact that while the acid is secreted in the food vacuoles under
the stimulus of all ingesta; the true digestive vacuole which
occurs only under the stimulus of nutritive matter apparently
` contains something besides an acid, perhaps an enzyme. The
change in the acid indicators is as regards time and intensity
of color transformation to all observation alike. There seems
to be the same amount of acid in a storage vacuole as in a
vacuole causing active solution of proteid matter, in close
proximity to it, hence the assumption of an additional zymo-
genic substance in the latter is justifiable. As the amount of
acid in one of these vacuoles is very small, and the change in
Congo red to blue is speedy and striking, lends belief to the
suggestion of Greenwood that the acid is an inorganic one.
Why the protoplasm around a storage vacuole will not secrete
zymogenie matter, though acid is clearly present in it, and at
the same time this enzyme must be accepted to be present in
a vacuole in which, close to the former, active digestion is
going on is a question difficult to approach. If it can be dem-
onstrated that all or most storage vacuoles contain some sub-
stance, living or inert, which is hostile to the economy of the
Rhizopod and against which it protects itself by intensely acid

1895.) Acid in the Digestion of Certain Rhizopods. 625

investment of the enemy for a prolonged period, a new and
interesting light will be thrown on this phenomenon.

In the “Centralblatt fiir Bacteriologie, Parasitenkunde u.
Infektions krankheiten, Vol. XIX, p. 785, Dr. C. Gorini de-
scribes a method for cultivating Amoeba zymophila on a solid
medium which in this case is the potato. It is certain that
Amoebae will grow on old and new potatoes with alkaliniza-
tion. This would offer an easy and convenient method of
cultivating them. It should be emphasized that it is almost
impossible to produce cultures of amoeba that are absolutely
free from bacteria. A. Celli in the Centralbl. f. Bacteriologie,
Bd. XIX, p. 587, describes a number of futile attempts to
obtain such cultures. For our purpose it is not essential that
the amoebic cultures should be absolutely free from bacteria,
a relative, approximate sterility is sufficient to demonstrate the
scarcity of storage vacuoles in the amoebae and plasmodia in
such environment. Celli’s favorite solid medium is a prepara-
tion made from Fucus Crispus with 5 per cent Sterilized Water,
with or without Bouillon, but always made alkaline. To 10 c.c.
culture medium, 1 c. c. of an 3 Solution of Potassium
hydroxide, or 4-5 c. c. of a saturated solution of Sodium
Bicarbonate. This culture medium of Fucus after it is made
in the manner that Agar is generally prepared solidifies readily..

In the same Journal, Centrbl. fiir Bacteriologie, Band XIX,
p. 258, Dr. M. W. Beyerinck describes a solid medium for
amoebic cultures made from solidified agar by diffusion of
the soluble organic substances in it into superimposed distilled
water, which process requires about two weeks and repeated
sterilization and subsequent addition of salts suitable to
formation of nitrites.

I have no experience with these methods and have always
found that for my purpose a solution of a little wheat bread
in distilled water kept in a small flat dish under a glass cover
was all that was required to have Amoeba and plasmodia of
mycetozoa constantly on hand. The dish must be kept on a
little earth and not in too bright a light and at a constant
temperature. This simple culture medium, which of course
is unsuitable for pure cultures was suggested by Prof. Reichert
of the University of Pennsylvania.

626 The American Naturalist. [ August,

THE BACTERIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS:

A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF
OUR KNOWLEDGE.

By Erwin F. SMITH.

I.

It is scarcely fourteen years since Dr. Robert Hartig declared
that there were no diseases of plants due to bacteria.’ Two
years later Dr. Anton de Bary, unquestionably one of the most
learned and critical botanists the world has ever known and
the foremost student of cryptogamic plants, expressed the belief
that bacterial diseases of plants were of rare occurrence, and
suggested as a partial explanation the fact that the tissues of
plants generally have an acid reaction.” In his Vorlesungen
über Bacterien, published in 1885, he expresses much the same
opinion,’ and cites only four diseases, viz., Wakker’s hyacinth
disease, Burrill’s pear blight, Prillieux’s rose red disease of
wheat grains, and the wet rot of potatoes, described by Reinke
and Berthold. Concerning the first of these four diseases he
says: “Successful infection experiments and exact study of the
life history of the bacterium are still wanting.” Respecting
the second he contents himself with briefly summarizing the
statements made by Prof. Burrill. Of Prillieux’s micrococcus
he says: “Its importance as a cause of disease cannot be
determined with any certainty from the brief account. It

1 «*Fiir die Krankheitsprocesse der Pflanzen kommen sie durchaus nicht in
Frage, ete.” Hartig: (2) Lehrbuch der Baumkrankheiten, 1882, p. 27.

2“ Bacteria parasitic on plants have scarcely ever been observed, a fact to
which R. Hartig has already drawn attention. One reason for this may be that
the parts of plants have usually an acid reaction.” De Bary: (2) Vergleichende
Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze Mycetozen und Bacterien, 1884, p. 520
English ed., p. 481.

+“ According to the present state of our knowledge parasitic bacteria are of il
little importance as the contagia of plant diseases. Most of the contagia of th
numerous infectious diseases of plants belong to other animal and plant prepa:
principally, as already noted, to the true fungi.” De Bary: (3) Vorlesungen
ueber Bacterien, 1885, p. 136. i

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 627

may turn out to be only secondary, appearing as a saprophyte
in consequence of injuries previously received.” Concerning
the wet rot of potatoes he states that ordinarily it is a second-
ary phenomenon following the attacks of the parasitic fungus
Phytophthora infestans, but admits that exceptionally potato
tubers may become wet rotten without the presence of Phy-
tophthora, and that “the above named observers succeeded in
producing the appearance of wet rot in sound potato tubers by
inoculations with their bacteria; in agreement with which
stands a recent experiment of van Tieghem, who succeeded in
totally destroying living potato tubers by means of Bacillus
amylobacter when he introduced this into the interior of the
tuber and maintained the same at a high temperature (35°).”
In the second edition of his Lehrbuch, published in 1889, Dr.
Hartig modified his statements somewhat, expressing essential-
ly the same opinions as de Bary. The yellow rot of hyacin-
ths is recognized as a bacterial disease, although rather doubt-
fully in as much as it is said not to attack sound, well-ripened
bulbs, under normal conditions, but only when they have
received wounds or been attacked by fungi, especially by a
hyphomycete which is said to be an almost constant accom-
paniment of the rot. The wet rot of potato tubers is admitted
to the list, but with the statement that it is mostly a secondary
matter, following the rot of stem and cells due to Phytophthora
infestans. One other bacterial disease is mentioned, viz., pear
and apple blight, with the suggestion, however, that it may
have been erroneously attributed to bacteria, since the fungus
Nectria ditissima produces in the bark numerous little bacteria-
like gonidia.
Such was the general opinion on this subject down to within
less than a decade. Even to-day the majority of well educated
botanists would find nothing to contradict in the statement that
there are very few diseases of plants distinctly attributable
to bacteria. As a matter of fact, however, there are in all proba-
bility as many bacterial diseases of plants as of animals.
Various explanations have been advanced to account for this
freedom or supposed freedom of plants from bacterial parasit-
ism. As we have already seen, de Bary was inclined to ascribe

628 The American Naturalist. [August,

it in good part to the acid reaction of vegetable tissue. Dr.
Hartig’s view is best expressed in his own words:* “ Whereas
the processes of decay, and most of the infectious diseases of
man and animals, may be traced to bacteria, the plant organ-
ism is protected against them by the peculiarity of its structure,
and especially by the absence of circulatory channels for con-
ducting the nutrient fluids which could serve to distribute any
lowly organisms which might happen to be present in the food.
It is only by means of the vessels and intercellular spaces that
they can distribute themselves in any great numbers in the
body of the plant, for in other cases they have to pass through
the cellulose or woody cell walls, which offer great resistance
to their attack. In addition to this, the vegetable juices, most
of which show an acid reaction, are unfavorable to their growth.
As a matter of fact, bacteria have hitherto been found only in
the tissues of plants whose cells are parenchymatous in char-
acter and possessed of very delicate walls, as for instance, bulbs
and tubers.”

For several years Ph. van Tieghem experimented with one or
more, probably several, bacteria, called by him Bacillus Amylo-
bacter and believed to be the specific agent in the decomposi-
tion of cellulose. In 1879; he stated that all the cells of all
plants are equally dissolved by it in the meristematic stage
but that as soon as the tissues have become differentiated pro-
found differences are noticeable. The cellulose of many plants
is dissolved by it but that of mosses, sphagnums, hepaties, lyco-
pods, fern leaves, and stems and leaves of phanerogamous
aquatics proved resistant. This behaviour of water plants is
“une nécessité d’existence.” In 1884,° he made a number of
additional similar statements. The tubers of the potato, the
seeds of beans (first swelled in water and then inoculated
directly into the substance of the cotyledons), and the fruits of
cucumbers and melons rotted quickly when infected with this
organism. Inoculated leaves of Crassulaceze and stems of Cac-

t Hartig: Lehrbuch, 2nd. Edition. English translation, p. 37.

5 Van Tieghem: (#4) Sur la Fermentation de la Cellulose. - Bull. de la Soc.
Bot. de France, 1879, pp. 25 to 30.

ë Van Tieghem: (5) Développement de l’Amylobacter dans les plantes à létat
de vie normale. Tbid., 1884, pp. 283-287.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 629

taceæ resisted until plunged under oil when they decayed
quickly. Aquatics resisted: “By means of a Pravaz syringe
I have injected a drop full of the spores of Amylobacter into
the lacunary system of several submerged aquatics (Vallisneria,
Helodea, Ceratophyllum) but always without result. The
plant remained healthy in all its parts.”

These papers of van Tieghem are often cited, but they have
little substantial value. Undoubtedly he believed that he was
experimenting with pure cultures, or, at least, that the results
obtained were due to Bacillus amylobacter, but such is, to say
the least, very improbable. B. amylobacter is now believed to
be strictly anaerobic, and incapable of any action on cellulose.”

More recently Julius Wiesner has divided all plants into two
classes, ombrophobic and ombrophylic plants, according as
they are or are not readily injured by prolonged rains or ex-
posure to stagnant fluids.» His experiments show that the
aerial parts of some plants rotted very quickly when exposed
to continuous artificial spray while similar parts of other plants
proved very resistant, remaining sound for weeks (62 days in
case of Tradescantia guianensis). The same contrast was ob-
served when leaves of the two sorts of plants were placed in
stagnant water, the former lost their turgor and rotted ina few
days, the latter proved much more resistant. Many land
plants have this power of resistance and all water plants, also
all underground parts, even the roots of plants having very
susceptible foliage: As additional confirmation Wiesner states
that when meat infusions are left to themselves they always
decay much sooner than when fragments of ombrophylic
plants are placed therein. _Ombrophobic plants in water or
meat infusion also decay less rapidly when mixed with frag-
ments of ombrophylic plants than when left to themselves.
This decay is more rapid in the dark than in light, especially

?Prazmowski: (6) Untersuchungen ueber die Entwickelungsgeschichte und
Fermentwirkung einiger Bacterien-Arten, Leipzig, 1880, pp. 23-37.

ê Wiesner: (7) Ueber ombrophile und ombrophobe Pflanzenorgane, Sitzungsh.
K. Ak. d. Wissenschaften, Math.—Naturw. Classe. Wien., 1893, Bd. 102. Abt. T,
pp. 21. See also Wiesner: (8) Pflanzenphysiologische Mittheilung aus
Buitenzorg (III). Ueber den vorherrschend ombrophilen charakter des Laubes
der Tropengewiichse. Jbid., 1894, Bd., 103, pp. 169-191.

630 The American Naturalist. [August;

bright light. The foliage of ombrophylic plants is easily
wetted; that of ombrophobic plants is as a rule not readily
wetted, being usually protected by bloom or some other device
for warding off water. When ombrophobic plants are not pro-
tected in some such manner, decay is remarkably rapid. In
general if the leaves of a plant are readily wetted, it may be
assumed that they are ombrophylic, but there are exceptions,
e. g. the potato and tomato. Roots of all plants are extraordi-
narily resistant. In most plants middle aged leaves are least
susceptible to decay but in the potato the youngest leaves
resist best. Old leaves lose this power of resistance. Some-
times this resisting power is variable in different individuals
of the same species, depending on the conditions under which
they have been grown. Curiously, all plants of shady, damp
places are ombrophobic, if they possess leaves which are not
readily wetted, e. g. Impatiens. The more the parts of a leaf
are divided the quicker the decay. The green parts of the fol-
lowing plants are mentioned as particularly susceptible to bac-
terial decay : Solanum tuberosum, Lycopersicum esculentum, Xer-
anthemum annuum, Impatiens nolitangere, Chenopodium album,
Veronica buxbaumii, Viola arvensis, and Taraxacum officinale
(from sunny, dryplaces) Mimosa pudica, Pisonia alba. The fol-
lowing plants were found to be very resistant: Ranunculus
aquatilis, Lemna minor, Lysimachia nummularia, Begonia mag-
nifica, Tradescantia zebrina, T. guianensis, Selaginella sp. (from
green house), and Scolopendrium officinarum. Among under-
ground organs the roots of the yellow beet proved most resist-
ant. The author’s general conclusion from these experiments
is best expressed in his own words: “It can now be'stated as
highly probable that the power of ombrophilous organs to
resist rain for months is referable chiefly to the fact that anti-
septic substances are produced in the tissues of the organs.”
These experiments are interesting but seem to have been per-
formed in a rather crude way. The relative rapidity of decay
was determined by appearance and the sense of smell and the
organisms inducing this decay were undetermined. These
experiments should be repeated and extended by Dr. Wiesner

1896.] + The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 631

or by some bacteriologist, using pure cultures and plant
juices which have been sterilized by filtration.

Dr. Russell’s experiments’ were made a year earlier than
than those of Wiesner and have the merit of being properly
performed, i. e. with sterile juices and pure cultures so that
the conditions under which the experiments were made
can be reproduced by other investigators. They are, however,
too limited in number to afford any basis for a general conclu-
sion. He found that Canna juice, sterilized by filtration,
exerted no appreciable germicidal effect on any of the following
species: Kiel-water bacillus, B. lactis-ærogenes, B. coli-communis,
B. megaterium, B. prodigiosus. Experiments with B. megater-
ium, B. butyricus, B. coli-communis, B. pyocyaneus, and Strepto-
coccus pyogenes, using as a culture medium root-pressure juice
obtained under sterile conditions from the severed stem of lima
beans and Pelargoniums led to a similar conclusion and to the
enunciation of the following general statement: “vegetable
cell juices, aside from their acid reaction, are entirely power-
less against bacteria, and do not possess any germicidal pro-
perties like the blood serum of animals.”

- The old view that plants are not subject to the attacks of
bacteria simply because their tissues are acid was shaken by
the discovery that some bacteria grow very wellin acid media,
and was thoroughly upset by the discovery that the juices of
some parts of many plants are alkaline. In all probabil-
ity plants like animals require a delicate balance between
acid and alkaline and a continual change from one side to the
other for the carrying on of the life processes. Three things at
least are certain (1) It will not do to assume that all parts of a
plant are acid because some part of the parenchyma shows a
strongly acid reaction ; (2) It cannot be stated that any given
microorganism will thrive only in alkaline media until this
fact has been determined by direct experiment ; and (3) Many
bacteria, perhaps all, are alkali producers and capable, if they
can gain any foothold whatever, of slowly changing an un-
suitable acid medium into one more alkaline and better
adapted to their use.

’ Russell: (9) Bacteria in their Relation to Vegetable Tissue. Thesis. Johns Hop-
kins University. 1892, 8vo. p. 41. + -

632 The American Naturalist. [August,

Wiesner’s hypothesis is somewhat different. It has been
known for some time that various essential oils and other vege-
table products, e. g. thymol, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, tan-
nin, quinine, oil of cinnamon, oil of peppermint, ete., exert a
powerful restraining influence on the growth of many bacteria,
and it is not improbable that a great variety of bactericidal
and protective substances occur in plants. On the other hand
there may be and probably are bacterial parasites capable of
thriving in the very plants which Wiesner found most resist-
ent to continuous spray, to the saprophytic bacteria of stagnant
water, and to those of decaying meat infusions, the exact con-
ditions under which any given microorganism will thrive
being determinable only by experiment. It must also be re-
membered that the physiological requirements of bacteria often
become profoundly modified to suit changed environments, |
and that all parasites have undoubtedly descended from sapro-
phytic forms. Prof. Wiesner has, however, opened up a very
inviting field and its further investigation by some careful ex-
perimenter, trained in bacteriological methods, might lead to
very interesting discoveries.

Most of the recent books on vegetable pathology devote a
chapter to the bacterial diseases of plants, but these books have
not been written by bacteriologists and consequently the state-
ments given are usually very meager and unsatisfactory,
and forcibly illustrate the fact that no one can write acceptably
on a subject with which he is not familiar, not even if he pos-
sesses a logical mind and has read all the “authorities.”
Excepting Prof. W. Migula, who reviewed the subject briefly but
somewhat carefully in 1892," and Dr. H. L. Russell, who gavea
brief summary in tabular form the same year at the end of
his Thesis," no one seems to have gone over the field critically
since de Bary’s time, although there isnow a considerable body
of literature. It is proposed, therefore, in the following pages to
examine the literature of this subject from the standpoint of the

10 Migula: (10) Kritische Uebersicht derjenigen Planzenkrankheiten, welche ange-
blich durch Baktrien verursacht werden. Semarang. Midden-Java. 1892. Exp.

Sta.
u Russel: l. c., pp. 36-41.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 633

modern baeteriologist, sifting as far as possible the wheat from
the chaff, and arranging all in an orderly way for convenient re-
ference. The utility of such a piece of work, if well done, can
scarcely be questioned, since it must set into sharp relief the
gaps in our knowledge and tend to stimulate further research.

The work of the early investigators already mentioned was
done before the perfection of modern methods of bacteriological
research, and in a time of general scepticism which some of us
well remember. It is therefore in no way discreditable that
many of their conclusions should be found untenable when
tested by the more rigid requirements of the science of to-day.
They worked under great difficulties and did as well as could
be expected even of men of genius, better, indeed, than many
of us would have done. Certainly, as pioneers in a difficult
field they deserve great credit.

As much cannot be said for some of the more recent workers
who with every opportunity in the way of literature, including
numerous manuals of bacteriology, and with laboratory facil-
ities for learning the fundamentals of bacteriological research
on every hand in every land, have been content to publish
second and third class -work, exactly like that preceeding the
discoveries of Pasteur and Koch and the development of
modern methods. One might suppose these people to have
been in a deep sleep for the last twenty years, they take so little
note of what has been going on. I shall have frequent occa-
sion to consider papers of this class in the course of these pages
and shall not fail to point out their worthlessness, to discour-
age imitators, if for no other reason. It goes without saying
that such publications do not advance science, nor in the end
in any way contribute to the reputation of the individual.
They are thoroughly discreditable, and in case new species are
erected, are little less than criminal, considering the present
overburdened and chaotic state of systematic bacteriology.

Thanks to the itch for species making, systematic mycology
is generally cited as the most desperately confused and per-
plexing branch of natural science, but mycology is a highway
turnpiked and provided with arc lights in comparison with the
wilderness of systematic bacteriology. Of the thousand or

634 The American Naturalist. [August,

more forms which have been studied and named, or design-
ated by letters or figures or vernacular names,” probably not
one-tenth can be identified with any certainty owing to the
meagerness of the descriptions. The older descriptions are
particularly bad, and the effort to decide what was meant by
these old names, for which somebody will by and by be stren-
uously claiming inalienable rights of priority, is usually time
thrown away. There is quite enough to do in bacteriology, as
every one knows who is dealing at first hand with its hard
problems, without wasting precious energy in striving to guess
what was meant by two and three line descriptions. All de-
scriptions which do not describe, and there are many such,
ought to be wholly ignored, and no species recognized as
worthy of a place in literature unless so characterized as to be
identifiable by others. A plea of this sort in the higher
branches of botany or zoology would be a subject for laughter.
Bad descriptions are however, so much the rule in bacteri-
ology that it is no laughing matter but rather a great evil ur-
gently demanding reform. It isa state of affairs which has come
about naturally enough considering the way in which bacteri-
ology has developed” but which would not now be tolerated for
a momentin phanerogamic botany or in most branches of zool-
ogy and the continuance of which in bacteriology it is incum-
bent on every honest worker to limit and discourage in all pos-
sible ways. The best way in science, always, is to speak out
plainly, and to join hands for the advancement of a good cause.
Bad work should be ignored and “ new species” relegated to
limbo unless the descriptions conform to the requirements of
modern bacteriological science, meaning by this expression the
consensus of opinion among experienced and careful investi-
gators everywhere. If there were some such agreement among
the better class of workers, the improvement in systematic
bacteriology would become very marked. The volume of pub-
lication would, indeed, decrease noticeably but this of itself

12? About 650 species are mentioned in (22) Schizomycetacer, by de Toni
and Trevisan in Saccardo’s, Sy/oge Fungorum, VIII, published in 1889, but this
is not complete.

18 All the early systematists built upon a foundation of sand, i. e. upon pure
morphol

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 635

would be a great advantage, and the quality of the work would
more than correspondingly improve. Only in some such way
can the strong tendency toward trashy publication be elimi-
nated and light and order evolved from the present chaos.

With few exceptions, vegetable pathology seems to have been
specially unfortunate in the class of persons who have devoted
themselves to the study of bacterial diseases. While the
bacterial side of animal pathology has had its Pasteur and
Koch, its Esmarch, Hueppe, Fliigge, Gaftky, Frænkel, Pfeiffer,
Leffler, Duclaux, Metchnikoff, Chamberland, Roux, Welch,
Sternberg, Smith, Prudden, and a host of other skilled exper-
imenters, scarcely less eminent, and has made correspondingly
great progress, the study of the bacterial diseases of plants has
been principally in the hands of botanists without special
laboratory training in bacteriology and even destitute in some
cases of an elementary knowledge of right methods of work.
The great development of modern bacteriology is attributable
largely to the discovery that human diseases are due to these
organisms, and to its consequent alliance with medicine, but
there is no reason why the same rigid scrutiny of methods and
sharp calling in question of statements which have led tosuch
brilliant results in animal pathology in recent years should
not be applied in the same way to vegetable pathology. Accur-
ate experimentation and trustworthy results are from a purely
scientific standpoint quite as desirable in one field as in the
other.
_ Two things are especially to be kept in mind in describing
any bacterial disease of plants: (1) The pathogenesis must be
worked out conclusively; (2) If the organism is named, it must
be so described that it can be identified by any competent bac-
teriologist no matter where it is found.

The four requirements under the first head, i. e. strates dang ic
are now generally recognized to be as follows:

_ A. Constant association of the germ with the disease.

B. Isolation of the germ from the diseased tissues and study
of the same in pure cultures on various media.

_ C. Production of the characteristic symptoms of tbe disease
by inoculations from pure cultures.

636 The American Naturalist. [August,

D. Discovery of germs in the inoculated, diseased tissues, re-
isolation of the same, and growth on various media until it is
determined beyond doubt that they are identical with the
organism which was inoculated."

Not one of these steps can be omitted. Possible sources of
error beset the investigator at every step, and anything short
of a rigid demonstration cannot be accepted as proof. A. is
usually quite easy, involving only the careful microscopic ex-
amination of abundant material, stained and unstained. B.
was made possible by the improvement of methods, i. e. by
the use of solid media, and especially by the discovery of the
method of isolation by means of plate cultures. C. is quite
easy, provided the right organism has been obtained and
this be inserted into the proper tissues under the right con-
ditions to insure growth. The fulfillment, however, of these
conditions often involves long and vexatious delays, and taxes
the acumen of the investigator to the utmost. D. serves as a
check on all the preceding work, showing that there has been
no unintentional mixing of organisms, and that the results
obtained were actually due to the supposed cause. For the sake
of brevity these four rules of practice will be referred to in the
following pages simply as A. B.C. and D. What weight shall
be given any specific statement depends of course on the reputa-
tion of the individual. Some men are so careful of their
reputation and so little given to making unwarranted state-
ments that their simple word goes a long way even when the
statements themselves seem improbable, whereas the elaborate
explanations of other men, if the asserted facts are at all out
of the ordinary, have to be taken with a grain of salt.

The requirements under the second head, i. e. Description of
the organism, are more numerous, and are embraced under two
general divisions of very unequal value, namely Morphology
and Biology. In the classification of the higher plants and
animals morphology has been accepted from time immemorial

14 A series of successful Armer is always very desirable and becomes in-
dispensable in case the infecti re obtained on plants grown in a locality where
the disease prevails sanai "Of course, numerous un-inoculated plants, known
as “checks ” or “ controls,” must always be reserved for comparison.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 637

as answering all the requirements of systematists, but such is
far from being the case when it comes to the description of
bacteria. These minute organisms, which are among the low-
est and simplest forms of living things yet discovered by man,
are, within the commonly accepted generic limits, so morpho-
logically similar as very often to be indistinguishable with any
certainty even under the highest powers of the microscope.
As supplemental, therefore, to morphology, and even in many
cases as a complete substitute for it, we must have recourse to
Biology, viz. to the behaviour of the living organism under a
variety of known, artificially prepared conditions, such for ex-
ample as the peculiarity of its growth on various culture media,
its thermal death point, its ability to ferment various sugars,
the chemical products of its growth, its pathogenic power, ete.
Morphologically identical organisms often differ so widely and
constantly in their biological peculiarities that there can be no
question about their being distinct species, or as to the real
value of this means of classification. Probably it also has
value, hitherto overlooked, for the differentiation of higher
plants and animals, especially for determining the limits of
polymorphic or closely related species.

It is not my intention in this place to mention all the biolog-
ical tests which should be applied to any species for its proper
characterization. These are being added to constantly by an
army of trained workers in all parts of the world, and my own
views of what is at present necessary, or at least highly desir-
able, will be sufficiently evident in what is to follow. Very
likely, also, as knowledge increases, some of the tests which are
now generally held to be important will be shown to have little
specific worth.

This, however, appears to be a good place to insist on accur-
acy in all the details of bacteriological work, especially in the
preparation of culture media, and on explicitness of statement
so that other investigators may know just what was done and
how it was done, and thus be able to repeat the experiment.
_ When all details of work are suppressed the inference, naturally
enough, is that the writer was ignorant or else that he desired
to conceal something not specially to his credit, and which if

638 The American Naturalist. [August,

plainly expressed might millitate against the value of his work.
Either horn of the dilemma is equally bad. Some, however,
who are desirous of doing good work in this field, or at least
appear to be conscientious workers in other lines, do not seem to
be aware of the necessity for extreme care in the preparation of
culture media and the management of cultures. Asa matter of
fact, many bacteria are extremely sensitive to slight changes in
the composition of the media in which they are grown or to
other conditions within the control of the experimenter, and this
appears to be true especially of the pathogenic species. Hence
the many conflicting statements about the same organism. A
few examples will render my meaning plainer. The careless
exposure of cultures to bright sunshine may destroy the organ-
ism. An organism supposed to come from diseased tissues or
from a culture, and which is being examined in a cover glass
preparation, may have been derived actually from a conta-
minated staining fluid. The apparently simple matter of
slightly unclean test tubes or flasks may lead to error, e. g.
antiseptic influences may be at work, or preciptates may be
thrown down and subsequently mistaken for bacterial growth.
Some kinds of glass are unsuited to delicate bacteriological
work, the culture fluids being contaminated by substances dis-
solved out of the walls of the beakers, tubes, and flasks. Tyros,
of course, are liable to mistake almost anything for bacteria or
to find them anywhere (See a long paper by Bernheim on (12)
Die parasitiiren Bacterien der Cerealen, in Miinch. med. Wochen-
schrift, 1888, pp. 743-745 and 767-770, and comments on the
same by Buchner and Lehmann, Tbid., 1888, p. 906, and 1889,
p. 110). Boiling culture media, after it has been compounded,
in open beakers or in loosely plugged test tubes or flasks may
unwittingly lead to its concentration. The use at different
times of different peptones, or grades of gelatine, of unlike per
cents of gelatine or agar, of varying grades of acidity or alkal-
inity, of impure chemicals, of different concentrations of the
nutrient media, and of different methods in its preparation all
tend to render comparative studies impossible. A large source
of error in the differentiation of species by means of sugar fer-
mentation experiments has been the employment of bouillon

1896.) The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 639

containing undetected muscle sugar. Even when preliminary
tests are made with some gas-producing bacillus there is still
an opportunity for error, provided the tests are carried on only
for a day or two. No bouillon should be judged free from
sugar and safe for use until in fermentation tubes it has been
subjected for at least a week to the influence of Bacillus cloace
or some other organism producing an abundance of gas from
grape sugar. If at the end of this period no gas has developed,
and the transfer of a loop of fluid from such a tube into an-
other fermentation tube containing a dextrose-bouillon sets up
` an evolution of gas, then the first bouillon may be used with
confidence. Again, if cane sugar is sterilized in an acid
bouillon at least a part of it is inverted, i. e. changed into dex-
trose and fructose, and fermentation results obtained therefrom
may be due to the presence of any one of three sugars. Bouil-
lon should always be made distinctly alkaline before cane
sugar isadded. Many of the older fermentation experiments
are worthless on account of neglect of such precautions, to say
nothing of some recent ones. Again Bacillus tracheiphilus grows
not at all or feebly on nutrient gelatine as ordinarily made, or in
media which is acid beyond a determinable slight degree, and
if only such media were used the erroneous conclusion might
be reached that it could not be grown outside of the host plant,
whereas it grows freely in artificial media, even on gelatine,
when the right conditions are established. Bacillus amylovorus
grows well in some gelatines and refuses to grow in others.
Even comparatively slight changes in the acidity or alkalinity
of the culture media often have a marked effect on the
growth of certain organisms, while others, e. g., Bacillus cloacae,
are able to grow in almost any medium. Many bacteria
prefer alkaline media, and some are very sensitive to the
presence of acids, while a variety of bacteria commonly met
with in water will not develop at all if the medium is rendered
strongly alkaline. Other organisms grow well in acid media.“
14° For a striking illustration of the effect on the growth of water bacteria of
comparatively slight charges in the reaction of gelatine, see a recent table by
George W. Fuller, in a paper entitled: (73) On the proper reaction of nutri-
ent media for bacterial cultivation.—/ournal of the American Public oe
Lene ams a ‘Concord, as H., Oct., 1895, p. 393.

640 The American Naturalist. [ August,

Even the slightly varying acidity of steamed slices from differ-
ent potato tubers may exert a marked effect on the growth of
certain sensitive organisms. On this account some bacterio-
logists have advised discarding the potato altogether. I have
myself found the potato a very useful substratum for the growth
of both fungi and bacteria. All comparative tests on potato
ought, however, to be made on cylinders or slices cut from the
same tuber, and in every case the reaction, acid, neutral, or
alkaline, should be carefully recorded. The behavior of the
organism on a variety of tubers should also be determined,
before deciding that it is something new. It has been thought:
by some that the best nutrient substance for a parasite must be,
unquestionably, the juices of the host plant but this does not
follow since there are all grades of parasitism, and even if it
did, there are several chances for error in its employment,
e. g. the nutrient juices are usually sterilized by steam heat
and this may cause a number of chemical changes resulting in
a compound very different from the living plant and entirely
unsatisfactory as a culture medium, as many have learned by
experience. Again, for some particular reason, even the juices
of the plant when sterilized at ordinary temperatures by filtra-
tion, may be less well adapted to the needs of the parasite than
well made beef bouillon or ordinary nutrientagar. In general,
the standard culture media of bacteriology should be tried first.
Some bacteria can be cultivated only on special media or at
special temperatures, or under unusual conditions. Bacillus
subtilis will only grow in the presence of free oxygen ; Bacillus
‘amylobacter, B. tetani, and B. carbonis will only grow in the
absence of oxygen. Winogradsky states that his nitrifying
organism obtained from European soils will not grow in the
ordinary culture media and thrives best in solutions of in-
organic substances, and on silicate jelly. Bacterium tuberculosis
can be cultivated only in bouillon and on blood serum and
‘nutrient glycerine agar, and at temperatures above 30°C. Bac-
terium influenze also flourishes at blood heat and can only be
grown, it is said, in the presence of red blood corpuscles or in
media containing yolk of eggs; other organisms have thus far
‘refused to be cultivated at any temperature or on any artificial
medium, e. g. Bacterium lepre and B. syphilitis. Some bacteria

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants. 641

are destroyed at temperatures at which careless workers fre-
quently pour their agar plates, while others refuse to grow at
ordinary temperatures or even at blood heat, grow best at 50°--
60°C., and are not killed until the temperature exceeds 70° or
even 75°C. Finally, a race of Bacterium anthracis incapable of
producing spores has been developed by growing the organism
in media containing phenol; another non-virulent race bear-
ing swollen, terminal spores, “drumsticks,” by growing the
organism in compressed air; and still another race destitute
of virulence by cultivating it at temperatures above 40°C.
These are not exceptional cases, similar care being necessary in
all directions if one would avoid erroneous conclusions.

Naturally, every successful experimenter will vary his culture
media in all sorts of ways in order to learn as much as possible
of the organism under consideration, but at the same time he
will determine its behaviour on the standard media, and will
keep a very careful record of all that he does. The bacterio-
logist should make it an invariable rule to repeat every experi-
ment two or three times, at the very least, and generally after
an interval of some months or years he should repeat all his
experiments. Even then he will fall into errors enough. He
certainly should proceed with as much care as the chemist,
and in many directions the work passes naturally over into
chemistry. If quantitative or volumetric analysis requires
all sorts of precautions and excess of care to avoid errors, no
less does this youngest of all the sciences.

A few words respecting the occurrence of bacteria in normal
plant tissues will be in place before concluding these general
remarks. It goes without saying that such minute and uni-
versally distributed bodies as bacteria are likely to be found at
times almost anywhere, even in plant tissues which seem to be
healthy, just as they may sometimes occur in the blood stream
of healthy animals, but they are not normally present in the
tissues of plants. All carefully conducted experiments have
led to this conclusion. The reader who wishes fuller informa-
tion may consult papers by Laurent, Buchner,” Lehmann,”

14b

A ka redne greno bacterienne de la diastase. Buč. de l'Acad.

15 (15) Notiz betreffend die Frage des Vorkommens von Bacterien in nor-

eer? anzengewebe. Muench med, Wochenschrift., 1888, pp. 906-907,

Erklarung in Betreff der Arbeit von Herrn Dr. Hugo Bernheim, ete.
id, is , P. 110.

642 The American Naturalist. [August,

Fernbach” Vestea, Kramer,” and Russell.” Even when
purposely introduced into living tissues they refuse to grow or
spread but little and finally die out,” unless they possess
specific pathogenic power in which case the result is quite
different.

The diseases which will be discussed in the following pages
may be divided into four classes:

(1). Diseases of clearly established bacterial origin.

(2). Diseases which appear to be constantly associated with
bacteria and which are probably due to some specific organism,
but full proof of which has not been furnished.

(3). Diseases said to be more or less closely associated with
the presence of bacteria and ascribed thereto, but in which
little or no proof has been brought forward to establish the
causal relation.

_ (A). Communicable diseases which have been ascribed to

bacteria but associated with which no organism has been found
and which are probably of non-bacterial nature.
On the whole it would perhaps be more logical to divide the
following pages into four chapters in the way I have specified,
but for practical reasons it has seemed better to discuss all of
the diseases of a given plant in one place. I have, therefore,
arranged the material by hosts, but will at the close try to
summarize the whole subject in the manner above indicated.

It will certainly be some time, probably many years, before
we have anything like a permanent scheme of classification for
the bacteria. Our knowledge is still too incomplete. Meanwhile,
we have to do the best we can with the present systems, all of

11(17) De Vabsence ere microbes dans les tissus vegetaux. Annales de l’ Inst.
Pasteur, 1888, pp. 567-5

" (18) De l'absence an microbes dans les tissus. /ééd., 1888, p. 670-671.

19 (19) Bakteriologische Untersuchungen ueber die Nassfäule der Kartoffel-
knollen. Osterreichisches landw. Centralb, I, Heft 1, 1891.
Plc

be Louies: (2@) On the parasitism when introduced into plants of some
disease-causing microbes (Russian). Wratch., 1890. No. 6, pp. 133-135.

Russell; l. c
Kornauth : (21) Ueber das Verhalten pathogener Bakterien in lebenden
eben. Centrb. f. Bakt., Parasiten-Kunde, u, dnfectionsk, I Abt., Bd.
— No, 21, 8 Juni, 1896, pp. 801-805,

1896.) ` “ Mushroom Bodies” of the Hexapod Brain. 643

which are more or less arbitrary and unsatisfactory, and all
of which are liable to be set aside at any time. I have heré
adopted Migula’s system” which seems to me very convenient,
and on the whole the most satisfactory of any that has yet
appeared.

Before proceeding to the body of this review it only remains
to say that every effort has been made to deal impartially with
the material in hand, and to present the essential ideas of the
writers as concisely and accurately as possible. To this end
the original papers have been consulted in every instance,
unless otherwise stated in the text. So much vexation over
wrong references has been experienced in time past by the
writer that he has himself been at special pains to give full and
accurate citations. It is to be hoped, therefore, that the read-
er will have no difficulty in finding the original papers. An
endeavor has also been made to bring the subject fully up to
date but it is quite likely that some worthy papers may have
been overlooked, owing to the many languages and the ever
increasing number of places of publication.

THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF THE
SO-CALLED “MUSHROOM BODIES” OF
THE HEXAPOD BRAIN.

By F. C. Kenyon, Pua. D.'

In looking at a series of sections of the brain of a hexapod,
especially of a hymenopteron, the most notable structures are
two pairs, one to each side, of large cup-shaped bodies of “ Punkt
substanz,” or, what in the light of our present knowledge of
nerve structure is better denominated fibrillar substance.
Each of these cups is filled to overflowing with cells having
large nuclei and very little cytoplasm. From the under surface

? Migula: Schizophyta : (22) Schizomycetes. Die Natuerlichen Pflanienfami-
lien (Engler u. Prantl). I Teil. 1 Abt. a, Lief. 129. 8vo. p. 44, Leipzig, 1896.
bc is the forerunner of a larger work soon to be published by Gustav Fischer,

l Tick University, Mass.

644 The American Naturalist. (August,

each of these cups or “ Becher” there descends into the gen-
eral fibrillar substance of the brain a column of fibrillar sub-
stance which unites with its fellow of the same side to send a
large branch obliquely downwards to the median line of the
brain and an equally large or larger branch straight forwards
to the anterior cerebellar surface. (Fig. B.)

Long before our present methods of sectioning and staining
had found general application in the study of animal structure,
or as early as 1850, the French naturalist, Dujardin, discovered
these bodies in transparent preparations in toto of the brains of
certain Hymenoptera and Orthoptera. From their somewhat
folded appearance he describes them as “ lobes à convolutiones,”
and compared them with the convolutions of the human brain,
and even thought them associated with hexapod intelligence.
Fourteen years later, Leydig, using the same methods confirmed
Dujardin’s discovery in working with the brains of the ant, bee,
and wasp, and described them as “gestielter Körper.” In 1875
Rabl-Riickhard identified the bodies in Gryllus italicus, Locusta
- viridissima, and Dycticus verrucornis, and correctly described
the form of the “ cup” under the term “ Rind Körper.” The
very next year (’76) Dietl’s application of the section method
to the subject confirmed and perfected previous descriptions,
and, struck with the resemblance to mushrooms, he adopted
the name of “ Pilzhutformiger Körper,” a conception later used
by Packard (mushroom bodies) and by Bellocici (’82) (corpo
fungiformo).

As to the intellectual function of the bodies, not all of the
early writers supported Dujardin’s inference. They were sup-
posed to be connected with sight; but Rabl-Riickhard showed
that they are fully developed in a blind African ant (Typhlo-
pone). Dietl was loth to acknowledge an intellectual function,
even though he found the organs more highly developed in
Hymenoptera than in Orthoptera. But Forel (’74) adhered to
Dujardin’s supposition, and showed that among Hymenoptera
even of the same species the bodies are most prominent where
one usually recognizes most intelligence, as in the worker bees
and ants, while they are small in the females and the males.
Brandt (’76) two years laterin a note on the brain of Hymen-

1898.] “ Mushroom Bodies” of the Hexapod Brain. 645

optera makes the same observations as to the differences in the
same species, while Berger (’78) considered the structures as
“ organs of projection of the first order.”

The supposition of Dujardin obtained its best support so
far as the older methods would avail in the comprehensive
work of Flégel (78) covering the whole group of hexapods:
Here, one may see at a glance that the development of the
structures largely coincides with the development of intelii-
gence, as shown by the following abridgement of his table:

A. The four cups completely developed.

1. Very highly developed, Vespa.
{ Apis, Formica Pompi-
\ lus, Ichnewmonide.
3. Without rim, Blatta.
4. Very small, Cossus, Sphinx, Vanessa.
B. Cups incomplete.
Walls and cells so reduce eT
as hardly to be recognized > Tenthredo, Cynips.
as cups,
Reduced to two small heaps, Many small butterflies.
. Wall a broad plate, Forficula, Acridium, ete.
Wall (fibrillar substance)
absent.

(a) Cells in 4 groups, Dycticus.

(b) Cells in 2 groups, dis-
tinguishable by com-
parison with neigh-
boring cells,

(ce) Not so distinguish- \ is
able, i

2. Large with rim,

on

O T O

Aeschna.

dimen

If such a superior neural function is indicated by the testi-
mony and work of the earlier writers, it may well be asked
whether recent neurological methods will bring out the struc-
ture of the hexapod brain as well as they have that of the other
invertebrates and that of the vertebrates, and whether they
will lend this view support. First, it may be noted that the
physiological experiments of Binet (’94), which are those of

C. Cups unrecognizable even as ru- ) Hanipiors.

646 The American Naturalist. [August,

Faivre very much bettered, demonstrate that a hexapod may
live for months without a brain, if the subeesophageal ganglion,
or better, ventro-cerebron, is left intact, just as a vertebrate
may live without its cerebrum. Faivre long ago showed that
this ventro-cerebron is the seat of the power of co-ordination of
the muscular movements of the body. Binet has shown that the
brain is the seat of the power directing these movements. A de-
brainedhexapod will eat when food is placed beneath its palpi,
but it cannot go to its food even though the latter be but a very
small space removed from its course or position. Whether the
insect would be able to do so if the mushroom bodies only
were destroyed, and the antennal lobes, optic lobes, and the rest
of the brain were left intact,is a question that yet remains to be
answered. In Binet’s experiments neither olfactory nor visual
stimuli can be transformed into motor impulses. Were it
possible for them to be so transformed, my studies to be noted
in a moment cause me to think that Binet’s results would be
very materially altered.

Now, as tomy studies. During the winter just past with no
little patience I endeavored to apply the bichromate of silver
method to a study of the brain aud general nervous system of
the common honey bee, the more detailed result of a portion
of which will be published a little later. The endeavor was
rewarded by a considerable degree of success, the main facts
being determined, though there are many details left for future
studies. Others have tried to employ the same general method,
but owing toa lack of proper store of patience or to their setting
about the task wrongly have failed. Among them must be
counted Binet (94), with whom, however, there seems to be a
defect in the conception of both the Golgi and the Erlich
methods. For he sets the former aside as inconstant, uses the
latter, without, however, apparently obtaining any very good
results. He complains that preparations by the Erlich method
(and the Golgi method might be included) leave out many
details, and never seems to think that a sufficient number of pre-
parations willsupply those details and thus allow the whole to
be determined. This is the more unfortunate, since his de-
pendence upon the old methods has led him to give detailed

1896.] “ Mushroom Bodies” of the Hexapod Brain. 647

importance to phenomena that are relatively unimportant, and
has resulted in a somewhat misty conception of the structure
of the hexapod ventral nervous system.

One of the very first things that an impregnation of bee
brains with bichromate of silver enabled me to make out was
the structure of the mushroom bodies with their cells. These
cells stand out in sharp contrast to all other nerve cells known,
though they recall to some extent the cells of Purkinje in the
higher mammals. Each of the cells contained within the
fibrillar cup seeds a nerve process into the later, where it
breaks up into a profusely arborescent system of brahchlets,
which often appear with fine, short, lateral processes, such as
are characteristic of the dendrites of some mammalian nerve
cells. Just before entering the fibrillar substance a fine branch
is given off that travels along the inner surface of the cup
along with others of the same nature, forming a small bundle
to the stalk of the mushroom body, down which it continues
until it reaches the origin of the anterior and the inner roots
mentioned at the beginning of the paper. Here it branches,
one branch continuing straight on to the end of the anterior
root, while the other passes to the end of the inner root.
Throughout its whole course the fiber and its two branches are
very fine. Nearly the whole stalk and nearly the whole of each
root is made up of these straight parallel fibers coming from the
cells within the cup of the mushroom bodies. What other fibers
there are enter these bodies from the side, and branch between
the straight fibers very much as the dendrites of the cells of
Purkinje branch among the parallel fine fibers from the cells
of the granular layer in the mammalian cerebellum. These
fibers are of the nature of association fibers. :

From the olfactory or antennal lobe, from the optic ganglia
there are tracts of fibers that finally enter the cups of the mush-
room bodies as shown by Viallanes and by my studies with the
Golgi method and also with a Formol-copper-hematoxylin
method of staining. Besides these tracts the Golgi method has
enabled me to make out another tract, unknown before, passing
down the hinder side of the brain from the cups to the region
above the cesophagus, where it bends forwards and comes in

45

648 The American Naturalist. [August,

contact with fibers from the ventral cord, which exists, although
Binet was unable to discover any “ growth of fibers connecting
the cord with the brain.”

The fibers entering the cups from the antennal lobe, the
optic ganglia, and the ventral region, spread out and branch
among the arborescent endings of the mushroom body cells.

Fig. .—A. An “intellective” cell from the mushroom body. n, neurite;
d. dendrite ; a.r., anterior branch of the neurite ; i.r., inner branch of the neurite.

B. Mushroom body of right side from above. The outer one, m.b , viewed in

section ; the inner one is cut off, leaving the stump of the stalk st. a.r., anterior
root; i.r., inner root; m.b., cup.

The fibers branching among the parallel fibers of the roots and
the stalk lead off to lower parts of the brain, connecting with
efferent or motor ‘fibers, or with secondary association fibers,
that in their turn make such connections. This portion of the
circuit has not been perfectly made out, though there seems to
be sufficient data to warrant the assumption just made.

Such fibers existing as described there is then a complete
circuit for sensory stimuli from the various parts of the body to
the cells of the mushroom bodies. The dendritic or arborescent -
branches of these cells take them up and pass them on out
along the parallel fibers or neurites in the roots of the mush-
room bodies as motor or other efferent impulses.

This, however, is not all. For there are numerous fibers ©
evident in my preparations, the full courses óf which I
have not been thus far able to determine, but which are so

1896.] “ Mushroom Bodies” of the Hexapod Brain. 649

situated as to warrant the inference that they may act as asso-
ciation fibers between the afferent fibers from the antenne,
optic ganglia, and ventral system and the afferent fibers. There
is then a possibility of a stimulus entering the brain and passing
out as a motor impulse without going into the circuit of the
fibers of the mushroom bodies, or, in other words, a possibility
of what may be compared to reflex action in higher animals.
It appears then that the supposition of Dujardin is well sup-
ported by the finer structure of the hexapod brain. , For it is
evident from the details known since the publication of Flogel’s
paper, that the cells composing the mushroom bodies have
been very highly differentiated in some of the hexapods, and
this in just those forms living the most complex lives. No
such bodies are to be found in the lower forms. I have never
seen them, nor any indication of them, in the Thysanura,
Chilopoda? Scolopendrella, the Pauropoda and other Myria-
poda, nor in any of the Crustacea that I have thus far exam-
ined. Without doubt an application of the Golgi or methylen
blue methods would reveal elements in some these forms that
might be compared with the cells of the mushroom bodies;
but they would probably be found not so completely different-
iated from other fibers as they are in the honey bee and other
Hymenoptera. It may be mentioned that one does not recog-
nize such cells in the cray-fish and the crab as figured by
Retzius and Bethe. And it scarcely need be said that no such
elements are shown in Retzius’ figure of the brain of Nereis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Bellonci, ’82. Intorno alla struttura e alle connessioni dei
lobi olfattori negli artropodi superiori e nei vertebrati. Reale
Acead. d. Lincei. (From Cuccati.)

Berger, ’78. Untersuchungen über den Bau des Gehirns
und der Retina der Arthropoden. Arb. d. Zool. Inst. Wien u.
Triest., I, 173-220.

?St.-Remy (’90) describes mushroom bodies as occuring in Scutigera, which if

rdance wi

homologous with the mushroom bodies of Hexapoda, is in acco
Dujardin view

650 The American Naturalist. [August

Bethe, 95. Studien über das central nerven system von
Carcinus mænus nebst ein neues Verfahren der Methylen-
blaufixation. Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., XLIV, 579-622.

Binet, 94. Contribution à l’étude du system nerveux sous-
intestinal des insectes; Journ. Anat. et Physiol., XXX, 449-
580

Brandt, ’76. Anatomical and Morphological Researches on
the Nervous System of Hymenopterous Insects. Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., (4) XVIII, 504-6.

Cuccati, ’88. Uber die Organization de Gehirns der So-
momya crythrocephala. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., XLVI, 240-69.

Diehl, ’°76. Die Organization des Arthropoden Gehirus.
Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., XXVII, 488-517.

Leydig, ’64. Voih pry des tierischen Körpers. (From
Viallanes.)

Flogel, ’78. Ueber den einheitlichen Bau des Gehirns in
den Verschiedenen Insekten Ordunung. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool.,
XXX, Supplement, 556-92.

Forel, ’74. Les Fourmies de la Suisse.

Rabl-Ruckhard, ’75. Studien über Insektengehirne: Reich-
ert und Du Bois Raymond’s Arch. f. Anat., 488-99.

- Packard, 80. The Brain of the Locust. Second Rept. U.
S. Ent. Com., pp. 223-242.

Retzins, 90. Zur Kenntnis des Nervensystems der Crusta-
ceen: Biol. Untersuch., N: F., I, No. 1

Retzius, 95. Zur Kenntnis des Gehirnganglion und des
sensiblen Nervensystems der Polychiten. Biol. Untersuch.,
N. F., VII, No. 2

Saint-Remy, 90. Contribution 4 ľ étude du cerveau. chez
les Arthropodes trachéites. Lacaze Duthiers’ Arch. d. Zool.
Exper. et gén. (2) V sup. 4th mém.

Dujardin, 50. Mémorie sur le système nerveux desin-
sectes. Ann. Sci. Nat., (8) XIV, 195-206.

Viallanes, ’87. Le cerveau de la Guépe. Ann. Soc. Nat., (7)
II, 5-100

Viallanes, 88. nigisadoae du criquet. Ann. Sci. Nat., (7)
IV.

1896.] Editor’: Table. 651

EDITOR’S TABLE,

The Zoological Section of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science at its meeting in Springfield, Mass. in August, 1895,
adopted a series of resolutions which are printed in the volume of the
Proceedings recently issued (p. 159) and which are here reproduced.
They were adopted with but one pertinent objection from a distin-
guished member of the section. This objection was that the method of
determining priority of publication recommended in the resolutions was
applicable to questions of nomenclature only, which was regarded as
an object of a value secondary to the determination of date of discovery
of matters of fact. While the fixing of date of the latter was admitted
to be of great importance, it was contended by the friends of the resolu-
tions, that the manner proposed by them was applicable to all possible
cases, and that in fact the resolutions prescribed the best method of
determination of priority. The mode proposed was stated to be in
accord with that customary among authors and publishers generally,
and that special groups of authors could not in practice sustain rules
different from them. The resolutions are as follows.

Whereas: The date of publication is a question of fact to be deter-
mined by examination, and not by an arbitrary ruling: and

Whereas: In the world at large the date of publication of books is
the date at which they are printed; and

Whereas : The adoption of any other date of publication would have
no practical effect for this reason, and for the following additional
reasons; viz.

First; the majority of publications are not distributed, but are sold ;

Second ; the distribution when it occurs may be rendered ineffective
by accidents such as loss of mails, fires, et

Third ; distribution by individuals m Ag delayed or prevented by
absence from home, sickness or dea

Fourth ; distribution governments of their publications is often
delayed for routine reason

Fifth ; the actual date of amilini will be often impossible to ascertain
with precision, owing to lack of record and irregularity in the. period
of transmission ; an

Whereas : The determination of the date of printing will generally
depend on the records of the printing office and the testimony of several
persons, while the time of mailing will be known generally to but one
person ;

652 The American Naturalist. [August,

Reso.tveD: First.—The section of Zoology of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science recommends that the date of the
completion of printing of a single issue be regarded as the date of pub-
lication ;

Second.—That the Section recommends that such date be printed on
the last signature of all publications, whether books periodicals or
“ separates.”

REsoLvED: (1) That the Section of Zoology of the A. A. As. S. is
impressed with the desirability of introducing the custom of placing all
publications on record at some central agency together with the date of
publication. (2) That a committee be appointed to obtain the approval
of these resolutions by publishing societies at home and abroad. (3)
That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the British Assoc.
Adv. Science ; the Zoélogical Society of London; Australasian Assoc.
Ady. Science; Association Francaise; Société Zoologique de France ;
Versamml. der Deutscher Naturforscher, n. Aertzte; Zoologisches Ges-
selschaft ; and the International Congress of Zoology held at Leyden.

To act as the committee above referred to, the President of the Sec-
tion appointed: S. A. Forbes, Champaign, Ill.; E. A. Birge, Madison,
Wis.; W. A. Lacy, Lake Forest, Ill.; George Dimmock, Canobie Lake,
N. H.

The above resolutions were adopted by very large majority vote. A
proposition to regard as the date of publication, the date of receipt at
the central agency of record was introduced. This was not approved,
as it was evident that no private arrangement made by naturalists could
supersede the customs long since current in the world of authorship.

The American Association for the Advancement of Science has a
peculiar custom which it seems to us might be improved. This is the
use of the term vice-president to designate the presidents or chairmen
of the respective sections. This expression gives use to confusion, as
these officers are not the vice-presidents of the sections, but the presid-
ents. If the expression vice-president of section so and so is used, a
president is supposed, who does not exist. To avoid conflict with the
title of the president of the Association, the term chairmen might per-
haps be used for the so-called vice-presidents, but actual presidents of
the sections.

The decimal system of record, called the Dewey system in library
catalogues, appears to the management of the Naturalist to be the best

method which has yet been devised. It, therefore, follows Natural
— and La Revue Scientifique in adopting it.

1896.] Recent Literature. 653

RECENT LITERATURE.

The Structure of Solpugids.—That indefatigable student of
the Arachnida Mr. Henry M. Bernard has presented us with a valu-
able account’ of the general structure of these little known forms. And
yet while we can praise the statement of facts, as a whole, we would
point out that the paper contains a number of theoretical points, which
have, in our estimation, no sufficient basis.

The Galeodidx, of which over 50 species have been described, are
confined to the warm portions of both hemispheres, and though abund-
ant in certain regions, they are comparatively rare in collections; poss
sibly from the fact that they are, by popular consent, accorded most
poisonous qualities. They, alone of all the Archnida, show a distinct
“head ” while they also have a “ thorax” divided into three segments,
and these points have led many authors to look upon them as forming
a transition between the .Archnida and the Hexapods. They also
possess stigmata in the thoracic region, a condition only paralleled in
the Arachnida in certain of the mites.

In his paper Bernard takes up first the external anatomy and the
interesting features here are: the interpretation of the cephalic lobes as
the lateral regions of the first segment which have been changed in
position with the transfer of the cheliceræ ; and he further tries to find
them in the cephalic lobes of embryos of other Arachnids, a view with
very little in morphology to supportit. The beak is interpreted as fused
labium labrum, neither of these, as the name of the first ; might b Ee
being appendicularin nature. The ocular tuk
remnant of the original dorsal surface of the head, the rest having been
displaced by the upward and backward movement of the cephalic lobes ;
and, from this, the median eyes are regarded as the more primitive, the
lateral as secondarily acquired. The descriptions of the limbs, as well
as of the apodematous skeleton affords little to abstract, except that the
author suggests that since specialized poison organs are absent the
poison may come from setal-pores on the chelicere ; and that, at any
rate, the idea of their poisonous nature should not be set aside without
further experiment. As little need be said of the account of the
hypodermis or of tne muscular systems.

The account ef the nervous system is disappointing. Although sec-
tions were cut (ef., p. 345) no use of them appears to have been made

1 Trans. Linn, Socy. London, Zool. Vol. vi, pt. 4, 1896,

654 The American Naturalist. [August,

in the study of the topography of the system and we are left absolutely
in the dark as to the presence of ganglia in front of those of the cheli-
cers; a point of no little importance. The eyes receive hardly more
satisfactory treatment, owing to the unsatisfactory condition of the spec-
imens. No vitreous body was found in the median eyes while the
retinal cells showed no rods, and no grouping of these into a rhabdem
was seen. The lateral eyes vary in size, shape, and arrangement and
are described in some cases as having fused on either side of the head,
although no evidence is presented of such fusion. The pedipalpal
organs, reversible sacs on the tips of these appendages are described in
detail and are clearly sensory as are the “ racquet organs” on the last
pair of thoracic appendages.

~~ The alimentary canal opens by the mouth at the end of the beak,
the opening being fringed with a strainer of bristles, while the cesopha-
gus, in front of the cesophageal collar, is modified into a “sucking
stomach.” The midgut is provided with gland, like diverticula and
although they are grouped into those of the cephalothorax and abdo-
men, all clearly belong to one series, but those of the abdomen are re-
markable not only from the number but from the fact that they empty
into a collecting duct on either side and these ducts, in turn, empty
into the intestines near the base of the abdomen. The Malpighian
tubules are well developed and are described as emptying into the mid-
gut, and Bernard accepts the views of Loman that these organs in the
Arachnids cannot be homologous with the similarly named structures
in the Hexapods. The heart has retained 8 pairs of ostia, while there
are indications of another segmental chamber in front. From in front
an aorta carries the blood forward and “ appears to discharge the blood
directly on to the central nervous system. There are no indications of
the circumneural vessels like those of the Scorpions and of which Mr,
Bernard holds, in some respects, peculiar views.

The respiratory system affords more thatis interesting. The observa-
tions of previous students that there are three pairs of stigmata (and
sometimes a fourth unpaired) is confirmed. Of these the first pair open
behind the coxæ of the second pair of legs while the others compare
with the anterior pulmonary openings of the Scorpions. Arguing
from the conditions of the blood-vessels (and more from his preconcep-
tions of the: phylogeny of the respiratory organs Bernard concludes
that there were originally two other tracheal openings in the thorax.
There then follow some interesting but inconclusive remarks upon the
-primary number of stigmata in different Arachnids. While dealing
with these respiratory structures the author deals with the question of

1896.] Recent Literature. 655

the origin of tracheæ from lung books (p. 375) and accepts the view
that the former were the more primitive, the latter secondary, and rein-
forces it with the remark that this view “arrived at by comparative
morphology, has recently been confirmed by embryology. | Janorowski
has discovered that the tracheal invaginations of Spiders first from
branched tracheal tubes and that the lung books are a secondary
specialization.” And this without the slightest reference to the results
of Simmons (since amply confirmed by Purcell and Brauer) which are
directly the reverse. It is to be said in passing that the thoracic
stigmata of the Solpugide, like those of the Acarina, are the greatest
difficulty presented to those who believe in the Limulus-Arachnid
theory, but the author dismisses the results of Wagner in this connec-
tion with the remark “that all conclusions based upon transitional
phenomena of single specialized types will have ultimately to be tested
by a profounder and more extended comparative study of existing
forms.”

The coxal glands, naturally have much attention. The external
opening occurs between legs 3 and 4, the duct is long and convoluted
while the gland itself is described as a great mass of tubules. These
organs he is still inclined to think the derivatives of setipareus sacs, a
view which “has hitherto met with no fayor.” Regarding the fact that
they may be ccelomic in character he merely refers to Lauries observa-
tions on the scorpion and says that until this be confirmed the bulk of
evidence seems to point to the coxal glands as a blind ending tube.
And again (p. 381). “I freely admit that these arguments would have
but little weight as against direct embryological evidence, if that evi-
dence were really satisfactory.” Certainly the results of Grobben,
Kishenonyi, Lebinsky, Kingsley and especially those of Brauer are
confirmative of those of Laurie, all showing the coxal glands are
derived from the coelomic wall and are the purest of mesoderm (if
there be such a layer) and that their external opening is a subsequent
formation. For the opposite view, held by Bernard, there seems not
the slightest evidence.

After a few remarks upon the genital organs the author presents an
attempt to elucidate the phylogeny of the Arachnida, and itis here that
we are most at variance with him. It is impossible to go into his argu-
ment in detail. It all rests upon the attempt to derive every existing
Arthropod structure from structures already present in the annelid
ancestor, setiparous sacs apparently | playing the ee be descr point.
These coxal glands, trachex,
cement glands, maxillary glands, salivary glands, etc., are all referred

656 : The American Naturalist. [August,

back to the setiparous gland of the annelid; yes further, the hairy bodies
of the Solpugids and Mygalide are direct inheritances from the annelid
set. Scorpio is not primitive but rather a specialized form. In some
of his statements of fact he also seems to be in error. Thus hesays (p.
398) “ What actual evidence we have as to the character of the abdom-
inal limbs [in the primitive Arachnid] shows that they were filamentous
jointed appendages like those on the cephalothorax.” On the contrary
in Scorpions (cf. Brauer, Patten) which, with all deference to Mr. Ber-
nard, we continue to regard the most primitive of existing Arachnids,
they appear in the embryo as flat lamellate limbs. Again (same page)
he says that the sensory plates on the pectines of the scorpion are on
the ventral and not on the posterior face of the limb. On the contrary
they are on the posterior side as the figures of both Patten and Brauer
show. But what we have most to criticise is the failure to refer to
opposing views or corrections of previous statements. Thus he refers
to “stigmatic scars” along the whole length of the abdomen of the
Pseudoscorpions, scars which bear another interpretation. He speaks
of the entostemite as ectodermal, without stating that a portion of it is
mesodermal (Schimkewitsch), while we have referred to other cases
above.—J. S. K.

The Bears of North America.’—A new classification of the
bears of North America is proposed by Dr. Merriam. This classifica-
tion is based on the study of more than 200 skulls, including about 35
skulls of the huge bears of the Alaska coast region. The number
of full species recognized by Dr. Merriam is ten : 4 of the Black Bear
group; 2 of the Grizzly group; 3 of the big brown bears of Alaska,
and the Polar bear. Four of these species are new; (1) the gigantic
fish-eating bear of Kadiak Island and the Alaskan Peninsula, Ursus
middendorfii Merr.; (2) the large brown bear of Yakutat Bay and the
coastal slope of the St. Elias Alps, Ursus dallit Merr. ; (3) the large
brown bear of Sitka and theneighboring islands, Ursus sitkensis Merr. ;
and (4) the Florida Black bear, Ursus floridanus Merr. The Sonoran
Grizzly and the Norton Sound Grizzly are considered as subspecies
only. The Alaskan bears fall into 2 distinct groups. (1) U. sitkensis
and U. dallii, which resemble the Grizzlies in the flatness of their
skulls, but are larger and differ from them in color and dentition ; and
(2) U. middendorffii which differs markedly from all other American
types, and closely resembles the Great Brown Bear of Kamschatka.
Merriam’s synopsis is illustrated by figures of the skulls of the different
species.

l (Proceeds, Biol, Soc., Washington, April, 1896.)

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 657

As an account of the North American bears this paper is far in
advance of anything hitherto published.

The difficulty of distinguishing several species of the typical Ursi in
North America has not been so much the absence of characters among
themselves, as the intermediate position of the old world Ursus arctus
with regard to them. Middendorff’s studies of this species convinced
him that it varied in size 33 per cent. of the largest dimensions, and in
other respects, but he could not refer the varieties to more than one spe-
cies. With these very elaborate studies as a basis, J. A. Allen and A. E,
Brown in subsequent years could only see in the North American
grizzly and black bears, geographical races. The fault then of Dr.
Merriam’s paper is, that he has not given any account of the relations
of our bears to the intermediate series of the Old World.

Dr. Merriam is a genus fancier, and he bids fair to adopt all of the
names of his illustrious predecessor Dr. J. E. Gray of the British
Museum. Thus he adopts Gray’s name, Thalarctos for the polar bear
on characters which do not exist. He dallies with Euarctos for our
black bear for equally poor reasons. We must admit, however, that
Dr. Merriam does for the first time give satisfactory characters with
which to distinguish this species from the Ursus arctus.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, J. A.—Descriptions of New American Mammals. Extr. Bull. Amer.

Mus ue Sages Vol. VII, 1895. From the author.
s, C. W.—Note on a specimen of Ceraterpetum galvanii Huxley, from

Biak Extr. Geol. Mag , Dec. iv, Vol. II, 1895. From the author.

Annual Report for oe Iowa Geological Survey Vol. III. Des Moines, 1895.
From the Survey.

Bancs, O.—Notes on North American Mammals. Extr. Proceeds. Boston
Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XX VI, 1895. Fromthe author. :

Barret, J. O.—Forestry in our Schools. Minneapolis, 1895,

Beecuer, C. E.—The abe Stages of Trilobites. Extr. Amer, Geol., Vol.
XVI, 1895. From the au

Berc, C.—Enumeracion aussi y sinonunica de los Peces de las Costas
Argentina y Uruguaya. Buenos Aires, 1895.

—— Sobre Peces de agua dulce nuevos ó poco conocidos de la Republica Do-
tina. Extrs. Anal. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, T. IV, 1895. From the author.

BouULENGER, G. A.—Remarks on some Cranial Characters of the Salmonoids.
Extr. Poced Zool. Soc. London, 1895.

658 The American Naturalist. [August,

—aAn Account of the Reptiles and Batrachians collected by Dr. A. D. Smith
in Western Somali Land and the Galla Country. Extr. 1. c., 1895.
——On Fishes from Matto Grosso and Paraguay. Extr. l. c., 1895.
——On the Nursing Habits of Two South American Frogs. Extr. |. c., 1895.
——A Synopsis of the Genera and Species of Apodal Batrachians, with
Description ofa new Genus and species (Bdellophis vittatus). Extr. l. c., 1895.
emarks on the Value of certain Cranial Characters employed by Prof.
Cope for RES haa from Snakes. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Lon-
don 8. 6, Vol. XVI,
—— Description es a new vA sails from Antigua, West Indles. Extr. l. c., Vol.
XIV, 1894.
Eiti of a new Anolis from Brazil. Extr. l. c., Vol. XV, 1895.
me new and little known Reptiles obtained by W. H. Crosse, Esq.,
on the Niger. Extr. I. ¢., Vol. X VI, 1895.
—— Descriptions of two new Shakes from Usambara, German East Africa,
Extr. 1. c., Vol. XVI, 1895.
riptions of four new Batrachians discovered by Mr. Charles Hose in
eni Extr. l. c., Vol. XVI, 1895.
—— Descriptions of two new keil obtained by Mr. A. S. eint in the Tro-
briand ese British New Guinea. Extr. l. c., Vol. XVI, 1
he Reptiles and hls obtained by Mr. $ Ded Phillips in
Seca Extr. l. c, Vol. XVI, 1895,
——On the Variations of the sae in Denmark. Extr. Zoologist, 1895.
——On a new Typhlops eter confounded with T. unguirostris Peters.
Extr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N. S. W. S. 2, Vol. IX, 1894. From the author
Bulletins No. 118, 119, 1895, North Carolina Agricultural secant Sta-
tion.
Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission, Vol. XIV, for 1894.
pias etins No. 24, 25, 1895, Wyoming Experiment Station, University of Wy-

Canta. W. 8.—Physiological Action of Kreatin in Porai and Tuberculous
Animals. Detroit, 1892. From the author.

CASTILLO, A, DEL Y J. G. AGUILERA, —Fauna Fossil de la Sierra Catorce San
Louis Potosi. Bol. de la Com. Geol. de Mexico Num. 1, Mexico, 1895. From
the Commission.

Cook, O. F. anD G. N. CoLLINs.—The Myriapoda collected by the United
States Eclipse Expedition to West Africa in 1889-1890. Extr. Ann. New York
Acad. Sci., Vol. VIII. From the author.

Cross, W.—Post-Laramie ear of Colorado Rew: Am. Journ Sci., Vol.
XLIV, 1892. From the au

€ R, A. A.—Crimson beni and Other Topics. Bull. 125, 1895, Michi-
gan State Ages. Exper. Station.

Dean, BasHForD.—The Marine Biological Laboratories of Europe. Biol.
Lect. No. ae delivered at Wood’s Holl in 1893.

— Recent Experiments in Sturgeon Hatching on the Delaware. Extr.
oe New York Acad. Sci., 1893.

Early Development of the Gar-Pike oy Sturgeon. Extr. Journ.
Masia, Vol. XI, No. 1, 1895, From the aw

1896.] Recent. Books and Pamphlets. 659

Druiescu, H. AND T. H. Morcan.—Zu. Analysis der Ersten; Entwickelungssta-
dien des Ctenophoreneies.. Aus Archiv fiir Entwickelungsmechanik des Organ-
ismen, IT Bd., 2 Heft. ee 18067

DURAND, J. P.—Question Zoologi Extr. Bull. Soc.
Anthropol., Paris, 1895. PESAR Naturelle des Formes Animales. Extr- Re-
vue Scientif., 1888. From the author.

Essarts, A.—Apercu historique sur la doctrine du Polozoism humain. Extr.

rn. des Inventeurs. Paris, 1895. From the author

Exhibit of the Smithsonian Institution at the Cotton States Exposition, Atlanta,

1895. ;
Fraser, A.—A Case of Porencephaly. Extr. Journ. Mental Sci., 1894.
——Morphological Papers. Extr. Trans. Roy. Acad. Med. in Ireland, Vol.
XII, 1895. From the author.

FRAZER, P.—In Memoriam, Edward Yorke Macauley, Rear Admiral U. S. N.
Extr. Proceeds. Amer,"Philos. Soc., Vol. XXXIV. From the author.

Goong, G. B.—An Account of the Smithsonian Institntion. Its Origin, His-
cate Objects and Achievements. Wash ington,

NET, C.—Sur foa media, V. silvestris et V. saxonica. Extr. Mém. Soc.
kad. ds l'Oise T. XVI, 1895.
Sur l’Organe de ag ck tibio-tarsien de Myrmica rubra L. race levino-
dis me Extr. Ann. Soc. Entomol. de France, Vol. LXIII, 1894.
r Vespa germanica et y. vulgaris. Limoges, 1895.
e les nids de la Vespa crabro. Extr. Comptes rendus, Paris, 1894.
— Sur la Vespa crabro. Conservation de la chaleur dans le nid, 1 c., 1895.
__Observations sur les Frelons. L. ¢., 1895. From the author

Kepzir, R. C.—Fertilizer Analyses. Bull. 126, Michigan State Agric. Coll.
Exper. Station.

Kemp, J. F.—Crystalline Limestones, Ophicalcites and associated Schists of
the Eastern Adirondacks. Contrib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Coll. No. XXVII,
1895. From the author.

LAHILLE, F. ~Conteibeickom al Estudio des las phe: Argentinus. Extr- Re~
vista Mus. de la Plata, T. VI, 1895. From the

Le. Conte, J.—Critical Periods. in the i sery the Earth. Extr. Bull.
Dept. Geol. Univ. California, Vol. I, 1895.

Levy, L. E.—The Russian-Jewish Refugees in America. Philadelphia, 1895.
From the author.

Mercer, H. C.—Re-exploration of nepe s Cave, near Stroudsburg, Penn~
FN 1893. Extr. Proceeds. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci, 1894. From. the

‘Mee C; $.—Annual Address. Extr. Trans. Penna. Homeopath. Med.
Soc., 1895. From the author.

Mrs ukur!, K. AND S. IkepA.—Notes on a gigantic Cephalopod. Extr. Zool.
Mag., Vol. VII, 1895.

Morcan, T. H.—The Fertilization of non -nucleated Fragments of Echinoderm
Cina nero: Studies of the Blastula | und Gastrula Stages of Echinus.
Organismen, II. Bd. 2 Heft,

——Aus Archiv für En g
Leipzig, 1895. ron the author.

660 The American Naturalist. [August,

Outver, C. A.—A Short note upon so-called ‘‘Hereditary Optic Nerve Atrophy”
as’ a Contribution to the Question of Transmission of Structural Peculiarity.
Extr. Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XXXII.

Scott, W. B.—Protoptychus hatcherii, a new Rodent = = Uinta Eocene.
Extr. Dioki Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1895. From the

SHIPLEY, S. R.—Gold, Silver and Monor. Extr. iier Tui 1895. From
the author.

Stiles, C. W.—Notes on Parasites 32, 33, 34, 38 and 39. Extr. Veterinary
Mag , 1895. — The Anatomy of the large American Fluke, Fasciola magna and
a comparison with other species of the genus Fasciola, S. St. with a list of the
chief Epizootics of Fascioliasis, and a Bibliography of Fasciola hepatica by Albert
Hassali. Extr. Journ. Comp. Med. & Veterinary Arch., 1894-1895. From the
author.

Waite, C. A.—The Bear River Fauna and its Characteristic Fauna. Bull.
U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 128. Washington, 1895. From the author.

Witson, E. B.—An Atlas of the Fertilization and Karyokinesis of the Ovum.
New York and London, 1895, Macmillan & Co. From the author

General Notes.

PETROGRA PHY.’ |

The Eruptives and Tuffs of Tetschen.—Two interesting arti-
cles on the area of crystalline rocks east of Tetschen on the Elbe, have
appeared simultaneously. The first, by Hibsch, is a description of
the Tetschen’ sheet of the map of the Bohemian Mittlegebirges, and the
second by Graber,’ is on the fragments and bombs occurring in the
tephrite tuffs of the region.

The voleanic rocks of the district are interbedded basalts, tuffites,
tuffs and tephrites, of which the fragmental rocks are in greatest abun-
dance. Augitites also occur as sheets, and camptonites as dykes in
upper Cretaceous marls. The older igneous rocks are granitites and
diabases that are associated with clay slates, probably of Cambrian age.
Analyses of each of these rocks are given but the rocks are not de-
scribed in detail. The greater portion of the author’s article deals
with the volcanic rocks. The tuffs are composed of basaltic and teph-
ritic fragments of the coarseness of sand in some cases, and in others of

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.
2 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth,, XV, 1895, p. 201.
*Ib., p. 291.

1896.] Petrography. 661

pieces several feet in diameter. These are cemented together by finer
portions of the same substances, among which have been deposited zeo-
lites, carbonates, opal and other secondary minerals. Some beds of
this tuff are so filled with large fragments of basalt, tephrite, ete., that
the rock composing it has been called the “ Brocken Tuff.” Itis to
the study of the fragments in this tuff that Graber’s paper is devoted.

The basalts and tephrites constitute sheets and lava streams that are
interstratified with the tuffs and sediments. Among the former rocks
are noticed feldspathic, leucitic and nephelinic varieties, besides in
several places magma-basalts. In addition to sheet basalts, dykes and
chimneys of this rock have also been observed.

The rocks in all their forms are normal in their development. The
author regards contact action around the chimneys as the safest crite-
rion by which to distinguish these forms from denuded sheets and
flows. The tephrites comprise hauyn-tephrites, in which hornblende
and aegerine are present, nepheline-tephrite, including trachytic and
andesitic varieties, and leucite-tephrite composed of phenocrysts of
augite, plagioclase and grains of magnetite in a groundmass of these
same components, and leucite, biotite and nepheline.

The augite consists of two generations of magnetite and augite in a
glassy base. Its analysis gave:

SiO, TiO, P,O, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O Moisture Total
43.35 1.48 1.54 11.46 11.98 2.26 7.76 11.69 .99 3.88 241 59 ==99.34

The feldspathic basalt and the andesitic tephrite are the only rocks
that seem to have affected the sediments with which they are in con-
tact. Quartzites are changed to aggregates of quartz grains in a glass
matrix, where the action is not extremely severe, and to an aggregate
of interlocking quartz grains where it has been intense. The article
closes with an account of the detailed results of analysis of ten speci-
mens of the voleanic rocks.

Graber’s article is devoted principally to a description of the frag-
ments found in the Brocken-tuff. These are all tephritic rocks, among
which andesitic, leucitic and phonolitic types are recognized. The
characteristics of the components of all these types are portrayed in
great detail, especial care being given to the descriptions of the augite
and the plagioclase. The phonolitic tephrite is characterized by the
presence of nosean, which is in irregular grains, In the andesitie teph-
rite, which is the most basic variety, the porphyritic augite has an ex-
tinction angle cA C of 58°-62°, in the leucitic type its extinction is

662 - The American Naturalist. [August,

52°-56° and in the phonolitic type, the most acid variety, it is 50°-
53°. In each of the types labradorite and sometimes oligoclase phen-
ocrysts are common, but the feldspar of the groundmass differs in
character in the different types. In the andesitic type it is oligoclase,
in the leucite variety andesine, and in the phonolitic type sanidine.

A Nepheline-Syenite Bowlder from Ohio.—Miss Bascom‘
has found in the drift near Columbus, Ohio, a bowlder which consists
of nepheline-syenite porphyry. The rock is composed of large pheno-
crysts of oligoclase and smaller ones of nepheline, augite, hornblende
and olivine in a groundmass composed of plagioclase and orthoclase
laths, hornblende, biotite, augite and magnetite in a feldspathic mat-
rix.

Crystalline Rocks of New Jersey.—In a report on the Arch-
ean Highlands of New Jersey, Westgate’ states that the northern half
of Jenny Jump Mt., Warren Co., consists mainly of gneisses with a
small area of crystalline limestone, diorites, gneisses, etc. The gneisses
are granitoid biotite-hornblende varieties, biotite-gneisses and horn-
blende-pyroxene gneisses. In the first named variety the prevailing
feldspars are microcline and microperthite, and in the pyroxene gneisses
plagioclase and orthoclase. The gneisses are cut by pegmatite dykes,
amphibolites and diabases.

Associated with the white crystalline limestones are fibrolite and bio-
tite gneisses, hornblendic gneiss, amphibolites, gabbros, norites and
diorites, most of the latter of which show evidence of an eruptive origin.
Another type of rock often found associated with the limestones is a
quartz-pyroxene aggregate, in which the pyroxene is a green or white
monoclinic augite. The limestone, the fibrolite and biotite gneisses and
the quartz-pyroxene rock are thought to be metamorphosed sediments.

Simple Crystalline Rocks from India and Australia.—Judd*
gives us an account of several simple crystalline rocks from India and
Australia. One is a corundum rock composed principally of corundum
grains with rutile, picotite, diaspore and fuchsite as accessory consti-
tuents. The corundum is in part pale colored and in part strongly
pleochroic. The grains of the latter extinguish together producing
with the former a micro-poicilitic structure. One of the specimens ex-
amined came from South Rewah and the other from the Mysore State.

* Journ. Geol., Vol. IV, p. 160.

5 Ann. Report State Geol, of New Jersey for 1895. Trenton, New Jersey,
1896, p. 21-61.

ê Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. XI, p. 56.

1896.] Petrograp hy. 663

Associated with the corundum in the Mysore State is a fibrolite rock.
A tourmaline rock from the Kolar gold field in the same State and
from North Arcot and Salem in Madras, consists of twisted and bent
tourmaline fibres in a matrix of smaller fibres of the same substance.
In the neighborhood of Bingera, New South Wales, two rocks are
found as dykes cutting serpentine. One consists almost exclusively of
green garnets and the other of picotite. The former contains also gold
and chrysocolla.

The Weathering of Diabase.—Mr. Merrill’ describes the changes
that have been effected in a granular diabase at Medford, Mass., during
its disintegration into soil. Bulk analysis of the fresh and the weath-
ered rock yielded the following results:

SiO, Al,O, Fe,0, FeO CaO MgO MnO K,O Na,O P,O, Ign Total
Fresh 47.28 20.22 3.66 8.89 7.09 3.17 .77 2.16 3.94 .68 2.73—100.59
Weathered 44.44 23.19 12.70 6.03 2.82 52 1.75 3.93 .70 3.73= 99.81

The disintegration of the rock is accompanied by a leaching out of its
most soluble constituents. Assuming that the alumnia has remained
unchanged in quantity in the course of the disintegration, the percent-
age of each constituent lost in this process is shown to be as follows:

SiO, Al,O, FeO, FeO CaO MgO MnO KO Nao P,O, Ign
18.03 .00 18.10 25.89 21.70 41.57 29.15 12.83 11.39 .00

The paper is full of valuable suggestions that cannot be even referred
to in these notes.

Petrographical Notes.—Transitions from massive anorthosites
into augen gneisses and into thinly foliated gneisses and transitions
from olivine gabbro into hornblende schists are briefly described by
Kemp* in a preliminary article on the dynamic metamorphism of
anorthosites and related rocks in the Adirondacks.

Pirsson® suggests the use of the word anhedron to express the mean-
ing usually expressed in the phrase ‘hypidiomorphic form.’ An anhe-
dron is a body with the physical constitution and properties of a crystal
but without the crystallographic form. The term may be conveniently
applied to the crystalline grains in rock masses. .

7 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, p. 349.

8 Bull. Geol. Soc, Amer., Vol. 7, p. 488.
9Ib., Vol. 7, p. 492.
46

664 The American Naturalist, [August,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Limestones of the Jenny Jump Mountains, New
Jersey.—Accompanying the report on the Archean Geology of New
Jersey, by Mr. J. E. Wolff is a paper by Mr. L. G. Westgate on the
Geology of Jenny Jump Mountain, chiefly interesting on account of
the conclusions reached by the author concerning the crystalline lime-
stones of that region.

The area under consideration embraces the northern half of Jenny
Jump mountain in Warren county, New Jersey. This mountains lies
along the northwestern border of the highland area, and is a sort of
outlier or peninsula reaching into the later Paleozoic rocks. The main
ridge of the mountain consists of gneisses; the limestone occurs at its
extreme northeastern end, with outcrops along the southeast border of
the mountain.

The author discusses in detail the position, lithology and relations to
the crystalline limestones in other parts of New Jersey, and reviews
the views of previous writers as to the age of the Sussex county lime-
stone, whizh has generally been considered the type and representative
of other localities. Mr. diab views are given in the following
summary
“The crystalline limestones of Warren county are believed to be dis-
tinct from and older than the blue magnesian limestone of Cambrian
age, which occurs along the northwestern side of the New Jersey High-
lands. They are believed to be distinct, for the following reasons.”

“1. They differ lithologically from the blue limestone in being
thoroughly crystalline, and in containing large amounts of accessory
metamorphic minerals.”

“2. They are intimately associated with and apparently interbedded
with the older gneisses; and gneisses occur also interbedded in the
limestone.”

“3. They show no intimate association in areal distribution with the
blue limestone, nor any tendency to grade into it.”

“4, The metamorphic changes to which the white limestones have
been subjected are general in their nature, and are not due to the action
of the eruptives by which they are cut; so that no sufficient agent is at
hand to account for the supposed change from blue into white lime-
stone.”

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 665

“ The white limestones are believed to be older than the blue Cam-
brian limestone, because (1) they occur in intimate association with the
gneisses which are of admitted pre-Cambrian age, and because (2) they
have been subjected to general metamorphic forces resulting in great
changes, of which the neighboring blue limestone shows no traces.”

“ That the other crystalline limestones of New Jersey are of the same
age as those of Warren county, has not been proved. The theory has
generally been that they are. If they are, and if the position taken in
the present paper is valid, then the crystalline limestones of Sussex
county, and of other places in New Jersey, would also be, as they have
generally been supposed to be, of pre-Cambrian or Archean age.”
(Ann. Rept., New Jersey State Geologist for 1895. Trenton, 1896.)

Unios from the Trias.—Four new Triassic Unios are described
> by Mr. C. T. Simpson. The collection of which they form a part was
obtained from the Dockum beds, a formation underlying the Staked
Plains of Texas. Taken as a whole, these Unios closely resemble in
form, and are apparently nearly related to those of the Jurassic beds
of North America, while 3 of the species bring to mind most strongly
the species which now inhabit Europe and western Asia, and a small
group belonging to the Mississippi area. The variety of characters dis-
played by these Triassic Unios go to show that the genus must have
been well established at the time the Dockum beds were laid down,
thus tending to overthrow Neumayer’s theory that the Unionidx were
derived from the genus Trigonia, which probably does not date back
to a period earlier than that of the shells under consideration. (Pro-
ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1895.)

The Cadurcotherium.—M. Boule calls attention to the recent
discovery of the lower jaw of a Cadurcotherium (Gerv.) at Barliére
(Haut-Loire). The specimen denotes an animal of the size of a small
rhinoceros. It was found in oligocene arkoses associated with a fine
mandible of Elotherium magnum, and fragments of Aceratherium, and
the remains of turtles. Until now Cadurcotherium has been repre-
sented by isolated teeth and fragments of mandibles. The new find is
important, showing the animal to be unique among its contemporaries.
It presents certain resemblances to South American types—notic-
ably Astrapotherium of the Patagonian Eocene, but is, according to
Osborn really related to the rhinocerontic genus Metamynodon.

Notes on the Fossil Mammalia of Europe, V—The Phy-
logeny of Anoplotherium.—The early attempts at the construction
of a phylogeny of the even-toed ungulates, included the genus Anoplo-

666 The American Naturalist. [August,

therium, which was considered by Paleontologists of twenty-five years
ago, as a primitive form, especially in its foot structure, Anoplotherium
certainly possesses a number of primitive characters in its manus and
pes, such as the separation of the metatarsals, and the non-fusion of the
podial elements, but the inadaptive reduction of its digits, as pointed
out by Kowalevsky and the peculiar position of the pollux and hallux,
excludes the possibility of placing Anoplotherium in the direct line
leading to any of the living Artiodactyla.

I propose in this short paper to attempt to prove, that Anoplotherium
has been probably derived from Dacrytherium, a closely allied genus,
but whose foot structure is normal and which resembles that of many of
the early Eocene Artiodactyla such as Cainotherium. Prof Cope' sug-
gested that Cebochwrus may have been the ancestor of Anoplotherium,
but the structure of the skull in Cebocherus, is already quite modern-
ized, nearly as much so as in the true pigs, consequently I am inclined
to think that we shall have to look for some other form as ancestral to
Anoplotherium.

The general form of the skull in Daerytherium is like that of Anoplo-
therium, however, in Dacrytherium there is a strongly pronounced pre-
orbital fossa, which is absent in Anoplotherium. The crowns of the
upper teeth in Dacrytherium are low and primitive in structure. They
exhibit rounded external crescents, which are not at all angular. In
Anoplotherium, especially the large species, the crowns of the superior
true molars are more lengthened than in Dacrytherium and the external
crescents are angular and broad. We see this change in many mam-
malian phyla from extremely low crowned molars, to those which are
tending to the hypselodont condition. As regards the intermediate
stage, between Dacrytherium and Anoplotherium, as to the height of
the molars, this is found in the genus Diplobune.

The lower true molars of Daerytherium exhibit two internal cones,
which is the normal number in the Artiodactyla. It is interesting to
record, that I have noticed in a number of young jaws of Dacrytherium
in which the true molars were just coming through, that the antero-
internal cusp, which is single in the adult, shows a slight reduplication,
which is the normal condition in Diplobune. The division of the meta-
conid is carried still further in the largest species of Anoplotherium,
although I have examined many jaws from the Phosphorites of the
Anoplotherium, and I can confidently state, that all gradations exist
between the complete isolation of the two antero-internal cusps of the
typical forms of Anoplotherium, and the single condition of these cusps,

1 Artiodactyla, AMERICAN NATURALIST, Dec., 1888, p. 1083.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 667

+
which is found in the supposed ancestral genus, Daerytherium. Accord-
ingly I am not acquainted with any good generic character at present,
which will distinguish the so-called genus Diplobune from Anoplother-
ium, as in many cases in jaws from the Phosphorites, it is impossible to
say whether they belong to Anoplotherium or Diplobune. Dr. Henri
Filhol informed me that he was of the same opinion, in regard to the
validity of the genus Diplobune.

In Dacrytherium the hind foot has at least four well developed toes
and the internal digit is not placed at an angle with the others as in
Anoplotherium. This structure of the pes is just what one would
expect to find in a genus standing in ancestral relationship to the more
specialized members of the Anoplotheriide. Granting that Dacryther-
ium fulfills in most of its characters, what we require of a form, supposed
to be ancestral to Anoplotherium, there is still the presence in Daery-
therium of a preorbital fossa, which is absent in theskull of Anoplother-
ium, and also another objection, is, that Dacrytherium has claw-like un-
gual phalanges, much as in Agriocherus. I believe, however, the ex-
tremely compressed ungual phalanges of Dacrytherium is of little weight
against this genus being ancestral to Anoplotherium, for in the latter
these phalanges are rather compressed, more so than in the normal
Artiodactyles, and they could be easily derived from those of Daery-
therium. The structure of the skull is not known in all the species of
Anoplotherium, and one of them may have had a skull with a preorbital
fossa, which is so characteristic of Dacrytherium.

As is well known, the original specimens of the manus and pes of
Anoplotherium commune, which are in the Muséum d’ Histoire Natur-.
elle, Paris, show only two well developed digits as restored by Cuvier.
This restoration of the feet of Anoplotherium is shown by Schlosser and
Zittell to have been an error on the part of Cuvier, and I quite agree
with these authors on this point. Prof. Zittell in his “ Traité de Paleon-
tologie” in speaking of the structure of the feet in Anoplotherium re-
marks “La plupart des représentation de la patte d’ Anoplotherium
faites jusqus à present omettent par erreur à la patte antérieur |’ index
et le rudiment de pouce, à la patte postérieur le second doigt.” I have
examined a fine cast of the hind foot of Anoplotherium commune and I
find that the restoration of the internal portion as completed by Cuvier
is quite erroneous. The two small bones placed by him on the tibular
side of the pes do not at all fit the facets on which they are placed. The
broad and obliquely placed facet on Mt. 111 in A. commune is for the
large and wide spreading second digit, this same structure of the meta-
tarsal occurs in A. (Kurytherium) latipes of the upper Eocene of Dé-
bruge.

668 The American Naturalist. [August,

Summing up the principal changes which have occured in the evolu-
tion of Anoplotherium from Dacrytherium, I emphasize the following :
1. Increase in height of the crowns of the upper molars, and the redu-
plication of the metaconid of the lower molars, this division of the meta-
conid is found in an incipient condition in young jaws of Dacrytherium.
Complete separation of the metaconid into two distinct cusps only
occurs in some forms of Anoplotherium. 2. The hind foot of Daery-
therium is normal in structure, and has at least four toes, this is the
primitive type of pes, from which the specialized fost of Anoplotherium
has been derived.

Note.—In my “Notes on the Fossil Mammalia of Europe,” part
II, American NATURALIST, April, 1896, I find two mistakes, which
should be corrected. On page 309, third and fifth lines from top, read
Adriotherium, instead of Adiotherium as printed, and also page 310,
eighth line from the bottom, read Anoplotheriide, in place of Suillines.
— CHARLES EARLE..

BOTANY:.'

De Toni’s Sylloge Algarum.—Dr. De Toni’ has recently issued
the third volume of his Sylloge Algarum. It deals entirely with the
Brown Algæ or Phaeophycee—the FucotpE® as he calls them. A
thousand species are described under one hundred and eighty genera,
which are grouped into twenty-nine families. He divides the group into
three orders, Cyclosporine, (Fucacex) Tetrasporine (Dictyoter) Phæo-
zoosporine (Phsevzoosporez ).

Splanchnidium rugosum the interesting plant which after careful
study was placed by M. O. Mitchell and F. G. Whiting’ in the Phæo-
sporin, is retained in the Durvilleacee, the fruit being described as a
polysporous oogone. The general appearance of the plant and the
structure of the conceptacles suggest a close relationship with the
fucoids, but if the above investigations are to be accepted the plant

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

2 Sylloge Algarum Omnium Hucusque cognitarum by J. Bapt. De Toni, Vol. III,
—.

hnidi im Grey. the type of a new order of Algæ, Phycolog-
ical Memoirs, BLE 1892,

1896.] Botany. 669

, bears zoospores in the conceptacles and not oogones, hence it must be
placed in the Zéosporine.

The treatment of the Zoosporinz is practically that of Kjellman in
Engler and Prantl’s, Pflanzenfamilien, except that the genera Litho-
derma and Arthrocladia are placed in families by themselves, instead
of in the Ralfsiacee and Desmarestiacee respectively, and that De Toni
has included five small, mostly, monogeneric families, the Phaothamni-
ace, Pheocapsacee, Hydruracee, Chromonodacee and Chromophyto-
nacee not mentioned by Kjellman. In All the Zoosporinz except the
above families the zoospores as far as known are laterally biciliated and
are borne in some form of zéosporangia. In these families there are
no zoosporangia and in at least a part of them the zoospores are not
laterally biciliated and in general their relationship seems to be with
the Chlorophycee. It seems more natural to place them, as Wille has
with some of them, in the Chlorophycee next to their closely related
genera.

The book is well arranged; priority in class, ordinal and family.
nomenclature is strictly observed. It will be indispensible to the spe-
cialist in this line and a great help to the general student.— Dr ALTON
SAUNDERS.

The Flora of the Black Hills of South Dakota.—In a recent
number of the Contributions from the U. 8. National Herbarium (Vol.
III, No. 8; issued June 13, 1896), P. A. Rydberg gives the results of
his explorations (in 1892) of the Black Hills of South Dakota. The
report, which includes about eighty pages, includes the following, viz. :
Itinerary, Geography, Geology, Altitudes, Precipitation and Tempera-
ture, Floral Districts, General Remarks, and the Catalogue of Species.
The plates are a Map of the Black Hills, Aquilegia brevistyla, Aqui-
legia saximontana and Poa peeudopratensis. The floral districts recog-
nized by the author are five, viz.: (1), the foothills and surrounding
plains, (2), the Minnekata Plains, (3), the Harney Mountain Range,
(4), the Limestone District, (5), the Northern Hills.

In summing up his discussion of the vegetation of these districts the
author says, “ From the foregoing can be seen what a varied flora the
Black Hills have. There are found plants from the East, from the
Saskatchewan region, from the prairies and table-lands west of the
Missouri River, from the Rocky Mountains, and even from the region
west thereof. In the foothills and the lower parts of the Hills proper
the flora is essentially the same as that of the surrounding plains, with
an addition of eastern plants that have ascended the streams. In the
higher parts the flora is more ofa Northern origin, Most of the plants

670 The American Naturalist. [August,

composing it are of a more or less transcontinental distribution, but
often characteristic of a higher latitude. Some can be said to belong
to the Rocky Mountain Region. The only trees of western origin are
Pinus ponderosa scopulorum, and Betula occidentalis; the others are
eastern, or transcontinental. The flora resembles, therefore, more that
of the region around the Great Lakes than that of the Rockies.”

It merely remains to say that the nomenclature and capitalization
(all specific names decapitalized) of this interesting and valuable re-
port are of the most advanced type—CHARLEs E. Brssry

Trelease’s Hickories and Walnuts ofthe United States.—
Dr. Trelease has rendered a good service to the botanists of the country
by publishing (in the Seventh Annual Report of the Missouri Botan-
ical Garden) the results of his studies of the Juglandacex of the United
States, especially with reference to their winter characters. The species
recognized are:

Hicoria pecan (Marshall) Britton—lIowa to Southern Indiana,
Kentucky, Louisiana and Texas, extending into Mexico.

H. myristiceformis (Michx. f.) Britton —Arkansas to Alabama, Texas
and Mexico, and in South Carolina.

H. aquatica (Michx. f.) Britton.— Virginia to Florida, around the
Gulf to Texas, thence north to Arkansas and southern Illinois.

H. minima (Marshall) Britton —Canada and Maine to Minnesota
and Nebraska, south to Texas and Florida.

H. glabra (Miller) Britton.—Atlantic region from Massachusetts
and Pennsylvania to Florida.—var. odorata (Marshall) Sargent.—
Mississippi valley eastward, and from Canada to the Gulf.—var. villosa
Sargent.—Missouri, on flinty hills—var. microcarpa (Nuttall) Sar-
gent.—Same range as var. odorata.

. H. alba (L.) Britton —Canada to the Great Lakes and Kansas,
south to Texas and Florida.

H. mexicana (Engelm.) Britton.—-Mexico, in mountains of Alvarez.

H. laciniosa (Michx.) Sargent—New York and Pennsylvania to
Iowa, Kansas and the Indian Territory.

H. ovata (Miller) Britton.—Canada to Minnesota, south to Florida,
Kansas and Texas

Juglans cinerea p ates Brunswick to Dakota, Kansas, and the
Mountains of Georgia and Alabama.

d. rupestris Engelmann.—Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, extend-
ing into Mexico.

J. californica Watson.—Coast range of southern California,

1896.] Botany. 671

J. nigra L.—Massachusetts to Ontario and Minnesota, south to the
Gulf.

The paper is accompanied by twenty five plates of trees, bark, buds,
leaves and fruits.—CHARLES E. BESSEY.

Diseases of Citrous Fruits.—This recently issued bulletin (8) of
the Division of Vegetable Pathology, of the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, prepared by W. T. Swingle and H. J. Webber is a valuable
contribution to science as well as horticulture. The diseases discussed
are Blight, Die-back, Scab, Sooty-mold, Foot-rot, and Melanose. Eight
good plates (three colored) accompany the paper.

Mulford’s Agaves of the United States.—In the seventh vol-
ume of the annual report of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Miss A.
Isabel Mulford publishes a monograph of the genus Agave so far as the
species native to or growing spontaneously in the United States, are con-
cerned, Sixteen species and four varieties are recognized, distributed
as follows:

A, virginica L.—Maryland to Florida, Indiana, Missouri and Texas.

_ A. virginica var. tigrina Englem.—South Carolina.

A. variegata Jacobi.—Lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas.

A, maculata Regel.?—southern Texas.

A, schottii Engelm.—southern Arizona.

A, schottii var. serrulata n. var.—Rincon Mts., Arizona.

A, parviflora Torrey —Mts. of Arizona.

A. lechuguilla Torrey.—west Texas and east New Mexico.

A. utahensis Engelm.—Utah, northern Arizona, southern California
and Nevada.

A. deserti Engelm. —southern California.

A. applanata Lemaire.— as.

A. applanata var. parryi (Engelm.) —southern New Mexico to cen-
tral Arizona.

A. applanata var. huachucensis (Baker).—Huahuca Mts., Arizona.

A, shawii Engelm.—southwestern California.

A. palmeri Engelm.—southeastern Arizona and southwestern New
Mexico.
A, asperrima Jacobi.—Spontaneous near San Antonio, Texas. =
A. americana L.—Spontaneous in southern Texas.

A. rigida sisalana Engelm.—Naturalized in Florida.
A. decipiens Baker.—southeastern Florida.

A. sp.—Florida.

A. sp.—Texas.

672 The American Naturalist. [ August,

It is with great pleasure that we observe the great reluctance of
the author to establish new species; on the contrary she has refrained
from giving names where most monographers would certainly have
done so. Thus on page 96, after a description which might have been
considered adequate, (at least by those who are fond of seeing their
names cited in connection with specific names) the author says: “ To
avoid further confusion in nomenclature I refrain from giving a
name to this plant until it is possible to obtain further data.” We
would commend this sentence to the careful consideration of a certain
class of botanists who are apparently more anxious for their own
“ credit” than for the progress of the science.

Thirty eight plates, many of them half-tone reproductions of photog-
raphs, accompany this useful paper. If space permitted we should be
glad to quote from the author’s introductory discussion, which is full
of interesting facts and suggestions ; thus a case is cited in which the
flower-stalk grew for twenty days at the average rate of two and three-
fourths inches per day !—CHARLES E. Bessey.

i ZOOLOGY.

Sense of Sight in Spiders.—A detailed account of the experi-
ments conducted by G. W. and E. G. Peckham for testing (1) the
range of vision and (2) the color sense of spiders is published in a late
volume of the Trans. Wisconsin Academy. The evidence offered by
the authors is based upon a study of twenty species of Attide. This
study has extended over eight successive summers, during which notes
were made of many hundreds of observations. The movements and
attitudes of the spiders of the group chosen are wonderfully vivid and
expressive. The males, in the mating season, throw themselves into
one position when they catch sight of a female, and into quite another
at the appearance of another male. This power of expression through
different attitudes and movements is of great assistance in determining
not only its range of sight, but also its power of distinct vision.

The spiders were confined in boxes, the sides of which were marked
off into inches. The bottom was of cotton cloth, the top of glass. Notes
were taken of the distances at which prey was noticed, followed and
captured. During their mating season the evidence was conclusive that
these spiders not only see, but see clearly at considerable distance, The

1896.] Zoology. 673

following description of one of the many experiments described in the
article serves to show the method of investigation:

A male of Saitis pulex was put into a box containing a female of the
same species. “The female was standing perfectly motionless, twelve
inches away, and three aud a half inches higher than the male. He
perceived her at once, lifting his head with an elert and excited ex-
pression, and went bounding toward her. This he would not have
done if he had not recognized her as a spider of his own species.
When four and one-half inches from her he began the regular display
of this species, which consists of a pecular dance. This he would not
have done had he not recognized her sex.”

At another time a male of Hasarius hoyi was dropped into a box
with another male which was standing seven inches away. “He at
once threw up his first legs, this being a challenge to battle. The other
male responded by throwing up his first legs. The two advanced upon
each other slowly, and when only two inches apart began to circle
about each other, waving their legs. The same male when put into a
box with a female saw her as she stood quite eleven inches away, and
at once lifted his first legs, not straight up, as in the case with the
other male, but obliquely, and began to move with a gliding gait from
side to side, this being the characteristic display before the females in
this species.”

That the spiders recognize each other by sight and not by any other
sense is evidently shown by the fact that they remain unconscious of
each other’s presence when back to back, no matter how excitable they
are when they come within range of each other’s vision. As a further
evidence of recognition by sight a male of Dendryphantes elegans was
removed from the box in the midst of his courtship of a female, his
eyes gently blinded with paraffine, and then restored to the box. He
remained entirely indifferent to the presence of the charmer that had
so much excited him a few moments before.

To sum up the result of these experiments:

“The Attidæ see their prey (which consists of small insects) when
it is motionless, at the distance of five inches; they see insects in mo-
tion at much greater distances ; they see each other distinetly up to at
least twelve inches. The observations on blinded spiders, and the
numerous instances in which spiders were close together, and yet out
of sight of each other, showing that they were unconscious of each
other’s presence, render any other explanation of their action unsatis-
factory. Sight guides them, not smell.”

.

674 The American Naturalist. [August,

As to a color-sense in spiders, the authors are of the opinion that
their experiments, while not conclusive, yet all taken together, strongly
indicate that spiders have the power of distinguishing colors. (Trans.
Wisconsin Acad. Sciences, Vol. X, 1895.)

Classification and Geographical Distribution of the Nai-
ades.—In his study of the fresh water pearly muscles, Mr. Simpson
finds that the division of these mollusks into two families, Unionidæ
and Mutelidee, founded on the completeness or incompleteness of the de-
velopment of the siphons, cannot stand. He accordingly diagnoses the
two families on the basis of the shell characters, and finds that his dis-
tinctions fully agree with what is known of the facts of geographical
distribution of the paleontology of the Naiades, and the classification
of v. Ihering, based on the characters of the embryos. The Unionide,
as defined by the author, include the genera Unio Retzius, Anodonta
Lamark, Prisodon Schumacher, Tetraplodon Spix, Castalina v. Iher-
ing, Burtonia Bourguignat, Arconaia Conrad, Cristaria Schumacher,
Lepidodesma Simpson, Pseudodon Gould, Leguminaia Conrad and
Solenaia Conrad. In the Mutelide he places the following genera :—
Mutela Scopoli, Chelidonopsis Ansey, Spatha Lea, Pliodon Conrad,
Brazzea Bourguignat, Glabaris Gray, Iheringella Pilsbry, Monocon-
dyiæa d'Orbigny, Fossula Lea, Mycetopoda d’Orbigny.

The author considers the relationship between these two great groups
as not a very close one. The Unionide are characterized by schizodont
teeth and a glochidium embryo. The Mutelide have taxodont teeth,
and, so far as is known, the embryo is a lasidium.

Mr. Simpson finds that the Naiades are capable of being grouped into
assemblages of related forms which have a more or less immediate
common ancestry ; and on the basis of this grouping they are distri-
buted into eight provinces, as is shown in the following table: |
( Europe.

Northern and Western Asia.

North Pacific to the Desert.

Pacific drainage of North America.

Palearctic, .

Ethiopi i o -.. 5. Africa south of the Sahara,

ś Asia south of the Himala
Oriental, f East Indies to the seny Islands.
: Australia.
Australian, Tasmania.
New Zealand.

Neotropical, . . . . South America.

1896.) Zoology. 675

Central America

Central American, . none east of the Cordillera.

ge from West Florida to the Rio

Mississippian, .
. ppan, Mackenzie el system.

Pa Missisippi Valley and the Gulf

4
f the North

Great La

Lower es we rence and rivers of eastern
` Atlantic, anada.
l Atlantic drainage of the United States.

The Unios date back in America to the Trias, where they were first
discoved by Prof. E. D. Cope. The relations of the existing Naiad
fauna with the fossil forms is given by the author as follows:

“The post-Cretaceous Unios of the northwestern States is evidently
closely related to the fauna of the Mississippi Valley, and this seems to
be related to that of Tropical Africa, as well as to the tertiary forms
of eastern Europe and Siberia. The Unios of Australia and South
America are apparently closely related to those of the Australian
region. There seems to be, too, a general relationship between the
Mutelide of Africa and South America. These Mutelids and the
Unios which bear the embryos in the inner gills have perhaps formerly
occupied extensive areas in the northern hemisphere, and may have
been supplanted by more modern forms.” (Proceeds. U.S. Natl. Mus.,
Vol. XVIII, 1896.)

Arkansas Fishes.—As the result of less than three weeks’ collect-
ing in western Arkansas, eastern Indian Territory and the St. Francis
River in northeastern Arkansas, Prof. Meek obtained 83 species of
fishes. A new Notropis was found in the Potean River, and a new
species of Fundulus is described from the St. Francis. Mollusks are
abundant in old river, the old channel of the St. Francis. Six species
of Unionide were found at a locality farther north than hitherto re-
ported. (Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1895, Wash., 1896.)

Batrachia and Reptilia ot Madagascar.—The two collections
of reptiles from Madagascar, now in the Natural History Museum of
Paris, have been examined by M. Mocquard, who reports upon them
as follows: The Grandidier collection comprises 68 species in all,
Ophidians 13, Bathrachians 20, of which 3 are new species belonging
to the genera Mantidactylus, Rhacophorus and Calophrynus. Lacer-
tilians 35, including 2 new species, referred to the genera Lygodactylus _

676 The American Naturalist. [August,

and Phyllodactylus. The Allnand and Belly collection comprise 33
Reptiles and 16 Batrachians. Among the latter are 2 new species of
Mantidactylus and 1 of Stumpffia. There are but 11 Sphidia, but
these include types of two new genera, Compsophis and Alluondina
and a new species of Pseudoxyrhopus. The Lacertilia, 22 in number,
yield 4 new species referred to the following genera: Chameleon,
Brookesia, Uroplates and Paracontias. The diagnosis of the new Rep-
tiles of this collection have been previously given in the Comptes rendus
de la Soc. Philom. for 1894.

A comparison of these two collections, with the forms described by
Prof. Boettger from Madagascar, shows that certain species considered
by him as peculiar to Nossi-Bé are found distributed all through the
northern part of the island. This is true not only of the Reptiles but
of the Batrachians also. (Bull. Soc. Philom., Paris, 1895.)

The Molting of Birds.—In a paper published recently in the
Proceeds. Phila. Acad., Mr. Witmer Stone gives a detailed account of
his observations on the molting of birds, with especial reference to the
- plumages of the smaller land birds of eastern North America. Atten-
tion is directed to the following points: order, number and times of
molt; change of color by abrasion; seasonal plumages ; direct change
of color in feathers. As a result of his studies Mr. Stone makes the
following generalizations :

T. The annual moult at the close of the breeding season is a physi-
ological necessity, and is common to all birds.

II. The spring molt and striking changes of plumage effected by
abrasion are not physiological necessities, and their extent is dependent
upon the height of development of coloration in the adult plumage,
and does not necessarily have any relation to the systematic relation-
ships of the species.

It naturally follows that closely related species may differ materially
in the number and extent of their molts, and that malesand females of
the same species differ greatly in this respect when the nuptual plu-
mage of the adult male is highly developed as compared with that of
the female or with its own winter plumage.

III. The amount of change effected in the plumage at any particular
molt varies considerably in different individuals of the same species
and sex.

IV. Some species which have a well marked spring molt in their
first and second years may discontinue it afterwards, when the adult
plumage has once been acquired. And, on the other hand, some indi-

1896.} . Entomology. 677

viduals may continue to molt in the spring, while others of the same
species cease to do so.

V. The remiges are molted less frequently than any other part of the
plumage. Asa rule, they are only renewed at the annual molt (ex-
ception Dolichonyx). :

VI. Variability in the order of molt in the remiges and presence or
absence of molt in the flight feathers at the end of the first summer are
generally family characters, i. e., Ceryie differs from any other species
treated of in this paper in the order of molt in the primaries. All
Picidæ and all Icteridæ, except Icterus (and Dolichonyx ?), molt the
flight feathers with the rest of the first plumage. None of the Oscines
except Icteride (as above), some (all?) Hirundinidx, Olocoris and
Cardinalis molt the flight feathers at this time.

Mr. Stone’s conclusions as to “ color-change without moulting ” are
the same as those reached by Chapman, in his article on “ The Changes
ot Plumage in the Dunlin and Sanderling,” namely : that color-change
without molt or abrasion is incapable of taking place from the very
nature of the structure of a feather, and that all the cases so reported
can be otherwise acconnted for. (Proceeds. Acad. Nat. Sciences,
Phila., 1896.)

The Florida Deer.—The fact that the Florida deer is but little
more than half the size of the deer of northeastern United States, to-
gether with certain cranial and dental peculiarities, is sufficient, accord-
ing to Mr. Outram Bangs, to give it full specific rank. He therefore
describes it under the name Cariacus osceola. The most striking differ-
ences between the Florida animal and its northern relatives are (1) the
shape and size of the nasal and maxillary bones, and (2) the very large
molar and premolar teeth. (Proceeds. Biol. Soc. a iaa Vol. X,
1896.)

ENTOMOLOGY."

Professor Forbes’ Eighth Report.—The nineteenth report
from the office of the State Entomologist of Illinois, covering the
years 1893-4, has recently been issued. It is the eight report of the
present incumbent, Professor S. A. Forbes, and adheres closely to the
lines of thorough and accurate record, which have made its seven pre-
decessors notable in the literature of economic entomology. The bulk

! Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

678 The American Naturalist. [Angust,

of the volume (189 pages) is devoted to the Chinch Bug—the arch-
enemy of Illinois agriculture, a voluminous record being made of the
experiments with contagious diseases carried on by the entomologist
and his assistants. There is also an article on the White Ant in Mli-
nois, and in an appendix of 65 pages Mr. W. G. Johnson, assistant
entomologist, gives an excellent discussion of the Mediterranean Flour
Moth.

Flies Riding on Beetle’s Back.—Rev. A. E. Eaton, the well-
known British entomologist, writing from Bône, Algeria, sends this
interesting note to the Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine: “Across the
mouth of the Seybouse, on sandy pasture land bordering the seashore,
big coprophagous beetles are common, sheltering in large holes in the
soil when at rest, and running about on business. A small species of
Borborine may often be seen riding on their backs, chiefly on the pro-
notum, and about the bases of the elytra—sometimes half a dozen
females on one beetle. The beetles occasionally throw themselves on
their backs to try and get rid of them by rolling; but the flies elude
all their efforts to dislodge them, dodging out of harm’s way into the
joinings of the thorax and out again, and darting from back to breast
and back again, in a way that drives the beetle nearly mad. In vain
she scrapes over them with her legs; in vain does she roll over or
delve down amongst the roots of the herbage; the flies are as active as
monkeys, and there is no shaking them off. It is difficult to get them
off into the killing bottle; nothing persuades them to fly; and they
would very much rather stick to the beetle than be driven off it down
into the tube.”

Proteid Digesting Saliva in Insect Larve.—Dr. Wilibald
Nagel describes? the method of feeding in larvæ of Dytiscus. In these
larvee the mouth is very much reduced in size, and the ingestion of food
is performed by means of suction through the much modified mandi-
bles, the process being facilitated by the powerful digestive action of
the saliva. Under natural conditions the larvæ eat only living animals,
but in captivity they will also take pieces of meat. The zaliva has a
marked poisonous action, killing other insects, and even tadpoles of
twice the size of attacking larve, very rapidly. The larvæ not only
suck the blood of their victims, but absorb the proteid substances.
Drops of salivary juice seem to paralize the victim and to ferment the
proteids. The secretion is neutral, the digestion tryptic. Similar
extra-oral digestion seems to occur in larvæ of ant-lions, etc., and

? Biol. Centralbl., XVI, 1896, 51-57, 103-112,

1896.] Entomology. 679

spiders, and according to Krause, in Cephalopods.—Journ. Royal
Micros. Society.

Weismann on Dimorphism in Butterflies.—For some time
The Entomologist has been publishing a series of interesting articles by
Dr. August Weismann on the Seasonal Dimorphism of Lepidoptera.
The June number contains a recapitulation from which we take this
extract: “Although I am far from considering the few experiments,
which I could here put forward, as sufficient for reaching a decisive
settlement of our opinions on seasonal dimorphism, yet I cannot forbear
arranging them, provisionally at least, in reference to our general con-
ceptions of the subject. When, in the year 1875, I first set about
investigating the ways of this striking and yet so long neglected phe-
nomenon, I assumed that it was to a certain extent obvious, that this
kind of dimorphism was everywhere a direct result of the various
direct influences of climate, principally of the temperature, as it effects
in regular alternation the spring and the summer brood of many-
brooded species. I had also well considered the other possibility, that
dimorphism connected with the time of the year might also depend
upon the indirect influence of the changing environment, i. e., that it
might depend upon the adaptation to the varying environment of the
butterfly according to the time of year.”

I then said : “ It is not inconceivable in itself, that phenomena occur
among the Lepidoptera analogous to the winter and summer clothing
of Alpine and Arctic mammalia and birds, only with the difference,
that the change in coloring does not arise in one and the same genera-
tion, but alternately in different ones.” But, at that time the fact that
the upper side of butterflies, which is usually not adaptive, can be very -
variable just in summer and spring, sometimes more so than the
adaptive under side, appeared to me to contradict this adaptation of
seasonal dimorphism. Yet, it was the fact, that the one or the other
seasonal form could be produced artificially by the operation of a higher
or lower temperature, i. e. the stamp of the winter form might be im-
pressed on the summer brood, and vice versa. I therefore concluded
that it was the measure of heat which was acting during the pupal
period which directly formed the species in one way or the other; and
I felt the more justified in so doing, as the climatic varieties form a
parallel to the seasonal forms, and as the former must, without doubt,
be referred to the direct influence of climate, especially of temperature.

Thus, for example, Chrysophanus phicas is seasonably dimorphic in
Sardinia and at Naples; the summer form, which develops during the

AT

680 The American Naturalist. [August,

summer heat, is very dark, almost black, but the spring form corre-
sponds with our German red-golden phlæas.

Although to-day I still look upon this view as correct, and a directly
altering effect of temperature as proved, yet I have gradually been
convinced, that this is not the sole origin of seasonally dimorphie varia-
bllity, but that there is also adaptive seasonal dimorphism. We must, I
believe, distinguish direct and adaptive seasonal dimorphism ; and, I see
in this distinction an important advance, which, before all, places us in
position to explain the results of the various experiments undertaken
by myself and others in a much more satisfactory manner.

I have already pronounced this view in a lecture delivered at Oxford
in the beginning of 1894, and I have sought to show that adaptive
seasonal dimorphism, which I had previously only put forward as possi-
ble, does actually occur. The example there given for perfect insects
was, indeed, only a hypothetical one, viz., the case of Vanessa prorsa-
levana; but for larvæ, at least, I can select an example from Edward’s
excellent work on the North American butterflies with tolerable cer-
tainty, viz., that of Lycæna pseudargiolus, which will be more accurately

iscussed later on. I did not then know what I learnt shortly after-
wards from an interesting little pamphlet of Dr. G. Brandes, that cases
of seasonal dimorphism had been known for a long time among tropical
butterflies, and that among these, at least, one of the seasonal forms
depend upon the assumption of a special protective coloring. Brandes,
maintains, with justice, that the view hitherto widely held among us is
erroneous, according to which seasonal dimorphism was not to be ex-
pected in trophical countries, since the alternation of seasons is absent
there. Periods of rain and drought, at least for many tropical coun-
tries, form such an alternation very sharply. At any rate, Doherty,
and, somewhat later, de Nicéville, have pointed out, for Indian butter-
flies, a series of seasonally dimorphic species, not merely by the observa-
tion of the alternation of the two forms in nature, but by rearing the
one form from the eggs of the other ; thus among Satyridæe of the genera
Yphthima, Mycalesis, and Melanitis, and for the species of Junonia, it
is accepted as proved; and in all these cases the difference between
the two forms principally consists in the fact that the one form seems
like a dry leaf on the under side, while the other possesses another
marking, and at the same time a number of ocelli.

Without engaging in the controversy as to the biological value of
these ocelli, I do not for a moment doubt but that the coloring with
ocelli is also an adaptive form, possibly protective or intimidating color-
ing. If one of the two forms had no biological significance, it could

1896.] . Entomology. 681

no longer exist; the single adaptive one would have replaced it. But
it is obvious that the appearance of complicated details of marking and
color, such as ocelli are, cannot be simply the direct effect of heat or
cold, drought or humidity. These influences are not the actual causes
of such formations, but only the stimulus, which sets their primary con-
stituents free, i. e., induces their development, as I tried to demonstrate
in the lecture above noted. As the sufficient cause of the sleep of the
marmots does not lie in the cold, but in the organization of the animal
which is adapted to the cold, and as the cold only brings the existing
predisposition to winter sleep into play, so among these butterflies with
adaptive seasonal dimorphism the display of the one or the other mark-
ing is apparently connected, partially, at least, with one of the above
named outward influences, although in reference to these trophical
butterflies we do not yet know to which of them.

We recognize temperature as the stimulus to development with the
cases of seasonal dimorphism of our indigenous butterflies, as in all
cases of seasonal dimorphism, which have hitherto proved experimen-
tally, it is always high and low temperature which gives the outward
impulse to the appearance of the one or the other form where this
impulse did not come exclusively from within.

There are, therefore, two different sources of the appearance of sea-
sonal dimorphism: on the one hand, the direct action of alternating
external influences, viz.: temperature, can bring about this change in
the outward appearance; and on the other hand, the processes of selec-.
tion. It is therefore necessary to consider these two kinds of seasonal
dimorphism separately. It will certainly not always be easy to decide
between them when a particular case has to be dealt with, as at present
it is not always possible to say whether a coloring or marking has a
definite biological value or not. Both causes also may co-operate in
in one species.

Note on the Classification of Diplopoda.—The admitted im-
possibility of formulating a generally satisfactory definition of the term
species exists partly because systematists have used it in the greatest
variety of applications, and partly because natural groups are so
diverse in structure and developmental history that a scheme calcu-
lated to elucidate one may increase confusion in another. It is hence
desirable in proposing or making use of a classification to recognize as
clearly as possible the conceptions under which the arrangement into
the various categories of natural groups has been made.

The structure and distribution of the Diplopoda make it advanta-
geous and usually easy to arrange them into species, which are groups

682 The American Naturalist. [August,

of very similar individuals not connected by intermediate individuals
with other groups different in details of structure, form or color. An
apparent and probably sufficient cause for this is the close similarity
of all Diplopoda in life-histories, habits and food. All are scavengers,
able to subsist upon a variety of decaying vegetable, or even animal
matter, and there has been scarcely any response to calls for special
adaptations to life as parasites, commensals, or under other changed
conditions. The species of Diplopoda are not only extremely local in
distribution, but are generally confined to almost identical habitats,
removed from which they do not long survive.

Supposing the Diplopoda to be a natural group descended from a
common ancestor, we are compelled to believe that such differences as
appear among them are the result of accumulated variation not greatly
influenced by external selective causes. Hence, existing differences
indicate in general much more remote developmental divergence than
in groups which have entered more thoroughly into the struggle
for existence by responding to the demands of varied conditions. In
this respect the Diplopoda offer a most striking contrast to the Hexa-
poda, and the results are in accordance; there are more millions of
species of Hexapoda than there are thousands of Diplopoda. __

Having accepted a criterion of species, the classification into higher
groups is perhaps largely a matter of convenience ; but convenience,
scientific accuracy, and the recognition of affinities, alike demand con-
stant attention to the fact, that the value of any character depends
primarily upon its constancy, not upon the apparent degree of diver-
gence, This is merely the reiteration of the chief axiom of systematic
science, but the abundance of systems which completely ignore this
fundamental idea are evidence that much reiteration is still desirable.

While in some natural groups it seems necessary to recognize sub-
divisions not definable by any constant character or complex of char-
acters in the Diplopoda, we may conveniently proceed upon somewhat
better ground, and require that the genera and larger divisions shall be
limited by definite structural characters.

A dichotomous classification is theoretically the only exact one, for
the reason that three or more natural groups could never be ex

to be separated by exactly equivalent structural differences. Practi-
cally, however, a dichotomous system is inconvenient by reason of
the great number of categories necessary in properly recognizing
affinities. Hence, it is not a valid objection to the usual or multi-
fid form of classification that the natural divisions arranged under
the same category are not of the same rank, that is, not remote from

1896.] Entomology. 683

each other by equal structural distances. All that can be reasonably
demanded of a classification is that its groups of all ranks shall be
natural ones, and that the higher the groups, the more constant, and
hence fundamental, shall be the characters by which they are separated.
Furthermore, it must never be supposed that the variability of a
character in one group need affect its importance if found to be con-
stant in another.

Asa general policy it is evidently desirable that scientific names of
all grades shall mean as much as possible. The objection to the recog-
nition of distinct and definable genera and higher groups on account
of the consequent multiplicity of names is usually to be taken as an
unscientific willingness to ignore structural differences and natural
affinities,,in the hope of escaping additional labor. In reality the diffi-
culty of defining groups containing unrelated members, and of becoming
acquainted with such through descriptions, much exceeds the temporary
inconvenience resulting from change of names.

In attempting to embody in the classification of the Diplopoda a
recognition of certain structural differences found to be invariable,
several natural and distinct groups of families have been recognized as
orders. It is here proposed to render this classification more definite
and consistent by the division of two of these orders, in the belief that
the resulting groups, in addition to numerous structural differences, have
long been divergent in developmental history. The orders thus to be
divided are the Diplocheta and the Merocheta. From the Diplocheta
it is proposed to separate the true Iulide and their allies, under the
name ZYGOCHETA, leaving under the Diplocheta Spirostreptoidea and
Cambaloidea. The Zygocheta are distinct in many characters of the
gnathochilarium, in the transformation of the first pair of legs of males
as clasping organs, the adnate external seminal ducts, the absence of
legs from the third segment, the presence of legs on the fourth segment,
and the structure of the copulatory organs of both sexes. The Diplo-
cheta have the first pair of legs nearly or quite unmodified, the external
ducts distinct, the third segment with a pair of legs, and the fourth seg-
ment footless. Notwithstanding these and other important and invaria-
ble differences, it remains probable that these two orders are more
related to each other than to any third group of Diplopoda.

The other case is similar ; the Merocheta will, in the restricted sense,
contain numerous families allied to the Polydesmide, with twenty closed
segmental rings; the new order CŒLOCHETA will accommodate the

684 The American Naturalist. [August,

Lysiopetaloidea and Craspedosmatoidea,’ and is characterized by the
greater number of segments, the free pedigerous lamin, the seven-
jointed legs, the distinct mentum, and the normal presence of eyes. In
the Merocheta the apertures of the external seminal ducts are small
openings in the chitinous wall of the coxæ of the second legs, connect-
ing with internal tube of nearly uniform diameter. In the Ccelocheta
the cox contain a large cavity, while the aperture is large, the margin
pilose and not chitinous.—O. F. Coox.

EMBRYOLOGY.

The Tentacular Apparatus of Amphiuma.—In the Journal
of Comparative Neurology, Vol. VI, March, 1896, Professor J. S.
Kingsley has written an article entitled “ On Three Points in the Nerv-
ous Anatomy of Amphibians” in which he has endeavored to show that
the tentacular apparatus of Amphiuma, briefly described by me (Jour-
nal of Morphology, Vol. XI, No. 2), has been mistaken for a nerve
and blood vessel. I consider the discovery of this degenerate organ of
too much phylogenetic importance to be consigned at once to oblivion,
and, therefore, offer in this article the results of a more careful study
of it.

Since histological detail is important in this investigation, I state
briefly the technique. The specimen, seventy-eight millimeters in
length and seven millimeters in body diameter, was hardened in Klein-
enberg’s picro-sulphuric and, passed through the alcohol series from
seventy to one hundred per cent and returned to seventy per cent, when
the head was severed and placed three days in borax-carmine, then in
acid alcohol twenty-four hours, after which it was imbedded in paraffine
by the usual method and cut into serial sections one twenty-fifth of a
millimeter in thickness.

Figure I is magnified twenty diameters. The outlines of all the feat-
ures were drawn with a Zeiss camera lucida, Every feature appears in

š From the true Craspedosomatide there may be distinguished the Trachy-
gonidz, Conotylide, and Cleidogonide, in addition to the Chordeumatide estab-
lished by C. L. Koch in 1847, The separation of other equivalent groups will

probably be necessary when a fuller knowledge of European and Asiatic forms is
ined.

' Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts reviews and
preliminary notes may be sent.

1896.] Embryology. 685

Figure I. Right-hand portion of section through head of Amphiuma 78 millim-
eters long, f, frontal; P, parietal; OSP, orbitosphenoid; E, eye; m, maxillary
bone; mx*, branches of maxillary nerve; Tt, tentacular OTA rt, retractor
bial mx, maxillary nerve.
the section just as distinctly as it is shown in the figure, b is the blood
vessel and the adjacent mx* the nerve which Kingsley thought I had
mistaken for the tentacular apparatus, Tt. Notice that three branches
of the ramus maxillaris course along the external sheath.

=

Figure II. Ce, canal for tentacle; rt, retractor muscle; ObD, orbital gland ;
ITts, inner sheath ; ATts, outer sheath,

686 The American Naturalist. [August,

The histological details of the apparatus Tt. are shown in figure II
as they appear viewed with a 72 inch oil immersion lens giving about
1000 diameters. While the columnar epithelial cells lining the tenta-
cular canal Ce are not so regular as one sees in a functional organ yet
they are so well defined, especially in the lower portion that the ob-
server cannot be misled as to their identity. The nucleus is visible in
about one half the cells and the nucleolus is apparent in many cases.
In the upper portion the cells have lost their nuclei and are in a degen-
erate condition. rt is a cross-section of a muscular element which I
believe is the atrophied remains of the muscular retractor of the
tentacle. In my preparation, only the bony and muscular tissues have
taken on the very light shade of red which characterizes rt. Since the
latter is certainly not a bone, I infer it must be a muscle, and if a muscle
what other function could it have had than to retract the tentacle.
This muscle is visible in ten consecutive sections while the canal Ce
appears in greater or less completeness in thirteen sections. The black
dots of various sizes seen irregularly distributed throughout the gland-
ular tissue ObD may possibly be nuclei as they are stained a deep red
or they may be scattered nerve fibres whose connection with the ramus
maxillaris on its branches I have not been able to demonstrate because
the degenerate glandular tissue was so loose as to be displaced in several
sections. The irregular wavy lines, I think represent cell boundaries.
These are visible with an enlargement of two hundred diameters in the
lower portion but can scarcely be seen with an oil immersion immedi-
ately beneath the canal. ITts is the inner tentacle sheath composed of
connective tissue fibres. It is clearly seen in eighteen consecutive sec-
tions. ATts represents the outer tentacle sheath which with a low
power can be seen in twenty-five consecutive sections. Thus it is ob-
served that this tentacular apparatus is about one millimeter long lying
below and external to the eye.

The tentacular canal is complete in only four sections. Figure IIT
represents the fourth section posterior to figure II. The columar epi-
thelium has disappeared on the dorsal side where the inner sheath enters
and on one side lies close to the wall, while on the other it mingles with
a loose tissue T which may be the remainsof a tentacle. This tentacle
is prominent in six sections, in three of which the canal is complete so
that the inner sheath does not enter it. The lumen of the canal varies
but slightly in size. The musculus retractor rt dwindles as we pass
anterior or posterior of the section shown in figure II. The glandular
tissue decreases both anterior and posterior to the median section. The
portion on the ventral side persists the longest, being present in thirteen `

1896.] Embryology. 687

sections. The outer tentacle sheath retains the same circumference in
about thirteen sections. As soon as the canal and glandular tissue
have disappeared the circumference of the outer sheath lessens in both
the six posterior sections and the six sections anterior to the thirteen

Ẹ Zoo My»

Figure III. T, tentacle; mx,* branch of ramus maxillarios; other letters same
as in figure IT.

median sections until it is only one fourth of the full size and the cells
of the sheath become scattered, thus finally filling up the central area
and creating a solid cord in the last two sections. It is worthy of
notice that this tentacular apparatus was observed on the right hand
side only in the specimen examined. In three other specimens of the
same hatching, though they were several millimeters longer, no trace of
the above described organ could be discerned. Kingsley has shown
that no such organ exists in his specimens which were from the same
lot as mine. An explanation of the occurrence of this organ in only
one specimen may be found in the fact that it is an exceedingly transi-
tory formation like the pronephros of the chick, which is present for
only one day. ;

The second objection Kingsley makes to my observations, is that all
the eye muscles are present in Amphiuma and the Sarasins say the re-
tractor muscle of the tentacle is probably developed from the retractor
bulbi. To this I answer that the Sarasins have not been able to demon-
strate positively that the retractor muscle is developed from the retrac-
tor bulbi, and if it were true that the retractor muscle is developed
from the retractor bulbi, I see no objection to the posterior part of the

688 The American Naturalist. [August,

retractor muscle functioning as a retractor bulbi — the anterior por-`
tion has undergone degeneration.

Kingsley further states that the described apparatus is not in the
proper location to be compared to the tentacular organ of the Gymno-
phiona. In elucidating this point it is of service to compare figure I
with figure IV taken from Die Anatomie der Gymnophionen von
Wiedersheim.

Figure IV. Cross section of Siphonops annulatus. NPr, naso premaxillary ;
Vo. vomer; M, maxillary ; Atts, outer tentacle sheath ; ITts, inner tentacle sheath
After Weidersheim.

It is seen that the columar-lined canal, inner tentacle sheath and
outer tentacle sheath in Siphonops, have the same relation as in Am-
phiuma. It is further seen that the inner sheath of Siphonops is in-
voluted ventrally to surround the tentacle while in Amphiuma a similar
involution is seen on the dorsal side in Fig. III. In both genera the
organ is covered merely. by the skin and its subjacent tissue. The
glandular tissue is not shown in Fig. IV as the section is anterior to the
orbital gland. It is true the maxillary bone overhangs the apparatus
in Sipbonops whereas such is not the case in Amphiuma. In beha
this contrast I quote from Cope (Bulletin of the United States National
Museum, No. 34, p. 214): “There is also a very large foramen or
canal passing through the o. maxillare from near its middle to the
orbit, foreshadowing the canalis tentaculiferus of the cecilia.” Fig. I.
is a section posterior to where the canal would enter the maxillary bone.
Among the Gymnophiona there is considerable variation as to the rela-
tion of the apparatus to the maxillary bone as the following from Wie-
dersheim, p. 47 shows: “Sprengt man nun zum Behuf klarerer Ein-
sicht die Deckknochen auf der betreffenden Schidelhafte volkommen
ab, so wird man ein weissliches, walzenformiges Organ gewahr, wel-

1896.] Psychology. 689

ches, wei bei Ceecilia, ganz vom Maxillarbein oder wei bei Epicrium
und Siphonops an seiner äusseren circumferenz nur von der äusseren
Haut bedeckt ist.” Thus it is seen that the location of the organ in
Amphiuma is very similar to its location in Gymnophiona.

A further corroboration of my views is noticed in the relation of the
branches of the ramus maxillaris to the external sheath of the tentacle.
According to Wiedersheim, in the Gymnophiona three branches of the
maxillary nerve attend the tentacular apparatus in its course in the
sub-orbital region. In Amphiuma I have found these three branches
occupying the same relative position as is indicated by mx* in Fig. I.
This striking similarity is seen at a glance by comparing fig. 54 in
Wiedersheim’s Anatomie der Gymnophionen with Fig. I. Before one
can be convinced that theso-called tentacular apparatus in Amphiuma
is really such I am aware my investigations must be verified by the dis-
covery of this atrophied organ in other specimens. The importance of
the discovery of such a feature is emphasized by Kingsley: “ Were it
true that Amphiuma possesses, either in the young or the adult, rudi-
ments of a tentacular apparatus, the fact would prove of great value to
those who would recognize in the Gymnophiona only degenerate Am-
phiume.” Cope and the Sarasins have deduced considerable evidence
favoring the close relationship of Amphiumide and Cæciliidæ, which
fact renders it the more credible that a rudimentary tentacular appar-
atus has really been found in Amphiuma.—Atvrin Davison, Pu. D.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Synesthesia and Synopsia.—Until quite recently synesthesia
was regarded by psychologists generally as a purely artificial and fanci-
ful association, or at best as a sign of degeneracy; it has lately received
considerable attention, however, and the weight of evidence goes to
show that it is both natural and normal—it may even be said, a phe-
nomenon of common occurrence.

In an exhaustive monograph on the subject, published in 1893,' Prof.
Flournoy of Geneva for the first time introduced a terminology which
aimed to distinguish scientifically between the different forms of synæs-
thesia. The most important phase is the association of visual images,
or synopsia. Attention was first called to this by Fechner, in 1876.

1 Les phénomènes de la synopsie (audition colorée); by Th, Flournoy; Paris,
1893; pp. 259,

690 The American Naturalist. [Augest,

Flournoy distinguishes here between photisms, diagrams and person-
ification. The first of these is the audition colorée of earlier writers;
it consists in the natural association of a color with each particular
sound, so that a spoken word appears to the hearer to be tinged with
one or more hues, corresponding to its constituent vowel sounds. <A
diagram is a visual scheme in which some natural series of ideas (such
as the months, days of the week, numbers, etc), is arranged. When a
member of the series is recalled, the appropriate part of the diagram is
visualized. Personification is simply the attributing of some personal
characteristic, such as sex, to a number, etec. ; or the association with
it of a feeling of like or dislike. Flournoy reportssome 350 persons as
possessing synopsia in one or other of its forms, out of 2600 to whom
questions were addressed, (13 per cent.) ; but as a large portion of his
question-sheets were never returned, the real percentage may be regarded
as somewhat greater.

In a recent paper,’ Miss Calkins gives the results of a personal can-
vass of Wellesley students in 1893 and 1894. For the former year the
affirmative answers numbered 33 per cent., for the latter 60 per cent.
It may be doubted whether all the latter are true cases of synopsia.
Yet when due allowance is made for possible temporary associations, it
must still be admitted that synopsia is by no means a rare phenomenon.

Richard Hennig’ gives an interesting study of the diagram-forms
occurring in himself and his immediate family. He is able in a num-
ber of cases to trace their origin to certain associations of early child-
hood, and favors the ‘ natural,’ or experiential view of the origin of all
such schemes. He strongly opposes the notion of inherited forms or
photisms: Only two pair in the list given by Galton, he thinks, show
any real resemblance, and these may well be accounted for by similarity
of early environment. “ Only the tendency to synopsia can be inherited ;
but here the influence of heredity is unmistakable and undoubted.”
The writer points out a similarity between the number-form of himself
and one brother brought up under the same surroundings, while in the
case of another brother, whose early life was spent in another environ-
ment, the diagram was radically different. Herr Hennig urges the
usefulness of the number-form as a mnemonic aid, and cites the case of
a friend, who easily memorized dates by association with the appropri-
ate places in his number-diagram.

J. Philippe has lately investigated the synopsia of blind persons, and
finds a remarkable number of cases among them, though none occurred
among those who were blind from birth.

2 Synæsthesia, by Mary W. Calkins; Amer. Journalof Psychology, VII, 90-107,
3 Ztschr. f, Psychol., X, 183-222,

1396.) Anthropology. 691

With the reduction of synesthesia to a scientific basis, which Flour-
noy has brought about, and the demonstration of its wide-spread occur-
rence, comes the demand for a more thorough examination of its bear-
ing upon other departments of psychology. The physiological inter-
pretation of synopsia is still unsettled, and is commended to physio-
logical adres as a fruitful theme for investigation.—H. C. -
WARR

ANTHROPOLOGY:

Exploration by the University of Pennsylvania in West
Florida.—Little more than a year ago my friend Lieutenant Colonel
©. D. Durnford formerly of the English Army, returning northward
from a journey in the West Indies and Florida brought with him the
specimens of aboriginal rope and netting found in a mud bed near
Marco, Florida described by him in the AMERICAN NATURALIST for
November, 1895.

That he realized the importance of the digging done in the mud in
April, 1895 by himself and Mr. Charles Wilkins of Rochester, New
York, was shown by the fact that on reaching Philadelphia he made
the effort at once to present the details of the discovery to archeologists.
As an original observer, a gatherer of inspiration from nature, com-
ing generously to present us with unprecedented specimens and archmo-
logical data of much value, discribing to myself and others the details of
the discovery and stating his belief that the lagoon fringing islands
near Marco were net-worked with artificial canals, and would disclose
other and similar relic preserving mud deposits, to him belongs the honor
of opening a new door for archzeology in the southeast.

The prompt recognition of the originality and value of this intel-
ligence by Dr. William Pepper and his energetic action in coopera-
tion with Mr. Stewart Culin, Director of the Department of Archxology
have resulted in the recent expedition of the University of Pennsylvania
sent by Dr. Pepper to Florida in the late months, under the direction
of Mr. Frank Hamilton Cushing, whose fortunate presence in Phila-
delphia at the time of Colonel Durnford’s visit ended in his employ-
ment by Dr. Pepper as Conductor of the Exploration. This led to
the association of the Bureau of Ethnology of Washington of which

1 This department is edited by H. C, Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

692 The American Naturalist. (August,

Mr. Cushing is a member, with the work whose results have delighted
the friends of the University.

Summarized by Mr. Cushing in two newspapers (Philadelphia
Times and New York Journal Sunday, June 21st, 1896) these results
are represented by the array of specimens now in the Pepper Labora
tory at Philadelphia. They witness the good fortune of Dr. Pepper
and the University and the successful excavation of Mr. Cushing. The
muck-filled artificial shell basin at or near where Coloned Durnford
had worked, dammed, baled and cleaned out, and a large mound ex-
cavated 200 miles to the northward procured a superabundance of
beautiful and unique remains.

The work shows that a storehouse of aboriginal manufactures escap-
ing the notice of a good deal of reconnaissance, liad lain unobserved
within easy reach of scientific institutions in the east, testifying further
to the fact that mud or permanent damp has here done for the
Archeologist what permanent dryness has done at the Cliff Dwellings
of Arizonaand in Egypt. As at the Swiss Lake Dwellings here again,
a whole category of remains that have perished elsewhere in the eastern
United States have survived hermetically sealed in the ooze.

A few of the salient features of the collection concern :

(1) Facts relating to burial; crania from the mound and muck with
funeral paraphrenalia.

(2) The relation of pottery, found in great abundance, to burial,
and the allegoric and religious significance of fictile designs.

(3) The use of totemic ornaments, of masks representing the human
face in ceremonials, and the allegorical significance of carvings repre-
senting the heads of animals, and paintings on wood.

(4) The economic facts of daily life illustrated by means of well pre-
preserved utensils and vessels of wood and by the haftings of wood and
shell implements.

(6) Interesting data referring to the arrangement of canals, shell
walls, basins, the height of shell mounds and what appear to be vestiges
of pile-built houses sunken in mud and sufficiently indicated for study.

It will not be easy for the archzeologist suddenly confronted by this
display of aboriginal handiwork outshining the long toiled for gather-
ings of other searchers in the East, to hold fast to the caution that the
occasion demands, to realize how much and how littlesuch preservation
of perishable remains signifies in a given case, to remember in the infer-
red estimate of cultural status that multitudes of similar objects, betoken-
ing the life history of other tribes in the eastern United States have per-
ished, in short to weigh considerations that must temper the use of

1896]. Scientific News. 693

colored words signifying degree of ethnic importance, advanced methods
of construction, superiority in the arts, and kinship to other peoples.

Meanwhile the excavation and production of the strange carvings in
wood, the human masks, the unique paintings, the hafts of wood and
tools of shell, the relics of rope and fabric, remain in evidence to speak
in manifold praise of the enthusiastic searcher who while telling
his glowing story has shown that he has known where to dig and dug
with effect.

Symbols inscribed upon the drawings of birds, totemic buttons
arrangements for burial with reference to the “four quarters of the
world,” the paraphrenalia of priests buried together in the mud here
seek explanation at the hands of an interpreter, whose experience should
have qualified him for the task. Luckily the elucidation of the alle-
gorical meaning òf the serpent and the raccoon, the gopher and the bat,
the badger and the cormorant, tokens of gods of the dead and the liv-
ing of the morn and the dusk, has fallen to the lot of one whose knowl-
edge of the mystic inner life of the Indian, gathered upon a painful
path of Zuni initiation might best recognize in the manifold characters
of these remains a symbolism hidden to other eyes.—Henry C. MERCER.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The International Geological Congress will hold its seventh session,
in 1897, at St. Petersburg, Russia. The presidential chair on that
occasion will be occupied by M. A. Karpinsky. * A number of interest-
ing excursions have been planned to take place both before and after
the meeting. It is proposed to visit Finland and the Ural country, to
examine the basins of the Don, the Volga and the Dneiper. While the
grand tour at the close of the Session covers the ground from St. Peters-
burg to the Caucasus, giving opportunity for special examinatlon of
many interesting localities.

The circular of announcement gives the following information in the
closing paragraph.

“The Committee on Organization takes pleasure in making known
to you_that His Majesty the Emperor, upon the report of his Excel-
leney the Minister of Ways of Communication (Transportation) has
deigned to grant to all the geologists (who give notice in time of their

694 The American Naturalist. AGA,

intention to take part in the work of the Congress) tickets allowing
them free first class transportation on all Russian railways before and
after the Meeting of the Congress, including the excursions.”

Lord Lilford, the President of the British Ornithologists’ Union, died
June 17, 1896. At the time of his death he was engaged in a work on
the Birds of the British Islands which was nearly completed. He was
a contributor to Ibis, The Zoologist and the Proceedings of the London
Zoological Society. His interest in natural history led to his keeping
an extensive collection of living animals at his country seat in North-
hamptonshire.

Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell, Las Cruces, New Mexico, will be glad to
furnish information concerning the biological station he proposes to
establish in New Mexico. If a sufficient number of students are
enrolled, a beginning will be made this summer. For the study of
nsect life New Mexico presents an unusual combination of advantages.

The prizes awarded by the London Geological Society have been dis-
tributed as follows: The Wallaston Medal to Dr. Edward Suess, Ph.
D. Prof. of Geology in the University of Vienna; Wollaston Dona-
tion Fund to Alfred Harker, M. A. of the Geological Survey of Scot-
land ; The Murchison Medal to T. Mellard Reade, Esq.; Murchison
Geological Fund to Philip Lake, Esq.; The Lyell Medal to Arthur
Smith Woodward, Esq.; Lyell Geological Fund to Dr. Wm. Fraser
Hume, Demonstrator of Geology in the Royal College of Science and
Charles W. Andrews, Esq.; The Barlow-Jameson Fund to Joseph
Wright, Esq. and Mr. John Storrie of Cardiff. (Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. London, 1896. .

Messrs. Hatcher and Peterson have gone to Patagonia to collect
fossil vertebrata in the Cenozoic beds of Patagonia for Princeton Uni-
versity.

Macmillann & Co. have made arrangements for the issue in New
York and London of a “ Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology ”
under the editorial supervision of Professor Baldwin of Princeton Uni-
versity.

The following assignments of topics with the names of the authorities
who will contribute original matter may be already announced :

General Philosophy and Metaphysics ——Prof. Andrew Seth, Edin-
burgh University; Prof. John Dewey, Chicago University. History of
Philosophy —Prof. Josiah Royce, Harvard University. Logie.—Prof.
R. Adamson, Glasgow University. Ethies.—Prof. W. R. Sorley, Aber-

1896.] Scientific News. 695

deen University. Psychology.—Prof. J. Mck. Cattell, Columbia Uni-
versity ; G. F. Stout, W. E. Johnson, Cambridge University ; Prof. E.
B. Titchener, Cornell University ; The Editor, Princeton University
Mental Pathology and Anthropology.—Prof. Joseph Jastrow, Wisconsin
University. Biology.—Prof. Lloyd Morgan, University College, Bris-
tol. Bibliography.—Dr. Benjamin Rann, Harvard University.

With the publication of No. II, Vol. II, of its bulletins, the Chicago
Academy of Sciences enters upon a new era of activity. Its publica-
tions will be issued at regular intervals. ‘The Academy property is now
housed in a fire proof building of the best architectural construction,
and no further fears of fire are entertained.

Dr. Joseph F. James begs to inform his friends and correspondents
that he has removed from Washington, D. C., and that after May 10,
1896, his address will be Hingham, Mass.

I desire to secure good sets, cleaned or uncleaned, numbering fifteen
or more specimens each, of your local representatives of Campeloma
(Melantho of Authors), Lioplax aud Vivipara. Where extra large sets
can be sent they will be of especial value since the present object is
monographic. Exchanges are offered in southern Unionide and Stre-
pomatide. The rarer forms of the last named groups are also desired.

Cincinnati, Very respectfully

1815 Fairfax Ave. R. ELLSWORTH CALL,

48

ADVERTISEMENTS. ae,

-Dringende Bitte

Um das Erscheinen des

Botanischen Jahresberichts

möglichst zu beschleunigen, wie eine Steigerung der Zuver-

lässigkeit in der Berichterstattung zu erlangen, richten wir
an die

Botaniker aller Länder
die dringende Bitte um gefällige schleunige Zusendung ihrer
Arbeiten, namentlich auch der Sonderabdrücke aus Zeit-
schriften, etc. -
Alle Sendungen sind zu richten an den Herausgeber.

Professor Dr. E. Koehne,

Friedenau-Berlin,
Kirchstrasse 5.

OF INTEREST TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE.

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is a novel device by the inventor of the “Strata Map” differing from any elevation map
previously Sablished, th the sur p rg carefully embossed to — the River Systems
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SIZE 33 X 23 INCHES. PRICE $9.50.

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hically exhibits weren: ert ion, and outcrop of strata, with the phenomena
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Size, 30 x 24 inches. Price, $17.50.

JAMES I. B. IVES, F. G. S;

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OPINIONS OF EMINENT AUTHORITIES.

opr, of the University of Pen nsylvania, writes: “Useful to the student of

emp indicating elevations i in relief is an important p to the strati-
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PLASTER CASTS OF THE FOLLOWING MAMMALIA

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Tetrabelodon shepardii Leidy, mandibular ramus and symphysis
with two molars, $20.00. Dzdbelodon tropicus Cope, do., $15.00 ;
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- Vol. XXX.

SEPTEMBER, 1896.

Pror. BALDWIn’s “ New FACTOR IN EVOLUTION
Herbert Ni ‘chols. 697
ae oF NEW GUINEA (scrLLANEo0s ( Con-
1ed.) . G. S. Mead: 710
‘THe agente DRINE OF atsi ¿+ A CRITICAL
REVIEW “OF THE PRESENT STATE OF
„KNOWLEDGE. . s
ECENT Lerenatons—Sourney Through Mongo-
- iia and Thib —Publications of the wloass
tes Geol Survey for 893-4.. Four
teenth Aoma Report. Si Manual of ot Topo-
l cae Methods.—Mineral Resources of
the United States.—An Tatredtadind-t tii ath
7 Study of Zoology.—The Cranial Nervi
Bat

zi CONTENTS.

hia. Son and Tite e of Birds 4 731 ae h
D PAMPHLETs. BA

nia Rocks.
—Notes. es
Geology aud Paleontolog wee J hy
—Is Paleos a 1

NATURAL SCIENCE:
| ) A MONTHLY REVIEW OF
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS.
ba
THE FOLLOWING ARE A FEW FACTS AS TO THE WORK
OF “NATURAL SCIENCE” DURING 1895. |

NA TURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published contributions from
104 distinguished writers.
‘URAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published 63 specially contrib-
uted Articles in all branches of Zoology, Botany, and Geology,
besides the large July number, aes the results of the:
af ones ae ” Expedition. aint

RAL, SCIENCE for 1895 has published 24 aac Plates
y the above-mentioned artidles a3) hy
SCIENCE for 1895 has reviewed 100 Books, and no- T
| Tamh Pamphlets and Periodicals. a
: ees has conn: 45 Na Sedu

‘briefly tl Lie deaths sof 77 more.

AL SCIENCE for 1895 has given the news of 67 7 Mase ;
f all the leading Societies a1 1 Universities: |
can be verified by anyone who will buy the “Vole |

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor. XXX. September, 1896. 357

PROF. BALDWIN’S “NEW FACTOR IN EVOLUTION,”!
By HERBERT NICHOLS.

That the jpendulum of opinion swung too violently against
the conception that mind is an active factor in Evolution I
count the major misfortune of the modern epoch of Science.
That there is now a return of interest I esteem to be the most
important outlook of our day. That this return of interest
centres in Psychology is inevitable. If now this new move-
ment should become abortive through any false lead of Psy-
chology the result would be deplorable.

It is with anxiety, therefore, that I read the numerous writ-
ings of Prof. J. Mark Baldwin upon the rôle played by mind
in Evolution (see above Reprint for complete list). The pro-
lifie earnestness of this author, together with his conspicuous
position as professor at Princeton and Alternate Editor of The
Psycological Review, give unusual prominence to his views.
Yet these views, as I believe, are precisely of the kind which
we have most to dread. It is in this belief that I am prompted
to the analysis of them which I here propose. And as Prof.
Baldwin has no more enthusiastic admirer of his sincerity and

1 Reprinted from THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, June and July, 1896. —
49 ee a |

698 The American Naturalist. $ [September,

zeal, so I beg him to permit me to point out the more freely
the objections to his main assumption.

In Professor Baldwin’s latest paper, above referred to, he has
“ gathered into one sketch ” an outline of his theory. In this
pamphlet, as in all else that he has written on this subject, we
are presented with a vast pyramid standing on its apex. We
are told how he conceives Evolution to work under his assump-
tion, and gradually his story narrows toward an explicit state-
ment of what this assumption is. Unfortunately, however, the
vast superstructure closes in to a cloud of mist, and does so,
alas, not only before he has made clear in exact detail what
his assumption is, but even before making understood how the
things he vaguely suggests could ever clearly be conceived to
be possible.

The gist of Mr. Baldwin’s notion is that Pleasure-Pain is a
psychic “ factor ” that crucially determines Evolution. Pleas-
ure results from beneficial stimulus. It causes, in turn, “ exces-
sive” neural discharge. Neural discharge causes “expansion.”
Expansion brings the creature into continued subservience to
the beneficial stimulus. Excessive neural discharge makes the
paths of actual discharge more pervious to the continued
stimulus and to subsequent discharges from the same source.
Thusa“ Circular Reaction ” becomes fixed which, because it is
beneficial, conduces to the preservation at once of the peculiar
habit and variation in the organisms so developed, and also of
the creature in which it is developed. The antithesis of all
this happens with pain.

Now for the difficulties ; and to bring them out let us imagine
an unorganized creature before us—say an ameba. Our
problem is to find how it becomes organized. Let us imagine
it attacked by any given stimulus at some point of its periph-
ery. Mr. Baldwin tell us that if this stimulus is beneficial it
will give pleasure, and the pleasure will cause “excess move-
ments.” Mr. Baldwin does not pretend that these are yet or-
ganized movements. To do so would be to beg his whole ques-
tion. Yet he claims that this unorganized movement would
complete his “ Circular Reaction ” with the beneficial stimulus
and perpetuate the beneficient work. But how can we conceive

1896.] “A New Factor in Evolution.” 699

that unorganized movement, or movement in the abstract, should do
such an organized act as to select beneficial stimuli and avoid those
which are detrimental? Especially how shall this be done
after Mr. Baldwin has carefully laid it down than there can be
no such thing as benefit or detriment in a mere muscular
movement in and of itself?’ Of course Mr. Baldwin knows that
various propositions have been suggested by different physi-
ologists to explain why an undifferentiated creature like an
amoeba, puts forth pseudopodia and makes definite prehensile
movements in response to certain stimuli; and makes definite
revulsions in response to others. But if so he is aware that all
these propositions are based upon some purely physical relation-
ship of the different stimuli to the protoplasmic substance,
whereby some act in one way and others in a reverse manner.
All such movements are definite and concrete and can be per-
fectly understood. But how mere movement in the abstract should
be able to select that sort of nutriment which is beneficial
and to avoid those forces which are harmful is surely above
human power to conceive—uniless, perhaps, Mr. Baldwin can
explicitly describe to us how it is to be conceived. To assume
outright that the movements resulting from pleasure would
locomote intelligently toward proper nutriment, or do aught
differently than the same movements caused in any other way,
is simply to leap the whole problem by one absolutely un-
bounded bald assumption. Than this it is more respectable to
say that Ormozd takes the kitten by the neck and chucks it
bodily to the saucer.

But, perhaps, Mr. Baldwin merely means that the excess
movement would work to continue the contact with the orig-
inal stimulus already made. If so, then must we contend that
absolute quiescence would most conduce to the preservation of
a contact already made, and incoordinate*wiggling would be
the thing in the world most likely to break the contact, and to
drive the creature away from the beneficial stimulus.

Mr. Baldwin’s assumption that excess movements, however
caused, would be any more likely, in the abstract, to secure
circular reactions among beneficial stimuli than among detri-

2 Mental Development, p. 189.

700 The American Naturalist. [September,

mental ones is, therefore, wholly false. All would depend on
the prevalence of one or the other sort of conditions. If
dangers most abounded the creature would be all the more
quickly destroyed by his excess locomotion. If benefits
abounded then the creature would prosper because of that fact,
but not because of any power of muscular tissue to select these
benefits, save that be by its physical properties—i. e., the
same which are being studied by the physiologists as before
mentioned.

Thus falls the king-bolt in Mr. Baldwin’s “circular reactions.”
But falling back upon the second link it does seem at first
sight that advantage should be secured to a creature by a“ new
factor,” which should have the power of saying when the crea-
ture should act and when not; and that had the intelligence
to decide that the creature should move only when in the
presence of beneficial stimuli and not move in response to de-
trimental ones. But here again there is a snare and delusion,
and just where it was least to be expected.” For it is just as
likely as not that to move would be the most beneficial thing
in the world under attack of detrimental forces—for instance,
to get away from them; or that to move under beneficial con-
ditions would be the most detrimental thing in the world—
for example, would wiggle the creature away from a newly
secured morsel of food. In short, so long as it remains true,
as shown in our last paragraph, that abstract movement is
equally likely to do harm or good, so also must it remain true,
that even a “ new factor,” with the power attributed to it by Mr.
Baldwin, could not by any possibility favor the organism by
the means described. How should it by the exercise of a
power which in itself is alike blind to good or ill?

Thus falls the main swivel in Mr. Baldwin’s chain of reac-
tions, and falls at a simple touch. But lest it seem to fall too
easily in proportion to the mighty and world-deciding destiny
asserted of it, let us pursue it further and in more detail.
Thoroughly to dispose of an error we must see how and why
it was made. The doctrine of pleasure, of which Mr. Baldwin’s
“excess discharge” is the attempted physiological expression,
dates back to Aristotle. Aristotle declared that pleasure ac-

1396.] “ 4 New Factor in Evolution.” 701

companies perfect use of our faculties, and pain their impeded
use. The philosophy which prevailed after Aristotle was
dominated by the Oriental superstition that the forces of this
world are divided between the Powers of Good and of Evil.
How this superstition seized upon and biased the dogmas of
our theologic ancestors until belief in a personal Devil was uni-
versal among even the learned in the middle ages, is a matter
of undisputed history. Aristotle’s doctrine fitted well with
this superstition, and his unquestioned authority enforced its
universal acceptance. Thus, as late as 1647, we have Descartes,
the highest authority of his age, declaring that “ All our
pleasure is nothing more than the consciousness of some one
or other of our perfections.” When Science dawned, and began
basing mental activities upon correspondent neural processes,
nothing was easier or more inevitable than that the doctrine
which always had been conceded to express general conditions
of welfare and activity should be transferred to general
conditions of the nervous system; and that, in general,
“ heighted neural discharge” should be declared to be the basis
of pleasure, and the reverse to be the basis of pain. Thus, an
early conjecture of Aristotle, fostered by one of the grossest
theological superstitions, and transformed, as I shall show, by
most uncritical and fallacious physiological assumptions, is
the historic origin of what Prof. Baldwin calls “A New
Factor in Eyolution.®
The origin of the notion having been accounted for inde-
pendently of any critical regard of the facts, we will now
examine it in the light of the facts. We have no means of
examining;neural discharges directly, or independently of their
‘stimuli, their sensory effects, and their motor results; we have
no other means of measuring them, except through analogy
with the strength of these. In general it is fundamentally
observed that where the stimulus is intense the sensation is in-
tense. Also, muscular reaction is proportional to the stimulus
and to the sensation. Every known fact, outside of the phe-
nomina of pain and pleasure in dispute, conforms to the in-
3 Whether it is with reference to Spencer, Bain, Descartes or Aristotle, that
this factor is “new,” Prof. Baldwin does not state.

702 The American Naturalist. [September,

ference that the stimulus, the neural discharge, the physic
counterpart, and the motor result, rise and fall together. Be-
ginning now with the motor reactions of pain, itis to be observed
that they are among the strongest and, most violent of which
we are capable; the violent struggles that every creature makes
to free himself from pain, or that he displays, reflexly, in the
convulsions of its torture, are among the most familiar facts
known. Again, it is equally well known, that the stimuli
which cause pain are the most violent that we encounter;
usually it is for that reason that they are detrimental. Also,
pain is the strongest and most violent of our sensations. When,
therefore, all the evidences alike, from every common source of
observation, agree that the neural discharge ought to be strong
proportionally as the stimulus, the sensation, and the motor
reactions are strong, it would seem that we ought to conclude
that the neural discharges of pain are strong.

Surely we ought so to conclude, unless Prof. Baldwin has
further evidence to offer. The evidence most likely for him to
offer is that pain is characteristic of exhaustion, weakness, dis-
order and disease. This is the stronghold of the traditional
school, and has been the secret of its fallacy from its beginning.
Yet, there is not a single one of these phenomena that is not
perfectly explained without accepting the tradition, and with-
out any of the violations of fundamental analogies which its
acceptance necessitates. This is done upon the basis of spe-
cific pain-nerves. Every analogy demands that there should
be such nerves. If all other sensations have specific nerves so
should pain. They have long been anticipated in physiology.
And recently they have been demonstrated with surprisingly.
wide-founded and abundant evidence ;* quite equal indeed to
that for the nerves of touch.

Necessarily the universal distribution of these nerves brings
them into close connection with the vaso-motor mechanism.
Wherever there is unusual congestion of the blood there is

t See article in Brain, p. 1, 1893, and p, 339, 1894, by Dr. Henry Head of Uni-
versity College Hospital, London. Also those by Prof. von Frey in Berichte d.
math. phys. classe d. Kénigl. Sachs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaft zu Leipzig,
1894, pp. 185 and 283; 1895, p. 166.

1896.] “ A New Factor in Evolution.” 703

likely to be pain. We are not certain what the appropriate
form of stimulus is for the pain-nerves, but assuming it to be
mechanical pressure, then any unusual stretching or tension,
whether in the capillaries or the surrounding tissues, as caused
by congestion, or from undue secretion of any of the glands,
or from any other disorder, would perfectly explain the attend-
ance of pain. That this should explain the characteristic
pains of exhaustion, weakness, disease, and all other abnormal-
ities, rather than the mere loss of general bodily strength, to
which the common tradition more directly attributes them, no
scientist should doubt. For, first, there is no evidence that
mere weakness, independently of the physiological derange-
ments which are the co-results of its cause, are at all painful.
A man’may bleed to death, and suffer no pain. Again, a frail
invalid may fade away with weakness, and suffer no trace of
pain; indeed, may depart with gladness. Ora sprinter may
drop with exhaustion and, perhaps, suffer no pain at all; or if
any, none save what is unmistakably due to the abnormal dis-
turbances of circulation already referred to. Secondly, all
causes of weakness are likely to produce disorders which, in
turn, shall produce disturbances likely to excite the pain-
nerves in the way above indicated. This is so evident that
it need not be discussed. Third, when so excited, even during
general bodily weakness, there is still every evidence that the
pain discharges are characteristically strong above other ner-
vous activities, and relatively so proportionally to the lowering
of the general level of strength. It would seem, therefore, that
every known phenomena of pain, on the one hand, receives
perfect explanation on the basis of pain-nerves, that every
analogy demands such nerves, and that finally they have been
conclusively demonstrated. And, on the other hand, it is
strikingly manifest that every evidence we possess flatly contra-
dicts the assumption that pain discharges are feeble.

The corresponding assumption that the neural discharge of
pleasure is “ excessive ” equally fails of corroboration when con-
fronted with the facts. Here, again, we can measure the dis-
charge only by its psychic accompaniment, its stimulus, and its
motor effect. That pleasures, among psychic states, are charac-

704 The American Naturalist. [September,

teristically intense, isnottrue. Again, that intensity of stimu-
lus is not a uniform determinant of pleasure is one of the best
known truths of every form of art. And that the motor effects
of pleasure are not conspicuous for violence is not less well
known. Some of them are violent, no doubt, yet abundance
of others are among the most soothing and quieting influences
which we experience. The entire field of pleasure therefore
—source, centre, and motor discharge—is one endless contra-
diction of the assumption that its neural discharge is predomi-
nately intense, and points even to a new definition of pleasure
from that of which the traditional school is possessed. Again,
it is the delusive general relationship of pleasure to health,
strength and welfare which has ever been the source of error.
With health and freshness all functions, undoubtedly, are more
vigorous, and those which give pleasure are more active among
the rest. Also, in health we are freer of unpleasant disorders.
Yet it remains true that the feeblest invalid is often capable of
the intensest pleasure, and that the trained athlete may suffer
excruciating pain if the dentist but tickle the bare nerve of his
tooth with a feather.

Against the “ discharge” link, pleasurable or painful, in Mr.
Baldwin’s “ Circular Reaction,” it would seem unnecessary to
push the sword further. In has absolutely no foundation in
fact. Yet, as this is of a class of tradition that dies hard, I
will bring yet multiplied objections against it. When a child
first brings its finger into contact with a flame it instinctively
draws its arm away: a complicated and delicately articulated
mechanism has been evolved by nature, and inherited by the
child for this purpose. The case is typical, and other examples
are innumerable. Now, under Mr. Baldwin’s Plan of Evolution,
it would have been impossible for such an organized response to pain
to have developed. His whole scheme is one wherein “the ex-
cess discharges” of pleasure conduce to the developnient of
organized responses to pleasure, and the “ restricted discharges ”
of pain specially prevent the development of organized responses to
pain. It is true that Mr. Baldwin expressly declares his “ New
Factor” to be ontogenic. Still, if so, then pain restrictions
must have yet worked from the moment of each creatures

=

1895.] “A New Factor in Evolution.” 705

birth to stamp out every provision of the type above cited.
Over and above this, every intelligent organization against detri-
mental forces would be impossible from the moment of birth.

This is no small obstacle to the universal acceptance of Mr.
Baldwin’s “ New Factor,” yet the more intimately we approach
it the more do the difficulties increase. This time for a bull’s-
eye example we will take a plunge straight at the “ pain-pleas-
ure discharge” itself. Mr. Baldwin tells us it is “ central ”—
let us now ask to what is it proportional? What gauges
its “heightening” or its “restriction?” The pain or the
pleasure, of course, Mr. Baldwin answers, since his “ New Fac-
tor” isa psychic factor. But to which is the pain or pleasure
proportionate—the incoming sensory nerve current, or the “ benefit
from the external stimulus ?” Itis just here that a “ tremendous ”
(to use a favorite word of this enthusiastic writer) stumbling-
block arises. Mr. Baldwin tells us with emphasis that the
pleasure comes in and by the stimulus. But how and in what
manner does the external pleasure-stimulus connect with the
centrally rising “ heightened discharge”? Plainly it cannot be
through the mere intensity of the ordinary incoming sensory
nerve-current; for the pleasure is proportional to the benefits
from the external stimulus; and these benefits are by no means
proportional to the intensity of the stimulus. But, perhaps,
Mr. Baldwin conceives—he does not tell us here in the least
what he does conceive, though it is an absolutely essential
point—of some specific kind or mode of neural activity to
convey his pleasure-stimulus from the periphery to the centre,
and one in no way parallel to the intensity of the external
stimulus. If so, then a still greater difficulty now arises to
conceive how the “ benefit” or the “detriment” from the ex-
ternal event expresses itself through this new mode of com-
munication. We are told that the pleasure is proportional to
the amount of the benefit worked by the stimulus, not to its
intensity. But just how and when does this “amount” get
transformed into this new kind of ingoing pleasure current?
Benefit is a “ tremendously” abstract affair. Where does it
end, and when does it act? The benefit does not happen in-
stantly—when then is its pleasure experienced? How and

706 The American Naturalist. [September,

when does it sum itself up with reference to the heightened
motor discharge? For this last, we had supposed, resulted
immediately upon the arrival of the sensory impulse at the
brain, and cannot be permitted a long delay if it is to join in
“Circular Reaction” with the passing stimulus.

Surely here is a puzzle! Let us endeavor to follow a con-
crete example; and again it shall be Mr. Baldwin’s own,
wherein he explicitly describes the sort of betterment that gives
pleasure and “heightened discharge.” When the sun shines
on a creature its warmth promotes nourishment and other vege-
tative functions. Let us say now that it heightens digestion
from a usual period of two or three hoursto one of twenty min-
utes. When, then, does the “ central discharge” begin to be “ height-
ened” by this betterment in order to complete Mr. Baldwin’s “ Circu-
lar Reaction ?”, Also, just how does the benefit gather itself together
from the bowels to express itself as the pleasure of the original sensa-
tion ; 1. e., the sensation of warmth that came at the beginning of the
twenty minutes? A diagram drawn to scale of these physiolog-
ical activities, and with their space and time processes ac-
curately portrayed, would facilitate the acceptance of Mr.
Baldwin’s “ New Factor” among scientists generally.

But, of course, all this is doing the utmost of injustice to
Mr. Baldwin’s “ New Factor.” For, is it not a psychic factor ?
And is it not the essence of psychic factors to surmount all
lawful relations of space and intensity? How absurb of me
to attempt to trace the benefits and detriments of the sun’s
rays through the viscera to the “ heightening ” and “ restrict-
ing” of central discharges! Pleasure and pain, of course, are
super-spacial and super-temporal fiats that leap all physical
difficulties and bounds. Only why, then, does Mr. Baldwin
take the trouble to localize them as central? Or why declare
them to have any mechanical relationship with motor dis-
charges? It is just here that I must plead it to have been
most natural for me to have been mislead to conceiving that
the “ central” processes of pleasure have some lawful articula-
tion with the incoming sensory impulse, since they are ex-
plicitly declared to have both temporal and spatial articulation
with the outgoing motor discharges. But, perhaps, Mr. Bald-

1896.] “ A New Factor in Evolution.” 707

win’s vagueness and confusion of statement and longing to be
scientific may here have got the best of these outgoing articu-
lations—perhaps, they do not and could not work according to
any known axioms of science even here! Let us examine this.
Upon close consideration it becomes obvious that Mr. Bald-
win’s “ New Factor” not only interrupts all normal relations
of intensity between incoming stimuli and outgoing discharges
—so that feeble stimuli, if beneficial, now produce “ heightened
discharges,” and vidlent stifhuli, if detrimental, are “ tempered
to the shorn lamb”—but also it wholly transforms their mechan-
ical effects. Not only now do pleasures produce “expansion ”
and pains “ restrictions,” but violent pleasure-discharges pro-
duce violent expansions, and violent pain-discharges produce
violent contractions. Or, at least, I suppose they do; though
here is the very pesky plague of it, to know what Mr. Baldwin
does conceive to happen. For, if now the “discharges” do
thus cause literal bodily expansion or contraction, in due ac-
cord with their intensity, it is impossible to conceive what
“heightening ” or “restricting” has to do with the case. And,
on the other hand, if “ expansion” refers to “ degree of activity,”
and “restriction ” means “ quiescence,” I give up trying to un-
derstand the matter, and plead insanity and hallucination at
once; for then the innumerable acts which seem to be per-
formed before my eyes, both expressively and preventatively
of pain must be “restricted” absolutely, and by no possible
means actually can happen ; and the cause of my derangement
in conceiving that they do is surely sprung from my over-
wrought sympathy for all physiologists or psychologists who
shall attempt to measure the amount of restriction necessary
to be applied to each varying intensity of incoming detrimental
stimulus in order to reduce it to a constantly maintained zero
of quiescence, and not have the least little bit over to set the
creature wiggling right up to its detrimental persecutor, and
perpetuate “Circular Reaction” therewith, just as if it were
beneficial.®
-5 The physiological cult of the traditional Pain-Pleasure School juggle much
with this “heighted and restricted central discharge,” as if it were ordinary
neural activity. But when all obfuscation is nailed to the board it becomes plain
that, since the muscular effects come after the motor nerve-currents are formed,

708 The American Naturalist. [September,

But, seriously, there are a few things that we must conclude
regarding Mr. Baldwin’s “ New Factor,” if we are to pay to it
any logical regard whatever: (1) The work assumed of it is
not one of simple heightening and restricting, but one of
absolute interruption, transformation and reversal of natural
consequences. (2) These interruptions, transformations and
reversals proceed by no known axioms or measurements of
science, and as little so in their articulations with the motor
apparatus as with the disseminated benefits and detriments
from the external forces. (3) There are no central neural pro-
cesses correspondent to these alleged activities of pain and
pleasure. There are no facts which suggest them; no physical
activities could behave in such disregard of physical laws; and
to assert them as acting by such laws would either duplicate
the “ New Factor” as an efficient cause, or else reduce pain and
pleasure to ordinary non-interfering parallelism ; which is a
flat contradiction to Mr. Baldwin’s entire proposition. (4) Itis
absurb to locate this New Factor as “central.” For a factor
that transends all physical laws of space, time and intensity
cannot be located in this physical world. (5) And, finally, if
such a “New Factor” existed, any exact determination in
physiology and in psychology would be futile. Whereas the
psychic factor of Prof. James is a wee and comparatively in-
offensive affair, which only tips a molecule here or turns a
current there, just a little, and when absolutely needed—and
apparently from the remainder of his system is never needed—
on the contrary, this Factor of Mr. Baldwin’s is the dominant
therefore it is something beside the mere intensity of these currents which deter-
mines whether the result shall be expansion or restriction. And if it is something
different from the intensity of these nerve-currents, then also must it be different
from the ordinary intensity of the central neural activity which gives rise to
these currents. In which case it is nonsense to talk of “ heightening and restrict-
ing” precisely as if they were performed by ordinary central activities.

Unmistakably it is no “ ordinary ” activity that either destroys ordinary intensity
regardlessly of all opposing parallelograms of forces, or that upsets the laws of
conservation of energy. True, we do not yet understand Inhibition; yet, no
scientist thinks of explaining it, except within ‘‘ ordinary ” scientific lawe
any force which transforms any incoming sensory nerve-current, however detri-
mental, into flat quiescence without emin of other physical energy in oppo-
sition to it, certainly does not act within ordinary scientific laws.

1896.] “ A New Factor in Evolution.” 709

force in evolution above all other forces. It acts upon every
external stimulus, interrupts and transforms its natural effect,
molds and remolds the entire organism and all subsequent
species in accord with the non-physical and miraculous power.
If such a factor be admitted so dominantly throughout nature
then exact science becomes absolutely impossible.

Our examination of this “ New Factor” may, therefore, now
_be summarized as follows. It is obvious, historically, how its
ancient traditions, rooting originally in superstition, have
survived and come down to be an anomaly in our scientific
times. It never had any closer foundation in facts than the
superficial observation that pleasure more often comes with
health and strength, and pain with weakness and disease. The
central neural processes on which it is alleged to be based do
not exist. The phenomena in question, upon examination,
flatly contradict at every point the assumptions and assertions
boldly made of them. The alleged “ Factor,” if carried out un-
der these assumptions and specifications so made of it, quickly
reduces the entire realm of biology and of psychology to end-
less confusion and ridicule.

On the other hand these phenomena have now been treated
of substantially without violating the symmetries of nature,
and in accord with the obvious demands and analogies of the
remainder of ascertained knowledge. Pain-nerves have been
conclusively demonstrated. Pleasure and displeasure, if they
have not been so successfully disposed of as bodily pain, have
been finally divorced- from it and from the tradition that
they are “ quality activities” of any kind; they are rapidly
being driven by new analysis and definitions to where they are
seen to be forms or movements of thought quite independent
of specific qualitative make-up; are being explained on the
same footing and in the same categories with conceptions, voli-
tions and similar mental processes, which apparently may be
of any and every “ quality,” or, at least, in which the qualities
of the content play no at ptesent determinable part.

Nor have these things been done in a corner. Modern litera-
ture is full of them. These new opinions have been put for-

710 The American Naturalist. [September,

wardly neither timidly, obscurely, nor by inferior men. Long
ago so great an authority as Prof. James declared of the ancient
tradition that it was “ one of the most artificial and scholastic un-
truths which remain to disfigure modern science.” There would
seem, therefore, now to be as little excuse for an intelligent
man to believe in this“ New Factor ” as to continue to believe
in the other half of the tradition, 7. e., in a personal devil. For
a scientist to continue to throw such ‘disfiguring untruth’
among the already vastly complicated problems of biology and
psychology, of heredity, and of social and ethical development,
while completely and blindly ignoring the objections which
have been heaped, mountain high, against it, cannot henceforth
be counted as less than pure Orientalism. To persist in the at-
tempt, with whatever sincerity and enthusiasm of purpose, can
only result, as my first words portrayed, in retarding the swing
of the pendulum to a more sober consideration by Science of
the problems of mind, and in bringing our New Psychology
to speedy and undeserved contempt.

It seems hardly worth while to follow Prof. Baldwin into the
doctrines of “Imitation” and “Organic Selection ” built by
him upon his above foundation, when these foundations show
themselves to be the veriest myths.

BIRDS OF NEW GUINEA (MISCELLANEOUS).
By G. S. MEAD.
(Continued from page 290.)

The family of Certheidx (Creepers) have but scant representa-
tion in New Guinea, the genus Climacteris furnishing the only
specimens. One species is perhaps peculiar to the island, viz.:
Climacteris placens. Its plumage above is dusky, tinged red:
dish on the head with black marks interspersed. Below gray-
ish, spotted brown and black. Sexes alike. Length, six inches.
Salvadori says the female has reddish cheeks.

One Nuthatch also belongs to New Guinea—Sittella or Sitta
papuensis—a very small species, less than five inches in

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 711

length. Above, the feathers are brown barred with black ;
below, the arrangement and shading are similar; head and
throat white, as are also the upper tail-coverts. Below they are
dark, sometimes obscurely spotted. The tail is black and short.
Bill black. Legs yellow. The female differsin the coloring of
head and under parts, not always essentially.

Of the Megaluri scarcely more than two or three species are
to be found within the boundaries of New Guinea. One of
these is Megalurus macrurus, from the southeastern portion of
the main-land. The bird is eight inches long; dull brown
above, or at times brighter and tawny and streaked with
black ; under parts coarse white and bluff; and long tail, more
than half the entire length. From the same region comes
another species much smaller in every way, but of more varied
coloring. Considerable white marks the little bird—the under
parts, cheeks and quills of the wing feathers taking this hue.
Above the ground color is a rusty brown, with black streaks
and markings on the shoulders and head. Black prevails on
the wing-coverts.

Cisticola exilis, with an endless string of synonyms, which it
has obtained by its wide distribution and change of plumage,
is a very small thrush, varying in length from 3.5 to 4 inches.
In Australian form the head seems to be of a more even red-
dish or rusty hue. Otherwise the general color is plain gray,
picked out with black along the neck and upper back. Some-
times the gray is tinged, as along the wings and tail. Around
the face is much white and yellow. The under parts are a
discolored gray or buff. The females differ in having the head
touched with lines of black or deep brown, and generally in a
deeper tone. The plumage changes with the seasons.

Among the Bubbling Thrushes the genus Sericornis is repre-
sented in New Guinea by two or three species. S. beccarii, from
the Aru Islands, is colored above dusky, ferruginous on the
rump and tail-coverts, and black edging on the wings. Some
feathers show white points. Much brown appears in certain
lights. White in streaks on the face. Throat white, slightly
touched with black. The under parts are a discolored white

flanked with brown.

712 The American Naturalist. [September,

S. arfakiana is very similar in general appearance and color-
ings. An obscure wing-bar may be traced on the brown wings.
The head is darker than the back. The throat is ferruginous,
the remaining under surface olivaceous. Length, 4.5 inches.

The beautiful family of the Nectariniide (sun birds), with
their slender forms, their curving bills and metallic plumage,
is well represented in New Guinea, rather numerically by indi-
viduals than by variety of species. Cinnyris aspasix, known
also under an appalling number of synonyms, is black, green
or blue, according to shading and locality, besides differing
considerably in size. The green variety gives out a green gloss
from the burnished surface of the back, while beneath the
feathers are velvety black. Other reflections are to be observed
in different lights. From the throat escape the loveliest blue
tints. The larger form (C. auriceps), with its lovely golden-
capped head, is a dark blue, and is found in several of the
adjacent islands. C. proserpina, both small and large, is a
black-shouldered form, throwing out green, blue and purple,
according to the position of the beholder. All of these are of
miniature size, and variants of the same general type.

C. frenata, the Australian yellow-breasted sun bird, with
brilliant blue tints on its throat, is abundant in southern New
Guinea and elsewhere, as well as at Cape York, where Moseley
saw it. This species is yellow below, yellowish-green above. The
female lacks the blue throat, but has bright gold instead over
the entire under parts, from tail to the bill. It breeds in No-
vember and December, constructing a little purse of a nest with
the covered entrance near the top. Within are laid the tiny
eggs, colored dull green, and mottled with dusky spots. These
repose on a soft bed of feathers and silky materials. In defense
of his home, as indeed at almost all other times, the male is as
belligerent as a humming-bird, attacking and putting to rout
any vagrants loitering near. The total length of the bird is
4.5 inches, of which the bill comprises nearly an inch, and the
short, narrow tail about the same. The latter member is black,
with much white in spots on the outer feathers. Bill and feet
black. The great beauty of the male lies in the metallic blue
throat.

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 713

Of the group of Nectarinedine birds called Arachnathera, all
confined to the Indo-Malayan region, three, if not more species
belong to New Guinea exclusively. These are A. polioptera,
A. nove guiniæ and A. iliolophus, all about the same small size,
and, owing to this fact, resembling each other to all appear-
ance. The first named, A. polioptera, has a steel-blue gray
head running into olivaceous, becoming yellowish green along
the neck and back. On the wingsand tail slate-blue takes the
place of green, relieved along the edges by traces of gray or
white. The under surface is yellow, retaining, however, the
olivaceous tint of the upper parts. On the throat there is the
usual changing hues, common to this class of birds. This
species lives in the Astrolobe Mountains along with the A. ilio-
lophus, although the latter seems more widely spread, being
found as well in the southern portions of the great island. A
special difference may be pointed out between the two birds,
the general color is lighter, that is in the loosened, fluffy plu-
mage of the lower back and sides. In this characteristic ilio-
lophus has a marked advantage, the feathers becoming very
soft and considerably elongated over the short tail. Arathno-
thera nove guiniz is similarly adorned. Its breast, in fact, the
under parts generally, is more brightly adorned than the
foregoing, being of a brilliant yellow, dashed, however, with
olive. In other respects the coloration is nearly the same—
olive, olive-brown and brown predominating. There may be
in the present case rather more yellow especially about the face.

The Javan Swallow—Aviundo frontalis—is only about five
inches in total length, measuring from the tip of its tiny bill
to either point of the deeply-forked tail. The general color
above is dusky, scarcely the usual steely-blue of most swallows,
but with a darker shade on the shoulder and crown. The
under parts are much lighter, at least in the case of the New
Guinea specimens, which are invariably pale; in fact, the abdo-
men is almost white. On the upper breast and throat a fine
rufous tint is very prominent. The tail above is a uniform
black; below there is a broad band of white following the
triangular form of the fork, but melting at the apex into the
wavy white of the coverts. The little bird is by no means con-

50

714 The American Naturalist. [September,

fined to Java, but is very widely distributed over the Papua,
migrating to far distant tropie lands besides.

Hirundo nigricans or Petrochelidon nigricans presents few fea-
tures of coloration to distinguish it from the various forms of
swallows of different denominations so well known in all parts
of the world. The present bird wanders widely over the Aus-
tralian continent and Papua. It is small of size, not much
over five inches in total length, although many specimens
exceed this measurement, the individual differences being un-
usually great. Dun rumped, as Latham called this species,
fairly characterizes it; but this appearance varies according
to age, locality and season. In general color above, dark
gleaming blue, faintly marked white lines prevails. Below, the
body is buff or whitish, with a dark-hued breast. Wings above
are dusky ; below a ruddy tinge, tail feathers similar.

Many of the family Dicxide find a home in New Guinea or
its islands. They are all small, usually prettily colored birds,
allied at least in appearance to the sun birds, although hardly
as elegant of form or richly plumaged as those delicate deni-
zens of the tropics.

Diceum rubrocoronatum abound in southern New Guinea, es-
pecially near Port Moresby. Itisashowy little creature, a trifle
over three inches in length only. Above the color is blue-violet,
becoming less distinct on the neck, and merging into rusty on
the wings. The tail continues this deep blue of the body; but
over the rump and crown of the head a bright scarlet is thrown.
This reappears in a broad segment on the upper breast. The
female lacks this conspicuous ornament altogether, while the
scarlet elsewhere becomes merely dull red. In other respects
she is colored like her mate, having the under parts pale
yellow, olive and white. She is, however, unmarked by a
pinkish tinge on the under tail-coverts, which adorns the male
bird. In both the middle abdomen and throat are a buffish
white. Bill and feet dark.

Scarcely to be distinguished from the preceding is D. pul-
chrius, who differs chiefly in the coloration of the under tail-
coverts, which, instead of pink, are a yellowish-brown. In
lieu of this deficiency pulchrius has been granted a slightly

1896.] Birds of New Guinea. 715

larger expanse of scarlet on the head and neck. The habitat
is the southeast.

Another species from southeast New Guinea, along the Fly
River, differs from the first'named chiefly i in having a glossy
black upper surface instead of blue. It is known as D. rubri-
gulare.

Smaller and more plainly colored is D. pectorale, whose lead-
ing tints are olive-green above, yellow on head and rump, no
scarlet whatever excepting on the upper breast, the remaining
under parts and tail-coverts light yellow, exclusive of the
whitish under wing-coverts.

From the Bay of Gielvink comes D. gielvinkianwm or mafoor-
ense, of an olive color above glossed with steel-blue. Here
again a shade of red appears on the crown, rump, upper tail-
coverts and breast. The under surface is a yellowish-white
bordered along the sides with olivaceous. A more brightly
tinted variety is named D. jobiense.

The genus Oreocharis of the Diceide, represented by one
species, is peculiar to New Guinea; this is Oreocharis arfaki,
collected by Mr. Goldie in the Antedlobe Mountains. This is
a larger bird by two inches than those of an allied kind just
considered. The color above is dissimilar, viz.: an olivaceous,
somewhat glossed. The dusky wings, however, are touched
with green and yellow on some of the feathers. So, too, the
tail above. Crown of the head and sides glossy black, melting
into bottle-green on the neck. About the eye are dashes of the
brightest corn-yellow. This is the color also of all the under
parts, excepting the black throat. The under wings are paler,
with black touches. A reddish stripe may be seen in the gold _
ground of the under parts.

Urocharis longicauda is likewise the sole species of the genus
Urocharis, and occupies the same region of the Arfak Moun-
tains. Above the general color is a shining black, the only
exceptions being the rump, which is gray, and the tail, where
on the outer feathers a long spot is visible. The side face is
olivaceous; this is the color on the under body mingled with
pale yellow. The female is larger by more than half an inch,
and is a smooth olive-green. Length, about five inches. The
tail nearly half this figure.

716 ' The American Naturalist. [September,

The genus Melanocharis comprises four species, all from New
Guinea and its islands. These are not very dissimilar in size
or coloration. The best known, well named M. nigra, is a
glossy black above of a bluish cast. Beneath the principal tint
is olivaceous, passing into pale yellow on the abdomen. The
under wing-coverts are white. Total length, nearly five inches.

Another genus of the same family, consisting of but a single
species, is Pristorhamphus verotert. A larger bird this by an
inch, with rich, velvety black plumage above, emanating pale
green. Underneath a bluish tint. Besides, some spots of white
on the tail, apparent when the bird is flying, but concealed at
other times; there are white plumes, very soft and delicate,
waving on either flank. The female is equipped with these
same adornments, but is of dimmer coloring, mainly oliva-
ceous. Habitat, the Arfak Mountains.

Less by more than an inch is Rhamphocharis crassirostris, the
sole member of its genus. An olive-green bird above with dusky
brown wing- and tail-coverts, and blackish tail. Below the
body is a pearl-gray with a yellow wash. The female is of
larger size, olive-brown above, but differing from the male in
being rather more varied in neutral colors, yellow and white
spots or dots appearing on the dull surface of wings, tail and
back. The under parts are of a soiled white, specked with
yellow and brown. The bill is not noticeably larger than that
of other species.

THE BACTERIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS:
A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF
OUR KNOWLEDGE.
By Erwin F. SMITH.
II.
I. THE BEET (BELA VULGARIS L.).
1. THE BACTERIOSIS OF FODDER BEETS (1891).
(1) Tue DISEASE.
(1) Author, Title of Paper, Place of Publication, ete——This dis-
ease was first described by Dr. Ernst Kramer, Privat Docent

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 717

in the technical high school in Graz. His paper entitled (23)
Die Bacteriosis der Runkelriibe (Beta vulgaris L.), eine neue
Krankheit derselben, was published in Oesterreichisches Land-
wirtschaftliches Centralblatt, Jahrg. I, Heft 2, pp. 30 to 36, and
Heft 3, pp. 40 to 41. Graz, 1891.

(2) Geographical Distribution —The disease prevailed exten-
sively in 1890 in the Eltzischen earldom in Vukovar, Slavonia.

(3) Symptoms.—The beet roots were said to be shrivelled and
to contain comparatively little sap. The whole of the affected
roots began to change to dark brown soon after harvest. On
cutting them open dark brown spots were visible. During the
winter the disease spread in the beet cellars to apparently
sound beets, in spite of the fact that all roots showing any signs
of disease were thrown out and destroyed at the time of storage.
Roots in which the disease was well advanced showed a gummy
ooze which appeared to be infectious to sound beets. Cattle
fed with slightly infected roots were attacked with severe bloat-
ing and obstinate constipation, and in one case death ensued.
Such was the account forwarded to Dr. Kramer along with
samples of the diseased beets. There is no record of the symp-
toms of this disease as it occurs in the field. The diseased
beets received by Dr. Kramer were shrunken and in some
places were soft under the epidermis. From these soft places
there oozed a slimy brownish fluid, which stuck to the fingers,
but was without characteristic smell or taste. Brown or dark
brown spots more or less softened, and of various sizes, were
visible on cross-sections of roots not too badly infected. The
inside of those specimens which were badly attacked was,
however, almost entirely brown, and in parts the parenchyma
was wholly destroyed, giving place to a slimy, sticky, gum-like,
brown-colored, strongly acid, odorless fluid. The destruction
of the tissues proceeded so far in some parts of the root that,
finally, only the vascular bundles remained. The beets at-
tacked by this disease yielded no characteristic odor, and they
only began to smell bad in the last stages of the disease after
rotting had set in.

(4) Pathological Histology—An examination of thin sec-
tions, made through a brown spot, showed that the cells of this

718 The American Naturalist. (September,

parenchyma contained tiny roundish or-ellipsoidal shining
bodies, which were of various sizes, and either scattered about
in the cells pr united into groups. The individual particles
showed not rarely a tremulous motion. When such a thin sec-
tion was fixed to a cover glass by passing it three times through
the flame, and was then stained with gentian violet, these
bodies became a beautiful blue, and their bacterium-like form
could be made out more clearly. In the parts of the root
which had already become slimy great numbers of bacteria
were to be seen in the gum-like fluid, together with loosened
cells, plasma, and fragments of cell membranes.

(5) Direct Infection Experiments—When a little of the soft,
slimy mass was lifted on a sterile platinum needle and spread
on a sterile [steamed ?] section taken from an apparently sound
beet, the surface of the latter was covered within forty-eight
hours with a slimy, brown, gum-like, acid layer, which con-
sisted of a mass of those bacteria previously found in the dis-
eased beets. Sections cut out of diseased beets with sterile
knives and placed on fresh, unsterilized sections from sound
beets, and kept in a moist chamber at 24° C., caused the latter
to become affected. The infected spots browned and softened,
and in the tissues bacteria appeared, which were just like those
occurring in the diseased beets. A slimy layer also formed on
the sterile cut surface of carrots when a slight quantity of the
slimy ooze from the beets was spread over it.

“This preliminary investigation indicated that most likely
in this case we have to do with a disease caused by bacteria.
Positive proof, however, is not thereby afforded. To accomp-
lish this experimentally it is absolutely necessary to isolate the
bacteria occurring in the diseased beets, to cultivate them pure,
and then to inoculate the pure cultures into sound living beets.
If then asa result of the infection the previously healthy beet
should become diseased with the before-mentioned symptoms,
and the originally inoculated bacteria should appear once more
in the tissues, then there would be no doubt about this being
a bacteriosis of the beet.’

Clearly this man knew exactly. what he had to do.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 719

(II) THE organism.—This is described as a bacillus, but not
named.

(1.) Pathogenesis.

(A) Yes.

(B) Yes. Rather easy.

(C) No. These inoculations led to no satisfactory result,
and had to be abandoned, because no suitable beet
material was at the experimenter’s disposal.

(D) No.

Conclusion—Pathogenic nature rendered probable. The rea-
son for this judgment in opposition to the above statements
will be found in the following paragraph.

While Dr. Kramer was not able to secure infections, owing
probably to the unfavorable conditions under which he worked,
he hit upon an ingenious method of indirect proof, viz., the
development in pure cultures of the same gum which is formed
naturally in the diseased beets. His method was as follows:
The softened or liquefied parts of the diseased beets were cut
out, crushed and heated on a water bath, with the addition of
a small quantity of milk of lime. The fluid was then decanted,
and the remaining mass of beet squeezed as dry as possible and `
the two fluids mixed, filtered, and carbon dioxid passed into the
filtrate for the removal of the somewhat superfluous lime. The
fluid was again filtered and concentrated on the water bath.
The fluid was now rendered acid by the addition of some drops
of acetic acid, and a white, tough, gum-like substance was
precipitated out of it by the addition of 96 per cent. alcohol.
To obtain it in a pure condition this substance was repeatedly
dissolved in water and reprecipitated by alcohol. The same
substance was obtained directly from the gummy ooze of the
diseased beets by dissolving it in water, heating, filtering, con-
centrating on the water bath, and precipitating with alcohol.
In this case also the precipitate was a white, tough, gum-like
substance. Both of these precipitates were tested chemically
with the following results. Mixed with soda-lime and heated
in a test tube there was no formation of ammonia, a proof that
the substance was free from nitrogen. Boiled with orcin and
hydrochloric acid it gave the well-known gum reaction, men-

720 The American Naturalist. [September,

tioned by Reichl and Wiesner. Boiled with sulfuric acid it
was converted into dextrose. A watery solution gave a bluish
flocculent precipitate with Fehling’s solution, and on boiling
the latter was reduced. On the addition to a watery solution
of ferric chlorid and calcium carbonate the well-known pre-
cipitate of gum solutions resulted. No red coloration appeared
on treatment with iodin. The formation of oxalic acid could
not be detected on long boiling with nitric acid. All these re-
actions indicated a gum. In the beet this could be derived
only from carbohydrates, and most likely from dextrose.
Working on this hypothesis, a fluid culture medium was pre-
pared containing 3-4 per cent. of dextrose, a slight quantity of
peptone, and the necessary mineral ingredients. In this solu-
tion pure cultures of the organism were grown 8 to 14 days
at a temperature of 24° C., and from the resulting products of
growth a gum-like substance was obtained which proved to be
identical with that secured directly from the diseased beets.
These cultures were protected from contamination by cotton
plugs, and at the close of the experiment cultures therefrom
showed them to have remained pure, consequently this bacillus
must have converted the dextrose into gum.

2. Morphology.

(1) Shape, size, ete—The organism as isolated and grown in
pure cultures is a thick rod with rounded ends, or often nar-
rowed at the ends (zugespitzt), of variable length, so that not
rarely coccus or ellipsoidal forms appear. These rods are
about 1.30-2.00 x 0.7-1.0 ». In cultures they occur singly or
in pairs, which latter are more or less biscuit-shaped. Chains
- aTe rarer.

(2) Capsule—No mention of any capsule.

(3) Flagella.——No statement as to motility, except mention of
the trembling motion inside the cells of the beet, which can
scarcely be taken as a proof of motility.

(4) Spores.—“Apparently spores are formed.” This matter
is left in considerable doubt. Rods in the stage of spore forma-
tion are said to be 1.35 x 2.00 z.

(5) Zooglea—No mention of zooglea.

(6) Involution forms—No mention of any distorted forms.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 721

3. Biology.

(1) Stains.—These bacilli take all the ordinary anilin colors.

(2) Gelatin.—On plate cultures of nutrient gelatin contain-
ing dextrose the colonies are small, nearly circular, sharply
contoured, white, shining, and at most not over 1mm.in diam-
eter. Under a weak magnification they appear sharp-edged,
granular and brownish. Stab cultures in the same gelatin
show a fine thread not spreading beyond the needle track. At
the mouth of the stab there is a top-shaped enlargement not
inclined to spread out much. Streak cultures on nutrient
gelatin develop a line along the track of the needle which is
very slightly inclined to widen. This is formed of dot-shaped
hyaline colonies, which finally fuse. The bacillus does not
liquefy gelatin.

(3) Agar—Plate, stab and streak cultures on nutrient agar
were not unlike those on the gelatin. Exact statements as to
the composition of the nutrient gelatin and agar are not given.

(4) Potato, ete—Pure cultures on sterilized slices of beet
gave a brownish, slimy growth, having a strongly acid re-
action. The same on carrot gave a whitish, slimy layer, hav-
ing a strongly acid reaction. On potato the growth showed
no specially characteristic mark, but was strongly acid.

(5) Animal Fluids.—No statement.

(6) Vegetable Juices—No statement.

(7) Salt Solutions and other Synthetic Media.—The 3-4 per
cent. dextrose-peptone solution (distilled water?) containing the
necessary mineral ingredients (not named) became cloudy in
forty-eight hours and less limpid in 8 to 14 days.

(8) Relation to Free Oxygen.—Aerobic.

(9) Reducing and Oxidizing Power—No statement.

(10) Fermentation Products, and other Results of Growth :

(a) Gas Production—No statement. If the cattle disease
were really due to this organism, then we may suppose it to
be an active gas producer in the presence of certain carbo-
hydrates.

(b) Formation of Acids.—This bacillus is a strong acid pro-
ducer. The sap of the diseased beets shows a strong acid reac-
tion. Pure cultures strongly reddened blue litmus gelatin in

722 The American Naturalist. [September,

forty-eight hours, and developed an acid reaction in neutral
nutrient solutions within a few days. The composition of these
solutions is not stated, nor whether the growth of the organism
is self-limited by the production of the acid. This production
of acid serves to strengthen the belief that the bacillus is really
the cause of the beet disease. The nature of the acid was not
determined.

(c) Production of Alkali.—Not recorded.

(d) Formation of Pigment.—Brownish color on beets.

(e) Development of Odors.—No odor.

(f£) Enzymes.—Not determined. Cell walls are dissolved.

(g) Other Products.—Not stated.

(11) Effect of Dessication.—No statement. -
(12) Thermal Relations :

(a) Maximum for Growth—Not determined. If the bloat-
ing of the cattle were due to this organism, it must be able to
grow at blood heat, and the accurate determination of its
thermal relations should not have been omitted.

(b) Optimum for Growth Not determined.

(c) Minimum for Growth—Not determined.

(a) Death Point.—Not determined.

(13) Relation to Light.—No statement.

(14) Vitality on Various Media.—No statement.

(15) Effect on Growth of Reaction of Medium (acid, neutral, .
alkaline) —No statement.

(16) Sensitiveness to Antiseptics and Germicides—No statement.

(17) Other Host Plants —No statement.

(18) Effect upon Animals.—No cattle could be had for experi-
mental purposes; but the germ was carefully tested on rabbits
and white mice, and was not pathogenic either when fed to
them in carrots, rubbed into subcutaneous wounds, or injected
into the blood by means of a Pravaz syringe.

(III) Economic ASPECTS :

(1) Losses.—Serious.

(2) Natural Methods of Infection —Not known.

(3) Conditions Favoring the Spread of the Disease—Not known.

(4) Methods of Prevention No experiments, and no observa-
tions. Disease not studied in the field.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 723

Remark.—This disease was also seen in 1891 by Dr. Paul
Sorauer, who described it as follows, in a short note appended
to a (24) “ Review” of some papers on the Sereh-disease of sugar
cane (Zeitschrift fiir Pflanzenkrankheiten, Bd. I., Heft 6, 1891, p.

60). “ We can now report similar phenomena in our Beta. A
parcel of beets sent to us from Slavonia were suffering from a
disease which may be designated guwmmosis. Investigations up
to this time have shown that the bacteria induce the formation
of a syrup-like gum. Here also the first indications of the
disease are a red-brown, subsequently a black-brown, staining
of the vascular bundles, and each drop of gum swarms with
myriads of apparently specific bacteria. If this gum is dropped
upon sliced ( praeparierte) sound beets the bacterial gummosis
is there easily produced. The preparation of the beet so as to
be susceptible to the disease appears to lie in a lessening of
the acidity of the tissues, etc.” No strictly bacteriological
work appears to have been done, and I have quoted all of the
article that is pertinent.

2. THE ROT OF SUGAR BEETS (1891).

In 1891, in (25) Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet, Bull. No. 15,
. Iowa Agric. Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa, p. 243, Reprint
p. 9, Prof. L. H. Pammel, of that station, described a beet dis-
ease from Iowa which he attributed to the fungus Rhizoctonia
betx.

Associated with this fungus were various bacteria to which
he ascribed the subsequent wet rotting of the roots. The rot-
ting beets gave off a strong odor not unlike that of rotting
potatoes. Unquestionably “ the ultimate rotting is caused by
bacteria.” Several bacteria were isolated, and among others
Bacillus subtilis. Inoculations with a pure culture of one of
these organism did not give any very decisive results. No
bacteriological studies of any consequence seem to have been
made.

3. A BACTERIAL DISEASE OF SUGAR BEETS (1892).

(I) THE DISEASE.

(1) Author, Title of Paper, Place of Publication—This disease
was described by Dr. J. C. Arthur and Katherine E. Golden, of

724 The American Naturalist. [September,

the Purdue University Agricl. Experiment Station, Lafayette,
Indiana, in (26) Diseases of the Sugar Beet, issued April 13, 1892,
and forming Bulletin No. 39, Vol. 3, of that station, pp. 54-58, `
and summary, pp. 61-62.

(2) Geographical Distribution —This disease appeared in
sugar beets grown for experimental purposes at the Indiana
station, and seems to have’ first attracted the attention of the
station chemist owing to the low percentage of sugar found in
some of the roots. These were examined microscopically, and
bacteria, or bacteria-like bodies found in the tissues. This was
in 1890. “ Owing to the lateness of the season, and the lack of
a plant house, the observations on the disease soon came to an
end, to await the next growing season. The following descrip-
tion of the disease, and of its distribution and cause, is there-
fore the result of studies made almost wholly during the summer
of 1891 and the winter of 1891-2.” The disease is prevalent
in many places in Indiana. In 1892 it occurred in all of the
eight varieties of sugar beets grown on the Purdue Station
grounds, and was found to some extent in nineteen of the
twenty-seven samples of beets sent in for analysis from as many
different localities in that State. This is not, however, it is
stated, an entirely fair indication of the prevalence of the
malady, since it is customary to select the best beets for analy-
sis, and the proportion of diseased ones in such lots is less than
the actual average. Of a total of 434 beets received from differ-
ent parts of Indiana, and examined for this disease, 12 per
cent. were affected. No record was kept of the percentage of
diseased beets appearing on the experiment station grounds,
but this is stated to have been large.

(3) Symptoms.—* This disease does not usually cause the
death of the plants, any spots upon its surface, or any altera-
tion or discoloration of the tissues.”

“The beet root shows externally no marks by which the
presence of the bacterial parasite can be detected; the most
diseased and the strictly healthy roots cannot be separated by
any external characters. This statement, however, does not
apply to the leaves. While the plants are small, the foliage of
healthy and diseased plants remain normal ; but as the plants

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 725

reach full size, and especially as they approach maturity, those
which are most affected can be told at a glance by the altered
appearance of the leaves. The healthy beet leaf has a decid-
edly flat, uniform surface, while the diseased leaf is puffed out `
between the veins in little blister-like areas, giving the general
appearance of the surface of a Savoy cabbage leaf. Diseased
plants are necessarily less vigorous than healthy ones, and the
fact is made apparent to the eye as the season advances, by the
leaves becoming paler and smaller, and the outer ones dying
away faster than upon healthy plants. All these indications
taken together, most reliance being placed upon the crinkled
surface, will enable one to select much diseased plants as they
are growing in the field, with considerable certainty. But
some roots not showing the foliage characteristics will also be
found to be affected.

“ Upon cutting across a root the most bonitans indication of
the malady is a greater prominence of the fibres which form
the concentric rings. In well-marked cases each microscopic
bundle shows a dark dot, the circles of dots growing more dis-
tinct on exposure to the air. In less pronounced cases the
woody fibres are merely yellowish, or even quite colorless, but
more prominent after being exposed to the air for awhile than
normal tissues. Furthermore, the diseased root is rather soft
and tough, and of a yellowish-white color, while a healthy
root is firm, somewhat brittle, and in color a clean white.
It has also been found that diseased roots are lighterin weight
than healthy ones.” They also contain less sugar. The reduc-
tion in all cases being considerable, and in some cases amount-
ing to nearly 50 per cent. This is “presumably due to the
presence of the bacteria.”

In a foot-note it is stated that the circles of dark dots are
found in all sugar beets. “And yet the greater prominence
which these dark spots assume on account of the disease, make
them one of the most effective indications of its presence.”

(4) Pathological Histology. — A microscopic examination
showed the bacteria “throughout all parts of the root.” “So
far as observed the disease rarely or never breaks down the tis-
sues or kills the plant.”

726 The American Naturalist. [September,

“A section from any part of a diseased root, under a magni-
fication of four or five hundred diameters, shows the presence
of great’ numbers of bacteria.” “These bacterial parasites
of the beet are not few, or difficult of detection ; but occur in
great numbers in every cell of the plant, and are conspicuous
under the microscope without staining or other special treat-
ment. The more pronounced the disease the greater the num-
ber of bacteria. They are most abundant in the large, loose-
celled tissue, lying between the fibrous rings of the root and
in the similar tissue of the veins and midrib of the leaf. This
tissue consists of parenchyma, in which the protoplasm lines
the walls of the cells and stretches across in strings from side
to side. The bacteria are largely imbedded in or attached to
the protoplasm, but also occur in the cell sap, sometimes in
large numbers. While the bacteria are most abundant and
conspicuous in the colorless parenchyma, they also occur in the
cells of the fibro-vascular bundles, and in the green cells of the
leaf; in fact, as has already been said, in all parts of the plant.”

(5) Direct Infection Experiments.—No direct inoculation, or
grafting of diseased roots upon healthy ones, appears to have
been tried.

(II) THE PARASITE. Organism not named.

1. Pathogenesis.

(A) Yes.

(B) Yes. Easily isolated. Plate method. From the deeper
tissues of the roots only one form of microbe is ob-
tained.

(C) No, or yes, doubtfully. “Inoculation with pure cul-
tures into the beet root has been attempted, and re-
sults appear to show that the disease was transmitted ;
but the trials were few, and we desire to repeat them
before further discussing this part of the subject.”

(D) No.

Conclusion.—Pathogenic nature not established.

2. Morphology.

(1) Shape, size, etc—The bacteria are all of one shape and
appearance. They are nearly twice as long as broad, small,

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 727

oblong, colorless, usually occurring as colorless cells, although
occasionally found in pairs. No measurements are given.

(2) Capsule-—Nothing.

(3) Flagella—The organism is said to be actively motile
when grown in a rich nutrient fluid. No statement regarding
flagella ; or as to motility when taken directly from the plant.

(4) Spores.—Said to be arthrosporous; but no details are given
or proof advanced in support of this statement, which probably
rests on no other foundation than that endospores were not
observed. So far as known to the writer nobody has demon-
strated the existence of arthrospores in any species of bacte
rium or bacillus. :

(5) Zooglea.—No mention of zooglea.

(6) Involution forms.-—No mention of involution forms.

3. Biology.

(1) Stains —No statement respecting behavior toward stains.

(2) Gelatin—“ Upon neutral gelatine the bacteria at first
form a whitish growth, which becomes pale yellow with age,
and the gelatine is eventually liquefied. Upon acid gelatine
the liquefaction proceeds much more slowly. In all cases the
gelatine finally becomes alkaline, whether acid or neutral to
begin with.”

(3) Agar.—* Upon agar-agar the growth is about the same as
upon acid gelatine.” *

No statement as to what nutrient substances were added to
the agar or to the gelatin or as to the reaction of the agar.

(4) Potato, etc—Behavior not stated.

(5) Animal Fluids.—Not stated.

(6) Vegetable Jwices— Develop well in sterilized juice ex-
pressed from the sugar beet ; but their development cannot be
readily watched, as contact with the air causes the juice to turn
dark or even black.”

It is notstated whether the expressed juice was sterilized by
steam heat or at ordinary temperatures by filtration.

(7) Salt Solutions and other Synthetic Media.— In a Pasteur
sugar culture the bacteria grow well, causing the liquid
to become slightly turbid in twenty-four hours. As growth

728 The American Naturalist. [September,

goes on, the turbidity becomes greater, and again decreases
until at the end of nine or ten days, when growth practically
ceases, the liquid becomes clear, and a grayish sediment falls
to the bottom of the tube.”

No statement as to whether the sugar in this solution was
broken up with the formation of an acid.

(8) Relation to Free Oxygen.—No statement. Certainly not
anaerobic, from the ease with which cultures were obtained.

(9) Reducing and Oxidizing Power.—No statement.

(10) Fermentation Products and other Results of Growth :

(a) Gas Production—No statement.

(b) Formation of Acids.—No statement.

(c) Production of Alkalii—Neutral or acid gelatin becomes
alkaline. In view of this statement it would be interesting to
know whether the juice from diseased roots is alkene or less
acid than that from healthy roots.

(d) Formation of Pigment.—Old cultures on gelatin are pale
yellow.

(e) Development of Odors.—No statement.

(f) Enzymes.—Gelatin is finally liquefied.

(g) Other Products—No mention of any.

(11) Effect of Dessication—No statement.

(12) Thermal Relations :

(a) Maximum for Growth—Not determined.

(b) Optimum for Growth—Not determined.

(c) Minimum for Growth—Not determined.

(d) Death Point.—Not determined.

(13) Relation to Light—No statement.

(14) Vitality on Various Media—Not recorded.

(15) Effect on Growth of Reaction of Medium (acid, neutral, al-
kaline). Liquefaction of gelatin delayed by acidity.

(16) Sensitiveness to Antiseptics and Germicides.—No statement.

(17) Other Host Plants—None recorded.

(18) Effect Upon Animals.—No statement.

(III) Economic ASPECTS:

(1) Losses—*“A source of danger to the beet sugar industry
of no inconsiderable moment.” See also (I) (2). ;

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 729

(2) Natural Methods of Infection.—Not determined.

(3) Conditions Favoring the Spread of the Disease—Not deter-
mined.

(4) Methods of Prevention—No experiments recorded, and
nothing known.

Remark.—F rom the statement quoted under Pathogenesis (C)
one might infer this to be a preliminary paper, and it is possible
that a subsequent one may clear up some of the many mooted
points. At present the most that seems to be made out beyond
doubt is that there is in Indiana a disease of sugar beets accom-
panied by decreased sugar content, and always or usually associ-
ated with minute bodies distributed pretty uniformly through
the parenchymatic tissues, and believed to be bacteria. To the
writer of this article the evidence that bacteria are really the
cause of this disease does not appear to be very conclusive.
Until more proof is advanced it is permissible to doubt (1)
whether the organism isolated by plate cultures, and supposed
to have been derived from the interior of the beets, was actually
so derived; and (2) whether the bacteria-like bodies which
“occur in great numbers in every cell of the plant,” but which
“never break down the tissues,” or cause “any alteration or
discoloration of the tissues,” are really micro-organisms. To
have every cell full of aerobic bacteria, and no lesions, is very
remarkable, considering the nature of the plant cell, and cer-
tainly requires unusually strong evidence. Under the cir-
cumstances is it not possible that these bodies may be of a
crystalline or crystalloid nature? This seems the more likely,
from the fact that the juice of healthy table beets, the only sort
the writer has been able to examine, is full of small particles
endowed with active Brownian movement, and readily mis-
taken for bacteria when examined in hanging drops with me-
dium magnifications. The uninjured parenchyma cells of the
petioles were also found to contain these bodies in large num-
bers and in active motion. They stain slowly with alkaline
methyl blue, and are not microérganisms.

4. THE DEEP SCAB OF BEETS (1891).

In (27) Bulletin No. 4, Agric. Experiment Station, North

Dakota, Fargo, N. D., Dec., 1891 (pp. 15-17), Prof. H. L. Bolley,
51

730 The American Naturalist. [September,

of that station, described “a disease of beets indentical with deep
scab of potatoes,” which latter he attributes in another article
in the same bulletin to “a bacterioid fungus-like affair having
characteristics which would seem to ally it both to the fungi
and to the bacteriacez.” Inasmuch as this beet disease has
frequently been cited on Prof. Bolley’s authority as of bacterial
origin, e.g., in the last edition of Frank’s (28) Krankheiten der
Pflanzen, Bd. 2, p. 27, it is proper to mention it here, although
the evidence for and against the bacterial nature of scab will be
taken up seriatim only when we come to consider the bacterial
diseases of the potato, to which the reader is referred.

5. THE ROOT-BURN OF BEETS (1894).

This disease should perhaps also be included. What little
we know about its bacterial nature is derived from the brief
account by Dr. L. Hiltner, in an address entitled, (29) Mittheil-
ungen aus d. K. pflanzenphysiologischen Versuchsstation
Tharand: Wie kann der Landwirt durch richtige Wahl, Pflege
und Bestellung des Saatgutes des Krankheiten der Kultur-
pflanzen einigermassen verbeugen ? Sachsische Landw. Zeitschrift
1894, No. 18, pp. 207-209.

Dr. Hiltner states that a disease called “ Wurzelbrand” has
caused great injury in recent years in almost all beet-growing
lands. This disease appears in an early stage of growth as a
more or less extensive constriction at the junction of stem and
root. Subsequently there is a browning and decay of the root
which proceeds from the constricted portion, and usually ends
in the death of the plant. In spite of numerous investigations
the cause of this disease has not been satisfactorily determined.
For a long time its symptoms were confused with the gnawings
of a beetle, Atomaria linearis, but Hellriegel, and afterwards
Wimmer, showed that the disease could be preventod by soak-
ing the beet balls for twenty hours in one-half per cent. solution
of carbolic acid, and on this ground ascribes the disease to a
fungus, which was believed to pass over from the beet balls to
the roots of the young seedlings. Hollrung, on the contrary,
found a fungus in the diseased parts of only four out of sixteen
roots examined for that purpose, and ascribed the disease to

1896.] Recent Literature. 731

other causes, i. e., to physical, chemical and mechanical pecu-
liarities of the soil (Hiltner’s account). Dr. Hiltner’s own ob-
servations date from the discovery of a browning of the root
hairs. Hestates that often in his germination experiments he
had observed that a part of the root hairs on certain seedling
beets would be colored brown and peculiarly shortened. When
examined under a hand lens these hairs were seen to be mere
brown points instead of long tubes. Seeds from a lot which
germinated well, and produced seedlings that showed this
browning of the root hairs to a marked degree, came up badly
when planted in garden earth, and those which did grow after-
wards developed the root-burn, the characteristic constriction
occurring just where the sound root hairs were wanting. Hell-
-riegel’s treatment was repeated. After soaking the beet balls
in a solution of carbolic acid the root hairs remained perfectly
sound, and there was no subsequent root-burn. The parasite,
however, is not a fungus but a bacterium. “In each epidermal
cell of the root which bore a stunted hair there was to be found
a specific bacterium, and to this is to be attributed the final
destruction of the root.” It is not stated whether the organism
was isolated from the roots, or whether any infection experi-
ments were undertaken. The context would lead one to think
nothing of this sort was attempted.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Journey Through Mongolia and Thibet.'—This volume is
413 pages, is published in octavo form under the auspices of the Smith-
sonian Institution. It is an account of the travels of Mr. Rockhill in
Mongolia and Thibet, based on a diary kept during the journey. The
variety of subjects touched upon by the author in his descriptions of
the country traversed, and the people with whom he was brought in
contact, gives this volume a peculiar interest. Appendices to the diary

‘ Diary of a journey through Mongolia and Thibet in 1891 and 1892. By Wil-
liam Woodville Rockhill. Published by Smithsonian Institution, 1894.

732 The American Naturalist. [September,

contain information regarding the Solar and San-Ch’uan T’ujen vocab-
ularies, the plants of Thibet, and the mean monthly temperature. A
route map of the explorations made by the author, and a table of
latitudes, altitudes, etc., accompany the book. The illustrations are
numerous, comprising page plates and cuts in the text.

Publications of the United States Geological Survey for
1893-4. FOURTEENTH ANNUAL Rerort.2—This work is issued in two
parts. Part I containing the Report of the Director on the operations
of the Survey of 1892-92 administration, together with several reports.
Part II comprises the accompanying papers embodying the results of
the topographic and hydrographic work of the survey, and of the geo-
graphical investigations carried on through its aid. These researches
were prosecuted chiefly in Virginia, West Virginia and Maryland, in
Vermont and Massachusetts, in certain Rocky Mountain areas, and the
Pacific coast region.

The illustrations are numerous, comprising 76 plates and 75 figures
and diagrams,

A MANUAL or TopocrapHic Mreruops.’—This manual is one of
the series of monographs published by the United States Geological
Survey in quarto form. Its object, as stated by the author in his intro-
duction, iå to present a description of the topographic work, instru-
ments and methods used by the United States Geological Survey pri-

marily for the information of the men engaged upon this work. The
` manual is accompanied by a collection of constants and tables used in
the reduction of astronomical observations for position, of triangulation,
of light measurements, and other operations connected with the making
of topographic maps, and is illustrated by eighteen plates showing
types of topography

MINERAL Resources OF THE UNITED Srares.‘—This report for the
calendar year 1893 is the tenth in the series. The subject-matter in-
cludes: First, a statement of the mineral products ; secondly, the indus-
trial conditions affecting these products ; and thirdly, recent additions

? Fourteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1892-93.
Part I.—Report of the Director. Washington, 1893. Part [1.—Accompanying
Papers.. Washington, 1894.

3 Monographs of the United States Geological Survey, Vol. XXII. A Manual
of Topographic Methods. By Henry Gannett. Washington, 1893

t Mineral Resources of the United States for the Calendar Var 1893. By
David T. Day. Washington, 1894

1896.] Recent Literature. 733

to the knowledge of mineral deposits in this country. The statistics of
production, and of imports and exports, were collected by experts,
whose names are given at the heads of the several chapters, and are,
therefore, unquestionable. The arrangement of the material is conve-
nient for reference, and a good index completes the work.

An Introduction to the Study of Zoology.'—This book, as
stated by the author, is a kind of guide-book to beginners in the study
of the animal kingdom. Among other good points made by Mr. Lind-
say is a recommendation of a course of study in his advice to students,
and suggestions as to the best books to buy for those whose time or
money is limited. This forms Part III. Parts I and II treat respect-
ively of the general principles of the subject and systematic zoology.
Part I is concise, but clear, and on the whole up to date. The system-
atic part, however, is weak, by reason of the lack of clear, precise de-
finitions. This is particularly true of the Vertebrata; and, in general,
no advantage has been taken of the discoveries of paleontology.

The illustrations are numerous and “taking.” On the whole, the
volume will be of interest and value to those whose wants it is intended
to meet, i. e., the adult student, who wishes a first-lesson book which is
not milk for babes.

The Cranial Nerves of Batrachia.’°—This paper is a reprint
in book form of an article published in the Journal of Morphology, Vol.
X, No.1. The author confines himself to a discussion of the V, VII
IX and X nerves, including other nerves in the description only as
they come into connection with those specified. After an explanation
of the technique employed, a detailed description of the nerves and
their components is given, followed by a comparative morphology of
components. The closing chapter deals with the relation of the cranial
and spinal nerves, the relations of the pre- and post-auditory nerves,
and the bearings which the results of the author’s studies have upon the
classification of the nerves and their segmental relations.

Especial light is thrown on this subject by this research, which in-
cludes as an especial feature the determination for the first time of the
motor and sensory fibres in each case. The monograph is one of espe-
cial excellence.

5 An Introduction to the Study of Zoology. By B. Lindsay. London, 1895,
Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. New York, Macmillan & Co. $1.60.

ê The Cranial Nerves of Amphibia. By Oliver S. Strong. Boston, 1895. Ginn
& Co., Pub.

734 The American Naturalist. [September,

Structure and Life of Birds.’—In this volume the author un-
dertakes to show the development of birds from reptilian ancestors from
anatomical evidence, He then describes the structure in detail, dwell-
ing on the work done by special organs. The chapter on flight com-
prising some hundred pages, contains the latest information on this
vexed problem, and includes much original matter, the result of Mr.
Headley’s personal investigations and observations. Color and song,
instinct and reason, migration, and the principles of classification are
‘treated of in separate chapters. A brief recapitulation of the argu-
ments for and against the theory that the ancestors of the ostrich
family were birds of flight, and hints as to the best methods of studying
ornithology, are given in concluding the subject. Each chapter is
accompanied by a list of books bearing upon the topic under discussion.

Seventy-eight illustrations are given in the text, some of which are
reproductions from photographs of birds in motion.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

AMERICAN, AN.—The Cuban Question in its true light. New York, 1895.
From the author.

BAILEY, V.—List of Mammals of the District of Columbia. Extr. Proceeds.
Biol. Soc. Washington, Vol. X, 1896. From the author.

Batpwin, J. M.—Heredity and Instinct. Pt. II, Extr. Science, April, 1896.
From the author.

Benepict, J. E.—Preliminary Descriptions of a new genus and three new spe-
cies of Crustaceans from an artesian well at San Marcos, Texas. Extr. Proceeds.
U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the author.

Bulletins 34 and 35, 1895, Agric. Exper. Station, Kingston, R. I.

Bulletin No. 95 (n. s.) 1895, New York Agricultural Experiment Station.

CaTTELL, J. McK.—On Reaction Times and the Velocity of the Nervous im-

National Acad. Sci., Vol. VII, Second Memoir.

CoKEnoweEkr, J. W.—Can Maternal Mental Emotions produce Malformations,
Deformities or Birthmarks? Extr. Omaha Clinic, 1894. From the author.

KE, M. C.—Introduction to the Study of the Fungi. London, 1895, Adam
and Charles Black. From the Pub.

Day, D. T.—Mineral Resources of the United States, 1894, Non-metallic Pro-
ducts. Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1894-95. Part IV. From the
Survey. 1

“t Biractare and Life of Binds. By F. W. Headley. New Yoik ssid Lenton,
1895, Macmillan & Co. $2.00.

-1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 735

Festa, E.—Descrizione di un nuovo genere e di una nuova specie di Teiidae.
Extr. Boll. Mus. Zool. ed Anat. Com. Torino, Vol. XI, 1896. From the
author.

Feweks, J. W.—A Contribution to Ethnobotany. Extr. Amer. Anthropol.,
1896. From the author.

GAUDRY, A.—Essai de Paléontology Philosophique. Paris, 1896. From the

hor.
GEGENBAUR, C.—Clavicula und Cleithrum. Aus. Morphol. Jahrb., XXIII,
Bd., 1 Heft., 1895. From the author.
Ginson, A. M.—Report upon the Coosa Coal Field with Sections. Montgom-
ery, Ala., 1895. From the State Geologist, E. A. Smith.
GILL, TH.—Huxley and his Work. Reprint from Science, Feb, 1896. From

Gorpon, C. H.—Stratigraphy of the St. Louis and Warsaw Formations in
Southeastern Iowa. Extr. Journ. Geol., Vol. III, 1895

—Syenite-Gneiss from the Apatite region of Ottawa County, Canada. Extr.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 7, 1895. From the author

HEMPEL, A.—Descriptions of New Species of Rotifera and Protozoa from the
Illinois River and Adjacent Waters. Bull. Ill. State Laboratory Nat. Hist., Vol.
IV, 1896. From the author.

Hyatt, A.—Laboratory Teaching of large Classes. Extr. Science, February,

9

——Lost Characteristics. Extr. Amer. Nat., 1896.
——Remarks on the genus Nanno, Clarke. Extr. Am. Geol., 1895.
Terminology proposed for description of the shell in Pelecypade, Extr.
Proceeds. Amer. Assoc. Ady. Sci., Vol. XLIV, 1895. From the author.

Johns Hopkin’s Hospital Reports, Volume V. Baltimore, 1895. From the
Trustees of the Hospital.

JorDAN, D. S. AND E. ©. StarKs.—The Fishes of Puget Sound. Contrib. to
Biol. Hopkins Laboratory Biol., III. Palo Alto, 1895.

Kinessury, B. F.—On the Brain of Necturus maculatus. Extr. Journ. Comp.
Neurol., Vol. V, 1895. From the author.

Lyman, B. S.—Report on the New Red of Bucks and Montgomery Counties.
Extr. Penna. State Geol. Summary Final Report, Vol. III, Part II. From the

author.

MERRIAM, J. C.—Sigmogomphius lecontei, a new Castoroid Rodent. Extr.
Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Calif., 1896. From the author.

PoLLARD, C. L.—The Purple flowered, stemless Violets of the Atlantic Coast.
Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc. Washington, Vol. X, 1896. From the author.

Prosser, C. S.—The Classification of the Upper Paleozoic Rocks of Central
Kansas. Extr. Journ. Geol. Chicago, Vol. III, No. 7, 1895. From the author.

Reis, O. M.—Kopfstacheln bei Menaspis armata Ewald. No date given.

——Ueber Belonostomus, Aspidorhynchus und ihre Beziehungen zum leben-
den Lepidosteus. Extr. Sitzungsber d. k. bayr. Akad. d. Wiss., IT, Cl. 1887.

——Ueber eine Art fossilization der Musculatur. Aus der Gesselschaft f.
Morphol. ene Physiol., München. No date given.

—U ein Ememplar von Acanthodes bronnii. Ag. aus der geogn. Samm-

lung*der “ Pollichia.” No date given.

a

736 The American Naturalist. [September,

Paleohistologische Beiträge zur Stammesgeschicte der Teleostier. Aus
dem n Jahrb. f. Mineral. Geol. und Palenontol. Jahrg., 1895, Bd. I. From
the author.
At, E.—Uber Umfornungen an der Incisiven der zweiten Zahngener-
ation des Menschen. Aus Morpholog. Jahrb., XXII, Bd. 3, Heft, 1895. From
the author

Saustony ve ig a on Surface Geology of New Jersey for 1894. Extr.
Ann w Jersey for the year 1894, Trenton, 1895. From the author.
SMITH, = FoP each Growing for Market. Farmer’s Bull. No. 33, U.S.

JA

gric.
SPIVAK, C. a e on Kephir. Extr. New York Med. Journ., Jan.,
1896. From the autho

STEJNEGER, E e eripeion of a new genus and species of, blind tailed Batra-
chians from the subterranean waters of Texas. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl.
Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1896. From the author.

Swann, H. K.—A Concise Handbook of British Birds. London, 1896. From
the author.

Thirteenth Annual Report New York Agricultural Station. Albany, 1895.

VAN DENBURGH, J.—Notes on the Habits and Distribution of Autodax iecanus.

—— Description of a new Rattlesnake (Crotalus pricei) from Arizona

—— Additional Notes on the Herpetology of Lower California. Extr. Pro-
ceeds. Calif. Acad. Sci., Ser. 2, Vol. V, 1895. From the author

WHITEHEAD, W. R.—The Thumb as an Initial Factor of Civilization. Extr.
Med. Record, Aug., 1895. From the author.

DWARD, A. 8.--The Problem of the Primaeval Sharks. Extr. Natural
Science, Vol. VI, 1895.

——On Some Remains of the Pyenodont Fish Mesturus discovered by Alfred
N. Leeds in the Oxford Clay of Peterborough. Extr. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
Ser. 6, Vol. XVII, Jan., 1896.

——On the Devonian Ichthyodornlite, Byssacanthus. Idem, Vol. XV, Feb.,
1895.

——0On two Deep-bodied species of the Clupeoid genus Diplomystus. Idem,
Vol. XV, Jan., 1895.

——Fish Fauna of the Purbeck Beds. Extr. Geol. Mag., April, 1895.

——On a Liassic Fish—also Greens and Ganoid Fishes. Idem, May, 1895

—Description of Ceramurus macrocephalus, a small Fossil Fish from the
Purbeck Beds of Wiltshire, Eng. Idem, Vol. II, 1895.

1896.] Mineralogy and Orystallograp hy. 737

General Notes.

MINERALOGY AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY:

The Chemical Composition of Turquoises.—Carnot? notes
the occurrence of turquoise in the Burrow Mts., Grant Co., N. M., ina
sort of pinkish-gray pegmatite. The structure is micro-crystalline, the
fracture irregular and somewhat conchoidal. The analysis given is:
P,O; 28.29, Al,O, 34.32, CuO 7.41, FeO .91, MnO trace, CaO 7.93,
MgO trace, H,O 18.24, F trace, quartz or clay 2.73, total 99.83. An
analysis of the well known Persian turquoise gave P,O, 29.43, Al,O,
42.17, CuO 5.10, FeO 4.50, H,O 18.59, quartz or clay .21, total, 100.00.

These analyses and others already published show, it is true, a good
deal of variation in the composition of turquoise, yet are thought by
Carnot to agree fairly with the formula P,O, (Al, Cu, Fe, Ca,) O,+
Al,O,+5 H,O. Stress is laid on the determination of all the iron as
ferrous. The above data were obtained from the true oriental tur-
quoise, or that “ of the old rock.”

The occidental turquoise, or that “of the new rock” may better be
called odontolite, coming from the teeth of fossil mammals. They are
very variable in composition, and contain iron in the ferric condition,
as well as 3.02 per cent, or, in another specimen, 3.45 per cent of fluor-
ine, thus differing from the oriental turquoise.

The occidental turquoise may be distinguished from ordinary ve
and fossils by lack of calcium carbonate, presence of ferric phosphate,
and by the large quantity of aluminium phosphate, also by the blue
color.

Alstonite and Barytocalcite.—A posthumous note by Mallard’
presented to the French Society of Mineralogy by M. Termier, gives
interesting comparisons between the properties of the minerals contain-
ing barium and calcium carbonates. While barytucalcite has been
long considered to be a double salt, the usual view concerning alstonite
has been that it is an isomorphous mixture of the two carbonates. A
series of analyses made by Chatelier suggests that alstonite may be also
a double salt with the same formula as barytocalcite. The prismatic

1 Edited by A. C. Gill, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

2 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 119-123, 1895.
3 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVII, pp. 7-12, 1895.

738 . The American Naturalist. [September,

angle of alstonite is determined as 119° 9’, which is not in accord with
the view that it is an isomorphous mixture of witherite and aragonite,
since their corresponding angles are 117° 48’ and 116° 16’ respectively.

The indices of refraction of witherite, alstonite and barytocalcite for
sodium light were measured and compared with those af aragonite and
calcite. In the following table, column III gives the mean between the
values for aragonite and for witherite :

I II Ill IV V VI
Aragonite Witherite Mean Alstonite Herglocalsite Calcite
1.5301 1.52 .48625

oe 1.5295 1.525

B ae 1.676 1.679 1 1.673 (?) i 34

Y -6859 1.677 1.681 1.686 1.6585
Sp. G. 2.94 4.28 3.61 3.71 3.65 2.73

Attention is called to the remarkable crystallographic similarity be-
tween barytocalcite and calcite, nothwithstanding the difference in erys-
tal system. The cleavage of barytocalcite form a pseudorhombohedron,
being basal and prismatic. The angle of the prism 106° 54’, and the
angle between the base and prism is 102° 54’, while the cleavage rhom-
bohedron of calcite has angle of 105° 5’. Moreover, the optical angle
of barytocalcite is small, and the negative acute bisectrix make an an-
gle of + 64° 22’ with the c axis (i. e., with the intersection of the pris-
matic cleavages) ; the optical angle of calcite is zero, and the negative
optical axis makes an angle of +63° 44’ with the intersection of two
rhombohedral cleavages.

In conclusion Buchrucker’s values for the indices of strontianite are
corrected. Mallard’s values for Na light are: œ = 1.518, 6 = 1.664,

= 1.665.

Rutile, Cassiterite and Zircon.—According to Traube, who
discusses the question of the isomorphism of the above minerals, the
etched figures produced by KF or KF HF are exactly similar for each
of the three species, and indicate holohedral symmetry in the tetragonal
system.

An attempt to make rutile containing SiO, was not successful,
though Traube considers that it must have been so in case rutile and
zircon were isomorphous. Synthetic experiments were also made for
the purpose of throwing light on the mode of occurrence of Fe,O, in
these minerals. By heating chemically pure amorphous titanium diox-
ide in a platinum crucible with sodium tungstate and a metallic oxide,
the following results were obtained. With Fe,O, rutile was formed
containing in one case as much as 5.4 per cent of that oxide; rutile

‘Neues Jahrb. B.B. X, pp. 470-476, 1896.

1896.] Mineralogy and Crystallography. 739

with 3.01 per cent Mn,O,, and in another case with 1.91 per cent Cr,O,
was prepared, but similar experiments with the oxides of nickel and
cobalt were not successful, the rutile crystals containing no appreciable
trace of NiorCo. Chromiferous crystals of cassiterite were also formed.
It seems, therefore, that these substances have a peculiar affinity for
the oxides of the type R,O,, but not for those of the form RO.

Colored specimens of all three minerals become permanently lighter
in color on heating.

Marignac’s process for fusing zircon (i.e., with KF or with KF HF)
was tried with rutile and cassiterite. Like zircon they both fuse rather
readily, forming K, TiF, and K, SnF, respectively.

Miscellaneous Notes.—Wiilfing® describes a simple apparatus
for obtaining monochromatic light from direct sunlight. The experi-
ments on quartz seem to show that the apparatus works with a good
degree of accuracy. Measurements of the index of refraction of dia-
mond gave for A,n==2.4024; for D, n=2.4175; and for H, n=2.4652.
These are three of several values determined. The specific gravity of
these diamonds referred to water at 4° was found to be 2.522.003.
Hematite from Elba was also investigated, giving:

w €
2.904 2.690 for line A
2.988 2.755 for line B
3.042 2.797 for line C

The specific gravity at 4° is 5.285+.002. A description is also given
of a spectrum apparatus for use with a microscope or an axial angle
instrument. In a later note’ Wiilfing gives a table comparing the
values of the indices of refraction of the diamond obtained by himself
with those determined by Walter; the agreement is very close. He
states that either apparatus above mentioned may be obtained of Eug.
Albrecht in Tiibingen.

Kretschmer’ describes the occurrence of garnet, vesuvianite, wolla-
stonite, epidote, augite, quartz and calcite at the contact of marble with
granite near Friedeberg in Silesia. Minute details as to locality, asso-
ciation and crystal form are recorded.

Goguel® reports on. the crystal form, and in some cases on the opti-
cal behavior of formopyrine, Cy, H,, N,O,, and its addition salts with

5 Tscherm. Mitth., XV, pp. 47-76, 189%.

6 Ibid, p. 350.

1 Tscherm. Mitth., XV, pp. 9-28, 1895.

8 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 27-31, 1895,

740 The American Naturalist. [September,
hydrochloric, sulphuric, nitric, phosphoric and oxalic acids.—Dupare
and Pearce’ have measured the crystal angles and observed the optical
properties of eight new chemical compounds. These are benzoyl-malic
acid, sodium orthophenyl-benzoate, potassium orthophenyl-benzoate,
ammonium phenyl-glycolate, dextrocinchonine pheny]-glycolate, ben-
zylic ether of bromo-tolu-quinone oxime, potassium luteo-phosphomo-
lybdate and a potassium luteo-phosphotungstate.

Of late numerous additions have been made to our knowledge of
the crystallographic and optical constants of organic compounds. The
following three papers in Volume XXV in the Zeitschrift fiir Krystal-
lographie may be cited asimportant contributions to this line. 1. The
Crystal form of Some New Halogen Derivatives of Camphor, by F. S.
Kipping and W. J. Pope; 2. On the Crystal Form of Some Organic
Compounds, by W. J. Pope; 3. Crystallographic and Optical Investi-
gations on Some Organic Compounds, by E. A. Wiilfing.

An artificial cassiterite investigated by Arzruni’® shows distinct
dichroism with the ray vibrating parallel to the vertical axis colorless,
while the ray vibrating at right angles thereto is pink. The erystals
reach a half centimeter in thickness and twice that in length. Twins,
which are socommon with natural cassiterite, were not observed. The
angles measured coincide within 2’ with those given by Becke for the
natural mineral. The mean values from two determinations of the in-
dices of refraction are: :

Li Na Tl
w 1.9846 1.9968 2.0093
E 2.0817 . 2.0929 2.1053

These numbers agree as well as could be expected with those ob-
tained by Grubenmann for cassiterite, showing that the natural and
artificial products are practically identical.

Schmidt" gives at great length tables showing the recurrence of like
interfacial angles in the regular system. As an extreme example, the
angle 35° 15’ 52” occurs between eleven pairs of faces, the cube, octa-
hedron or dodecahedron constituting one face of each pair. The table
at the end of the paper may be of use for rapidly identifying rare faces
on regular crystals.

Sohncke”™ shows that in accordance with his views of crystal structure
no circular polarization is to be expected in crystals of the pyramidal

1? Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, p. 529, 1895.

1896.] Petrography. 741

tetragonal class (hemimorphic hemihedral division of the tetragonal
system). So far as known, circular polarization is not exhibited by
crystals with this grade of symmetry.

PETROGRAPHY:! .

Petrography of the Bearpaw Mountains, Montana.—The
Bearpaw Mountains are the dissected remains of a group of Tertiary
volcanoes. Their cores of the old volcanoes are granular rocks, their
lavas and tuffs are represented by basic sheets and beds. The lavas
are largely basalts, leucite-basalt and other similar basic types.”

The cores consist of mica-trachytes, quartz-syenite, porphyries, con-
taining aegerite-augite and anothoclase-phenocrysts, in which are im-
bedded microlites of oligoclase, trachytes containing hornblende and
diopside and shonkinite. A few miles from Bearpaw Peak a denuded
eore is exposed, which furnishes a good example of the differentiation
of a syenitein place. The intrusion is laccolitic in character. Around
its borders it has highly altered the sedimentary rocks with which it is
in contact. The most acid portion of the laccolite is a light aplitic
syenite containing quartz and diopside. The main mass is a more basic
syenite resembling monzonite or yogoite. It contains diopside and
much plagioclase. The most basic phase isa shonkinite. Analyses
for the three principal types follow:

SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO MgO CaO Na,O K,O H,O, Other Total
Quartz-syenite 68.34 15.32 1.90 .84 .54 .92 545 5.62 45 57 = 99.95
Monzonite 52.81 15.66 3.06 4.76 4.99 7.57 3.60 4.84 1.09 1.86 =100.24
Shonkinite 50.00 9.87 3.46 5.0111.92 8.31 2.41 5.02 1.33 2.68 —100.01

The totals corrected for Fe and Ce are 99.94, 100.22 and 99,93 respec-
tively,

Two French Rocks.—In the serpentine of St. Préjet-Armadon,
Haute-Loire, France, Lacrou® finds nodules composed of asbestiform
gedrite surrounding a kernel of serpentine or biotite. The nodules are
separated from the serpentine by an envelope of biotite. They are sup-

! Edi Colby University, Waterville, Me.

3 rd bea cng T IV, Vol. 1, p. 283 and 351.

3 Bull. Soc, Franc. d. Min., XIX, p. 687.

742 The American Naturalist. [September,

posed to be of secondary origin. Bronzite and asbestus both occur in
the rock. In the norite area of Arvien, Auvergne, the same author
describes a variety of this rock which is characterized by the presence
of secondary reaction, rims of anthophyllite and actinolite between its
hypersthene and plagioclase, the former appearing next to the pyrox-
ene. The plagioclase of the rock is often altered to actinolite, garnet
and albite, while the hypersthene is changed to an aggregate of antho-
phyllite.

_The Granite of the Himalayas.—McMahon* describes the
granite of the N, A. Himalayas. Although highly foliated in the bor-
ders of its masses, the rock is shown to be eruptive. The author thinks
the foliation is due to pressure upon the rock before it finally solidified.
He attempted to show that this schistosity could not possibly have been
produced after the rock cooled. The granite is coarsely porphyritic
with large orthoclase crystals in a medium to fine grained groundmass
composed of the usual constituents of granite. This is cut by tiny
veins of quartz which are supposed to represent the micrystallized resi-
due left after the first partial consolidation of the rock, or to be the
result of a partial fusion of the quartz grains originally occurring in it.
This quartz, though it presents the usual aspects of secondary quartz,
is thought to have been injected into the vein spaces while it was in a
molten condition. Sinuous areas and viens of microcrystalline mica
are likewise observed in the granite, and these are thought to have been
produced by the rapid crystallization of mica that had been melted,
and not by the crushing and shearing of the original micas nor by sec-
ondary processes of any other kind. The paper is well illustrated by
photo-micrographs.

California Rocks.—Fairbanks’ describes the rocks of Eastern Cal-
ifornia between Mono Lake and the Mojave desert as comprising both
sedimentary and igneous forms. Among the latter are both granitic
and volcanic varieties. The granites form the eastern slope of the
Sierra Nevadas. In the northern portion of the area it is a coarsely
porphyritic biotite hornblende variety. In the southern portion it is
replaced by a more basic phase containing less hornblende. The vol-
canic rocks met with in the district are andesitic flows, dykes and tuffs,
and basalt flows among the more recent rocks and liparites among the
more ancient ones. The microscopical description of the type is
deferred to a later paper.

t Proc. Geologists Association, Vol. XIV, p. 287.

5 Amer. Geologist, Vol XVII, p. 63.

1896.] Petrograp hy. 743

Turner" gives a classification of the igneous rocks studied by himself
from various places in California. He divides them into families in
accordance with their mineralogical composition, including in the
same family all those rocks with the same composition irrespective of
structure. He then takes up the syenites and discusses them in some
detail. The family is made to include syenites (granular), syenite-por-
phyries (porphyritic) and trachytes (microlitic and glassy) and apo-
trachytes. The syenites include soda-syenite or albitite, augite-syenite,
hornblende-syenite and mica-syenite. The apo-trachytes include
among other rocks Rosenbusch’s orthophyres and keratophyres. Until
very recently no rocks of the syenite family have been proven to occur
within the borders of the State. All those rocks described as such are
now known to be hornblende-andesites, granites or diorites. The
author refers briefly to the known occurrence of the syenites in the
State and describes more fully some new ones.

He reports dykes of white albitite-porphyries or soda-syenite porphy-
ries in the rocks of the Mother lode quartz mines. In the bed of Moc-
casin Creek the rock consists of quartz, muscovite and albite, but in
other places it consists almost exclusively of albite with a few grains
of an olivine-green mineral thought to be aegerite. The rock resem-
bles somewhat Brégger’s sélosbergite and Palache’s albite rock contain-
ing crossite. An analysis of one specimen gave :

SiO, TiO, Al,0, FeO, FeO CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O P,O, Total
67.58 07 18.57 1.13 .08 .55 24 .10 11.50 46 .11 =100.34

Gabbro-Gneiss from Russell.—The gabbro of Russell, St.
Lawrence Co., N. Y., is said by Smyth’ to change its character rapidly
in consequence of a variation in grain from moderately fine to very
coarse, in structure from porphyritic to granular and in color from
black to gray. Upon alteration the gabbro passes into a rock made up
of red masses in a groundmass of gabbro. In other places it becomes
schistose, when it takes on a granulitictexture. Sometimes hornblende
is developed in it in long narrow plates that run approximately at
right angles to the schistosity, causing the rock to resemble a metamor-
phosed sediment. Even in the most gabbroitic varieties of the rock
the plagioclase is changed into an aggregate of secondary products,
among which scapolite is the most common. In the change of the
massive gabbro into the schistose variety the constituents are first

‘Ib. Vol. XVII, p. 375.
7 Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. 1, p. 273.

744 The American Naturalist. [September,

granulitized and then drawn out into lenticular areas. The feldspars
of the gneisses appear to have been recrystallized, since the feldspathic
areas consist of single feldspar individuals and not fragments of grains.
The pyroxene also differs from the gabbro pyroxene. It has lost its
characteristic black inclusions and has assumed a deep green color.
This mineral, as well as the hornblende, which is abundant in the
gneisses, are both regarded as having recrystallized, the augite material
coming from the original augite of the gabbro and the hornblende from
the secondary amphibole so common in the gabbro. The gneisses are
thus schistose gabbros in which recrystallization has taken place with
attendant granulitization. The author points out the fact that in the
first stages in the alteration of the gabbro scaly hornblende and scapo-
lite are formed, while in the final stage they have completely disap-
peared, and in this latter stage there results a gneiss which bears no
evidence of having been crushed.

Notes.—The serpentine near Bryn Mawr, Penna., has resulted by
the alteration of a peridotite according to Miss Bascom.’ The rock of
the Conshohocken dyke is a typical diabase.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Fossil Jelly Fishes.—Certain curious forms, locally known as
“star cobbles,” have long been found in the middle Cambrian shales
and limestones of the Coosa Valley, Alabama. They occur at two hori-
zons associated with silicious concretions. The “star cobbles” are
recognized by Mr. Walcott as fossil meduse, and among the 8,000
specimens now in the collections of the U. S. Geological Survey he has
separated two types allied to the recent Discomeduse. From the large
number of specimens that have been found over a relatively small
area, it is evident that they were gregarious and very much like the
modern Rhizostome (Polyclonia frondosa) in their habits.

The author describes three species, and refers them to two new genera,
Brooksella and Laotira, which he also defines. These forms, Brooksella
alternata, B. confusa and Laotira cambria, together with Dactyloidites
asteroides, the author groups in the family Brooksellidx, and gives a
diagnosis of the family.

8 Proc. Amer. Acad. Science, 1890, p. 220. °

1896.) Geology and Paieontology. 745

A number of drawings of different views of the three specimens
described accompany the paper. (Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol.
X VIII, No. 1086, 1896.)

Is Palzospondylus a Mansipobranch ?—In a collection of
fossil fishes belonging to Columbia College, Mr. Bashford Dean has
found a specimen of Palseospondylus presenting structural details which
decidedly oppose the hitherto accepted view that Paleospondylus is a
paleozoic lamprey. Mr. Dean figures the specimen in question, and
presents the positive and negative evidence as to its marsipobranchian
affinity. From this summarized statement it is seen that the cranium,
vertebral column and paired fins do not bear out the theory ; the caudal
fin is essentially marsipobranchian, but its diphycercal, or, perhaps,
heterocercal condition, is also common to many groups, shark, lung fish,
and teleostome. The only characteristic which Palseospondylus retains
allying it with the Cyclostomes is the presence of tentacles in the ante-
rior head region. The author suggests that in the presence of so much
negative evidence the head-tentacles can hardly be taken as a crucial
test of kinship, since it is quite possible for these structures to have
arisen independently within the group to which Palzospondylus belongs..
(Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XV.)

The Skeleton of Aepyornis.—A small collection of remains of
the extinct birds of the genus Aepyornis, obtained from central Mada-
gascar, has been sent tọ England by Dr. Forsyth-Major. The speci-
mens include portions of two skulls, two imperfect mandibles, some
coraco-scapulæ, a nearly perfect sternum, and some small bones sup-
posed to be rudimentary humeri.- A detailed description of these bones
is given in a recent number of The Ibis by Mr. Charles W. Andrews.
Of the skull he remarks that “ in several respects A ache
the Dinornithidæ in the structure of the skull. Among the) points of
resemblance are the pedunculate occipital condyle, the prominent basi-
temporal platform, the open Eustachian groove, the structure of the
facet for the quadrate, and the presence of the frontal crest of large
feathers (as in some of the Dinornithide).”

The sternum is “ ratite,” and in Apteryx is found the closest resem-
blance to Aepyornis. According to the author the fossil sternum ap-
pears to lack a metasternal region, and consists of the two primitive
costosternal elements only. In this respect it corresponds to an em-
bryonic stage in the development of the sternum in the recent Ratite.

The coracoscapula is typically Struthious in form. It similarity to
that of Casuarius gives support to Milne-Edwards and Grandidier’s

52 x

746 The American Naturalist. [September,

opinion that Casuarius is a near ally of Aepyornis. (The Ibis, July,
1896.)

Geological News. Mesozoic.—Mr. C. W. Andrews has pub-
lished a paper on the structure of the Plesiosaurian skull, in which he
institutes a comparison of the palatal portion with that of other Reptilia.
He shows that while a similarity of structure in that region does not
necessarily imply close relationship, nevertheless the very great re-
semblances existing between the Plesiosaurian and Rhynchocephalian
palates, reinforced by the numerous other points of likeness in other
portions of their skeletons, lead to the conclusion that the Sauropte-
rygia, notwithstanding their single temporal arcade and the rhizodont
dentition, are descended from a primitive Rhynchocephalian reptile.
This conclusion is in accord with the opinion already expressed by sev-
eral writers. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., May, 1896.)

Crenozoic.—A restoration of Hoplophoneus occidentalis Leidy has
recently been completed by Mr. E. S. Riggs, under the direction of Dr.
Williston. ‘The material upon which its restoration is based is com-
posed of parts of two skeletons found almost together and in exactly
the same horizon just below the bullatus layer of the Oreodon beds of
South Dakota. This material now forms part of the paleontological
collection of the University of Kansas. (Thesis fur the Degree of
A. M. in the Kansas Univ., 1896.)

—In a paper on recent and fossil Tapirs,
Mr. J. B. Hatcher describes a new species of Protapirus from the Pro-
toceras beds of the White River (Oligocene) of S. Dakota, presenting
some new facts as to the osteology of the skull and forelimb of this
genus. He also gives additional characters diagnostic of the various
species of Protapirus and Colodon already described by Leidy, Marsh,
Wortman, Earle and Osborn; points out the distinctive osteological
and dental characters in the skulls of the five generally accepted species
of recent Tapirs; and reviews the previous work of others on the Phy-
logeny of the Tapiridæ and Helaletide. (Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. I,
1896.)

—A restoration of the skeleton of Aptornis
defossor has been completed for the British Museum (Nat. Hist.). The
bones from which the specimen is reconstructed were found in 1889 in
a chasm in the limestone at Castle Rocks, Southland, New Zealand,
the greater number of them no doubt belonging to a single bird. Mr.
©. W. Andrews gives a brief description of this skeleton, calling atten-

1896.] Botany. 747

tion to the great size of the anterior vertebræin the cervical region, and
the peculiar long, slender coracoids which are ankylosed with the mnch
reduced sternum. The figure accompanying the text shows the prob-
able position of the scapula in relation to the coracoid, the coraco-
scapular angle being very obtuse, as in most flightless birds; the
humerus is proportionally small, and its pectoral crest is reduced to a
mere tubercle. (Geol. Mag., London, June, 1896.)

GENERAL.—According to C. D. Perrine, thirty-three distinct earth-
quakes were felt in California during the year 1894. This does not
include a series of over one hundred shocks in Virginia, Nev., during
the week of November 16-22, nor heavy earthquakes and volcanic
disturbances which occurred in the New Hebrides group of islands
during October and November. (Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 129,
Washington, 1895.)

BOTANY."

The Teaching of Elementary Botany.—That the teaching of
elementary botany in this country is, to say the least, very poor, is a
statement which needs no argument to prove its correctness. Much of
the botany of the public schools is a wretched sat at doing some-
thing which neither t pl ils understand. In some places the
pupil is made to con the pages A a ‘text-book i in which emphasis is laid
upon minute and meaningless anatomical details of the structure of a
few flowering plants. Elsewhere field-work, so-called, is required of
the pupil; but here again the chaff is carefully separated from the
grain, and the pupil is given the chaff. Thus he is made to fill out
. vacancies in blanks (called “ schedules”) in which the unimportant
structural characters receive as much attention as those which are sig-
nificant, the result being a description which neither describes nor
separates the plant under consideration from dozens of others. The
meaning of any structure is entirely overlooked, while the pupil is com-
pelled to give much time and labor to unimportant details.

There are two reasons for this condition of things: first, the little
knowledge of the science of Botany possessed by many teachers; and
second, the absence of any definite idea on the part of teachers of the
culture-value of Botany in the education of the pupil. To remedy the
first the colleges and universities are opening summer schools for

1 Edited by Prof. ©. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.

748 The American Naturalist. [September,

teachers; and in these, for the most part, something of modern Botany
is given. Many years of personal experience has shown the writer
that in one Western State it has been possible to do much in the way
of improving the teaching of Botany through the agency of the sum-
mer school. Let not the teachers of Botany in the colleges and univer-
sities grudge the time given to work in the summer school. The
additional work is doubtless the most productive work of the year, for,
if it be well done, its effects will be felt by hundreds of pupils in many
schools. Let professors put their best efforts and their most mature
thought into this work.

The remedy for the second obstacle may be looked for in the move-
ment in the National Educational Association, which resulted in the
organization of a Department of Natural Science Instruction, whose
first meeting was held recently in Buffalo. It was notable that every
paper presented at this meeting emphasized the culture-value of Science,
and this was especially marked in those dealing with Botany in the
school curriculum. We, who teach in the larger colleges and univer-
sities, have been remiss in not setting forth more prominently and
forcibly the culture-value of Science, and botanists have sinned equally
with the others. It is high time that we not only teach Botany for the
culture which it gives the student, but we should by lectures, public
addresses, and by popular articles, show how it may be presented so as
to insure culture. Here we have a duty to perform, and if we have the
interest of Science truly at heart, we will not shrink from the labor
which this duty imposes, Let every professor of Botany realize that
` through the new department of the National Educational Association
he may influence the teaching of his science so that it may have a
culture-value—CHARLEs E. BESSEY.

The Conifers of the Pike’s Peak Region.—It may help the
visitor to Colorado Springs and Manitou to know that the following
conifers are more or less common in the adjacent mountains. Perhaps,
when he learns that through the carelessness of man enormous forests
of these trees have been burned from the sides of Cheyenne Mountain,
Cameron’s Cone and Pike’s Peak, and that where once grew dense forests
of conifers, with their power of conserving the moisture of the snows and
rains, there grows the worthless “ popple” (Populus balsamifera candi-
cans), he, too, will be ashamed of man, the vandal, who has destroyed
forever, I fear, the conifer forests of this region, with the destruction of
which forests there has been a decrease in the volume of water in the
mountain streams, while at the same time the sudden and dangerous
floods which rush down the mountain sides have greatly increased.

1896,] Botany. 749

Juniperus communis alpina, the Mountain Juniper, is common every-
where from 7000 feet altitude to timber-line (11,500), as a low, spread-
ing and almost trailing shrub.

Juniperus occidentalis monosperma, the Brown Cedar, or more com-
monly called here by the erroneous name of White Cedar, is common
in the Garden of the Gods.

Juniperus virginiana, the Red Cedar, is to be found in the Garden of
the Gods and generally at low altitudes. Some of the trees are entirely
clothed with the short, blunt leaves, giving them a smoothness not gen-
erally seen in this species. Such trees are more glaucous, and are more
round-topped than the ordinary kind in which many of the leaves are
sharp-pointed.

Abies concolor, the White Fir, occurs abundantly from about 7000 feet
to 8000 or 10,000 feet above sea level. Its beautiful layered foliage and
erect cylindrical cones make it an object of interest to every traveller.

Pseudotsuga taxifolia (P. douglasii of Coulter’s Manual), the Douglas
Fir, is the most common of the single-leafed conifers, occurring every-
where from the foot of the mountains to timber-line. It is distinguished
at once by its elliptical cone, with trifid bracts between the scales.

Picea engelmanni, Engelmann’s Spruce, and P. pungens, the Sharp-
leaved Spruce, are common from 7000 or 7500 feet up to 9000 or 10,000
feet altitude on the eastern slopes of Pike’s Peak.

Pinus flexilis, the Rocky Mountain White Pine, occurs from Cheyenne
Mountain to Pike’s Peak, from 7000 feet to timber-line, where it is very
common. It may readily be distinguished by its leaves, which are in fives.

Pinus balfouriana aristata. This tree resembles the preceding, and
apparently is often confused with it under the name of “ White Pine”

r “ Foxtail Pine.” It grows at high altitudes (10,000 feet) up to
timber-line, and in this region is a small, or at most, a moderate-sized
tree. Its short leaves (about one inch) which are in fives, and prickly
cones distinguish it from all other species.

Pinus edulis, the Nut Pine, is a low, spreading tree, often not more
than ten or twelve feet in height. It may be distinguished by its short
leaves and small cones, the latter containing a few large edible seeds.
It is common in the Garden of the Gods and on the foot-hills a few
hundred feet higher.

Pinus ponderosa seopulorum, the Rocky Mountain Yellow Pine, or
more commonly called the Bull Pine, is the most abundant conifer of
the region. It grows at all elevations, from the foot of the mountains
and foot-hills to timber-line. Its leaves are long, and occur in twos and
less commonly in threes.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

750 The American Naturalist. [September,

Ferns Near Colorado Springs, Colorado.—So many thou-
sands of travellers visit the beautiful city of Colorado Springs every
year that the following list of the ferns to be found within easy walking
distance from the end of the car lines may be of interest to botanical
readers.

Notholena fendleri Kunze.

Pteris aquilina L.

Cheilanthes tomentosa Link.

C. fendleri Hook.

C. gracilis (Fee.) Mett.

Pellea atropurpurea (L.) Link.

Asplenium trichomanes L.

A. filix-foemina (L.) Bernh.

A. septentrionale (L.) Hoffm.

Phegopteris dryopteris (L.) Fee.

Dryopteris filiz-mas (L.}) Schott.

Cystopteris fragilis (L.) Bernh.

C. fragilis dentata Hook.

C. bulbifera (L.) Bernh.

Woodsia scopulina D. C. Eaton.

W. oregona D. ©. Eaton.

W. obtusa (Spreng) Tore.

Botrychium virginianum (L.) Swz.

. matricariaefolium A. Br.

A few notes on the above list may be of interest. There is a good deal
of individuality about the Colorado climate, and the same is true of its
ferns and their habits. The Woodsia and the Pteris are almost the only
ferns found jon the open hillsides, and these but sparingly; the others
seek the protection of the mountain cafions. Most of them prefer
cafions opening toward the north. During three summers spent in
Colorado I do not remember finding a single fern in any canon opening
toward the south.

In Notholena fendleri we are told that the pinnules are oval in mature
specimens. In most young fronds I have found them deltoid or spatu-
late, and in some beautiful specimens this form is retained. In such —
ferns the stipes are lighter in color and weight, the zigzag course of
the rachis is less pronounced, the pinne are more distant, and the
pinnules less numerous, giving the specimens a much lighter and more
graceful appearance. The departure from the normal form is worth
noting, but not sufficient to constitute a variety.

Cheilanthes tomentosa, according to the books, is from eight to fifteen
inches in length at maturity. Most specimens live up to the rule, but

1896.] Botany. 751

not a few ignore the books, and mature their fruit before they are eight
inches tall; indeed, some very saucy specimens refuse to grow beyond
a single inch, and scatter their spores to the winds in spite of their
insignificant size.

The two ferns named above are to be found in most of the shady
cafions near Colorado Springs, but Asplenium trichomanes I have found
only in one place in South Cheyenne canon, while A. septentrionale has
not been seen outside of the beautiful gulch in the Ute Pass, from which
the city of Manitou obtains its water supply. All the lower canons of
the Ute Pass would be rich fields for the botanist if the vandal tourist
could be kept out of them ; as it is, there are still a few treasures left on
the high rocks and in out of the way corners. Here Phegopteris dry-
opteris flourishes and Cystopteris runs riot.

The two Botrychiums were found ia North Cheyenne Cañon, B. vir-
ginianum four, and A. matricariaefolium eight miles from the mouth
of the cañon. Naturally, such fleshy ferns are seldom found in the dry
atmosphere of Colorado, yet, in the one station where found, B. matri-
cariaefolium was quite plentiful, and varied in form from a simplex-like
plant of two inches to beautiful specimes nine inches high.

Of Cystopteris fragilis Eaton wisely wrote “very variable.” The
same might well be written of the whole genus so far as Colorado is
concerned. It is the most abundant fern on Cheyenne Mountain, and
there flourishes with little regard for the specific fences within which
the books expect it to grow. I have not included C. montana (Lam.)
Bernh. in the above list, because specimens found are hardly as broad
as the typical form that species demands, while too broad to be classed
as O. fragilis. The C. bulbifera found is without bulbs, but otherwise
conforms to the books. The “ winged ” or “ wingless rachis” of the
books is not an unfailing test in differentiating the Colorado species of
this genus, a microscopical examination of the indusium being necessary.

But if the Colorado Cystopteris is “ very variable” what shall I say of
Woodsia? I have entered W. scopulina, W. obtusa and W. oregona on the
above list, because from the large amount of material on hand it is easy to
select specimens which exactly conform to the species type in the books.
I believe also that some specimens answering to W. mexicana might be
selected, while a few would almost pass for W. alpina. But when this
has been done what are we to call the still larger number of specimens,
which are not exactly W. scopulina, nor W. oregona, nor W. mezicana,
nor W. obtusa? Shall we say they are Woodsia, simply Woodsia, and
nothing more? It seems to me that in this genus there is work wait-
ing to be done of the same wise sort that Mr. George E. Davenport
did some years ago in the genus Botrychium—A.rorp A. BUTLER.

.

752 The American Naturalist. [September,

ZOOLOGY.

Lygosoma (Liolepisma) Laterale in New Jersey—As this
species (the Oligosoma laterale of Girard and authors) is mainly char-
acteristic of the South Atlantic and Gulf States—the Austroriparian
Region in brief—its occurrence in New Jersey under such circumstances
as to lead one to believe it a regular member of the fauna is of interest
as an additional fact showing the strong southern stamp which the
fauna and flora of that interesting region bear.

Yarrow’s check-list, and most published lists since, record Salem,
N. C., as the most northerly locality in the eastern United States, while
southern Illinois and Indiana mark the northernmost limit of distribu-
tion in the Mississippi valley. Prof. Cope, however, informs me of a
record for Maryland.

The New Jersey record is based upon a single specimen taken near
Batsto, in Burlington County,on May 29th, of the present year. It
was found on the ground concealed beneath a wood pile on a deserted
farm, and glided away so quietly, clinging so closely to the ground and
so skillfully seeking concealment beneath every small plant and chip,
that it almost escaped unperceived.

It remained an interesting captive for about one month, but finally
succumbed to its appetite in attempting to dispose of a large Polydes-
mus entire. During its captivity it partook of several small specimens
of Julus, Polydesmus, and pill-bugs (Armadillo), besides small beetles
and flies, a larval grasshopper and an earth-worm (Allurus)—food very
different from that selected by Sceloporus undulatus under similar
circumstances,

It was very fond of water, and sipped it up eagerly when poured on
the bottom of its jar; the snout was buried beneath the surface, and
the slender tongue travelled out and in rapidly until the water had
sunk beneath the surface of the sand.

A similar movement of the tongue took place, as in the snakes, when
food was detected, or under other excitement. The body movements
were exceedingly graceful, but slow, as compared with Eumeces or
Sceloporus. }

During the night of June 14th two eggs were laid, and were found
the next morning on the surface of the sand, without any covering what-
ever. Sceloporus has a similar habit in captivity, my experience being
that the eggs are only partially or not at all covered. These eggs of

1896.] Zoology. 753

Lygosoma have the usual tough parchment-like shell, with calcareous
surface deposits, as in. many Reptilia. They have a structure essen-
tially similar to that described for the egg-shells of Pityophis. They
are more slender in form than those of Sceloporus, and measure 9.5 x
4.5 mm. The contained embryos were somewhat younger than those
of Sceloporus usually are at the time of disposition—that is, the allan-
toic outgrowth was but just visible. The fertility of this specimen ren-
ders it probable that the species is a regular habitue of the neighbor-
hood, but its small size, and retiring and nocturnal habits, render it
very likely to escape notice.—J. Percy Moore.

On a New Glauconia from New Mexico.—Nasal entirely
divided, rostral rounded behind, reaching the line of the eyes. Two
labials anterior to the ocular, the posterior reaching the eye. Frontal
and supraorbital scales smaller than those posterior to them. The eye
is close to the nasal, and distant from the supraocular. Postocular
reaching last labial, and bounded posteriorly by three sublingual scales.
Inferior labials five, the second twice as large as any of the others; the
fourth barely reaching the commissure of the mouth, and the fifth very
small. Scales in fourteen rows. A large preanal plate. Tail flattened
below, entering total length about fifteen times.

Color very light-brown above, whitish below. Total length 235 mm. ;
tail 12 mm.

I found the specimen above described in a road at the silver mines
at Lake Valley, southern New Mexico.

The appearance of this species is so similar to that of the G. dulcis
that I originally identified it with the latter. It is, however, very dif-
ferent, especially in the number of labials, and the scales which adjoin
the postocular posteriorly. There is no plate comparable to the so-
called parietal of G. dulcis. I propose that it be called G. dissecta.—
E. D. Cope.

On the Habits of Keen’s Deer Mouse, Peromyscus keeni
(Rhoads).—The following interesting notes were forwarded me by the
Rev. J. H. Keen, a missionary on the Queen Charlotte Islands. The
Deer Mouse referred to was originally described in the Proceedings of
the Academy of Natural Sciences for 1894, from specimens procured
by Mr. Keen, and forwarded to Philadelphia. The remarks on the use
of the cheek pouches for the conveyance of food are of particular value.
It has been known for many years that several species of this genus
possessed cheek pouches; but I can remember no personal observation
of their use by the living animal, having been published.—SaAmuEL N.

Ruoaps.
Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., July 16, 1896.

754 | The American Naturalist. [September,

MASSETT, QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDs,
Brrrisa COLUMBIA, February 22, 1896.

Samuel N. Rhoads, Esq., Philadelphia, Dear Sir :—The following
notes I have made lately on the character of Sitomys keeni may be of
interest. Use them as you think best.

Sitomys keenii is the common house mouse here, and specimens are
very numerous. I recently confined an adult female in a fairly spacious
cage with glass front, I subsequently introduced three other nearly adult
specimens. , At first the old female resented the intrusion, but soon be-
came reconciled. The younger ones may have been her offspring,
having been taken in the same place. On two other occasions I intro-
duced an adult male taken in another locality, whereupon the old female
in each case attacked the intruder fiercely, chased him all over the cage
till he was exhausted, and then flew at his thoat and bit him so severely
that he died almost immediately. A shrew introduced later she treated
in the same manner.

After a couple of days they became reconciled to confinement, and
indifferent to being watched whilst feeding or at play. They ate bread
moistened with milk and raw potatoes, but showed a marked preference
for wheat. The wheat they never ate on the spot, but filled their
pouches with it, and ascending a sloping board deposited it in their
sleeping place. This they did with great rapidity, and a handful soon
disappeared. The average number of corns taken at one mouthful was
ten, but once or twice the old mouse took as many as sixteen. The
first few corns they took up with their mouths, but used their feet to
cram in the rest. When their pouches were full their heads were twice
their normal size, and their expression extremely droll.

The storing propensity is evidently very strong. It is quite a com-
mon occurrence to find any empty article, which has been unused for a
few days, half full of rice or corn when next taken up. Boots and shoes
seem to be the favorite storing places; but a neighbor of mine, on visit-
ing his outhouse, found the oven of a disused stove half full of rice,
which had been obtained from sacks close by.

When in a trap, frightened, these mice sound an alarm by suddenly
contracting the nails of the fore-foot so as to cause a sharp scratch on
the floor. This they repeat several times, using sometimes one fore.
foot, sometimes the other, but never the hind-feet.

` Sitomys keenii is the only mouse here; Mus musculus, though on the
opposite mainland, not having yet found its way thus far. In the sum-
mer of 1894 S. keenii was unusually numerous. An Indian crossing to

1896.] - Loology. 755

the mainland observed one in his canoe when in mid-ocean, and on
reaching mainland saw it jump ashore and escape.
Yours faithfully, J. H. KEEN.

The Inheritance of an Acquired Character.— Editor Amer-
ican Naturalist: It has been my fortune recently to have brought to
my notice an instance illustrating Darwin’s theory of the origin of
species, that seems to me noteworthy.

A certain Mr. J. B. Perry, a resident of Cleveland, is the owner of a
very fine female fox-terrier, which has recently given birth to a litter of
seven puppies, five of whom are remarkable from bas: fact that they
were born with short tails.

These five were male puppies, while the two with tails ef ordinary
length are female.

Of the five short-tailed dogs one has almost no tail at all, it being but
a little stump not over half an inch long.

When I examined them they were just two weeks old and barely had
their eyes open. The tails of the females had been recently cut, and the
scar on the stump was plainly perceptible, while the ends of the five
short tails were entirely grown over with hair, and plainly were born in
the condition I found them. Their length was about half the ordinary
length, or about what is considered the “ proper thing ” by dog-fanciers,
except in the case of the one already mentioned as having almost no
tail at all.

When it is remembered that the custom of cutting off over half of
the caudal appendage of the fox-terrior has prevailed for many genera-
tions back in the ancestry of a thoroughbred, the birth of short-tailed
dogs is not to be wondered at. Yet this instance is so striking that it
seems worthy of being brought to the notice of the readers of the
AMERICAN NaTURALIST.—NorMAN E. Hits.

The Hartebeest (Alcelaphus).—This large genus, despite its
number of species, is sharply defined, and though at first sight the
caama and tsessebe, bontebok and Hunter’s hartebeest, seem very indif-
ferent, yet they possess horns of such a characteristic ty pe, have features
and habits so much in common, that it seems a useless multiplication
of names to separate this genus into subgenera.

Although to us the caama is the best known species, at once arresting
our attention by its ugliness, yet the earliest known kind was the buba-
line hartebeest of the north, the bukyel wash, asthe Arabs eallit. For,
on the Egyptian monuments there often appears the figure of an ox
with unmistakable hartebeest horns, harnessed to the chariots of the

756 The American Naturalist. [September,

kings ; and, since all the hartebeests can be readily domesticated when

caught young, we conclude that in the days of the Pharoahs they act-

- ually broke in the hartebeests as beasts of draught. The Dutch name
implies stag-ox, so that the old settlers may have done the same, unless

the Zulus brought the Arabic name down with them, and it was then

translated by the Boers into equivalent Dutch.

The Caama or true South African hartebeest is, as Cornwallis Harris
remarks, made of triangles. The male stands five feet at the withers,
and nine in extreme length. The crupper is drooping and the shoulder
elevated ; the head heavy, narrow, long. The horns are seated on the
summit of a beetling ridge of bone on the forehead, almost touching at
the base, thick, diverging and again approaching, turned forewards and
then acutely backwards, with points directed horizontally to the rear.
The surface of the horns is embossed with five or six prominent knots
on the front only. The neck and throat are bare, with no mane. The
coat is short and glossy ; color, bright orange-sienna with a crimson
cast. There is a black patch at the base of the horns above the fore-
head, continued behind, and terminating in front of the ear. A black
streak down the nose, and a black stripe down the ridge of the neck.
Chin black. A black line down the front of each leg, terminating in
an angular band above the fetlock. Tail reaching to the hocks, with
backwardly directed glossy black hair. Legs slender with taper hoofs.
Ears whitish, long, pointed and flexible. A half-muzzle dividing the
nostrils; nose flattened, moist. Eyes high in the head, wild, and of a
fiery-red color. Female with more slender horns, and fainter in color.
Two mammæ. Young born singly in April and September.

The hartebeest is found in small flocks, headed by three or four
stout males, the weaker being expelled and forced to establish a com-
munity of their own. In fighting they drop down on their knees, and,
placing their forehead parallel with the ground by putting their nose
between their legs, butt each other with intense fury, their gnarled and
angular horns interlocking, and inflicting gaping, jagged wounds. A
common habit is to rake their horns against the trees until they are cov-
ered with bark.

In running the caama has long, oily, and beautiful paces, which are
of the most approved racing style. Moving at a smooth and swinging
canter, throwing its hind quarters well under the body, brandishing the
glossy tail, and carrying its great beamy head in the best possible
manner, it cuts a very majestic appearance, notwithstanding its angu-
lar build. So swift of flight is it that the hunter is again and again
disappointed when trying to chase it on horseback; but in and around

1896.]. Zoology. 757

Vryburg, and near to the farms in Bechuanaland, it has become so
used to the sight of man who protects it, that it no longer regards him
as an enemy. Sir C. Harris, however, saw him in a more unsophisti-
cated state, for, he says that, when followed, the caama frequently
stops, and turning proudly towards the foe with a most sapient look,
sneezes with great violence, an act of overt folly, so much so, indeed,
that it would appear to be playing a game of hide-and-seek with the
hunter, ever peeping at him from behind the trees.

The flesh is dark and venison-like in appearance, but somewhat taste-
less. The skin is in much request among the Bechuanas for karosses.

The caama is very liable to a terrible scourge that affects most of the
big game of South Africa. It originates in a kind of bots, probably the
larvæ of an Oestrus, which force their way into the nostrils, and the
head becomes literally crammed with maggots, numbers of which are
expelled in the process of sneezing.

The bontebok and blesbok bear to each other the closest resemblance,
being equally robust, with the same hump on the back just behind the
neck, the same broad nose, characteristic indeed of the whole Alcela-
phine division, and finding its greatest expression in the wildebeests; and,
as Harris says, both have the same fine, venerable, old-goatish cast of
countenance. The lyrated horns are placed vertically on the summit
of the cranium, those of the bontebok being jet black, whereas they
are light brown in the blesbok. They have in common the snowy white
blase on the nose; the belly is white; and the back hoary and glazed,
as though they wore saddles. They are equally addicted to the use of
salt, which occurs abundantly in the form of an efflorescence in the
Kalahari, and both scour against the wind with their square noses close
to the ground, as though they were running scent. The bontebok now
survives only on certain farms near Cape Agulhas, but the blesbok has
a more northerly range, and formerly existed in great numbers in the
Free State and Transvaal.

In the country of the Tamboukies, immediately beyond the eastern
` frontier of Albany, there exist boundless billowy successions of surge-
like undulations, known appropriately as the Bontebok flats; whether
the “ painted-goat ” ever existed there is problematical, but the blesbok
used to be shot there in considerable numbers. These two bucks stand
out from the rest of the hartebeests by their violet and chocolate color-
ing ; their height is about 3 feet 8 inches, and length 6 feet 4 inches,
but animals of this stature are seldom found now.

The sassayby, or, as Livingstone called it, the tsessebe, is found north
of Lake Ngami. It stands 4 feet 6 inches at the withers, and some 8

758 The American Naturalist. [September,

feet 3 inches in length. Horns robust, turning outwards, forming a
complete crescent when looked at from before; some 12 or 15 annuli
on the lower half, upper half smooth; the characteristic hartebeest
zigzag is only faintly reproduced. Selous has noted a hybrid between
the tsessebe and the caama. Herr Matchie’s Damalis jimeru is not
clearly separated from the tsessebe. The most characteristic feature of
this species is the slate-colored markings on the sides of the shoulders
and flanks, while the general color is brown, fulvous or tawny.

Of the North African forms we can only mention here Hunter’s
hartebeest, which has a much shorter face than the typical caama. It
stands some 4 feet at the withers, and is of a uniform chestnut brown,
with white tail and belly. A white chevron stretches between the eyes.
The horns are inclined outwards at the base, and then run vertically
upwards, the greater part being quite smooth; length round curve,
26% inches. (The Scientific African, February, 1896.)

Zoological News.—The material obtained by deep-sea dredging
in the gulf off the coast of Cape Breton includes many animals
hitherto considered as exclusively Mediterranean as to habitat. In
view of the importance of this discovery, M. De Folin (de Biarritz)
has prepared a catalogue of the species found in the collections, the
first installment of which is published in the Revue des Sciences Nat.
de l’ouest, April, 1896.

ENTOMOLOGY. ;

Fossil Cockroaches.—Mr. 8. H. Scudder’s studies of the Ameri-
can Fossil Cockroaches have recently been published by the U.S.
Geological Survey (Bulletin 124). Most of the forms figured and de-
scribed are from the paleozoic fauna. While, in 1879, only seventeen
species of cockroaches belonging to this fauna were known, there are
132 species now described.

Dr. Packard’s Monograph of Bombycine Moths.—In the
important memoir recently published by the National. Academy of
Sciences, Dr. A. S. Packard embodies the results of many years work
upon the Bombyces. The volume contains about 300 quarto pages
and 50 plates, many of the latter being beautifully colored. The scope
1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

1896.] Entomology. 759

of the memoir is shown by the following list of contents: Introduction ;
Evolution of bristles, spines and tubercles of caterpilars; External
anatomy of caterpillars; Incongruence between larval and adult char-
acters of Notodontians; Inheritance of characters acquired during the
life-time of Lepidopterous larve ; Geographical distribution ; Phylo-
geny of the Lepidoptera; Classification of the Lepidoptera; Nomen-
clature of wing veins; Systematic revision of the Notodontide.

In classification Dr. Packard adheres to the lines of the paper he
recently published in the Narurauist. The discussion of acquired
characters is one of the most interesting parts of the book and is well
worth reading by biologists generally. The volume is an extremely
notable contribution to the literature of American entomology.

Grape Insects.—Mr. C. L. Marlatt contributes to the recent Year
Book of the Department of Agriculture a valuable discussion of the
Insect Enemies of the Grape. In the introduction he says: Upward
of 200 different insects have already been listed as occurring on the
vine of this country, and the records of the Department alone refer to
over 100 different insects. Few of these, however, are very serious
enemies, being either of rare occurrence or seldom numerous, and for
practical purposes the few species considered below include those of
real importance. They are the grape phylloxera, the grapevine fidia,
both chiefly destructive to the roots ; the caneborer, destructive particu-
larly to the young shoots; the leaf-hopper, the flea-beetle, rose-chafer
with its allies, and leaf-folder, together with hawk moths and cutworms,
damaging foliage, and the grapeberry moth, the principal fruit pest.

The extent of the loss that frequently results from these insects may
be understood by reference to a few instances. The phylloxera, when
at-its worst, has destroyed in France some 2,500,000 acres of vineyards,
representing an annual loss in wine products of the value of $150,000,-
000, and the French Government had expended, up to 1895 in
phylloxera work over $4,500,000, and remitted taxes to the amount of
$3,000,000 more. The grapevine fidia, on the authority of an Ohio
correspondent, in a single season in one vineyard, killed 400 out of 500
strong five-year-old vines. The prominent leaf-defoliators, as the rose-
chafer and flea-beetle, frequently destroy or vastly injure the crop over
large districts, and the little leaf-hopper, though rarely preventing a
partial crop, is so uniformly present and widely distributed as to
probably levy a heavier tribute on the grape in this country than any
other insect.

760 The American Naturalist. [September,

Flower-Haunting Diptera.—Mr. G. T. Scott Elliott has made
numerous observations which go to show that flower-haunting Diptera
are of much importance in pollination. He thinks that his evidence
clearly proves the color-sense of the Diptera observed, and also that
they “are, on the whole, more intelligent than the lower class Hymen-
optera.” “It is to these Diptera,” he says, “that we probably owe all
of the neatly made, small and bright colored forms of flowers.” The
author gives tables showing the visits of about sixteen Diptera to
various types of flowers, and compares these with the visits paid by
Hymenoptera. He suggests that the Diptera map out the ground as
vultures do, and keep flying up and down over a chosen area. At the
beginning of his paper,’ there is an interesting note on the part which
insects play in isolation. Thus if flowers of the same species occur
partly inside a sheltered wood, and partly outside, probably not more
than five per cent of those outside will be fertilized by pollen from
those inside the wood and vice-versa. This means for reproduction
almost perfect isolation—Journal Royal Micr. Society.

Larval Habits in Panorpa.—Dr. E. P. Feldt contributes to the
tenth report of the State Entomologist of New York an important
paper on Beeeniv, fleas from which we quote the following relating to
Panorpa rufesce

“ Throughout ack different stages, the larve usually harmonize
with their surroundings so closely that it is difficult to detect them.
Frequently a slight motion of the earth is the first indication of their
presence. They burrow in the earth and remain underground much
of the time. Many burrows ran less than one inch below the surface,
although a few extended to a depth of three or four inches. The
larvee may be fed readily upon raw meat placed upon the surface of
the ground. Some time after placing the meat in the cage, they may
be found under it, frequently in a more or less cell-like depression.
When in such a position they rarely try to escape, but trust to their
protective resemblances, and remain motionless. Around the edge of
the piece of meat and also under it, the mouths of burrows may be seen
and in them the heads of larvæ; when in such positions they dodge
back quickly at the least disturbance. Unless the meat is moved very
cautiously the burrows will appear empty; but if quiet is maintained
for a few moments, the heads will soon be seen. The burrows opening
under the meat frequently come to the surface a little distance away,
and it is quite easy to drive a larva out of its back door. Not infre-

2 Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1896, pp. 117-118.

1896.] Embryology. 761

quently they have been observed to emerge from a burrow for their
feeding. This usually occurred in the afternoon. On one of these
occasions a little fellow was watched through a simple lens. It was
interesting to see him bite off a piece of meat and swallow it with every
evidence of satisfaction. The antennz were moved back and forth in
the most appreciative way. As the larve increase in size, more bur-
rows open upon the surface and they are seen lying at their mouths.
One time two were seen out of adjacent burrows. The larger seized
the smaller in the back and tried to drag it down into its burrow.
The smaller was unable to escape, and when it was pulled away with
forceps the body-wall was ruptured. At another time a smaller active
larva was seen to attack a larger inactive one, which, unable to resist,
was bitten so severely that the segment swelled considerably, but was
not ruptured. In a day or two the larger died and was fed upon by
its former persecutor.

EMBRYOLOGY.

The Wrinkling of Frog’s Eggs During Segmentation.—

The occurrence of wrinkles in frog’s eggs during the process of seg-
mentation was first observed and very briefly described by Prevost and
Dumas, who have the honor of being the first observers of the segmenta-
tion itself (Annales des Sciences Naturelles, I ser., 1824, Tom II, p.
110).
X somewhat better description was given later by Bär (Archiv. für
Anatomie, etc., 1837) and Reichert (the same, 1841), who gave to the
phenomenon the name “ Faltenkranz,” and made some attempt to ex-
plain its nature and origin.

By far the best description, and, indeed, the only really good one
which has ever been published, is that by M. Schultze, which appeared
in 1863 (Observationes nonnulle de ovorum ranarum segmentatione,
Bonne).

He gives an exceilent account of wrinkles observed in the eggs of
Rana temporaria and R. esculenta, and concludes with an “ explanation
of their origin.” But he really devotes only avery few lines to the
explanation, and gives up the remainder of this portion of his paper to

1 Edited by E. A. Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts reviews and
ae notes may be sent.

762 | The American Naturalist. [September,

a controversy with Reichert, over the existence of a vitelline membrane
on the surface of the eg

Similar wrinkles have since been observed in the eggs of the common
toad by Goette (Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Unke), and of Am-
blystoma punctatum by Eycleshymer (Journal of Morphology, Vol X).
But neither of these authors offer any explanation of their origin. So
far as known this “ Faltenkranz” has never been described for any
American species of frog, nor has any attempt been made to study it
by means of serial sections,

The followiag paper is offered as a contribution of some new and in-
teresting details in the occurrence of the phenomenon, together with
the results of a microscopic study of sections, in the hope of arriving at
a rational conclusion as to its origin.

The author desires to acknowledge his great indebtedness to Dr. E.
A. Andrews, for the suggestion which led to the study, and for much
subsequent assistance. Thanks arealso due to Prof. T. H. Morgan, for
the kindly loan of a copy of Schultze’s paper.

FORMATION OF THE WRINKLES.

The eggs of a small wood-frog, in all probability Chorophilus triseri-
atus, were obtained for class work on March 27, 1896

They were unsegmented when found, and were immediately placed
in ice water to check any further development.

After remaining thus for five hours they were used in the laboratory,
being removed to watch-glasses containing tepid water. Some were
allowed to remain in the ice water for eight hours before being exam-
ined, and it was noticed that these segmented much more rapidly than
the ones which had been kept only five hours. Actual segmentation
had been prevented during the stay in the ice water, but there seemed to
have been a storing-up of energy, a sort of preparation for segmenta-
tion, so that when removed to a favorable environment the process
began very quickly (5-10 mins.) and was carried on much faster than
it would have been normally.

These eggs were obtained from pools covered with ice quarter of an
inch thick, and most of the bunches were quite near the surface.

This must occur frequently where the eggs are laid so early in the
spring; and according to Morgan (AMERICAN NATURALIST, August,
1891), Chorophilus always lays its eggs very early.

The storage of energy noticed above may suggest a natural method
of compensation whereby the warm sunshine of mid-day may offset the
freezing cold of the nights, and in this way the eggs will really lose
wery little time in their development.

1896.] Embryology. i 763

O. Hertwig and Schultze have recently experimented on the influence
of a very low temperature. upon the development of the eggs of Rana
fusca with very different results.

Hertwig (Sitzungsberichte der König, Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss, 5 April,
1894, p. 313) found that freshly fertilized eggs were injured by an ex-
posure to a temperature of 0° C. for 24 hours. On being raised to the
ordinary temperature a portion were developed very much more slowly
than normal eggs, while in the remainder a part of the yolk was found
incapable of division.

Schultze (Anatomischer Anzeiger, X Band, No. 9) subjected eggs of
the same species to a temperature of 0° C. for 14 days, and then ob-
tained perfectly normal embryos from them. These eggs had reached
later stages of development before being cooled, and he does not state
whether their subsequent development was more or less rapid than
ordinary.

Subjection to a temperature of 0° C. for so long a period would proba-
bly have a very different effect from that of only a few hours duration.

Loeb and Norman (Archiv. f. Entwick, III Band, No. 1), experi-
menting on the eggs of the sea-urchin, Arbacia, found that when put in
sea water to which had been added 2-3 per cent. NaCl or MgCl, seg-
mentation of the protoplasm was wholly prevented, but that the nucleus
went on dividing. On being put into normal sea water after a few
hours exposure to the concentrated solution the eggs divided at once
into several cells, the protoplasm merely rearranging itself around the
new nuclear centers.

Possibly the same may be true in these frog’s eggs when subjected
for a short time to a freezing temperature, and the subsequent hasten-
ing of segmentation may be due to the fact that the nucleus has already
divided.

In watching the segmentation of these eggs the great (comparative)
size and depth of the furrows was specially noticed, together with the
distinctness of the wrinkles formed along either side of them.

Accordingly it was determined to study their segmentation more in
detail, and a fresh lot was obtainedjthe next morning. These remained
in ice water only one hour, just long enough to get them home. They
were then transferred to watch-glasses and examined in strong sunlight.
This fact must be Hin into account in connection with the time periods
given.

The first furrow appears at the superior pole without any previous
flattening asin Amblystoma (Eycleshymer, Jour. of Morph., X, p. 348).
At first it is a shallow groove just at the pole itself, but it soon spreads

764 The American Naturalist. [September,

over the pigmented hemisphere. The ends may progress at a uniform
rate, or one may exceed the other in rapidity as in Petromyzon (Eycles-
hymer, loc. cit.).

At the first appearance of the furrow it is very shallow and perfectly
smooth, and extends about 0.2 mm. on either side of the pole. It be-
gins to deepen in two or three minutes, and at the same time minute
wrinkles appear on either side (Plate I, figs. 1,5, 7). If the eggs be
placed upon a black surface in the sunlight these wrinkles are seen very
distinctly as fine lines radiating from the pole (Plate II, fig. 31). The
number and arrangement of these lines is not constant or definite either
at this, or any subsequent period. The suggestion at once presents
itself, that these wrinkles may be the foreshadowing of subsequent seg-
mentations, and one egg was obtained in which the wrinkles seemed
especially significant in their arrangement (Plate II, fig. 82). The
entire lack of regularity in the size and arrangement of the wrinkles
would, however, preclude any such idea, since the subsequent segmenta-
tions are very regular.

As the furrow gradually deepens and extends toward the yolk two
changes are noticed

1. New wrinkles appear along its sides ; these do not all radiate from
the pole, but are inclined toward it at greater or smaller angles (Figs.
6, 8, 11).

2. The radial wrinkles first formed at the pole change considerably.
Very fine and delicate at first they coalesce gradually into a few larger
and deeper ones, which are sharply defined.

These fused ones may or may not occupy the position of one of the
antecedent ones (Figs. 2, 3, 33, 34,35). As the furrow progresses the
number and position of the wrinkles changes constantly, new ones being
formed and old ones disappearing. This is especially true of the finer
ones ; some of the larger fused ones near the pole remain quite constant
(Figs. 10-15).

This continual changing is best seen by pea ie sketches of the
wrinkles with a camera lucida at short intervals, as in the movements
of the pseudopodia of Amæba (Figs. 1-4 and 10-15).

The whole appearance thus far is exactly as if the egg were covered by
a very thin, but firm membrane, which was gradually pulled in toward
the center at the groove. The remainder of the sphere being perfectly
even, and with no chance for “ give” at any point, in consequence of
the uniform tension, the edges of the groove would necessarily be
-wrinkled, the wrinkles becoming more and more prominent as the
groove deepened. The whole process takes place so slowly that the

1896.] Embryology. 765

most careful scrutiny fails to detect the actual motion, or to see evi-
dences of any movement of the protoplasm within the egg, which might
cause the wrinkling.

The furrow at the pole has become quite deep by the time its ends
have reached the equator, in five or six minutes. The ends seem to stop
here for a time, just at the border of the yolk area, while further changes
take place in the pigmented portion. First the two edges of the groove
approach each other at the pole, and seem to fuse slowly, the wrinkles
entirely disappearing during the process. This fusion then extends in
either direction along the groove for some distance, often half way to
the equator, obliterating the wrinkles as it goes. By this means the
groove may entirely disappear at the center while remaining near the
periphery (Fig. 38). 7

At this point the furrow begins to enter the yolk area on either side,
and at the same time the groove reappears along the center of the pig-
mented hemisphere. It now becomes very broad and deep. Indeed, it
seems to reach clear through to the yolk, and its walls are considerably
rounded on either side. But they are now smooth, so that the wrinkles
remain in all fifteen or twenty minutes on the first furrow.

This first furrow divides the egg into two nearly equal parts (Figs.
3, 12, 28, 35). When its ends first reach the yolk area, where they
stop for a time, as already noted, the two blastomeres thus formed are
very much rounded at their ends, and diverge strongly from the groove.
This is readily seen in the series given in figs. 1 to 4, but it becomes
much more prominent after the reappearance of the groove—(Figs. 28
to 30). Under a higher magnifying power a wide space can now be
seen at either end between the two segments. The floor of this space is
triangular in shape and doubly curved, being concave from side to
side, and convex antero-posteriorly. It is formed of light colored yolk,
into which the pigment shades gradually around the borders. The two
segments are thus rounded in a manner very similar to that of the first
two blastomeres of a meroblastic egg.

As the furrow proceeds toward the inferior pole the space between
the two pigmented segments diminishes, the borders of the furrow
approach each other, and the surface of the egg becomes smooth once
more, with the groove indicated merely by a narrow, faint line.

It remains in this condition some eight or ten minutes before the
second cleavage begins, and this may be called its resting stage. The
rapid closing of the groove previous to the appearance of the second
furrow occurs also in Amblystoma (Eycleshymer).

766 The American Naturalist. [September,

The Second Cleavage:-—The second furrows begin about forty or
forty-five minutes after the first. They start from the equator and move
toward the dark pole, and not vice versa as in Rana, Amblystoma,
Petromyzon, and most of the amphibians. This was without exception
in all cases noted (some thirty-five or forty). They form a right angle
with the first groove, but do not always meet it at the same point
(Figs. 19, 20). They are attended with the same appearance, fusion,
and gradual elimination of wrinkles as the first furrow, with the slight
difference that the wrinkles start at the equator instead of the pole, and
are never quite as large. This is shown in figs. 16 to 18, in which both
the wrinkles and the furrows can be seen approaching the pole.

The second furrows seem to reach the first over the dark hemisphere
before they start toward the inferior pole. They start at about, but not
necessarily exactly, the same time. :

Here, too, there is the same rounding of the pigmented segments,
though to a much less degree. This may be due to the fact that in this
instance the furrows start from the periphery, and consequently the
segments are more sharply defined there.

The Third Cleavage—Half an hour after the appearance of the
second set of furrows, and sometimes before they have reached the in-
ferior pole, there are indications of the first horizontal cleavage. As
seen from figs. 21-24 this occurs very much nearer the superior pole
than the inferior. The furrows, accompanied as before by wrinkles
along their edges, as seen in the figures may start in each segment
either from the first or second vertical, usually, however, from the
second (Fig. 22).

They move much more rapidly than the preceding cleavages, and the
entire process is completed in fifteen to eighteen minutes

In all the eggs observed the grooves started usually at the second
vertical in the two quadrants on the same side of the latter, and moved
around toward each other at the first vertical.

They seldom met at the same point, but aga result of their forma-
tion the superior region was divided into four quite equal and nicely
rounded cells, much smaller than the four inferior ones.

The only wrinkles formed upon the yolk area that could be detected
by the most careful examination are the few which occur on the yolk
side of this first horizontal groove. Schultze failed to detect any wrinkles
whatever along this horizontal furrow, although he describes the other
details with great exactness. This is all the more striking, because he
both observed and figured them upon subsequent furrows up to the

1896.] Embryology. 767

32-cell stage. Other authors, with possibly a single exception, make
no mention of them, except along the first furrow.

This confining of the wrinkles almost exclusively to the pigmented
area is manifestly connected with the different organization of the two
halves of the egg. The pigmented half is richer in protoplasm, and is
to a higher degree under the influence of the cell nucleus; while the
yolk has its protoplasm scattered about amongst the yolk granules, and
is also further removed from the nucleus which lies in the pigmented
half in the undivided egg (Hertwig). This results in the more rapid
segmentation of the pigmented cells, and the presence of the wrinkles
seems intimately associated with this rapidity of segmentation.

The Fourth Cleavage——This appears from fifteen to twenty minutes
after the third.

In this cleavage also the furrows started in every instance from the
periphery of the four superior quadrants and move toward the pole,
accompanied by wrinkles. These latter are now much smaller than
heretofore, and are not easily detected under a low power. They are
also very transitory, and disappear almost immediately. There is some-
what of a tendency in these furrows to run nearly parallel to the first
or second vertical, recalling the conditions in teleosts (Figs. 26, 27).

There is a subsequent fusion and elimination of the furrows after each
cleavage, as has already been noted in the first segmentation.

This elimination of the grooves, due to the fourth cleavage, leaves
the pigmented pole of the egg divided into four cells of a totally differ-
ent shape and arrangement from that of the four blastomeres resulting
from the third cleavage (Fig. 37). After remaining thus for several
minutes the furrows reappear, and the cells resume the shape seen in
fig. 36.

From this point segmentation proceeds very rapidly, and in a manner
exactly similar to that of other frog’s eggs. The wrinkles have now
become so small as to be seen only with the greatest difficulty and
under a high power, and they disappear so quickly as to easily escape
detection. But they are present at least up to the 128-cell stage, and
appear, fuse, and disappear, as in the first cleavage.

Gastrulation begins about twelve hours after the first cleavage, and
the blastopore closes at about the fifteenth hour. The neural folds
appear and gradually fuse to form the neural canal as in Rana. By
the end of the first day the embryo has elongated considerably, and the
head is well differentiated. |

The tail then becomes defined, the gill folds appear, and the eyes are
seen as two minute black spots. And by the end of the third day the
embryo escapes from the egg envelopes and swims about freely.

768 The American Naturalist. [September,

The yolk sac seems unusually large, and the tail is comparatively
long at this period, but otherwise these tadpoles are externally like
those of Rana and Hyla.

NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE WRINKLES.

If the eggs be preserved during the first segmentation while the
wrinkles are still present, and then sectioned parallel to a plane tan-
gential to the superior pole, considerable additional light is thrown
upon this process of wrinkling. ;

has been noted in the eggs of other frogs the pigment is gathered
into a thin surface layer over the superior hemisphere.

Houssay states that the pigment does not characterize this pole, but
only happens to be there on account of the coincidence of its density
with that of the surrounding protoplasm (Etudes d’Embryologie sur les
Vertébrés, Archiv. de Zoöl. Exper., 1890). However this may be,
during segmentation pigment appears along the sides of the furrows, so
that eventually the resultant cells come to have a more or less definite
pigment layer around their periphery, Houssay accounts for this by
saying that there is an intimate relation between the activity of the cell
and the presence of pigment. When the resting cell becomes active
its granules become smaller, and pigment appears in them as the result
of chemical action. :

The presence of pigment, therefore, is the result of an increased activ-
ity in the cell.

But Bambeke tells us that “the cortical layer, when it enters the
interior of the protoplasm, is not entirely employed in limiting the
spheres of new formation. In fact, I find masses of pigment whose
presence can only be explained by considering them as debris from the
cortical layer, which has penetrated into the protoplasm ” (Fractionne-
ment de |’Oeuf des Batraciens, Archiv. de Biologie, Vol. I, p. 346, foot-
note).

An examination of sections of these Chorophilus eggs shows a similar
occurrence.

In addition to the pigment layer which borders the first segmenta-
tion furrow, and which is somewhat thicker near the centre of the
section, there is also a lunate mass extending downward vertically from
the superior pole on either side of the furrow (Fig. 39) and in imme-
diate contact with it. This mass can be traced in the sections from the
surface layer, in which it has very little area, down somewhat beyond
the bottom of the furrow, where it spreads out laterally and is lost in
the surrounding protoplasm. In this particular egg the mass does not

1896.] Embryology. 769

extend quite to the level of the nuclei, the position of the latter in the
figure having been taken from subsequent sections in the series. This
mass, however, is not to be regarded as “debris,” but its presence is
due to a definite cause to be explained later. The remainder of the
section is occupied by homogeneous protoplasm filled with rather small
yolk granules, and surrounded by the thin, transparent vitelline mem-
brane.

Under a high power (Fig. 40) the wrinkles appear as deep sinuses
extending obliquely into the protoplasm, and bordered by a thick layer
of pigment. These sinuses are angular and irregular in outline, and
often cantract at their inner ends into long, narrow slits, with rather
distinct walls. We can now see what it was impossible to detect from
a surface view, namely, that the wrinkles are compound.

The larger, principal ones have secondary, smaller ones extending
outward from their sides, approximately at right angles. Schultze
observed and figured these compound wrinkles in his surface views of
R. temporaria, and adds another detail which I have been unable to
find in the Chorophilus eggs, viz., the breaking-up of a single wrinkle
at its peripheral end into several smaller ones arranged radially from a
‘common point.

The pigment usually fills the projecting protoplasm between adjacent
sinuses. It is also much thicker in the region of the wrinkles than else-
where along the furrow, as can be seen in fig. 40.

In view of these different facts, therefore, it seems evident that there
is an intimate relation between the wrinkles and the pigment—and that
both may be results of the same cause. It remains to ascertain what
this cause is, if possible.

According to Schultze the egg is a single cell, and just as cellular
division is brought about by the contractility of protoplasm, so is the
segmentation of the egg due to the same cause. These contractions
originate at the point where the furrow begins, and are at first confined
to a very small area. Since the cortical portion of the egg protoplasm
possesses a glutinous consistency, it is not to be wondered at that folds
or wrinkles appear at the same time with the furrow, in its immediate
vicinity, and at right angles to it. These subsequently disappear in
consequence of the difference in contractility between the outer and
inner protoplasm, due to their different consistency.

It is exceedingly difficult to understand how compound wrinkles, of
such a nature as we have just described, could be produced by the
simple contraction of a viscous cortical layer of protoplasm, especially
if that contraction starts from a fixed point in the layer. Indeed, how

770 The American Naturalist. [September,

could it produce any wrinkles at.all in the layer itself? Would it not
rather tend to flatten the superior pole and stretch the viscous layer
tightly over the underlying protoplasm’ in a manner similar to the
action of the muscles of the diaphragm during respiration ?

As to the difference in contractility between the outer and inner
protoplasm, it is evident that if this is to smooth out the wrinkles, the
difference must be in favor of the outside layer, and also the contraction
must be at right angles to the length of the wrinkles, That means in the
present instance that it must be parallel to the first furrow. Neither
of these conditions seem possible, and we thus find both explanations
inadequate when confronted by the facts in the case. They both fail
to account for the mass of pigment under the superior pole also.

Bambeke states that “ the entrance of cortical pigmented masses into
the interior of the egg ... can only be explained by admitting the ex-
istence of contractions in the ovular protoplasm during segmentation.”

According to the interpretation of the present day, cell division is
brought about by means of some force or forces acting along the length
of the segmentation spindle. In the present instance this spindle was
formed between the two nuclei represented in fig. 39, which lie some
distance below the surface of the egg.

If we interpret, Bambeke’s “ contraction of the ovular protoplasm ”
to be identical with this working force of the segmentation spindle, it
will explain the presence of the lunate mass of pigment directly over
the spindle, and will help us to understand the presence of a pigmented
layer on either side of the segmentation furrows. But it does not ex-
plain in any way the formation of the wrinkles.

Reichert’s wonderfully inconsistent explanation of the origin of the
wrinkles is quoted, and sufficiently commented upon by Schultze, in the
paper already referred to.

In view of the fact, therefore, that we have no explanation which
can stand the test of our present knowledge of cell division, we venture
to offer the following:

We agree with Schultze that the external pigmented layer is neces-
sarily somewhat denser that the internal protoplasm.

Modern research indicates that this layer is drawn inward in some
way, by the forces working along the segmentation spindle, to form the
furrow which lies over the equator of the spindle. The bottom of the
furrow, thus formed by an infolding of the surface layer, describes an
are which becomes shorter and shorter as the furrow deepens.

This shortening of the arc must result in one of two things. The
bottom of the furrow may remain of the same length as at first, and

1896.] ` ` Embryology. 771

make up for the shortening ef the are by protruding a little from the
surface of the egg at either end of the furrow. Such a condition is
admirably shown when one creases the top of a soft felt hat, and would
necessarily be even more manifest if the hat were filled with a viscous

An examination of any of the surface views will show that this is
not the case with these Chorophilus eggs, but that the first indication of
the groove at either extremity is a slight hollowing in of the surface,
and not a bulging outward.. This view is confirmed by a study of the
sections.

The other alternative is that the shortening of the arc must result in
longitudinal condensation along the bottom of the furrow, starting at
the center and increasing as the furrow progresses.

Such a shortening or contraction along the bottom of the furrow
would very naturally throw its sides into folds or wrinkles at right
angles to its length. The pigment layer in contact with these walls
would also be thickened in the region of the wrinkles, and toward the
center of the groove.

Since the condensation starts at the bi tot and advances in both
directions with the progress of the furrow, the wrinkles would be ar-
ranged somewhat radially about the superior pole. This progressive
contraction also accounts for the successive appearance and disappear-
ance of wrinkles, and for the confluence of smaller into larger ones.

As the sides of the furrow begin to fuse into the permanent segmenta-
tion plane or cell-wall the wrinkles disappear through the gradual re-
adjustment of former relations.

Indeed, the whole phenomenon seems very largely dependent on the
rapidity of segmentation and the consequent sudden disturbance of
normal relations before the IZI portions can adjust themselves to
their new conditions.

This fact will serve to explain why the wrinkles show so prominently
in this particular species, which has a very rapid development, and also
why the conditions under which they were examined—the transference
from ice to tepid water and the placing of the eggsin strong sunlight—
were especially favorable. :

It may also suggest a reason why one observer has failed to detect
wrinkles in the eggs of a given species, while another, working under
more favorable conditions, has seen and described them. And it will
in a measure account tor the absence of wrinkles on the yolk hemisphere,
sınce segmentation is very much slower there.

772 The American Naturalist. [September,

If our explanation is a correct one there ought to be no wrinkles at
all along the bottom of the groove, while they should be present and
have their greatest depth about half way between the bottom and the
surface.

The sections show that this actually occurs. Fig. 39 is a section cut
just at the level of the bottom of the groove, and shows no trace of any
wrinkles, nor are there any in the two or three preceding sections.

They then appear and gradually increase in size up to the level of
fig. 40, which is a magnified portion of the same groove about half way
to the surface.

The problem of the compound nature of the wrinkles finds its solu-
tion in the fact that there must be a condensation along the bottom of
the larger wrinkles, in all respects similar to that in the groove, and
due to the same cause, though, of course, on a very much smaller scale.

But in this instance the condensation would proceed in only one
direction, and hence we find the secondary wrinkles all inclined in the
same direction to the principal ones, just as we have already observed,
and as Schultze has so finely figured.

Summary.—1. Subjection to a temperature of 0° C. for a period of
eight hours completely arrests all development for the time being, but
results, on the subsequent restoration of ordinary conditions, in a cleay-
age more rapid than that of normal eggs.

2. Segmentation, at least up to the 128-cell stage, is accompanied by
the formation, fusion and subsequent elimination of well defined wrinkles
along the sides of the furrows in the pigmented area. There are no
wrinkles on the yolk, except along the inferior border of the third
cleavage furrow.

As seen in an examination of cross-sections these wrinkles are
compound in nature, the larger, principal ones having smaller second-
ary ones along their sides.

4, The wrinkles on the first furrow are arranged somewhat radially
about the superior pole. On subsequent furrows they are inclined at
an angle toward the point where the furrow starts.

5. The pigment which borders the segmentation furrows forms a
thicker layer in the region of the wrinkles than elsewhere along the
groove, thus showing an intimate relation between the two.

6. The probable cause of the wrinkling is to be found in the condensa-
tion along the bottom of the groove, which results from the shortening
of the are, and is a necessary consequence of the infolding of the surface
iyor to form the groove..

PLATE XIII.

Segmentation of Rana.

PLATE XIV.

=
o

{dip o atog
otto: a?
oo o

Segmentation of Rana.

' 1896.) Embryology. 773

7. The second and fourth grooves start from the periphery and move
toward the pole.

8. The blastomeres are more rounded and the segmentation furrows
are deeper than those in most frog’s eggs.

9. The development is very rapid ; gastrulation begins within twelve
hours, and the tadpole escapes from the egg during the second or third
day.— Cuarues B. WILson.

ExPLANATION OF PLATE I.
All figures drawn with Zeiss Camera x 16 diam.

Figs. 1-4. Successive stages i in pees of living egg at intervals of
3 mins., 3 mins., 2 min

Figs. 5,6. Stages in cleavane of ee living egg.

Figs. 7-9. Stages in ine of third living egg—intervals, 2 mins.,
4 mins.

Figs. 10-15. Stages in ie of fourth living egg—intervals, 2, 6,
3, 4, and 5 min

Figs. 16-18. Stages in second oe: of pan egg.

Figs. 19, 20. Variations in second cleavag

Fig. 21, Eight-cell stage of first egg.

Figs. 22-24. Stages in third cleavage of second egg.

Figs. 25-27. Variations in sixteen-cell stage.

EXPLANATION oF PLATE II.

All figures drawn with Zeiss Camera.

Figs. 28-30. First cleavage under higher magnification to show
rounded blastomeres.

Figs. 31, 32. Beginning of first cleavage, showing radiating wrinkles
at pigmented pole.

Figs. 33-35. Variations in wrinkles on the first furrow.

Fig. 36. View of an egg during the fourth cleavage.
Fig. 37. The same egg four minutes later.
Fig. 38. Fusion and partial disappearance of the first groove.

Fig. 39. Horizontal section of an egg during the first segmenta-
tion, taken at the level of the bottom of the furrow.
Nuclei added from the fourth section below this.

Fig. 40. A portion of the same furrow about half way between
its bottom and the surface of the egg, more highly
magnified.

TT4 The American Naturalist. [September,

PSYCHOLOGY”

Fear Among Children.—The term fedr is applied with some
ambiguity to two distinct phenomena. The sudden and unexpected
advent of danger arouses the whole organism and causes an uncontrol-
lable excitement which manifests itself in violent agitation, momentary
paralysis, or other well-known signs. While the strength and dura-
tion of the emotion depends largely upon the temperament and nervous
condition of the individual, it is primarily a function of the immediate
stimulus, and its basis is physical rather than mental. Chronic fear,
on the other hand, is determined more by the constitution of the indi-
vidual than by external stimuli, and remains present after the circum-
stances which called it forth are removed. It occurs in every degree,
from the purely normal to the extreme pathological, as exhibited in
certain forms of insanity. The normal phases of this emotion are best
observed in children, where repressive self-control is less liable to inter-
fere with its open manifestation.

Prof. Alfred Binet has recently carried out such an investigation.’
He issued a questionary, addressed principally to school-teachers, but
circulated also among parents who seemed qualified to give discrim-
inating answers. From the nature of the case, the replies dealt gen-
erally with the more permanent form of fear (peur as distinguished
from crainte). On examination of the reports, M. Binet classes the
causes of fear as follows: 1. Night, darkness, solitude—the sense of
mystery in things—in short, what might be termed in English the
quality of phantomhood. 2. Loud noises, such as thunder or the report
ofa gun. 3. Objects which excite repugnance or disgust: small crea-
tures, such as rats or spiders; the sight of blood or a corpse. 4. A
danger, real but not hitherto experienced by the child, whose likeli-
hood is greatly exaggerated and which preys upon his mind; thus a
child may be afraid of meeting a beggar or a drunken man, of being
bitten bya dog, ete. Such a feeling is generally traceable to some
story, true or false, which the child has heard. 5. The memory of a
severe accident or narrow escape leads to a chronic fear of its recur-
rence.

We may carry the analysis a step further than Prof. Binet. In 2
and 5, the distinctive element is a sudden nervous shock, with its after-

1 Edited by H. C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.
2 La peur chez les enfants, Année psychologique, 228.

1896.] Psychology. 775

effects; in 3 and 4, the influence of the imagination predominates.
Although the imagination is an important factor in 5, this class pre-
sents a distinct problem of its own, deeper rooted, which may lead the
inquirer into the sphere of comparative psycholo

A point in the investigation most difficult to ascertain, was the pro-
portion of children susceptible to fear. The answers returned varied
widely, probably because the distinction between the two kinds of fear
was not usually taken into account by the observers. The most reli-
able data seemed to indicate a general average of about 10 per cent ;
but the proportion appeared to be at least three times greater among
girls than among boys. The question of temperament was investigated,
but here too the answers varied considerably, and most diverse traits
were included in the different lists; the only generalization that
seemed warranted was the preponderance of fear among the gentle and
timid,—which is, after all, not a point of startling novelty. On the in-
tellectual side, where teachers are in a position to give trustworthy
judgments, the figures indicate a slight excess of fear among the
brighter, and a lower proportion among the more stupid than among
the mediocre. Prof. Binet argues, however, that this is not due to a
direct connection, but that the tendency to fear is increased by a vivid
imagination, which is generally associated with greater intellectual
capacity. On the other hand, there is a close connection between fear
and the state of the health ; and a nervous condition, whether due to a
shock or otherwise, is fruitful soil for fear in children as in adults.
But a further element must be reckoned with here, in the case of the
child: for, as he grows conscious of his failing, he loses confidence in
himself, and thereby becomes still more liable to fear.

Aside from the concrete causes of fear already noticed, a number of
factors are concerned in its development. Heredity plays a prominent
part here as elsewhere. [Ill-treatment is a most effective agent in fos-
‘tering it, and this heading may be extended to include the many in-
‘stances of misdirected efforts to train the child which are far from
wilful. The pedagogical value of the study, which M. Binet brings out
in a closing section, is nowhere more marked than here. Closely
allied to this factor is the influence of tragic stories and mysterious
tales on the child’s imagination, a principle which even judicious parents
‘are apt to forget. Finally, the force of example—the contagion of fear
—is shown unmistakably by Prof. Binet’s study. The younger is in-
fluenced by the older, the stronger by the weaker, the child by the
teacher ; if the latter show signs of fear in any crisis, the former is

776 The American Naturalist. [September,

almost sure to give way. This is, of course, no new discovery, but it is

a fact which cannot too often be emphasized.

Fear begins to be manifested between the second and third years of
age, and, until about the ninth year, the child’s powers of self-control
are insufficient to inhibit it. Under normal conditions, it decreases
rapidly from the ninth until the twelfth year, when, apart from the
influence of special conditions or circumstances, it comes well under
control—H. C. WARREN.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

American Association for the Advancement of Science.—
This body met at Buffalo, New York, from August 24th to 29th inclu-
sive. The council met on the 22d, and the 29th was devoted to an
excursion to Niagara. The attendance was not as large as sometimes,
the number of members present being 333. The quality of the papers
was said to have been in general excellent. Only three of the sections
continued in session on Friday afternoon (the 28th), viz.: the Geolog-
ical, the Anthropological, and that of Social and Economic Science.
The affiliated societies coöperated to a considerable extent, the Geolog-
ical and Chemical Societies reading papers in the appropriate sections,
and the Entomological Club suspending its meeting. Eighty-two fel-
lows were elected. Prof. Wolcott Gibbs was elected an honorary fellow,
and Mr. Horatio Hale a fellow for life. On Wednesday afternoon a
symposium was held in the Geological Section in honor of the sixtieth
anniversary of the appointment of Professor James Hall to the position
of Director of the Geological Survey of New York.

At the opening session the association was weleomed by addresses
from Mayor Jewett, and from Dr. Park, President of the Society of
Natural Sciences. President E. D. Cope replied in the following
language:

“Mr. Mayor, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Local Committee and Citizens
of Buffalo: Lutter the sentiments of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in expressing our pleasure at being once
again in your beautiful city. We feel at home here, and we know that
we are among friends who understand our motives and our objects.
But, inasmuch as we represent the entire nation, I will give a brief out-
line of the objects of the Association, and the aims which it has in view.
Our principal occupation is that of original scientific research, although

1896.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 777

many of us are of necessity also teachers of scientific knowledge. The
primary object of the Association is, however, not teaching, but the
advancement of science by the increase of knowledge. We seek to
penetrate the unknown and to build up a system which will express
with certainty the mutual relations of the various parts of the universe,
including ourselves. Although many facts are known, and some laws
have been formulated, very much still remains unknown, and many of
the highest principles of nature remain undiscovered. ‘Original research
furnishes the material for teaching and the matter which is contained
in books. Much money is devoted to the building of libraries and of
schools, but not much is given for the purpose of supplying the knowledge
which is to be taught in the schools and from which books are made.

- “ The motives of the original investigator vary with his years, but the
taste for research is generally developed early in life. In some it is a
love of the beautiful, whether it be the beauty of a perfect mechanism
or the beauty of form that attracts him. In some, it is the desire to
know, and in others it is a high interest in the problem of human origin
and destiny. In many it is the same feeling which prompts the ad-
venturous explorer to enter new regions, not knowing what he will find,
but believing that whatever is, is right.

“The services rendered by science are twofold. They have a value
either material in their character or utilitarian, or they have a mental
value, inasmuch as knowledge serves to clear the mind of fears and
doubts, and so to promote human happiness. The true man of science is
not influenced by utilitarian considerations, but pursues the truth wher-
ever it may lead, knowing by experience that its benefits are many and
sometimes unexpected. Another benefit which the cultivation of science
promotes is the formation of correct habits of thought. The rational
faculty of the mind is of very ancient origin, and developed early in
the history of man. But its use in the early stages of human develop-
ment has been largely a priori; that is, in the adyance of knowledge,
rather than as a digestor of knowledge after its acquisition. In other
words, the scientific method consists not in the use of abstract’ reason,
but in a rational use of the results of observation and experiment.
This is the lesson which the history of science teaches mankind, that if
we wish to know the actual state of affairs, our course is first to observe

‘the facts and to draw our inferences from them, and not to attempt to
describe the universe from our inner consciousness as we think it ought
to be. All the results attained by science have been due to adherence to

_ this method. Neveitheless it is not forbidden to entertain hypotheses

before discovery, if such hypotheses are not valued for more than they
54

778 The American Naturalist. [September,

are worth. Another service which we imagine science renders to the
community is the example which it offers of the reward of labor. The
scientific man loves to work not only for the sake of acquisition, but
also because of the pleasure there is in work as an activity of the
human organism. By it we learn that by work only can great results
be accomplished, and the law of conservation and correlation or energy
teaches that something cannot be made out of nothing.

“Tn our educational function we hope by example to show that the
mental life is as worth living and affords as much pleasure as the physi-
cal life. This is a lesson on which it is necessary to continually insist,
since mankind is constantly prone to imagine that mental activity and
thought are uninteresting and dull. On the contrary they afford a
high class of pleasures which are conservative of the entire organism.

“ We also emphasize the desirability of free-thought on all subjects
whatsoever, and the necessary corollary that the thought shall be care-
ful and judicial. Thought so applied to our practical affairs must be
in the highest degree beneficial in every direction both personal and
national. We expressly repudiate two common types of thought. One
of these attempts to prove by reasoning, if not by reason, a contention
in which a person has an especial interest. It is to be feared that this
habit of mind is too common, and it implies a lack of honesty of pur-
pose which is entirely foreign to the scientific spirit. The other type
of thinking to which we object is the acceptance of allegations concern-
ing matters of fact or theory upon insufficient evidence, or upon
authority only. Both of these methods lead to inaccurate results, and .
from both the scientific method protects us. I do not hesitate to say,
that the future of science will be greater than its past, and that it affords
a career to those who are adapted for it which promises a high degree
of happiness and benefit. I believe that in this country with our facili-
ties in various directions, the pursuit of science will become a more
conspicuous part of our national life than it is now, and I am sure that
nothing is more desirable for our national life than that this should be
the case. In the cultivation of science we see the cultivation of hon-
esty, of industry and of truth, all qualities which are essential to the
prosperity of a people.

“ Fellow citizens of Buffalo we thank you for the very material aid
which you are rendering us in the attempt to develop this enterprise.”

The Nominating Committee recommended the names of Prof. Wolcott
Gibbs, of Newport, for President, for 1897-8, and of Dr. Asaph Hall,
Jr., of Washington, D. C., for General Secretary; who were elected.
The committee also recommended that a formal meeting for organiza-

1896.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 779

tion only be held in 1897, at Toronto, in view of a cordial invitation
from that place, and that it adjourn to assist the citizens in entertaining
the British Association for the Advancement of Science, which is to
meet there at that time. Other invitations were received from Nashville,
Tenn. ; Columbus, Ohio; Indianapolis, Ind. ; Detroit, Mich. ; Minne-
apolis, Minn. ; Seattle, Wash., and San Francisco, Cal. The recom-
mendation of the committee was not agreed to by the Association, who
ordered that a regular meeting should be held, and referred the time
and place to the council. At a subsequent meeting of that body it
was agreed to meet in Detroit, commencing August 9th, in order to give
the members the opportunity of attending the British Association meet-
ting at Toronto thereafter.

Messrs. Tarr, Mayberry, Packard, Bessey and Carhart were appointed
a committee to codperate with the national educational societies in
arranging the methods of science teaching.

Dringende Bitte
Um das Erscheinen des

Botanischen Jahresberichts

möglichst zu beschleunigen, wie eine Steigerung der Zuver-

lassigkeit in der Berichterstattung zu erlangen, richten wir
an die

Botaniker aller Lander
die dringende Bitte um gefiillige schleunige Zusendung ihrer
Arbeiten, namentlich auch der Sonderabdriicke aus Zeit-
schriften, etc.
Alle Sendungen sind zu richten an den Herausgeber.

Professor Dr. E. Koehne,

Fried =Berlin,
Kirchstrasse 5.

OF INTEREST TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE.

THE OBSERVER
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OUR MOTTO:
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(To observe the wonders and beauties of Nature. )

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Consists of Three Departments:
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E. F. BIGELOW, Managing Editor and Publisher, Portland, Conn.

at ADVERTISEMENTS.

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Professor E. D. Corn, of the Univers ity of Pennsylvania, writes: “ Useful to the student o

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Vol. XXX. > OCTOBER, 1896. No. 358 —

CONTENTS:

fame! a

PAGE
FRESH REL nee GLACIAL MAN spartan AT TRE Geology and Paleontolozy—Cambrian Rocks of
BUFFALO MEETING OF THE ae ee Ss ts Gee Pennsylvania arinetan of Uintacrinus. f a +
Ge eineden ech Wrigh lustrated )—Geogical News . 817.

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF ANIMALS AS MACHIN
Ma anty aha 784 Botany—Botany at TA New Manual

_ THe BACTERIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS: A CRITICAL of Systematic Botany
7 EVIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF OUR Zooloegy—The Heart of Some ius Sala-
KNowLEDGE. (Coutinued. A manders. (Illustrated )—On two New Species
rwin F, Smith. 796} of Lizards from Southern California—Modifi--
Epiror’s Tapte.—The American PWEN N n cation of the Brain during Growth—The Lion
The Field Museum. —Notice»to our Con- of India—Inheritance of Artificial Mutilations,
tributors, . : 0 SOD

Entomology-~A New Character in the Colo-
bognatha, with Drawings of Aane E
tematic Note. (Illustrated) . :

Psychology. — Congress of Pdo —
Mental Action During Sleep, or Sub-Conscious —
copter Mimetic Origin and Develop-

ment of Bird-Language and “The pigens
of a -Song ”—A Note on Dr. Herbert Zdra
ol’s Paper (Amer. Nat., Sept., 1896)... . -3S8

RECENT jokes AND peihae eine rss A O
GENERAL NOTES
Mineralogy bed Crystallegraphy—Development

—Fayalite and the Chrysolite-Fayalite en
_ BEAGE and Tetragophosphit
Miscellaneous. N

Petr ot ake Gates st Point Sal; Öalifornia

—Leucite-Basanites of Vuleanello—A Squeezed AMéicroscopy—Methylen Blue. i: +... S
Quartz-Porphry—Myca-Syenites at‘ Rothschen- PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.” . 5 2 J 859
A me Er ret CR ae pion. 814} Serine News. o o Sk Se ee

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ATURAL SCIENCE: |
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THE FOLLOWING ARE A FEW FACTS AS TO THE WORK
| OF “NATURAL SCIENCE” DURING 1895.

NATURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has published contributions from :
-104 distinguished writers. T
NATURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has publiahad 63 specially contrib- E
` uted Articles in all branches of Zoology, Botany, and Geology,
oar the. large secs number, manent: the results of the

TURAL SCIENCE for 1895 has s published 24 full-page Plates

= and of all the feating Societies ie Hater’ ose
st nts an be verified by anyone who will buy che. Vol: :
ich ec tain 885 large 8vo Pages) and are re sold for
pies, post free, 15 cts. © ;
> high character of the cohtents; as Han by the i
tributors, anda as, testified to ma the Sanat and
tries, t

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXX. October, 1896. 358

FRESH RELICS OF GLACIAL MAN AT THE BUFFALO
MEETING OF THE A. A. A. S.

By G. FREDERICK WRIGHT.

1. The first paper upon this subject was presented by Prof.
G. Frederick Wright, detailing briefly the results of a single
day’s exploration at Trenton, N. J., under the guidance of Mr.
Ernest Volk, who is continuously carrying on similar explora-
tions under Prof. F. W. Putnam for the Peabody Museum at
Cambridge and the Central Park Museum, New York City.
Professor Wright was requested to select his own ground upon
the Lalor farm, where permission has been given for explora-
tion, and the surface to a depth of three feet would be dug
over in his presence. The point selected is on the bluff of the
terrace of glacial gravel upon which the city of Trenton is
built, a mile or more south of the center of the city. The bluff
here facing the river is about fifty feet above it, and the ter-
race stretches back in a dead level for a mileand a half. The
situation is such that there was no chance for surface wash to
have remodified the deposit. In the near vicinity were bould-
ers two or three feet in diameter resting upon the surface, or
slightly below it, showing the ordinary conditions of deposi-
tion in connection with floating ice which characterized the
whole delta terrace at Trenton, and which have been so often
described by the geologists who have visited the region.

55 ;

782 The American Naturalist. . [October,

A trench three feet deep and three feet wide was dug from
the face of this bluff backwards about thirty or forty feet. The
upper twelve inches of this trench consisted of sand discolored
with vegetable decomposition, which had evidently been dis-
turbed. In this stratum there were found two flint arrow-
heads or spear-heads, one argillite chip, and one flint chip,
together with a fractured pebble, four pieces of pottery, and a
piece of charred bone.

The lower two feet of the excavation, except where inter-
rupted by a pit, consisted of compact sand distinctly stratified,
which had clearly been undisturbed. In this was found at
varying depths one imperfect argillite implement, about three
inches long and an inch and a half wide and a quarter of an
inch thick, with five unrolled and angular fragments of argil-
lite, two of which bore pretty clear evidence of having been
chipped by human hands’ These were the only fragments.
There were no chippings or fragments of flint or jasper in the
lower two feet of the excavation.

This brief paper of Professor Wright was but the prelude to
bring out from Professor Putnam a fuller statement of the
results of Mr. Volk’s work on the Lalor farm. For two years
Mr. Volk has been carrying on similar excavations over adjoin-
ing parts of the farm where the situation is similar to that
described, and with corresponding results. Flint and jasper
implements and flakes are abundant in the upper twelve inches
of the soil, while no flint or jasper occurs in the lower two feet,
of undisturbed sand and gravel. A large number of boxes of
implements and fragments accumulated by this work of Mr.
Volk have been sent up to the museums above mentioned ;
but, owing to the lack of time, Professor Putnam has not yet
opened them and published the results. But in preparation
for this meeting Professor Putnam had requested Mr. Volk to
pursue further investigations and send the results to him at
Buffalo. These were presented by Professor Putnam in a paper
from Mr. Volk describing between thirty and forty argillite
implements and fragments which had been found in his sub-
sequent excavations in the undisturbed lower two feet of sand,
as described in Professor Wright’s excavation. As in that

1896.] Fresh Relics of Glacial Man. 783

case, so in this, flint and jasper were abundant in the upper
twelve inches, but argillite was the only chipped and angular

material found in the lower two feet. A large diagram accom-

panied Mr. Volk’s description in which the position of each

one of these argillite fragments was found. The box was then

opened for the first time, and the fragments presented for

examination. Of the artificial character of many of them there

was not the least question on the part of any one present.

The importance of these discoveries as confirming the evi-
dence of glacial man at Trenton heretofore presented can
readily be perceived. It coincides with that presented by
Professor Putnam and Dr. C. C. Abbott and Mr. Volk, going
to show that there was a clearly marked succession in the
human occupancy of the Delaware Valley indicated, first, by
the sole use of argillite for implements, followed by a gradual
and almost complete transition to the use of flint and jasper in
later times. (See Putnam’s report to the Peabody Museum in
the Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, October,
1889, p. 11, and Observations upon the Use of Argillite by Pre-
historic People in the Delaware Valley in Proceedings of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, by
Ernest Volk, vol. xlii, p. 312). It also sweeps away at once
the ingenious theories of Professor Chamberlin and others
who would account for the occurrence of implements in the
lower strata of sand and gravel through the agency of dry-
weather cracks in the surface, the overturning of trees, the
decay of tap roots, and the activity of burrowing animals; for
none of these agencies would select the argillite, and leave the
flint and jasper upon thesurface. Therefore it would seem that
there can be little doubt that these argillite fragments were
scattered by the agency of man at the time that the deposition
of the Trenton gravels was still in progress.

2. A second paper was by Prof. E. W. Claypole, detailing
the particulars concerning the discovery of human relics from
the drift at New London, Huron County, Ohio. These con-
sisted of what would be called Neolithic axes, found by an
intelligent workman in the process of well-digging in the blue
till twenty feet below the surface. The circumstantial evidence

784 The American Naturalist. [October,

sustaining the testimony of the workman is of the most convinc-
ing character. The passage from the yellow till into the blue
till and the occurrence of occasional strata of gravel are char-
acteristic of the glacial deposits of northern Ohio. The imple-
ment had been subjected to oxydizing agencies characteristic of
the deeply covered strata of that immediate vicinity. It isim-
possible briefly to detail this evidence. We must therefore
wait for its full publication by Professor Claypole.

In a word, the geological situation at New London, Ohio, is
this: The watershed between the Great Lakes and the Ohio
is but a few miles to the south, and drains to the north through
the main valley of Vermillion River. The land about New
London is level for several miles, and is about two hundred
feet below the summit of the watershed. There is no oppor-
tunity for any disturbances to have occurred subsequent to the
glacial period; but in the retreat of the ice from the watershed
a temporary glacial lake doubtless occupied the upper part of
the valley of Vermillion River, emptying its waters into a trib-
utary of the Mohican, and thence into the Muskingum and
the Ohio. But this lake evidently did not exist for a great
length of time.

Heretofore numerous flying reports of the discovery of im-
plements in the glacial till have been made, but this is the first
instance where the evidence has seemed in itself altogether
convincing and satisfactory.

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF ANIMALS AS
MACHINES!

By Manty Mites, Lansrna, Mica.

In my paper on Energy as a Factor in Rural Economy,
read at the Washington meeting of the Association, approxi-
mate quantitative estimates were made of the energy expended

1 Read in Section F. at the Buffalo meeting of the American Association of
Science, Aug., 1896.

1896.] Relative Efficiency of Animals as Machines. - 785

in the exhalation of water by plants, and evaporation from the
soil; and at the Madison meeting similar estimates were given
of the potential energy of an acre of corn, and of a fat ox, as
representing the work done in the constructive processes of
growth. The substance of the last mentioned paper, with
some additional matter was published in the AMERICAN NAT-
URALIST of July, 1894.

Some further illustrations of the same general piiiiijlte are
now presented in an inquiry as to the relative efficiency of dif-
ferent classes of animals, as machines, in utilizing the potential
energy of their food in useful work.

From the imperfect data now available, there are many
questions relating to this subject that cannot be definitely
answered, but the approximate quantitative estimates we are
able to make must be of interest in suggesting the lines of re-
search required for a satisfactory solution of the problems in-
volved in discussing the economy of foods and diets, and espe-
cially in the interpretation of the results of feeding experi-
ments.

The chemical theories of nutrition have been so generally
accepted in popular expositions of alimentary processes that it
may be well to recapitulate the leading facts relating to energy
as a factor in physiology in order to clear up the field of view
and give due prominence to the principles we have to deal
with.

The food consumed by animals serves two distinct purposes
which should be clearly distinguished. The materials re-
quired in building tissues, and in the manufacture of animal
products (meat, milk, wool, etc.), have alone been noticed in
popular essays on the subject of nutrition, while the quite as
important expenditures of the energy supplied in foods, as the
motive power required in the constructive processes involved
in converting the food constituents into animal tissues and
products, have been misinterpreted or entirely ignored.

As pointed out in the papers above noticed, but a limited
amount of the constituents of foods are stored up by animals
in their processes of growth—in their increase when fattened
—or in the animal products they manufacture. With refer-

786 The American Naturalist. [October,

ence to our present subject, the following table, showing the
percentage of food constituents found in the increase of fatten-
ing animals at Rothamsted, will serve as a sufficient illustra-
tion,

TABLE 1.

Percentage of food constituents in the increase of fattening animals.

Stored in Increase.
Constituents of Food. ;
Oxen. Sheep. Pigs.
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Proteids 4.1 4.2 13.5
Carbo-hydrates and fat 7.2 9.4 18.5
s. E9 St Tid
Dry Substance 6.2 8.0 17.6

It will be seen that much the larger part of the food constit-
uents were not utilized by the animals as materials for build-
ing tissues, but they have served a useful purpose in
yielding up more or less of their stored energy, according to
the degree of disintegration to which they were subjected,
which was made available in the constructive processes of nu-
trition and the related incidental physiological activities of the
system. :

With this limited demand for the constituents of foods to
serve as materials for tissue building, there must be an exten-
sive disintegration of their organic substance to furnish the
enormous supplies of energy required in the repair of tissues,
in increase in growth, in the vaporization of water exhaled by
the lungs and skin, and to supply the sensible residue that is
lost by constant radiation from the body in the form of ani-
mal heat.

The obsolete theory of Liebig that certain food constituents
are alone used to build tissues and that certain other constitu-
ents are burned in the system to produce heat, still continues
to be the leading assumption in attempts to popularize chemi-
cal theories of nutrition in formulating diets and nutritive

1896.] Relative Efficiency of Animals as Machines. 787

ratios, and attention should be directed to the erroneous inter-
_ pretations of organic processes that are made in the application
of this false theory in connection with a fancied analogy of
the animal machine to a steam engine.

We are told that “ when coal is burned in the furnace a
part of its potential energy is transformed into the mechanical
power which the engine uses forits work. The rest is changed
to heat which the engine does not utilize, and which, there-
fore, is wasted. The potential energy of the food is trans-
formed in the body into heat and mechanical power. The heat
is used to keep the body warm. The mechanical power is employed
for muscular work.”

As an outcome of this false analogy the term “ fuel value of
foods ” has been introduced to serve as an index of their ca-
pacity “to keep the body warm,” and provide for muscular
work. The absurdity of these crude and superficial views of
energy as a factor in nutrition will be readily recognized by
physiologists and we need only notice some obvious inaccura-
cies of statement.

In the first place, there are no processes of combustion in
physiological activities, and fuel as such, can have no value
in animal nutrition. The assumption that the potential en-
- ergy of foods not expended in muscular work is“ used to keep
the body warm,” is in direct conflict with familiar physiolog-
ical activities. There are large expenditures of energy in
transforming to the form of vapor the water exhaled by the
lungs and thrown off as perspiration by the skin and it isa
well known fact in physiology that the body is cooled by the
evaporation of water from the surface that is constantly tak-
ing place.

The laboring man, perspiring freely in hot weather, ex-
pends a considerable part of the potential energy of his food
in the cooling process of vaporizing the water discharged by
the skin as a result of his exertions. The law of the conserva-
tion of energy is strictly observed and there isno demand for fuel
to burn to “keep the body warm.” The heat liberated in the de-
structive metabolism of the tissues, or what we speak of as the
wear and tear of the sytem, is disposed of in various ways,

788 The American Naturalist. [October,

and the large expenditure in the cooling machinery for vapor-
izing water is an important factor in securing a proper adjust-
ment in equilibrium of the numerous physiological activities
of the system.

The fallacious and misleading theories of nutrition we have
noticed have been so widely disseminated in recent official re-
ports and bulletins that a detailed statement of the role of en-
ergy in animal nutrition, as now recognized by physiologists,
seems to be required in relation to our present subject.

The energy required as the motive power in building tissues
and the elaboration of animal products, as well as that ex-
pended in muscular work, is all derived primarily from the
potential energy of the organic substances consumed as food,
and as an incident of the various metabolic processes of the
system animal heat is produced.

The stored, or potential, energy of organic substances is an
essential element of their constitution, representing the work
done in their processes of construction, and it can be liberated
in the form of heat by any of the various methods of disinte-
gration to which they may be subjected. For example, when
organic substances are burned the heat produced is a measure
of the energy stored up in their construction, but this method
of liberating heat from food constituents has no place in phys-
iological processes, and the value of foods as fuel is not a legit-
imate subject of discussion in domestic economy.

Microbes disintegrate the organic substances on which they
feed and liberate their stored energy in the form of heat, as in
the familiar processes of fermentation. The numerous mi-
crobes in the alimentary canal add their quota to the avail-
able energy in the form of heat derived from the constituents
of foods which they tear apart in feeding upon them. The
digestion of foods by animals is another means of liberating
the stored energy in the form of heat.

Destructive metabolism, resulting from the various activi-
ties of the animal machine, immediately follows the construc-
tive processes and the stored energy of the tissues originally
derived from food constituents is liberated as heat which, so

1896.] Relative Efficiency of Animals as Machines. 789

far as needed, is used again as the motive power in rebuilding
the disintegrated tissues and other physiological processes.

Animal heat is, therefore, the result of physiological activi-
ties that are carried on in accordance with the laws of the
conservation of energy, without the slightest indication of
anything analogous to processes of combustion.

Living substance, as pointed out by Foster, is matter con-
stantly undergoing change, energy being used and stored up
in constructive metabolism, and liberated again as heat in the
correlated and quite as essential processes of destructive meta-
bolism. Energy doing work, or stored as potential energy in
the tissues, cannot be detected by the thermometer, and the
heat liberated from foods in the various processes of disinte-
gration they undergo, and from the tissues through destruc-
tive metabolism, is again made latent, as far asit is utilized in
doing the work required in constructive metabolism, in vapor-
izing water exhaled by the lungs or thrown off by the skin as
perspiration, and animal heat is the sensible residue not dis-
posed of in these physiological processes.

Our domestic animals may then be looked upon as ma-
chines for doing work in the repairs and other vital activities
of the animal machine itself, including muscular exercise, and
the manufacture of animal products used as food by man.
The importance of these animal machines as factors in do-
mestic economy leads us to inquire as to their relative effi-
ciency in utilizing the potential energy of foods in the special
work they are fitted to perform.

Aside from the individual and class peculiarities that re-
quire attention, their efficiency in utilizing energy must vary
with the quality and quantity of food consumed and a tenta-
tive solution of the problems presented in this line of inquiry
can only be made. The quantitative estimates of the expen-
ditures of energy in different ways we are able to make must,
therefore, be interpreted as representing approximately the re-
sults with the particular animals under the conditions to
which they were subjected.

The feeding experiments at Rothamsted, and the composi-
tion of different animals and their increase, as shown in the

790 The American Naturalist. [October,

extensive series of analyses made there, furnish the most con-
venient and only reliable data for our purpose in the case of
fattening animals. The average results with oxen, sheep and
pigs, as estimated by Sir John Lawes several years ago, and
the feed consumed and increase made by the “analyzed fat
pig” have been taken as the basis for calculating the expendi-
tures of energy as given in the following tables.

In making a comparable estimate of the expenditures of en-
ergy in milk production, the record of a Guernsey cow at the
New York experiment station in 1891, appeared to answer the
required conditions, as detailed statements of the composition
of the food consumed and milk produced were given, and the
dry substance of the milk for each month differed but little
from the dry substance of the 100 pounds of increase in the
fattening animals under consideration, indicating in a general
way ‘that nearly the same amount of work had been required
in its production.

The factors used in estimating the potential energy of or-
ganic substances (based on experiments of Berthelot and

TABLE 2.
Expenditures of energy in fattening oxen, sheep and pigs, to produce 100
pounds of increase in live weight; and a similar estimate of the expenditures of
energy in milk production. In foot-tons of work.

Sa |Be | a |ske
oO a “o
i ca 3 & 9
ey ape
°3 | om MS BIS
cb aie 32% aw r 2
BS agg | oa | 28-34
3 F: E Mog 45 a BES
pS aA z.s HD me eae
Oxen 3,389,929 | 413,558 | 955,790 | 2,020,580
Sheep 2,809,787 | 440,584 | 655,967 | 1,713,240
Pigs ; 1,269,181 457,800 175,674 | 635,699
“ Analysed fat pig” 1,478,393 | 435,160 | 272,335 770, 900
In 557 Ibs.
milk.
a April 1,610,800 i een 581,573 | 699,840
yuernsey n
Cow 7 = milk. : te
May 1,626,678 | 349,440 | 564,020 | 713,230

1896.] Relative Efficiency of Animals as Machines. 791

Andre, 1890) represent in round numbers the calories per
pound of the proximate principles of foods and tissues as fol-
lows: proteids, 2500 calories; fats, 4200 calories; and carbo-
hydrates, 1900 calories.

For convenience of comparison, the energy in the table is
represented in its equivalent of foot-tons of work; the energy
expended in raising a weight of one ton one foot.

Without an examination of other details this table would be
misleading in its indications of the relative efficiency of the
different classes of animals as machines for doing work.
There are decided differences in the quality and quantity of
feed consumed which should be taken into consideration,
but we have no data for a quantitative estimate of the
modifying influence of these different conditions which can
only be noticed in general terms. For convenience of com-
parison the most important facts relating to feed consumed
may be summarized in tabular form.

TABLE 3.
Kind and quantity of feed consumed by fattening animals to produce 100
pounds of increase in live weight, and feed of the cow for equivalent results in

milk production.
LJ

| A Feed Consumed.
i, A
z | 2 $
sisig 3
See rae re
ee ee a E
aA -£ 5 3 &
B z 3 S z z A
‘by by re) Ss oo >
e A Le H S 3
lbs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. Ibs. lbs. lbs.
Oxen 1109 | 68.6 | 218 9 600 PF 250 (oil p 3500 (swedes)
Sheep 912 | 72.5 | 177 7.5 300 (clover 250 (oil cake 4000 (swedes )
Pigs 420 | 73.8 §2 37.0 500 (Barley meal.)
“ Analyzed fat : 1. Bran. 2. Bean
pes 478 | 71.4 | 100 | 7.7 and lentil meal. 3,
pig Barley meal.
Guernsey Apel 469 | 78 82 | 19.2 | 300 \ (clover and 210 \ mixed 420 ) corn
Cow ay | 510] 88 81 | 21.5 | 182 j timothy) 213 j grain 868 j ensilage

792 The American Naturalist. [October,

To produce 100 pounds increase the oxen consumed more
dry substance of food than the sheep, and of coarse fodder
there was twice as much hay requiring a larger expenditure
of energy to dispose of it, and a smaller amount was utilized
and stored in the increase which contained less dry substance.
There was also a larger loss in the excreta and a greater ex-
penditure in repairs of the system and other physiological
processes, resulting from the increased metabolism.

A comparison of tables 2 and 3 will show that less work is
required to dispose of the smaller amount of coarse feed in the
rations of the sheep, and with less dry substance of feed they
give a much better proportionate return in increase than the
oxen; while the pigs fed on barley meal alone make the same
increase from less than one-half the dry substance of feed
consumed by the sheep, with a diminished waste in excreta,
and the repairs of the system and other physiological processes
are carried on with a comparatively small expenditure of en-

ergy.

The fourth column of table 3 is, however, of special inter-
est in relation to the processes of nutrition, and the difference
in the results we have been discussing. One of the most
marked results of proteid substances in the food, now recog-
nized by physiologists, is to increase the metabolism of the
system. From the small amount of proteid substance. stored
up in the increase of fattening animals, as shown in tables 1
and 3, an active metabolism of the system must be carried on
to dispose of any considerable excess supplied in the food, as
all that is digested and not retained in the increase is dis-
charged by the kidneys in the form urea. The supply of en-
ergy to carry on the increased metabolism of the system aris-
ing from an excess of proteid food is, to some extent, however,
immediately provided for in the heat liberated in its conver-
sion into urea.

The oxen, with 218 pounds of proteids in their feed, give
the smallest return in increase, the largest amount of waste in
excreta, and decidedly more work is required in repairs of the
system and other physiological processes resulting from the
increased metabolism. The pigs fed on barley meal, with only

1896.] Relative Efficiency of Animals as Machines. 793

one-fourth as much proteid matter in their feed, have a de-
cided advantage in utilizing energy in their increase, with less
waste in excreta, and a comparatively small expenditure of
energy is required to keep the machine in working order.

A comparison of the results with the pigs fed on barley
meal and the “ analyzed fat pig” with a highly nitrogenous
diet, will furnish quite as striking an illustration of the influ-
ence of proteid food, as the conditions are less complex from
the absence of coarse fodder in the rations.

The “ analyzed fat pig ” consumed more dry substance, and
nearly twice as much proteid matter, to make 100 pounds in-
crease in live weight as the pigs fed on barley meal alone, but
less energy was utilized in its increase, containing less dry
substance and decidedly more was lost in excreta and a larger
amount was required in repairs of the system.

TABLE 4.

The energy of food consumed by different animals to produce a given increase
is expended as follows, under conditions above noticed.

|In hk and

. Lost in ex- jother physio-

Inincrease. ano logical pro-

cesses.
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.

Oxen 12 28 60
Sheep 16 23 61
Pigs 36 14 50
‘ Analyzed fat pig” 29 18 52
Guernsey { April 20 36 43
wW May 21 35 44

The pigs fed on barley meal with their comparatively simple
organs of nutrition, require less dry substance of feed and less
energy to make a given increase than the ruminants with
their complex nutritive machinery and large amount of
coarse fodder in their rations which they are fitted to utilize ;
but pigs and ruminants are alike in failing to give as large
returns in profitable increase with an excess of proteids in
their feed.

794 The American Naturalist. [October,

The results recorded in table 2 must then be attributed to
differences in the working machinery of the animals them-
elves, and the modifying conditions of the relative amount of
coarse fodder and proteids in the feed consumed, but with our
present knowledge of vital activities the relative influence of
these variable factors cannot be determined.

The expenditures of energy by different animals in differ-
ent ways, given in table 2 in foot tons of work, are summar-
ized in percentages of the energy of feed consumed in the fol-
lowing table for convenience of comparison.

In the last columns of tables 2 and 4, several well defined
physiological processes are grouped together from the lack of
data to discriminate between them, and they undoubtedly
vary in the relative expenditures of energy required in them
under different conditions. Without attempting an exhaus-
tive enumeration of these processes, the following may be no-
ticed as of the first importance from the work performed in
their activities.

Constructive metabolism in the repair of tissues; vaporiza-
tion of water exhaled by the lungs and skin; work of the in-
voluntary muscles in respiration and circulation of the blood ;
energy expended in mental activities and the functions of se-
cretion and excretion; loss of heat by radiation from the
body ; and work done by the voluntary muscles.

It will be seen from table 4 that the largest percentage of
the available energy of foods is expended in these strictly
physiological processes concerned in maintaining the integ-
rity of the animal machine. Under the conditions of feeding
experiments, with fattening animals and cows giving milk,
but little mechanical work is done by the voluntary muscles,
and the last item of our enumeration of physiological processes
might have been omitted as insignificant in relation to the
enormous expenditures of energy in the other normal activi-
ties of the system to which attention has been directed.

If mechanical work is done by animals, it must be at the
expense of the energy that might, under other conditions, be
expended in the manufacture of animal products, as the phys-
iological processes enumerated above must all be provided for

1896.] Relative Efficiency of Animals as Machines. 795

in fattening animals and cows giving milk with a minimum
of muscular exercise, as well as in the case of animals engaged
in severe muscular work. j

The energy expended in mental activities is of the first im-
portance in its influence on the efficiency of the animal ma-
chine in useful work. The nervous system, through which
mental endowments are manifest, has intimate relations with
every part of the animal machine and the direction in which
energy is expended is largely determined through its agency.

Practical farmers are well aware that animals fail to give `
profitable returns for feed consumed when restless and ex-
cited through any source of disturbance, or when dissatisfied
with their feed and surroundings.

The available energy of a liberal supply of nutritious food
may all be expended, and even the stored energy of the tissues
drawn upon to carry on the increased physiological activities
resulting from mental and nervous derangements of the nutri-
tive machinery without any expenditure in profitable produc-
tion. In conducting feeding experiments and in the interpreta-
tion of their results this is one of the most difficult factors to
deal with, as it may have a dominant influence on the final
outcome.

The approximate estimates of the relative efficiency of diff-
erent animals in utilizing the potential energy of their feed
in useful work, which have been given in mere outline, will
require revision and correction as we become better acquainted
with the specific influence of the variable factors of food and
environment on the work performed by animal machines.
Even in their present imperfect form they may, however,
serve to illustrate the significance of energy as a factor in ani-
mal nutrition and the futility of formulating diets and nutri-
tive ratios in terms of their chemical constituents.

796 The American Naturalist. [October,

THE BACTERIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS:
A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF
OUR KNOWLEDGE.

By Erwin F. SMITE.
(Continued from p. 731)
III.

Nore.—A second note by Dr. Sorauer on the Bacteriosis of Fodder
Beets adds a number of interesting items. This is entitled (24a) Die
Gummikrankheit bei Runkelruben etc. It was published in Jahrb. d.
Deutschen Landwirtschafts- Gesellschaft. Bd. 7, Berlin, 1892, Second =
pp. 206, 207, and was republished verbatim in Zeitschr. f. Pflan.
2Bd. 5Heft, 1892, pp. 280-281. The following abstract should one
fore be read in connection with the Remark on p. 723 from which place
the reference was inadvertently omitted.

Samples of the diseased beets were received from Vukovar in October,
1890 and in February, 1891. With the first specimens came the state-
ment that one half of the crop was affected. The beets were drilled
early in April and the weather was favorable until the middle of June ;
then hot and dry weather set in, continuing until harvest time in the
middle of October. During all this time there was only one rain. The
beets suffered severely from the heat and drouth, losing all their outer
leaves and pushing new ones toward the end of September. At harvest
time the disease was found more or less developed in such plants as
showed wilted heart leaves. The blackening of the roots, a blue black,
began at the lower extremity and continued upward after the roots were
stored. The flesh of the root appeared to be uniformly blackened at the
root tip, and from this part the discoloration radiated upward into the
sound part so that at last it was noticeable only in the regions of the
vascular bundles as brown stripes and rings, the rest of the flesh being
white. On making a cross section of the beet root a drop of gum some-
times exuded within a few minutes from isolated points of the browned
vascular strand. The affected beets became flabby and shriveled length-
wise and in places showed a sticky sweat or an abundant exudation of
gummy masses through the uninjured surface, forming a lacquer-like
covering. In bad cases gum cavities appeared in the flesh from solution
of the tissues. The diseased beets contained a strikingly large amount

s

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 797

of grape sugar. This was determined by use of Barfold’s reagent. Two
milch cows fed on these roots died the second day. The symptoms were
bloating, pain in the abdomen, obstinate constipation, and the prolonged
vomiting of a tough yellow slime. In both cases pieces of the diseased
beets were found in the first stomach along with other food, and no other
reason for death was apparent. These beets (four varieties) were grown
on a porous clay soil containing 5% lime and 8% humus. The soil-
water level was 16 meters from the surface. The field had been very
heavily dunged with stable manure.

Il. THE HYACINTH (HYACINTHUS ORIENTALIS L).

1. THE YELLOW DISEASE (1883).

(I) THE DISEASE.

(1) Author, Title of Paper, Place of Publication—This disease
was described by Dr. J. H. Wakker, as a result of investiga-
tions begun in the fall of 1881 at the request of the Algemeene
Vereeniging voor Bloembollencultur te Haarlem, and was
carried on in the laboratories of the University of Amsterdam.
The first brief account appeared in 1883, in Botanisches
Centralblatt (Bd. XIV, pp. 315-316) and forms part of a (30)
Vorläufige Mittheilungen über Hyacinthenkrankheiten. The
following year a more extended account was published in
Dutch, (31) Het geel-of nieuwziek der Hyacinthen veroorzaakt
door Bacterium Hyacinthi Wakker (Onderzoek der Ziekten van
Hyacinthen, en andere bol-en knolgewassen. Verslag over het jaar
1883. Haarlem, August, 1884. 8vo, pp. 4-13, one colored
plate). Two additional papers were published in Dutch, con-
tinuing and concluding the one above mentioned, (32) Onder-
zoek etc., Verslag over het jaar 1884. Haarlem, May, 1885,
8vo, pp. 1-11, and (33) Onderzoek ete., Verslag over het jaar 1885.
Haarlem, May 1887, 8vo, pp. 1-5, and 27 to 37). These are
the important papers to read and the ones which have mostly
escaped mention. Finally, six years after the commencement
of the investigation, Dr. Wakker published a fifth paper,
entitled (34) Contributions à la pathologie végétale: I. La
maladie du jaune, ou maladie nouvelle des jacinthes, causée
par le Bacterium Hyacinthi (Archives néerlandaises d. Sci. ex. et
nat., tome XXIII, 1889, pp. 1-25, pl. I). This paper is merely

56

798 The American Naturalist. [Oċtober,

an abstract of the earlier Dutch papers. Part of the litho-
graphic figures in the plate are, however, new.

Remark.—The papers published by Dr. Wakker in 1883 and
1884 were among the first contributions of any importance to
the bacterial literature of plant diseases, but they were not,
as claimed, actually the first. That honor belongs to this
country, as we shall see later on when we come to take up
pear blight, Prof. T. J. Burrill having published a long paper
in 1880. The lack of literature and the difficulties in the way
of the successful prosecution of this work at that time are well
expressed in the Verslag for 1883: Als oorzaak van een
plantenziekte waren Bacterién nog slechts eenmaal en dot
wel zeer kort (Prillieux Bull. d.l. soc. bot. d. Fr. 1879, p. 31
and 187) beschreven zoodat het geval van het geelziek niet
alleen van praktisch, maar ook van hoog wetenschappelijk
gewicht is. Is daarom het onderzoek er van zeker her belang-
wekkendste van alle ziekten, waarmede wij ons hier zullen
bezighouden, het is ook tevens het moeilijkste omdat bij gebrek
aan mededeelingen omtrent dit of een dergelijk onderwerp
alles op eigen onderzoek berusten moet.

(2) Geographical Distribution—This disease has prevailed
extensively at times in the large bulb gardens in the Nether-
lands, where it is said by a majority of the Dutch horticultur-
ists to be a new trouble, i. e., one that has appeared within the
last ten years (31) or within the last 20 years (34). The
writer of this digest has never been able to find the disease in
bulbs imported from Holland, and does not remember to have
seen any account of its occurrence in other parts of the world.

(3) Symptoms.—According to Dr. Wakker the first symptoms
of the disease are usually in the foliar and floral organs.
There is an apical browning or blackening of the leaves and
scapes which color can often be traced downward into the green
leaves for some distance in the form of dark stripes. The epi-
dermis frequently ruptures longitudinally, and large irregular
masses of bacterial slime exude from the rifts. The diseased
parts also have a wet, unctuous appearance, and shrivel from
the apex downward. Subsequently the bulbs become dis-
eased, and clearly as a result of the preceding disease of the

Vat

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 799

foliar and floral organs. The earliest symptom of disease in the
bulb consists on cross-section, of yellow dots, visible here and
there in the interior of the scales or, on longitudinal section, of
yellow lines which frequently extend into the plateau. From
these spots, a mucilage swarming with bacteria can be obtained
in drops by squeezing the scales or simply by exposing the cut
bulb to the air. Sometimes the whole interior of the scale, or all
of its inner or outer part, degenerates into a mass of yellow
slime. Ifthe attack is rapid, the plateau is soon invaded and
the bulb rots in the ground during the fall or winter. If the
progress of the disease is slow, and this is usually the case, the
bulb sends up leaves and blossoms the following spring in the
ordinary manner. At this time or afterwards there are distinct
signs of the disease. In many cases the leaves turn yellow in
lines parallel to the longer axis of the leaf. These lines be-
gin at the base of the leaf and proceeding upward become less
and less visible until they entirely disappear. In the interior
of the leaf under these yellow stripes the bacterial slime is
abundant and on the lower parts of the leaf it frequently finds
its way to the surface, ruptures the epidermis and escapes. In
such plants the bulb is always badly diseased, especially the
outer scales which are the basal portion of the leaves of the
previous year, and this, taken in connection with the fact that
the bulbs are entirely sound in most cases where the symptoms
are only visible at the apex of the leaf, renders it very prob-
able that the latter is to be regarded as the first stage of the
disease and the former as a later stage, supervening the second
year. Another symptom, sometimes observed the second
year, is unequal growth, i. e., a distinct curving over of the
foliage toward that side of the plateau which has perished or
is no longer capable of furnishing the proper supply of water
and nutrient substances, the curvature being, of course, due to
the one-sided growth. Asa rule, diseased bulbs do not pro-
duce many bulblets, and not all of the latter are always diseased.
If planted out, those which are diseased show signs of the mal-
ady in the young plants after a longer or shorter period. The
leaves turn yellow, become flabby and droop, or show the
characteristic longitudinal rifts in the epidermis. When such

800 The American Naturalist. [October,

young bulbs are cut, the plateau (central short stem of the
bulb) is often found to be the only diseased part, something
inexplicable if we do not admit that the disease has been
transmitted to the bulblet from the mother bulb. Such isthe
usual form of the disease, but it will be understood that there
are numerons modifying circumstances, the disease sometimes
beginning lower down on the edge of the leaf, or even under-
ground, or progressing more rapidly, the latter especially
when the disease attacks full grown leaves and scapes. The
most cases of the first stage of the disease are noticed in the
field in May, but cases also occur much earlier in the year.
(4) Pathological Histology—tIn spring, in the first stage of the
disease, when only the tips of the leaves are attacked, micro-
scopic examination shows the bacterial slime to be present in
the intercellular spaces of the shrivelling leaf-parenchyma, but
always only in small quantity. From this part of the leaf the
bacteria may be traced long distances down the vascular
_ bundles, but have not yet reached the bulbs, the latter being
still entirely sound. Inautumn, on the contrary, cross sections
of the bulbs, if not too badly diseased, show numerous yellow
dots in the scales, and on microscopic examination these are
found to correspond to the xylem part of the vascular bundles
(No. 34, pl. I, figs. 9, 10). The vessels of the latter are seen
to be full of a thick, yellow slime, which often partially
dissolves them. Here and there, the whole xylem part of the
bundle may disappear, the yellow slime taking its place. In
this way are formed continuous, tubular cavities, filled with
isolated cells of the host plant, remnants of spiral threads, and
an innumerable number of bacteria. In this stage of the dis-
ease, the sieve tubes are not yet attacked, but these are subse-
quently destroyed, and frequently, also, the parenchymatic
tissues outside of the bundles, the substance which unites the
cells being first dissolved. The second spring, a microscopic
examination of the yellow striped leaves from diseased bulbs
shows a similar occupation of the vessels with the same
lesions, but in a reverse order, the bacteria being most abund-
ant and the destruction of tissues greatest in the basal part of
the leaf. Here the bacteria dissolve the walls of the vessels

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 801

and make their way into the surrounding tissues, first isolat-
ing and then destroying the parenchymatic cells and finally
Increasing to such an extent that the epidermis is ruptured
and a viscid, yellow ooze escapes. The vessels of the scape
are filled in the same way, but the bacterial slime was not ob-
served in the roots. The bacteria may be distinguished in
the vessels considerable distances in advance of any external
or macroscopic symptoms. The bacterial mucilage is a yellow
liquid, thick and viscid. Under a low power of the micro-
scope it shows a granular structure, this being due, as we
recognize on higher magnification, to the presence of bacteria.
Dr. Wakker describes at some length his method of examina-
tion: “The transverse sections must be made with extreme
care, such as is almost unknown in the ordinary study of veg-
etable anatomy. Not only is the affected tissue so soft that it
is impossible, in a fresh state, to cut sections sufficiently thin,
but there is also danger that the mucilage will be dragged by
the knife into parts of the leaf where originally there was not
a trace of it. To overcome these two difficulties good use was
made of absolute alcohol. The green color was removed by
this method while the yellow of the mucilage persisted, and,
in consequence, became much more distinct, so that it was
easier to distinguish diseased from healthy tissues.”

(5) Direct Infection Experiments.—This disease was studied be-
fore Koch’s plate method of isolation had come into general
use, and most of the infection experiments were made directly
from diseased to healthy plants. In the fall of 1882 bacteria
were introduced into a bulb of the double white Anna Maria,
and when this bulb was cut the next spring it showed distinct
signs of the disease. This experiment was frequently repeated
and always with the same result. For example, the whole cut
surface of the scales of a bulb from which roots and leaves were
cut away in summer was smeared with the bacterial slime, and
in 14 days the disease was to be found in the vascular bundles
of the youngest scales, and shortly after in those of the older.
Slightly diseased bulbs are the best parts from which to ob-
tain the bacteria. In badly diseased plants one runs the dan-
ger of finding all sorts of things, even Penicillium, in the de-

802 The American Naturalist. [October,

cayed mass; and from the leaves, before the disease has reached
the bulb, it is impossible to get a sufficient quantity of the
slime.

On March 27, 1884, small quantities of yellow slime were
taken from some slightly affected bulbs (double red Temple
of Apollo) and inserted into wounds made for this purpose in
the top of the leaves of different varieties. These were exam-
ined daily for signs of disease which first appeared, in most
cases, only aftera month. Distinct symptoms were apparent
but unfavorable circumstances caused the loss of the leaves
before the downward stripe had progressed very far. These
plants stood in pots in the open air and were watered regu-
larly, but the spring was very dry. Although in this case a
month elapsed before external symptoms appeared, it is not to
be inferred that so long a time always intervenes. On the
other hand it is likely that in natural infections even a longer
time may elapse before symptoms appear, since countless
numbers of the bacteria are used in artificial infections, while
natural infections are probably brought about in most cases
by the entrance of a few bacteria which would require more
time to produce visible results. On Oct. 27, 1884, the small
unfolding leaves of each of anumber of sound hyacinth bulbs
were wounded with a steel pen and some of the bacterial slime
inserted into these punctures. The bulbs were then potted,
kept in a place free from frost and examined from time to time.
On Jan. 13, 1885, one plant showed the disease very distinctly.
Two of the three infected leaves had stripes extending down-
ward from the wound, each about 13 mm. Here, also, a long
time intervened between the inoculation and the appearance
of external symptoms.

Another series of infection experiments was begun Dec. 28,
1885, and completed in the spring of 1886. These plants were
also inoculated with bacterial slime taken directly from dis-
eased plants. These experiments were made on five plants of
as many varieties, grown in carafes. All were kept in a cool
place until Feb. 13, when they were transferred to a room reg-
ularly warmed. The manner of inoculation and the results
obtained are here summarized: La Tour d’ Auvergne (double

1895.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 803

white variety). Bacteria introduced into a wound in the yel-
low part of a leaf. Results: Feb. 13. In bloom. Two small
streaks extending downward from the wound. Feb. 20. Leaf
accidentally broken. It was put immediately after into alco-
hol and subsequently hardened in absolute alcohol, where-
upon microscopic preparations made and stained in the way
already described, showed three vascular bundles attacked in
varying degrees. Two of them evidently corresponded to the
two little stripes on the leaf, while in the third bundle the dis-
ease had not made enough progress to be visible on the sur-
face of the green leaf. Norma (single red variety). Bacteria
introduced into the green tips of three leaves. Results: Feb.
13. In bloom. Ist leaf, nothing. 2nd leaf, a little spot two
millimeters above the wound. 3rd leaf, a similar spot below
the wound. Feb. 20. No change. Feb. 27. No change.
March 6. Nochange. March 20. Second leaf broken; 3rd
leaf show little spots 10 mm. below the wound, plant moved
into the open air. March 27. No change. April 3. No
change. Coeur blanc (single white variety). Bacteria intro-
duced into a wound in the yellow part of a leaf. Results:
Feb. 13. A stripe extending downward from the wound,
4mm. Feb. 20. In bloom. No change. Feb. 27. Length
of stripe 15 mm. March 6. Length of stripe 22 mm.
March 13. Length of stripe 25 mm., and small spots 10 mm.
lower. March 20. Length of stripe 27 mm., and small spots
22 mm. lower. Plant put into the open air. March 27.
Length of stripe 27 mm., and small spots 35 mm. lower.
April 3. Length of stripe 67 mm. Crown Prince Charles of
Sweden (double blue variety). Bacteria put into wounds at
the green apex of two leaves. Results: Feb. 13. Nothing.
Feb. 20. lst leaf, a downward stripe of 3} mm. from one of
the wounds. 2nd leaf, nothing. Feb. 27. 1st leaf, length of
stripe 15 mm., and small spots all around the wound. 2nd
leaf, nothing. March 6. In bloom. Length of stripe 17 mm.
March 13. Length of stripe 18 mm., and a small spot 4 mm.
lower. March 20. Very little change. Plant put undera
bell jar on a dish containing water. March 27. Length of
stripe 22 mm. Bell jar removed because leaf began to turn

804 The American Naturalist. [October,

yellow. April 3. No change. Anna Maria (double white
variety). Fragments of diseased tissue introduced into wounds
in the green tips of three leaves. Results: Feb. 13. A down-
ward stripe from one of the wounds, length 10mm. On the
other two leaves nothing. Feb. 20. In bloom. Length of
stripe, 17 mm. On the other two leaves nothing. March 6.
Length of stripe 35 mm., and small spots 10 mm. lower.
March 13. Length ofstripe 45 mm. The stripe and border-
ing tissues have dried up for a distance of 35mm. March 20.
Length of stripe 55 mm., and small spots 15 mm. lower. Dis-
eased part dry for a length of 50 mm. Leaf bent by the dry-
ing of one side. Plant put out-doors. March 27. Length
of stripe 90 mm. Dry for a length of 55 mm. April 3.
Length of stripe 94 mm.

Measurements were not made after April 3, but subse-
quently all of the diseased leaves were removed, placed in al-
cohol, hardened in absolute alcohol, and examined microscop-
ically in the same manner as the leaf already mentioned, and
with the same result. On the same date, Dec. 28, 1885, a
quantity of bulbs, including the above varieties, were also in-
fected and were planted out of doors where they were exposed
freely to the air. Up to April 3 there were no signs of disease
but a little later symptoms appeared in most of the plants.
From these experiments the author draws the following con-
clusions: (1) the Geelziek or maladie du jaune can be induced
artificially, and (2) the results of the infection make their ap-
pearance a long time after the operation.

(To be continued.)

1896.] Editor’s Table. 805

EDITOR’S TABLE.

Tue late meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science while less numerously attended than some others, was a
larger gathering than has sometimes represented it. The meetings of
the Association cannot be as large relatively to our population as those
of most of the European nations, because of the longer distances which
the members are compelled to transverse in order to reach them, Many
of the most active workers must always be absent in the field during
the summer months, especially so long as our country presents such
opportunities for original research. The summer schools take away
some members. The meeting at Buffalo was held in such a way as to
discourage the attendance of those who regard it as merely an oppor-
tunity for junketting. The meetings extended from Monday to Friday
inclusive, and Saturday only was reserved for excursions. This
arrangement was greatly to the advantage of work, the maintainance _
of interest, and of the attendance. The members present were more
than usually conspicuous as workers, and the number and value of
the papers read was fully up to the best standard.

The Association decided to meet in Detroit at the unusually early
date of August 9th, next year. This date was fixed on account of the
approaching meeting of the British Association at Toronto on August
18th following. A cordial invitation from the citizens of Toronto to
take part in the reception of the British Association was accepted, and
this will follow the meeting at Detroit.’ A respectable minority of the
Association thought that we should suspend our meeting for that year,
or meet formally for organization only, and then adjourn to take part
in the reception of the British Association. This view carried the
Nominating Committee, but was not approved by the Association.
That the Association did wisely there can be no doubt, and the circum-
stance shows that all the wisdom in that body is not concentrated in
its representatives in the Nominating Committee. The reasons put
forth by the Committee for its action were plausible, but were believed
to be fallacious by a large majority of the Association. One of these
reasons was the assumption that the American Association meeting
would necessarily be neglected by its members if the British Associa-
tion meet in Toronto. The Association thought otherwise, especially as
it was remembered that the second largest meeting ever held was in

* Not however by special adjournment as stated in Nature of Sept. 17, p. 480.

806 The American Naturalist. [October,

Philadelphia in 1884 when the British Association met in Montreal.
As the American Association knows its own mind, we may look for
one of our largest meetings in Detroit in 1897.

In our issue for October, 1895, we referred to the organization of
the Field Museum of Chicago as having failed to furnish a successful
basis of operations for the prosecution of original research. At that
time most of the men who could give reputation to it had left, owing
to the unsatisfactory positions in which they found themselves placed.
Subsequently the establishment of publications of a very meritorious
character induced us to believe that proper steps had been taken by
the management to place the scientific men on such a basis as to insure
the future prosperity of the enterprise. Authentic information recently
received shows that this anticipation was premature. Other resigna-
tions have occurred, and the institution is evidently destined to be a
failure unless a reorganization is effected.

Men who have spent their lives in mercantile pursuits are generally
unacquainted with the conditions necessary to original research in
science. The modus operandi in the two pursuits is fundamentally dif-
ferent. An element of tentative experiment enters into the pursuit of
science, which requires a degree of freedom on the part of the investi-
gator which cannot be accorded to the regular employee, the results of
whose work are always susceptible of full anticipation. The investiga-
tor must have full control of material of research and of the ways of
getting it. In fact no one else is likely to know how to get it. He
alone knows the profitable lines of work ; hence he must be permitted
to select his work. No one will secure a museum sooner than he, and
it will be as much more valuable than can be created by any one else,
as the work of an expert is necessarily more important than that of
other persons. For these and many other reasons no museum can be-
come great unless its administration is in control of scientific experts,
who should be responsible to each other and to the trustees only,
With an organization of this kind, composed of the class of men from
whom it has already selected some of its aids, there is no reason why
the Field Museum, under the liberal terms of its endowment, should
not rival the greatest museums of the world.

—WEeE must again remind contributors to the NATURALIST that
proofs of all kinds and blocks of engravings must be sent to the pub-
lishers and not to the managing editor. Failure to observe this rule
often causes inconvenient delays. Manuscripts,on the other hand,
should go to the appropriate editors, and not to the publishers.

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 807

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, J. A.—Note ən Macrogeomys cherriei (Allen). Extr. Bull. Amer.
Mus. Ni. Hist., Vol. VIII, 1896.

— Alleged Charis of Color in the Feathers of Birds age Poria
Extr. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, 1896. From the a

Bancs, O.—The Florida Deer. Extr. Proceeds. Biol. Soc. anaE Feb.,
1896.

r ?
a new Subspecies. Extr. Proceeds. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 27, 1896. From
the author.

Baur, G.—Cope on the Temporal Part of the Skull, and on the Systematic
Position of the Mosasauridae—a reply. Extr. Amer. Nat. 1895, p.

——tThe Paroccipital of the Squamata and the Affinities of the Ai vesdnrttlec
once more—a rejoinder to Prof. Cope. Extr. Amer. Nat., 1896
Nachtrag zu meiner Nutteilung über die Moiğhoiitė da Unterkiefers der
Reptilien. Aus Anat. Anz., XI Bd., 1896

— ebiss von Sphenodon (Hatteria) und einige Bemerkungen über
Prof. Rud. Burckhardt’s Arbeit über das Gebiss der Sauropsiden, 1. c., XI, Bd.,

1895. From the author

Browne, M. hini and Scientific Taxidermy and Modeling. London,
1896, Adam and Charles Black, Pub. From Macmillan and Co.

BUTLER, G. W.—On the Complete or Partial Suppression of the Right Lung in
the CTPA E and of the Left Lung in Snakes and Snake-like Lizards and
Amphibians. Extr. Proceeds. Zool. Soc. London, Nov. 19, 1895. From the
author.

CALVERT, P. P.—Notes on the Odonata from East Africa, collected by the
Chanler Expedition. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus, Vol. XVIII, 1895.

CAMPBELL, D. H.—The Structure and Development of the Mosses and Ferns.
London and New York, 1895 From Macmillan and Co., Pub.

CHITTENDEN, F. H.—Two New Species of Beetles of the Tenebrionid genus
Echocerus. Extr. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1895. From the Mus

CLARK, W. B. BUES Climatic Features of Maryland. Extr. Meteorol.
Journ., Jan., 189

igin a. Chins! fiedtion of the Green sands of New Jersey. Extr. Journ.

Geol.. Vol. IT, 1894.

——Cretaceous Deposits of the Northern Half of the Atlantic Coastal Plain.

——Memorial of George Huntington Williams. Extrs. Bull. Geol. Mag., Vol.
6, 1894.

——The Potomac River Section of the Middle Atlantic Coast Eocene. Extr.
Amer. Journ. Sci., May, 1896. From the author.

Conn, H. W. LBedteria Í in the Dairy. Extr. Storr’s Agric. Exper. Station
Sept., 1895. From the author

808 The American Naturalist. (October,

Cook, O. F.—East African Diplopoda of the Suborder Polydesmoidea, col-
lected by W. A. Chanler.

——An Arrangement of the Geophilidae, a Family of Chilopoda.

——On Geophilus attenuatus Say, of the Class Chilopoda.

Sin eager a New Genus of Diplopoda from Surinam.

o New Diplopod Miriapoda of the Genus Oxydesmus from wre a.

Extrs. foc U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1895. From the Mus

Corr, E. D.—A Batrachian psi adillo. Extr. Amer. Nat., 1895, p

Dawson, WM.—On Collections of Tertiary Plants from the Vicinity of the City
of Vancouver. Extr. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada (2), 1895-96, Vol. I. From

or.
DEPERET, M. C.—Observations à propos de la note sur la nomenclature des
terrains pii p eR par } y Munier-Chalmas et de Lapparent. Extr. C.
eol. de France, Feb,
sar yi 9 ie de Dinars Sauropodes 2 Pe iei dans le Crétacé
supérieur de Madagas Extr. Comptes Rendus

—Résultates des Pisa paléontologiques a js Hran supérieur de la
colline de Montredon.

——Sur les pubs ae de la région d’Uzés. Extrs. Comptes
Rendus, 1895. From the

Doranp, J. P.—Les scutes animales de homme, T par la physiologie
et anatomie comparative. Paris, 1871. From the au

Fıs, P. A.—The Use of Formalin in Neurology. be. Yee Microscop.
Soc., Vol. XVII, 1896.

ci Action of Strong Currents of Electricity upon Nerve Cells. L.c.
From the author

GIARD, TE direction des recherches biologiques en France et la conversion
de M. Yoes Delage. Extr. Bull. Scientif. de la France t. XXVII, 1896, From
the author.

Horm, T.—Fourth List of Additions ie w Flora of Fahingion, D. C. Extr.

Fay Biol. Soc. Washington, Feb.,

Howarp, L. O.—The Grass and Gan Sest-worn Flies and their Allies. ©
Techn. Series No. 2, U. S. Dept. Agric. Div. Entomol., Washington, 1896. From
the Dept

Howarp, L. O. AND C. L. MARLATT.—A Full Account of the San Jose Scale,
its Life History, its Occurrence in the United States and the Remedies to be
used against it. Bull. No.3 (n. s.) U. S. Dept. Agric. Div. Entomol. Washing-
ton, 1896. From the Dept.

JACKSON, R. Studies of Paleéchinoidea. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol.

96.

Jackson, R. AND T. A. JAGGAR, JR.—Studies of Melonites multiporus. Extr.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 7, 1896.

KENDALL, Drip of a New Species of Pipe-fish (Siphostoma scovelli)
from Corpus Christi, Texas. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus, Vol. XVIII,
1895.

Lopeman, E. G.—The Spraying of Plants. New York and London, 1896.
From Maccuiften and Co., Pub.

1896.] Mineralogy and Crystallography. 809

Marcou, J.—Life, Letters and Works of Louis Agassiz. Vols. I & II. New
York, 1896. From McMillian and Co., Pu

Marsu, O. ©.—Address TEN p National Academy of Sciences, April 19,
1895. From the Sec. of the Soc

Memoirs of the National Lin tent of Sciences, Vol. VII. Washington,
1895

Mirani G. P.—Notes on Asbestos and Abestiform parii Extr. Pro-
ceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1895. From the Mus ;
Report of yi Commissioner of Education for the a r 1892-98. Vol. I.
Washington, 1

Report of Pe p ational Academy of Sciences for 1895. Washington, 1896.

Ripeway, R.—Preliminary Description of Some New Birds from the Galapa-
gos Archipelago. Extr. Proceeds. U.S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1895.

RUSSIAN GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.—Materialien zur Geologie Russlands, Bd. XVII.
St. hese 1895. From the Soc. Imp. Mineralogique.

—— Bibliothèque Geologique de la Russie 1894. St. Petersburg, 1895. Sup-
plement to T. XIV, Bull. Comite Geol.

—— Bulletins du Comite Geologique. St. Petersburg, XIII. Nos. 8, 9; XIV,
Nos. 1-5, 1895. The Geol. Surv. of Russ

— Memoirs de Comite Geologique. Vol. IX, No. 4, 1895; Vol. X, Nos. 3
and 4, 1895; Vol. XIV, Nos. 1 and 3, 1895. From the Geol. Surv. of Russia.

SMITH, go F.—The Watermelon Wilt and other Diseases due to Fusarium.

——tThe Southern a Blight. Extrs. Amer. Asso. Ady. Sci,, Vol, XLIV,

1895. has ee auth

General Notes.

MINERALOGY AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.

Development of Faces on Crystals.—Gaubert? makes a con-
tribution to the subject of the growth of crystal faces by means of his
experiments with the alums. An octahedron of chrome alum, on solu-
tion in its mother liquor, is rounded at its edges and angles. When
the solution becomes again saturated, and the crystal begins to grow,
faces of the forms (100), (110), (211) and (221) are developed, but
disappear on continued growth, leaving finally only the octahedron
(111). Experiments with crystals of chrome and potassium alum
prove that the same faces are developed when the rounding is done
mechanically instead of by solution. Potassium alum from pure water
gives the form of octahedron and cube, but by rounding (211) and
(221) may be caused to grow.

1 Edited by Prof. A. C. Gill, Cornell University, sina N. X:
? Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 141-143, 1895.

810 The American Naturalist. [October,

Crystals of lead nitrate and of barium nitrate also develop transitory
faces when rounded, returning to the original form of cubo-octahedron
on continued growth. Miers has observed the formation of the face
(221) by the extremely slow solution of the potassium alum crystals.
Hence, it seems that these “ transitory planes” may be formed either
by corrosion or by growth of a rounded crystal.

Albite from Lakous, Island of Crete.— Viola, by his paper on
the new occurrence of albite at Lakous, adds another to the list of
carefully investigated pure chemical substances. An analysis by
Mattirolo, given at the end of the article, shows close agreement with
the theoretical values for Na Al Si,O, as may be seen from the follow-
ing:

Found. Theoretical.
SiO, 68.35 68.70
Al,O, 19.78 19.47
Na,O 11.71 11.83
K,O 16
Ign 15

100.39 100.00

Measurements on twelve crystals, varying from 73 to 20 mm. in di-
ameter, agree very well in giving as crystallographic constants: = =
94° 14’ 30”, 8 — 116° 31’ 45”, y = 88° 5’ 1”, and 4: b : e = .635: 1 :.557.
The extinction angle measured against the trace 001 in a section cut
parallel to 010 is 21° 30’, in the section 001 it is 3°30’. The optical
angle is approximately -+ 80°. Inclusions of a member of the chlorite
group are found in a number of the crystals, and some small scales of
hematite in others.

Forsterite from Monte Somma.—The specimens seem to be of
unusual chemical purity, hence the data given by Arzruni* on the
the basis of investigations by himself, Jolles and Thaddéeff are doubt-
less near the true values for pure Mg, SiO,. The axial ratio is found to
be a: b : c =.46663: 1: .58677. Cleavage parallel to 010, distinct.
In addition to the previously observed method of twinning, the plane
031 is reported as a twinning plane.

3Tscherm. Mitth., XV, pp. 135-158, 1895.
` 4Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 471-476.

1896.] Mineralogy and Orystallography. 811

The plane of the optical axes is the base, and the optical angle is
85° 38’ for lithium, 85° 45’ for sodium, and 85° 56’ for the thallium
light.

The results of analysis are:

I. I.
SiO, 42.65 42.39
FeO 1.35 3.12
MgO 56.57 55.09
CaO 29
Al,O, 23
100.86 100.83
Sp. G. 3.223 3.245

The ratios RO: SiO, are 2.018:1 and 2.01:1 respectively, after de-
duction for probable impurities.

Fayalite and the Chrysolite-Fayalite Group.—Penfield and
Forbes found the fayalite from Rockport, Mass., suitable for optical
and other investigations. The mineral was found in the shape of a
lenticular shell in massive hornblende-biotite granite. The color is a
dark resinous green, though the light transmitted by the thin edges is
yellowish. The purified powder has a specific gravity of 4.318 (aver-
age of 3 determinations). The average of the two analyses is:

SiO, 30.08
FeO 68.12
MnO 72
H,O 80

99.80

The cleavages are 001 and 010, and the reported occurrence of a
cleavage 100 is considered a mistake.

The plane of the optical axes is the base, and the double refraction is
negative. For sodium light. =» 1.8236, = 1.8642, y= 1.8736,
giving y-= =.050. The macro-axis is the acute bisectrix, Vy = 25°
18’,

A specimen of hortonolite from Monroe, N. Y., was also investigated.
The table given below exhibits at a glance the effect of the iron on the
optical characters of the chrysolite-fayalite group :

5 Am. Jour. Sci., CLI, pp. 129=135, Feb., 1896.

812 The American Naturalist. [October,

% FeC 2 V (over œ) B

Fayalite Rockport, 68.1 49° 50 1.864

Hortonolite Monroe, 47.3 69° 24’ 1.791

Chrysolite, Auvergne, 13.0 89° 36’ 1.692

Chrysolite, Vesuvius, 12.6 89° 42’

Chrysolite, Hawaii, 10.3 wi

Chrysolite, Egypt, 9.2 91° 19 1.678

Chrysolite, N. M., 8.6 91° 24’

Chrysolite, Unknown, ? 92° 14’ 1.678

Chrysolite, East Indies, l 92° 45’ 1.670
. Forsterite, Vesuvius, 2 (2) 93° 50’ 1.657

At about 12% FeO, therefore, the optical character changes from
positive to negative.

Rhodophosphite and Tetragophosphite.—The rare mineral
locality at Horrsjéberg in Wermland, Sweden, is the source of these
two new minerals recently described by Igelström. The rhodophos-
phite occurs in large quantities in layers reaching a thickness of 2%
feet, so that it can be mined profitably. At one locality it is found in
the form of hexagonal prisms. From the partial analysis, it appears
to be chiefly a calcium phosphate, with considerable quantities of fer-
rous iron and manganese, also chlorine, fluorine, and sulphuric acid.
The formula proposed is 20 (RO), P,O, + 4 (Ca Cl,, CaF,) + Ca SO,,
where R= Ca, Mn, Fe, or Mg. The mineral is allied to svanbergite.

Tetragophouphius oceurs in “ four-sided ” plates, or as a coating on
he containing cyanite-damourite rock. The two an-

alyses are:
PO; : 36.92 33.64
Al,O, 40.00 41.81
FeO, MnO 951 9.51
MgO, CaO 7.50 6.74
H,O 5.96 8.30

These lead to the formula (Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca), P,O, + (AI,O,),
P,O, + 3H,0. It is somewhat lighter blue than lazulite, which it
seems here to replace. The . Gusblatt-phosphat ” (light blue phos-
phate) from the Westana Mts., Prov. Skane, Sweden, analyzed by
Blomstrand in 1868 seems to be undoubtedly the same mineral. He
assigned the formula (Ca, Mg), P,O, + (AI,0,), P,O, + 3H,0.

6 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 433-436, 1895.

1896.] Mineralogy and Crystallography. 813

Miscellaneous Notes.—Von Zeynek’ notes the occurrence of
sulphur deposited in the canals carrying 1,000,000 gallons of water per
day from the hot springs at Warasdin-Téplitz in Croatia.—Rohrer®
gives results of two very careful analyses of hematite from Elba. The
average of the two is as follows: SiO, .49, Fe,O, 98.60, CaO .42, MgO
.74, total 100.25.—In an article on the contact of minerals of the Ad-
amello Group of mountains in South Tyrol, Salomon’ gives a detailed
discussion of the Wernerite from Breno, with much of the literature
relating to that mineral—Dupare and Stroesco” have recorded the re-
sults of their observations on the crystalline form and optical behavior
of thymoquinone and eleven of its derivatives——Gentil" describes the
occurrence of large bundles of yellowish-white somewhat altered silli-
manite needles in pegmatite from Algeria. Veins of albite and plates
of muscovite are also mentioned. The same author” makes a note of
thomsonite, stilbite and analcite from an altered basic volcanic rock
occurring near Dellys in the province of Algiers.—De Gramont” is led
by the observation of the electric spark between fragments of certain
minerals which are good conductors of electricity, to astudy of the spectra
of the sparks thus produced. This method promises to be useful for the
rapid determination of certain minerals, and for the detection of in-
cluded substances which are present only in traces. The lines of the
non-metallic, as well as of the metallic elements may be observed.
De Gramont also describes the apparatus used by him, and gives the
details concerning the spectra obtained from air from twenty-four of
the elements, and from about a hundred minerals.—Termier™ calls at-
tention to the two forms of the dimorphous substance PbO. r dis-
cussing the optical and crystallographic properties of the orthorhombic
modification, he shows that its crystals are grouped to imitate a higher
symmetry. PbO is, therefore, a good example of a substance which
not only shows pseudo-symmetry by the grouping of the separate crys-
tals, but also appears in a second form in which the molecular grouping
follows an allied higher symmetry.—Gonnard,” in an article on French

*Tscherm. Mitth., XV, p. 192, 1895.

* Tscherm. Mitth., XV, pp. 184-187, 1895.

*Tscherm. Mitth., XV, pp. 159-183, 1895.

1 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 126-141, 1895.

" Bull. Soe. Fr, Min, XVIII, pp. 170-171, 1895.

"2 L, c., p. 374.

8 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 173-373, 1895.

“" Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 376-380, 1895.

16 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 382--390, 1895.
57

814 The American Naturalist. [October,

siderites, adds to the thirteen forms of that mineral previously known
the three rhombohedra (0332), (3034), and (1012).—Termier and
Richard” conclude from their study of crystals of Ca,P,O, occurring
in the slags of the iron works at Kladno, that they are poendopttbo
rhombic, composed of monoclinic lamellæ. Measurements of the ap-
parently orthorhombic form agree well enough with those of Miers to
show that both had to deal with the same substance. The specific
gravity is 2.93-3.1, mean index of refraction, about 1.64. For red
light, 2 V = 20° (?), and for blue light it is about 40°.—O. Norden-
skidld" finds edingtonite from Bédhlet, Sweden, to be orthorhombic
hemihedral instead of tetragonal hemihedral, as previously supposed.
Sp. G. = 2.776, plane of optical axes = 010, negative bisectrix parallel
to the vertical axis, 2 V for lithium light = 52° 47’, for sodium = 52°
55, and for thallium 53° 10’. The indices of refraction for the above
kinds of light are also determined. The mean index for sodium light
is 1.5492,and the double refraction is .016. In conclusion, the simi-
larity of form with that of mesotype is shown by the axial ratios :
Edingtonite a:b: c = .9872: 1: .6733
esotype a:b: 2c = .9785:1:.7072

—Goldschmidt* figures and describes a projection goniometer by
means of which the position of crystal faces is projected directly upon
paper, thus doing away with the reading of angles and with trigono-
metrical computation. The instrument seems to be in many ways con-
venient, but does not give the highest degree of accuracy. A contact
goniometer of similar action is also briefly mentioned.

PETROGRA PHY:

Geology of Point Sal, California.—The geology of Point Sal,
the extreme northwestern corner of Santa Barbara County, California,
has been carefully worked out by Fairbanks’ with special reference to
the igneous rocks found there. The sedimentary rocks constituting the
point and the adjacent country are of miocene.or later age. They

16 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 291-295, 1895.

1 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII. pp. 395--398, 1895.

18 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 538--560, 1895.

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.
2 Bull. Dep. Geol. Univ. of Cal., Vol. 2, p. 1.

1896] Petrography. 815

comprise volcanic ashes, gypsiferous clays and bituminous shales, the
last named of which were regarded by Lawson as tuffs. The present
author declares them to be organic deposits. The igneous rocks
which penetrate these beds are all basic. They include gabbros,
peridotites, basalts, diabases and rocks similar to those heretofore de-
scribed as analcite diabases. These latter are all now considered by
the author as representing the otherwise practically unknown type of
the teschenites. The augitic variety of this rock has the general
structure of the diabases, in which are large poikilitic plates of augite.
Between the diabasic constituents are polyhedral grains of analcite,
and, in what appear to have been cavities in the rock-mass, are little
groups of crystals and crystalline masses of the same mineral. The pla-
gioclase in the rock is all zonal with nuclei of labrodorite surrounded
by concentric zones of a more and more acid feldspar, the peripheral
one being albite. An analysis of a coarse grained specimen gave :

SiO, Al,O, FeO, FeO CaO MgO K,O Na,O P,O, Ign. Total
49.61 19.18 2.12 5.01 10.05 4.94 1.04 5.62 .27 3.55=101.39

which corresponds very nearly to 43.3 per cent feldspar, with a density
of 2.57, 32.3 per cent augite, 20 per cent analcite, 4 per cent magnetite
and .04 per cent apatite. All of the analcite is supposed to be an alter-
ation product of nepheline.

The basalts of the region include two types. One is the usual variety
and the other an amygdaloidal and spheroidal variety that is intruded
by diabases and diabasic gabbros. These last named rocks grade into
one another. Both contain hornblende, some of which is regarded as
secondary and some as primary. In addition to the diabasic-gabbros
there are others associated with peridotites (and serpentines) in such a
manner that both rocks are regarded as differentiated products of the
same magma. The gabbro is sometimes massive. At other times it is
possessed of a gneissic structure, often attended by a striping produced
by the alternation of augitic and feldspathic bands. The structure is
concluded, after study, to be the result of stretching.

Among the other basic rocks identified in the gabbro-peridotite com-
plex are anorthosites, diorites, norites, lherzolites, picrites, saxonites,
wehrlites, dunites and pyroxenites. Each type is well described and a
discussion of the banding noticed in many of them is given in some
detail.

Leucite-Basanites of Vulcanello.—After studying carefully
the rocks on Vulcanello in the Lispari Islands, Bäckström’ concludes

* Geol. För. i Stockh. Férhanl., XVIII, p: 155.

816 The American Naturulist. [October,

that the greater portion of them are leucite-basanites. They all con-
tain phenocrysts of augite, labradorite, olivine and magnetite in a
groundmass which is sometimes a holocrystalline aggregate of oligo-
clase, orthoclase, leucite and magnetite, and at other times of numerous
leucites, small augites and iron oxides in a glassy matrix. The rocks
are regarded as effusive types of lamprophyres (minettes or kersantites)
a supposition which is the more probable from the fact that the effu-
sives in the Lipari province are mainly feldspathic basalts, andesites,
liparites and trachytes. Biotite and leucite are thought to be comple-
mentary minerals—the former separating from a siliceous magma under
considerable pressure, and the latter from a magma of the same com-
position under surface pressure, under conditions favorable to the escape
of the mineralizers fluorine and water. Leucite is not confined to
rocks rich in potash, nor is it necessarily characteristic of these. Its
place may often be taken by biotite.

A Squeezed Quartz-Porphyry.—A squeezed quartz-porphyry
- is described by Sederholm‘ as occurring at two places in the Parish of
Karvia in Province Abo, Finland. In both it appears as dykes cut-
ting granite. The rock consists mainly of microcline phenocrysts to
which are often added growths of new microcline in optical continuity
with the original crystals, phenocrysts of an acid plagioclase surrounded
in many cases by microcline substance and quartz phenocrysts in a
groundmass of orthoclase and quartz. The twinning of the microcline
is more largely developed around quartz enclosures in the phenocrysts
and near quartz veins than elsewhere in the crystals. The porphyritic
quartzes occasionally retain their dehenhedral contours, but usually
they are much deformed in outline and in their optical characteristics.
Often the quartzes are so shattered that they now constitute lenticular
areas of a quartz mosaic. The structure of the groundmass is in sev-
eral types. In the most important one it consists of a micropegmatite
of orthoclase and quartz containing shreds of chlorite, which in some
cases are distributed so as to exhibit a fluidal arrangement. The gran-
ite through which the porphyry cuts is a coarse grained porphyritic
variety composed of oligoclase, biotite and hornblende. On the con-
tact with the dyke rocks it is crushed and much epidote is developed
in it. Under the microscope it presents the usual aspects of a dynam-
ically metamorphosed rock. In his discussion concerning the name to
be applied to the porphyry, the author quotes from a letter by Dr, Wil-
liams in which the prefix ‘apo’ is defined as signifying that the rock
+ Bull. Com. Geol. d’Finlande, No. 2, 1895.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 817

to which it refers has e changed from its original character through
devitrification.

Mica-Syenites at Rothschonberg.—Two dykes of mica-syenite
cut the phyllite formation near Rothschönberg, Saxony, producing in
the neighboring rocks contact metamorphism. One of the dykes weath-
ers spheroidally, and in the kernels of the spheroids fresh material for
study was afforded Henderson, who found the rock to be composed of
orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, biotite, apatite and several accessory
components. The feldspar and quartz both occur in grains and in
crystals, the biotite in flakes. An analysis of the rock gave the figures
below (I).

The second occurrence differs little from the first. Muscovite is pres-
ent as well as biotite, otherwise the two rocks are practically alike in
mineral composition. Its chemical composition is shown in (II).

SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O CO, S Total
- I. 61.40 16.66 7.46 2.08 3.65 2.938 4.75 .76 154 .20—=101.43
II. 57.63 16.47 5.87 5.25 4.44 3.12 5.15 .45 2.14 .95—100.97

The structure of both rocks was panidiomorphic, although the develop-
ment of secondary quartz renders them now hypidiomorphic. They
are syenitic aplites. In the neighboring phyllites new biotite has been
abundantly developed and hornblende has been produced in some
quantity. The free silica which is abundant in the unaltered phyllites
has become combined with metallic elements in the altered forms.
While the percentage of silica in specimens taken at 2 meters and 11
meters from the contact and at the contact is the same, the free quartz
in the first is 43.38 per cent of the rock’s mass, in the second 38.94 per
cent and in the third 34.06 per cent.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Cambrian Rocks of Pennsylvania.—During the years 1892
and ’93, Mr. Walcott made an examination of the rocks of Cambrian
southeastern Pennsylvania for the purpose of determining whether the
lower quartzites with their superjacent limestones were of the same
geologic age, in the areas included between the Potomac and Susque-
hanna and the Delaware and Susquehanna Rivers. The results of his
work are published in bulletin form by the U. S. Geological Survey.

ê Zeits. d. geol. Ges., XLVII, p. 534.

818 The American Naturalist. [October,

Mr. Walcott began the investigation in York County, where he de-
termined the stratigraphic position of the Chickies quartzites and the
York shales which are subjacent to the Lancaster (York Frazer) lime-
stone. Paleontologic evidence shows them to be of Lower Cambrian
age. The fauna of the main body of the limestone of York County, as
shown by collections from three separate localities, is Cambrian. These
localities indicate respectively, an Upper Olenellus zone, a horizon
between the Lower and Middle Cambrian, and a lower horizon of the
Middle Cambrian.

The discovery of Lower Cambrian fossils in the compressed syncline
of limestone in Lancaster County, south of Columbia, indicates that the
limestone on the west side of the river is of the same geologic age, and
that the shales and schists beneath it are of Lower Cambrian age.

Mr. Walcott states that in York County there is no sedimentary
rock other than the mesozvie new red sandstone—of later age than the
Cambrian, unless it be the Peach Bottom slates and chlorite-schists of
the southeastern corner of the country. He also thinks it probable from
the closely related structure of Lancaster County that all the Lancas-
ter limestones will fall within the Cambrian, unless it be some portions
of the upper series, which may pass into the Ordovician. He applies
this generalization to the entire extension of this series of limestone
northeastward to the Delaware.

All of the quartzites that have been referred to the Potsdam neces-
sarily fall into the Lower Cambrian, as they are beneath the limestones.

The South Mountain chain, as stated by Professor Lesley and Dr.
Frazer, consists of two groups of rocks, a quartzite and an orthofelsite
series, the latter being considered the superior series. Mr. Walcott’s
investigations lead him to a different interpretation of the geologic
structure of the mountain and the relations of the rocks composing it.
He finds that the “ orthofelsite ” is in reality the lower series, and that
the complicated structure of the mountain arises “ partly from folding,
but more largely from the westward thrusts of masses of strata along
the lines of fault of a low hade. This westward thrusting on the fault
plane, complicated by previous folding of the strata, leaves masses of
the subjacent, pre-Paleozoic rocks resting in various places on differ-
ent members of the Lower Cambrian series, and also appears to inter-
bed the quartzites and schists of the Cambrian in the schists, eruptives,
etc., of the Algonkian.”

The following are the concluding remarks in the section on Corre-
lation :

1896.] Geology and Paleontotogy. 819

“The discovery of the Olenellus or Lower Cambrian fauna in the
Reading sandstone practically completes the correlation of the South
Mountain, Chickies and Reading quartzites, and establishes the cor-
rectness of the early correlations of McClure, Eaton, Emmons and
Rogers. They all considered the basal quartzite as the same formation
from Vermont to Tennessee; and the discoveries of recent years have
proved that the basal sandstones of Alabama, Tennessee and Virginia
(Chilhowee quartzite); Maryland, Pennsylvania and New Jersey
(Reading quartzite) ; New York and Vermont (Bennington quartzite),
were all deposited in Lower Cambrian time, and that they contain the
characteristic Olenellus fauna throughout their geographic distribution.
The superjacent limestones carry the Olenellus fauna in their lower
portions in northern and southern Vermont, eastern New York, New
Jersey and Pennsylvania. To the south of Pennsylvania the lower
portions of the limestones appear to be represented by shales, and the
Upper and Middle Cambrian faunas are found in the lower half of the
Knox dolomite series of Tennessee, and they will probably be discov-
ered in the same series in Virginia and Maryland when a thorough
search is made for them. The same may be predicted, but with less
assurance, for the northern belt of limestone crossing Pennsylvania into
New Jersey as the limestones between the Olenellus zone and the
Trenton zone represent the intervals of the Middle and Upper Cam-
brian and the Lower Ordovician, or the Calciferous and Chazy zones of
the New York section.”

Nothing was discovered upon which could be based a line of demarca-
tion between the Cambrian and Ordovician linestones in the series
under discussion. The division is still an open question to be decided
by future revelations of lithologicand paleontologic characters. (Bull.
U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 134, Washington, 1896.)

Structure of Uintacrinus.—Since Uintacrinus was first made
known by Grinnell, some twenty years ago, little notice has been taken
of the form. Of late, however, special interest in the type has been
revived, and the form comes in for consideration in several important
articles. Among them are W. B. Clark’s review of the Mesozoic
Echinodermata of the United States’, in which all known material is
described, and the structure amply illustrated by figures. Shortly
after Williston and Hill’ gave some “ Notes on Uintacrinus socialis ”
as found in Kansas. Still more recently Bather’ has gone over all the

1U. S. Geol. Sur., Bull. 97, pp. 21-24, 1893.

2? Kansas Univ. Quarterly, Vol. ITI, pp. 19-21, 1894.

* Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1895, pp. 974-1004, 1896.

820 The American Naturalist. [ October,

available data, and has made the type of Uintacrinus the subject of a
a special morphological study. In this treatment the previous work is
briefly referred to; but some of it receives criticism that it does not
appear to deserve, particularly since the foundation of most of the
adverse comments lies not in any material error in the work referred
to, but in what is manifestly a clear misinterpretation or hasty perusal
of that work. It is to certain of these points in the structure of the
form that attention is directed in the present note. In making the
correction, however, it is not with the idea of reflecting on Mr. Bather’s
paper as a whole, for it is one of the most excellent contributions to
echinoderm morphology that has yet appeared. The original figures in
question from Bulletin 97 of the U. S. Geological Survey are herewith
reproduced (Plate XV) in order to make more intelligible the exact
points under consideration.

In the memoir mentioned considerable space is occupied in criticising
a recent account of the species; but most, if not all of the objections
urged against Doctor Clark’s work, are certainly more imaginary than
real. Professor Clark’s figures come in for special condemnation as
violating the fundamental law of the alternation of the pinnules. Asa
matter of fact his plate which is reproduced in the Proceedings as Plate
LVI, to point out the alleged errors, not only shows that the accom-
panying statements are not true, but that in all three figures there is
strict alternation of the pinnules in every case.

The general law in the pinnulation of the genus Mr. Bather states as
follows: IIBr, none, I1Br, outer, IIBr, none, I1Br, inner, IIBr, outer,
IIBr, none, II Br, inner, IIBr, outer, IIBr, none. Two of bis ten speci-
mens differed from this general rule: one showing IIBr, inner, IIBr,
none, II Br, outer, IIBr, inner ; and the other IIBr,; none, IIBr, outer,
ITB, inner, IIBr, none, IIBr, outer. He makes out the formula for the
Clark figure la to be IIBr, outer, IIBr, none, IIBr, outer. The real
formula for this is IIBr, outer, IIBr, inner, IIBr, outer, IIBr, inner,
IIBr, outer. This appears clearly indicated in the figure, and Mr.
Bather’s statements that IIBr, has no pinnule is certainly a typograph-
ical error, for it cannot be that he mistook the rough, broken and highly
raised edge of the brachial row of plates, with its deep shadow, for a
suture line connecting with the first inside pinnule. The figure is of
a somewhat crushed and distorted specimen, and the perspective is,
perhaps, not as good as it might be. Whether or not it is the same as
that figured by Meek (Bather’s figure 2) is not known ; but if the two
are the same, the difference in the sketches are not very great nor
radical, and certainly not as contradictory as Mr. Bather would have

PLATE XV.

mx
“i >

spi É ETE Ae
As :
yiman FEDDEEEDEP RR pg ag,

Gdeyes, Fel.

Keyes on Uintaerinus.

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 821

us believe. The only real difference is that in Meek’s figure there is
above II Br, a non-pinnulated brachial separating two pinnule-bearing
arm-plates. The same extra plate is shown in figure le. The intercala-
tion of a non-pinnulated plate of this kind is of common occurrence
among crinoids, and should not excite any wonderment, let alone ad-
verse criticism. In Uintacrinus this is of frequent occurrence, not only
in different specimens but also in the different arms of the same indi-
vidual. Mr. Bather himself shows that two out of the ten examples
which he examined do not agree with his general formula. If his
observations could have been extended it might have been found that
one in three is just about the proportion of the individuals that do not
agree in this respect. It might be added parenthetically that of 200
specimens of Uintacrinus that have been personally examined, fully
one-half of them appear to vary in a similar way in the mode of pinuu-
lation.

Granting then that Meek’s original figure is correct in every detail
and that figure la of Professor Clark’s plate represents the same speci-
men, the differences are practically immaterial. Professor Clark’s work
not only does not violate the fundamental law of pinnulation but is
essentially correct so far as typifying the species. The very object of
adding an enlarged view of another specimen (figure 1c) was to make
more clear the arrangement of the pinnules, since the convexity of the
principal specimen and its distortion somewhat misrepresented these
points, The same may be said of I[Br, in figure 1c. Usually from
II Br, on, the pinnules are turned in or are covered by the matrix if the
specimen is not carefully cleaned, and consequently do not show from
above. That II Br, should be visible on one arm and not on another
is not strange, and not necessarily incorrect.

Regarding Mr. B. H. Hill’s diagram the formula given by Mr.
Bather is probably correct for the figure ; but, as he has stated, it is dith-
cult to decide the question owing to the “ rather peculiar mode of repre-
sentation.” It seems hardly possible that this diagram correctly
represents the pinnulation of the specimen from which it was taken,
and the entire disagreement of the corresponding plate faces when sepa-
rated would further indicate that the figure is, as stated by Mr. Bather,
“hopelessly incorrect,” or illustrates a new species.—C. R. Keyes.

Geological News.—Patxrozorc.—From data recently compiled,
Prof. C. R. Keyes estimates the total maximum thickness of the Paleozoic
rocks in the middle part of the central Mississippi basin, that is, in the
neighborhood of the Missouri River, between Kansas City and the Iowa”

822 The American Naturalist. — [October,

boundary, to be 3000 feet. This differs considerably from the earlier
estimates. (Amer. Geol., 1896.)

Bulletins No. 6 and No. 7, (1895) and No. 8, (1896) of the Illinois
State Museum of Natural History contain descriptions of new Paleozoic
Echinodermata, by S. A. Miller and Wm. F. E. Gurley. One new
family (Thalamocrinide) and five new genera (Sampsonocrinus, Em-
perocrinus, Shumardocrinus, Thalamocrinus, Indianocrinus) are de-
fined. In all, 156 species are described and figured.

Mesozorc.—According to F. H. Knowlton, the fossil flora of Yellow-
stone Park represents three distinct stages. The first, or older flora,
from the acid rocks embraces 79 forms; the second, or intermediate
flora, has 30 species; and the third, or younger flora, comprises 70
forms. The author refers the first stage division to the Ft. Union or
lower Eocene; the second is regarded as Miocene, but older than. the
Auriferous Gravels; and the third is probably of the same age as the
Auriferous Gravels of California, that is, Upper Miocene. (Amer.
Journ. Sci., July, 1896.)

A new fossil plant, Salvinia elliptica, is described and figured by
Prof. Hollick. The new species is from the Upper Cretaceous of Wash-
ington State. (Buil. Torrey Botan. Club, Vol. 21, 1894.)

BOTANY.

Botany at Buffalo.—In August (21 to 28) there were three
botanical meetings held in Buffalo, as follows :

The Botanical Society of America met on Friday and Saturday in the
High School, with eleven members in attendance. C. H. Peck, of
Albany, and B. T. Galloway, of Washington, were elected to member-
ship. The question of the desirability of a winter meeting was discussed
and referred to the Executive Committee. Appropriate resolutions
regarding the death of M. S. Bebb, a member, were adopted. The ad-
dress of the retiring President, William Trelease, on “ Botanical Oppor-
tunity,” was given in open session on Friday evening. This will be
printed in full in Science and the Botanical Gazette, and will also be
distributed in pamphlet form by the Secretary. The following papers
were accepted for presentation :

_ The Philosophy of Species-making. - By L. H. Bailey.
1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, `

1896.] Botany. 823

Some Characteristics of a Fresh-water Insular Flora. By Conway
MacMillan,

Some Problems in Sporophyll Transformation among Dimorphic
Ferns. By G. F. Atkinson. ‘

A Species of Eleocharis New to North America. By N. L. Britton.

In the election of officers for the ensuing year, the following were
chosen: John M. Coulter, Chicago, President; Charles S. Sargent,
Brookline, Vice-President; Arthur Hollick, Brooklyn, Treasurer ;
Charles R. Barnes, Madison, Secretary ; Benjamin L. Robinson, Cam-
bridge, and Frederick V. Coville, Washington, Councillors.

The Botanical Section (G) of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science. An unusually large number of papers were read
before the Section, and it is not too much to say that in point of im-
portance they fully maintained the high average of recent years:

1. The Relation of the Growth of Leaves to the CO, "r the Air. By
D. T. MacDougal.

2. Directive Forces Operative i in Leaf Rosettes. By R. N. Day.

3. On Crataegus coccinea and its segregates. By N. L. Britton.

4. The Distribution of the species of Gymnosporangium in the South.
By L. M. Underwood and F. S. Earle.

5. Morphology of the Canna Flower. By L. H. Bailey.

6. A Comparison of the Flora of Erie Co., Ohio, with that of Erie
Co., New York. By E. L. Moseley.

7. The Significance of Simple and -Compound Ovaries. By C. E.
Bessey.

8. On the Bacterial Flora of Cheddar Cheese. By H. L. Russell.

9. The Terminology of Reproduction and Reproductive Organs.
By C. R. Barnes.

10. A Comparative Study of the Development of some Anthracnoses
in Artificial Cultures. By Bertha Stoneman.

11. The Development of Vascular Elements in the Primary Root of
Indian Corn. By W. W. Rowlee.

12. Some Remarks on Chalazogamy. By J. M. Coulter.

13. The Habits of the Rarer Ferns of Alabama. By L. M. Under-

od.

14. On the Stem Anatomy of Certain Onagraceae. By Francis
Ramaley.

15. The Point of Divergence of Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.
By C. E. Besse

16. Notes on the Pine Inhabiting Species of Peridermium. By L.
M. Underwood and F. S. Earle.

824 The American Naturalist. [October,

17. Reaction of Leaves to Continual Rain-Fall. By D. T. Mac-
Dougal.

18. Studies in Nuclear Phenomena, and the Development of the
Ascospores in Certain Pyrenomycetes. By Mary A. Nichols.

19. The Stigma and Pollen of Arisaema. By W. W. Rowlee.

20. Notes on the Genus Amelanchier. By N. L. Britton.

21. Remarks on the Northern Species of Vitis. By L. H. Bailey.

22. On the Formation and Distribution of Abnormal Resin Ducts
in he By Alex. P. Anderson.

3. The Development of the Cystocarp of Griffithsia bornetiana.

i Se A. Smith.

24. Notes on the Allies of the Sessile Trillium. By. L. M. Under-
wood.

25. On an Apparently Undescribed Cassia from Mississippi. By C.
L. Pollard.

26. A Bacterial Disease of the Squash-Bug (Anasa tristis). By B.
M. Duggar.

27. What isthe Bark? By C. R. Barnes.

28. Embryo-Sac Structures. By J. M. Coulter.

29. Some Cyperacew New to North America, with Pahstke on Other
Species. By N. L. Britton.

30. Grasses of Iowa. By L. H. Pammel.

31. Ceres-Pulver: Jensen’s New Fungicide for the Treatment of
Smut. By W. A. Kellerman. .

32. On the Cardamines of the C. hirsuta group. By N. L. Britton.

33. The Relation Between the Genera Polygonella and Thysanella,
as Shown by a Hitherto Unobserved Character. By John K. Small.

34. An Apparently Undescribed Species of Prunus from Connecti-
cut. By John K. Small.

35. The Flora of the Summits of King’s Mountain and Crowder’s
Mountain, North Carolina. By John K. Small.

36. Parthenogenesis in Thalictrum fendleri. By David F. Day.

37. Notes on the Order Pezizineae of Schröter. By Elias J. Durand.

38. What Should Constitute a Type Specimen? By 8. M. Tracy.

39. Rheotropism and the Relation of Repose to Stimulus. By F.C.
Newcombe.

40. Some Adaptation of Shore Plants to Respiration. By Herman
von Schrenk.

41. The Mechanism of Curvature in Tendrils. By D. T. Mac-
Dougal.

1896.] Botany. 825

42, A Contribution to Our Knowledge of Turgor. By E. B. Cope-
land.

The Botanical Club. This vigorous organization fully justified its
existence again. About forty papers were read. Many of these, of
course, were notes, but others were of considerable value. Among the
more important of these were the following:

The Distribution of Phoradendron flavescens, Polypodium polypod-
oides and Bignonia erucigera in Ohio. By W. A. Kellerman

A Method of Distributing Fungi in Pure Cultures. By L. R. Jones.

Notes on Some Mosses. By Mrs. E. G. Britton.

Notes on Iris. By David F. Day.

An Improved Paraffin Bath. By F. C. Newcombe.

Notes on Oaks. By W. W. Rowlee.

Some Notes on Potato-Leaf Fungi. By L. R. Jones.

A Method of Preventing Condensation of Water in Culture Dishes.
By H. L. Russell.

Notes on the Flora of Colorado Springs, Colorado. By Charles E.
Bessey.

On a Species of Epipactis. By Elias J. Durand.

A Report Upon the National Herbarium. By C. L. Pollard.

Schizaea pusilla from Newfoundland. By Mrs. E. G. Britton.

Photosyntax vs Photosynthesis. By ©. R. Barnes.

The Distribution of Pinus ponderosa in Nebraska. By Charles E.
Bessey.

Some Curious Sunflowers. By J. F. Cowell.

Notes on Species of Mnium. By Mrs. E. G. Britton.

The Canyon Flora of the Plains. By See E. Bessey.

The Turgor of Mosses. By E. B. Co

ana Apparatus for Spraying and Hiatt Plants. By A. P.
Anders

The Beadkats of Pseudoparenchyma in Higher Fungi. By Elias J.
Durand.

Note on the Hosts of Comandra umbellata and C. pallida. By Her-
man von Schrenk.

The Submerged Leaves of Salvinia natans. By Conway MacMillan.

Nuclear Budding in Cypripedium. By Conway MacMillan.

An Unusual Adaptation of Conifers for Wind Protection. By Con-
way MacMillan.

Some Plants New to the Rochester Flora. By Florence Beckwith.

The Committee on Nomenclature made a report recommending that :

826 The American Naturalist. [October,

(1) A list of North American Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta be
prepared for publication.

(2) A supplement be prepared to the present List of Pteridophyta
and Spermatophyta of the Northeastern United States.

(3) The Rochester-Madison Rules be republished with annotations
and explanations.

The officers for the next year are: President, S. M. Tracy, Agricul-
tural College, Miss.; Vice-President, L. R. Jones, Burlington, Vt. ;
Secretary-Treasurer, E. Burgess, New York.

A New Manual of Systematic Botany.’—It is many years
since American botanists have had the pleasure of examining a new
manual of systematic botany designed for use in the northeastern States.
We have had new editions of old books, but, unfortunately for scien-
tific progress, through a remarkable misconception of the duties of ex-
ecutors, these editions were new mainly in type and binding, the addi-
tions and modifications having been purposely reduced to a minimum.
It has been a matter of profound regret on the part of many of the
friends and admirers of Dr. Gray that his books should receive such a
treatment as to prematurely relegate them to the list of antiquated and
obsolescent works. A new manual is, therefore, of peculiar interest at
the present time, and this interest is enhanced by the fact that it comes
from the scientific home of the older botanist, Torrey.

The volume before us is the first of the three volumes which will in-
clude descriptions and figures of all the ferns and flowering plants of
the northeastern States and Canada. It is in every way a new work—
new in its plan, new in its descriptions, new in its illustrations. Vol-
ume I opens with an eight-page introduction which is historical and
explanatory. Here we learn that more than 4,000 species will be in-
cluded, and that nearly three-fourths of these will be figured for the first
time. Discussions follow on the principles of classification of plants, and
the systematic arrangement adopted in the work (Engler and Prantl’s).
The following quotations are useful and suggestive: “The Nineteenth
Century closes with the almost unanimous scientific judgment that the
order of nature is an order of evolution and development from the more

2 An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada and the British
Possessions from Newfoundland tothe Parallel of the Southern Boundary of Vir-
ginia, and from the Atlantic Ocean Westward to the 102d Meridian. By
Nathaniel Lord Britton, Ph.D., Emeritus Professor of Botany in Columbia Uni-
versity, and Director-in-Chief of the New York Botanical Garden, and Hon, Ad-
dison Brown, President of the Torrey Botanical Club. Vol. I, Ophioglossaceae
to Aizoaceae. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 612 pages, octavo, $3.00.

1896.] Botany. 827

simple to the more complex.” * * “Systematic arrangement should
logically follow the natural order.” * * “ The sequence of families
adopted fifty or seventy-live years ago has become incongruous with
our present knowledge, and it has, fur some time past, been gradually `
superseded by truer scientific arrangements in the later works of Euro-
pean authors.” “The more simple forms are, in general, distinguished
from the more complex, (1) by fewer organs or parts; (2) by the less
perfect adaptation of the organs to the purposes they subserve ; (3) by
the relative degize of development of the more important organs; (4)
by the lesser degree of differentiation of the plant body or of its organs;
(5) by considerations of antiquity, as indicated by the geological record ;
(6) by a consideration of the phenomena of embryogeny. Thus, the
Pteridophyta, which do not produce seeds and which appeared on
the earth in Silurian time, are simpler than the Spermatophyta; the
Gymnospermae in which the ovules are borne on the face of a scale,
and which are known from the Devonian period onward, are simpler
than the Angiospermae, whose ovules are borne in a closed cavity, and
which are unknown before the Jurassic.”

“In the Angiospermae the simpler types are those whose floral
structure is nearest the structure of the branch or stem from which the
flower has been metamorphosed, that is to say, in which the parts of
the flower (modified leaves) are more nearly separate or distinct from
each other, the leaves of any stem or branch being normally separated,
while those are the most complex whose floral parts are most united.”

“ The sequence of families adopted by Engler and Prantl, in ‘ Natür-
lische Pflanzenfamilien’ above referred to, has been closely followed in
this book, in the belief that their system is the most complete and
philosophical yet presented. The sequence of genera adopted by them
has, for the most part, also been accepted, though this sequence within
the family does not attempt to indicate greater or less complexity of
organization.”

he nomenclature is that of the well-known Rochester-Madison
Rules of the Botanical Club of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, and, in order that the student may fully under-
stand the matter, the rules are printed in full, with explanatory notes.
As this work will at once become the standard botanical manual every-
where in this region for which it is designed, the revised nomenclature
will soon be more familiar than the old which it is rapidly superseding.

The work proper opens with the family Ophioglossaceae, the lowest
of the Pteridophyta, in which one species of Ophioglossum, and six of
Botrychium are described and figured. Then follow Osmundaceae (3

828 The American Naturalist. [October,

species), Hymenophyllaceae (1 sp.), Schizaeaceae (2 sp.), Polypodiaceae
(59 sp.), Marsileaceae (2 sp.), Salviniaceae (2 sp.), Equisetaceae (11 sp.),
Lycopodiaceae (11 sp.), Selaginellaceae (3 sp.), and Isoetaceae (8 sp.).

The flowering plants, as we have been calling them, are here more
correctly called seed-bearing plants (Spermatophyta), and are properly
divided into two classes—Gymnospermae and Angiospermae, and the
latter into the sub-classes Monocotyledones and Dicotyledones. As one
turns over the pages, reading the full descriptions and comparing them
with the excellent illustrations (which are always by the side of the
descriptions) the conviction deepens that this book is one of the most
important systematic works yet produced in this country. This is well
illustrated in the treatment of the sedge and grass families which fill
two hundred and sixty-six pages. Any one who has tried to puzzle out
the genera and species of grasses and sedges will not have to be told of
the great advantage which good figures will give to the student of these
difficult families. It is not too much to say that no publication
hitherto made has done so much to popularize the study of these plants
as the one now before us. Of Carex alone two hundred and five spe-
cies are figured !

We have not the space at our command to speak of the many
changes in generic and specific limits with which this work will famili-
arize us. Nearly all of these have been known to specialists and those
who have kept their eyes on the work of the German systematists, but
to many the changes will come as novelties.

Among the minor matters may be mentioned the abandonment of
the absurdity of calling families “ orders,” thus conforming to the usage
in other departments of biological science. All family names (with a
very few exceptions) are now made to end in aceae, a commendable
practice which Dr. Gray used to insist upon. Throughout the work
all diphthongs are printed in separate letters (ae, oe), and not in single
characters (œ, œ), thus again conforming to the German usage. In the
rules for pronunciation, a little easement is made for the use of the
Roman pronunciation of botanical names, which we wish had been
made a little more evident. We regret to see the use of feet, inches
and lines still adhered to in this otherwise modern work. The metric
units are so generally used in scientific books everywhere that we are
surprised at this unexpected anachronism.

As we carefully study the beautifully-printed pages of this work, we
are more and more impressed with its magnitude and importance. It
will give renewed life and vigor to systematic botany, and doubtless
- will be the means by which many a student will be led to the study of

1896.] Zoology. 829

the more difficult families. It is so valuable in so many ways that we
wish it would be made available to a greater number of students. We
venture to suggest to authors and publishers that they bring out an
edition without the illustrations, and printed on thin paper, with narrow
margins. A single volume, portable edition of this admirable book,
would greatly extend its usefulness.—CHARLEs E. Bessey.

ZOOLOGY.

The Heart of Some Lungless Salamanders.'—The recent
literature of zoology has, perhaps, contained nothing more unexpected
and startling than that certain adult salamanders are entirely lacking
in those respiratory organs which, heretofore, have been deemed in-
dispensable to the existence of animals so high in the zoological scale
as the Amphibia. This total lack of lungs and branchie appears the
more marvelous when we remember that they are absent in forms which
lead a rather active and wholly terrestrial life, as well as in those of
more or less purely aquatic habits.

Fwo questions are naturally suggested by this apparently aberrant
condition of the respiratory organs. First, what structures or organs
have taken on the functions of the lungs and branchi? and secondly,
is there any modification in the form or structure of the heart which in
any way may be correlated with the above mentioned peculiarities of
* these lungless forms?

The first of these two questions has been discussed to some extent by
Prof. Harris H. Wilder, of Smith College, who first published an ac-
count of this apparently anomalous condition. He concluded that res-
piration was probably carried on by the skin and, perhaps, to some
extent, by the mucosa of the intestine. Prof. Camerano has also pub-
lished the results of some experiments upon two European forms which
bear upon this same question. He believes that in these lungless forms
respiration is effected in the bucco-pharyngeal cavity, and that the skin
affords no efficient aid in the respiratory processes.

In a still later paper he discusses the subject further, and tries to
account for the disappearance of the lungs. Of one aquatic species (of
the genus Molge) he says: `“ The function of the lungs as. hydrostatic
organs, is very marked.” ‘In the clearly terrestrial forms one would
say that the diminution in importance of the function of the lungs as
hydrostatic organs induces a retrogressive development of them while

1 Read oe the Amer. Assoc. Ady. Science, Aug. 24, 1896.

830 The American Naturalist. [October,

at the same time the importance of the bucco-pharyngeal respiration is
increased.”

It appears to the writer that Camerano’s conclusions need to be
tested by further experiments, especially the part referring to the res-
piration, for the area of the dermal surface far exceeds that of the
buceo-pharyngeal cavity, and the skin is also very richly supplied with
blood vessels which are so close to the surface that it would appear
as if the gases of the blood and air might be readily interchanged.
It is hoped that time will permit of some experiments on this point
during the coming year.

As to the second question, whether there is any appreciable modifi-
cation of the heart in these lungless salamanders, nothing whatever has
been published.

It is the object of this paper to call attention to the fact that there is
a difference in the heart of those salamanders that do not have lungs
and those which do have them. So far as I have examined, it is possible
to distinguish between the two forms by examining the heart alone.

In order that what is said on this point may be clearly under-
stood by every one, and in order to bring out the differences between
the two more sharply, if possible, I wish first to recall to mind the
structure of the Amphibian heart and then contrast with it the rela-
tions as found in the heart of a lungless individual. We may take
Huxley’s description of the Amphibian heart as our standard of com-
parison. In his Anatomy of Vertebrates he says: “ The heart presents
two auricles, a single ventricle and a bulbus arteriosus. A venous -
sinus, the walls of which are rhythmically contractile, receives the
venous blood from the body and opens into the right auricle. The left
auricle is much smaller than the right and a single pulmonary vein
opens into it.” In regard to the septum of the auricles, he says that
“it is less complete in Proteus, Siren and Menobranchus (Necturus)
than in other Amphibia. In Menobranchus the septum is reduced to
little more than a wide meshed network of branched muscular bands,
and in Proteus the existence of a septum is doubtful.”

The heart of our common Newt (Diemyctylus viridescens) Fig. 1 or
of the large yellow-spotted salamander (Amblystoma punctatum), for
examples, corresponds perfectly with Huxley’s description. In both of
these forms the auricular septum is perfectly complete, the cavities of
the auricles being entirely separated, except just at the auriculo-ven-
tricular aperature, at which point the two auricles communicate with
each other to some extent.

In Necturus, the septum is more or less fenestrated and, according
to Huxley, it is very incomplete in Proteus and Siren, but in all of the

PEATE XVII.

Hopkins on Desmognathus.

PLATE XVI.

Hopkins on Diemyctylus.

1896.] Zoology. 831

forms that have been mentioned, as well as in other members of the
class Batrachia, the sinus venosus opens distinctly into the right auricle
and the pulmonary vein into the left.

Let us now compare the heart of a lungless salamander (Fig. 2.) with
the one just described. The four parts, auricles, ventricle, bulbus arte-
riosus and sinus venosus are clearly recognizable and, superficially
examined, present nothing unusual; it is only when the cavities
are opened that the differences between the two hearts become
apparent. One of the first things to attract attention is the left auri-
cle. In the lungless forms examined, it is much smaller in comparison
to the right than in Diemyctylus, for example, and no pulmonary vein
was found opening into it.

The auricular septum has only one opening through it, or perhaps,
more correctly, it extends only part way across the cavity, but this
aperture in the septum isso large (Fig. 2, 9.) that it is believed the com-
munication between the two cavities is more free than even in Necturus.
Just what function or functions the septum may have in these lungless
forms, it seems to me, is not quite clear. Thatit has but little, if any use,
is indicated by the way the sinus venosus opens into the auricles. In
place of opening into the right auricle only, asin the forms having lungs,
it opens more freely into the left auricle than into the right. If the ven-
tral parietes of the heart be removed, one can look directly into the
opening of the sinus venosus from either of the auricles, but more
directly into it from the left than from the right, for when seen from
the latter, one must look through the large opening of the auricular
septum, Fig. 2,9. In salamanders with lungs, each auricle opens in
common into the ventricle with about equa] freedom of communication,
whereas in the lungless forms the right auricle is in more direct com-
munication with the ventricle than is the left.

Judging from the above facts, i. e., the way the sinus venosus opens
into the auricles, the freedom with which the auricles communicate
with each other, and the way the auricles communicate with the ven-
tricle, it would seem as if the heart of the lungless salamanders, functi-
onally, was only bilocular in place of being trilocular as in the rest of
the Amphibia. Morphologically, of course, it is trilocular, but whether
it is so physiologically seems to me doubtful.

The heart of 8 lungless species have been examined by the writer,
and so far as was made out, all of them agree closely with the descrip-
tion as given above. The probabilities are that in all the lungless
forms similar conditions of the heart will be found. Up to the present
time 17 species and sub-species, either wholly without lungs or with only

832 The American Naturalist. [October,

functionless rudiments of them, have been reported. In his last paper,
in which are enumerated 15 of the 17 lungless species, Wilder says that
“in the Salamandride lungless species are as numerous as those pos-
sessing lungs, and that in consequence of this, the definition of the
group must he modified.” It seems, however, that even with his pro-
posed additions, the definition is still not sufficiently comprehensive,
for the peculiarities in the structure of the heart certainly have almost
as profound a significance as the absence of the lungs themselves, and
should be incorporated in any definition that may be given. In addi-
tion to the 17 lungless species already mentioned, the writer has found
an additional one, Spelerpes gluttolineatus.

In order that one may see at a glance in which families and genera
lungless individuals are found, the following table, taken from Prof.
Cope’s Batrachia of North America, is appended. [The last column is
taken from the papers of Wilder and others].

i No. species without
Families. Genera. No. of species. lungs or with only rudi-
ments of them
Cryptobranchidae { taraskanai ~

Amblystoma {12 RS A.J 1 A. opacum
ni Siam]
Amblystomidae oroarea 7
oo ae ma 2
Dicampt 1
Hynobiu 5
Hynobiidae | Salindri 2
[all Asiatic] Onychodactylus 1
Ranidens 3
Batrachyperus 1
(P.
' P. erythronotus
{ Plethodon 8 2} P. glutinosu
Hemidactylium 1
a : 1 B. attenuatus
. tereochilus
Plethodontidae Ant tod ax 3 1 A. lugubris
i ? [European] ; G. fuscus
Gyrinophilus 1 1 G. porphyrit
culus 2 1M. pind K Ei PNE
Spelerpes 9 S. bilineatus
Oedipina sf . ruber
S. gluttolineatus
| Oedipus 9
Thoriidae 4 Thorius 1 1 O. variegatus

D. fusca
D. f. brimleyorum

Desmognathidae 4 Desmognathus 3 if
D. f. auriculatus

1896,] Zoology. 833
No. species without
Families. - Genera. No. of species. lungs or with only rudi-
meuts m,
| Suppi oa A
Salamandridae ni 9 pee 8
[Old World] E r eee r
. Pachytriton 1
Pleurodelidae Salamandrina 1 1 S. perspicillata
[Al] found in Old | Diemyctylus 10 [2 N. A. species]
World; three spe- | Pleurodeles 1
ciesin N. A.] (Gl 3
Amphiumidae 4 Amphiuma 1
Coeciliidae 4 (numerous) (numerous)

In the last column of the above table, the figures indicate the num-
ber of species in which lungless individuals have been found. Where
there is a discrepancy in the numerals and the number of species fol-
lowing them, it indicates either sub-species or species not mentioned in
Cope’s Batrachia of North A merica.

Fie. 1.

Fia. 2.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES.

Heart of Diemyctylus viridescens (semi-diagramatic) to
show the general relations of the heart of a salamander with
lungs. The ventral wall of the heart has been removed in
order to show the auricular septum, the openings of the sinus
venosus and the pulmonary vein, and also the relation of the
auriculo-ventricular aperture to the right and left auricle.

1. Right auricle; 2. Left auricle; 3. Ventricle; 4. Sinus
venosus; 5. Bulbus arteriosus; 6. Auricular septum; 7.
Auriculo-ventricular aperture; 8. Aperture of sinus ven-
osus; 9. Pulmonary vein.

Heart of Desmognathus fusca (semi-diagramatic) to show
relations of the heart in alungless salamander. The ventral
wall of the heart has been removed.

1. Right auricle; 2, Left auricle; 3. Ventricle; 4. Sinus
venosus; 5. Bulbus arteriosus; 6. Auricular septum ; 7.
Auriculo-ventricular aperture ; 8. Aperture of sinus veno-
sus; 9. Opening through auricular septu

G. S. Horxiys, D. Se, Cornell Univ.

On two new Species of Lizards from Southern California.
—ANOTA CALIDIARUM Cope.—A single lateral fringe of conic scales,
extending on three-quarters the length between the axilla and groin;

834 The American Naturalist. [October,

no trace of inferior fringe. Enlarged lateral gular scales only traceable
below the rictus oris. Occipital horns moderate, each with a short ac-
cessory horn at the external base ; internal temporal horn half as long
as the occipital, with a short accessory horn at the external base; ex-
ternal temporal horn very short, and the temporal anterior to it pre-
senting a serrate edge only. Infralabials presenting a serrate edge only ;
parietal region bounded on each side by an angulated border which
overhangs the temporal region.

Squamation of the head smaller than in other species; superior
labials twelve, below the middle of the eye, instead of eight or nine in
A. platyrhina the nearest allied species. Seven subequal scales in the
transverse row between the canthal rows on the frontal angle; there
are five unequal scales on the corresponding position in the A. platy-
rhina. Six longitudinal rows of supraocular scales, of which a group
of five or six posterior to the middle are larger, but unequal. Supra-
orbital: rows in contact, except at points, on the median line; last
superciliary presenting a sharp angle; penultimate also presenting a
prominent angle. Tomia of mouth only moderately serrate; a row of
conic scales rising posteriorly on the side of the neck, and above its
posterior end an inconspicuous rosette. A conspicuous rosette above
the middle of the humerus.

This species is nearest to the A. platyrhina Gir. from which it differs
in various respects. The general proportions of all the parts and the
coloration are about as in that species, the difference chiefly appearing
in the squamation and the horns. The scales of the head are much
more ‘subdivided, and the presence of accessory horns is unique in the
genus. The simplicity of the lateral fringe is also characteristic, as is
also the rudimental character of the rosette on the neck.

Anota calidiarum —

atin: Source. | Obs.

Death Valley, Cal. | U. S. Agric. Dept. | Alcoholic.

|

I may add here that in my estimation the genus Anota Hallow. is
valid. It includes the species A. modesta Gir., A. goodei Stjen., A.
platyrhina Gir., A. maccallii Hallow., and the above described.

ScELOPORUS VANDENBURGIANUS Cope.—This is a small species with
small scales and very dark colors. There is not much difference in

1896.] Zoology. 835

the sizes of the dorsal, lateral and ventral scales; forty-five rows may
be counted between the occiput and a line connecting the groins, and
twelvein a head length. Between the groin and axilla thirty-five
scales may be counted to an axillary area of smaller and smooth scales.
The dorsal and lateral scales are keeled and mucronate ; those of the
inferior surfaces smooth and mostly feebly notched. Caudal scales
strongly keeled and mucronate and larger than dorsals. Two parietals
on each side, the anterior the larger, and extending to the narrow mar-
ginal supraocular row, so that there is only one frontoparietal on each
side. A third parietal external to the other two. The frontal is not
longitudinally divided. There is one series of six large supraoculars,
separated from the frontals and frontoparietals all round by a series
of small scales. External to the large supraoculars is a series of four
much smaller polygonal flat scales much as in S. biseriatus. Between
these and the superciliaries one row of still smaller scales (with an
extra scale or two); two scales on the canthus rostralis. Head scales
all smooth ; six large free auricular scales. A single vertical prehum-
eral fold enclosing a pocket of granular scales ; temporal scales keeled.
The extended hind leg reaches to the auricular meatus. Temporal pores
sixteen ; male with postanal plates.

Color of adult male dark green above, with faint traces of a paler
stripe on each side of the back, and of a few darker spots on each side
of the middle line. Inferior surface dark blue, with a pale line in the
middle of the abdomen. Femur spotted with blue below; tibia and
tail light greenish below.

Measurements.
MM.
Total aani 127
Length to 57
Length to tine Ua xilla, 22
Length to line of aieka i plate, 13
Length of hind leg, 38
Length of hind foot, . B
Length of fore leg, 23
Length of fore foot, 10
Sceloporus vancenburgianus Cope.
Catal. No. Locality. Donor. Obs.
No. spec.
21931 1 Sami of Cont Range, Dr. E. A. Mearns. |Aleoholic.

836 The American Naturalist. [October,

I have seen of this species only one specimen, which is an adult male.
The colors of the female may be expected to be somewhat lighter. I
have dedicated it to Mr. Jno. Van Denburgh, of San Francisco, an
able writer on herpetological subjects.—E. D. COPE.

Modification of the Brain during Growth.’—1. One of the most
marked changes of the embryo brain is the formation of the great bend
near its middle, giving rise to the cephalic fexure. The cause of
the bend is unknown. After it is formed, the early appearance of
optic fibers and those of the posteommissure and supracommissure tends
to produce a comparatively fixed portion at this bend as shown by
measurements of parts of the brain in soft shelled turtle and the cat.
The later developing parts produce secondary changes in the form of
the brain tube as the embryo takes on the specific characters of the
adult.

2. The pons bend of embryo mammals is a feature of the brain of
many non-mammalian embryos which do not possess a pons, and in
specimens examined is associated with and seems to be due to the early
and enormous development of the Gasserian ganglion and its union
with the brain by the fifth nerve. Later these parts are overshadowed
by the growth of other parts and the pons bend becomes obscure.

3. In the cat the pons bend is exaggerated by the formation of a
great fist shaped mass of cells at the surface on each side of the meson.
This mass of cells is continuous with a conspicuous layer of cells which
extends upon the surface to the union of the solid wall of the oblongata
with the membranous roof or tela. This layer and cell mass seem to
be proliferations such as His and Herrick have described as occurring
at the union of a solid wall with a membrane. Later these cells are
covered by pons fibers.

4. In the soft shelled turtle and the cat, early stages show clearly
that the prosotela, the membrane included by the edges of the rima in
the cerebrum, is a continuation of the membranous roof of the dien-
cephal, such that if the brain were plastic the continuation of each side
could be brought to occupy the dorsal surface of its cerebrum. A con-
dition would thus occur which is comparable with the actual condition
found by Wilder in Ceratodus. It may be of value in the further
determination of homologies between the brain of fishes and mam-
mals, as in fishes the membranous roof of cerebrum and diencephal is
continuous.

2 Abstract of paper read before the Amer. Asso. Ady. Sci., Aug. 24, 1896.

1896.] Zoology. 837

5. The dorsal (sensory) and ventral (motor) zones of His, demarca-
ted by a sulcus extending from the myel through the brain to the optic
recess, have not been verified in the forms examined (cat, turtle, am-
phibia, bird). The indications are rather that an original segmented
condition is partially disguised by a secondary formation of sulci which
extend in a cephalo-caudal direction. None of the five such sulci
found in the oblongata could be said to separate the sensory from the
motor region. The dorsal and ventral of them demarcate raphés.
One of them occurs in the sensory, two in the motor, but there is no
dividing sulcus between the two regions. The extreme point to which
any of them could be traced was in the region of the albicans, none of
them reaching the porta or the optic recess. A second group of sulci
arising in the optic and preoptic recesses extend to the porta, two of
them passing through the porta to form the boundary of the striatum.

SUSANNA PHELPS GAGE.

The Lion of India.—The report that Uncia leo is found at the
present time in the environs of Guzerate and Kutch appears to be an
error. It has probably never existed in the latter locality, and is now
to be met with only in the forest of Gir in the Kathiawar. It has dis-
appeared from Rajkot, where it was abundant in 1832, from the hills
of Bardo, and from many other localities where it formerly existed in
great numbers, nor hasit been seen for a long time in the forest above
mentioned. Formerly hunters very seldom ventured in that region
for fear of the bandits who were in the habit of taking refuge there,
and also for fear of contracting fever. Gradually, however, the forest
is being cleared away, settlements are being made, and the domain of the
lion is being curtailed. To prevent total extinction of the species, the
Durbar of Kathiawar has forbidden lion hunts for a period of six

ears. But this will do no goud unless at the same time a forest reser-
vation is made.
he popular belief that this species is without a mane in India
is another error that is corrected. (Revue Scientif. Août, 1896).

Inheritance of Artificial Mutilations.—The instance cited by
Mr. Norman E. Hills (in the September Naturalist) of the birth of short-
tailed fox terriors, is striking in showing a larger proportion of de-
formed puppies than is common in such cases, but instances like the
one cited are frequently noted in the press devoted to dogs, and con-
cerning several breeds that have been mutilated for generations.

But to thoroughly consider the matter of the inheritance of artificial
deformities, the cases of breeds in which the deformity is usually

838 The American Naturalist. [October,

natural, should be considered. I believe the tailless Manx cats gener-
ally come in that shape, and this I know is often the case with the
bobtail sheep-dog of England, and this is stated of several breeds of
dogs, generally of the type of the bobtail sheep-dog found in other
countries, Norway, Southern Russia and elsewhere.

But the peculiar feature of this inheritance is its freakishness. Two
naturally long-tailed parents have produced a tailless dog, in whom the
potency was so strong that no bitch, no matter what the breed was,
ever produced a full, natural tailed puppy to him. I remember of one
puppy by this dog, ex his double grandam (he was the son of litter
brother and sister) whose tail was of usual length, but had a deformity
in it as though it were tied in a knot. Again, it is not at all uncommon
for a bitch to begin production with all naturally long-tailed puppies,
and after some years, change to always producing some tailless ones,
even when mated with mongrel dogs, while some bitches reverse the
order, beginning with tailless ones and changing to full-tailed ones. I
recently noted a reported instance of just such a change of production
in a Manx cat, and it seems to me that this freakishness introduces a
very disturbing element into consideration of the question of inheritance.

s an allied matter, please permit me to say that the notion that if
a bitch has a mongrel litter she will thereafter a/ways produce puppies
showing traces of the unallied sire, is rank rubbish, and on the point
that this occurrence is not invariable, any experienced breeder will
concur, as very, very few such breeders have ever seen such a case.
For myself, I have bred dogs for over forty years, have bred many
mongrel litters, and never saw a case of telegony—or, as we commonly
call it, “influence of previous sire.” That this influence does sometimes
show itself, is beyond doubt; but some very extended inquiries of mine
some years since, showed that it was shown only in about one per cent.
of cases of mesaliances; and when it was considered that an instance
of this “influence” will be remembered from its extraordinary charac-
ter, while instances where it does not occur are forgotten, being the
expected result, I believe that the one-tenth of one per cent. of cases
will be found to be the extent of its occurrence. It is very strange that.
those scientific men who uphold the idea of the invariable occurrence
of this “influence,” all overlook the potent fact that the “influence”
shows itself invariably only in the skin and hair, never affecting con-
formation. In view of this, the theory propounded by Dr. Jonathan
Hutchinson, President Royal College of Surgeons; Dr. J. Sidney
Turner, President South British Medical Society, and Everett Millais,
Esq., seems sound, and bears against the idea of the bitch being herself

1896.] Entomology. 839

bastardized, that theory being that unripe ova are partially impreg-
nated by the spermatozoa of the foreign male, not sufficiently to fully
vivify them, the influence of this impregnation affecting only the epi-
blast, from which the skin is evolved, and a subsequent fertilization
- brings full life to the ova, determining other features of the foetus. Thus,
in the case of a pug bitch, which had a mongrel litter by a Skye terrior,
and at her subsequent whelping by a pug dog, had some puppies with
rough hair, these “influenced” puppies had the conformation of the
pug all over, even to the twisted tail.

However, be the scientific part of the question what it may, the too
common idea that a bitch having a mongrel litter will show influence
of that litter in all future offspring, is utterly fallacious.

Yours truly, W. WADE.

Oakmont, Pa., Sept. 14, 1896.

ENTOMOLOGY.

A New Character in the Colobognatha, with Drawings of
Siphonotus.—In all known Diplopoda the external seminal aper-
tures are located just behind the second pair of legs or in the coxæ of
the second legs. In all Diplopoda except Polyxenus one or more
pairs of legs are more or less modified to assist in copulation. In a
great majority of forms the legs most modified are those of the seventh
segment, but in two groups, the Omniscomorpha and Limacomorpha
of Pocock the legs of the seventh segment are unmodified, while one or
more pairs at the caudal extremity of the body are transformed into
copulatory organs. The modification which has taken place in the
Limacomorpha is very slight, for according to Mr. Pocock’s deserip-
tions and figures the last legs of Glomeridesmus marmoreus? consist of
four or five joints and differ from the others mostly in being shortened
and thickened. An equal or greater degree of specialization is now
known to exist in other legs than those of the seventh segment, indeed,
an almost equal peculiarity of structure is sometimes manifested by
nearly all the male legs of certain genera of Polydesmide, Spirostrep-
tide and Spirobolide. Especially noteworthy are the first pair of legs
in Iulide, Parajulidee and Peeromopodide ; the second pair of legs of
Stemmatoiulide and Parajulids ; the third pair in Striariide. With-

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Scr College, Durham, N. H.

2 Journ. Linn. Soe. ape XXIV, 4

840 The American Naturalist. [October,

out detailing the very numerous and striking contrivances displayed by
nearly all the anterior legs of some Craspedosomatids, it is sufficient to
point out that in Scytonotus* modifications apparently as great as those
of Glomeridesmus occur as far back as the twentieth pair of legs. In
the light of these facts the degree of modification shown by Glomeri-
desmus counts for little or nothing as an evidence of relationship with
the Oniscomorpha. It might be said that Glomeridesmus has n9 cop-
ulatory legs at all, for the structures figured by Mr. Pocock are prob-
ably not comparable with the true copulatory legs of the other Diplo-
pod groups, either in structure or function. The really remarkable
thing about Glomeridesmus is that the legs of the seventh segment are
not modified. Yet on this account we are not obliged to arrange
Glomeridesmus in a separate category, for the degrees of modification
to be found in the legs of the seventh segment of the other Diplopod
groups are very various. It is even possible to trace, in the second pair
of legs of the seventh segment of Craspedosomatidee all the stages from
the nearly normal to the completely modified condition. Thus with
reference to the fact that the seventh legs are unmodified, Glomerides-
mus may be looked upon as one end of a series, not necessarily farther
removed from the other groups than they are from each other. Cer-
tainly the distance between the unmodified legs of Glomeridesmus and
the distinctly jointed copulatory legs of Polydesmoidea and Polyzonoidea
is not greater than that between those of the Polydesmoidea and the
Spirostreptoidea.

If, however, we admit that differences in the position and degree of
modification of legs transformed for copulatory purposes are not of
themselves characters of fundamental importance in the Diplopoda, we
may seem to be under the necessity of admitting in addition that the
constant appearance of what we may call the true copulatory legs in
the place of the anterior or both pairs of the seventh segment is an evi-
dence that the Helminthomorpha of Pocock are a homogeneous
group to the extent of having more affinity with each other than
with the Oniscomorpha. If, however, facts exist which indicate that
the copulatory legs may have had independent origins in any of the
Helminthomorpha the evidence just referred to is largely overthrown,
for the utter diversity in plan of the copulatory legs of the different
orders of Diplopoda is itself a strong indication that they represent
independent lines of development. Such seems to be the import of the
fact that the legs which in the Merocheta‘ are primarily transformed

3 Am. N. Y. Acad. Sci., VIII, 233 (1894).
t An ordinal name to cover the Polydesmoidea, Craspedosomatoidea and Calli-
podoidea. Cf. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. IX, (1895).

1896.) Entomology. 841

into copulatory organs, the anterior pair of the seventh segment, are in
the Colobognatha entirely unmodified. Hence. we must suppose that
either the legs or the function have migrated, in case we assume a
common origin and attempt to homologize the copulatory legs in the
two orders. The theory of migration, however, has no facts to support
it, and would be equally fatal to the idea that affinity or the want of it
can in the Diplopoda be inferred from the position of the copulatory
legs.

The fact that the Colobognatha have eight precopulatory legs is not
new, but up to this time the whole eight have been supposed to belong
to the first six segments. Both Latzel and Pocock® give the distribu-
tion of these legs as in the second column. In reality the arrangement
is that of the third column.

Latzel. Siphonotus.
First segment, First pair, First pair.
Second segment, Second pair, Second pair.
Third segment, Footless, Third pair.
Third pair, Fourth pair.
Fourth segment, | Fourth par.
Fifth segment Fifth pair, Fifth pair,
: Sixth pair. |
: Seventh pair, Sixth pair.
Fh pment, f Eighth pair, f Seventh pair.
First copulatory, Eighth pair.
e aganit, f Second sotlainte, f First copulatory.

: Eleventh pair. n
Bighth segment, | Hleventh pair. :f Seoond enpulatory

My attention was first attracted to these facts while engaged in
examining specimens of Siphonotus collected in Sierra Leone in Dec-
ember, 1893. The creatures were abundant in decaying banana stumps
in Freetow, and I secured a large quantity. Instead of curling up as
nearly all the representatives the present order are accustomed to do
when placed in alcohol, my specimens remained conveniently straight
and pliable so that they could be mounted in alcohol or balsam and
studied to advantage. Of the arrangement of the legs as here stated
there can be no doubt. The drawings are mostly camera tracings made
from preparations in balsam. In order to make sure of the condition
in Polyzonium, the genus studied by Latzel, I cut animals in two hori-
zontally, brushed away the internal structures and mounted in balsam.

5 Mr. Pocock seems to have come to doubt this disposition, for he uses a “?” in
front of his last statement on the subject.—Max Weber’s Reise,

842 The Ameriean Naturalist. [October,

Without such a preparation satisfactory observation is very difficult if
not impossible in Polyzonium, for all the parts, especially the bases of
the legs, are crowded together, I pars Sxepineg in anon Anir,
gnathus, Platydesmus, Pseud

without finding any indications that the condition described is not pre-
sent in all, though a final demonstration would in most cases not be
easy without dissection.

Probably correlated with the comparatively slight degree of special-
ization which appears in the copulatory legs of the Colobognatha is the
fact that in young males of Siphonotus the copulatory legs are several-
jointed before maturity. Such a condition seems to be unknown in the
other helminthomorphous groups.

In the previous discussion there has been no intention to a that
the orders Oniscomorpha and Limacomorpha are not valid ; the conten-
tion is merely that the position of the modified legs does not of itself
justify holding them as divisions of greater weight than other natural
groups of Diplopoda, some of which have been designated by ordinal
names. Itis to be expected that future study may result in a natural
arrangement of the groups now designated as orders, but until their
affinities are demonstrated nothing is to be gained by attempting to
retain under one ordinal name and description animals which may
prove to be widely divergent in their development history. Thus it is
by no means impossible that the Colobognatha are really a group far-
ther removed from the other Helminthomorpha than are some of these
latter from the Oniscomorpha. Many of the peculiar characters of the
Oniscomorpha are evidently the result of their power to roll themselves
into a sphere, and are not to be assigned great weight in estimating
affinities.

Systematic Note.—The genus Siphonotus has not until very re-
cently been reported since its establishment by Brandt in 1836.
Within the last year or two Mr. Pocock has described species from St.
Vincent (West Indies), Java and Celebes. To me it seems doubtful
whether any of these species are congeneric with Brandt’s type S. bra-
siliensis. Provisionally, however, the species of which drawings are
presented may be described under Siphonotus, no doubt being possible
that its affinities are here rather than with any other genus yet estab-
lished.

Siphonotus africanus sp. n.

Body slender, the sides parallel to near the ends, or very slightly
converging ce

PLATE XVIII.

1896.] Entomology. 843

Head smooth and shining, sparsely hirsute distad.

Eyes of a single ocellus on each side, large and strongly pigmented.

Antenne sparsely hirsute, strongly crassate, scarcely clavate ; joints
increasing in length from the first to the sixth.

Hypostoma distinct, medianly deeply excavate.

Mentum distinct, on each side a large cardo (?). Other parts of
gnathochilarium indistinct; the lines of the figures may represent
internal structures only.

First segment longer than the others, which increase in length to the
middle of the body and are scarcely shorter caudad ; surface of all the
segments smooth and shining.

Repugnatorial pores in a continuous series from the fifth segment,
removed considerably from the margin of the scuta, except those of the
fifth segment, which are also distinctly larger than the others.

Pleurz large and entirely free, smooth and shining.

Pedigerous laminæ distinct, free ; sometimes the edges of the pediger-.
ous lamin and the pleurz lie one upon the other.

Penultimate segment without legs, in contact or overlapping, but not
closed below.

Anal valves narrow; preanal scale wanting.

Legs sparsely hirsute, all six-jointed, with a rudimentary se@ond
_ joint which would make seven.

Males with a conic process from the coxæ of the second legs. All
the other legs except the first have a coxal aperture from which pro-
jects a transparent membrane or secretion.

Male genitalia, see figures.

Color of living animals, pinkish, pale to dull reddish-pink.

Length of mature individuals up to 15 mm., width .75 mm. ; segments
of adults 89-55. The males are distinctly smaller than the females.
The young male specimen from which fig. 15 was drawn has 24 segments,
all but two of which bear legs, as in the mature animals.—O. F. Coox.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
Siphonotus africanus.

Fig. 1. Head and first nine segments, ventral view, to show arrange-
ment of legs.

Fig. 2. Head and first three segments, ventral view, the legs removed
to show pedigerous laminæ, spiracles, ete.

Fig. 3. Head and five segments, dorsal view.

Fig. 4. Segments 4-6, lateral view, to show the peculiarly enlarged
pore of the fifth segment,

844 The American Naturalist. [October,

Fig. 5. Three normal segments, dorsal view, less magnified than
fig. 3. ;

Fig. 6. Diagrammatic cross-section, showing relative positions of the
parts of the exo-skeleton.

Fig. 7. Last five segments, dorsal view.

Fig. 8. Same, ventral view. ;

Fig. 9. Antenna, much magnified, ventral view.

Fig. 10. Second leg of male.

Fig. 11. Eleventh leg of male.

Fig. 12. Last leg of male.

Fig. 13. Male copulatory legs, dorsal view.

Fig. 14. Same, ventral view.

Fig. 15. Segments seven and eight of young male—0O. F. Coox.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Congress of Psychologists.—The third Congress of Psycholog-
ists was held at Munich, August 4th to 9th, Prof. Stumpf, of Berlin,
presiding. It was the largest and in many respects the most successful
of the three. Of course the German attendance was fuller than at the
last one, held in London in 1892, and German delegates are always
most welcome. When we take into account the fact that Germany is
to-day the country where psychology is most vigorously and success-
fully pursued, it follows that this Congress was, up to date, the greatest
gathering of eminent psychologists ever seen. As to France, the
attendance was disappointing in numbers, although the delegation was
very representative; and the same is true of the British contingent.
The other countries, except America, were adequately represented ; the
small attendance from our side of the water being a matter of the more
surprise in view of the tendency of our professors to take their vaca-
tions abroad—indeed, the attendance at the last Congress in London
was considerably larger.

In its general character, the tendency to allow the popular attendance
upon the meetings to swamp the scientific proceedings was more marked
in Munich, and if is not too much to say that this constituted a very
great defect in the arrangements. The membership was over four hun-
dred. There was a constant flow from hall to hall, and the corridors

1 Edited by H. C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

1896.] Psychology. 845

were filled with bewildered persons. Some limit must be put on the
popular membership at the next congress, or the scientific people will
yield the field to the sightseers and amateurs. The other possible im-
provement comes to the front again apropos of this meeting in Munich
—the crowded condition of the programme. Besides the general meet-
ings, which came in the forenoon sessions, the committee arranged for
five sections, all running simultaneously and all subject to constant give
and take, as respects their audiences, from one to another. Besides
the constant interruptions and great confusion which this produced, it
practically prevented a person from hearing many readers whom he
especially desired to hear. Since the time limits were not enforced
upon the papers or discussions, one could never tell how far on this
section or that had progressed, and so could not time his presence for
any particular reader. Moreover, the papers were as usual so gener-
ally accepted by the committee—anyone who wanted to present some-
thing had only to send his name and topic beforehand—that many
were read which were of little or no scientific value; and the titles of
papers were entered on the programme in advance, so that there was
no way to learn infallibly whether a particular reader had arrived and
would present his dissertation or not. The gaps left by the absentees
were consequently quite an unknown quantity. Every such meeting
should have a committee to read and select from available papers,
arrange them strictly according to unchangeable time divisions, and
require each reader to report finally a day or two before the meeting
as to his actual attendance, the final programme being only then printed.
This would have the further advantage of ruling out titles and names
which are from the first doubtful ; for it is astonishing to what an extent
men fail to carry out what should be their serious intention when they
give their names to be printed on these Congress programmes.

So much for the general character of the Congress. Of course, this .
is not the place for an account, in any detail, of its scientific features,
The division into sections will show something of the remarkable range
that modern psychology finds itself obliged to take: “ Normal,” “Sleep
and Hypnotism,” “ Mental Pathology,” * Neurology,” “ The Senses and
Psychophysics ”—the titles being somewhat abbreviated in this list. In
each of the sections there were some great papers and one or more lively
discussions. The most interesting thing in the way of neurological
work—it was presented, however, in one of the general meetings—was
the paper by the veteran Flechsig on “Association Centres.” It will be
remembered that Prof. Flechsig has been engaged for some time on
comparative studies of the brains of human infants at different ages,

59

846 The American Naturalist. [October,

attempting so to arrive at a view of the order of development of the
elementary mental functions, with the corresponding progress in brain
anatomy and physiology. He has published very rich results from
time to time, and among them is his determination of certain so-called
“association centres.” He thinks that the much discussed frontal re-
gion of the brain is the location of associations of a higher and more
abstract kind; and that in the region back of the well-known “ motor
region,” extending to the visual centre in the occipital region, is a
great centre for the associations which bind the sense functions together.
This in brief, and without the discriminations which an accurate account
of his views should make. The reason which he gives for these deter-
minations is that only after some growth, and after the senses are well
developed, do we find the great masses of connecting fibres which
traverse these regions forming in the child’s brain.

Apart from the question of fact, as to which Prof. Flechsig’s rn
may be considered as being of the greatest (especially when
we consider his method), it is difficult to see how these h regions can be,
in any true sense, “association centres;” for, admitting that the con-
nections between the sense centres run through these regions, the main
thing about the associations must be the things associated, not the mere
fact of connections between them. One would hardly call the bunch
of telegraph wires on the housetop a“ communication centre;” the loci
of communication are still at the telegraph offices. Without them, the
wires would be possibly even more helpless than the offices without the
wires. Prof. Flechsig’s paper was a model for imitation in the manner
of its presentation, and its interest was enhanced by slides showing the
infant’s brain, in sections illustrating the periods of its growth.

Another contribution to the understanding of the relation of psychol-
ogy and brain physiology was that of the well known neurologist, Prof.
Edinger, of Frankfort, on the question, “Can Psychology make use of
the results so far attained in Brain Anatomy?” He did not confine
himself to anatomy, but presented a series of interesting notices on the
development of the nervous system in the scale of life, and made a
strong plea for a corresponding genetic study of comparative psychol-
ogy. Genetic psychology, he says, is so far behind analytic psychology
because psychologists have confined their attention, on the anatomical
side, to the cerebral hemispheres, while what they should do is to study
the evolution of the nervous system all the way up, and see the progress
of consciousness with it. “Gerade auf diesem Gebiete miissen anato-
misch-physiologische und psychologische Studien durchaus Hand in

d gehen.” All this is true and remarkably opportune, I think,

1896.] Psychology. 847

despite the fact, that in his main illustration Prof. Edinger falls into
one of the glaring fallacies into which this sort of analogy between body
and mind may lead. He says there are certain creatures (fishes) which
have no hemispheres, and it follows that, on the psychological side, we
must deny to these creatures “all that the hemispheres are necessary
for in the higher creatures.” This overlooks the great principle that,
in the lower forms, less differentiated structures may do what more
differentiated ones do in the higher forms. To press this point con-
sistently, he would seem to have to deny consciousness altogether to
these fishes. The lesson of this paper, however, is a most timely one;
psychologists, especially in Germany, are not half awake to the genetic
problem, and when they do awake, no doubt it is true that the richest
lessons that the physiology of the nervous system will have to teach
them will be derived from such comparative study as Prof. Edinger
advises.

Several papers of general interest were read in the open meetings.
The President’s address was rather more severe and wissenschaftlich
than the earlier addresses of the presiding officers have been, but it
was an exceedingly interesting and discriminating review of theories
on the connection of mind and body. The arraignment of Parallelism
was very effective—possibly more so than the positive doctrine of the
paper. Prof. Ebbinghaus of Breslau gave a new way of testing the
mental condition of school children at different periods and in different
conditions of fatigue, etc. It differs from the methods already in vogue
in that it endeavors to test the child’s correlating or apperceptive
faculty rather than his sense-perceptions or his memory. The method,
which teachers will find extremely interesting, consists in taking a
passage from some interesting narrative-text, and, after striking out
various words and phrases and printing the passage with black spaces
where these erasures have been made, telling the child to fill in the
spaces as he thinks the sense requires. This requirement certainly calls
upon the child for more than memory, and the results of its application,
as reported by Prof. Ebbinghaus, seem to show its superiority; but it
would appear to be applicable to children of a more advanced age, after
the memory tests are outgrown. This general judgment, however, I
must make with reservation, since the synopsis of the paper did not
reach my hands. This may suffice to indicate the scope of the method,
and to call the attention of our educational authorities to it. They will
also be interested in Prof. Ebbinghaus’s severe criticism of what he
called the “American method ” of testing the mental condition of school
children by the memory tests.

848 The American Naturalist. [October,

The fact that the papers on “ Hypnotism” were fewer than in earlier
congresses, in proportion to the entire number, and that there were a
bare half-dozen on thought-transference and telepathy, shows the gen-
eral tendency of psychology. The hypnotic period is past, even in
France. Not that the gain from the study of hypnotism has not been
permanent and great; on the contrary, its results are only now getting
so absorbed into the body of psychological truth that it no longer makes
sensational appeals for a hearing. As to telepathy, I think there is a
real decay of interest in the subject, much as this is to be deplored.
The most interesting paper in the hypnotic field was a general one by
Prof. Pierre Janet.

The section on the Senses and Psychophysics did much exact work.
Dr. Stratton of the University of California communicated some valua-
ble experiments of his own on the artificial reinverting of the retinal
image and its effects on the sense of bodily position in space, which will
be of especial interest to those who think the normal inversion of the
image requires a theory.

Two other general questions of great interest were discussed, with as
much ability as vehemence, by the Vice-President of the Congress,
Prof. Lipps, of Munich. One of his papers was a very important con-
tribution in the sadly neglected field of the sesthetics of visual form. I
can do no more than recommend his paper in the Congress “ Proceed-
ings” (to appear very soon) to those who are concerned with elementary
æsthetie principles. The other topic was the much-discussed one on
the “ Unconscious” in psychology. The question, Can mental states
be unconscious? has a peculiar fascination, because of the great number
of verbal distinctions of which it admits. It must be confessed that
Prof. Lipps’s paper did not make the number of these verbal distinctions
less. He reaches a sort of return to the soul-substance theory—a
hidden thing in which mental states, and especially tendencies of an
active kind, may be preserved when we are not conscious of them.
This has long ago been refuted as a general conception, I think; but
the main point of interest, and that for which I bring the matter up,
is that the results of pathology, dual consciousness, “‘ multiple person-
ality,” ete., which are considered by many as giving the strongest. evi-
dence for the “unconscious,” require quite a different theory. The
“ unconscious ” of the pathologists is a body of conscious data gathered
into a new and secondary consciousness of its own. While these states
of mind are not conscious to the major person—and so, by a certain
license, are called “ unconscious ”—still it is just the evidence that they
are conscious in their own way and in their own seat in the nervous

1896,] Psychology. 849

system that enables us to say that they are mental. So all this evi-
dence goes, after all, to show a correspondence between the mental and <
the conscious. This Prof. Lipps does not seem to see, and his treatment
of the question from a purely verbal and analytic point of view was
consequently very inadequate.

In the higher fields of ethics and anthropology there were interesting
papers, of which my space allows the mention of only one on “ Ethical
Values,” by Prof. Ehrenfels (just called from Vienna to Prague), and
one on the “Category of Individuality in Savage Thought,” by Mr.
Stout, the editor of Mind. Mr. Stout, I may add, has just been called
to a lectureship in comparative psychology in the University of Aber-
deen—a novelty for the British Isles, but appropriate in the institution
which Prof. Bain has made famous in connection with psychological
study. The next Congress is to meet in Paris in 1900 in connection
with the Universal Exposition. Prof. Ribot will be President ; M. Ch.
Richet, Vice-President, and M. Pierre Janet, Secretary. The Interna-
tional Committee for the Paris meeting has the following American
representatives: Profs. James (Harvard), Titchener (Cornell), Hall
(Clark), and Baldwin (Princeton).

I cannot close this letter without referring—with profound regret,
which many other American students of philosophy must also feel—to
the death Prof. Avenarius, of Zurich, on August 18. Where I now
write, the feeling that one of the greatest philosophical thinkers of
Europe no longer adorns a Swiss university is very acute; and those
who know the work of Prof. Avenarius must feel it also, regardless of
the place of their habitation —J. Mark BALDWIN, in New York Even-
ing Post, Sept. 12.

Mental Action During Sleep, or Sub-Conscious Reason-
ing.—Shortly after reading the interesting article by Professor Cope
with regard to recent ethnological discoveries in Assyria, undertaken
under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania, and elucidated
by Professor Hilprecht, I met with the account of a peculiarly curious
dream which had been experienced by Professor Hilprecht whilst his
mind was deeply occupied with these very investigations.

It is of course well known to all students of mental psychology, that
the most complicated, abstruse forms of reasoning have often been
carried out in dreams; and many interesting and well authenticated
cases of this phenomenon will be found in Dr. Carpenter’s Mental
Physiology.2 But the peculiarity of Dr. Hilprecht’s dream consists in

2 Chap. XIII, Unconscious Cerebration. Mental Physiology. W. R. Carpenter,
M. D. Chap. XV, Of Sleep, Dreaming and Sonnambulism, pp. 534, 593-5.

850 The American Naturalist. [October,

the intensely dramatic manner in which the solution of the problem he
was engaged on was conveyed to his mind. I will now simply quote
from the account given to Prof. William Romaine Newbold, by Pro-
fessor Hilprecht, in the first place of a train of sub-conscious reason-
ing during sleep which put him on the track of a satisfactory rendering
of an Assyrian proper name; and in the second place of the work
carried out under the influence of a strangely dramatic dream.’

“During the winter 1882-3, Professor Hilprecht was working with
Professor Friedrich Delitzsch, and was preparing to publish as his
dissertation, a text, transliteration and translation of a stone of Nebu-
chadnezzar I, with notes. He accepted at that time the explanation
given by Professor Delitzsch of the name Nebuchadnezzar, ‘ Nabû-
kudurru-usur,’ ‘Nebo protect my mason’s pad’ or mortar board,’ i. e.,
‘my work asa builder.’ One night, after working late, he went to bed
about two o’clock in the morning. After a somewhat ‘restless sleep, he
awoke with his mind full of the thought that the name should be trans-
lated ‘ Nebo protect my boundary.’ He had a dim consciousness of
having been working at his table in a dream, but could never recall the
details of the process by which he arrived at this conclusion. Reflecting
upon it when awake, however, he at once saw that kudurru, ‘ boundary,’
could be derived from the verb kadaru, to enclose. Shortly afterwards
he published this translation in his dissertation, and it has since been
mir adopted.”

Mr. Newbold then gives a translation from asa account written in

German by Prof. Hilprecht of his remarkable dre

“ One Saturday evening, about the middle of March, 1893, I had been
wearying myself, as I had done so often in the weeks preceding, in the
vain attempt to decipher two small fragments of agate which were
supposed to belong to the finger rings of some Babylonian. The labor
was much increased by the fact that the fragments presented remnants
only of characters and lines, that dozens of similar small fragments had
been found in the temple of Bel, at Nippur, with which nothing could
be done, that in this case furthermore I had never had the originals
before me, but only a hasty sketch made by one of the members of the
expedition sent by the University of Pennsylvania to Babylonia.
I could not say more than that the fragments, taking into consideration
the place where they were found and the peculiar characteristics of the
cuneiform characters preserved upon them, sprang from the Cassite
period of Babylonian history (ca. 1700-1140 B. C.); moreover, as the
first character of the third line of the first fragment seemed to be KU, I

3 Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, for June, 1896, pp. 13-17.

1896,] Psychology. 851

ascribed this fragment, with an interrogation point, to King Kurigalzu,
whilst I placed the other fragment as unclassifiable, with other Cassite
fragments, upon a page of my book where I published the unclassifiable
fragments. The proofs already lay before me, but I was far from satis-
fied. The whole problem passed again through my mind that March
evening before I placed my mark of approval under the last correction
in the book. About midnight, weary and exhausted, I went to bed, and
was soon in deep sleep. Then I dreamed the following remarkable
dream. A tall, thin priest of the old pre-Christian Nippur, about forty
years of age, and clad in a simple abba, led me to the treasure chamber
of the temple on its southeast side. He went with me into a small, low-
ceiled room without windows, in which there was a large wooden chest,
while scraps of agate and lapis lazuli lay scattered on the floor. Here
he addressed me as follows: ‘ The two fragments which you have pub-
lished separately upon pages 22 and 26, belong together, are not finger
rings, and their history is as follows: King Kurigalzu (ca. 1300 B.C.)
once sent to the temple of Bel, among other articles of agate and lapis
lazuli, an inscribed votive cylinder of agate. Then we priests sud-
denly received the command to make for the statue of the god Ninib a
pair of earrings of agate. We were in great dismay, as there was no
agate as raw material at hand. In order to execute the command there
was nothing for us to do but cut the votive cylinder into three parts,
thus making three rings, each of which contained a proportion of the
original inscription. The first two rings served as earrings for the
statue of the god; the two fragments, which have given you so much
trouble, are portions of them. If you will put the two together you will
have a confirmation of my words. But the third ring you have not yet
found in the course of your excavations, and you never will find it? With
this the priest disappeared. I awoke at once, and immediately told my
wife the dream, that I might not forget it. Next morning—Sunday—I
examined the fragments once more in the light of these disclosures, and
to my astonishment found all the details of the dream precisely verified
in so far as the means of verification were in my hands. The original
inscription on the votive cylinder read: ‘To the god Ninib, son of
Bel, his lord, has Kurigalzu, pontifex of Bel, presented this.’

“The problem was thus at last solved. I stated in the preface that
I had unfortunately discovered too late that the two fragments belonged
together; made the corresponding changes in the ‘ Table of Contents,’
pp. 50 and 52; and it being not possible to transpose the fragments, as
the plates were already made, I put in each plate a brief reference to
the other. [Cf. Hilprecht, “The Babylonian Expedition of the Uni-

852 The American Naturalist. . [October,

versity of Pennsylvania,” Series A, Cuneiform Texts, Vol I, Part 1,
“ Old Babylonian Inscriptions, chiefly from Nippur.] H. V. Hilprecht.”

Upon the priest’s statement that the fragments were those of a votive
cylinder, Professor Hilprecht makes the following comment:

“There are not many of these votive cylinders. I had seen, all told,
up to that evening, not more than two. They very much resemble the
so-called seal cylinders, but usually have no pictorial representation on
them, and the inscription is not reversed, not being intended for use in
sealing, but is written as it is read.’

Then there follows a transliteration of the inscription in the Sumer-
ian language. Mrs. Hilprecht’s statement is as follows:

was awakened from sleep by a sigh, immediately thereafter heard
a spring from the bed, and at the same moment saw Professor Hilprecht
hurrying into hisstudy. Thence came the cry, ‘ It isso, it isso!’ Grasp-
ing the situation, I followed him and satisfied ny in the midnight
hour as to the outcome of his most ape pened
Signed, “J. C. Hilprecht.”

A few weeks after the occurrence of this curious dream, there ap-
peared a difficulty which Professor Hilprecht was not able to explain.
“According to the memoranda in our possession, the fragments were of
different colors, and, therefore, could have scarcely belonged to the same
object. The original fragments were in Constantinople, and it was with
no little interest that I [Mr. Newbold] awaited Prof. Hilprecht’s return
from the trip which he made thither in the summer of 1893. I trans-
late again his own account of what he then ascertained.

“In August, 1893, I was sent by the Committee on the Babylonian
Expedition to Constantinople, to catalogue and study the objects got
from Nippur, and preserved there in the Imperial Museum. It was to
me a matter of the greatest interest to see for myself the objects which,
according to my dream, belonged together, in order to satisfy myself
that they had both originally been parts of the same votive cylinder.
Halil Bey, the director of the museum, to whom I told my dream, and
of whom I asked permission to see the objects, was so interested in the
matter that he at once opened all the cases of the Babylonian section,
and requested me to search. Father Scheil, an Assyriologist from
Paris, who had examined and arranged the articles excavated by
us, before me, had not recognized the fact that these fragments belonged
together, and consequently I found one fragment in one case and the
other in a case far away fromit. As soon as I found the fragments and
put them together, the truth of the dream was demonstrated ad oculos—
they had, in fact, once belonged to one and the same votive cylinder.

1896.] Psychology. 853

As it had been originally of finely veined agate, the stone-cutter’s saw
had accidentally divided the object in such a way that the whitish vein
of the stone appeared only upon the one fragment, and the larger gray
surface upon the other. Thus I was able to explain Dr. Peters’ dis-
cordant descriptions of the two fragments.”

There are, says Mr. Newbold, two especial points of interest in this
ease, the character of the information conveyed, and the dramatic form
in which it was put. The apparently novel points of information given
were:

1. That the fragments belonged together.

2. That they were fragments of a votive cylinder.

3. That the cylinder was presented by King Kurigalzu.

4, That it was dedicated to Ninib.

5. That it had been made into a pair of earrings.

6. That thet e chamber ” was located on the southeast side of
the temple.

We have a point de repère for the treasure chamber part of the
dream, in the fact, that Dr. Peters, as far back as 1891, had told Pro-
fessor Hilprecht of the discovery of a room in which were remnants of
a wooden box, while the floor was strewn with fragments of agate and
lapis lazuli The other points in the dream may be accounted for by
the direction in which Professor Hilprecht’s thoughts had been travel-
ling, or they may not; I must confess to thinking they cannot all be
so accounted for.— ALICE Bopineron.

Notr.—I would advise anyone interested in the subject of subcon-
scious reasoning in dreams, to read at length the account given by
William A. Lamberton, Professor of Greek in the University of Penn-
sylvania, of a dream in which he solved geometrically a difficult problem
which he had attacked from its algebraic and analytic side. The point
de repère here seems to have been a blackboard which had formerly
had a functional use in the room, but which had been painted over, the
black still showing through the white paint. Professor Lamberton, on
opening his eyes one morning, about a week after he had determined
to banish this insolvable problem from his mind, saw upon this black-
board surface a complete figure, containing not only the lines given by
the problem, but alsoa number of auxiliary lines, and just such lines
as without further thought solved the problem at once.

“T sprang from bed,” says Prof. Lamberton, “and drew the figure
on paper; needless to say, perhaps, that the geometrical solution being

1 Two curious cases of the dramatic form taken occasionally by dreams will be
found on p. 18, Proceedings S. P. R. for June, 1896.

854 The American Naturalist. [October,

thus given, only a few minutes were needed to get the analytical one.”
(Sub-Conscious Reasoning, Proc. S. P. R. pp. 11-13).—A. B.

“The Mimetic Origin and Development of Bird-langu-
age,” and ‘‘ The Evolution of Bird-song.’’—When one considers
how many people are thinking at the same time, it does notseem strange
that two persons, though widely separated and totally unknown to each
other, should sometimes think not only of the same subjects but also fol-
low in the same direction and practically at the same time, the same
lines of original thought and investigation. Some of these duplicated
ideas are of value in commerce ; others are mere metaphysical specula-
tions, possibly suggested by the same incidents; but at this late stage
in the knowledge of natural history it does appear unusual that two
people in different hemispheres and observing totally different species
of animals saould have simultaneously pursued independently the same
far-reaching but novel line of speculative thought.

A few days ago, Mr. J. E. Harting called my attention to an article
in THE AMExIcAN NATURALIST, entitled “The Mimetic Origin and
Development of Bird-language,” which appeared in that journal for
March, 1889. He did so because I had lately written a book on the
subject, The Evolution of Bird-song (London, A. & C. Black, May,
1896), and because the article in question discussed some of my themes.
I have just finished a perusal of the article, which was indeed rather
exciting, since in nearly every paragraph I found an anticipation of
some theory or observation of my own, which I had theretofore believed
to be original. In fact, any one reading the article and afterwards
reading The Evolution of Bird-song, would think that I had borrowed
without acknowledgment a good many ideas thrown out by Mr. Samuel
N. Rhoads, the writer of the essay in question. However, I am able
to prove that in 1888 I had already made investigations on exactly the
same lines as Mr. Rhoads, and had recorded the results of them in writ-
ing. Inthe summer of 1887 I began to make systematic records of
the imitations I heard from imitative wild British birds, and in the
course of this study various themes were attacked, such as “ the influ-
ence of combat,” “ the influence of the love-call,” ‘ family-voices,” and
“the influence of imitation,” etc. I wrote essays on these themes and
sent them to the late Professor Harker, F. L. S. and some of them to
Mr. S. S. Buckman (now an eminent geologist), with whom I had many
conversations on the subjects in question. In 1890 these observations
appeared, in a highly condensed form, in The Zoologist, in two papers
entitled “ The evolution of bird-song,” and published respectively in

1896.] Psychology. 855

July and August of that year. I had then of course no idea that my
seemingly daring suggestions that mimicry had attuned the cries of
birds to their environment, had been confirmed or anticipated in
America by a writer who, whatever may be the value of his deductions,
is obviously an acute observer. My papers in The Zoologist were
severely handled last year by a writer who certainly had never heard
of Mr. Rhoads’ article; and this year the same writer, in favorably
criticising in Nature my new book, employed a few congratulatory
words upon my having allowed certain of my former conclusions to
drop into the background.

Although Mr, Rhoads and I were working on the same track, he will
I am sure allow that I have gone into the subjects in much greater
detail than would be possible within the limits of an article, unless it
occupied the whole of the magazine in which it appeared. Mr. Rhoads
traces the origin of certain tones to noises produced by the elements,
such as the bubbling of air through mud, the murmurs of streams, the
sibilant sounds caused by branches being rubbed against each other by
the wind, the cries of the victims of predacious birds, the croakings of
amphibians, and the moaning of wind in hollow trees; and I adopted
the same position, though quoting different instances, in relation to
each of these features. He touches on heredity, in a way that would
suggest the working-out of the theme in much the same way as I have
attempted to do it. In his suggestion of the original use of the voice
in “hissing or choking sounds,” and in my surmise that the voice was
“evolved from a toneless puffing indicative of anger, or from snorts or
grunts accidentally caused,” in support of which idea some pertinent
evidence may be adduced, we have both, I think, advanced somewhat
from Darwin’s proposition that involuntary and purposeless contractions
of the muscles of the chest and glottis, due to excitement of the sensor-
ium, first gave rise to the emission of vocal sounds (Expression of the
Emotions, pp. 83, 84).

In order to show, however, that I have not been limited to only those
themes which Mr. Rhoads treats in so terse and yet so attractive a style,
I would mention merely the “ contents ” of one of my chapters, in which
some side-issues are dealt with, as follows:

“Songs are generally uttered by males: exceptions—Not until birds
have attained full size: exceptions—Most frequently at morning
and evening: influence of weather—Tendency to rise in pitch with
vehemence—Only small birds properly sing—Singers arboreal
birds generally—Effect of living amid foliage: on size, hearing,
and voice—Accent in songs—Singers clad in sober hues— Devel-

856 The American Naturalist. [October,

opment of the eyes in detecting danger—Necessity of leisure—
Labours of parent-birds—Laborious and stealthy birds habitually
poor in song—Flight in song: for parposes of display—Fluttering
of wings a means of address—V entriloquism—Singing in chorus.”
The study of bird-song, on the lines indicated by Mr. Rhoads and
myself, is so new and so delightful a pursuit that I hasten to ask read-
ers of THE AMERICAN NATURALIST to peruse his paper once more; for
it is in America, so richly blessed with birds, that such investigations
can be most easily developed, and that they promise the most accur-
ate and helpful results.—CĦARLES A. WITcHELL.

A Note on Dr. Herbert Nichols’ Paper (Amer. Nat., Sept.,
. Herbert Nichols’ paper on my article entitled
“ A New Factor in Evolution” will understand that its intemperate
spirit should rule out all reply. I may say, however, that Dr. Nich-
ol’s “home thrusts” are all directed at my view of pleasure and pain,
which he considers, quite mistakenly, the point of my paper. On the
contrary the “factor” is entirely the influence of the individual’s adap-
tations on the course of evolution; not at all the particular way in
which the individual makes its adaptations. I took ve = reiterate
this distinction in the paper, saying (Amer. Nar., 1896, p. 542-3) “So
far we have been dealing exclusively with facts . . . . . without
prejudicing the statement of fact at all, we may inquire into the
actual working of the organism in making its adaptations.

Before taking this up, I must repeat with emphasis that the piii
taken in the foregoing pages, which simply makes the fact of ontogen-
etic adaptation a factor in (race) development, is not involved in the
solution of the farther question as to how the adaptations are secured.”
So I see absolutely no point in Dr. Nichols’ criticisms.

The other question, which involves pleasure and pain, is discussed in
the latter part of my paper; but it is not that, but my book which
Dr. Nichols attacks with the grossest misunderstanding. I do not
at all believe the main things which he attributes to me; first, the
position that there are no pain nerves, and second, that there is a
“ psychic factor” which is an “efficient cause” in evolution. Psycholo-
gists know Dr. Nichols’ hobby and allow for his intemperateness.

. MARK BALDWIN.

Princeton, Sept. 25, 1896.

1896.] Microscopy. 857

MICROSCOPY.

Methylen Blue.—A few points observed in the use of Erlich’s
methylen blue method by the investigators in the Marine Biological
Laboratory at Woods Holl, Mass. may be of general interest.

This method has been successfully applied during the past summer
to the study of the nervous system in a great variety of forms includ-
ing vertebrates, crustacea, annelids, echinoderms and tunicates.

Ehrlich’s intra vitam methylen blue prepared by Griibler was
used for staining the nerve tissues. The stain was applied by injecting
a 1-4} per cent solution of the methylen blue made in normal salt solu-
tion, into the blood vessels, body cavity or lymph spaces or by immer-
sing small animals or excised pieces of nerve tissue in a weak solution.

The method of application and strength of the solution were deter-
mined by experiment for each animal and tissue. During the action
of the stain, the animal or tissue was kept as nearly as possible in its `
normal condition. Everything seems to depend on keeping the tissue
alive, and in bringing the stain in contact with it in a solution of a
strength suitable for obtaining the best results.

The abundant supply of oxygen to the staining tissue was of great
importance in some cases, while in others it seemed to make little
difference.

It was found, as suggested by Dr. C. Huber, that animals which live
in the dark, stain better in the dark than in the light.

The relaxation of the tissues by the use of chloroform or chloral
hydrate seemed to be more favorable for the staining of some elements
of the nervous system, while others did not stain which stained in the
unchloroformed animal.

It was found that recently caught and perfectly normal animals
stained more satisfactorily than those which had been kept in confine-
ment for some time, unless under very favorable conditions.

In the case of the dogfish, active animals were killed by decapitation.
The stain was applied by injecting a 1—} per cent solution of the me-
thylen blue into the blood vessels for the central nervous system and
by immersing small pieces of nerve tissue in a weak solution of the
stain for the sense organs.

The length of time required for the intra vitam staining varied
widely, annelids requiring 4-5 hours, while dogfish only require 1-3
hours, either by injection or by immersing the tissue in the stain.

1Edited by C. O. Whitman, University of Chicago.

858 The American Naturalist. [Octoher,

When small transparent pieces of tissue were to be examined, they
were fixed in a saturated solution of picrate of ammonia in distilled
water from 2—4 hours and were then mounted in a mixture of equal
parts of pure glycerine and distilled water to which a small quantity of
picrate of ammonia is added. When opaque or large pieces were fixed
in this way they were sectioned by the freezing method. After fixing
in the picrate of ammonia, the tissue was placed in a saturated solution
of sugar for one hour and was then transferred to a piece of blotting
paper to remove the syrup from its surface. It was then placed in a
thick solution of gum arabic for fifteen minutes and then transferred
to the plate of the freezing microtome where it was frozen by means of
liquid carbonic acid. The sections were mounted in dilute glycerine as
in the other case. The principal advantage of this method is its rapid-
ity, but neither serial sections nor those of equal thickness can be
obtained.

In order to obtain serial sections by the paraffine method, the tissues
were fixed in Berthe’s sara

For vertebrates For invertebrates :
Molybdate of ammonia, i gram. Molybdate of ammonia, 1 gram.
Distilled water, 10c. Distilled water, 10 c. c.
Hydrochloric acid, 1 a Peroxide of Hydrogen, } c. c.

Peroxide of ritigi, le. é:

A different formula 1s used for tissues of invertebrates as less oxygen
is required than for vertebrates. The fixing fluid must be cooled on
ice before placing the tissue in it. After remaining in the cold fixing
fluid for from 2-4 hours the tissue is thoroughly washed with cold
water which generally takes about two hours although it has been con-
tinued for twelve hours without injury

It is necessary to remove all the molybdate of ammonia by thorough
washing if permanent preparations are to be secured.

The tissue is then passed rapidly, ten to fifteen minutes in each,
through the ordinary grades of alcohol to absolute, all being kept cold
with ice. The tissue should be left in the absolute alcohol for about
two hours at a freezing temperature and the alcohol be changed several
times. The stain is dissolved by dilute alcohol at ordinary tempera-
tures.

Dr. Huber’s plan of placing the tissue directly in cold absolute
alcohol on removing it from the water and changing several times for
a period of two hours, gave good results.

2 Archiv. f. Mikros., Anat. Bd. 44, Heft 4.

1396.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 859

After thorough dehydration the tissue is placed in xylol for 12-24
hours and changed several times. -It is then imbedded in paraffine in
the usual way.

The most complete and in every way satisfactory staining of the
sensory nervous system was obtained by two or three injections of a }
per cent solution of Erlich’s methylen blue at intervals of from 15 to
20 minutes, both with vertebrates and invertebrates, as suggested by
Semi Meyer.*

The tissues relaxed after the first injection so that more fluid was
introduced by the second and third injections than by the first.

The use of chloroform was found to be wholly unnecessary by this
method. Meyer uses a very strong solution of B. X. methylen blue, 5
per cent to 6 per cent, in water.

The paraffine sections should generally be quite thick (45-60 My).—
A. D. MorRILL, Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

American Association for the Advancement of Sciences
(continued from page 779).——-Prof. A. S. Packard was elected to
represent the Association ov the American advisory board to codperate
with the American member of the international commission on rules of
nomenclature. The following were elected to represent the Associa-
tion at the International Congress of Geologists to be held in St.
Petersburg in September, 1897: Prof. Jas. Hall, Prof. E. D. Cope,
Prof. B. K. Emerson, Prof. C. D. Walcott, Prof. W. N. Rice.

Tke following sectional officers were elected to serve at the meeting
of 1897, at Detroit.

Vice-Presidents.—-A, Mathematics and Astronomy.—W. W. Beman,
of Ann Arbor, Mich. B, Physics.—Carl Barus, of Providence, R. I.
C, Chemistry.—W. P. Mason, of Troy, N. Y. D, Mechanical Science
and Engineering.—John Galbraith, of Toronto, Can. E, Geology and
Geography.—I. C. White, of Morgantown, W. Va. F, Zoology.—G.
Brown Goode, of Washington, D.C. G, Botany.—George F. Atkin-
son, of Ithaca, N. Y. H, Anthropology —W. J. McGee, of Washing-
ton, D.C. I, Social and Economic Science—Richard T. Colburn, of
Elizabeth, N. J.

3 Archiv. f. Mikros. Anat. Bd. 46. Heft 2, and Bd. 47. Heft 4.

860 The American Naturalist. [October,

Permanent Secretary.—F. W. Putnam, of Cambridge, Mass. (Of-
fice, Salem, Mass.),

General Secretary.—Asaph Hall, Jr., of Ann Arbor, Mich.

Secretary of the Council.—D. S. Kellicott, of Columbus, O.

Secretaries of the Sections—-A, Mathematics and Astronomy.——
James McMahon, of Ithaca, N. Y. B, Physies——Frederick Bedell, of
Ithaca, N. Y. C, Chemistry —P. C. Freer, of Ann Arbor, Mich. D,
Mechanical Science and Engineering——John J. Flather, of Lafayette,
Ind. - E, Geology and Geography.—C. H. Smith, Jr., of Clinton, N. Y.
F, Zoology.—C. C. Nutting, of Iowa City, Ia. G, Botany.—F. C. New-
combe, of Ann Arbor, Mich. H, Anthropology.—Harlan I. Smith, of
New York. I, Social and Economie Science.—Archibald Blue, of
Toronto, Ont.

Treasurer.—R. S. Woodward, of New York, N. Y.

It was ordered that in future the Vice-Presidents should be called
Chairmen of the Sections in the publications of the Association.

Two evening lectures were given to the citizens of Buffalo, viz., The
History of the Niagara Gorge, by Dr. J. W. Spencer, and the Results
of Cave Exploration and its relation to the Antiquity of Man in North
America, by E. D. Cope

The following papers in the natural sciences were read :

Geology.— Tuesday, August 25.—Notes on the Artesian Well sunk
at Key West, Florida, in 1895, by Edmund Otis Hovey; The Hy-
draulic Gradient of the Main Artesian Basin of the Northwest, by J.
E. Todd; The true Tuff-beds of the Trias, and the mud enclosures,
the underrolling, and the basic pitchstone of the Triassic Traps, by B.
K. Emerson; Volcanic Ash from the North Shore of Lake Superior,
by N. H. Winchell and U. S. Grant; The Tyringham (Mass.) “ Mor-
tise Rock,” and pseudomorphs of Quartz after Albite, by Ben. K. Em-
erson ; The Succession of the Fossil Faunas in the Hamilton group at
Eighteen Mile Creek, N. Y., by Amadeus W. Grabau ; Development
of the Physiography of California. Lantern pictures, by James Per-
rin Smith; Synopsis of California Stratigraphy, by James Perrin
Smith; Ancient and Modern Sharks and the Evolution of the Class,
by E. W. Claypole.

Wednesday, August 26.—The Discovery of a new Fish Fauna, from
the Devonian Rocks of Western New York, by F. K. Mixer; The
Cuyahoga Preglacial Gorge in Cleveland, Ohio, by Warren Tpha:
The Operations of the Geological Survey of the State of New York,
by James Hall; A Revision of the Moraines of Minnesota, by J. E.
Todd ; Origin of the High Terrace Deposits of the Monongahela

1896.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 861

River, by I. ©. White; Observations on the Dorsal Shields in the
Dinichthyids, by Charles R. Eastman.

Zoology.— Tuesday, August 25.—On the Entomological Results of
the Exploration of the British West India Islands by the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science, by L. O. Howard; Warning
Colors, Protective Coloration and Protective Mimicry, by F. M. Web-
ster; On Life Zones in West Virginia, by A. D. Hopkins; On the
Variations of Certain Species of North American Odonata, by D. S.
Kellicott; A Case of Excessive Parasitism, by L. O. Howard; Notes
on the Occurrence of Dragonflies in Ohio in 1896, by D. 8. Kellicott ;
Scyllarus and Anemonia—A Case of Semi-commensalism, by Edward
L. Rice.

Botany.— Tuesday, August 25.—The Relation of the Growth of
Leaves to the CO, of the Air, by D. T. MacDougal; Directive Forces
Operative in Leaf Rosettes, by R. N. Day; On Crataegus coccinea and
Its Segregates, by N. L. Britton; The Distribution of the Species of
Gymnosporangium in the South, by L. M. Underwood and F. S. Earle;
Morphology of the Canna Flower, by L. H. Bailey ; A Comparison of
the Flora of Erie Co., Ohio, with that of Erie Co., New York, by E.
L. Moseley ; The Point of Divergence of Monocotyledons and Dicoty-
ledons, by C. E. Bessey ; On the Bacterial Flora of Cheddar Cheese,
by H. L. Russell; The Terminology of Reproductive Organs, by C.
R. Barnes; A Comparative Study of the Development of Some An-
thracnoses in Artificial Cultures, by Bertha Stoneman.

Anthropology.— Tuesday, August 25.—Resolution on the death of
Capt. Bourke, Secretary of the Section, followed by a memorial by
Washington Matthews.

A Ceremonial Flint Implement and Its Use among the Ancient
Tribes of Tennessee, by Gates P. Thurston ; Symbolic Rocks of Byfield
and Newbury, Mass., by Horace ©. Hovey; An Analysis of the Decor-
ation upon Pottery from the Mississippi Valley, by C. C. Willoughby ;
Brief Description of the Prehistorie Ruins of Tzac Pokoma, Guatemala,
by John Rice Chandler; Human Relics from the Drift of Ohio, by W.
Claypole; Fresh Geological Evidence of Glacial Man at Trenton, New
Jersey, by G. Frederick Wright.

Sociology.— Tuesday, August 25.—The Monetary Standard, by W.
H. Hale; The Competition of the Sexes and Its Results, by Lawrence
Irwell; Fashion—A Study, by S. Edward Warren ; Citizenship, Its
Privileges and Duties, by Stillman F. Keeland; An Inheritance for
the Waifs, by C. F. Taylor.

60

862 The American Naturalist. [October,

Wednesday, August, 26-—The Proposed Sociological Institution, by
James A. Skilton; What is True Money? by Edward Atkinson; The
Value of Social Settlement, by Aaron B. Keeler; The Wages Fund
Theory, by Aaron B, Keeler

Thursday, August 27.—Better Distribution of Forecasts, by John A.
Miller; The Tin Plate Experiment, by A. P. Winston; Relics of
Ancient Barbarism, by S. F. Kneeland ; Suicide Legislation, by W.
Lane O’ Neill.

Geology.— Wednesday, August 26.—Wednesday afternoon was
given to a meeting in commemoration of the sixtieth anniversary of
of Professor Hall’s work in connection with the New York Survey.

The presiding officer spoke briefly in behalf of the Association ; and
Professor Joseph LeConte, President of the Geological Society, spoke
for that Society.

Professor Hall was present and responded in person.

James Hall, Founder of American Stratigraphic Geology, by W. J.
McGee ; Professor Hall and the Survey of the Fourth District, by John
M. Clarke.

Thursday, August 27.—Sheetflood Erosion, by W. J. McGee; Post-
Cretaceous Grade-Plains in Southern New England. By F. P. Gulliver.

Thursday Afternoon—Excursion to Eighteen Mile Creek.

Saturday, August 29.—Excursions.

Zoology.— Wednesday, August 26.—Notes Upon Cordylophora, by
C. W. Hargitt ; Modification of the Brain During Growth, by Susanna
Phelps Gage ; Structure and Morphology of the Oblongata of Fishes,
by B. F. Kingsbury; Differentiation of Work in Zoology—in Sec-
ondary Schools, by William Orr, Jr.; Field Work and Its Utility, by
James G. Needham; Appendages of an Insect Embryo, by Agnes M.
Claypole; Experiments Upon Regeneration and Heteromorphosis, by
C. W. Hargitt ; The Penial Structures of the Saurians, by E. D. Cope;
A Note on the Membranous Roof of the Prosencephal and Diencephal
of Ganoids, by B. F. Kingsbury.
` Anthropology.— Wednesday, August 26.—Indian Wampun Rec-
ords, by Horatio Hale; Seri Stone Art, by W. J. McGee ; The Begin-
ning of Zoéculture, by W. J. McGee; Resolution upon the appointment
of a Committee to report on “ The Ethnography of the White Race in
the United States,” by Daniel G. Brinton; Onondaga Games, by W.
M. Beauchamp ; Meaning of the Name Manhattan, by William Wallace
Tooker; Kootenay Indian Place Names, by A. F. Chamberlain ; Koo-
tenay Indian Names of Implements and Instruments, by A. F. Cham-
berlain ; Aboriginal Occupation of New York, by W. M. Beauchamp;

1896,] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 863

Clan System of the Pueblos, by F. W. Hodge; The Psychic Source of
Myths, by Daniel G. Brinton; The Limitation of the Comparative
Method in Anthropology, by Franz Boas.

Sociology.— Wednesday, August 26.—The Proposed Sociological
Institution, by James A. Skilton; The Value of Social Settlement, by
Aaron B. Keeler; Human Reciprocity, by Mary J. Eastman; Better
Distribution of Forecasts, by John A. Miller; The Tin Plate Experi-
ment, by A. P. Winston; Relics of Ancient Barbarism, by S. F. Knee-
land ; Suicide Legislation, by W. Lane O'Neill; Crime Against Labor,
by Edward Atkinson.

Geology.— Thursday, August 27.—Notes on Certain Fossil Plants
from the Carboniferous of Iowa, by Thomas H. Macbride; The Mak-
ing of Mammoth Cave, by Horace C. Hovey ; The Colossal Cavern, by
Horace C. Hovey; Sheetflood Erosion, by W. J. McGee; Glacial
Flood Deposits in the Chenango Valley, by Albert P. Brigham ;
Origin of Conglomerates, by T. C. Hopkins ; Origin of the Topographic
Features in North Carolina, by Collier Cobb; The Cretaceous Clay
Marl Exposure at Cliffwood, N. J., by Arthur Hollick ; Post-Cretaceous
Grade-Plains in Southern New England, by F. P. Gulliver; The
Eocene Stages of Georgia, by Gilbert D. Harris; The Origin and Age
of the Gypsum Deposits of Kansas, by G. P. Grimsley ; Geomorphie
Notes on Norway, by J. W. Spencer; The Slopes of the Drowned
Antillean Valleys, by J. W. Spencer; The “Augen-Gneiss,” Pegmatite
Veins, and Diorite Dikes at Bedford, Westchester Co., N. Y., by Lea
MclI. Luquer and Heinrich Ries ; Notes on Kansan Drift in Pennsylva-
nia, by E. H. Williams; Preliminary Notes on the Columbian Depos-
its of the Susquehanna, by H. B. Bashore.

Thursday Afternoon.—Excursion to Eighteen Mile Creek.

Zoology.— Thursday, August 27—The Peritoneal Epithelium in
Amphibia, by Isabella M. Green; Presented by Simon H. Gage; The
Heart of the Lungless Salamanders of Cayuga Lake, by Grant S.
Hopkins; Observations on the Chameleon, Anolis principalis, by Geo.
V. Reichel; Energy in Animal Nutrition ; Relative efficiency of Ani-
mals as machines, by Manly Miles; Some Abnormal Chick Embryos,
by ©. W. Hargitt; On a peculiar Fusion of the Gill-filaments in certain
Lamellibranchs, by Edward L. Rice; The Relationships of the North
American Fauna, by Theodore Gill.

Botany.— Wednesday, August 26.—The development of the vascular
elements in Indian Corn, by W. W. Rowlee; Some remarks on chala-
zogamy, by J. M. Coulter; The habits of the rarer ferns of Alabama,
by L. M. Underwood ; On the stem anatomy of certain Onagracex, by

864 The American Naturalist. [October,

Francis Ramaley; The point of divergence of Monocotyledons and
Dicotyledons, by C. E. Bessey ; Notes on the pine inhabiting species of
Peridermium, by L. M. Underwood and F. 8. Earle; Reaction of
leaves to continual rain fall, by D. T. MacDougal; Studies in nuclear
phenomena, and the development of the ascospores in certain Pyreno-
mycetes, by Mary A. Nichols; The stigma and pollen of Arisema, by
W. W. Rowlee; Notes on the genus Amelanchier, by N. L. Britton ;
Remarks on the northern species of Vitis, by L. H. Bailey; On the
formation and distribution of abnormal resin ducts in Conifers, by
Alex. P. Anderson; The development of the cystocarp of Griffithsia
bornetiana, by Arma A. Smith ; Notes on the allies of the sessile Tril-
lium, by L. M. Underwood; On an apparently undescribed Cassia
from Mississippi, by C. L. Pollard; A bacterial disease of the squash
bug (Anasa tritis), by B. M. Duggar; What is the bark? by C. R.
Barnes; Embryo-sac structures, by J. M. Coulter ; Some Cyperaceze
new to North America, with remarks on other species, by N. L. Brit-
ton ; Grasses of Iowa, by L. H. Pammel ; Ceres-Pulver: Jensen’s new
fungicide for the treatment of smut, by W. A. Kellerman; On the
Cardamines of the C. hirsuta group, by N. L. Britton; The relation
between the genera, Polygonella and Thysanella, as shown by a hitherto
unobserved character, by. John K. Small; An apparently undescribed
species of Prunus from Connecticut, by John K. Small; The flora of
the summits of King’s Mountain and Crowder’s Mountain, North
Carolina, by John K. Small; Parthenogenesis in Thalictrum fendleri
by David F. Day; Notes on the family Pezizacez of Schröter, by Elias
J. Durand ; What should constitute a type specimen, by S. M. Tracy;
Rheotropism and the relation of response to stimulus, by F. C. New-
combe ; Some adaptation of shore plants to respiration, by Hermann
von Schrenk ; Influence of rainfall upon leaf forms, by D. T. Mac-
Dougal; The mechanism of curvature in tendrils, by D. T. Mac-
Dougal.

Thursday, August 27—The Beginning of Zodculture, by W. J.
McGee; Onondaga Games, by W. M. Beauchamp; Meaning of the
Name Manhattam, by William Wallace Tooker; Kootenay Indian
Place Names, by A. F. Chamberlain; Kootenay Indian Names of Im-
plements and Instruments, by A. F. Chamberlain ; Physical and: Men-
tal Measurements of Students of Columbia University, by J. McKee
Cattell; Anthropometry of the Shoshone Indians, by Franz Boas;
Recent Discoveries and Discussions as to Pygmy Races, by R. G. Hali-
burton; The Papago Time Concept, by W. J. McGee; Notes on the
Theological Development of one Child, by Fanny D. Bergen ; Certain

1896.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 865

Shamanistic Ceremonies among the Ojibways, by Harlan I. Smith;
Notes on Certain Beliefs concerning Will Power among the Siouan
Tribes, by Alice C. Fletcher ; Pueblo Indian Clans, by F. W. Hodge ;
Mescal Plant and Rite, by James Mooney.

Geology.—Friday, August 28.—Glacial Flood Deposits in the
Chenango Valley, by Albert P. Brigham ; Origin of Conglomerates, by
T. C. Hopkins ; Origin of Topographic Features in North Carolina,
by Collier Cobb; The Cretaceous Clay Marl Exposure at Cliffwood,
N. J., by Arthur Hollick ; Post-Cretaceous Grade-Plains in Southern
New England, by F. P. Gulliver ; The Niagara Falls Gorge, by George
W. Holley; The Algonquin River, by G. K. Gilbert; The Whirlpool
Saint Davids Channel, by G. K. Gilbert; Profile of the Bed of the
Niagara in its Gorge, by G. K. Gilbert; Origin and Age of the Laur-
entian Lakes and of Niagara Falls, by Warren Upham; Correlation
of Warren Beaches with Moraines and Outlets in Southeastern Michi-
gan, by F. B. Taylor: Notes on the Glacial Succession in Eastern
Michigan, by F. B. Taylor; The Eocene Stages of Georgia, by Gilbert
D. Harris ; The Origin and Age of the Gypsum Deposits of Kansas, by
G. P. Grimsley ; Geomorphic Notes on Norway, by J. W. Spencer ;
The Slopes of the Drowned Antillean Valleys, by J. W. Spencer; The
“Augen-Gneiss,” Pegmatite Veins, and Diorite Dikes at Bedford, West-
chester Co., N. Y., by Lea McI. Luquer and Heinrich Ries; Notes on
Kansan Drift in Pennsylvania, by E. H. Williams; Preliminary Notes
on the Columbian Deposits of the Susquehanna, by H. B. Bashore.

Anthropology.—Friday, August 28.—Finger Prints of American
Indians, by Fred. Starr; The Temple of Tepoztlan, Mexico, by M. H.
Saville; The Preservation of Local Archeological Evidence, by Harlan
I. Smith ; Character and Food, by George V. Reichel; Some Indian
Rock and Body Painting in Southern California, by David P. Barrows ;
Recent Explorations in Honduras by the Peabody Museum, by F. W.
Putnam; Pueblo Indian Clans, by F. W. Hodge; Mescal Plant and
Rite, James Mooney; Finland Vapor Baths, by H. W. Smith; Cupped
Stones, by Franz Boas.

Saturday, August 29.—An excursion to Niagara City, Falls and
Gorge was given by the citizens of Buffalo. The party took steamboat
to a point on the Canadian side above the Falls, and then took trolley
down the river. Fine views of the Falls were had. At Lewiston the
river was crossed in a steamboat, and the trolley line up the river car-
ried the party past the rapids and the whirlpool, of which magnificent
views were obtained. After dinner at the International Hotel, the
establishments of the Power Company and of the Carborundum Com-
pany were examined, and the company returned to Buffalo,

866 The American Naturalist. [October,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Dr. G. Brown Goode, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian
Insticution and Director of the National Museum, died in Washington,
Sept. 6th.

Dr. Goode was born in New Albany, Ind., February 13, 1851. As
a boy he developed a fondness for natural history. In time he pre-
pared for college and entered Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.,
where he graduated in 1870. During his college career he devoted
himself assiduously to the study of natural history, to which his tastes
inclined, rather than to classical studies. He took an active part in
assembling and arranging collections that culminated in the museum
now preserved in the Orange Judd Hall. It was while so engaged
that he met Prof. Baird at Eastport, Me., and at once became associ-
ated as a volunteer in the work of the United States Fish Commission.
The acquaintance thus formed with Prof. Baird continued until the
death of Mr. Baird and had very much to do with Dr. Goode’s subse-
quent career.

During the winter of 1872~’73 he made his first trip to the West
Indies, and collected fish, which he exchanged with the Smithsonian
Institution, and on his return, at the invitation of Prof. Baird, he de-
voted a part of his time to the institution. In 1873 he joined perman-
ently the staff of the Smithsonian Institution, and has since continued
in its service, becoming Assistant Secretary in 1887.

Meanwhile, he took an active part in the preparation of the exhibit
of the Smithsonian Institution at the Centennial Exhibition at Phila-
delphia in 1876, and owing to the illness of Prof. Baird, the charge of
that work devolved largely on him during the continuance of the fair.
At the end of the exhibition the care of the collections that were then
given to the United States government was mainly assigned to him,
and to him more than any one else is due the present condition of the
National Museum.

His volunteer connection with the United States Fish Commission
meanwhile continued, and it was through his relation there that he ac-
quired the well earned reputation of being the leading authority on
the fishes and fisheries in the United States. It was this that led, in
1880, to his appointment to the charge of the fisheries division of the
tenth census. On the death of Prof. Baird, although the entire care of
the Museum fell upon him, Dr. Goode was made Fish Commissioner,

1896.] Scientific News. 867

and continued in that place, which position he retained only until the
the law could be amended, making that office an independent one.
His relation to the Fish Commission led naturally to his serving as
United States Commissioner to the Fisheries Exhibition in Berlin in
1880, and in London in 1883.

His experience gained at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876 resulted
in his being placed at the head of the Smithsonian Institution and
National Museum exhibits at the expositions in New Orleans, Cincin-
nati, Louisville, and Atlanta. He also served in charge of the exhibi-
tion of the National Museum at the Columbian Exposition, in Chi-
cago, in 1893.

In all of this work his remarkable genius for museum administration
manifested itself, and the success of the national exhibits was largely
due to his remarkable abilities.

» Of his many publications the most important were in the line of his
chosen science, ichthyology. Among them, worthy of commendation,
are “ The Game Fishes of the United States,’ 1879; “The Fisheries
and Fishing Industries of the United States” (7 vols.), 1884; “ Amer-
ican Fishes,” 1887, and with T. H. Bean, “Oceanic Ichthyology,”
1893. His writings on museum work include, “ Plan of Classification
for the World’s Columbian Exposition,” 1890, and ,‘ Museums of the
Future, 1890, both of which are quoted as authority the world over.
Mention must be made of his interest in genealogy. As a boy he he-
gan the preparation of the genealogy of his family, which resulted in
1888 in “Our Virginia Cousins.” This led naturally to his being
chosen one of the editors of the “ Wesleyan Book,” and later to his
active participation in the founding of the American Historical Associ-
ation, in the proceedings of which he published “The Origin of
the National Scientific and Educational Institutions of the United
States ” in 1890.

Dr. Goode was one of the founders of the District of Columbia Soci-
ety of the Sons of the American Revolution, becoming at once one of
the officers, and since 1894, its President. He was also a Vice-Presi-
dent of the Sons of the Revolution and a Deputy Governor of the So-
ciety of Colonial Wars. In the scientific societies of Washington City
he was ever a prominent member, having been President of the Philo-
sophical Society and the Biological Society. He had been President
of the Cosmos Club, and was at the time of his death an overseer of
the Columbian University, and in many other ways had been actively
associated with the intellectual progress of the National Capital.

868 The American Naturalist. [October,

In addition, he was a member of many of the leading scientific soci-
eties, both in this country and abroad, including the Zoological Society
of London, the National Academy of Sciences in the United States,
and was recently elected Vice President of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science for the Section on Zoology.

Dr. Goode had received the degree of Ph. D. from the Indiana Uni-
versity, and that of LL. D. from Wesleyan University, and his ser-
vices at the Madrid Exposition gained for him the decoration of Isa-
bella.

Dr. Goode was respected and loved by all who knew him, and he
was recognized as a fit successor to Professor Baird, the founder of the
National Museum.

Josiah Dwight Whitney, Professor of Geology at Harvard
University, died at New London, N. H., at the age of 77 years. He was
graduated from Yale in 1839, and from that time until his death he
was actively engaged in geological research. His field work included
a survey of New Hampshire, a geological exploration of the Lake
Superior region, and a survey of the mining regions of all the States
east of the Mississippi. In 1855 he was appointed State Chemist of
Iowa, and was a member of the faculty of the Iowa State University,
later also held the position of State Geologist of California. He was
appointed Professor of Geology at Harvard in 1860. In time this
position was guaranteed him for life in consideration of the gift of his
geological library to the museum of that institution. Prof. Whitney
was one of our ablest geologists, and like many men of genius he be-
longed to the genus irritabile. He was an educated musician, no doubt
finding that music is useful for “nerves.” He had little patience with
lay stupidity, and did not always conciliate “the powers that be.”

It will be recalled that the Third International Zoological Congress
(Leyden, Sept., 1895) appointed an International Commission of five
members to study the various codes of nomenclature in use in different
countries, with a view to arriving at a more definite international
agreement upon the points of difference to be found in these codes.
This Commission is composed of Dr. Raphael Blanchard (France),
Prof. Carus (Germany), Prof. Jentink (Holland), Dr. Sclater (Eng-
land) and Dr, Stiles (United States).

It will also be recalled that Dr. Stiles requested the appointment of
an American Advisory Committee, to which he might “ submit for ap-
proval or disapproval all of the questions which he intended to sup-

1896.] Scientifie News. 869

. port in the meetings of the International Commission and with which
he might advise regarding concessions to be made or requested in those
points upon which American opinion differs from the views held in
some of the other countries.’

This Advisory Committee has now been completed and is made up
as follows:

Dr. Gill, representing the National Academy of Science.

Dr. Dall, representing the Smithsonian Institution.

Prof. Cope, representing the Society of American Naturalists.

Prof. Wright, representing the Royal Society of Canada.

Prof. Packard, representing the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science.

The September issue of the Western Field and Stream, published in
St. Paul, Minn., is noteworthy as presenting a scheme for the protec-
tion of the game of the country. Briefly, it contemplates dividing the
entire territory of the United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
into two concessions along the line of the forteith parallel of latitude,
or near it, for each of which there shall be uniform laws and uniform
close time, the whole to be under the police surveillance of the Na-
tional association for the protection of game and fish through its mul-
tifarious state auxilliaries. The close time for the northern concession
will be from January 1 to September 1, and in the southern concession
from February 1 to September 1, during which no shooting shall be
allowed on any kind of game whatever, excepting that woodcock and
shore birds of the order Limicole may be shot in August. The gen-
eral close time for all kinds of inland fishes, recognized as game fishes,
to extend from October 1 to June 1, excepting that fishes of the family
Samonidz, may be caught in April and may. These close seasons
conform very nearly to the distribution, habitat, and breeding seasons
of the various animals which are sought to be protected; and where
they do not, especial exceptions may be made, if deemed expedient.
The laws which are to dominate will inhere by legislative enactment ;
uniform in all the states, and codperative throughout. Emergencies
and bodily stress will always stand in plea for exemption from penalty
for violation of the laws when well proven.

By private gifts, a Japanese fellowship in economics has been estab-
lished at the University of Wisconsin, and Mr. M. Shiozawa, of Tokyo,
Japan, has been elected to the fellowship for the coming year. Mr.
Shiozawa is highly recommended by two distinguished Japanese pro-

870 The American Naturalist. [October,

fessors, Professor Lyenaga, of the Higher Commercial College, of Tokyo,
Japan, and Professor Motora, of the Imperial University, of the same
city. He is spoken of as one of the talented young men of Japan,
and it is expected he will do a great work for his native country. He
has already graduated from a Japanese college, and has published
results of his work. He is nowon his way to this country to enter upon
his studies at Madison.

The members of the Geological Society of France attending the
meeting to be held in Algiers, October 6, 1896, will have an oppor-
tunity of examining the following localities: October 8-13, Sahel
dalger, Massif de Blida, Médéa; October 14-18, Kabylie du Djur-
jura; October 19-26, Constantine, Batna and Biskera. In addition
to these excursions there will be one preliminary to the meeting. Mr.
Brive proposes, October 3-5, to conduct a party to Chélif and Dakra
to study the Miocene and Pliocene beds of these districts.

The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences has in process of con-
struction a Museum of Arts and Sciences. It is proposed to group on
one of the four porticos the names of seven great and representative
men in science ; on another, seven great and representative men in art;
on a third, seven great and representative names in philosophy ; and
on the fourth, seven great and representative names in the realm of the
“practicum” or the application of science and art to the so-called
material wants of men.

Information has been received that Prof. Daniel G. Elliott, of the
Field Museum, Chicago, who is now travelling in Somaliland, has
returned to Berbera from Gallas Mountains. He intends to make
arrangements at once for exploring the interior of the country. He
has been fortunate in securing a good collection of the fauna of the
country, including quite rare species.

The well-known naturalist Mr. Charles H. Sternberg has been col-
lecting fossil plants in the Dakota Group in Kansas during the past
season, and has obtained a collection of fine specimens which he offers
for sale, either as a whole, or by the single specimen.

The first or “ general” part of Dr. Richard Hertwig’s Lehrbuch der
Zoologie has been translated by Professor George W. Field of Brown
University, and will be published soon by Henry Holt & Co.

1896].

Scientific News. 871

Errata of Paper on The Mushroom Bodies of the
exapod Brain in the August No. `>

Page 644,
“ 6

6,
647,
647,

line

«ce

“cc

6, after “ Fig” insert I.
31, before “uses” insert and.
11, for “ brahlets” read branchlets.
16, insert coma at the end of the line.
31, insert coma at the end of the line.
34, for ‘‘ Formol-” read formol-.

1, for “ which ” read a bundle that.

after “ Fig.” insert I.

“

“cs

line
cc

ce

3, for “ afferent” read efferent.
19, after “some” insert of.

, in note for “ Dujardin” read Dujardin’s.

11, for “ crythrocephala ” read erythrocephala.
12, for “ Gehirus” read Gehirns.

12, for “ Diehl” read Dietl.

17, for “ Ordunung” read Ordnung.

19, for “ Fourmies ” read Fourmis.

24, for “ Retzins” read Retzius.

30, for “ trachédtes” read tracheates.

32, for “ Mémorie” read Mémoire.

F. ©. KENYON.

Dringende Bitte

Um das Erscheinen des

Botanischen Jahresberichts

möglichst zu beschleunigen, wie eine Steigerung der Zuver-
lassigkeit in der Berichterstattung zu erlangen, richten wir

an die

Botaniker aller Lander
die dringende Bitte um gefiillige schleunige Zusendung ihrer
Arbeiten, namentlich auch der Sonderabdriicke aus Zeit-
schriften, etc.
Alle Sendungen sind zu richten an den Herausgeber.

Professor Dr. E. Koehne,

Kirchstrasse 5.

OF INTEREST TO ALL STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE.

THE OBSERVER
All Departments of Nature Studies.

OUR MOTTO:
**Keep Your Eyes Open”

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Vol. XXX. x “NOVEMBER, 1896. eee

CON TEAN TS;

PAGE
- Piney Brancu (D. C.) Quarry WORKSHOP AND Epi dote and its Bia te Properties —
ITS IMPLEMENTS, EE cellaneous Notes. .

Thomas Wilson. 873 Geology and Patan. Permian i
| THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BATRACHIA Vertebrata with te
AND REPTILIA IN NORTH AMERICA. Ameghino on ae Evolution of 3
Tats E. D. Cope. 886 | Teeth—Eozoon canadens e—Thiekness

FOSSILS AND FOSSILIZATION. . Z. P. Gratacap. 902 | Coal Measures—Geolog ical News.

ITIC Peel wes
i i T STATE OF e! CRT te
KnowrEnce. 1 (Continued).

Erwin F. Smith, 912
Boron’ TABLE.—Personal Names in shige EP
re ;— Species cain am Nam
Deep Se : .

NATURAL SCIENCE:
scien POOR.
ee

FOLLOWING ARE A FEW FACTS AS TO THE WORK
i) oi NATURAL SCIENCE” DURING 1895,

NCE i 1895 “had eeen {Notice ices ir 53.
watt sia , and recorded more Pon the deaths « g 771 more. x

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vou. AAA: November, 1896. 359

PINEY BRANCH (D. C.) QUARRY WORKSHOP AND ITS
IMPLEMENTS:

By Tuomas WItson?

Prof. W. H. Holmes, one of our most accomplished and ver-
satile members, on Nov. 16, 1889, read before our Society an
extended report of his investigations in the quartzite boulder
quarry at Piney Branch, which was published in the American
Anthropologist, January, 1890, pp. 1-26, and is being reprinted
in the 15th Annual Rep., Bur. Ethnology. The work described
consisted of an excavation up the face of the hill near Piney
Branch, in the form of trenches, one 75 feet long and some
places 10 feet deep, and other shorter but similar trenches and
soundings in the same neighborhood. Atthe conclusion of his
paper, I stood up and complimented him upon the character of |
the work, and saying that heretofore speculation and theory in
the office and with pen and ink, had been employed, instead of
actual excavation in the field with the pick and shovel. I
congratulated him and the Society upon the new era inaugur-
ated. I said the fact that I did not agree to his conclusions -
had naught to do with this question and did not prevent me

1 Read before the Anthropological Society, Tuesday Evening, December 4,
1894. :

2Curator of Prehistoric Anthropology, U. S. National Museum, Washington,
D. ©. n
61

874 The American Naturalist. [November,

from rendering to him the credit for his new mode of investi-
gation, it being the same I had chiefly pursued during my
residence in Europe.

Synopsis of the points made in opposition to Mr. Holmes’
theories.

1. I concede that Mr. Holmes made a faithful and correct
report of his excavations at Piney Branch and of the objects
he found there, and I take no exceptions to that part of his
paper.

2. But I except to his conclusions. I propose to show that
his conclusions are erroneous and that the pretended facts
(outside the quarry), on which he based these conclusions, are
not facts but assumptions.

3. I propose to show that the objects which he calls “ shop-
refuse” and which as such should only be found in quarries
and on shop-sites, have been equally wide-spread as are the
finished implements which he declares to have been the sole
aim of the workman in opening the quarry.

4. I propose to show the leaf-shaped implements which he
calls “blanks” and which he says were merely material pre-
pared at the quarry for convenience of transportation and to
be worked into implements, were themselves finished imple-
ments, well-known and commonly used throughout the world
in prehistoric times for spears, knives, daggers, etc., with and
without handles; and sometimes put to secondary uses, as all
other implements might be when broken or the need for their
use had passed.

5. I propose to examine the aboriginal village-sites of the
District and its neighborhood, in search of the leaf-shaped
blades or “blanks” which Mr. Holmes so confidently asserts
were carried from the quarry to “ other fields” and for other
*“ destinies,” and I will show that the number treated as he says,
was insignificant when compared with the material procured
and the work done.

6. I propose to show the number of caches in the neighbor-
hood to be insignificant; then, that the number of leaf-shaped
blades, “ blanks,” not in caches, was also insignificant ; then, that
those of quartzite which alone could have come from Piney

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 875

Branch quarry, are still more insignificant in number, and,
finally, that the number of finished implements, such as arrow-
and spear-heads, scarpers perforators, etc., of quartzite which
alone could have been made from Mr. Holmes’ “ blanks,” is
even less than insignificant when compared with the mass of
implements made of quartz, felsite, argillite, chert, other mate-
rial than quartzite.

7. I propose to show that, while his facts are assumptions,
(always excepting the excavation) he has committed the double
error of deducing a wrong conclusion from them, and I will
show not only that the leaf-shaped blades (his blanks)—and
along with them his finished implements, were not only not made
from the “ double turtle-back,” but that they could not be made
from it; and that Mr. Holmes’ elaborate theory of manu-
facture as shown by his arranged series of “ single turtle-backs,”
“ double turtle-backs,” leaf-shaped blades (blanks) and finished
implements, being made one after another, each out of the one
preceding, will break in two in the middle, because he cannot
make the leaf-shaped blades (blanks) out of the double turtle-
back without first practically reducing it to its original con-
dition of an unworked pebble.

8. I will contend that the objects found in the quarry should
be admitted in evidence and compared with other similar im-
plements in the determination of their age. If this is not done
and we are confined for evidence of age, to the quarry and its
surroundings, under the assertion that it belonged to modern
Indians, then I will attack its antiquity and attempt to show
that it may be even more modern than the Indian, and that
the quarry might all have been made while digging boulders
with which to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in early times. I
do not assert this to be true, but if we are deprived of the evi-
dence of the worked implements and driven to surface indica-
tions, I will contend that there is evidence (1) of the trench
having been entirely filled and carefully levelled so that the
contour of the hill shows no trace of excavation which would
not have been done by the Indian; (2) that the only other
indications of age are the depth of soil on the surface and the
size of the trees growing thereon, both of which might have

876 The American Naturalist. [November,

been accomplished since the laying out of the city of Wash-
ington.

9. I make further objection to Mr. Holmes’ theory that it
assumes jurisdiction of all questions, controverted or not, con-
cerning the age of the quarry, and decides them in such man-
ner as to preclude all further examination. If his theory that
the quarry was opened and worked and the implements made
by the modern Indian be correct then his decision closes the
investigation and passes a final judgment from which there is

no appeal.
I.

A portion of the interested public seem to be of the opinion
that Mr. Holmes’ excavation at Piney Branch wasa severe blow
to the possibility of a Paleolithic Period in the United States,
if,it did not destroy that theory altogether. I was not shaken
in my faith. My judgment and, I may say without egotism, my
years of study of the subject, have given me such an under-
standing of it as that the excavation at Piney Branch has not
caused me to reverse my opinion. If Paleolithic Man existed
in America, the traces will be found elsewhere, and a final ad-
verse decision cannot be made upon evidence from a _—
locality. Therefore I could bide my time.

If the excavation at Piney Branch belonged really to pre-
historic times, it is equally favorable to a Paleolithic Period as
against it. The investigation reveals nothing incompatible
with that theory. The conclusions of Mr. Holmes as an-
nounced in his paper were opposed to this, but conclusions are
not facts, and renowned investigators have been known to
discover many facts, all true, on which they based conclusions
which were all error. There are some things in Mr. Holmes’
paper not facts but conclusions stated as though they were
facts, frcm which I entirely dissent. Some of these, I propose
to examine. In this paper, the facts of discovery, as stated by
Mr. Holmes, will be admitted ; the errors of argument, theory
and conclusion will be combatted.

Prof. Holmes’ first five pages (Amer. Anthrop. IV. Jan.,
1890.) are employed with the history of the locality ; pp. 5 to
9 are filled with a description of the work done and the

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 877 `

method of doing it; at the foot of page 9 commences his de-
seription of the art-product. As Mr. Holmes proceeds in his
paper with the classification and study of these implements, he
announces a primary distinction between those which bear evi-
dence of design and those which do not—p. 11. Every arche-
ologist knows of this as a prime necessity. Every one tries to
keep to this distinction. The difficulty isin doing it.

True advancement in science depends on the correctness of
the conclusion. To rightly decide this, decides the whole
question, not only in this, but in almost every case concerning
prehistoric man. Mr. Holmes has no difficulty in this regard.
He has supreme confidence in his own ability and admits
no possibility of mistake or error. He says same paper,
(ibid.) p. 11, “ With these distinctions (of design) in mind,
the archeologist has but little trouble in recognizing and
separating all classes of products and the uninitiated with
a little careful study may readily learn to do the same. Hav-
ing handled the products of this shop constantly for a period
of several weeks, I have familiarized myself with every variety
of form and shade of contour, and do not feel the least hesitation in
presenting the results of my selection and classification.” He
then describes his Plate IV, (my Plate XIX), in which “is pre-
sented a series of worked stones from this site, which represents
every variety of product and epitomizes the entire range of
form. Beginning with the boulder a from which two chips
have been taken, we pass through successive degrees of elabora-
tion, reaching final forms in k, l, m, long leaf-shaped blades.
* * If it be asked how I know this seriesis complete * *
the discarded remnants tell the story, * * if every entire
flaked tool had been taken from the spot, the record would
remain with a certainty that is absolute.”

He describes, seriatim, the manufacture through the first two
stages, and he showed practically before the audience the
two processes employed, which consisted of the simple oper-
ation of “grasping a boulder in either hand, strike the edge
of one against the other so as to detach a flake, then a second
and third until the circuit (of the pebble) is completed as shown
in a tod and n, Plate LV, thus making a typical turtle-back.”

878 The American Naturalist. [November,

(Fig. 1). The stone was turned in the hand and a second series
of blows given on the other side, and the result was a “ double-
turtle-back,” (Fig. 2). The third stage is described in an un-

Free-hand on direct percussion ;
first step in shaping an implement
from a bowlder.. (Prof. Holmes
fig. 6).

certain and indefinite way,
rather out of keeping with the
rest of the paper. “If the form
(of the first-two stages) develop-
ed properly, the work was con-
tinued into what I have called,
for convenience, the third stage.
It consisted in going over both
sides a second and perhaps a
third time, securing, by the use
of small hammers and by deft
and careful blows upon the
edges, a rude but symmetrical
blade. A profile is given at p.
in Plate IV.” It is to be re-
marked, as a matter of impor-
tance, that his manipulations

are confined to the first two stages and do not enter upon or
pretend to show the third process which reduces the object

Fic. 2. ;
Direct percussion; manner of Striking where the edge is sharp.
(Prof. Holmes fig. 7).

from a thick and rude implement into “a straight and
symmetrical blade less than one-half inch in thickness.”
There his process fails, and he has not, nor do I believe he

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 879

can, by any such process as he has indicated, make out of
either his first or second stages, the leaf-shaped implement
of the third stage. (I will refer to this later).

His notes on Plate IV are descriptive of the processes and
products, and in this he speaks with the air of a master, de-
scribing with particularity the intentions and desires of the
aboriginal maker, telling wherein he was unsuccessful and
specifying the causes of rejection.

First stage—one side worked.

“a. Boulder with two flakes removed.

b, c, d. Specimen worked on one side only and had probably
been rejected on account of perverse fracture or excessive thickness. .

Second stage—both sides worked.

e. A few flakes removed from the back; fracture perverse.

f, g. Carefully worked on both sides, but still excessively
thick, hence the rejection.

h. Broken by a stroke intended to remove a prominent hump.

Third stage—both sides worked.

i. Neat in shape, but with a ridge or hump on the back
which many strokes have failed to remove.

j. Unsymmetric broken blade.

k, l, m. Thin, neat, broken blades. * * The last specimen
of the series, m, is, perhaps, the most advanced form found, but
that it was not finished is clear. * * It is highly improbable
that we have in the whole series of products of the quarry,
here epitomized, any finished tool, either whole or represented
by fragments. This should not be regarded as an opinion only ;
it is a conclusion based upon evidence that cannot be lightly treated
by the scientific investigator.”

This is sufficiently positive to admit of no mistake as to the
meaning of the writer. It is an ex cathedra opinion. It is the
conclusion of one who knows, and who knows that he knows.
It is the “ Thus Saith the Lord” of holy writ. It is the ipse
dixit of one who speaks by authority rather than the opinion
of one who is making his first essay in his new appointment
as Archeologist. This short sentence decides off-hand the

880 The American Naturalist. [November,

the whole question at issue, for it has been my contention that
implements such as were described by Mr. Holmes have been
found in many parts of the United States and nearly all over
Europe, and have in the latter country always been treated
as finished implements belonging to the Paleolithic period;
and I respectfully submit that my side of the case is not to
be overturned by a declaration made with whatever loudness
or clamor, or with whatever positiveness and determination,
and which, while declared as a fact, is naught but an assertion.

After having described the manufacture, closing with the
third process, the making of the leaf-shaped implements, he
says, page 13, “ Having followed the process to the end, I wish
to call especial attention to the fact, if my theory be correct, that
when this thin blade was realized, the work of this shop and
the only work of this shop was ended.” I ask—What right has
Mr. Holmes to make this statement? What evidence is there
of it? How can he know its truth? How can he know that
the “turtle-back ” may not have been intentional on the part
of the workman, as well as the leaf-shaped blade? How can
he know aught about the intention of the workman except, as
can every other person, from the implements themselves and
the condition in which they are found and the objects with
which they are associated? Continuing, “The process and
the machinery had accomplished all that was asked of them
and all that they were capable of accomplishing.”

What evidence of truth have we in these assertions? Again,
“the neat, but withal rude blades, and they only, were carried
away and to destinies which we may yet reveal,” p.13. Who knows
what blades were carried away, and what blades only were
carried away? Is this not an unwarranted assumption?
“ Further work, additional shaping, employed other processes,
and was carried on in other fields.” Why? How? In what
fields? What further work? What additional shaping ?
What processes? Where carried? And who knows aught
about it? Ifthe writer of these statements had been himself
a first-cousin of the paleolithic man and personally present
with his kinsman at the close of the Glacial epoch, making
notes and sketches of the quarry workshop of Piney Branch,

Ist Stage—One side worked.

Both sides worked.

2d Stage

Sd Stage—Both sides re-worked,

PLATE XIX.

Series of worked objects from Piney Branch quarry, beginn ing with the bowlder and ending with the leaf-shaped blade,
according to Mr. Holmes Puare IV,

PLATE XX,

Wh A

i
RA

p

ne 7 HN
Ss <i
i)
es en)
Pn G Gufs fj
: |
\ N H j
fe RN

i i
at

Wf
d Ma

hs g!
H H

7: ‘

< 4 fy":

The upper one from France, the lower ones from the United States.

Leaf-shaped implements, half size.

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 881

he could not have spoken with greater positiveness and more
certainty of knowledge. One might almost be pardoned, if he
continued the reading to the foot of page 13, for believing that
the writer considered himself not only omniscient but omni-
present. For he says, “ That every implement resembling the
final form, made from a boulder or similar bit of rock, must
pass through the same, or much the same stages of development
just described, whether shaped to-day, yesterday or a million
years ago, whether in the hands of the civilized, the barbarian
or the savage man.”

I envy Mr. Holmes his confidence in his acquaintance
with the times and men of high antiquity. Such intimate
acquaintance with abstruse and unknown problems is equail-
ed only by Dr. Jock Hornbook’s acquaintance with med-
icine and knowledge of drugs; and he repeats this assump-
tion when he says, “There were no examples of successful
quarry-products left upon the ground, all forms available
for further shaping or for immediate use were carried away,
being the entire products of the shop, and the only reward for the
long-continued and arduous labor inyolved in their produc-
tion.”

In the same strain, in the next paragraph, p. 14, he urges
us to keep these facts clearly in mind and then says “it is
almost superfluous to expend words in showing that all forms
found in the workshop other than the thin blade, accidentally
lost, are mere waste,” and he declares with a heroic “pang 0
regret ” that he is compelled to drop the turtle-back, single or
double, wholly and forever from the category of implements _
and to consign it to the oblivion of “failures.” And, as if to
make an end to the discussion and settle the question forever,
he, in the next sentence, extends his denunciation to all similar
forms throughout the Potomac Valley. We should “ cast them
at once and without hesitation into the refuse.”

In the same manner, and with similar sentences, he settles
and decides in an off-hand manner, as though it rested upon
some great.and well-known law and well demonstrated evi-
dence, the very question at issue, and considers that his dis-
covery has put it beyond the pale of intelligent discussion.

882 The American Naturalist. [November,.

“ All forms found in the workshop other than the thin blades
accidentally lost are mere waste; * * * this spot isa great
workshop where tools were shaped or rather roughed out, and
these things are the failures.” P. 14.

This is the precise question, decided so dogmatically and
with such an ex cathedra opinion, which is the point of the dis-
cussion ; for it has been contended by those who believe in the
probability of a paleolithic period in America, that whatever
these implements were, they were not failures, not waste or
debris, but were intentionally made, and whether they were or
were not implements of the paleolithic man, they correspond
in a remarkable degree with undoubted paleolithic implements
found in nearly every country of Europe.

Mr. Holmes admits, p. 17, “ that to a limited extent (he might
- well have said unlimited) the rude forms—the turtle-back and
its near relatives—are also found scattered over the Potomac Valley
outside the shop on the hills.” He might have added that they
were to be found practically all over the United States. I pro-
pose to show that they are even more plentifully scattered over
the surface of the hills and fields in the neighborhood of Mt.
Vernon than around Washington. “ This (the above) would
seem to conflict with my former statement that all these are
failures and were left upon the factory sites,” and he adds “ It
is time therefore, that I should define a stone-age workshop.”
Mark the adroitness with which he confines the implements
within a workshop and yet accounts for their general dispersion
throughout the country. He accomplishes it by defining a
workshop to extend all over the country. “It (a workshop) is
any spot where an individual desiring to make an implement,
picks up one or more boulders or bits of stone, proceeds to
shape what he desires.

His definition of a workshop is on a par with his other argu-
ment. This definition leads him into reasoning in a circle:
(1) all turtle-backs are the failures of the workman; (2) this is
proved by all the failures being left in the workshops as debris ;
(3) wherever you find a turtle-back was made, there was a
workshop; (4) wherever you find it in a workshop, it was left
among the debris. Can any process of reasoning be more

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 883:

vicious than this? “There is so far no evidence that any in-
habitant of the Potomac Valley ever aimed to make by flak-
ing alone any other than the attenuated form,” p. 17. “This
process leads inevitably to the production of blades in numbers,
and the supply for the entire year was to be obtained prob-
ably within a small fraction ofa year, the working period being
determined by the season, by tribal movements, or by the
limitations of time.”

Mr. Holmes disposes these leaf-shaped implements by declar-
ing them (p. 18) to have “ been roughed out in numbers to a
stage of advancement that made them portable, and at the same
time brought them within reach of the processes which he em-
ployed in finishing, that they were carried away to the villages
and buried in damp earth (cached) until the time came for
flaking them into the final forms required by the art. * * *
This history of these quarry forms is to be completed by their
final distribution among the inhabitants of the various tribes,
where we have witnessed the final step in the shaping process
—the shaping out of specific forms with a bone tool—and their
final adaptation to use and dispersal over the country.”

I scarcely know what answer to make to all this. It is so
complete and perfect an assumption that one scarcely knows
how to make a rational argument against it. I shall refer
later to, and show the error of fact contained in this assump-
tion. These leaf-shaped forms have been found in every age
of the prehistoric man, in almost every country in the world,
they have been of every size—from 16 inches in length down to ?
of aninch. Pl. XX. They are made with all degree of fineness,
have preserved their general form and characteristics, and we
may imagine in a general way the use for which they were
intended. They may have been used as arrow or spear-heads,
or they may have been inserted in a shaft or handle and used
as spears, or by shortening the handle, as knives; (figs. 3, 4)
or they may have been wrapped with hide, bark or grass
and this served as a handle (fig. 5). But that they were com-
pleted implements ready for whatever use they might have
been intended, no prehistoric archeologist of whom I have
any knowledge has ever doubted. A duplication and extension

884 The American Naturalist. [November,

of the uses of nearly every implement may be attributed to
the prehistoric man as has been done by the civilized man.
No one can prescribe the limits}within which a sailor’s sheath
knife may not be used. A hollow-handled awl is sold in our
stores to-day for 50 cents representing itself to be an entire set
of tools. The same duplication, changing of purpose and

Fics. 3, 4. Leaf-shaped implements of jasper, chipped to shape, fastened
in wooden handles with pitch or bitumen—to be used as knives, from the Pacific
Coast, half size.

IG, 5. Leaf-shaped blade, chipped, of mattled absidian, wrapped in other
skin, used for knife. Collected by Capt. P. A. Ray, from Hoopa Valley, Cal.,
half size,
adaptation to other purposes, may not have been impossible
with the prehistoric man in his employment of these leaf-
shaped implements, but that all the leaf-shaped implements,
the products of this quarry, and by consequence, all others,
should have been but prepared material, wrought from the
pebble, to be carried to the home of the man who made them,
to be flaked into some unknown and unsuspected implement
and then peddled over the country, is an assumption which

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 885

has so little foundation as to weaken rather than strengthen
his argument. It is only referred to as being on the level with
the rest of the paper and to show what a large proportion of
it is assumption, and how slight is its foundation of fact.

The method of determining the kind and use of implements,
their mode of manufacture and the expected benefit which in-
duced the prehistoric man to expend himself upon them, by
comparing him with ourselves, with putting him in our places,
or putting ourselves with our knowledge and skill, culture and
spirit of invention, in his place, and then deciding everything he
did from our standpoint, is one of the errors of modern archeol-
ogists and one which leads them far from the right path. This
discussion leads Mr. Holmes into the processes of the manu-
facture of flaked stone tools, and he explains direct or free-hand
percussion, declares its limitation, how it was the only method
known in early times, and throughout pages 15 and 16, ex-
plains the details, giving philosophic dissertations upon the art
of stone flaking or chipping and, of the development of the
spirit and technology of art required in this work of mak-
ing leaf-shaped blades. No better answer could be given to
this theory than the exhibition of the finely flaked flint imple-
ments all prehistoric, coming, some of them, from Scandinavia,
Mexico, and a large number belonging to the paleolithic
period, found throughout the interior of France in what M. de
Mortillet calls the “Solutréen epoch,” M. Reinach and others,
the “Cavern epoch.” Yet Mr. Holmes has never been able to
reproduce one of them or to overcome the difficulties of their
fabrication.

: (To be Continued.)

886 The American Naturalist. [November,

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BATRA-
CHIA AND REPTILIA IN NORTH AMERICA.

By E. D. Cops.

As is well known, the aggregates of organic beings called
faunæ and flor correspond in part with the natural land
divisions of the earth’s surface, but not exactly. The first
classification of the primary faunæ was proposed by Dr. P. L.
Sclater in 1858, as follows:

1. Paleartic—Europe, Northern Africa, Northern and Central
Asia.

2. Ethiopian.—Africa south of the Great Desert, and Mada-
gascar.

3. Indian.—Southeastern Asia and the Malay Archipelago.

4. Australian.—Australia with New Guinea and the adjacent
islands, New Zealand and Polynesia.

5. Nearctic—North America as far south as Mexico.

6. Neotropical—Central and South America and the West

Indies.

Subsequently Dr. A. R. Wallace proposed that the name
Oriental be used in place of Indian.

In 1868 Prof. T. H. Huxley proposed that the world’s areas
be arranged in two divisions, Arctogea and Notogea; the
former including the Palearctic, Indian, Ethiopian and Neare-
tic of Sclater, and the latter including the Australian and
Neotropical regions. To the last two he added the Novo
Zealanian for New Zealand, and he proposes to change the
name of the Neotropical to Austrocolumbian.

In 1871 Dr. J. A. Allen proposed the following faunal divis-
ions: I. Arctic Realm; II. North Temperate Realm; III.
American Tropical Realm; IV. Indo-African Tropical Realm ;
V. South American Temperate Realm; VI. African Temper-
ate Realm; VII. Antarctic Realm; VIII. Australian Realm.

In 1874 Sclater modified his system as follows: He retained
the term Arctogea inthe Huxleyan sense. To the Neotropical
region he gave the name of Dendtrogea, and to the Australian

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 887

he gave the name Antarctogea, omitting New Zealand and
Polynesia, which he constituted a fourth division, Ornithogea.

In 1878 Heilprin proposed the name Holarctic, to include
Sclater’s Palearctic and Nearctic regions. He also proposed
two transitional regions; that of the Old World he called Medi-
terranean and that of the New World the Sonoran, the latter
aterm already introduced by Cope for a division of the Nearctic
of Sclater.

In 1884 Gill proposed the following primary divisions or
realms: 1. Anglogeean (N. American); 2. Eurygeean, or Eura-
sian; 3. Indogsean; 4. Afrogean; 5. Dendrogeean, or Tropical
American ; 6. Amphigzean, or Temperate South American;
7. Austrogeean, or Australian; 8. Ornithogzean, or New Zea-
land; 10. Nesogeean, or Polynesian. Prof. Gill justly insisted
-on the importance of fresh water fishes as furnishing definitions
of natural faunal realms and regions.

In 1890 Blanford published a system of geographic zoology
in which he adopted the primary divisions of Huxley, and di-
vided the Arctogaean region into the following: Malagasy,
Ethiopian, Oriental, Aqulonian (= Palearctic and northern
part of Nearctic), and Medio-Columbian (S. part of Nearctic).

In 1896 Lydekker proposed the following divisions: I. Noto-
gæic Realm; regions: 1. Australian; 2. Polynesian; 3. Ha-
waiian; 4. Austromelayau. IL. Neogæic Realm; regions:
Neotropical. III. Arctogæic Realm; regions: 1. Malagany: :
2. Ethiopian; 3. Oriental; 4. ikolna 5. Sonoran. Lydek-
ker makes use of paleontologic evidence in this connection.
While this treatment of the subject is important from the point
-of view of origin, it is often irrelevant, since the distribution of
vertebrate life in each geologic age was different from that in
-each other geologic age.

In an essay on the geographical distribution of North Ameri-
-can Reptilia published in 1875, the present writer adopted the
first system of Sclater. After a lapse of twenty years, the light
thrown on the subject by various investigators suggests the fol-
‘lowing modifications. In the first place the recognition of the
close similarity of the life of the northern regions of the earth,
requires more definite formulation than was accorded it in

888 The American Naturalist. [ November,

Sclater’s first system, by the union of his three divisions of Ne-
arctic, Palearctic and Indian into one, for which the name
Arctogea is appropriate. The enclosure of his Ethiopian divis-
ion in it as proposed by Huxley, does not seem to me to be
proper, in view of the important types of fishes and reptiles
which characterize it; e. g., the Crossopterygian, Dipnoan and
Seyphophorous fishes, and the Pleurodire tortoises. In the
fishes, indeed, the Ethiopian region has as much affinity with
the Neotropical fauna as with any other, in its Characin and
and Cichlid families, and in the Dipnoan subclass. The pres-
ence of the Dipnoi and the Pleurodire tortoises ally it to the
Australian fauna as well. It is for these reasons that Prof. Gill
proposes to combine the southern hemisphere realms into a
single “ Eogaean” division. The northern affinities of the
Ethiopian realm are, however, too many to permit us to regard
this arrangement as a just expression of the facts. Thus, it
has Insectivorous Mammalia, Firmisternial Batrachia Anura,
and Cyprinid fishes, none of which are Australian or Neotropi-
cal types. The course that remains under the circumstances is
to regard the Ethiopian Realm as fully distinct from the other
three. The definitions of the four primary divisions are then
as follows:

The Australian realm is peculiar in the absence of nearly all
types of Mammalia, except the Ornithodelphia and the Marsup-
ials; in the presence of various Ratite birds, in great develop-
ment of the Proteroglyph serpents, and absence of the higher
division of both snakes and frogs; i. e., Solenoglypha and Firmis-
ternia; in the existence of Dipnoi (Ceratodus) and certain Isospon-
dylous families of fishes. On the other hand many of the liz-
ards and birds are of the higher types that prevail in India
and Africa, viz.: the Agamide and the Oscines.

The Neotropical realm only possesses exclusively the Pla-
tyrhine monkeysand the great majority of the humming birds.
It shares with the other Southern regions the Edentate and
Tapiroid mammals; Ratite, Pullastrine, and Clamatorial birds;
Proteroglyph snakes; Iguanid Lacertilia, the Agamids being
entirely absent; Arciferous frogs ; and Characin, Chromid, Os-
teoglossid, and Dipnoan fishes. It has but few types of the

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 889

Northern regions ; these area few bears, deer, and oscine birds.
Insectivorous mammalia, Viperid serpents, and Ginglymodous,
Halecomorphous and Cyprinid fishes are wanting, except on
the northern border.

The Ethiopean realm is that one which combines the preva-
lent features of the Arctogean realm with the southern hemi-
sphere types already mentioned, together with some found
elsewhere only in the Indian region, and a very few peculiar.
The two latter classes not being mentioned elsewhere, they may
be here enumerated. The region shares, with the Indian alone,
the Catarrhine monkeys, the Elephantidx, Rhinocerotide, No-
marthrous Edentata and Chameleons. Its peculiar types are
the Lemuridx, Hippopotamide and Protelide, Cryptoproctide
and Hyracoidea among mammals, and Polypteride and Mor-
myride among fishes. It possesses in common with the Neo-
tropical realm characinid, cychlidi, and dipnoan fishes, Pleuro-
dire tortoises and Ratite and Trogonoid birds; and differs
from it in the absence of arciferous Batrachia and crotalid
snakes, and presence of dendraspid, causid, atractaspid and
viperid snakes.

The Arctogean Realm is characterized by the absence of
types conspicuous elsewhere, and by the presence of a few
peculiar forms. Among fishes it lacks Dipnoi and Cross-
opterygia, Osteoglosside, Characinide and Cichlide. It lacks
Pleurodire tortoises and Ratite birds. Ginglymodous fishes
and Urodele Batrachia are nearly confined to it, merely.
extending a little over the border of the Neotropical. Its
Cryptodire tortoises extend both into the Neotropical and Eth-
iopian. Anguid lizards are confined to it. It shares most of
its Mammalia with other regions. The Insectivora it shares
with the Ethiopian, and its deer and camels with the Neotrop-
ical. The genus Ursus is very characteristic, one aberrant
species only extending into the Neotropical.

From what has preceded it is seen that the primary differ-
ences between the faune of the realms are to be found toa
large degree in the lower vertebrata, the fishes, Batrachia and
Reptilia. These forms furnish stronger distinctions than the
birds and mammals, owing to their greater inability to traverse

62

890 The American Naturalist. [November,

natural boundaries. Neglect of these indications has led to

much of the difference of opinion in the question of geograph- -
ical distribution, which have been founded principally on the

conditions presented by the birds and mammalia.

In this system fragments of existing or old continents, which
have been subjected to conditions unfavorable to particular
forms of life otherwise prevalent in them, are, as in the system
of Sclater, disregarded. Thus, islands generally are not re-
garded as presenting conditions definitive of divisions of the
first rank, as was done by Huxley and Gill in the case of New
Zealand, and Gill and Lydekker in the Polynesian Islands. The
temperate regions of Africa and South America are certainly
not separable from the tropical portions, as divisions of primary
rank, as was done by Allen, who is followed as to South America
by Gill. With equal propriety western North America might
be separated from Mississippi and Atlantic North America, on
account of the great deficiency of its fish fauna. In estimating
faunistic affinities one has to give similarities over a given
area more weight than differences, where the differences are
only due to absence of types.

Finally, it must be remembered that there are geographic
points of transition between all the realms.

I. THE ArcTOGEAN REALM.

This realm includes three regions, viz. : the Indian, the Hol-
arctic and the Medicolumbian. I have already defined the
first two in general terms. The third is the transitional of
Heilprin, the Sonoran of Merriam and Lydekker, and the
Neotemperate of Townsend. It embraces what is left of the
Nearctic of Sclater after the subtraction of the Holarctic. As
the name Sonoran has been previously given by me to one of
the districts of this region, I have preferred to use for it the
mame given by Blanford.

The faunal characteristics of these regions may be enumer-
ated af follows:

Indian Region.—Presence of Holostomatous fishes. Absence
of Ginglymodous and Halecomorphous and Salmonid fishes.
Presence of Cæœciliid Batrachia. Absence of Trachystomatous,

1896,] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 891

Amphiumid, Cyptobranchid, and Arciferous Batrachia. Pres-
ence of Agamid lizards, and Anigiostomatous and Viperid
snakes. Presence of Phasianid, Eurylemid, Nectariniid and
Pittid birds. . Absence of Tyrannid and of several nine-quilled
oscine families. Presence of nomarthrous Edentata, of Viver-
ride, Hyænidæ, Tupæidæ and Tarsiide. Presence of Rhino-
cerotidæ, Tapiridee, Proboscidia, and Catarrhine Quadumana,
and Anthopomorpha. Absence of Didelphyide, Procyonide
and Scalopide.

Holarctic Region —Absence of Holostomatous and Halecomor-
phous fishes. Presence of Ginglymodous and Salmonid fishes.
Absence of Trachystomatous, Amphiumid and Ceciliid Batra-
chia, and absence of the Arcifera except the family Discoglos-
sidæ (two species of Hyla excepted). Absence of Angiostomatous
and presence of Viperid snakes. Presence of Phasianid, and
absence of Eurylemid, Nectariniid, Pittid and Tyrannid birds,
and of several nine-quilled oscine families or subfamilies.
Absence of Nomarthrous Edentata, of Viverride, Hynide,
Tupeide, Rhinocerotide, Tapiride, Proboscidia, Quadrumana
and Anthropomorpha (except Homo).

Medicolumhian Region.—Absence of Holostomatous fishes;
presence of Ginglymodous and Halecomorphous fishes. Pres-
ence of Trachystomatous, Amphiumid, Aciferous and Firmi-
sternial Batrachia, and absence of Ceeciliide. Presence of Igu-
anid, and absence of Agamid and Chameleonid lizards; absence
(except three species) of Angiostomatous and of Viperid snakes.
Absence of the Indian types of Passeres mentioned, and pres-
ence of Tyrannid Clamatores,and several groups of nine-quilled
Oscines (Icteride Mniotiltide, Tanagride). Absence of all
the specially Indian mammalia, and of the Holarctic Erin-
aceidæ, and presence of Didelphyide (one species), Scalopidee
and Procyonide.

In defining these regions I have restricted myself necessarily
to types of tolerably high rank, and have not referred to
species. This is because species are not generally characteristic

of entire divisions, but only of parts of them. One cannot,
however, be absolutely exact in such major definitions, since a
number of the conspicuous types in each are not universally
distributed over these areas.

892 > The American Naturulist. [November,

In comparing the Holarctic with other realms, I have already
referred to the number of types which it possesses in common
with the Ethiopian, not found in the Neotropical. It has also
several in common with the Neotropical, which do not occur in
the Ethiopian. These are the Arciferous Batrachia, the Cro-
talid snakes, and the deer (Cervide). The Medicolumbian
division of the Holarctic shares other forms with the Neotropi-
cal. These are Didelphyidz and Procyonide among Mammalia;
Tyrannid, Icterid and Tanagrid birds; Kinosternid tortoises
and the Arciferous Batrachian family Hylide.

Some of the forms of the Holarctic region are not uniformly
distributed over it. Thus the Ginglymodous and Spatulariid
fishes only occur in the eastern parts of the eastern and western
continents. The same is true of the Silurid genus Amiurus
and the Loricate genus Alligator. The Crotalid snakes are
not found in the western parts of Eurasia. The Batrachian
Cryptobranchidez have the same distribution.

Il. Tot MepicotuMBIAN REGION.

This region was formerly included-in the Nearctic of Sclater,
and the area thus constituted has the following geographic
boundaries. To the south it includes the plateau of Mexico,
including the central valley. The Neotropical area bounds
it to the east and west, occupying the low-lands or Tierra Ca-
liente to a point 150 miles south of the Rio Grande on the east,
(Townsend, Texas Academy of Science, 1895, p. 87), and to
Mazatlan, or some point not far from it, on the west. The high
land of Oaxaca is its extreme southern outpost. Its northern
boundary is thus described by Merriam.’ The “ Boreal” (Hol-
arctic realm) “ Province extends obliquely across the entire con-
tinent from New England and Newfoundland to Alaska, con-
forming in direction to the trend of the northern shores of the
continent. It gives off three long arms or chains of islands which
reach far south along the three great mountain systems of the
United States, a western arm in the Cascades and Sierra
Nevada, a central arm in the Rocky Mountains, and an eastern

1 Biological survey of the San Francisco Momitain; N. Amer. Fauna, No. 3,
1890, p. 24.

1896.]

Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia.

893

arm in the Alleghanies, and these interdigitate with northward
prolongations of the Sonoran” (Medicolumbian) “ province,
which latter completely surrounds the southern islands of the
Boreal” (Holarctic) “system.”

The faunal relations of the Medicolumbian realm may be

tabulated as follows:

Agrees with Holarctic in

Differs from

Paleartic in

Peculiar Forms

Neotropical Forms

bel hes Nadinedsed, E SE, Procyonidæ
Tanant Antilocapra gad
E Mephitis | Dicotyl
Scalopide |Didelphys.
Cathartide.
| an ig
š Icteri
Birds, except ........0+..00+ |Clamatores in general.
| Trochilide,
| | Meleagridee..... ......ssceeeee. rere ree
Alliga
Tiid a ae Gerrhonotid liz-
ards.
Iguanid lizards.
pe ri pna sed gege tiv qeeses Chelydride. ....... ......+++-.|Cinosternide.
ciniti rotalinæ Elapid venomous snakes.
aniform i bie teese è sorses Arcifera.
Scaphiopid Plethod E gy
] | Aeran p |
i | Desmognathidæ.
Dheanvetyive rsdsbusiskestecee |
Cry ptobranchidæ.. bbdabs lodiei |
| Trachystomata.
ecturus.
Amphiumidæ,
Percid fishes.
OOM 6s. i E A Percopside.
orinn ukia Amblyopsidæ.
N oor rag
tulariidæ
Opri d Pl O E t i
|Catostomidæ.
Gasterosteidæ
Salmonidæ.
Amiidæ.
Lepidosteidæ.

894 The American Naturalist. [November,

Baird’ divided this region into three districts, which he
termed the eastern, central and western. The eastern occupied
eastern North America to the central plains, where they exceed
800 feet above sea-level. The western included the territory be-
tween the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Pa-
cific Ocean. In my paper of 1875, I adopted the eastern, central
and western districts (calling the last the Pacific), and proposed
two other districts, viz.: the Austroriparian for the Louisian- _
ian division of the eastern of Verrill, and the Sonoran for the
southwestern and Mexican Plateau faune. Merriam, in 1890,‘
proposed a different arrangement. Using the name Sonoran
for the entire Medicolumbian Region he divided it into “ (1)
an Arid or Sonoran subregion proper, occupying the table-
land of Mexico, reaching north into western Texas, New Mexico,
Arizona, and southern California; (2) a Californian subregion, ©
occupying the greater part of the State of that name; (3) a
Lower Californian subregion ; (4) a Great Basin region, occupy-
ing the area between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra
Nevada, extending as far north as the plains of the Columbia ;
(5) a Great Plains subregion, occupying the plains east of the
Rocky Mountains, and extending north to the plains of the
Saskatchewan; and (6) a Louisianian or Austroriparian sub-
region, occupying the low-lands bordering the Gulf of Mexico
and the Mississippi, and extending eastward south of the
Alleghanies to the Atlantic seaboard, where it reaches as far
north as the mouth of Chesapeake Bay.” According to his ar-
rangement the Eastern Region of Baird and myself is not
mentioned.

This classification may be applicable to birds and mammals;
but it is not applicable to the fishes, Batrachia and Reptilia,
which are much more exact indicators of the histories of faunse,
owing to their inferior powers of migration. The eastern dis-
trict or subregion is more nearly allied, from this point of view,
to the Austroriparian than the latter is to the Sonoran proper,
or arid region. This is due, as Baird previously pointed out,

2 Amer. Jour. Sci. Arts, XCI, 1866, p. 82.
3 Bulletin U.S. Natl. Museum, I, 1875, p. 55.
4N. American Fauna, 1890, No. 3, p. 24.

1896,] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 895

to the great difference in rainfall between the part of the con-
tinent lying eastward of the 100th meridian and that part
which lies west of it. This difference is coincident with a pro-
found difference in geologic age between the regions west of
that meridian and the eastern district, the former having a
short continental history as compared with the latter.

I, however, agree with Merriam in the abolition of the
“ Central” as a subregion of Medicolumbia.

The relation of the several zoological divisions to these sub-
regions are as follows: The eastern subregion is the original
centre of distribution of all the fishes peculiar to the Medico-
lumbian region, except only the Plagopterine Cyprinide. It
is the centre of distribution of all the Batrachia, with the fol-
lowing exceptions: The degenerate types of Trachystomata
and Amphiumoidea probably originated in the Austroriparian
subregion, and the species of Bufo in the Sonoran. The eastern
subregion is also the source of the aquatic Testudinata. On
the other hand the Sauria of the eastern and Austroriparian
subregions are an overflow from the abundant lizard life of the
Sonoran region, excepting the family of the skincs, and the
genus Anolis, the latter being of Neotropical origin. The
snakes also are mainly Sonoran types, including especially the
true rattlesnakes. The copperheads and ground rattlesnakes
are on the contrary indigenous to the eastern subregion. The
Pacific subregion has close affinities with the Sonoran, but of
a largely different kind as to its lizards, while the Batrachia
have the character of the eastern types as far as they go.

The distribution of types indicates six principal subdivisions,
which I call the Floridan, Austroriparian, Eastern, Sonoran,
Western, and Toltecan subregions. The Floridan subregion
includes the greater part of the peninsula of Florida, being
bounded approximately on the west by the Suwanee River.
The Austroriparian subregion extends northward from the
Gulf of Mexico to the isothermal of 77° F. It commences near
Norfolk, Va., and occupies a belt along the coast, extending in-
land in North Carolina. It passes south of the Georgia Mount-
ains, and to the northwestward up the Mississippi Valley to the
southeastern part of Illinois. West of the Mississippi the bound-

.

896 The American Naturalist. [November,

ary crosses Missouri, extends south along the southern bound-
ary of high lands of Texas, and reaches the Gulf at the mouth of
the Rio Grande. The Eastern subdivision is the most extended,
reaching from the isothermal line of 77° F. north and from the
Atlantic Ocean to the elevated plains west of the Mississippi
River. Many of its forms extend up the bottoms of the rivers
which flow to the eastward through the plains. The Sonoran
subregion extends from the limit of the Eastern as far west as
the Sierra Nevada, and south, including Nevada, New Mexico,
Arizona, Sonora and the Plateau of Mexico, including the
State of Chihuahua, and, perhaps, Durango. It does not cross
the Sierra Nevada, but includes the entire peninsula of
Lower California. It extends northward on the east side of
the Sierra Nevada as far as, including the arid region of
British Columbia. It occupies the valley of the Rio Grando,
and extends into Texas as far as the Rio Pecos. It extends
southward in western Mexico as far as Mazatlan. The Western
subdivision extends from the Pacific coast to the Sierra Nevada
to an uncertain distance on the Lower Californian Peninsula.
At the north it crosses the Sierra Nevada, skips the narrow
strip of the Sonoran in Washington, and extends to the Rocky
Mountains, including northern Idaho and western Montana.
The Toltecan subregion includes the States of Guanajuato,
Mexico, and the adjacent elevated regions of Michoacan,
Oaxaca and Puebla, including the Alpine regions of the south-
ern Sierra Madre. It is probable that another subregion should
be added, the Tamaulipan of Townsend. This is a dry region
extending from near the mouth of the Rio Grande to the Rio
Soto la Marina in the State of Tamaulipas. More information
regarding the fauna of this country is desirable.

The faunal peculiarities of these subregions are well marked.
The three subregions included in eastern North America differ
from all the others in the abundance of their turtles and the
small number of their lizards. Prolific of life, this area is not
‘subdivided by any marked natural barriers. Hence, though
its species present great varieties in extent of range, it is not
divided into districts which are very sharply defined. The
warmer regions are much richer in birds, reptiles and insects

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 897

than the cooler; and as we advance northward many species
disappear, while a few othersare added. The natural division
of the eastern part of the continent is then in a measure de-
pendent on the isothermal lines which traverse it, which accord
also quite closely with its geologic history.

The Floridan subregion is distinguished by the presence of
several peculiar genera of Batrachia and Reptilia, and by a
number of peculiar species. A special feature is the almost
total absence of Batrachia Urodela. The genera are:

BATRACHIA: : Seminatrix,
Lithodytes, . Liodytes.
Pseudobranchus.

ae SAURIA:

SERPENTES: | Rhineiira,
Stilosoma, Spherodactylus.
Rhadinexa,

Lithodytes and Spherodactylus are West Indian Neotropical
genera, and Rhadinza, besides being Neotropical, extends into
the eastern part of the Austroriparian subregion. Five genera
are then peculiar. The peculiar species will be enumerated
later. Several species of mammals are confined to this region.
The genera of birds that do not range north of it are, accord-
ing to Allen:

Certhiola Aramus Wad
enæda Audubonia BASE
Oreopelia Pigeons. .
P TPE tes Phænicopterus.
- Rostrhamus Haliplana |
Polyborus \ Raptores. Ras } Terns.

The isolation of the Floridan subregion is due to the fact
that the nucleus of the peninsula (which is of Eocene age) was
separated from the continent during the greater part of neocene
time. Ifat at any time connected with the Antilles, the period
was of short duration. -

- The Austroriparian region possesses many peculiar genera of
reptiles not found elsewhere, while the region north of it pos-
sesses none, its genera being distributed over some or all of the

898 The American Naturalist. [November,

remaining regions. The number of peculiar species in all
departments of animal life is large. It presents the greatest
development of the eastern reptile life. Sixteen genera of
Reptiles and eight of Batrachia do not range to the northward,
while ninety-nine species are restricted in the same manner.
The peculiar genera which occur over most of its area are:

SAURIA : TESTUDINATA:

Anolis, Macrochelys.
LORICATA :

SERPENTES: Sitio
Elaps,
Haldea, BATRACHIA:
Cemophora, Engystoma,
Tantilla, Manculus,
Compsosoma, Amphiuma,
Farancia. Siren.

I have omitted from this list ten genera which are restricted
to one or the other of its subdivisions. The Siren, the Cemo-
phora, the Anolis, and the Alligator, are the most striking of
the above characteristic genera. No genus of lizards is pecu-
liar excepting Anolis, which has its greatest development in
other than the Nearctic continent. Among Serpents a few
genera of Neotropical character extend eastward along the re-
gion of the Mexican Gulf, as far as the Atlantic coast, which
are not found in any of the northern regions; such are Comp-
sosoma, (Central American); Tantilla, and Elaps (Sonoran). On
the other hand, Abastor, Virginia, Haldea, and Storeria, embrace
serpents which it shares with the Eastern region.

This region is the headquarters of the Batrachia, especially
of the tailed forms. The majority of species of the tailless
genera are found here, especially of Hyla (tree-toads), Rana,
and Chorophilus.

There are no less than nine genera of birds which do not, or
only accidentally, range northward of this district. They are,
according to Allen:

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 899

Plotus, Conurus,
Tantalus, Chamepelia,
Platalea, Campephilus,
Elanus, Helinga.
Ictinia,

All these genera, excepting the last, range into South America
or further.

Among mammals, but few species and one genus (Sigmodon)
are confined to it. Lepus aquaticus and L. palustris, the cotton
rat, etc., and a few others, are restricted by it. The fish fauna
is very similar to that of the Eastern region.

The Eastern subregion differs from the Austroriparian almost
entirely in what it lacks, and agrees with it in all those pecu-
liarities by which it is so widely separated from the subregion.
No genus of mammals is found in it which does not range into
other regions, excepting Condylura (star-nosed mole); but nu-
merous species are confined to it, not extending into the Aus-
troriparian. These number from twenty to twenty-five. Among
birds, the following genera are, according to J. A. Allen, shared
with the more southern region only: Quiscalus, Siwrus, Helmi-
therus, Protonotaria, Parula, Mniotilta. No genus of Reptiles,
and but one of Batrachians (Gyrinophilus), is confined to this
region; but it shares all it possesses with the Austroriparian.
It has but four genera of lizards, viz.: Sceloporus, Cnemido-
phorus Liolepisma and Eumeces.

The Sonoran subregion is characterized in the lower vertebrate
fauna, by great poverty in fishes, batrachians and tortoises,
and abundance of lizards and snakes. Among fishes it lacks
the orders Ginglymodi, Halecomorphi and Chondrostei, and
possesses only one peculiar group, the Plagopterine, a division
of the Cyprinide. Of usual Holarctic types it possesses only
Isospondyli (Salmonide) and Plectospondyli; Percomorphi
and Nematognathi being absent. The rivers that intersect its
central district contain these types, but they must be reckoned
as belonging with their bottom lands to the Eastern subregion ;
the high plains only belonging to Sonoran. The true drainage
area of the Sonoran subregion is that of the Colorado.

900 The American Naturalist. [November,

No genus of Batrachia is peculiar to it, and the following
divisions are wanting: Proteida, Trachystomata, Amphiu-
moida, and all Pseudosauria, except Amblystomide (one spe-
cies). The genus Bufo is the only one that is well represented.

The following genera of reptiles are peculiar to it:

Uta, Anota,

Uma, ; Lichanura,
Sauromalus, Phyllorhynchus,
Callisaurus, Chionactis,
Dipsosaurus, Chilomeniscus.

It shares the following genera with the Central American
subregion of the Neotropical Realm only:

Ctenosaura.

Eublepharis (also in the Indian region).

Phyllodactylus (also in the Columbian Neotropical).

Heloderma.

Hypsiglena.

Salvadora.

Rhinechis (also Holarctic of Eurasia).

Trimorphodon

Tantilla (also in Brazilian Neotropical).

Cinosternum (also in Brazilian Neotropical).

The following genera of the Sonoran subregion enter the
Texan district of the Austroriparian subregion:

Holbrookia, - Hypsiglena,
Crotaphytus, | Rhinochilus,
Phrynosoma, | Cinosternum.
Gerrhonotus,

Many species are peculiar to this subregion, as will be shown
later on. .

The Western subregion is distinguished by the absence of
most of the types of fishes of the humid part of the continent,
and the presence of afew. Thus, the Ginglymodi, Haleco-
morphi and Catostomide are absent, while Percomorphi are
present. The Batrachian fauna lacks the Proteida, Trachys-
tomata and Amphiumoidea, while Pseudosauria are abundant,

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 901

excepting Cryptobranchide. All the families of Salientia
characteristic of Medicolumbia are present except the Engy-
stomide. Among reptiles the genus Charina is entirely char-
acteristic, and Gerrhonotus of the Toltecan and Sonoran faune
ranges its entire length. It is especially distinguished by
the absence of the following genera: First, all of the Igua-
nidæ exclusively characteristic of the Sonoran fauna, there
remaining only Crotaphytus, Sceloporus, and Phrynosoma, which
also enter the Texan district of the Austroriparian ; by the
absence of Heloderma, Ophisaurus and Liolepisma. Amon
snakes, by the absence of true water snakes (genus Natrix),
and the small burrowing Natricine, of Opisthoglyph forms,
and of poisonous snakes of the genera Elaps and Systrurus.
No genus but Charina can be cited as of universal distribution,
which is not at the same time found in some other subregion ;
but several genera occur in one or the other of its districts
which do not occur elsewhere. Similarly no genus of birds or
mammals can be exclusively assigned to its entire area; but
Chamea of the former class and Haplodontia of the latter are
restricted to particular portions of it.

The Toltecan subregion is characterized by the genera it lacks
as well as those which it possesses. Thus, it lacks all the
genera of Sauria above cited as characteristic of the Sonoran
subregion, including those enumerated as passing over into the
Austroriparian ecept Phrynosoma. It also lacks the following
genera of snakes which are found in the Sonoran:

Lichanura, Zamenis,
Pityophis, Phyllorhynchus.
Ophibolus,

Chilomeniscus,

From the Austroriparian subregion it differs in the lack of
all the numerous genera of Fishes and Batrachia Urodela,
which characterize it, excepting only Spelerpes. It lacks also
the following genera of snakes: Cyclophis, Virginia, Haldea and
Carphophiops ; and Natrix is very sparsely if at all represented,

In its positive characters the Toltecan subregion combines
certain forms of both the Sonoran and Austroriparian subre-

902 The American Naturalist. [November,

gions. Of the former character are Svea, Phrynosoma, Barissia,
Gerrhonatus, Hypsiglena and Salvadora ; of the latter kind, Spe-
lerpes, Liolepisma, Osceola, Storeria and Systrurus. Characteristic
of Medicolumbia generaly: Amblystoma, Rana, Sceloporus,
Eumeces, Diadophis, Eutenia, Crotalus. Peculiar genera:

Siredon, Hemigenius,
Thorius, Epiglottophis,
Malachylodes, Ogmius,
Conopsis, Ophryacus.

Neotropical genera: Oedipus, Anolis, Celestus, Atractus, Ninia,
Drymobius, Bothriechis.
(To be continued.)

FOSSILS AND FOSSILIZATION.
By L. P. GRATACAP.
L

A fossil, in Paleontology, is any indication of life which has
become entirely or partially altered in its substance or condi-
tion by the mineral or chemical agencies of its environment.
As an “indication ” it embraces the widest possible series of
remains which have, or could have, any connection with liv-
ing organisms, from the bones of a vertebrate, the hard parts of
an invertebrate, the foliage, fronds, seeds and wood of plants,
to the fillings of worm burrows, the tracks of insects, reptiles,
mammals, mollusca and crustaceans, and those problematic
impressions which have been referred to Medusa, or those by
Prof. Hall to the soft parts of an Orthoceras. And it also in-
cludes the stony casts formed by the entrance of extraneous
mud or silt, sand or chemical deposits within the hard parts of
animals upon their death and the disappearance of the soft

-parts by decay. The hard parts, upon removal by solution,
leave the impressions of their interior upon this soft filling
“which faithfully copies the contour and size of the organism.

1896.] Fossils and Fossilization. 903

‘These casts form a large group of fossils, and sometimes afford
most important information as to the vascular markings and
muscular tissues of both crustaceans and brachiopods, though
they often perplex the paleontologist by their meagre and un-
satisfactory characters. Again, the moulds of exteriors, the
phase of preservation complementary to casts must be classed
with “ fossils.” Such impressions often present the superficial
ornamentation of shells, and by filling them with soft material
as sulphur, wax, or rubber, a reproduction of the original or-
ganism in size and form can be satisfactorily obtained. The
application of the word “fossil” may be even extended to
designate those doubtful evidences of organic life, such as the
mixture of the minerals, serpentine and calcite, which have
yielded, upon microscopic inspection, some suggestions of or-
ganic structure, and with which the famous name of Eozoon
has been associated, and over which a notable controversy
exists to-day. However the term “fossil” is used, its exact
meaning from fodeo to dig, refers to the most common circum-
stance connected with the search for fossils, viz. : the excava-
tion of rocks or earth, and hence, literally, a fossil is a thing
dug out, implying a past stage of existence in which it has
undergone burial and hinting at its subsequent exhumation.
‘This association has no invariable applicability. Fossils are
found exposed upon ancient beaches very slightly covered, as
in the shell beds at Beauport, New York, where the valves of
Saxicava rugosa’ “ form a bleached white mass, twelve feet thick,
perfectly stratified, and with only sufficient sandy matter to
form the lines of division between the strata” (E. Emmons,
‘Geol. N. Y., Pt. IV, p. 129); they are spread upon the surface
-of wide extents of territory as in parts of Syria where thousands
-of cardiums, in the form of casts, are seen upon the road and
in the fields, from which wagon-loads could be secured, though
not a fragment ofa shell or a piece of a hinge-tooth, for purposes
-of identification, are visible (O. Fraas, Aus dem Orient, Pt: II,
p. 73). Similarly, in the cretaceous beds of Texas in the

1A Lamellibranch or bivalve shell now found living along our coast, from

-Georgia to the Arctic Ocean; very common from Massachusetts Bay to Labrador,
-occurring from low-water mark to 50 fathoms or more.

904 The American Naturalist. [November,

neighborhood of Neu Braunfels, Exogyras and Gryphaeas, are
thickly strown over the ground, disengaged by sub-aerial
weathering and surface waters from their enclosing marls (F.
Roemer, Kreidebildungen von Texas, etc., p. 14, et seq.).
Indeed, under some circumstances inhumation quickly destroys
fossil remains from the acidic qualities of the soil, as in the
neighborhood of Cumanacoa, Venezuela, S. A., as reported by
Humboldt? (Travels in Equinoctial Regions of America, Vol.
I, p. 228, Bohn’s Edit.), and we think that, in many instances,
fossils have undergone silicification more rapidly when brought
under surface conditions where exposed to mineral waters,
than they would have if covered in completely, and so re-
moved from the influences of terrestrial circulation.’

Yet the word fossil is, of course, a distinct reference to a crea-
ture living in the past, and, as such, very properly implies en-
tombment of some sort, and, as a fact, fossils are generally
embedded in rocks or alluvial and diluvial beds, in clay banks
or thinly aggregated beach sands. They may be subsequently
exposed by weathering and by removal, but they indicate some
sort of initial burial. Their chronological significance indi-
cating the successive phases of animal life in geological time
implies a stage-like superimposition with the earliest fossils at
the bottom and the latest at the top. As, in fact, such super-
imposition is only partially, and then locally, perfect—no sec-
tion of the earth’s surface revealing a sheer and consecutive
ascension of all the known strata, containing fossils—we con-
stantly find the fossil-bearing rocks forming the surface of wide

2 Dr. Schwernfurth, in his “Heart of Africa,” mentions a soil in which the
natives bury their drums, stouls, ete., “to give them a permanent. blackness.”
The vegetable acids developed by decomposition in such areas would act more or
less corrosively on bone. Mr. J. Richardson tells me that in one year the entire
carcass of a cat buried in rich soil had completely disappeared. On the other
hand, “the fossil bones of the megatherium of the elephant and of the mastodon,
which travelers have brought from S. A., have all been found in the light soil of
the valleys and table-lands.”” Humboldt.

3 Dr. Otto Kuntze (Nature, Vol. 19, p. 314) has insisted that his observations
show that silicified trunks of trees “originate only in air; the siliceous water rises
by capillary attraction in the stem, but only on the outside of the trunk does the-
siliceous solution become solid by drying in the air; from the outside the silicifi-
cation of the wood cells enters very slowly to the inner part,”

1896.} Fossils and Fossilization. 905

regions, and many fossils are in a more desirable condition, as
specimens for study, when surface weathering has revealed
them from the matrix and brought them into a clean and sig-
nificant relief, as in the case of chain corals (Halysites catenu-
latus) in the Niagara Limestone of western New York, or when
the solvent of carbonated waters has left them accessible, in a
friable and open ferruginous sand, as-in the weathered rinds
and exteriors of the siliceous limestones of the Schoharie Grit
of eastern New York.

Fossils represent the hard parts of animals or such portions
of their soft parts as have become replaced by mineral mate-
rials. The fleshy organic elements of an animal undergo de-
composition and disappear, even though enclosed in sediments
of great thickness. Water-carrying oxygen finds its way
around them and slowly introduces those putrefactive changes
which result in disintegration and solution. But in this pro-
cess, if it is prolonged, there is a substitution of earthy matter,
and an infiltration of silt will assume the form of muscular
bands, retain the outline of muscular scars and blood-vessels,
while a more obscure course of substitution may slowly replace
the chitinous, horny, or even fleshy, appendages with silica,
iron pyrite, and other mineral species, preserving them with
microscopic fidelity. Many forms of animal life, like the
Medusee, Ctenophore, Holothurians and Worms, from their soft
consistency, are necessarily almost excluded from a represen-
tation amongst fossils, being, at the best, only indicated by
impressions. The occasional and unusual preservation of the
fleshy parts of extinct animals in ice can hardly be regarded
as a contradiction of this universal rule.

The various stages of the natural process by which organic
beings become fossils‘ may be conveniently regarded as three
—first, the placement of the object in its position preparatory to
fossilization; second, its sepulture or burial, and third, the
mineralogical or chemical changes by which it assumes its

4The word “ fossil” receives a curious application by old writers, especially by’

the celebrated Werner, who used it to designate any mineral object extracted

from the surface of the earth. Thus minerals become fossils, and he canal of

** solid fossils,” and he divides them into * hard, semi-hard, soft, and very soft.”

Also see Pinkerton’s Petrology. j
63

906 The American Naturalist. [November,

permanent form or condition as a fossil. The history and dis-
cussion of these three steps form a complete history of fossiliza-
tion.

The placement of an object will vary in its conditions, ac-
cording to the habitat of the organism. The most general
distinction will be between terrestrial (for the most part, ver-
tebrates) or marine (for the most part, invertebrates) organ-
isms, where the contrasted conditions involve contrasted hab-
its and varying accidents and associations. Upon the surface
of the land animals may die in numbers, either upon plains or
elevated regions, or in the depths of forests, but the rapid ac-
tion of decay, or the ceaseless activity of flesh-eating insects
may soon dissipate their remains, even when the bony skeleton
is imposing and highly developed.

The bones of buffalo remain upon the western prairies for
four or five years, at least, in a recognizable condition.’ In
the region about Miles City, Montana, the buffalo abounded as
late as 1880. After that time, the remorseless zeal of hunters
and the avarice of trade had reduced their numbers and
brought them to the verge of extinction. According to W. T.
Hornaday, “over the whole of this vast area their bleaching
bones lie scattered,” and many of these have certainly been
exposed to the weather for a period of four years, while their
condition when collected warranted the expectation of their
remaining sensibly unchanged many more. (See the Extermi-
nation of the American Bison, Smithsonian Report, 1887, p.
508.)

Upon the visit of the Challenger to Hard Island, of the Mc-
Donald ‘Group in the Antarctic seas, Prof. Moseley observes
that upon a sandy glacial plain there were strown “bones of
the sea-elephant and sea-leopard, those of the former being
most abundant. There were remains of thousands of skele-
tons, and I gathered a good many tusks of old males. The
bones lay in curved lines, looking like tide-lines, on either side
of the plain above the beaches, marking the rookeries of old

5It is interesting to note that Captain Stansbury observes in his Exploration
and Survey of Great Salt Lake, that “ carcasses of buffalo left on the open prairie
are not unfrequently completely cured, or rather ‘ mummified’ in the sun,so that -
they seldom exhibit any sign of decay.”

1896.] Fossils and Fossilization. 907

times, and teaches of slaughter of the sealers. Some bones
occurred far up on the plain, the elephants having, in times of
security, made their lairs far from the water’s edge. A few
whales’ vertebre were also seen lying about.” In dry or tem-
perate regions, bones resist disintegration indefinitely.

In Canada, at Helena, a vast collection of thousands of
buffalo skulls are seen, the enduring vestiges from a slaughter
of wild buffalo surrounded by Indians at that place.

The structure of bone in exposures where the climate passes
through severe extremes is an element of weakness in their
preservation. Winding canals (Haversian canals) traverse the
substance of hard bone and secure connection with a series of
lacunae, distributed through the substance of the bone, by
means of minute tubuli (canaliculi). These tubuli radiate in
complex tangles from the lacunae. Sarcodic or marrow-like
matter permeates these delicate passages, and, in the Haver-
sian canals, blood corpuscles circulate. In the less dense por-
tions of bones, as the extremities of the leg- and arm-bones,
head-bones, etc., a cancellated or cellular structure forms a
porous area, while long cavities (marrow-cores) filled with
marrow occupy the axes of the longer bones. The decomposi-
tion of these organic contents at first weakens bone, and com-
mences an insidious process of splitting. Subsequently the
bone becomes filled with water, and the labyrinthine chain of
chambers, small and large, are saturated. Cold succeeds, and
from the expansion produced by frost the bone is shivered
with an incalculable number of microscopic rents. These in-
crease until cohesion is overcome and the bone falls apart.

The mammalian remains may also be placed in soft and
water-saturated districts, as swamps and estuaries, lake sides
and spring bottoms, whither animals have been attracted by
supplies of water or because herbage and prey were equally
abundant. Bones and osseous remains of vertebrates buried
in rich carbonaceous soil must, to some extent, yield to the
corroding action of organic acids. The important roll played
by organic acids as agents of decomposition has been recog-
nized.. The numerous orders of oxygenated compounds known
as acids, and which result from the accumulation of vegetable

908 The American Naturalist. [November,

matter in fermentable masses, have come to be regarded as
most universal and persistent in their influence. It has been
shown by Dr. H. C. Bolton that organic acids may be success-
fully employed for the detection and separation of mineral
species, and Dr. A. A. Julien (Proc. A. A. A. Sci., 1879) has
gathered together in a comprehensive review such inferences
of their geological action as observation of their influence to-
day permits. These acids’ dissolve iron salts and effect disin-
tegrating effects upon hydrated or soluble quartzes. Such ac-
tive and omnipresent agencies must exert a very appreciable
influence upon animal remains, and in conjunction with car-
bonated waters must render their preservation precarious.
Terrestrial vertebrates, whose remains in the soil of forests or
grassy plains would be exposed to the injurious attacks of
these vegetable extracts and products, would run some consid-
erable risk of being destroyed.” The placement of such fossils
must be somewhat modified for their effectual integrity. It is
true that swamps in whose periods of existence many succes-
sions of spagnum layers with the associated accumulation of
related and contemporary plants have stored up great quanti-
ties of organic debris, have been the repositories of bones, and
the great vertebrates, whose bones have become inhumed in
their acid-laden depths, have been extracted in a reasonable
state of preservation. But it is also true that these heavy
bones have worked their way down through the superficial
and organic layers to clay marl and sandy bottoms, where
they were largely protected from the corrosive action of the
humus acids which infiltration and drainage of surface waters
would have partially removed.

ë The vegetable or organic acids are mainly humic, crenic, apocrenic, with
which there is an adventitious mixture of oxalic, malic, acetic and fumaric acids,
which, according to Julien, are introduced “at least temporarily by the leaves,
stems, etc., of most plants, many of which are rich in raphides made up of minute
crystals of these acids or their salts.”

7It is a matter of common | ledge that the t f goat 1l d by boas
undergo solution in the animal acids of their host, so that tthe calcareous exuviae
scarcely equals a tenth part of the original mass of bones, while the so called
album graecum in the faecas of dogs, hyaenas, etc., represents the residue of di-
gested bones.

1896.] Fossils and Fossilization. 909

The Warren mastodon found at Newburgh, N. Y., in 1845,
was embedded in a bed of shell-marl, above which rested a
layer of red moss, over which, upon the surface, spread a
“thickness of two feet of peat-bog.” This specimen was in a
very perfect state of preservation, revealing almost the entire
skeleton of M. giganteus. The Cambridge mastodon was also
in an admirable state of completeness, though the nature of
the enveloping matrix seemed less favorable. This specimen
was taken out at Hackettstown, Warren Co., N. Y., in 1845.
The character of the deposit in which it was buried was dis-
tinctly organic, consisting of one foot of decayed leaves, six
inches of whitish sand mixed with vegetable matter, and a
yellow layer, resembling manure, offensively. odorous. It
would seem a reasonable inference that this large quantity of
plant debris would have been unfavorable for the perfect
preservation of the bones, and that the organic acids resulting
from its decomposition would have aided in their removal. Of
course, any protection from the air by the overlying seal of
earth, clay, or water, would retard and prevent the oxydation
by which the elements of cellulose become converted into
acids; and bones immersed in vegetable remains under such
circumstances may remain, as practically in this case, exempt
from the dissolving agencies of vegetable acids. The Cohoes
mastodon, found at Cohoes, N. Y., was taken from a river pot-
hole, into which the remains had been carried, and was sur-
mounted by vegetable debris, but had lodged upon an under-
lying bed of marl and comminuted shale. This skeleton was
in excellent condition.

The Ward mastodon, now at the American Museum in New
York City, was found at Newburgh, N. Y., in a swampy wet
corner of a potato field, and was in a fair state of preservation.

Commenting upon the position of such vertebrate remains,
Dr. Warren says: “In nearly all these different spots, the
bones have lain at the depth of from five to ten feet below the
surface. The same fact is true of deposits near Niagara, de-
scribed by Sir Chas. Lyell; of those in Virginia, Long Island,
the salines of Ohio, Kentucky, and most other places in the
western and southern country of the United States.

910 The American Naturalist. [November,

“ The overlying deposits are generally a foot or two of mud,
_ the same thickness of clay, a layer of peat sometimes interven-
ing, and below the clay shell-marl containing everywhere the
relics of fresh-water testacea of existing species; some of them
perfect, others decomposing. Sir Chas. Lyell, in his geologi-
cal tour through the State of New York, found at Genessee, the
bones of the mastodon in a bed of shell-marl below the peat,
corresponding, he remarks, with the situation of the fossil elks .
of Ireland, generally considered to have been buried in bog-
mud or peat’ swamps, but which, in fact, lie in a stratum of
shell-marl.”

It seems probable that the enormous quantities of moa bones
found in the turbary area at Glenmark, New Zealand, afford
some grounds for questioning the destructive influence of vege-
table acids. According to Dr. Von Haast, a large swampy
tract in Glenmark, covering a depressed region and partaking
of the mingled characters of an estuarine and lacustrine basin,
contains an incredible number of the skeletons of these great
birds. The bones occur here in separated patches or nests,
and the impression, made by their distribution, is that of a
sudden flight of groups of the birds over this marshy delta
which has sunk in places beneath them, and thus entrapped
them in constantly increasing numbers. Bones of twenty or
thirty individuals, of all sizes and ages, and lying closely
packed in spots about five or six feet in diameter, are found
with no bones near them, as if, at particular points, the birds
had disappeared, one after another, in the enveloping mass of
vegetable débris and soft mud. Evidences here are everwhere
plentiful of successive freshets by which accumulations of
trees, seeds, stems and drift timber have been formed, which,
with the growth of bog plants, created a deep vegetable blanket
in which the moa bones are immersed. Four to seven feet of
pure black peat are succeeded by two to three feet of more im-
pure peat, in which the bird bones are more commonly laid,
and under these a hard clay bottom completes the section. It

8 Geology of Canterbury and Westland, New Zealand, J. Von Haast. See also
Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., Aug., 1844, Rev. W. Colenso; Transac. New Zealand
Inst., Vols. IV, VI, J. Von Haast.

1896.] Fossils and Fossilization. 911

would seem reasonable to expect a plentiful production of
humic acid and its allied compounds under these circum-
stances, and if, as Julien asserts, these acids attack the phos-
phates of alkaline earths (phosphates of alumina lime and
magnesia), the preservation of the moa bones appears either
exceptional or contradictory.

In this connection it must be remembered that in all such
vegetable infusions a considerable amount of tannin must
accumulate, and its astringent action upon the gelatine of bone
has a tendency to protect the bone along the interior walls of
its cavities and canals. Lyell is at some pains to illustrate, in
his Principles, Vol. II, pp. 508-510, the preservative properties
of peat, but these illustrations relate more to its antiseptic
properties for the preservation of animal tissues. Thus, in a
peat-moss in the Isle of Axholm, Lincolnshire, Scotland, a
body of a woman was preserved six feet below the surface ;
bodies of two persons in Derbyshire, England, were kept quite
uninjured in moist peat, and pigs were found intact in a peaty
soil near Dubuerton, Somersetshire.

There is also a possibly protective action exercised at times
by the organic acids themselves when they concentrate upon
a nucleus of bony fragments, precipitates of iron oxide or amor-
phous silica. This is done by their reduction of iron salts
forming organic compounds, or by combination with silica in
the dissolved silica of the infiltrating streams. The iron is
liberated from solution by oxydation and the silica by decom-
position, and both iron oxide and soft silica may be thus in-
troduced into the interstices of the bone and serve as agents of
induration. It is said by Von Haast that the moa bone layer
at Glenmark is somewhat reddish. This may be attributed to
ferruginous encrustations. Again, the action of organic acids
on such material as the harder class of bone must be some-
what limited by dilution, and the constant percolation of
water from surface water-courses and rains must considerably
neutralize the corrosive power of the readily dissolved vege-
table fluids. Again, these vegetable fluids are quite liberally
employed in making defensive combinations with the mineral
matter brought to them in complete solution or mechanically

912 The American Naturalist. [November,

suspended in the streams passing over and through marshes,
swamps, bogs and deltas, and are so divested of any destruc-
tive power upon bone. And in any case, the elaboration of
these acid products which we are considering would be partial
or completely suspended at such depths as are usually given
for the repositories of vertebrate remains. Yet, however di-
verted or minimized may be the action of organic acids and
carbonated water upon bone, there can be little doubt that it
is considerable, and an important means in many cases of im-
parting to them much fragility or of entirely disintegrating
them.
(To be Continued.)

THE BACTERIAL DISEASES OF PLANTS:
A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE PRESENT STATE OF
OUR KNOWLEDGE.

By Erwin F. SMITH.
(Continued from p. 804)
IV.
IJ. THE HYACINTH (HYACINTHUS ORIENTALIS).

(II) Tue ORGANISM: Bacillus hyacintht (Wakk.) Trev. ore
1. Pathogene

(A) vse

(B) Yes (?). The poured plate method was not then in

general use. Inoculations were made directly from

diseased plants into sterile nutrient fluids, or into tubes

of nutrient gelatin, and the resulting cultures may not

always have been pure ones, although the writer’s own

` experience has shown conclusively, in. case of melon

- wilt—a somewhat similar disease—that it is often pos-

sible to obtain pure cultures in this way, if the culture

1896,]

=

Q

The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 913

media is sterile to begin with and the necessary pre-
cautions are taken to exclude surface contaminations
and air-borne germs. His experiments were, however,
checked and controlled by means of poured plates,
whereas Dr. Wakker had advantage of no such exact
method. Nevertheless, he seems to have worked with
great care, and states positively that although the
bacteria were often transferred from diseased plants
to the culture media, and also from one tube of media
to another, the results were always the same, which
could scarcely have been the case were intruding or-
ganisms present.

Yes (?). Infections with artificial cultures had not
been secured up to March, 1895, and do not appear to
have ever been very numerous or very successful.
The only experiment which seems to come properly
under this head was begun March 4, 1886. The in-
oculations were made from a liquefied gelatin culture,
the fluid being inserted into fresh cuts on the scapes
of several (more than five) varieties of hyacinths.
In a week all of the scapes began to dry out and
soften, from the summit downward; and fifteen days
later the greater part of each one was either entirely
dry, or soft and flacid. An earlier effort to infect from
a bouillon culture failed (Verslag, 1884).

(D) Yes; in part. On microscopic examination of the

scapes mentioned under C it was easy to determine
in them the existence of the yellow disease; but
this did not extend into the bulbs. “ These experi-
ments [referring to those mentioned under I (5) as
well as this one] were repeated and varied with, in
general, concordant results.”

Cotvelivaion. —Pathogenic nature rendered probable.

Remarks.—As will be seen later on, this organism was im-
perfectly described, and any bacteriologist having opportunity
to repeat and extend Dr. Wakker’s experiments should by all
means embrace it.

914 The American Naturalist. [November,.

2. Morphology :

(1) Shape, size, etc—The bacteria which Dr. Wakker regards.
as the cause of this disease are represented on his Plate I, Figs.
1-8 (34). They are two to four times as long as broad, with an |
ordinary length of about 2.54. Their form is therefore more or
less that of a cylinder, but with rounded ends. They are said
to agree tolerably well in size and shape with Bacterium Termo.
The organism was described as Bacterium Hyacinthi in 1883, but
` was placed under Bacillus by Trevisan in 1889. When these
bacteria have been in a nutrient liquid for some time a certain
number become longer than they were, and now measure 4 x,
while the ordinary length is only 2.5. Later on, as the nu-
trient matters of the liquid are becoming exhausted, the bac-
teria diminish in size more and more, and gather into motionless.
groups, which often have circular outlines and which grow by
the accession of new individuals, while the motile bacteria.
become less and less numerous. Bacteria from the dry slime
were found to be only about half the ordinary size, but on
placing them in nutrient fluids they resumed their normal
size. Examinations were made in hanging drops of nutrient
fluid.

(2) Capsule—No mention of any capsule.

(3) Flagella.—No mention of flagella. The organism is said to
be actively motile in culture fluids. Even those kept for some
time in a dry state are said to have acquired motility on plac-
ing them in nutrient fluids. In the yellow, viscid slime, as
taken from the plant, they are not motile; but motility begins
as soon as this is diluted with a ł per cent. salt solution, or
with a suitable nutrient fluid. “After a short time all is life
and motion ; the bacteria, in the form of straight but very flexi-
ble rods, are to be seen moving about actively ; individuals in
repose are rare. Among the undivided bacteria there are many
which are in process of division, and which then show two
individuals moving together; these, however, soon separate to
continue an independent existence.” It will probably be found
that the organism is also motile in the plant in early stages of
the disease, i. e., before it has multiplied to such an extent as
to fill the vessels. Dr. Wakker himself says : “ It is evident that

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 915

though they exhibit no visible motion in the slime they can-
not be entirely without motion in penetrating into the bulb.”

(4) Spores—The bacillus produces endospores. Their de-
velopment and germination was followed with so much care
that it appears worth while to give a somewhat detailed
account.

“ In the cultures already described [those at room tempera-
tures] no spores were found. These had, therefore, to be sought
in some other way. They were finally obtained from the liquid
cultures by keeping them at a higher temperature. Drops of
nutrient fluid containing the bacteria were placed in an en-
closure having a uniform temperature, night and day, of 35° C.,
i. e., at a temperature exceeding the mean temperature of the
room by about 20° C. Ordinarily, at the end of ten days,
spores appeared, and the characteristic agglomerations of small,
motionless individuals did not appear. Subsequently it was
found that a temperature of 35° C. was not absolutely neces-
sary for the formation of the spores. In fact, during the sum-
mer, when a rather high mean temperature prevailed in the
room, some cultures produced spores without artificial heat;
but these were never as numerous as those formed in the tubes
kept at the uniformly higher temperature of the enclosure. The
spores of Bacterium Hyacinthi (84, pl. I, fig. 1) have that lively
bluish brilliancy which is usually so characteristic of the
spores of bacteria, and which is caused by the strong refraction
of the light. These spores are always a little longer than broad,
and form in the interior of the largest rods near the middle,
although ordinarily slightly nearer one of the extremities. In
consequence of their strong refrangibility it is difficult to decide
with certainty whether the rod is swollen around them, as has
been indicated for several similar species. This swelling, if it
exists, must be very slight, since the spore is not thicker than
the bacterium itself. Besides the rods with ripe spores, there
are, ordinarily, a great number engaged in forming spores, an
these still move about in a lively manner. On the contrary,
when the spores have reached full development, the rods which
contain them remain motionless and their wall soon disappears,
so that the spores become completely free. In this state they

916 The American Naturalist. [November,

are about 14 in length, while their breadth does not exceed 4
or å of this size. Each rod produces only one spore. If these
spores are allowed to dry on the glass where they have been
formed, they may be kept for a long time, and subsequently
on placing them in a nutrient liquid the development of new
bacteria may be observed. At the time of germination, which
is hastened the same as sporogenesis, by an increase of tem-
perature, the spore begins to swell and its cylindric form —
changes to an ellipsoid. The strongly refractive power is also
gradually lost, the middle of the spore first becoming dull
while the brilliant gleam still persists more or less at the two
extremities (34, pl. I, figs. 2 and 3). Here we have the condi-
tion which must be considered as the commencement of ger-
mination. The wall is split into two portions, which remain
united at one side. The central part of the spore from which
the refringence has entirely disappeared, is the place where the
two halves of the spore open one from the other, and here a
baculiform body of slight refringence was observed pushing out
(pl. I, figs. 4 and 5). During the growth of this body the sheen
also diminishes very greatly at the two extremities of the
spore, and soon there is a state which cannot be indicated
better than by likening the germinating spore to a hammer,
the two portions of the wall of the spore representing the head
while the handle is formed by the rod which has issued from
the spore (fig. 6). Often after a longer or shorter time, the rod,
one end of which is squeezed between the two parts of the wall
of the spore, begins an oscillatory movement, and thus succeeds
in freeing itself, whereupon it moves through the liquid in the
manner common to bacteria, the empty wall being left behind
(fig. 6c). In other cases, after escaping from the spore, the
young bacterium remain motionless in front of the empty wall
for a long time beforeswimming away. Finally, the rod some-
times drags the empty wall after it (fig. 8). In all cases the
rod which has escaped is an ordinary bacterium which soon
divides in the manner already described.”

The author never found spores in the living hyacinth.
This, he says, accords with de Bary’s observation on Bacillus
anthracis, he having never found spores in the living animal.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 917

This absence of spores in the living plant is also in harmony
with the fact that in the nutrient liquid the formation of spores
begins only when the alimentary substances are exhausted.
This, naturally, is never the case in the living bulb. It is not
impossible, however, that when diseased bulbs have been en-
tirely destroyed spores may form in the remaining mass if the
temperature is favorable. An effort was made to prove that
these spores were actually developed from the hyacinth bacillus
by allowing a drop of fluid containing them to dry on a slide
for some time, and then placing that part of the slide bearing
the dry spores in contact with the fresh cut surface of a bulb.
In three weeks the yellow disease was discovered in the vessels
of the bulb, and it was at once apparent that it had already
been developing in these for some time. This experiment was
repeated several times, and always with the same result. This,
indeed, is not full proof; but when old cultures are used very
few vegetative rods are left, and the infection is believed to
have resulted principally from the germination of the spores
in the sticky fluid that oozes from the cut scales, the bacteria
finding their way from this into the vessels.

(5) Zooglea.—No special mention of zooglea. Possibly the
more or less circular or globular groups of motionless rods
which commonly appeared in the cultures as they became ex-
hausted are to be regarded as such.

(6) Involution forms—No mention of any involution forms.

3. Biology.

(1) Stains—This organisms stains very readily in the most
diverse analin colors. The author made a variety of experi-
ments to determine the best method of staining the bacteria
in place in the tissues. He obtained the best results with
analin browns, especially phenyline brown (Bismark brown),
but states that many other colors may be used, e. g., eosine,
methyl violet, analin yellows and picric acid. The yellow
stains have the special advantage of giving to the prep-
aration almost exactly its natural color. To stain in place,
sections made from alcoholic material should be put into a
saturated alcoholic solution of the analin brown, left for a few
minutes, and then transferred to strong alcohol containing an

918 The American Naturalist. [November,

extremely small quantity of hydrochloric acid. In this the
color rapidly disappears, especially if the fluid is stirred with
a glass rod. At the end of a very short time, the length of
which varies in different cases, certain parts will be seen to
have preserved their color, if the disease is present, while the
rest of the section has already bleached. The sections must
now be removed immediately to a dish of pure, anhydrous
spirits of turpentine, in which they are left until thoroughly
penetrated by the liquid. They may then be examined directly
or first mounted in Canada balsam, after which they may be
kept indefinitely. When the work has been well done the
sections will be brown in those parts which contain the bacteria
and which were originally yellow, while in all other parts they
are colorless.

(2) Gelatin—The culture media was made by adding to
water containing glucose and a little meat extract, enough
gelatin to give a solid, clear yellow, perfectly transparent
mass at ordinary temperatures. This was sterilized by
heating from time to time to 100° C. It was then carefully
pipetted into tubes which were plugged with cotton, and re-
sterilized by heating every day to 100° C., for some days.
Pipettes, tubes and cotton plugs had previously been heated
to 140° C. Tubes prepared in this way were unplugged, in-
fected with bacteria taken from a diseased bulb (the transfer
being made by means of a platinum wire previously heated to
redness), quickly closed, and then left at the ordinary room
temperature. The organism makes a good growth on gelatin.
The gelatin is readily and completely liquefied.

“ Experiment of June 12, 1885.—The above described opera-
tions were made this day, and two days later I saw in all the
tubes the gelatin liquefy under the influence of the bacteria.
Examination showed that the part not yet liquefied also con-
tained bacteria, so that the latter must first penetrate into the
gelatin and then cause its liquefaction. The formation, in the
part of the gelatin which is still solid, of white globules con-
sisting entirely of bacteria, served to make this fact very appar-
ent. Bubbles of gas which can only arise from the action of
these organisms also developed in it continually. After a short

1895.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 919

time the whole mass was liquefied, and the bacteria were found
at the bottom of the tube as a thin whitish layer. The liquid
is then a clear brown, darker than the original gelatin. The
-contents is almost odorless. ©

“ This experiment was repeated very often, and always gave
the same result, only in subsequent experiments, it happened
sometimes that the white globules did not appear. This, how-
ever, is not surprising, since I then employed a mixture (glu-
cose, extract of meat, gelatin) of slightly different composition,
and since, moreover, the temperature was not always the same.
‘On peut naturellement infecter aussi quelques tubes au moyen
-de Bactéries prises dans d’autres tubes; cela n’a jamais rien
-changé aux résultats.”

No gelatin roll or plate cultures were made, and the be-
havior of the organism in stab and streak cultures is not care-
fully described.

(8) Agar.—No account of any experiments on agar media.

(4) Potato, etc—Nothing mentioned.

_ (5) Animal Fluids.—The first artificial medium was made by
adding a little meat extract and grape sugar to a decoction of
meat which had been kept for some time in spirits, and was
freed from the latter by washing and boiling in distilled water.
It was then boiled for an hour in an additional quantity of
-distilled water and the sugar and meat extract added. It
remained clear for ten days, was then reboiled, cooled quickly,
and a small quantity of the yellow slime introduced, the
greatest care being used throughout to avoid contaminations.
The second day this fluid became distinctly clouded, and this
-clouding increased for four days, and then remained the same.
The inoculations that failed were from this culture. The slime
‘used to infect this culture came from a single vascular bundle
of a freshly cut bulb. It was scraped off on a flamed cover-
glass, which was then thrown into the fluid. The organism
also grew well in a solution of meat extract to which glucose
had been added. This was the fluid culture medium ordinarily
employed, and there is no mention of any other. The exact
composition of the medium is not given.

920 The American Naturalist. [November,

(6) Vegetable Juices—None mentioned.

(7) Salt Solutions and other Synthetic Media—No mention
of any; but since the organism is not strictly parasitic it is
inferred that it can grow and maintain itself for a long time
in a variety of organic substances.

(8) Relation to Free Oxygen—The organism is aerobic and
probably also facultative anaerobic, although no mention is.
made of any experiments to determine this point.

(9) Reducing and Oxidizing Power—Peptonizes gelatin.

(10) Fermentation Products and other Results of Growth :

(a) Gas Production —Organism produces gas in meat extract.
gelatin containing grape sugar. Kind of gasnot determined.

(b) Formation of Acids.—No statement.

(c) Production of Alkali—No statement.

(d) Formation of Pigment—lIn the vessels of the plant the
organism produces a bright yellow color, which is soluble in
glycerin, but insoluble in water and alcohol. This pigment
became darker on drying. The dextrose, meat extract a
became darker colored (clear brown) after liquefaction.

(e) Development of Odors.—The organism produces little or
no odor either in the plant or in the artificial cultures. This-
absence of odor may be used to distinguish the disease from
other hyacinth diseases, some of which are very malodorous.

(f) Enzymes—Evidently not studied. Organism produces
at least two; one capable of peptonizing gelatin, and another
which dissolves the cellulose of the hyacinth.

(g) Other Products—None mentioned.

(11) Efect of Dessication—The organism can be kept for a
long time in a dry state without dying, e. g., on a glass plate.
It shrinks to about one-half normal size, but on placing again
in suitable fluids it recovers its former size and makes a new
growth. One of these hanging drop cultures was begun in a.
somewhat different way. The bacterial slime was not taken
directly from a bulb but from a glass plate on which it had been
placed and dried long before. The slime and the nutrient.
fluid were then mixed in the same manner as before; but in-
stead of rods 2.5» long, the bacteria were now smaller. More-
over, at first they were distributed through the liquid passively,.

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants : 921

and a longer time passed than in the other cultures before
theirown movement appeared. Nevertheless, after some hours,
it began, and first as a simple rotation. At the same time it
was determined that the dried bacteria had been reduced to-
about one-half the ordinary size. But the following day they
had resumed the ordinary size, and then also showed the
characteristic backward and forward movement. From this
point on the culture presented the identical phenomena de-
scribed above. This shows that the bacteria of the maladie du
jaune can live for a long time in a dry state, and that on dry-
ing they are reduced to dimensions comparable to those which
they assume in a liquid in which the alimentary substances

‘are becoming exhausted. I infer that this dry mucilage did
not contain spores.

(12) Thermal Relations:

(a) Maximum for Growth—Not determined.

(b) Optimum for Growth.—Not determined. The organism
grows at living-room temperatures, and also in the thermostat
at 35° C.

(c) Minimum for Growth—Not determined. The natural
progress of the disease in the hyacinth fields appears to be
slow, and probably low temperatures may have something to do
with this.

(d) Death Point—Not determined.

(13) Relation to Light—Not determined.

(14) Vitality on Various Media.—Seems to be capable of
living for a considerable period in various media.

(15) Effect on Growth of Reaction of Medium (acid, neutral,
alkaline-—No statement.

(16) Sensitiveness to Antiseptics and Germicides.—No statement.

(17) Other Host Plants—No mention of any. Some specula-
tion as to origin of the disease, but no facts.

(18) Effect upon Animals.—No statement. Probably not tried.

(III) Economic ASPECTS:

(1) Losses—No statement as to the extent of damage done
by this disease. The disease is spoken of in one place as the
chief subject of his investigations, and in another place the
organism is called a “ dangerous parasite.” > j j

64

922 The American Naturalist. [November,

(2) Natural Methods of Infection —Little that is definite can be
gathered from Dr. Wakker’s writings. The sticky slime which
oozes from rifts in the affected leaves is highly infectious,
adheres to whatever it touches, retains its vitality for some
time, and is readily borne about on light objects. He discusses
the possibility of the germs entering through the blossoms, and
considers that wounds are more likely sources of infection, be-
cause the attacked blossoms would fall off quickly and carry
the germs with them. It probably enters the plant through
wounds made by man or animals. Dr. Wakker thinks it espe-
cially likely to enter through wounds of the scape made in
cutting the flower, or through injuries done to the young scales
by pulling leaves, or by cutting healthy bulbs with infected °
knives in process of making incisions in the bulb, or of sepa-
rating the scales for purposes of reproduction. It is evident,
however, from the fact that the greater number of the plants
are first attacked at the tip of the leaf, that some other unknown
method of infection is the more common one. Dr. W. thinks
the infection often takes place very early in the spring and
generally through the air, the sticky bacterial exudate from the
leaves, etc., being carried to sound plants by wind and rain, or
by flies and other insects which frequent the hyacinth fields on
warm days (Verslag, 1883). For various reasons Dr. Wakker
thinks that the parasite may sometimes enter through the un-
injured leaf, i. e., through the stomata, but does not appear to
have induced the disease in this way. Wounds are always
moist, and the bacterium finds food ready for its use in the
dead cells of the wound, whereas if it enters through the stom-
ata it must make its own food from the start. The stomata
are also very small, and infection through the uninjured leaf
surface is probably uncommon.

(8) Conditions Favoring the Spread of the Disease—Dr. Wakker
states that the spread of the disease is favored by wet weather,
and that dry weather and continuous sunshine are the best
preventives. If the much lessened prevalence of the disease
in 1883 as compared with 1882 is to be attributed in part to
the precautionary measures taken, it is not less certain that
the frequent rains of 1882 did great injury to the plants in this

1896.] The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: 923

particular. “In 1883 innumerable were the cases in which I
observed that the descending stripe on the leaves was dried out
and stopped, so that the bulb was not attacked.” The rapidity
of the infection depends largely on the temperature, the damp-
ness in the surrounding air,and on the amount of water in the
plant itself. The location of the wound might also make a
difference.

(4) Methods of Prevention—An inquiry among the growers
elicited the statement that there is a great difference in sus-
ceptibility. This Dr. W. thinks cannot be denied. Some
varieties are very subject; others, in the same beds or gardens,
have not been known to be attacked. Many varieties formerly
held to be exempt from the disease are now known to be sub-
ject ; but some remain which have never yet shown the yellow
disease, and this cannot be ascribed to mere accident; on the
contrary, it can be explained only by assuming that predisposi-
tion or readiness to be attacked here plays a prominent part
(Verslag, 1883). Anatomically, so far as known, all are alike.
Lists of “very susceptible,” “less susceptible” and “not sus-
ceptible ” varieties are given, from which it would appear that
single varieties are more susceptible than double ones, and the
exemption of the latter is not due to their lesser number. All
of the double red varieties and most of the other double sorts
are exempt, or but little subject to attack. These lists are based
on statements furnished by only seven growers, but include
many varieties (Verslag, 1885). Of thirteen varieties said
to be very susceptible by several or most of these seven growers
only one is double, la Tour d'Auvergne, On this account, differ-
ence in recepti vity is suggested as a means of combatting the dis-
ease. New t not be originated from ones
Seedlings should be derived from “hardy sorts, and by artificial
fecundation, the pollen of susceptible varieties being excluded.
Otherwise, through the agency of insects, the resulting cross
may prove susceptible. The law of heredity is shown still
more rigorously in non-sexual reproduction. It is best, there-
fore, to discard sensitive sorts and try to obtain new ones
which are more robust.

In the division of bulbs for propagation the pet s care
should be taken never to cuta healthy bulb with a knife which

924 The American Naturalist. [November,

has been in contact with a diseased plant, at least not until it
has been disinfected.

There is another point to which the author desires to call
special attention, viz., to the removal of leaves which begin to
show signs of the disease at the tip. On May 20, 1883, the
diseased leaves were entirely cut away from seventeen hyacinth
plants. On September 26th, sixteen of these bulbs were entirely
sound, although rather small. The other bulb was entirely
decayed ; but from what cause, it was no longer possible to
determine. Planted in pots these sixteen bulbs blossomed in
April, 1884. The following June they were dug up once more,
and on cutting them open all were found to be sound. This
experiment was tried on many other bulbs, and always with
the same success. It was also tried by several horticulturists
in their fields with results entirely confirmatory. It is, there-
fore, certain that the bulb can be preserved by the judicious
removal of diseased leaves.

Since the bacteria have always penetrated much further into
the leaf than is to be seen with the naked eye, the whole leaf
should be removed even when only slightly attacked. The
frequent complaint that cutting off the diseased parts does no
good, shows that not enough attention has been paid to this.
Of course, when the bulb is already infected, cutting oft the
leaves amounts to nothing (1).

Finally, it goes without saying that the debris of diseased
hyacinths should not be left in the field or near it, as one might
be tempted to do on account of its value for manurial purposes.
All such debris should be thrown into a deep ditch and disin-
fected with quick lime.

Remark.—Considering the time when this piece of work was
done, it is remarkably good, and in all of the papers cited
the internal evidence indicates a careful, conscientious, bril-
liant investigator. There can be no doubt that the disease
is due to a bacterial parasite; but to complete the proof that
the disease is due to the specified organism it should be obtained
by infections with pure cultures obtained from single colonies.
The organism thus isolated should also be studied under a
wider range of artificial conditions than were employed.
Indeed, excluding the pathogenic test, it is more than doubtful ©
if the organism could be identified from the description.

1896.] Editor’s Table. 925

EDITOR’S TABLE.

The rules of zodlogical nomenclature formulated by Strickland and
adopted by the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in
1842 have been observed by most zodlogists ever since. They are
eminently fair, and conducive to the best interests of science, and in
broad contrast in certain details to some individual opinions which
have been promulgated in recent years.

There is a minor point in which it seems to us that the Stricklandian
rule might be amended, and we recommend it to the consideration of the
international zoological congress committee on nomenclature. This is
the question of the presence or absence of the annectant i in the root
of proper names of the second declension—to which most proper names
belong. Shall we write Boggsus or Boggsius: Keenus or Keenius ;
Levius or Leviius, etc.? The British rule provides (Proceeds. Brit.
Ass. Adv. Sci., 1842, p. 115) that after a consonant the termination of
proper names shall be us gen. i; while after a vowel the i shall be in-
serted, so that we have ius, gen. ii.

This rule, however, does not exactly conform to the usage of the Rom-
ans, which was not regular. Thus they wrote Catullus, Catulli, but Sal-
lustius, Sallustii ; Corvus, Corvi; Horatius, Horatii, ete. After vowels
the custom also varied, but generally the i was omitted since it is un-
necessary on the score of euphony. The Romans were, as well known,
guided by euphony in the matter, hence the irregularity. It is evident
that we should be guided by the same principle, but that in doing so
we should endeavor to formulate a rule which shall have no exceptions.
Naturalists cannot be expected to remember exceptions in a subsidiary
matter like nomenclature.

The reversal of the Stricklandian rule would apparently accord best
with the spirit of Latin word composition. That is, an i should be
inserted after the root of all proper names of the second declension
which ends in a consonant, and no i should be inserted where the root
terminates in a vowel. Names of the first class never sound badly with
the i, while most of them,—notably those whose roots end in labials and
dentals, do sound badly. A vowel precedes the useuphoniously. Thus
Dana, Danaus; Perrine, Perrinius; Secchi, Secchius; Gaudry, Gaud-
rius. Those ending in o and u are not of the second declension, unless
made so by the addition of the consonant v, as Sello, Sellovius; Yar-
row, Y arrovius.

926 The American Naturalist. [November,

Our much esteemed contemporary, Natural Science, had, in a recent
number, three short articles devoted to the denunciation of the describ-
ing of species in biology; calling the practice in one of them “a most
unprofitable” kind of work. Now comes our equally esteemed col-
league, The Revue Scientifique (1896, p. 440), and remarks as follows,
anent of the recent work of Messrs. C. H. Merriam and E.S. Miller on
North American Mammalia: “ But really is there not more interest-
ing work to be done on the fauna of the United States? This work,
which consists in enumerating and describing species, which is within
reach of the most mediocre intelligence, this fastidious care which
should be left to those who are not capable of ideas, is this the only
work which tempts American Zoologists? Is there not other occupa-
tion for their scientific activity ? Cannot Mr. Hart Merriam stimulate
work of a biologic character?’

We regard the expressions above quoted as an indication of a mild
form of megalomania which is not unfrequently found among the users
of mechanical appliances in the biological laboratory. The most
intelligent cultivators of these important branches of biologic research
are, however, well aware that the exact determination of species is fully

equal in importance to their own pursuit, for the following reasons,
among others. If we regard biology to consist of two branches, evolu-
tion and physiology, we define evolution, with Darwin, as the origin of
species. For physiology the question of species is not so important.
Species are, however, what the labors of the ages have produced, and
it is we ve know Mem -= re to pursue any branch of evolu-
tion (as emb tly. The work of the em-
bryologist and palenusiahighet who does not know the species whose ori-
gin he seeks to explain is greatly lacking in precision. Linnæus states
that the tyro knows the higher divisions, but only the expert knows spec-
ies. We also especially deny that the discrimination and description of
species is within reach of the most mediocre intelligence. On the con-
trary, no kind of work in biology imposes as much on all the mental fac-
ulties which are used in scientific work. Those who have not attempted it
have little idea wass is involved in a Sage or an analytical key.

Finally, logic work of Messrs. Merriam and Miller,
we consider it of the utmost importance. They are pointing out the re-
sults of the evolution of Mammalian life in North America, which it
isthe business of the embryologist and the paleontologist to explain.
And in this field the work of Messrs. Merriam and Miller is the best that
has ever been done in any country.

1896.] Recent Literature. 927

The most important result of the Nansen Arctic exploration which
has been so far given to the public is the discovery that the ocean has
the great depth of nearly 2000 fathoms north of Franz Joseph’s Land.
This is the average of the oceanic depths, and the knowledge of its ex-
tension to the point nearest the pole yet attained, is a distinct gain. It
dispels the idea that the pole can be reached overland from the side of
Siberia, and shows that the nearest land approach, as suggested by
Peary, is by way of Greenland. While this discovery does not destroy
the hypothesis that land exists near the pole, it weakensit. Thetheory
will not become extinct- until the northern rendezvous of high arctic
migratory birds has been discovered. The remarkable discovery of a
territory free from glaciers and covered with vegetation in Grinnell
Land, and along the north coast of Greenland, by the Greeley Expe-
dition, opens up interesting possibilities, and must stimulate further
search. American citizens have had an honorable share in these
in the past, and it is to be hoped that they will continue to attack
the problem until it is solved.

RECENT LITERATURE.

The Earth and Its Story by A. Heilprin’ fills a want long felt
by teachers of elementary geology. It is a well illustrated little volume
which presents “ briefly, forcibly and possibly in a more popular form
than in most books of a similar nature, the general facts of geology.”
It covers the field that it is intended to cover in a remarkably satisfac-
tory manner. The facts of the science are given in sufficient detail to
impress the student with the notion that the generalizations based upon
them are built upon a secure foundation. Comparatively slight stress
is laid upon these facts, the greater emphasis being placed on the gen-
eral truths to which they lead. The book is interesting. It is well
written ; the language is simple and the thoughts are very clearly ex-
pressed, Only the most important conclusions of geology are men-
tioned, and where the views expressed are not accepted by all geolo-
gists, the author does not hesitate to mention the fact.

A prominent feature of the book are the illustrations. These are
mainly reproductions of photographs, many of them entirely new. A

1 Angelo Heilprin: The Earth and Its Story, a First Book of Geology. Bos-
ton, Silver, Burdett and Co., 1896. Pp. 267 and Plates 64.

928 The American Naturalist. [November,

few are blurred, but the majority are sufficiently full of detail to be of
great aid to the reader. Two might well have been spared without
injuring the value of the volume in the least—the map of Mammoth
Cave (Plate 22, Fig. 2) on which the lettering is so small as to be read
with difficulty, and the plate supposed to show the forms of crystals.

Criticism might well be urged against the table of geological “ epochs
and formations,” since the terms ‘ primary’ and ‘secondary’ are used
in conjunction with Paleozoic and Mesozoic, as though they were in as
frequent use as the latter, and the term ‘tertiary’ is used as synony-
mous with Cainozoic. ‘Azoic’ is also used as the time term correspond-
ing to the formation term Archean, in spite of the fact that the pres-
ence’of fossils in the Archean rocks (Huronian and Laurentian) is
-not positively denied. Finally the term Algonkian has no place in the
table. While, of course, it is permitted to the author to decline to ac-
cept this term as having a definite significance, it is at the same time
unfortunate for his readers that they are not made familiar with it, if
only as an aid toward the understanding of the handsome geological
maps of the U. S. Geological Survey.

There are 19 chapters in the book. ‘The first three treat of rocks,
their formation and decay, the fourth of mountains, the next two of
glaciers, the seventh of underground waters, the eighth of the relation
between sea and land, the ninth of the interior of the earth, the tenth
and eleventh of volcanoes, the twelfth of coral islands, the next three
of fossils—their organization and their teachings, the sixteenth of land
surfaces, and the last three of metals, minerals, building stones, etc.

No one need hesitate for an instant in recommending this little vol-
ume for use in our high schools and academies. It is by far the best
thing of its kind that has yet appeared upon the market.—W. S. B.

A Handbook of Rocks, for use without the Microscope
by Dr. J. F. Kemp’ is a very welcome visitor to the desk of the teacher
of geology. There has long been needed a little treatise on lithology
which might be used as an introduction to the study of rocks and as a
text-book for the use of those students in geology who have no inten-
tion of taking up the subject as a specialty. The volume before us fills
this need completely. It is an excellent little book, as full of detail as
is desirable for a book of its character and as accurate as is possible
in one of its size. Each of the main families of rocks is well characterized

2J. F. Kemp: A Handbook of Rocks, for use without the Microscope with a
„glossary of names of Rocks and other Lithological Terms. Printed for the
author. New York, 1896, pp. vii, 176. Price in lots of ten copies $1.00 each.

1896.] Recent Literature. 929

in a few discriminating sentences, analyses of many varieties are given
and the structures and textures of all are well described. One of the
most commendable features of the volume is the use of only the more
important rock-names in the body of the text—the less important ones
being relegated to a very comprehensive glossary which forms a con-
venient appendix to the book. In this respect, as in some others, the
volume under review is very much more satisfactory to the untechnical
reader than the other volumes of similar character that have recently
come under our notice.

The work opens with a description of the rock-forming minerals and
_a discussion of the principles of rock classification. Following this
are the descriptions of the rocks. These are divided into Igneous,
Aqueous (including Eolian) and Metamorphic rocks. Each class is
divided into groups according to chemical composition, and each group
is further subdivided according to texture. The classification is an
eminently practical one, and at the same time it can give no offense to
the micoscopical lithologist.

In the discussion of the rock-types each chapter begins with a list of
analyses; this is followed by comments upon them. Then comes a
description of varieties, a statement of relationships, a paragraph on
geological occurrence, one on alterations and one on distribution. In
that portion of the book that deals with the igneous rocks the glasses
are first taken up, then the porphyritic varieties and, finally, the
granitic ones. The aqueous rocks are grouped as mechanical sedi-
ments, limestones, organic remains and precipitates from solution. Of
the metamorphic rocks two great classes are recognized, viz., those pro-
duced by contact action and those produced by regional metamor-
phism.

The above outline of the contents of the volume is very brief, but it
is sufficiently full to indicate that the author has covered well the field

that such a treatise as this one should cover. This book should find a
wide sale among engineers as well as among all teachers who introduce
into their courses on geology a description of rocks. _ It isa far more
valuable synopsis of the characteristics of rock types to place in the
hands of geological students than the synopses contained in the large
text books on geology.—W. S. B.

930 The American Naturalist. [November,

AMERICAN NATURALIST LIST OF RECENT BOOKS
AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, J. A.—On a Collection of Mammals from Arizona and Mexico, made
by W. W. Price, with Field Notes by the Collector. Extr. Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist., Vol. VII, 1895. From the author

Auvorp, H. E.—Statistics of the Daley. Bull. No. 11, Bureau of Animal In-

ANDREWS, C. W.—On the Extinct Birds ‘of the Chatham Islands. Extr.
Novitales Zoologicae, Vol. III, 1896. From the author.

BaiLey, L. H.—Plant-Breeding. Five Lectures upon the Amelioration of
of Domestic Plants. New York and London: Macmillan & Co. From the
publishers.

— C. E.—Sketch of the Life and Work of James Dwight Dana. Extr.

r. Geol. Vol. XVII, 1896. From the author.

Bulletins No. 35, 1895 and 36, 1896, Hatch Exper. Station of the Mass. Agric.

College.

Circulars 1-15 inclusive, eet series, U. S. Dept. Agric. Div. Entomology.
Washington, 1891-1896. From th pt.

Circulars 4, 1895 and 5, 1896, areas rae Animal Industry. U. S. Dept. Agric.
From the Dept.

Core, E. D.—Primary Factors of Evolution. Chicago, 1896. Open Court Pub.

Co.

Cox, U. O.—A Collection of Birds from Mount Orizaba, Mexico. Extr. The
Auk, Vol. XII, 1895. From the author.

CRANER, F.—On the Cranial Characters of the Genus Sebastodes. Contrib. to
Biol. from the Hopkins Laboratory, II, Palo Alto, 1895. From the author.

Darron, N. H.—Geology of the Mohawk Valley in Herkimer, Fulton, Mont-
gomery and Saratoga Counties. Part I, Stratigraphy——Preliminary Report on
the Geology of Ulster County. Extr. Rept. State Geol. New York for the year
1893. Albany, 1894. From the author.

De Vis, C. W.—A Review of the Fossil Jaws of the Macropodidae in the
Queensland Museum. Extr. Proceeds. Linn. Soc. N. South Wales, Vol. X, Ser.
2, 1894, From the author.

Eisen, G.—Biological Studies on Figs, Caprifigs and Caprification, Extr.
eres Calif. Acad. Sci., Ser. 2, Vol. V, 1896. From the author.

Fratront, J.—Les Cavernes et leurs Habitants. Paris, 1896. From the pub-
lickers, J J. B. Bailliére et Fils.

GILL, T.—Notes on the Synonymy of the Torpedinidae or Narcobatidae.
Notes on Orectolobus or Crossorhinus, a genus of Sharks.

—— Note on the Fishes of the genus Characinus

——The Nomenclature of Rachicentron or Phicate, a genus of Acanthoptery-
gian Fishes.

—— Note on the Nonienclature of the Poecilioid Fishes.

——tThe Nomenclature of the Fishes of the Caracinoid genus, Tetragonopterus.

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 931

——On the Proper Name of the Gunnels or eae Extr. Proceeds U.
S. Natl. Mus., Vol. X VIII, 1895. From the Mus
—tThe Families of Symentognathous Fishes any dir Nomenclature.
——0On the Application of the Name Teuthis to a Genus of Fishes
—Notes on the Nomenclature of Scymnus or Sciyihinibic, a genus of
Sharks.
Notes on the Genus Cephaleutherus of Rafinesque, and other Rays with
Aberrant Pectoral Fins (Propterygia and Hieroptera).
— Notes on Characinoid Fishes with Ctenoid Scales, with a Description of a
New Psectrogaster.
——The Differential Characters of Characinoid and Erythrinoid Fishes.
Gorpon, C. H.—Buried River Channels in Southeastern Iowa. Extr. Iowa
Geol. Surv., Vol. III, Des Moines, 1895
Guide Zoologique. Communications diverses sur les Pays-bas publicés à l’ oc-
1895

HAECKEL, E.—Die Cambrische Stammgruppe der Pakbsodseines. Aus Jenais-
chen Zeitschr. f. Naturw., XXX, Bd. 1895.
otmes, W. H.—Archeological Studies Among the Ancient Cities of Mexico.
Field Columbian Mus. Pub., No. 8, Anthropol. Ser., Vol. I, No. 1, Chicago, 1895.
nse the ar or.
D G. Sayn.—Sur la Constitution du Système Cré é Environs
de «ibe a Diois, Grenoble, 1895. From the author.
Maps from the ne: es Survey of Canada. Ottawa, 1895.
Nineteenth Annual Report ae of Geology ind Natural Resources of
Indiana for 1894. Indianapolis, 1
OSBORN, HERBERT AND C. W. Mat. —Entomological Work for 1895. Bull.
No, 32, 1896. Iowa Agric. Colle
Parvin, T.—A Physician on Cie. Extrs. Ann. Address before the
Amer. Acad. Med., Washington, 1891. Cambridge, 1895. From the author
Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1892-93, Vol. 2, Washington, 1895.
Report of the United States Commission to the Columbian Historical Exposi-
tion at Z. 1892-93. With special papers. Washington, 1895. From the
Commissio
Risor, TH. gas Psychology of Attention. Chicago, 1896. From the Open
Court Pub. ©
SCUDDER, 5. H —Revision of the American Fossil Cockroaches, with Descrip-
tions of New Forms. Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv., No. 124. Washington, 1895.
—— Canadian Fossil Insects. Contetbutiohs to Canadian Paleontology, Vol.
II, pt. 1. Ottawa, 1895. From the Geol. Surv. Canada.
Seventh Annual Report of the Rhode Island Agric. Exper. Station, 1894.
Providence, 1895. ‘
Spivak, C. D.—Menstruation. Reprint from the Times and Register, 1891.
From the author.
Stanton, T. W.—The Fauna of the cert Beds. Bulletin of the U. S.
Geol. Surv., No. 113. Washington, 1895.
Tenth od Eleventh Annual Reports, Bureau of Animal Industry, 1893-94.
Washington, 1896.

932 The American Naturalist. [ November,

Traquair, R. H.—The Extinct Vertebrata of the Moray Firth Area. Reprint
from J. A. Harvie-Brown and T. E. Buckley’s “ Vertebrate Fauna of the Moray
Basin.” Edinburgh, 1896.

Warp, J. H.—Prophets, Saints and Scientists, the Oracles of the Ages.
Dover, New Hampshire, 1896. From the author

WETTSTEIN, R. v.—Monographie der Gattung Euphresia. Arbeiten des botan-
ischen Instituts der k. k. deutschen Universitit in Prag, No, IX, Leipzig, 1896.
From the author.

WHITEAVES, J. F.—Revision of the Guelph Formation of Ontario, with De-
scriptions of a Few New Species

——Systematic List, with References, of the Fossils of the Hudson River or
Cincinnati Formation at Stony Mountain, Manitoba. E Fossils, Vol.
HLL, Pt. s a 1895. From the Geol. Surv. Cana

Woop D, A. S.—Catalogue of the Fossil Fishes in a British Museum.
Pts TEL Mpe 1895. From the British Museum.

General Notes.

MINERALOGY AND CRYSTALLOGRAPHY:

Etched Figures on Some Minerals.—Traube’ brings into
deserved prominence the value of the method of etching, and gives the
results of an extended series of experiments on the etched figures of a
number of minerals. He mentions especially those cases in which the
etched figures indicate a higher symmetry than that occasionally shown
by the geometrical development of the crystal form. He evidently
lays more stress on the etched figures of crystals than on the occasional
growth of planes corresponding with a lower symmetry. K F and
K F, H F are mentioned as giving good results in many cases where
the problem is to etch one of the more refractory silicates, and a cau-
tion is given that care must be taken in the use of such powerful
reagents.

On cuprite etched figures were produced by H,SO,, HCl, HNO, and
KOH, dilute HNO, giving the sharpest figures. The etching indicates
a holohedral regular symmetry, notwithstanding that Miers has o
eS faces of the form (986) in a position suggesting gyroidal hemi-
hedris

Piseeantis gives sharp figures with hydrochloric, sulphuric, nitric
and acetic acids, also with the caustic alkalies, all pointing toward holo-

1 Edited by Prof. A. C. Gill, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
2? Neues Jahrb. B. B. X, pp. 454-469, 1896.

1896.] Mineralogy and Crystallography. 933

hedral symmetry. The forms developed on some crystals from Monte
Poni had suggested trapezohedral hemihedrism in the tetragonal sys-
tem.

Wulfenite from several localities has been reported to be hemimor-
phic, on the strength of the polar development of the crystal form, but
neither the etched figures nor the pyroelectric behavior of the crystals
bears this out. Both wulfenite and scheelite act alike in these latter
respects and appear to be pyramidal hemihedral, without difference in
the two directions of the vertical axis.

Chalcolite, disthene, tourmaline, vesuvianite, dioptase, willemite,
nepheline, beryl, adularia and some of the triclinic feldspars were also
etched, with the result of confirming the higher symmetry in each
case where doubt could exist. Nepheline, as already established by
Baumhauer, belongs to the pyramidal hexagonal class of Groth (1st
hemimorphic tetartohedral division of the hexagonal system, Liebisch).

ey mene Mangano-columbite and Microlite from Rum-
ord, Maine.—These minerals were discovered in pegmatite associa-
ted with shake, feldspar, muscovite, tourmaline, lepidolite, spodumene,
amblygonite, beryl, cassiterite and columbite. They are described by

. W. Foote.’ The pollucite, though rare, occurs in rather large
masses difficultly distinguishable from white quartz. The analysis
proves the mineral to be chemically identical with that from Hebron,
Maine, and seems to sustain the view of Wells that the formula is
H,Cs, Al,(SiO,),.

The Mangano-tantalite is in the torm of dark reddish-brown crys-
tals resembling rutile. A qualitative analysis revealed the presence of
Mn, Ta and Ni. The specific gravity, 6.44, would indicate that the
last two elements are present in about equal proportions. The form
differs somewhat from columbite, as shown among other facts adduced,
by the axial ratios.

Columbite. Mangano-columbite.
ye 8285 : 1 :.8898 8359 : 1: .8817

Microlite in beautiful honey-yellow crystals 2 mm. in diameter have
a specific gravity of 5.17.. The prevailing form is the octahedron, `
modified by the dodecahedron and sometimes by (113).

Epidote and its Optical Properties.—The peculiar appearance
of a gray epidote from Huntington, Mass., led to its detailed investiga-
tion by Forbes.‘ The light color is evidently due to the low percent-

3 Am. Jour. Sci., CLI, pp. 457-461, June, 1896.
t Am. Jour. Sci., CLI, pp. 26--30, 1

934 The American Naturalist. [November,

age of iron, as shown by the subjoined mean of two closely agreeing
analyses.

SiO, 37.99
A1,O, 29.53
Fe,O, 5.67
eO .58
MnO 21
CaO 23.85
PEO 2.04
99.82

This corresponds with the accepted epidote formula. Some of the
angles vary quite considerably from those given by Kokscharow—pos-
sibly due in one or two cases to the striated character of the faces.
The optical properties are unusual. The axis of greatest optical
elasticity lies in the obtuse angle 2, making an angle of 1° 51’ to 2° 47’
with the vertical axis, according to the nature of the light used. The
optical sign is positive—an unusual thing for epidote. The indices are
x = 1.714, 2 = 1.716, and y = 1.724. The double refraction is thus
-010, the least value known for the mineral. The optical angle over
a, 90° 32’, is exceptionally large. A comparison of the data at hand
seems to show that with increasing percentage of iron the double refrac-
tion becomes stronger, the index of refraction increases, while the opti-
cal angle (over a) grows larger, and when it passes 90° the crystals
become optically negative.

Miscellaneous Notes.—Leiss® gives details concerning several
new models of optical instruments as manufactured by Fuess of
Steglitz, near Berlin. The most important of these are a petrographi-
cal microscope, a theodolite-goniometer, an optical angle instrument,
and a number of devices for universal motion—vViola® shows the
application of the quaternion method to the discussion of crystal sym-
metry, and arrives at results concordant with those of Fedorow, Schön-
flies and others.—Schwarzmann’ describes a scale for reading directly
with approximate accuracy the apparent optical angle 2E, without the
labor of calculating it by Mallard’s formula—Crystallographers will
be much interested in the results obtained by Rinne’ in certain experi-

5 Neues Jahrb., B.B. X, pp. 179-195; also pp. 412-439, 1895.
ë Neues Jahrb., B.B. X, pp. 495-532, 1896.

7 Neues Jahrb., 1896, Vol. I, pp: 52-56.

8 Neues Jahrb., 1896, Vol. I, pp. 139-148.

1396.] Mineralogy and Crystallography. 935

ments on heulandite. Anhydrous H,SO, abstracts 2 H,O from the
molecule Ca Al, Si,O,, -+ 6 H,O leaving Ca Al, Si,O,,+4H,O. The
latter compound is optically quite different from the original heulan-
dite, having, for example, a much higher double refraction and a dif-
ferent plane of the optical axes. The change may be watched under a
microscope, and takes place faster in some crystallographic directions
than in others. Dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid gives a pseudo-
morph, which, after heating, is composed of almost pure SiO, (only 1.33
per cent bases). It has a specific gravity of 2.143, is optically biaxial
with a small angle, and has weak double refraction. It is regarded as
a new modification of SiO,, probably like Seacchi’s “ granulin.”

In continuation of his studies on Algerian minerals, Gentil’ mentions
with more or less detail calamine, smithsonite, sphalerite, calcite,
galena, cerussite, limonite and barite from a number of zine mines,
Ilvaite and bustamite from Cape Boujaroun are also studied somewhat
at length.—Dufet” publishes the results of a crystallographic study of
four modifications of indophenol, also of several complicated organic
and inorganic compounds which are not at all related to one another.
` —Lacroix” describes the microscopical characters of a number of
compact or earthy minerals. They are not amorphous, as they appear
to the naked eye, but are all micaceous and crystalline in ultimate
structure.—Termier” reports seven new forms, and a large number of
rare ones, on a quartz crystal discovered on a block of gneiss in the
lateral moraine of the lower Grindelwald glacier. The new forms are

7.7.0.4
32.15.17.62
11.25.36.0
10.35.25.20
1.4.52
17.4.21.9

3.4.7.7

The explanation of these rare faces is sought in the deposition of cal-
cite on the quartz, followed by the formation of “ temporary limiting”
faces as the crystal again grows, and, finally, the solution of the out-

° Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 399-414, 1895.
1 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 414-426, 1895.
4 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 426-430, 1895.
22 Bull. Soc. Fr. Min., XVIII, pp. 443-457, 1895.

936 The American Naturalist. [November,.

side of the quartz, thus exposing again the unusual faces. Some of the
calcite layers are still present in the specimen.

The new mineral lawsonite is more fully described by Ransome and
Palache” than was the case in the original paper by Ransome. The
formula is H, Ca Al, Si,O,,.—Walker™ finds that the sperrylite from
the Sudbury district probably occurs originally included in chalco-
pyrite. The new face z (10.5.2) was observed. The suggestion is
made that Os and Ir occur replacing Pt in sperrylite, and an analysis
of the products of the Murray mine, showing the presence of these ele-
ments, is given. (If, as this analysis would indicate, the two elements.
osmium and iridium are present in an amount equal to one quarter
that of the platinum, it is difficult to suppose that they exist in the
sperrylite, since Wells states specifically that he found no iridium in
the sperrylite analyzed by him).—Adams and Harrington” describe a
new alkali-hornblende chemically near an orthosilicate, and a titanifer-
ous andradite from the nepheline-syenite from Dungannon, Hastings.
Co., Ontario.—Merrill® notes an occurrence of free gold in a black
mica granite from Sonora, Mexico, apparently as an original constitu-
ent of the rock.—Crocoite crystals from Mt. Dundas, on the west coast
of Tasmania, measured and figured by Palache" present, in addition to-
the twelve known forms the new, though doubtful, prism (10.3.0).

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Permian Land Vertebrata with Carapaces.—In the NAT--
URALIsT for 1895 (November) I deserived wader the name of Disso-
rhophus a new genus of probabl halia with an
armadillo-like carapace. In the Proceedings of the ‘American Philoso-
ical Society for the same year and month I described a new family of
Cotylosaurian Reptiles protected by a similar structure. These con-
stitute the only forms of land vertebrates so constructed known from.
the paleozoic formations. The nearest approach to it previously
known from the Permian is seen in the genus Zatrachys, where the.

18 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 531-537, 1895.
4 Zeitschr. f. Kryst., XXV, pp. 561-564, 1895.
15 Amer. Jour. Sci., CLI, pp. 210-218, 1896.

16 Am. Jour. Sci., CLI, pp. 309-311, 1896.

11 Am. Jour. Sci., CLI, pp. 389-390, 1896.

adOO SNLVINOILYV SNHAOHHOSSIA

XX E

aLVv Id

pe
Aa

een,

~ a

i uui»

pan

P.

t
Srann ww

an

E -7
>

`,

A a aa a ae mt Ye aa aa a S

1. OTOCOELUS MIMETICUS COPE 3/5
2.0. TESTUDINEUS COPE 2/3

1896.] Geology and Paleontology. 937

species Z. apicalis has the apex of the spines dilated and sculptured on the
superior or external surface, indicating the presence of a row of osseous
shields covered by epidermis only, extending along the middle dorsal
line. In the Trias, two such types have been previously known ; viz.,
the genus Typothorax Cope, from New Mexico, and Aétosaurus Fraas
from Wiirtemberg.

The discovery of the Permian form in question is important from
various points of view. The discovery confirms again a hypothesis pro-
posed by me, several years previously (NATURALIST, 1885, p. 247,
Transac. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1892, p. 24). It presents us with what
had been previously wanting, forms ancestral not only to the Triassic
Reptilia above referred to, but also ancestral to the order of the Testu-
dinata, which according to Quenstadt and Baur appears first in the Trias.
The discovery also brings to light an interesting case of homoplassy,
since we have two families in no way allied to each other, the one a
Batrachian, and the other a reptile, presenting an identical character,
and which is so closely similar in the two, that the carapaces cannot
be well distinguished on an external view. Internally, however, the
characters differ widely. In the case of the Reptilian family (Otoceel-
ide) the structure is what one finds in the Testudinata and Pseudosu-
chia (Typothorax); while in the Batrachian it is constructed by an
expansion of characters already known in other Stegocephalia.

For the accompanying illustrations I am indebted to the American
Philosophical Society.

PLaTe XXI.
Otocelus testudineus Cope, From above x.66.
PLATE XXII.

Dissorhophus articulatus Cope, x.82; 1 above; 2 below; 3 anterior
view.—E. D. Cope.

Ameghino on the Evolution of Mammalian Teeth.'—The
discoveries of M. Ameghino in Argentina have put him in a position to
throw a great deal of light on the evolution of the Mammalia. Several
problems which are presented by general Mammalian dentition should
be greatly elucidated by his material, and some of those suggested by
the Toxodont and Edentate types are within his reach almost to the
exclusion of other investigators. He has already made important con-

1 See Evolution des Dents des Mammiferes par Florentino Ameghino. From
the Bull. Acad. de Ciencias de Cordoba, XIV, p. 381; Buenos Ayres, 1896.

65

938 "The American Naturalist. [November,

tributions to the histories of both these orders, while other problems
remain open.

In the paper of about 1060 pages now before us, M. Ameghino gives
his views on the general subject. It seems that in his work Filogenia,
published in 1884, he adopted the view of Gaudry of 1878, (previously
barely suggested by others), that complex teeth of Mammalia are pro-
duced by the fusion of a number of originally distinct simple teeth; a

- view which has been supported by Kükenthal and Röse on embryologic
grounds. It had been previously believed that additional cusps are the
product of plications of the dental crowns of simple teeth, and in 1873
and later I had constructed on that basis a phylogenetic system of

- dentition. This, as is well-known, proceeds from the simple to the
complex, without the element of fusion entering at any point. The
series is, for the upper jaw; the haplodont, triconodont, tritubercular,’
(sectorial) quadritubercular, quinque- and sextubercular, and the
various lophodont forms; for the lower jaw; haplodont, triconodont,
tritubercular, tuberculosectorial, (sectorial), quadritubercular, and the
various lophodonts. This succession corresponds with the time order
both in North America and Europe, and it is to be supposed that it
must, therefore, do so in other parts of the earth, wherever the Mam-

' malia have developed a dentition beyond primitive types.

I have never attempted to bring into this system the Monotrematous

‘Prototheria, and have maintained that they constitute a distinct
phylum’ My discovery that the dentition of the Permian Cotylo-
saurian family of the Pariotichide consists of simple teeth arranged in
transverse series,* induced me to remark’ “ that the only question that
could arise” as to the hypothesis of dental fusion “is with regard to the
Multituberculata.” A fusion of the teeth of the Pariotichide could

_ produce molars like those of the Multituberculata ; but there is no evi-

dence that such a fusion has ever occurr
Returning to the Eutherian Mannada, we observe that Ameghino
believes that the complex molars have preceded the simple ones in the

_ order of time, and that the tritubercular molar is the result of a loss of

a tubercle of the quadritubercular; the quadritubercular the result of

* Riitimeyer used the term trigonodont for triangular molars, without specifica-
tion of the number of tubercles. This word cannot take the place of tritubercular,

_ since the evolution is a question of tubercles, and not of shape. Some trituber-
cular teeth are quadrangular (Periptychus) and vice versa.

~ $See Amer. Journal of Morphology, 1889, p. 146.

* Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Society, 1895, 439-444,
5 Primary Factors of Organic Evolution, 1896, p. 334. Amer. NATURALIST,

1896, Plate VIIa, p. 801.

1896.] . Geology and Paleontology. 939

reduction of a still more complex molar. Most of the evidence for this
conclusion is derived from the fact, as he believes, that the Mammalia
of Eocene and possibly earlier age, which are found in Argentina gener-
ally, have quadritubercular molars. In accordance with this view
Cetacea and Edentata with numerous ea present a primitive typeof
dentition which has survive
The reply which can be made to this fundamental proposition as to
time-order, is, that M. Ameghino has probably affixed too great an age
to his earlier beds. This is the opinion of Lydekker, and such extinct
types as occur in those beds which occur elsewhere confirm this con-
clusion, Thus the Patagonian, which Ameghino regards as an Eocene
formation, containing the Pyrotherium, contains also the primitive
monkeys Anthropops, and the cetaceous Prosqualodon, Argyrocetus
and Diaphorocetus. Now Diaphorocetus and forms closely allied to
Arygocetus and Prosqualodon are characteristic of the middle Miocene
in North America and Europe. . It is highly improbable that the
quadrumanous genera discovered by Ameghino are of Eocene age, since
nothing of the kind occurs in Eocene beds in the Northern Hemisphere,
where more primitive and ancestral lemuroid families represent them.
The presence of supposed Condylarthra (not yet described) however,
gives an Eocene character, and if the forms described by Ameghino as
Multituberculata are really such, this character would be difficult to
deny. However, recently Ameghino has recognized that these forms do
do not belong to that order, but are true Marsupialia, and Lydekker
assert that they do not belong to the Patagonian formation, but to the
overlying Santa Cruz beds. But supposing that the Patagonian forma-
tion is upper Eocene, it does not furnish the material for an elucidation
of the dental characters of the primitive Mammalia. These are only
partly displayed in the lower Eocene, for it is in the Postcretaceous
(Puerco and Laramie) that the true ancestral relation of the trituber-
cular molar is fully seen. These formations may be represented by the
lower or dinosaurian beds which lie below the Patagonian formation in
Argentina, but no Mammalian remains have been found there thus far
by Ameghino. The oldest Mammal is said to be the Pyrotherium of the
Patagonian formation, but it has an aspect more modern than Eocene.
It is suspected by Ameghino to be a proboscidian, but it has not yet
been shown that it is not a marsupial.
Dr. Ameghino misinterprets North American fossils in more than
one instance. He cites the Amblypoda in evidence of the proposition
. that the tritubercular molar is the result of a reduction of the quadri-
6 Geographical History of Mammals, 1896, 115. Ameghino makes the same
statement in Enum. Synopt. Mamm. Foss. Eocene de Patagonie, 1894, p. 10.

940 The American Naturalist. [November,

tubercular. His series is Uintatherium, Coryphodon, Pantolambda ;
the last the most completely tritubercular. The time order is, however,
the reverse, viz.: Pantolambda (Puerco), Coryphodon (Wasatch, and
Uintatherium (Bridger) ; the first the most unmodified tritubercular.

In accordance with his general position Dr. Ameghino believes (p.
72) that the quadritubercular genus Procyon is of great antiquity and
prior to tritubercular types. This, however, cannot be believed. It
has descended from a primitive plantigrade tritubercular, canine type,
as have their allies the bears. The same modification is seen in the
Mustelidz in the badgers; and all such are modern forms. He states
(p. 26) that in Periptychus and Mioclenus, Phenacodus and Achzn-
odon, the teeth are quadritubercular. The first two genera have tri-
tubercular molars with insignificant rudiments of others both before
and behind the protocone (Periptychus) or behind only (Mioclenus),
and they belong to the primitive Puerco period. The other two genera
are quadritubercular, but belong to later beds, Phenacodus being Wa-
satch, and Achznodon, Bridger, neither of which formations has any
genus in common with the Puerco (except Didymictis of Puerco and
Wasatch ages).

Dr. Ameghino believes the Typotherian suborder of the Toxodontia
to be related to the Quadrumana. The digits resemble decidedly those
of that suborder, but one important difference is overlooked by him.
He has pointed out the striking alternation of the two rows of carpal
bones in the Typotheria, in which they agree with the Toxodontia
proper, and with the Amblypoda. Now in primitive Quadrumana
this alternation does not exist, but the bones of the two carpal rows,
like those of the tarsus, are directly juxtaposed, or taxeopodous. This
characterizes the Condylarthra, which furnish the exact foot characters
of the lemuroids, or ancestral Quadrumana.

Finally as to Dr. Ameghinos’ views of the origin of the Cetacea, he
again inverts the order of succession. He does this by assuming that
the Archeoceti are not related to the Cetacea proper, and cannot be
ancestral to them. He does not regard the presence of two rooted
molars in the foetal Balena as significant in this direction. The opinion
of zoologists and paleontologists has been different from this, and I have
confirmed the general view in my recent researches on the extinct
Balænidæ of the Eastern United States.” I have shown that a decided
sagittal crest like that of the Zeuglodontide exists in some of the
Miocene whalebone whales. In my estimation the simple teeth of
many Cetacea are the result of a process of dental degeneration. —

1 Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1895, p. 139; 1896, p 141.

1896.) Geology and Paieontology. 941

Their increase in number ‘has not been due to subdivision of primitive
teeth as supposed by Kiikenthal, nor is it a survival] of primitive condi-
tions, as supposed by Ameghino, but it is probably a repetition of
similar structures due to an extension of the dental groove and dental
lamina, following the gradual elongation of the maxillary and pre-
maxillary bones, proceeding contemporaneously with degeneracy of the
teeth themselyes—E. D. Corr.

Eozoon canadense.—In recent numbers of the Geological Maga-
zine, Dr. Dawson cites the evidence to date for the animal nature of
Eozoon. Briefly summarized, the facts are these: (1) The rocks of
the Grenville series, where the fossil in question occurs most abund-
antly, belong to a sedimentary formation. (2) They form a great cal-
careous system comparable with the metamorphosed Paleozoic calcare-
ous beds of organic origin in petrological and chemical character. (3)
New material showing more plainly the structure of the canal systems
and tubes, evidences a definite plan of macroscopical structure. (4)
Late discoveries of Archaeospherinae and other objects supposed to be
organic in pre-Cambrian rocks in Canada and in Europe afford, to
some extent, corroborative’ evidence i in favor of Eozoon. (Geol. Mag.
1895.)

Thickness of the Coal Measures.—<According to Mr. J. C.
Branner, the total thickness of the Coal Measures (Pennsylvanian) sedi-
mentsin Arkansas is greater than that of the sediments of the same age
in other parts of the country or of the world. He gives the following
table of comparison: Arkansas, 23,780 feet ; Nova Scotia, 16,000 feet ;
Utah and Nevada, 16,650 (?) feet: Indian Territory, 10,000 feet. Mr.
Branner finds a reason for the great thickness in the drainage of the
Continent during Carboniferous times. “The rocks of this series in
Arkansas afford fossil evidence that this part of the Continent was prob-
ably not much above tide level. The drainage from near the Catskill
Mountains in New York flowed south and west. The eastern limit of
the basin was somewhere near the Archean belt from New England to
central Alabama. This Appalachian water shed crossed the present
channel of the Missouri from Central Alabama to the Ouachita uplift,
and the drainage flowed westward through what is now the Arkansas
Valley, between the Ozark Island on the north and the Arkansas Is-
land on the south.” (Amer. Journ. Sci., Sept., 1896.)

Geological News.—Patrozorc.—An accumulation of fresh ma-
terial from the Ichthyologic fauna of the Cleveland Shales, Loraine
County, Ohio, has enabled Mr. C. R. Eastman to determine the rela-

942 The American Naturalist. [November,

tions of certain body-plates in the Dinichthyids. These are the median
ventral plates of Titanichthys, and a postero-dorso-lateral of Dinich-
thys. The author further states that “every plate present in the body
armor of Coccosteus has its representative in Dinichthys, and that the
conditions of overlap and underlap are the same in both forms. (Amer.
Journ. Sci., July, 1896.)

Crenozorc.—Mr. H. W. Fairbanks states that the Lower Creta-
ceous age is represented in Santa Barbara County, California, by the
Knoxville beds, containing the characteristic Aucella fossils. This is
the southern point at which the genus Aucella has been found in Cali-
fornia. (Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Calif., Vol. IT, 1896.)

The skull of Orycteropus gaudryi (Ant-Bear or Aard-Vark) from
the Lower Pliocene of Samos, described by C. W. Andrews, indicates
an animal about one-fifth less than the living species. The close re-
semblance between the fossil and recent forms is remarkable. Dr.
Forsyth Major has pointed out that the former distribution of the
genus indicates its northern origin, and that it spread into Africa along
with the rest of the Pliocene Mammalia with which it has been found.
(Proceeds. Zool. Soe. London, 1896.)

In discussing the geographical distribution of the known Castoroid
species, Mr. Merriam notes that the American Castorinae seem to
reach their maximum development at or before the beginning of Plio-
cene time, while the culmination of the Eurasia group appears to occur
in the Pliocene. This „apparent earlier culmination of the American
Castorinae, together with the earlier extinction of certain forms in
this country, seem to point to an American rather than to the Euro-
pean origin of the family. (Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Calif., 1896.)

According to Dr. Shufeldt, Harpagornis, the fossil bird recently
found in New Zealand, represents a more or less aquiline type, that
might easily have been the common ancestor to a number of genera of
existing modern eagles, as, for example, Haliaetus, Aquila and Thal-
assaetus. A natural scheme of classification would place it between the
genera Aquila and Thalassaetus. (Trans. New Zeal. Inst. [1895], 1896.)

1896.] Zoology. 943

ZOOLOGY.

Fishes in isolated pools.—The occurrence of fishes in pools
which have no communication with running streams or large bodies of
water has been often noticed, and the explanation of their origin and
persistence in such places is in some cases not satisfactory.

In collecting during this month (September) in Camden county,
New Jersey, I made the following observations. I fished near Winslow,
a pool of about twenty-five feet in diameter, and two feet in depth, with
a muddy bottom and a few Nympheas growing init. It is distant
about a quarter of a mile from an insignificant ditch with a little run-
ning water, and is surrounded by higher and sandy ground, offering no
possible communication with the ditch. A half mile distant and still
more inaccessible is a running stream. From this pool I caught large
numbers of the following fishes. Umbra pygmea, Apomotis obesus and
Acantharchus pomotis. The Acantharchi were small, while the others
were fully grown.

A quarter of a mile distant from this pool, and at an equal distance
from the ditch above mentioned, and not connected with it by any de-
pression of the surface, is another pool of about thirty feet in diameter.
The water reaches a depth of three feet in a limited portion of it, and
Nympheeas are more numerous, together with Utricularia, ete. Here
I obtained the following fishes in considerable numbers. Umbra pygmea,
Amiurus prosthistius, Esox vermiculatus, Aphododerus sayanus, Apom-
otis obesus, Mesogonistius chaetodon, Acantharchus pomotis. Many of
these were fully grown. The turtle Chrysemys picta was also abun-
dant.

The mud in the first mentioned pool was light colored, and all the
fishes were remarkable for the extreme paleness of their tints. The
second pool is situated in better soil and its mud contains much decom-
posing vegetable matter, and is consequently black. The fishes were
all deeply pigmented, including the three species found in the other
pool, from which they could be distinguished at a glance. The smaller
pool was said to have been dried up during the past summer.

Seven additional specimens of the Amiurus prosthistius Cope enable
me to verify the characters already given (Proceeds. Acad. Nat. Sci.,
Philada., 1883, 133), from an examination of four from the Batstow
River, New Jersey. In five of the new specimens where I counted the
anal rays, they number 26. Prof. Jordan has recently attempted to

944 The American Naturalist. [November,

identify the species with his A. erebennus in The Fishes of North and
Middle America, 1896, p. 139. From Jordan’s descriptions it is evi-
dent that the A. prosthistius is nearer to the A. natalis than to the A.
erebennus. The spines are not elongated as in the former, nor is the
head long and narrowed forward, but it is short and wide; it enters
the length (without caudal) 33 times and not four times. The mouth
is relatively wider in the A. prosthistius, being .66 of the head-length,
and not .5 of it asin A. erebennus. The inferior barbels are white in
the former, while one may suppose they are black in the A. erebennus
from Jordan’s description. The supraoccipital spine is widely separa-
ted from the dorsal spine. In the specimens from Winslow the anal
fin is relatively longer than in those from Batstow; in the former it
enters the length (without caudal fin) very little over three times (3.2),
while in the latter it enters from 3.5 times in one, to 3.66 in two, and
3.85 in another. The length of the anal rays is .66 of that of the head
in the Winslow specimens, and .5 of the head in the Batstow speci-
mens. The latter are of larger size—E. D. Corr.

On the Mud Minnow (Umbra pygmaea) as an air breather.
—In the autumn of 1895, I tried to keep a few fishes alive in a small
aquarium, viz., a glass jar holding about a gallon. This was filled with
well water and some water plants placed in it which grew well. Vari-
ous fish were placed in it from time to time but all without exception
died in less than six hours except a Mud Minnow (Umbra pygmea)
This came to the top at frequent intervals, on each occasion emitting
bubbles of air and presumably gulping more down, making considerable
noise in so doing. On being placed in well aerated water six weeks or
more later, this habit ceased.

The other fishes which were placed in the jar, Catfishes, Minnows,
Sunfish, and Suckers would come at once to the top gasping for air,
and died in an hour or two.

I have placed other of these fish— Umbra pygmea, in well water and
they acted the same way, coming to the top at frequent intervals and
“bubbling ” each time.

I have never found any of these fish dead in dried up pools, though
I have carefully looked for them, presumably their ability to use air
for respiration saves them.—C, 5. BRIMLEY.

The Peritoneal Epithelium in Amphibia.—In a recent study
of the peritoneal ephithelium in Amphibia the following points were
noted. The species examined were Necturus maculatus, Amblystoma
punctatum, Desmognathus fusea and Diemyctylus viridescens. All the

1896.] Zoology. 945

specimens of Necturus, Desmognathus and Diemyctylus were taken from
January to April and none were examined after spawning. Specimens
of Amblystoma were studied shortly before and immediately after ovula-
tion, and in August and December. In all the species cilia were found
only in the adult female. They occurred constantly upon the hepatic
ligament, the ventral wall of the body cavity, the membranes near the
mouths of the oviducts and upon the serosa of the liver. In Amblys-
toma cilia were also found upon the mesoarium and the membranes
supporting the oviducts. Some of the adult female Necturi possessed
cilia also upon the cephalic part of the dorsal wall of the body cavity.
The ciliated cells occured either singly or in groups. They were most
numerous near the mouths of the oviducts. It was found that the
direction of the current produced by the cilia was towards and into the
mouths of the oviducts. This and the fact that cilia are present upon
the peritoneum of the adult female only would seem to strengthen the
theory that the ova when set free in the body ies are as 104 ee by
means of cilia into the oviducts.—IsaBeLvA M. Gre

The Penial Structure of the Sauria.—In the Proceedings of
the Philadelphia Academy for August and September I have published
a paper on this subject, which gives the results of an investigation into
the anatomy of the hemipenes of lizards. Very little attention has been
given to the subject hitherto, and our knowledge up to 1856! is thus
summarized by Stannius: “ A duplication or bifurcation of each organ
is present in Lacerta and in Platydactylus guttatus. The copulatory
organs of the Chamzeleonide are distinguished by their shortness. In
various Varanidæ which have been investigated the internal cavity
(external when protruded) has-transverse concentric folds. A fissure
interrupts these folds so that they are not complete annuli. The
— is acuminate and expands at the base, forming a kind of
glans.’

In 1870’ J. E. Gray describes and figure this organ of Varanus her-
aldicus, giving the best illustration that I know of. In 1886 Wieder-
sheim (Lehrbuch der Vergl Anat. Wirbelth.) describes and figures
this organ in Lacerta. Besides these references I know of nothing
later.

As was to have been anticipated, I have found these organs to corre-
spond with the rest of the structure, and to furnish invaluable aids to
the determination of affinities among the Sauria. Reference to them

1 Zootomie der Amphibien, p. 2
2 Annals Magaz. Nat. Hist., Aeg VII, p. 283.

946 The American Naturalist. [ November,

cannot be omitted henceforth in cases where the other characters render’
the question of affinity uncertain.

In the Sauria the male intromittent organ or hemipenis, presents
much variety of structure, showing some parallels to the corresponding
part in the snakes. It is, however, rarely spinous, as is so generally
the case in the Ophidia, the only spinous forms being, so far as I have
examined, the American Diploglossine and genera allied to Cophias.
The higher Sauria have the apical parts modified, as in the Ophidia,
by the presence of calyculi. Such are characteristic of the Rhipto-
glossa and Pachyglossa. The Nyctisaura possess the same feature.
The Diploglossa, Helodermatoidea and Thecaglossa have the organ
flounced, the flounces often pocketed or repand on the margin. In the
Leptoglossa we have laminz only ; in the Tiide mostly transverse, and
in the Scincide mostly longitudinal. In various genera terminal
papillz are present. The organ may be simple or bifurcate or merely
bilobate. I have not met with the case so common in the Ophidia,
where the sulcus spermaticus is bifurcate and the organ undivided.

The structures of the hemipenis have a constant systematic value.
As in the Ophidia, the value differs with the character, but it varies
from generic to superfamily in rank.—E. D. Corr

Food habits of Woodpeckers.—A preliminary report on the
food habits of Woodpeckers has been published by F. E. L. Beal, the
assistant ornithologist in the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. The paper is
based on the examinations of 679 stomachs of Woodpeckers, represent-
ing 7 species—all from the eastern United States. The results of the
author’s investigations are summarized as follows:

“In reviewing the results of these investigations and comparing one
species with another, without losing sight of the fact that comparative
good is not necessarily positive good, it appears that of 7 species con-
sidered the Downy Woodpecker is the most beneficial. This is due in
part to the great number of insects it eats, and in part to the nature of
its vegetable food, which is of little value to man. Three-fourths of its
food consists of insects, and few of these are useful kinds. Of grain,
it eats practically none. his greatest sin we can lay at its door is the
dissemination of poison iv

“The Hairy Woodpecker probably ranks next to the Downy in
point of usefulness. It eats fewer ants, but a relatively larger percent-
age of beetles and caterpillars. Its grain eating record is trifling; two
stomachs taken in September and October contained corn. For fruit,
it seeks the forests and swamps, where it finds wild cherries, grapes, and

1896.] Zoology. 947

the berries of dogwood and Virginia Creeper. It eats fewer seeds of
the poison ivy and poison sumac than the Downy.”

“ The Flicker eats a smaller percentage of insects than either the
Downy or the Hairy Woodpecker, but if eating ants is to be considered
a virtue, then surely this bird must be exalted, for three-fourths of all
the insects it eats, comprising nearly half of its whole food, are ants.
It is accused of eating corn, but its stomach yielded only a little. Fruit
constitutes about one-fourth of its whole fare, but the bird depends
upon nature and not upon man to furnish the supply.”

“ Judged by the results of the stomach examinations of the Downy
and Hairy Woodpecker and Flicker it would be hard to find three
other species of our common birds with fewer harmful qualities.

The Ectal Relations of the Right and Left Parietal and
Paroccipital Fissures.—A preliminary communication upon this
subject was made by Dr. B. G. Wilder at the last session of the
American Neurological Association in Philadelphia.

The following abstract presents the salient points of the paper:

“The parietal and paroccipital fissures may be either completely
separated by an isthmus, or apparently continuous. When so contin-
uous ectally there may still be an ental and concealed vadum or
shallow. Disregarding the vadum on the present occasion, the ectal
relations of the two fissures may be designated as either continuity or
separation. That continuity occurs more frequently on the left side has
been noticed by Ecker, Cunningham and the writer. Hitherto, how-
ever, statistics have included unmated cerebrums as well as mates from
the same individuals. The following statement is based upon the cere-
brums of 58 adults of both sexes and various nationalities and char-
acters. The speaker has examined 48; the other ten have been
accurately recorded by Bischoff, Dana, Jensen and Mills.”

“The four possible combinations of right and left continuity and
separation occurred as follows.”

“I. Left continuity and right separation in 27 ; 46.5 per cent.

II. Right and left continuity in 22; 38 per cent.

III. Right and left separation in 8; 13.8 per cent.
IV. Left separation and right continuity in 1; 1.7 per cent.”

“ When five groups of persons are recognized the combinations are as.
follows :

A. In 8 moral and educated persons, combination I, 62.5; II, 25;
IIT, 12.5.

B. In 23 ignorant or unknown I, 56.5; II, 34.8; III, 8.7.

e

948 The American Naturalist. [November,

C. In 20 insane, I, 40; II, 35; III, 20; IV, 5.

D. In four murderers, I, 0; II, 75; III, 25.

E. In three negroes, I, 33 ; II, 67

So far as these 58 individuals are concerned, the most common com-
bination, viz., left continuity and right separation, is decidedly the rule
with the moral and educated, less frequent with the ignorant and un-
known, the insane and negroes, and does not occur at all in the
murderers. The only instance of the reverse combination (left separa-
tion and right continuity) is an insane Swiss woman. The only two
known to be left-handed presented the more frequent combination I.
(Journ. Comp. Neurol. Cincinnati, Vol. VI, 1896.)

PSYCHOLOGY.

The Nature of Feeling.—A cardinal point of dispute in cur-
rent psychology is the nature of feeling. The division of simple feel-
ing into pleasure and pain is generally accepted; the question that
remains unsettled is the relation of these latter to sensation. Waundt,
Lehmann, Marshall and other recent writers, whose views differ in im-
portant respects, agree in regarding pleasure-and-pain as a characteris-
tic of sensation (its Gefithiston) like quality or intensity. On the other
hand there are those who claim that pain (at least) is a separate spe-
cies of sensation, with a distinct set of nerves and end-organs. Gold-
scheider at one time believed that he had discovered these pain nerves,
but he has recently retracted thisclaim. Others, again, regard pain as
an extreme form or quality of sensation common to the touch, heat and
cold senses.

The problem is somewhat complicated by the ambiguity of the word
pain. In the sense of “ physical pain” (Schmerz) it may be a species
of sensation; while at the same time in the sense of “ displeasure”
( Unlust) it may be regarded as either an “ attribute” of sensation or a
second element of consciousness. This distinction is maintained by
Münsterberg and Baldwin, among others? The ordinary associations
of the word pain have undoubtedly biased many writers and helped to
keep alive the confusion between its two meanings.

1 Edited by H. C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

2 Dr. Nichols in his criticism of Baldwin in the September number of this mag
azine certainly misapprehends the latter’s view on this po oint. Cf. Mental Devel-
opment, pp. 483, f.

1896.] Psychotogy. 949

Prof. Titchener in treating of the subjectin his Psychology? endeav-
ors to avoid this ambiguity by discarding the terms pleasure and pain,
and using pleasantness and unpleasantness instead. Apart from his
terminology, Prof. Titchener’s discussion is of special interest from the
fact that, although an earnest follower of Wundt in most respects, he
recognizes feeling or affection, as a distinct element of consciousness.
Wundt reduces all consciousness (aside from the active) to a single
element, sensation ; Prof. Titchener restricts sensation to the cognitive
side of consciousness, and makes affection a distinct and co-ordinate
term.

The mind, or consciousness, he says, “ not only senses: it feels. It
not only receives impressions and has sensations : it receives impressions
in a certain way.. . . Life means the balance of power (more or less
effective) in the perpetual conflict of two opposing forees—growth and

ecay. No impression can be made upon the living body that does
not tend in some way to change this balance.. . . It must help
either to build up nervous substance or to break it down. The organ-
ism is a whole: and what effects it in either of these ways at one part,
must affect it as a whole, in all. The conscious processes correspond-
ing to the general bodily processes thus set up by stimuli—processes
not confined to definite bodily organs—are termed affections. . .
There are only two bodily processes to give rise to affective pronio : :
the building-up process (anabolism) and the breaking-down process
(catabolism). We should expect, then, to find no more than two qual-
ities of affection ; and introspection tells us that expectation is correct.
The anabolic bodily processes correspond to the conscious quality of
pleasantness, catabolic processes to that of unpleasantness.

Prof. Titchener then examines the relation of affection to sensation.
“The processes of pleasantness and unpleasantness seem, at least in
many cases, to bear a strong resemblance to certain concrete experi-
ences which we have analyzed, provisionally, as complexes of sensa-
tions. Thus pleasantness may suggest health, drowsiness, bodily com-
fort; and unpleasantness pain, discomfort, overtiredness, ete. . .
Now there can be no doubt of the resemblance in the instances cited.
But the reason of it is simply this, that health, drowsiness and bodil
comfort are pleasant, i. e., that pleasantness is one of the constituent
processes, running alongside of various sensation processes, in the total
conscious experience which we call ‘ health,’ etc. ; and that pain, bodily
discomfort and overtiredness are unpleasant, i. e., that unpleasantness
is one of the processes contained in each of these complex experiences.

3 An Outline of Psychology, by E. B. Titchener, Chap. V.

950 The American Naturalist. [November,

Beyond this there is no resemblance: a sensation process is radically
different from a pleasantness or an unpleasantness.” This difference
appears in several ways:

(1). The sensation is looked upon as belonging to the object which
gives rise to it, while the affection is regarded as belonging to the sub-
ject or conscious self.. “ Blue seems to belong to the sky; but the
pleasantness of the blue is in me. Warmth seems to belong to the
burning coals; but the pleasantness of warmth is in me. . e
distinction is unhesitatingly drawn in popular thought, and clearly
shown in language. It points to a real difference between sensation
and affection as factors in mental experience—a difference which the
psychologist must make explicit in his definition of the two processes.
The same difference is observed even when we compare the affective
processes with those sensations which are occasioned from within, by a
change in the state of the bodily organ. The unpleasantness of tooth-
ache is far more personal to me than the pain of it. The pain is ‘in
tae tooth ;’ the unpleasantness is as wide as consciousness.”

(2). If a stimulus be long continued, the affection, if it is not of such
a character as to pass over into pain, in the end becomes indifferent,
while the sensation remains as strong and clear as ever, when the at-
tention is directed to it. ‘* Nervous substance, at the same time that
it is very impressionable, is eminently adaptable. The organism ad-
justs itself to its circumstances—resigns itself, so to say, to their inevit-
ableness. When once adaptation or adjustment to surroundings is
complete, the surroundings cease to be taken either pleasantly or un-
pleasantly ; their impressions are simply received, passively and un-
feelingly

(3). “ The more closely we attend to a sensation, the clearer does it
become, and the longer and more accurately do we remember it. We
cannot attend ws an affection at all. If we attempt to do so, the pleasant-
ness or unpl at once eludes us and disappears, and we find our-

` selves attending to some obttosive sensation or idea which we had no
desire to observe.”

(4). “ As a general rule, ‘ central’ sensations are much fainter and
weaker than ‘ peripheral.’ A remembered noise has hardly anything
of the intensity of the noise as heard. Affection can originate in the
same two ways. But ‘central’ pleasantness and unpleasantness are
not only as DEES as—they are in very many cases stronger tban
— peripheral.’

“ We see, then,” concludes Prof. Titchener, “ that there are strong
reasons for regarding affection as different from sensation. It must be

1896.] Psychology. 951

carefully noted that the statements just given of these reasons do not
tell us how ‘red,’ a sensation, differs from ‘ pleasantness,’ an affection,
in mental experience. They are sufficient indication that a real differ-
-ence exists; but the difference — cannot be described—it must be
experienced.”

It remains to be seen how this theory, or rather Prof. Titchener’s re-
statement of it, will be met by the adherents of the Wundtian view.
As to the verbal innovation, the terms pleasantness and unpleasantness
would be more welcome if the proposed meanings accorded better with
ordinary usage. Both words, especially the second, are suggestive of a
very mild form of feeling; and until we became accustomed to the
-change it would excite our sense of the ludicrous to call the feeling con-
nected with a violent toothache or an intense abdominal pain unpleas-
-ant.—H. C. WARREN.

Further Comments on Prof. Baldwin’s ‘‘ New Factor in
Evolution.’’—Ina “ Note” in THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, October,
1896, Prof. Baldwin declares that I have grossly misunderstood his
views, and that, to quote his words, “ Dr. Nichols’ home thrusts are
-all directed at my view of pleasure and pain, which he considers, quite
mistakenly, the point of my ‘paper. On the contrary, the ‘factor’ is
entirely the influence of the individuals adaptation on the course of
evolution ; not at all the particular way in which the individual makes
its adaptation.”

This quotation is typical of the author’s style of thinking and writ-
ing ; of which his critics unanimously complain. The word “ influence ”
‘is frequently misused by careless writers, as in the above, to denote the
results of a factor, rather than the factor itself. A “factor” is a set of
influences or circumstances contributing to produce a result. It is true
that an author, if of expansive mind, may run ahead of his subject. It
is true, as Prof. Baldwin above declares, that his mind was chiefly on
the results supposed by him to be worked by his factor. But he should
not forget that he declared himself, in his title, to be writing about his
“new factor”; and it was quite correct that be should write about it,
since one ought, in Science, to establish the existence of a thing before
discussing its effects. It was this last I had in view when, in my paper, I
directed my discussion toward demonstrating that his new factor, as
specificly described by Prof. Baldwin, was a myth.

directed my discussion against Prof. Baldwin’s views of pleasure
-and pain because he completely identified his “ factor” with his par-
-ticular and all-expansive views of pleasure and pain. On p. 451 of his

952 The American Naturalist. [November,

pamphlet, he sums up his June paper in these words: “ It seems proper,.
therefore, to call the influence of Organic Selection “a new factor;
he ontogenetic adaptations are really new, not performed ;
a hee are really reproduced in succeeding generations, although not
physically inherited.” Here the author correctly, though in flat con-
tradiction to his Note, declares in so many words his factor to be Organic
Selection, and “ontogenetic adaptations” is for it but another
name,” Of this fact the words which he italicized leave no doubt.
Naturally, to find out most accurately what Prof. Baldwin means by
Organic Selection, we go to that part of his writing which most pro-
fessedly expounds it. This is done in Part IV, p. 541, under the cap-
tion : “ The Process of Organic Selection.” After preliminary remarks,
which I shall speak of later, Prof. Baldwin’s exposition is in the follow-
ing words:

‘t There is a fact of physiology which, taken together with the facts of
psychology, serves to indicate the method adapt ations or accommoda-
tions of the individual organism. The ral “i s that the organism
concentrates its energies upon the ialis pope apri for the continua-
tion of the conditions, movements, stimulations, which are vitally benefi-

ion.

is form of concentration of energ . . is called the « circular

reaction.” It is the selective property Fah h Romanes pointed out as char-

acterizing and differentia ating life. It characterizes the responses of the

anism, however low in the scale, to all ns gt en Tg those of a
i ical na

have the further question : How do ee ale rement SA come to
be produced when and where they are needed ?

Having reduced his problem of “ the selection of fit movements,” i. €.,
of Organic Selection, to this pointed inquiry, Prof. Baldwin then pro-
ceeds to state his still more explicit exposition of his selective “ factor”
in full, as follows :

“ But, as soon as we inquire more or into the actual working of
e find a

pleasure pet pain reactions, we answer sugge: [an answer to
the last above quoted question]. The pleasure or pain produced by a
pm —and by a movement also, for the utility of a movement is always
that it secures stimulation of this sort or that—does not lead to diffused,

oati. and characterless movements, as Spencer and Bain suppose ;

1896.] Psychology. 953:

is disputed no less by the infants movements than by the as of uni-
cellular creatures. There are characteristic differences in vital movements
wherever we find them. There is a characteristic initka: in vital
movements always. Healthy, overflowing, overstretching, expansive,
vital effects are associated with pleasure ; and the contrary, the ay -
drawing, depre sive, contractive, decreasing, vital effects are associated
with pain. This is exactly the state of things which the theory of the
selection of movements from over-produced movements —* i. >
that oroa vitality, represented by pleasure, should give the excess
move s, from which new adaptations are selected ; and that decreased
vitality, "represented a A sete should do the reverse, 7. e., draw off energy
and suppress mov

TẸ: the othe we aim that here is a type of reaction which all vitality
shows we may give it a general descriptive name, 7. e., Tee ‘* Circular
Reaction,” in that its significance for evolution is that it dom
response in movement to all = alike, th wt (ie bang aac

i in its very form and a

i and
press the ba is e it requires the direct
co-operation of the organism itself, 7 hes called oo Ort Selection.’

“This” (note the last sentence), then, is the “Organic Selection ’”
which Prof. Baldwin himself specifically declares (p. 451) he names a
“ new factor.” As the reader must see for himself, the author’s descrip-
tion of it is a description of pleasure-pain functions pure and simple’
and nothing more. It is not merely the old pleasure-pain tradition, for
nothing remains inexpansive in this vigorous author’s hands. Butit is
the orthodox tradition unfolded to “a type of reaction which all vitality
shows ;”’ which “ distinguishes in form and amount between stimulations.
which are vitally good and those which are vitally bad;” “ whichis a
characteristic antithesis in vital movements always;” which “is the
selective property which Romanes pointed out as characterizing and
differentiating life ;”’ and which performs its task of the “ selection of
fit movements” generally, by its universal exercise in all creatures from
first to last and at all times.

It is dangerous to grapple with an author who is so macrocosmic im
his thought, and so amorphous in his diction. But I discussed Mr.
Baldwin’s “ New Factor” from the point of view of his “expanded ”
pleasure-pain functions because heso completely identified it with them.
I cannot conceive this to have been done more explicitly and completely
than in the author’s specific exposition of Organice Selection in his
Part IV. Under this situation it was surely “to the point” to prove
Mr. Baldwin’s New Factor a myth. The tone of Mr. Baldwin’s “ Note”
seems to indicate that this was done with peculiarly exhaustive effect.

66

954 The American Naturalist. [November,

A word remains to be said about Mr. Baldwin’s complaint that his
pamphlet distinctly insisted on the fact of Organic Selection, without
regard to any “ particular way ” it may be accomplished. Prof. Bald.
win did file such a caveat upon all possible ways which man may ever
invent for proving that Organic Selection may be a fact. But this is
not the method of Science. She does not feel called upon to invent all
possible ways before she rejects the sole one offered. When Prof,
Baldwin does give us some other “ particular way ” than the one he did
give for the operation of his factor, I will, perhaps, then be able to show
him it cannot be called “new” with any sort of justice to Darwin and
to biologists commonly.

Of the personal tone of Mr. Baldwin’s “ Note ” I have nothing to
remark, save by way of gratification, that it is unmatched in American
Science. HERBERT NICHOLS.

Boston, Oct. 14, 1896.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Pictured Caves in Australia.—In West Australia, New South
Wales, Queensland, and doubtless in other parts of Australia, where
the geology is favorable, rock shelters and caves have been recently
noticed, whose walls are decorated with native allegorical designs and
figures of men, birds and animals outlined in colour. Mr. T. Wornsop ad-
dressing the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science at
Brisbane in January, 1895 refers to a great number of rock paintings
of Kangaroos, Lizards, Emus, Flying birds, Snakes and other forms.
Refering to discoveries of these strange and impressively decorated
shelters by Sir George R. Grey, Mr. Stockdale, Mr. O. Donnell and
others, he states that a general similarity characterizes the designs
wherever found, and describes further the curious method of painting
generally noted, which appears to consist in smearing the rock surfaces
with animal fat, pressing the object to be represented against the

eased rock, and then blowing dry color against it so as to thus stencil
the outlined form by a surrounding area of contrasting tint. When wet
color was splashed on, no grease would have been needed. Mr. W. J.
Enright, the discoverer of numerous painted caves and Mr. R. H. Matt-
hews describe in particular the abundant figures of human hands with

1 This department is edited by H. C, Mercer, University of Pennsylvania.

1896.] Anthropology. 955

out stretched fingers apparently painted and stenciled in this manner,
often in red,in nearly all the caves. Along the Glen Lake river valley
near Kimberly, West Australia and on Bulgar Creek, New South
Wales the caves display hearts, white human figures on black back-
grounds, staring faces outlined in red, with yellow lines, figures of the
rising-sun, and Phallic symbols, where the stenciling according to Mr.
Enright has often been done by blowing powered pipe clay from a de-
posit near at hand (sometimes white and sometimes stained yellow by
oxides) upon the greased rock. Strangest sight of all must be the
weird shelter on Nardo Creek in Central Queensland where a diabol-
ical picture 70 feet long seems to represent a lake out of which are
stretched hundreds of brown human arms pointing, grasping and
knotted in many positions as if writhing in torture.

Mr. Wornsop and others _oree? in vain for aclue to the meaning of
the rock paintings, have set in the refusal of neighboring natives
to account for them , just as earlier observers in America, were wont to
quote indian ignorance of mounds, and earthworks. But on the other
hand Mr. Enright noting the fresh appearance of many of the designs,
speaks of one of the decorated caves recently inhabited by a native
named Cutta Muttan, without doubting that the later had done the
painting. No doubt he did, and small question that natives now living
in Australia could if sympathetically approached by Ethnologists (who
living with them had gained their confidence), explain all the designs,
—H. C. MERCER.

Man and the Fossil Horse in Central France.—Not many
hundred yards from the classic rock shelters of Laugerie Haute and
Laugerie Basse (which contain according to the French classification
Magdalenian and Solutrean culture layers) a recently exposed talus,
along the Manaurie brook an affluent of the Vezere (department Dor-
dogne Commune Tayac, France) has revealed an interesting and sur-
prising deposit of human remains associated with bones of the fossil horse.
M. M. Chauvet and Riviere digging a trench 17 meters long, 1.80 meters
broad and 3 meters deep, found in one day, three hundred and more
horse-teeth together with other horse bones generally broken by human
hands, besides the remains of the badger (Meles taxus) and the canine
tooth of a large carnivore. No fresh water or marine shells were found
but with the bones about two hundred chipped flint axes (“ Turtle-
backs ”) of so-called Chellean type, or of similar ovate form worked
only on one side, were unearthed in a few days, with three Mousterian
racloirs, four discoidal flints, two Magdalanian flakes, two scrapers,

956 The American Naturalist. [November,

and some nuclei. But few details as to the stratification or formation
of the deposit are given in the account published in Cosmos (Sept. 12,
1896, P. 211) and as nothing is said about hammer-stones, and flint
chips, we are left to wonder whether the place represents a paleolithic
workshop such as Messrs. Spurre]l and W. G. Smith found at Crayford
and Caddington, England or not. Meanwhile the excavation which
we are told is to be continued, if studied with care and without bias
may affect the validity of the French subdivisions (Chellean Mous-
terian, Solutrean Magdalenian) of the Palzolithic period in Central
France. Judged by the shape of the flint blades found with the horse
bones, M. M. Chauvet and Riviere call the deposit Chello-Mousterian
while hardly a mile away, we have Laugiere Haute classified as show-
ing Magdalenian above Solutrean culture layers, with Laugiere Basse,
Cro-Magnon and Gorge d’Enfer floored with Solutrean only. The
rock shelters of Le Moustier (Moustierian) and La Madeleine (Mag-
dalenian) are not far distant and the question is whether all these differ-
ent geological epochs supposed to indicate intervals of thousands of
years, varying stages of human culture and changes in animal life
can be justly established at this remarkable neucleus of ages where
one more subdivision is proposed to be added to the list of culture
layers represented in an area of a few square miles and based on differ-
ences in flint chipping, and variations not universally agreed to, in the
sequence of animal life.

Chipped Flint blades from Somali Land.—Mr. H. W. Seton-
Karr who presented to the British Association for the Advancement
of Science at Ipswich, England in 1895 several heavy ovate blades of
chipped flint from Somali Land, has brought more recently from the
same region others (referred to in Proceedings of Royal Society, Vol.
LX, no. 359, p. 19). Often well worked, considerably patenated, and
resembling in shape and make, the drift blades of England and France
they appear to have been found not in situ but on ths surface, mostly
along water courses where rain or wind had bared them of surrounding
earth. No excavations were made to ascertain their position with refer-
ence to the surrounding geological strata, and no association appears to
have been established with the remains of animals living or extinct.
Nothing is said of Hammer-stones or chips that might have testified to
the existence of blade workshops at the sites, and nothing as yet save
the appearance of the blades (some of which are worked only on one side
after the French Moustier pattern) has been presented to warrant us in
setting back the date of these relics to the date of the similar shapes
associated with the Mammoth and Rhinocerus in the Somme Valley-

1896.] Anthropology. 957

Cave Hunting in Scotland.—If as we understand no chipped
blades of the “ Turtleback” or drift character have been gathered in
Scotland or northern Europe, if no traces of (Paleolithic) man in
Association with the Cave Bear, Woolly Rhinocerus and Mammoth
have been discovered in caves or quarries anywhere to the northward
of middle England or in Scandinavia North Germany and Russia, if
in a word it can be proved that snow and ice precluded human presence
or obliterated man’s foot-prints in northern Europe at the time when
drift men were chipping flint on the banks of the Thames and Somme,
then the exploration of caves in any part of this colder European
region is of particular scientific interest. Near Oban in Scotland the
Mackay, Gas works, Distillery, and MacArthur caves recently explored
by Mr. J. Anderson for the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (see pro-
ceedings of the Society, vol. XXIX, 1895, p. 211) showed human rub-
bish deposits consisting largely of the shells of ediblé mollusks (Ostrea,
Patella, Pecten, Solen, ete.), interbedded in one instance (the Mackay
Cave) with a gravel layer apparently caused by a marine inundation.
In the latter cave, fairly representing the others, Mr. Anderson found in
in the shell rubbish about 150 bone needles and points, seven numerously
barbed bone harpoons, sometimes with pierced bases, three pebble ham-
merstones, a few flint nodules, and several flakes and scrapers together
with numerous fish bones and the remains of the common deer, the Bos
longifrons, boar, the dog and the cat; in other words, the recent fauna of
the region. The bones of fifteen human skeletons found apparently near
the surface and above the shell and bone refuse in the various caves, ac-
cording to Mr. Anderson and Sir William Turner, represent a people of
the Neolithic or late stone age in Europe, while on the other hand M.
Boule (see L. Anthropologie, May and June, 1896, p. 321) citing the
gravel bed as evidence of an early flood and ogmparing the barbed and
pierced harpoons with similar ł d to be ofan intermediate
age (between Paleolithic and N eolithic) from certain French caves, sug-
gests that the Oban remains form a connecting link between the Paleo-
lithic (Mammoth, Rhinoceros and Reindeer time) and the Neolithic
(recent fauna time) of western Europe. When all the results of Euro-
pean archzology are summed up it has been supposed that a hiatus
in time unbridged by any intermediate human or animal presence, ex-
isted between the earlier and later of these periods, and a link will be ad-
ded to te archeological chain, if discoveries in French caves or else-
where ily fill the suy d gap But whether the remains from

i
r Taal
Oban can or tb t ur-

ther investigation will show. For a time the cave explorer mene leave

958 The American Naturalist. [November,

the southern fields where much collaboration has perplexed the subject,
and turn northward. There the coastis clear. There evidence broaden-
ing the perspective of the European student, and setting a wide geogra-
phical limit to the ancient human record, can be established in unex-
plored caves, where in a new way the unearthed testimony should show
the relation of fossil man to glacial ice and cold——H. C. Mercer.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

New York Academy of Sciences.—Biological Section, Octo-
ber 12, 1896.—Dr. Bashford Dean and Mr. G. N. Calkins presented
preliminary reports upon the results attained at the Columbia Univer-
sity Zoological Laboratory at Port Townsend, Washington. The ex-
pedition spent about six weeks in exploring and collecting, and brought
home large collections from exceptionally favorable collecting grounds.
Dr. Dean spent some time in Monterey, Cal., and brought home col-
lections of eggs and embryos of Chimera and Bdellostoma.

Dr. J. L. Wortman made a preliminary report upon the American
Museum Expedition to the Puerco and Wasatch Beds. He reported
finding a connecting link between the close of the Cretaceous and the
beginning of the Tertiary. He gave an interesting account of the
massive ruins of the so-called cliff-dwellersin the region visited by him.
In the Big Horn basin the expedition had remarkable success as well
as in the Wind River basin.

Prof. Osborn stated that with the collections made this summer the
American Museum could now announce that their Eocene collection
was complete, containing all mammals now known in the Eocene; that
their collection from the Wasatch bed was the finest in existence, and
that from the Wind River basin was complete; the Bridger was repre-
sented by all but two or three types; and fine collections have been
made in the Uintah.

Mr. W. J. Hornaday made a report of a tour of inspection of foreign
zoological gardens, made under the auspices of the New York Zoologi-
cal Society. He visited fifteen gardens in England and on the conti-
nent, studying the features of excellence in each,

- Prof. Bristol gave a brief account of the progress at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Wood’s Hole, Mass., during the past summer.

1896.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 959

Prof. Osborn offered the following resolution on the death of Pro-
fessor G. Brown Goode, after paying a tribute to his memory:

Resolved, That the members of the Biological Section of the New
York Academy of Sciences desire to express their deep sense of loss in
the death of Professor G. Brown Goode, of the U. S. National Museum.
In common with all naturalists in this country, we have admired his
intelligence and highly successful administration of the National Mu-
suem as well as his prompt and ready response to the requests arid
needs of similar institutions throughout the country.

In face of the arduous and exacting duties of his directorship he has
held a Jeading position among American zoologists, and we are indebted
to him for a series of invaluable investigations, especially upon the
fishes. . .

Those of us who had the good fortune to know Professor Goode per-
sonally, recall his singular charm of character, his genial interest in
the work of others, his true scientific spirit. We have thus lost one of
our ablest fellow-workers and one of the truest and best of men.

The resolution was adopted unanimously by a rising vote.
CHARLES L. BRISTOL, Secretary.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis.—At a meeting of the
Academy of Science of St. Louis, held October 19, 1896, Mr. Trelease
exhibited living flowers of Catasetum gnomus, demonstrating the
extreme irritability of their tentacles and the precision with which the
pollinia become attached to any object touching either tentacle. Mr.
J. B. S. Norton presented a list of the Ustilagineæ of Kansas, together
with the result of germinations of about one-half of the entire number,
Three persons were elected to active membership.

WILLIAM TRELEASE, Recording Secretary.

The Biological Society of Washington.—The following com-
munications were made : C. Hart Merriam,“A New Fir from Arizona ;”
Frederick V. Coville, “ Notice of Britton and Brown’s Illustrated
Flora of the Northern United States and Canada;” Erwin F. Smith,
“A Bacterial Disease of Potatoes, Tomatoes and Eggplants;” B. E.
Fernow, “ Timber line: Its Aspects and Causes.”

Freperick A. Lucas, Secretary.

/

960 The American Naturalist. [November,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

A course of eight free lectures mainly upon Science and Travel has
been arranged by the Field Columbian Museum for Saturday afternoons
in October and November at the usual hour, 3 o’clock. Most of these
lectures will be illustrated by steropticon views. Subjects, Dates and
Lecturers: Oct. 3— Archeological Explorations in Peru,” Dr. G. A.
Dorsey, Assistant Curator of Anthropology, Field Columbian Museum.
Oct. 10.—* A Trip to Popocatapetal and Ixtaccihuatl,” Prof. O. O.
Farrington, Curator of Geology, Field Columbian Museum. Oct. 17.
—“ San Domingo,” Mr. G. K. Cherrie, Assistant Curator of Ornithol-
ogy, Field Columbian Museum. Oct. 24.—“ Egypt and what we know
of her,” Dr. J. H. Breasted, Instruction in Egyptology and Semitics,
University of Chicago. Oct. 31.—“ The Petroleum Indastry,” Dr. D.
T. Day, Chief of Division of Mineral Resources, U. S. Geological
Survey. Nov. 7—* Alaska and its Inhabitants,” Prof. George L.
Collie, Beloit College, Wis. Nov. 14.—“ The Economic Geology of
the Sea,” Mr. H. W. Nichols, Curator of Economie Geology, Field
Columbian Museum. Noy. 21.—“ The Physical Geography of New
England,” Dr. H. B. Kiimmel, Assistant Professor of Physiography,
Lewis Institute.

Dr. Ludwig Reh, formerly assistant in the Museum at Sad Paulo,
Brazil, has been appointed assistant in the Concilium Bibliographicum
at Zürich. With this addition to the working force the Bureau will
soon bring its work up to date; and its cards will be sent out more fre-
quently than before. »

The annual meeting of the American Psychological Association will
be held at Boston, December 29th and 30th, 1896, that place and time
having been chosen by the American Society of Naturalists and rati-
fied by the President of the Association.

The Executive Committee of the American Society of Naturalists
have decided to hold the next meeting of the Naturalists at Boston and
have chosen the Inheritance of Acquired Characters for the theme of
discussion.

The next session of the Association of American Anatomists shall be
held in Washington City, May, 1897, in conjunction with the other
societies of the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons.

1896.] Scientific News. 961

J. H. Maiden has been appointed government botanist and direc-
tor of the botanical gardens of New South Wales, succeeding Charles
Moore who held the position for nearly fifty years.

Mr. F. F. Blackman has been appointed assistant in botany in the
University of Cambridge, and Dr. E. Albrecht assistant in the
Anatomical Institute of the University of Munich.

The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia has conferred the
Hayden Memorial Geological Award for 1896 on Prof. Giovanni
Capellini of the University of Bologna.

Prof. A. N. Kuznetzow has been advanced to the position of ordi-
nary professor of botany and director of the botanical gardens in the
University of Dorpat.

The Ninth Annual Winter Meeting of the Geological Society of
America will be held in the city of Washington, D. C., on, December
29, 30, 31, 1896.

Dr. H. Hanns, Th. Loesener and P. Gräbner have been called as
scientific assistants to the botanical museum of the University of
Berlin.

Dr. L. Kathariner, of Würzburg, goes to the professorship of zoology
and comparative anatomy in the University of Freiburg, Switzer-
land.

Dr. V. Schiffner has been advanced to the position of professor ex-
traordinarius of botany in the German University of Prague.

Dr. A. Möller, of Idstein, well-known for his studies of South Amer-
ican botany has gone to the Forestry Academy at Eberswald.

The Ministry of Education has conferred the title of professor upon
the botanist Dr. Kienitz-Gerloff. of Weilberg on the Lahn.

Dr. B. Hofer, of the University of Munich, has been appointed pro-
fessor of fish culture in the Veterinary school at Munich.

Dr. K. Busz, formerly of Marburg, has gone to the University of
Munich as extraordinary professor of mine

Dr. F. W. K. Miiller has been advanced to the position of directors
assistant in the Museum of Ethnology in Berlin.

Dr. H. F. Reid, of Johns Hopkins U niversity has been advanced to
the position of assistant professor of geophysics.

962 The American Naturalist. [November,.

Prof. K. von Kupffer, of Munich, has been elected corresponding
member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences.

Dr. V. A. H. Horsley, professor of histology in University College,
London, has been made professor emeritus.

Dr. Standenmaier, of Munich, goes to the Lyceum at Friesing as-
Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy.

Dr. J. Lerch, well-known for his studies of the Swiss flora, died at-
Couvet, March 13th of this year.

Canon A. M. Norman is hereafter to be addressed at Houghton-le-
Spring, Co. Durham, England. _

Dr. F. Kohl has been advanced to the position of ordinary professor
in the University of Marburg.

Dr. A. Hosius, professor of mineralogy in the Academy of Minster,
died May 11, aged 71 years

Dr. R. Zuber is now a extraordinarius of geology in the
University of Lemberg.

Dr. A. Zimmermann, of Berlin, goes to the Botanical Gardens at.
Buitenzorg, Java.

Dr. H. Henking is now professor of zoology in the University of
Göttingen.

Prof. W. Tief, of Villach, Carniola, a student of the Diptera, is dead..

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THE BIOLOGIC ORIGIN oF MENTAL VARIETY GENERAL NOTES.
Herbert Nichols. 964 Petrography.—The Sioux Quartzite of Iowa
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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXX. December, 1896. 360

THE BIOLOGIC ORIGIN OF MENTAL VARIETY,
OR
HOW WE CAME TO HAVE MINDS:
By HERBERT NIcHOLs.

It is not an infrequent combination that the most familiar
things neither excite curiosity nor are understood. Our sub-
title suggests an instance of this kind. The naive man com-
monly takes for granted that he sees the landscape, and hears |
the orchestra, for no further reason than that they are there
before him to be seen and heard. A man a degree wiser gets
so far as to recognize that eyes, ears and a brain are necessary.
If a biologist be asked, to-day, how we came by this appa-
ratus, he will answer, “through evolution.” This is the max-
imum reach of Science at present. Yet it is nearly as naive
to conceive that we have minds, such as ours, merely because
we have eyes, ears and a brain, as for one to imagine that he
sees just because he has his eyes open. This becomes appar-
ent if we consider the widely accepted doctrine that all the
sensory currents running through the nerves to the brain are
of the same general sort, as much so as those in electric wires

| This paper, under the title “ ba cea oe and ra enera Aka and now somewhat

altered from the original, was one ycho and
its Bearings,” delivered, by the eA dap at grii Hopkins University in March,
1896.

67

964 The American Naturalist. [December,

some of which ring bells while others blow whistles. For if
it be asked why our sensory currents ‘ring up’ such different
results as sight from the optic nerve, and hearing from the
auditory nerve, it is plainly not satisfactory to answer, “ be-
cause we have eyes and ears,” if, as this doctrine asserts, the
eye and ear nerve currents are alike. Nor is it much more
enlightening to be told that “it is the place in the cortex to
which the different nerves run that makes the difference in
the sensation resulting from them;” not unless we are in
some way told wherein and why these “ places” differ. It is
just in the fact of never having even inquired how these
“places” came to differ, that our evolutionary science falls
short in one of the most curiously interesting and important
questions that can arise either in biology or in psychology.
Of course, it is a fundamental assumption of both these
sciences that all our mental differences are paralleled by mole-
cular differences among the neural activities that underlie
them. But this still avoids the question why these last are
different, and how they came to beso. And until some an-
swer shall be found that shall logically connect these ultimate
neural peculiarities with those peculiarities in outer objects
which the world commonly conceives to correspond to our
various sights and sounds, it can scarcely be boasted that we
are much less naive than the ancients who thought that the
objects gave off films that floated into our minds bodily. I
by no means imply that this doctrine of all sensory nerve cur-
rents being of the same sort is universally accepted. But
where any other hypothesis has been offered in its place, the
relationship between inner sense and outer stimulus has been
left as barren of explanation as even in this doctrine, where,
apparently, the possibility of explanation is cut off altogether.
But all these matters we are to examine categorically further
on. Sufficient has now been said, by way of introduction, to
make clear that it is the variety of our sensory responses (with-
out which our minds would not be minds), and of their con-
nection with the sorts of stimuli with which they are now
connected, that we are, in this paper, to subject to careful in-
vestigation. It should be obvious that this inquiry must in-

1896.] The Biologie Origin of Mental Variety : 965

volve, fundamentally, the evolutionary relation between biol-
ogy and psychology; and it is for this reason that I have se-
lected it as worthy of the present occasion.

Plunging at once to the heart of our problem, I may state
that there are two possible propositions regarding the funda-
mental relation of our senses to their respective sense organs ;
which propositions are mutually contradictory and exclusive
of each other; which, being fundamental and contradictory,
it is necessary to decide between, as a first step toward any
permanent insight into the evolutionary relation between
body and mind; yet regarding which neither science nor
philosophy, up to the present moment, has given any least in-
timation. It will be the main purpose of this paper to set
forth these alternative postulates as completely as I may,
within the limit of an hour; and if within that space we do
not arrive at any vantage ground, where we may venture a
guess at the proper decision between them, I trust that this
will but the more emphasize their vast and crucial signifi-
cance. To venture a prophecy, I may state that the indis-
pensible solution of these two postulates is not likely to be
reached for many years to come, nor until wider discussions
and further reaching investigations shall have been ploughed
under them, than now cover the fields of the great Weissman-
Lamarck controversy.

The first of these postulates may be stated as follows: In
the light of the little knowledge we as yet possess, it is open
to conceive that, in the beginning of the present epoch of ani-
mal evolution, crude or primary protoplasm was sensitive not
only to all the forms of physical stimulation which now pro-
duce sensory responses in us (i. e., sight, sound, taste, smell,
touch, temperature, muscle, and other sensations), but was
also capable, in response to appropriate stimuli, of an infinite,
or x number of other forms of sensation which we know
nothing about. In accord, and in illustration of this possi-
bility, we may conceive that the simplest amorphous creatures
now actually experience an infinite variety of transient and
elementary sensations, including the few we have and a mul-
titude of others that we never have.

966 The American Naturalist. [December,

Under this conception, we may look upon the rise and de-
velopment of sense organs generally to mean the slow differ-
entiation of protoplasm to the exclusive use of certain specific
forms of stimulation. Thus we may interpret the appearance
of eyes to mean the production of an apparatus peculiarly
adapted for light waves to the exclusion of all other forms of
stimuli. Through the appropriation of the entire fixed sur-
face of our bodies to the particular sense organs which devel-
oped in our ancestry, we see how, under this proposition, our
few kinds of sense should have been preserved to us; and how
the infinite number of others with which it endows primitive
protoplasm, should be lost to’ us through the required forms of
stimulation being shut out.

The alternative of this fundamental formula is that we may
conceive, quite oppositely, that protoplasm was capable at first
of only one form of sensory response ; and of but one mode of
neuro-sensory activity correspondent therewith. What this
form of sense was we need not consider, at „present, further
than to suspect that it may have been far different from any-
thing we experience.

Under this proposition we should attribute the rise of vari-
ous new senses: to the development of new kinds of proto-
plasm, capable of correspondently new forms of sensation.
Thus the advent of sight and of sight organs, here, would
mean the development of a new basis of physical activities,
peculiarly susceptible to light stimulation, and the psychic
counterpart of which would be a new kind of sense.

These, then, are our opposing hypotheses. According to
one, Life began with many fleeting, transitory senses, and we have
become shut in to a few permanent and highly developed ones. Ac-
cording to the other, Life began with one simple sense, and has
opened outward with the development of our various and compli-
cated senses.

It will now be proper to bring forward the implications of
these great rival theories in a way to justify the lofty pros-
pectus which we have announced for them.

First we should note, as cee has been intimated, Be - =

both propositions, alike fi assume different

*

1896.] The Biologie Origin of Mental Variety. 967

of neural activity for every psychic happening or sensation,
and for every sense quality and shade of quality. That is, one
sort for red, another for blue, and others for every sort of taste,
smell, and so on.

Next we may note that both propositions equally involve
the fact that physical activities immediately underlying our
psychic states are enormously complex. Demonstrably, by
modern experimentation, they rest upon a chemical basis, in-
tricate beyond all comparison ; each molecule comprising vari-
ous atomic components which, in number, according to high-
est authority, mount among the billions, and out-run all ade-
quate comprehension.”

Next we may observe that in proportion as these AR
activities are complex, so will the molecular differences be
great which correspondently lie between our different elemen-
tary sensations, that is, which correspond to the psychic dif-
ferences between sights, sounds, smells, tastes and our other
major classifications of sensory elements; and between the
reds, blues and greens, sweets, sours and bitters, and other
minor differences observable in each subclassification, down to
the limits of their infinity.

Of course, the old doctrine of specific energies, banded down
to us by Johannes Miiller, taught us to expect that every dif-
ferent quality of sense must be paralleled by a different form
of neural activity. But by emphasizing the enormous com-
plexity of these neural forms, and the vast molecular differ-
ences between them, which must be implied by the differences
to be observed among our several senses, I wish to bring for-
ward what appears to me to be one of the most important
truths in mental science, and one which, in so far as I know,
has never before been caught sight of, or taken into account
in deciphering the great problem of mind and body

For finally we may observe that, IJntrinsically and within
themselves, these molecular differences, correspondent to the dif-
ferences among our psychic elemeuts, must necessarily have con-
stituted determining factors of animal evolution; and must have de-
cided what peculiar psychic elements should be selected, and perman-

2 See ‘* Man’s Glassy Essence,” by Charles Pearce, in The Monist, October, 1891.

968 The American Naturalist. [ December,

ently incorporated into our psychic existence. They must, therefore,
explain the variety of our psychic elements, and the origin of their
connection with the central mechanisms on which they now depend,
and with their respective sense organs. Consequently, also, they
must furnish a key for deciding between our two rival theo-
ries of the origin of our psycho-physical organism. And alto-
gether, a study of this subject must unlock to us wide and un-
forseen fields of scientific truths.

That the evolutionary values of his various “energies”
should not have been perceived by Miiller is not surprising,
but that they remain unconsidered to-day can only be ex-
plained by the vagueness of current notions regarding them ;
and it must now be our task to come to a realization of the
conditions which they involve.

Bearing in mind that, as is now demonstrable, the molecu-
lar basis underlying each one of the sense-elements of which
our brain is capable comprises billions of variable physical
constituents, we may first note that this truth must have its
influence within the sphere of Spontaneous Variation. We do
not yet fully know the laws which govern variation, and there
is difference of opinion as to the role it plays in developing or-
ganisms. But at least the followers of Weissmann should ap-
preciate that not all neural “ energies” of such vast complex-
ity could have equal chances of advent, and that this fact
must have been a major condition in the origin of those dif-
ferent classes of sensation with which we are now equipped.

Secondly, we may appreciate that the variants in question
must constitute determining factors of organization within the
circle of Nutrition. Not only must our intricate brain com-
ponents be born into our organism, but they must be main-
tained there in face of exhaustion and fatigue. Loss of the
thyroid gland demonstrates to-day how special are the ingre-
dients necessary for maintaining the general functions of intel-
ligence; and there is ample room within the mysteries of
Aphasia to suspect that the requirements are even yet more
specific that must be provided within localized regions of the
cortex for our different senses. Every notion of modern
science suggests that these activities must be specifically com-

1896.] The Biologie Origin of Mental Variety: 969

plex and vastly variable, and assuming them to be so, the
conclusion is inevitable that they should neither be produced
or maintained with equal ease; and that, therefore, within
the course of adaptation and survival their specific character-
istics must have determined, respectively, their own advent
and perpetuation.

Third comes the vast region of fitness and selection, which
must rise from the relative serviceableness of these several
complex activities to The Environmental Forces, to whose stimu-
lation they must join themselves for the creature’s welfare and
preservation. That this sphere is likely to prove of central
interest in our problem should be obvious, and because we are
to give it much attention further on, we may limit ourselves
to the bare statement of it here.

A fourth region of evolutionary choice among possible
sense energies must be found in the relative adaptiveness of
their molecular complexities to the development and per-
perfection of such peripheral or end-apparatus processes as are
requisite or of profit for mediating between them and the en-
vironmental forces. Within this field, more than anywhere
else, perhaps, we are likely to discover the functions which
most intimately determine the diverse forms of our perceptive
organs, and that fix thereby the sorts of mental pictures de-
pendent thereon. This, also, we are to discuss with some ful-
ness presently.

Finally, the factors in question must have oirmi
bearings within our general physiology. These it will be nec-
essary and important for Science in time to work out ; but they
are of a nature so remote from psychologic problems proper
that they need not be intruded further upon the limited space
of this present paper.

Their self-determinative fate within the realms of their
Zoologic Genesis, their Physiologic Maintenance and Organi-
zation, and their Environmental Adaptation, these, then, are
what we have chiefly to study, in our present quest. And these
lines being laid down, the following considerations pertinently
thrust themselves forward, for our further guidance. It should

be obvious at the outset that the nervous currents or impulses

970 The American Naturalist. [December,

passing from the periphery to the cortex, and arousing there
the activities lying nearest to the final-sensory results, should
be of crucial importance in our investigation of the molecular
differences assumed to underly our different senses. Regarding
these nerve currents two main opinions are held. Professor
Wundt conceives that all the sensory cortical cells are equally
potent of all the different sense-forms at our birth; and that
the sort of response they actually give is dependent on the form
of the impulse that reaches them through the peripheral nerves
to which they happen anatomically to be joined.

According to an opposite view, advocated by Prof. James
and many others, and to which in our introduction we have
already made allusion, the currents in the different sensory
nerves are all alike, and the sort of sensory responses they
mediate are wholly dependent on the respective places in the
cortex to which the different nerves run. The fundamental
fact being, that each center is congenitally destined to its one
specific form of activity, and the different centers to their
permanently different forms.

We can get a sharp notion of these opposing views, as the
text-books commonly point out, by imagining the visual
and the auditory nerves to be cut somewhere in their course,
and the cut ends to be crossed and joined together again so
that thereafter the visual impulses will reach the auditory
center, and the auditory impulses the visual center. Under
this new condition, according to Prof. Wundt, we should both
hear and see precisely as before; because both of these cortical
centers are capable of both renalis- because what happens
depends on the different forms of the currents that are deter-

mined in the peripheral sense organs; and because these run

through unchanged, in spite of the crossing and that they are

carried to new places. But, according to Prof. James’ view,

where the currents in the different nerves are all alike, and the
results depend wholly on the place in the cortex in which they

arriye—under the crossed conditions one soona now “see the

thunder and hear the lightning.” |
The chief facts on which the latter notion is kanaal is,
that while the sensory nerves generally are sensitive to several -

1896.] The Biologie Origin of Mental Variety: 971

kinds of artificial stimulation, the sensation resulting thereby
is always the same for each nerve. For example, the cut stump
of the optic nerve will respond to pinching, pricking, burning,
and to chemical and electric stimulation; but always with an
indefinite visual flash, whatever the form of stimulus that is
applied.

The chief facts upon which those who agree with Prof.
Wundt base their opinion, are summed up within certain
alleged phenomena of “Substitution,” there being some reason
to believe that when parts of the cortex are destroyed, either
by disease or by experimentation upon animals, certain re-
maining parts take upon themselves the former functions of
the lost parts, and change their former habits and modes of
response in so doing.

Neither of these opposing theories are conclusively substan-
tiated at present, since there are counter replies for each.
Thus it is open for Prof. Wundt to explain the fact of the optic
nerve replying invariably with sight sensations to every sort of
artificial stimulation, by saying that this is only true in the
adult, where the cells, by having only one form of stimulation
brought to them by the nerve to which they are permanently
fixed, have been educated persistently in one form of response
past the age when they have lost the power of plasticity and
of shaking off the old habit to take on a new one—a power
which at birth they eminently possessed. And, on the other
side, it is open for those who believe in fixed congenital re-
sponses to suspect that all the facts of Substitution are due to
the lost function being taken up by remaining cells of the same
kind, and especially by the correspondent cells of the other
half of the body; i. e., those of like kind in the opposite lobe
of the brain.
= Such is the state of this controversy up to date ; and its con-
fusion would be out of place in our present study if we were
not now able both to bring this problem, by new considerations,
to a solution, and also to demonstrate its cogent bearings upon
our main subject. We speedily come to this by recalling that
we have already determined that the molecular differences, cor-
responding to the differences between our several senses, are

972 The American Naturalist. [December,

certain to have been determining factors of the evolutionary
relationship between our minds and bodies in any case, and
by then passing on to observe that the sphere of this relation-
ship would be vastly different respectively under our two rival
theories regarding afferent nerve currents. Indeed, would be
so different as to demand consequences, under one of these
theories, so incompatible with existing facts that we shall be
able to discard that theory altogether, thus reducing our diffi-
culties, and giving us in the remaining theory an invaluable
guide for our main investigation.

This difference in evolutionary sphere comes to view the
moment we recognize that under the Wundtian notion (of the
sensory currents being different all the way through the nerves
to the periphery and to the different environmental forces
which respectively stimulate them) the forces determining the
selection and perpetuation of these currents in the organism
would include all the five regions in which we discovered it
was possible for our “ molecular differences” (specific energies)
to work with selective or evolutionary fitness—namely, the
regions of Spontaneous Variation, of Nutrition, of Environ-
mental Adaptiveness, of End-Organ Adaptiveness, and the
vaguer sphere of our general physiology. On the other hand,
and under the notion that the afferent currents are all alike, it
should be plain that this likeness would cut off our central
processes, regardless of their molecular differences, from all
relative serviceableness either to the great world of environ-
mental forces or to the intricate and indispensable mediating
processes in the end-organs, and would thus reduce the sphere
of their evolutionary reciprocity to the three remaining and
apparently lesser fields.

The significance of this is so great that we shall do well to
set forth the connection between our senses and their stimuli,
under this point of view, by an illustration. We may do this
by imagining two wires coming to this desk, one of which
is attached to a bell that is rung in accord with the velocity
of the wind outside by an electric current, brought through a
wire from a proper apparatus on the roof—a heavy wind ring-
ing the bell violently, and a calm giving no ring at all—and

1896.] The Biologie Origin of Mental Variety : 973

the other wire we will imagine to be connected with a visible
index, the rise and fall of which is determined by the rise and
fall of a barometer and other electric apparatus, also situate
on the roof. Under this illustration the ringing of the sonor-
ous bell and the moving of the visible index are the analogues
of our sensations, the electric wires correspond with our
nerves, the wind-gauge and barometer with our end-organs,
and the wind and temperature with their external stimuli.
And since, under these conditions, by merely changing the
wires here at the desk and connecting the barometer with the
bell, and the wind-gauge with the index, the “sensory ” results
would be completely reversed from what they formerly were,
so, therefore, we have here a perfect example of what Prof.
James means, by saying that all depends on the place in the
cortex with which the currents or wires are connected. And,
going now a step further, these conditions also illustrate what
Prof. James has wholly neglected to consider, namely, the evolu-
tionary influences which made the “places” in our cortex
different, and those which first connected them with the par-
ticular end-organs and stimuli with which they are now per-
manently connected ; and these, we quickly perceive, are the
important points in our great main problem. Precisely what
we want to know is how we came to have the variety of senses
that we do have, and how they came to be joined to the par- -
ticular stimuli to which they are joined. From time out of
mind mankind has naively taken for granted that the now
existing relationship between sensations and their stimuli is
an eternally permanent one of immediate cause and effect.
But, as we have pointed out, this cannot be the case if the
currents in all the sensory nerves are alike, and if, as Prof.
James contends, it is alone the “ place” in the cortex which
determines the sort of sensation that shall respond to any sort
of current or stimulus which may run to it. In this case it
should be plain that it isin the characteristic differences of
these“ places ” and in the evolutionary origin of the same, and
of their permanent connection with their present peripheral
organs, that the secrets must lie which we are in search of.
Surely no one, under the conditions of our illustration, would

974 The American Ni aturalist. | [December,

investigate alone the wind and temperature apparatus on the
roof in order to discover why we hear the bell ring instead
of see the index move. But, rather he would extend his in-
vestigations to discovering how the “ nerve ” connections origi-
nated that now exist, and how the internal apparatus, to which
they run, came to be so different that in one case we “ see ” and
in the other “ hear” from the same sort of incoming current.
Enabled by this illustration to look with greater clearness
into Prof. James’ hypothesis, and into some of its implications,
we may now go back to the assertions that vastly different
spheres of evolutionary influence would be involved as between
this theory that these currents are alike and the rival theory
that they are different, and to the assertion that certain conse-
quences are logically demanded by the “alike” theory which
are so contrary to existing facts that it must be discarded.
What has been neglected by Prof. James is, as I have said,
the evolutionary or selective value of the sensory currents. If
these currents were all alike, then, manifestly the molecular
differences which we are obliged to assume in the cortex as
underlying our different sensations would be cut off from all
diversity of influence either from the end-organ processes or
from the environmental forces. And this is the same as saying
that they would be cut off from all selective relationship with these
great spheres of influence, and that our end-organs and environment
had nothing whatever to do with the origin of our different senses.
Now, it must not be too quickly inferred from these words
in italics, that it would be impossible to account for the
evolutionary selection of our several senses within the nar-
rowed sphere of influences remaining after cutting off the
peripheral and outer forces. Such an inference would not only
be wrong but also would confuse and obscure certain considera-
tions that we are to come to further on, and in view of which
it is imperative for me to stop long enough here to point out
that the sphere of Spontaneous Variation alone might be suffi-
cient to account for the variety of our senses and their present
external connections, if only their origin and not their preservation
needed to be accounted for. And this is done in pointing out
that these connections might be originally due wholly to the _

1896.] The Biologie Origin of Mental Variety : 975

period at which a spontaneous variation made a new kind of
“sense energy” possible. Thus, the present connection of
cerebral sight with the optic nerve and with the eyes, and with
the light that falls on them, might well, for all we know to the
contrary, be entirely due to the chance appearance of a new
form of “energy ” or molecular possibility in the cortex just
at a time when the development of optic end-organs made a
connection with the new cerebral development available, and
the exigences of the outer environment made the new linkage
of processes of service. Such a connection of inner sense to
outer stimulus would be as accidental as anything can be, yet
it might be adequate for explaining the facts of our problem
were no influences to be considered that might disturb the perma-
nency of such connections. And this brings us finally to the
influences which most surely would have disturbed the perma-
nency which actually has been maintained, had this theory
that the sensory nerve currents are alike been really in force.

These disturbing influences become apparent when we con-
sider the uniformity of the functions that would be left to-
central nervous processes under the conditions of this theory.
No one has ever contended that the outgoing currents of the
motor nerves are of diverse kinds. If, therefore, the incoming
currents. were also all alike, there would then be left to the
central processes the entirely homogeneous switch-board func-
tion of connecting like currents with like currents. And,
under such conditions, and cut off from all diversity of external
influences, it seems scarcely possible that some one form of
molecular activity or “sense energy” out of the many that
variation may have given birth ito or protoplasm been origin-
ally capable of, would not prove most suitable to this one
purpose, and as a consequence become perpetuated to the ex-
clusion of all other less suitable kinds of neural sense-forms.
Or, put again more simply, since moleculur forms are sure to have
been evolutionary determinants, therefore, if all the nerve currents were
alike it seems certain that the cortical processes must also have become
alike. And since this manifestly is not the case, therefore we
must abandon Prof. James’ theory.

(To be Continued.)

976 The American Naturalist. [December,

PINEY BRANCH (D. C.) QUARRY WORKSHOP AND ITS
IMPLEMENTS:

By THomas WI1son.?
(Continued from page 885.)
LEE

Mr. Holmes’ paper comprises 26 printed pages. The first
part is occupied with a description and statement of facts; the
second part is as I have shown made up of theory, assumption,
opinion. I have examined them sufficiently to show their
want of value. But the climax is reserved to the closing por-
tion, for, commencing on page 19 and continuing 8 pages is a
chapter relating to the age of the workshop and the race of
the men who worked it. Mr. Holmes’ conclusion is that though
the quarry is prehistoric the age is not great and the race was
the Modern Indian. This he argues with profundity, going
into the racial question in detail and with great elaboration.

I decline to argue these propositions. I am appalled at the
temerity as well as the dogmatism with which he decides these
abstruse questions. He is a gentleman for whom I have the
highest regard. I have known him well and favorably for
many years. He has studied and written upon art products
and art evolution and their relation with prehistoric man,
in a philosophical and artistic strain which has done credit
to his logic, and been as much benefit to art as to archeol-
ogy. But Sir John Lubbock, Sir John Evans, Prof. Tylor,
Sophus Müller, Hildebrand, Montellius, Naidallac, Hamy,
de Mortillet and Cartailhac and the host of eminent Europeans,
archeologists and anthropologists, of whom Keane is the latest
author, who have spent their lives in the study of this science,

‘Read before the Anthropological Society, Tuesday Evening, December 4;
1894.
BOR of Prehistoric Anthropology, U.S. National Museum, Washington,
EO.

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 977

have not ventured upon the determination of these ques-
tions of prehistoric ages and races. with the confidence of Mr.
Holmes, and certainly they do not decide these important
questions with even a fraction of the satisfaction and certainty
which seems to have inspired him.

Mr. Holmes did not content himself with the things of to-
day which he saw in the quarry, but turned his mind’s eye back
when the quarry was being made and depicts it in the time of
antiquity, with apparently as much certainty as if he had
been then and there present. He not only describes the work
with the detail and positiveness I have shown, telling the
periods to which it belonged and the race and culture of the
men who did the work, but he assumes to decide upon the ob-
jects not there. He determines not only upon what was left
in the quarry, but he decides with equal positiveness upon the
ultimate purpose and intention of the workman and the future
use and destination of the implements which had been trans-
ported elsewhere.

He describes in several places the leaf-shaped blade—the
“third stage” of his process—straight and symmetrical, with
edges as slightly beveled as consistent with strength, less than
half an inch in thickness and shown in å to p, Pl. IV (my Pl.
XIX), and says “ when they were realized, the work of this shop
was ended” (XX), “they, and they only, were carried away
to destinies we may yet reveal” (p.13). “ No examples of the
successful quarry products were left upon the ground ” (p. 15).
“ All forms available for further shaping or immediate use were
carried away as being the entire product of the shop *
for final finishing” (p.15). “This was a stage of advance-
ment which made them portable and placed them fully within
reach of processes to be employed in finishing, and that they
had been carried away to the villages and buried in damp
earth (cached), that they might not become hard and (or) brit-
tle before the time came for flaking them into the forms re-
quired in the arts. The history of the quarry forms is not
completed, however, until we have noted their final distribution
among the individuals of the various fribes, until we have witnessed
the final step in the shaping process—the flaking out of specific

978 The American Naturalist. [December,

forms with a tool of bone—and their final adaptation to use and
dispersal over the country,” (p. 18).

“ Having reached a definite conclusion that the blades were
the exclusively worked product of the quarry,” he “ was led to in-
vestigate their subsequent history” (p. 18). The italics are
mine. His investigation into the subsequent history of these
objects led him to define a cache. “ A ‘cache’ is a cluster or
hoard of stone implements, numbering, perhaps, a score or
more, secreted or deposited in the earth and never exhumed.
Such hoards are frequently discovered by workmen in the
fields,” (p. 18).

Pursuing the “ subsequent history” of these implements, I pro-
pose to go into the region round about Piney Branch, examine
the aboriginal village sites of the District of Columbia, the
fields containing these alleged secret hoards or caches, and the
known places of aboriginal occupation within the neighbor-
hood where these implements were said to have been carried,
and see what have actually been found there, what of caches,
what of leaf-shaped blades, and what of implements which had
been subjected to the (fourth or other) “ processes to be em-
ployed in finishing, when they were flaked into the final forms
required in the arts” (p. 18), and I propose we compare the
the objects actually found in these distant places, with what
Mr. Holmes said would be found.

I look through my Department in the National Museum for
the leaf-shaped implements which, according to the theory of
Mr. Holmes, were made at Piney Branch and carried out to
the homes of the Indians, their makers, in the District of
Columbia, and I find the numbers insignificant ; while, as to
caches, the Bureau of Ethnology, through Prof. Cyrus Thomas,
has lately made a catalogue of the “Known Prehistoric
Works in the Eastern United States,” among them deposits,
hoards, or caches, and there is not a single cache reported from
the District of Columbia, this, despite the statement of Mr.
Holmes that “ such hoards are frequently discovered by work-
men in the field.” 5

In the settlement of these questions, it is of high importance
that so far as possible, facts and not guesses should be given.

1896.] - Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 979

I have taken the trouble to segregate the specimens in my
Department in regard to material and locality and to ask a
similar report from such private collectors as I could reach.
The results I have given in the form of tables, and I have at-
tempted in these to draw a sharp line between the implements
which might, according to the Mr. Holmes’ PETK am come
from Piney Branch quarry, and those which did

No implement of quartz, found here or ERA came from
the Piney Branch quarry, nor any of felsite or rhyolite, nor of
argillite, shale or ferruginous sandstone, nor of flint, chert,
or jasper; for Piney Branch was a quarry of quartzite only.

The following tables show the Aboriginal chipped stone
implements from the District of Columbia and its neighbor-
hood, divided according to material, form, locality, and mode
of deposit, so as to show the number of quartzite leaf-shaped
blades which might have come from Piney Branch quarry,
according to Mr. Holmes’ theory, and to compare them with
those differing in these conditions, and thereby show what
number did not come from Piney Branc

TABLE k CACHES, HOARDS OR DEPOSITS OF LEAF-SHAPED BLADES.
RRANGED ACCORDING TO LOCALITY AND MATERIAL.

Porphyritic ot age Flint.
Quartz, | Quartzite.| felsite, jshale, Fer.; Jasper. | [Totals.]
Rhyolite. Sandstone. Chert.
Locality. Pare 3
. ot n n
Po eunana aa
2| No. of 3 No. of S| No. of No.of || No.of 8 No. of
Ò Implts Ò Tmplts. Š Implts o Implts. O Implts. Implts.
Bennings. 1 7
1 5 2 12
1 a8 1 8
1 a32 1 32°
1| b500 1, 500
i 25 1 25-
1 25 1 25:
1 26 1i) 26
South River, Ann Arundel! |
Co., Maryland.........s0-+- 1| 114 i} 14
South River, Ann Arundel 1 7 1 T
Co. 1 4 1 4
— iver Ann Arundel
GIONGNY sisii krs ian
mesan COUN sissit sesss 1| b100 1| 100
Clarksville, Howard County. i; a

a, not leaf-shaped; b, estimated.
68

980 The American Naturalist. [December,

There have been found in the District (Table I) but two
caches of quartzite, containing together only 12 leaf-shaped
blades. These are according to Mr. Holmes’ theory, “the
entire product of the shops” (p. 15), which “had been carried
away to the villages and buried in the damp earth (cached)
that they might not become too hard and (or) brittle.” This
was a sorry product of so extensive a quarry as Piney Branch
with the “500,000 pieces of waste and failures” found therein
by Mr. Holmes; and must have been a sore disappointment
to even the cynical and thriftless Indian.

Plate XXIII represents 20 specimens of a cache of 32 arrow
or spear heads and leaf-shaped implements found near Pierce’s
Mill, Rock Creek. Most of the specimens are broken. They
are of porphyritic felsite and, therefore, never had any rela-
tion with the quartzite quarry at Piney Branch.

Should it be urged that some of the leaf-shaped blades may
not have been cached or, if so, that the caches had been dis-
turbed and the blades scattered over the surface, I have made
a schedule of these, (table II), which shows a total of 1,948 leaf-
shaped blades found on the surface, not cached, of which 1,065
were of quartz, felsite, argillite, etc., and but 883 of quartzite. It

TABLE II. LEAFEDSHAPED BLADES—NO7 CACHED.

g phe an eee Eaa ae r Pd is
uartz. artzite. elsite n er. as
ya Rhyolite. | Sandstone. | Chert.
Locality.
No. of No. of No. of a of No. of
Implts. Implts. Implts. Implts. Implts,
Bonnike 4 300 100 100
2 30 2 2 1
Bank 100 100 40
Jones Landing 50 20 10
y Bran 15 |
17
Little Falls 1 215 303 202
nacostia 2 }
Pierce’s Mill |
Cabin John 22 6 1
rd ET EEEE OR NE
U. S. Natl. Mus. Miscl. Collec- | 1
tions, from D. C., generally. 148 134 | 5 10
157 | 883 | 541 | 364 3
aa
Total implements, quartzite, 883

Total implements not quartzite, 1065

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 981

is a part of Mr. Holmes’ theory that “the working of such a
quarry led inevitably to the production of blades in numbers
(meaning in great numbers), and it follows that they were re-
moved “in numbers” (p. 18), but my examination demon-
strates the error of this theory, for it shows the blades of
quartzite (which alone could have been carried from Piney
Branch Quarry) to be in the minority.

Again, Mr. Holmes theorizes (p. 18) that a “time came for
flaking them (the blades) into the final forms, knife-blades,
scrapers, perforators, and arrow and spear points required in
the arts.” Therefore, I made still another table (III) to show
any of these final forms which might possibly have been made
from leaf-shaped blades; and, again, we find the theory not

TABLE III. ARROW AND SPEAR HEADS WHICH MIGHT HAVE BEEN MADE FROM
L

EAF-SHAPED BLADES.
Porph Argillite,
Quartz, | Quartzite, | _felsite | ae ilate. | SAP-
Rhyolite, iron stone. a
Locality.
No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of
Implts. Implts. Implts. Implts. Implts.
Bennings 15 15 7 2
300 7 50 25
ON AS SAE OEE ES 200 75 300 50
OME LAINE sorotsi assis 100 50 50 25
Sa ney Branch..se.sessavosssssissssiss
acostia 2
tittle Falls 102 200 304 50
Falls Church, Va., 37 1 8
4 1
Piscataway . 3
U. S. Natl. Mus. Mis. Collec- 8
tions, from D. C., generaliy. 149 209 15 13 2
869 664 728 223 10
Total implements, quartzite, 694
Total implements not quartzite, seneeseeeee 1840
2534

borne out by facts, for of all these leaf-shaped forms, number-
ing 2,634, only 694 were of quartzite and could have come
from Piney Branch quarry. Thus, it appears that of the leaf-
shaped blades found in the District and its environments,
cached or not cached, the greater number have been of other
material than quartzite, and must have come from other lo-
calities than Piney Branch quarry. Is not all this cumulative `
evidence of error somewhere in Mr. Holmes’ theory?

982 The American Naturalist. [December,

There have been caches found adjacent in Maryland, and it
may be suggested that these implements from Piney Branch
might have been carried beyond the boundaries of the Dis-
trict of Columbia. But, unfortunately for this theory, the im-
plements which have been found en cache in Maryland and
adjacent to the District of Columbia are of porphyritic felsite,
argillite, and other different material from those in the quarry
at Piney Branch, and thus totally dissimilar from them. J. D.
McGuire, Esq., of Ellicott City, Md., has furnished the best
Maryland collection of these implements known (Table I) and
he has kindly furnished me a sample series which have been
photographed and are shown in Plate XXIV.

They show 8 caches—one of them 100 and one 114 speci-
mens and a total of 365 specimens, not one of which could
possibly have come from Piney Branch for one cache is of flint
and jasper specimens, and one of argillite (similar to the leaf-
shaped blades found by Dr. Abbot at Trenton), and six are
porphyritic felsite or rhyolite.

The leaf-shaped implements found en cache in Maryland and
some parts of Pennsylvania are, I believe, mostly either of ar-
gillite or porphyritic felsite. Several of these caches from the
respective localities are to be seen in the Museum, and a sin-
gle glance is sufficient to establish the absence of their rela-
tionship with the quartzite from Piney Branch.

We have now sought for the Piney Branch leaf-shaped
quartzite blades at the home of the Indian, throughout the Dis-
trics of Columbia and the adjacent parts of Maryland where, ac-
cording to Mr. Holmes, they were “ buried in the damp earth ;”
andwe have sought in vain. Caches of such implements are not
found within the District nor in its neighborhood. It may be
hardy to declare a negative and to say that because these
quartzite implements have not been found that they do not
exist; but how much more hardy and, indeed, perilous must
it be for Mr. Holmes to risk everything by declaring the exis-
tence of these caches when they have never been found.

The story told by the tables is not completed. Table IV
tells of the “ flaked implements, knife-blades, scrapers, arrow
and spear points and perforators” (which Mr. Holmes says

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 983

were common to the region), which were not from the Piney

Branch quarry because not made of quartzite. This table
shows 21497 such specimens. Table III, showed 2,534 speci-
mens which might have been made from leaf-shaped blades,

TABLE IV. SUCH AS KNIVES, SCRAP ;
ARROW AND SPEAR HEADS, ETC., APP ARENTLY NO TAADA FROM LEAF-
S

Porphritic | Argillite, Flint.
Quartz. | Quartzite. Felsite, (Clay. slate, Jasper.
Rhyolite. Iron Chert.
Locality.
No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of
Implts. Implts. Implts. Implts. Implts.
Bennings 716 260 13 350
3000 4000 200 1500
Red Bank 700 1200 1500 500
o - Landing 300 500 200 100
Anacostia 35
Piney nag a a SRE
Little Falls........ wesrvoresoeevsee + oise 28 12 23 26
500 1000 2000 100
Pierce’s Mill 82
Piscataway 25 75
tae Church. iy 8 6 1
. S. Natl. Mus. Misel. Collec- 3987 12
tions. from D. C., generally. 1720 554 19 253 29
| 7032 7607 3955 2830 41
Total impl : pan ta leaf-shaped blad 21,497
RECAPITULATION.
Table I. Leaf-shaped blades, cacked..sscssersssscrscsescarsvcesssvncassossces vovacensecesite ove vesnsoen 865
Table IT. Leaf -shaped blades, zot cached, 1,948
Table III. d blades, Fmpls 2,534
Table IV. Impls. wot made from ct shaped bindes, PREE APAE O EEP LEET tenses 21,497
26,844

but of these, only 694 were of quartzite. The aggregate of
these counts shows 24,031 (21,497 + 2, 534) specimens in these
collections not made from Piney Branch quartzite leaf-shaped
blades, against 694 which might have been.

Plate XXV shows how arrow and spear heads are, or may
be, made from leaf-shaped implements. The five specimens at
the top of the Plate are such. They were at one time leaf-
shaped implements, and by the making of the notch and
stem, they have been changed to arrow or spear heads,
that is to say, they have been subjected to the second
process which has changed them “into the final forms re-

984 The American Naturalist. [December,

quired by the arts” (p. 18). The four specimens at the bottom
are leaf-shaped blades of quartzite found on the surface at
Bennings, D. C., and might or might not have been the pro-
duct of the quarry at Piney Branch. They form part of the
330 in Table II from that locality. Those in the middle are also
_ leaf-shaped, found on the surface in the District or adjoining
it in Maryland or Virginia, but are of quartz, argillite, shale,
porphyritic felsite, all of them other material than quartzite,
and so they could not have been the product of the quarry at
Piney Branch. They form part of 541 in Table II and of the
1948 in Table V.

TABLE V. RECAPITULATION ACCORDING TO FORM.

No. of No. of |Implts. of quartzite, possibly
Implts. Implts. from Piney Branch.
ie
Caches, leaf-sha; 865 865 a
Caches, not Seeteuened, 40 12
II,
Leaf-shaped blades. Surface, not cached,| 1,948 883
Ill.
Arrow and spear heads, etc., flaked im-
plements which, hg ‘their form,
7 — been made from leaf.
shaped blades 2,534 694
IV. 1 1,589—Total whlch (ac-
cordin ng to Mr. Holmes’
Flaked implements, knife blades, scrap- theory) might have been
ers, arrow an ar points, perfor- made in or come m
ators which were judged, from their the quarry at Piney
form and material, were not made Branch, out of a total
from leaf-shaped bl fades of quartzite, 21,465 26,812.
| Total, all kinds, 26,812

. This sa eas eyi some Pisca! becau ar distant from Piney Branch and be-
cise We have her ys inbeeuite trot that localttr. This cache waste ported by Mr.
Reynolds, whe he AN uta eien implement, given him by the finder, as a specime’

In considering these tables and their bearing on es Piney
Branch Quarry, we are to keep continually in mind that the
sole and only material in that quarry was quartzite. There
was no quartz pophyritic felsite, rhyolite, shale, ferruginous
sandstone, flint, jasper or chert found in any of its deposits,
and all implements made from any of these materials are to be
excluded from consideration because impossible to have come
from that quarry. Keeping this in view, these tables show

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 985

the following state of facts: Among all those implements from
the District of Columbia, but two caches of quartzite were
found containing together only 12 leaf-shaped blades of 1.948
leaf-shaped blades not cached, only 888 were of quartzite; of
2,534 common implements, such as arrow- and spear-heads
etc., which from their form might have been made from leaf-
shaped blades, only 694 were of quartzite, making a total of
1.589 quartzite implements which, according to Mr. Holmes’
theory, might have come from the Piney Branch Quarry, out
of a total of 25,815 implements examined.

Out of all the “1,000 turtle-backs” (p. 14) gathered by
Mr. Holmes, their “500,000 brothers and sisters’ (p. 12)
left, and the “millions of worked stone and unshaped trag-
ments” (p. 7), all “refuse” (p. 12), “waste, failures” (p.
14), of which “these quarries on Rock Creek are the main
source,” all being done to produce these leaf-shaped blades to
be carried away and buried (cached) in the damp earth “that
they might be preserved to be made into the final forms re-
quired by the arts” (p. 18).—Out of all this toil, the result
found up to date is but 2 caches with 12 blades. “The moun-
tain was in labor,” etc., etc. Out of a total of 26,812 imple-
ments reported in the collections mentioned, but 1,589 were of
quartzite leaf-shaped blades that could have come from the
Piney Branch quarry. Yet the leaf-shaped blades were, ac-
cording to Mr. Holmes, the “entire product of the quarry ”
(pp. 13 and 15). What a deal of sack for a pennyworth of
bread.

Mr. Holmes’ theory that the leaf-shaped blade was the sole
product of the quarry workshop, to be afterwards “ flaked
into the final form ” of the common implements of the region,
be correct, then the problem may be stated according to the
arithmetical law of proportion, as follows: If 1,589 leaf-shaped
quartzite blades, cached and not cached, finished and un-
finished, have been produced from Indian toil and exertion
in making the “500,000 turtle-backs,” and the “ million of
worked stones which now occupy the site” (p. 7), all of which
are wastes and failures; then how much toil and exertion,
and how many millions of worked stones, wastes and failures,

Ei

986 The American Naturalist. [December,

would be required to produce the 26,812 specimens reported
in the collections mentioned? I have inveighed against the
speculation by which we sometimes attempt to determine,
what a great amount of labor the Indian would do for the
accomplishment of so little, sometimes the reverse; but we
may fairly assume that the aborigine was not such a con-
summate idiot as to open a quarry as large as this at Piney
Branch, and do as much hard work as must have been done
there, with the paltry outcome of the insignificant number of
quartzite implements shown in the aggregate collections form
the District of Columbia. To complete the information on
this branch, I have introduced the consolidated tables VI and
VII showing the subdivisions according to material and
locality.

TABLE VI. RECAPITULATION ACCORDING TO MATERIAL.

OF ded el 8,058
es 9,674
Porph eit site, rhyolite. 5,478
Argillite, hale, fer. sandstone 3,541
Chert, flint, jasper 64
26,815

TABLE VII. RECAPITULATION ACCORDING TO LOCALITY,
Bennin 11,108
_ 4,765

Jones onic, j

Piney B: 32
Little Falls Church Branch 5,071
Piode MI sanninna e ieni pi ayaa ont vovbenned tastes 32
An pho Mig 39
Piscataway, M 603
Falls Serete 66
r. McGui: 353
Distriet of "Columbia, io pa ea locality unidentified.............-....----+ 3,341
26,815

1 Mr. Holmes’ ob!ects are not included.
III.

_ Mr. Holmes’ theory is that the sole implement sought to be

obtained by the workman from this quarry, was the thin, leaf-
shaped blade, the result of what he calls the third process.
His processes Nos. 1 and 2 for making turtle-backs were
according to his theory, only designed to lead up to process
No. 3, which should produce the thin, leaf-shaped implement.

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 987

I think this conclusion does not accord with the facts.
Whatever may have been the intention of the workman in
making the single or the double turtle-back by processes 1 and
2, (figs. 1, 2, p. 878,) I feel constrained to believe that these
were not stages in the production of leaf-shaped implements.
I see no evidence of it. I know of no reason why the aboriginal
man might not as well have been making the turtle-back for its
own sake. It is found all over the United States, it corresponds
in a remarkable degree with prehistoric implements from all
parts of the world, and no reason is given why it should not
have been as much an implement as were the leaf-shaped blades.
I do not believe it possible, by any process suggested by Mr.
Holmes, nor by the methods apparent from the examination
of the leaf-shaped implements themselves, that they were
made from the double turtle-back. Mr. Holmes himself is
hazy and uncertain about his third process. It consisted, he
says, p. 12, “in going over both sides a second and, perhaps, a
third time, securing, by the use of small hammers and by deft
and careful blows upon the edges, a rude and symmetrical
blade.” This might mean chipping, or it might mean peck-
ing, hammering or battering. But the process of pecking,
hammering or battering is an abrasion by which the sub-
stance is worn away grain by grain, passing off in dust; and
we know that the leaf-shaped implements were all made by
chipping or flaking, and not by pecking, hammering or bat-
tering.

I think I may defy Mr. Holmes to make the double turtle-
back into a leaf-shaped implement by the process of chipping
without treating it as an natural unworked stone and splitting
it down through its center regardless of the edge which had
been before made, thus destroying its edge and with it the
implement. In this operation, the double turtle-back has no
advantage over a natural pebble, and it must be treated as
such. The operation of striking the turtle-back on the edge
to split it and thereby reduce its thickness, has the effect of
reducing its size correspondingly. It will have to be reduced
considerably when made from the natural pebble, but it will
be subjected to a double reduction in size when made from the

988 The American Naturalist. [December,

turtle-back. The turtle-back and the leaf-shaped implement
are practically the same size, except the latter is only % or $
inches in thickness. This reduction in thickness cannot be
done without striking the turtle-back on its edge (Plate XX VI)
thus working its total destruction and treating it as if it were
an original pebble. The plate will make this apparent.

This argument demonstrates that the pretended evolutionary
series of Mr. Holmes set forth in his Plate IV, (My Plate
XIX) is incorrect. While all the implements are there truly
represented, yet they do not form a continuous series. The
leaf-shaped implements in the bottom row, “3rd stage, both
sides re-worked,” could not be made from the “turtle backs ”
in the two upper rows. Therefore, I deny Mr. Holmes’ funda-
. mental proposition. I am fully persuaded that the maker of
these implements, whatever else he intended to do, did not
intend or attempt to make the leaf-shaped blades out of the
turtle-back, or at least that turtle-backs were not a stage in
the process of making leaf-shaped implements. If my proposi-
tion in this regard be true it breaks Mr. Holmes’ theory in
the middle.

IV.

Mr. Holmes Says, p. 17, “that to a limited extent, the rude
forms—the turtle-back and its near relation—are also found
widely scattered over the Potomac Valley outside of the shops
on the hills.” The suggestion is that these came from this
quarry or from similar quarries, and he charges flat-footed
that they were the “ rejects,” “ refuse,” “ debris,” “ failures.”

In January, 1888, the Smithsonian Institution issued a cir-
cular, No. 36, asking of its correspondents throughout the Uni-
ted States and Canada, for information as to the number of
these implements in their respective localities. This was ac-
companied with elaborate description and many illustrations,
so there should be no mistake in theiridentity. Answers were
then received, from every state in the United States and some
from Canada. A consolidation of these answers, with briefs,
was published in the Annual Report of the U. S. National
Museum for 1888, pp. 766-702, wherein the number reported
up to that time is stated at 8,502. This has been largely in-

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 989

creased since, and if now subjected to actual count, would be
multiplied many times. Many of the specimens, those of
quartz and quartzite or other refractory material, were rude
like those from Piney Branch, Holmes’ Pl. IV (P1. XTX), but
those made of flint or other homogeneous material which
chipped easily, were smooth and clean, and on comparison
with paleolithic implements from Europe could scarcely be
distinguished ; those from Texas and Utah especially so.
Bearing on this question, I chose 72 specimens out of some
hundreds of the “double turtle-backs,” as Mr. Holmes calls
them, collected by Mr. Wm. Hunter from the neighborhood of
Mt. Vernon, Va.,and have had them photographed and made
into a Plate XXVII. The specimens on this plate could be
duplicated from almost any state. A comparison will show
that the same implements are found in every state in the United
States. The hammer-stone in the center happens to have been
from Piney Branch. The introduction of this is to show that
“the double turtle-backs” are found elsewhere than at Piney
Branch in considerable numbers; that they are not isolated
and sporadic, and that they are shapely and regular, even
when made from the refractory quartzite, so much so as to
demonstrate them to have been intentional and not accidental
forms, and were neither “ rejects,” “ refuse,” nor “ failures.”

V.

Mr. Holmes refuses to consider the implements as furnish-
ing any evidence of their own antiquity. He refuses to com-
pare them with European or other known paleolithic imple-
ments, or to accept them as paleolithic because of any similar-
ity of form, appearance, or mode of manufacture. I agree that
all existing evidence should be presented and I suppose this
has been done in the present case. Accepting this proposition
only for the sake of this argument, my reply is that he then
has no syuionee of antiquity of any portion of the quarry.

Mr. Holmes contends that great quarry, nigh a quarter of
a mile square, had ‘been dug over and excavated, (as is shown
by the section, his Plate I), to an average depth of six feet and in
many places to eight and nine feet, along the entire hillside

990 ; The American Naturalist. [December,

and around its point. He contends that every cubic foot of
this section had been dug over, in places to the bed rock, and
the stones and clay handled and worked. All the boulders and
earth had been loosened and shovelled, and the entire mass
re-deposited by the diggers, as the work progressed. Mr.
Holmes not only admits this anterior disturbance, but claims
it as giving the chief importance to his discovery. His Plate
III, a photograph of the quarry face, is introduced by him to
demonstrate this prior excavation.

But all this has naught to do in showing the antiquity of
the quarry. If he refuses consideration and comparison of the
implements and objects found therein, there is nothing to
show that all this excavation, trench making and stone break-
ing may not have been done in comparatively modern times.
There is nothing to indicate its antiquity unless it be the ap-
pearance of the surface, and this is only by the thickness of
soil and the size of the trees ; and both of these may have been,
the latter must have been, commenced since the early part of
this century.

If these trenches, of such length, depth and extent, had
been dug by the modern Indian, as declared by Mr. Holmes,
we can scarcely imagine that it would have been filled up,
raked down, and smoothed over to a regular slope as it now is
and was when the trees began to grow on it. Mr. Holmes’
Plate I shows the regularity of this slope correctly. Where
Mr. Holmes’ greatest trenches were dug, the slope from the top
of the hill to the bottom is regular and true without any ridge
or hollow to indicate an open trench or pit left by the Indian
who is alleged to have made it. By whomsoever that quarry
was opened and whoever dug those trenches, they were after-
ward filled up and smoothed over, leaving no break or depres-
sion affecting the regularity of the outline of the hill-side,
Our knowledge of the modern Indian teaches us that he would
not perform this, to him, useless labor. This profound dis-
turbance (the French call it remaniement) of the bowlders, clay
and earth of the section, leaves no stratification and destroys
all evidences of the age of the deposit. There is no fauna.

1896.] Piney Branch (D. C.) Quarry Workshop. 991

This, with the item just mentioned, leaves us without evi-
dence as to the antiquity of the quarry work except as fur-
nished by the implements themselves. Their rejection as evi-
dence would leave the question of its antiquity unanswered, and
would render the quarry of slight archaeological value. If
Mr. Holmes had found stone axes, hatchets or gouges, spear
or arrow heads, pieces of pipes, or fragments of pottery, these
would have served as evidence of Indian origin, but the utter
absence of any of these leaves the Indian theory unsupported ;
It is a canon of prehistoric archeology, verified by every
worker in the field, that no such extensive work as claimed for
this quarry could have been done by prehistoric man without
having left some of his tools, implements or utensils. But
here not an implement or weapon fragment of polished or
smoothed stone, not an arrow or spear head, nor pottery, was
found. Mr. Holmes says (p. 13), “ Only one was found * * *
(with) a rude stem worked out at the broad end. This speci-
men was found near the surface. Two other pieces found at
considerable depth exhibit slight indication of specialization
of form, which, however, might have been accidental.” And
this was all.

If it be said that this was a quarry for bowlders with which
to make these implements, and that their finding in the dis-
turbed and disarranged deposits is evidence of this fact, I re-
ply, that the surface of the neighborhood is covered with the
same kind of bowlders and many of the same kind of imple-
ments, and there is no more evidence to show that the imple-
ments were made in the quarry than there is that they were
made on the surface. For anything shown in the quarry, the
whole batch of turtle-backs, double and single, flaked stones,
waste, debris, etc., etc., might have been originally on the sur-
face, made there, possibly, in times of antiquity and been tum-
bled into the ditch, whenever it was filled up.

NE:

Mr. Holmes’ paper is radical and final. He not only de-
termines every proposition presented by the implements found
at Piney Branch, but he determines them finally, and further

992 ; The American Naturalist. [December,

discussion is useless. According to him, we know (from his
investigation) all about these implements, all about the man
who made them, the race to which he belonged, his use of tools,
his machinery and mode of manufacture, his transportation,
and a large suggestion concerning his culture. If his con-
clusion be correct, then Mr. Holmes has determined the entire
history of this man as well as that of the implements them-
selves. His statement is no longer a theory, it is a demon-
strated proposition, a proved problem, the work is finished
and the book is sealed. It is submitted that this is a greivous
mistake.

VII.

1 do not attempt any argument to account for this quarry
or to explain either the manufacture or use of its implements.
It is not my discovery, and I am in no wise bound to sustain
or uphold it.

In the discussion, I have said no word about Paleolithic
man in America. That question is not involved here. I have
elsewhere set forth my opinion on that subject, and I may en-
large upon it on some other occasion, but not here or now.

I have sought only to criticise the theories of Mr. Holmes
in reference to the quarry and its implements, and to show
what I deem to be the errors in his conclusions, and in doing
so I have avoided personalities. I have indulged in no
maligning or abusive words, have conceded to him the most .
honorable intentions, and a truthful rendering of all his
facts; and professing for him the kindest and most friendly
feeling, I assert that in what I have said, I have given my
own fair, and, as far as possible, unbiased opinion and judg-
ment, being moved thereto solely in the interest of truth and
science.

1896.] Fossils and Fossilization. 993

FOSSILS AND FOSSILIZATION.
By L. P. Gratacap.
II.
(Continued from page 912).

The replacing and mineralizing influence of surface waters
may preserve bones which would otherwise quickly disappear.
At Big Bone Lick in Kentucky the great numbers of bones of
the buffalo are found according to Prof.Shaler “ near the pres-
ent position of the springs and never at any depth beneath the
surface.” -These bones are in some places, “massed to the
depth of two feet or more, as close as the stones of a pavement,
and so beaten down by the succeeding herds as to make it dif-
ficult to lift them from their bed.” The attraction of this
locality for the herds of wild animals spread through the for-
ests of Kentucky in plistocene and recent times, arose from
the saline encrustations made by the natural brines which
spring to the surface at this point. There is an ossuary of
their remains, the mastodon and elephant bones being upon
the higher levels and the buffalo skeletons placed more within
the swampy basin, which has itself undergone denudation since
the advent of the great proboscideans. These bones are im-
pregnated with salt! and have become partially mineralized,
while the salt solution itself neutralizes any vegetable acids
arising from the decomposition of the reeds which, according

Mr. Cooper, accompany the bones. Yet the falling into
swamps or bogs of the great mammals and their gradual sub-
mersion and burial in the deeper layers of the tenacious and
yielding mixture, has been a means of preserving their re-
mains, especially, as besides their partial immunity from the
action of organic acids, their great bones have formed, from
their formidable size and texture, anirreducible nucleus. But

1 The preservation of the bones of the Megalonyx in the Big Bone cave in Ten-
‘nessee, may be partially ascribed to the presence of large quantities of saltpeter
earth.

994 The American Naturalist. [ December,

when we reinvest this continent with herds of wild animals,
gregarious in habit, and probably reaching a great numerical
aggregate, it seems at first singular that their entire skeletons
should be so infrequent. The Mastodon, the Elephant, the
Musk Ox,’ the Caribou Moose’, and the Reindeer, Horse, Buf-
falo and Mylodon have been distributed in plistocene and
recent times as far south as Kentucky, yet except under pecu-
liar circumstances of sepulture, their remains have disap-
peared. The conclusion is irresistible that the placement of
the bones of vertebrates upon the surface of the ground is un-
favorable to fossilization, that they must be covered in by
deposits, and while thus held together become hermetically
sealed against the accidents of surface conditions and the solu-
tion by carbonated and acid waters. The rhinoceros and ele-
phant which were disappearing from Sumatra at the time of
Mr. Wallace’s visit had, after so recent a withdrawal, left few
traces more than jana, tusks and teeth. Prof. Nordenskiold
speaking of the polar regions pertinently remarks, “ the Polar
bear and the reindeer are found there in hundreds, the seal,
walrus and white whale in thousands, and birds in millions.
These animals must die a ‘ natural’ death in untold numbers.
What becomes of their bodies? Of this we have for the pres-
ent no idea.”

The isolated death of individuals from packs of wild ani-
mals or the death of those less social in instinct, does not, un-
der most circumstances, insure preservation. When some spot
chosen for its proximity to water, or because of its fertility and
nourishing vegetation, becomes a rendezvous of groups of ani-
mals, the herbivores being followed by the beasts of prey, and
the region thus frequented is so situated as to receive the

* The Musk Ox, Ovibos cavifrons Leidy, was found in Loess of Iowa at Council
Bluffs, twelve feet below the surface; also at Ft. Gibson, I. T., St. Louis, New
Madrid, Mo., Ohio, Big Bone Lick, E. These specimens afforded little else
than the Sead, separated vertebre and leg bones

° Bones of the fossil elk or moose have been ial at Big Bone Lick, Kentucky,
but it was reserved for Prof. W. B. Scott, of Princeton College, N. J., to obtain
the ‘Magnificent sane mo of Cervaices americanus Harlan now exhibited in the

XXIII.

z 3:

a o
a oe,

Raia sai
er, 7
WA AANE EA
ai, Mii Leb fg Hoth EM
Basti tals ; Bi)
i, À Giai
if
mart hes
tn Sie
ae
i;

Specimens from a cache found near Pierce's fill, Rock Oreek, D. ©. Porphyritic felsite.

PLATE XXIV.

Representatives of eight caches of leaf-shaped implements found in Maryland. None quartzite.

PLATE XXV.

,
and some not.

How some leaf-shaped implements are made into “ final forms,’

PLATE XXVI.

Leaf-shaped implements cannot be made from “turtle backs”

without first destroying them.

PLATE XXVII.

Double “turtle backs” of quartzite found at Mt. Vernon, Va.
Samples of thousands, not from Piney Branch Quarry.

1896.] Fossils and Fossilization. 995

drainage of the higher land, a combination of conditions is
provided by which a varied fauna may secure an approxi-
mately complete representation in fossils. Such localities as
those described by Captain Johnston in his Nyassaland are
suggested. Hesays: “At the close of the dry season when the
tall grass has been burnt down and there is little or no cover
for the game to hide in, it is really a remarkable spectacle as
seen from the deck of a steamer, to watch the great herds of
big animals wandering over these savannahs in search of the
young verdure springing up amid the charred stubble of the
old grass. With an opera glass you may distinguish water-
buck, gnu, buffalo, eland, pallah, reed-buck and zebra, and
occasionally some dark blue-gray blobs, much larger than the
other specks and forms which are in their vicinity, turn out to
be elephants.” Again he says “ game in the shape of antelopes
and buffaloes was evidently abundant, and no doubt was at-
tracted to the vicinity of this brackish pool by the flakes of
salt which remained on the soil when the water had evapora-
ted; and the game in its turn was followed by hyenas, lions
and vultures.”

In geological time such localities would have afforded a rich
commixture of fossil remains if the circumstances favorable
for the deposition of a protecting stratum of earth existed.
Yet in all instances the social relations of the animals have an
importance, and those social relations are somewhat modified
by the topography of the country they inhabit. The wide
plains of south-eastern or subcentral Africa, with an unchecked
communication for miles, numerous rivers and rich vegetation,

* Such scenes described by Capt. Johnston are closely imitated in the picture,
drawn by W. Boyd Dawkins, of the Bristol Channel in plistocene times, when it
was a fertile plain ‘‘ supporting herds of reindeer, horses and bisons, many ele-
phants and rhinoceroses, and now and then being traversed by a stray hippopot-
amus, which would afford abundant prey to the lions, bears and hyenas inhabit-
ing all the accessible caves, as well as to their enemy and destroyer, man.” See
also Dr. E. Holub’s “Seven Years in S. Africa,” Vol. I, p. 267.

5 See also East Africa and its Big Game by Sir John C. Willoughby, wherein
he describes the open plain with buffalo, zebra, hartebeest, eland, rhinoceros, os-
trich, Grant’s antelope.s teinbock and wart-hog scattered over iit, and in another
place where he saw *‘ es ees lesser kudu; wild dogs; hyenas; cheetah,

oS

69

996 The American Naturalist. [December,

permit a most heterogeneous assemblage of animals, whereas
a disturbed and mountainous country divided into lofty pla-
teaux, low savannahs and barricaded valleys would separate
and isolate related groups, and from a low zoic maxima,’ in
consequence of its irregularity and limited geographical scope,
afford a meagre and less diversified fauna, and actually fewer
fossils. The successful fossilization of the bones of terrestrial
vertebrates can best be secured by their rapid burial within
impervious beds of enveloping material wherein they undergo
a slow process of partial or complete petrifaction. Nordens-
kiold in his Voyage of the Vega discovered a very extensive
deposit of whale bones in a sand dune upon a beach of Siberia
in the Chuckchi country. These apparently had fallen to the
bottom of a sea and were entombed by new layers and beds of
sand. They were thus subfossil and possessed an immense
age. Where they had become exposed by the violence of the
waves they were decaying, but where buried in the sand the
well preserved bones of these cetaceans were found in innum-
erable quantities.

The dispersal of bones in the ocean seems as unfavorable to
their preservation as exposure on the surface of the earth or
in the vegetable acids of its superficial covering. It is noto-
rious that the dredging expeditions deputed to explore the
depths of the oceans have seldom encountered the remains of
vertebrate animals. The skeletons of whales, seals, porpoises
and sharks have not been found commonly, though teeth
brought up from these depths indicate the dissolution of the
animals in the oceanic waters. So striking is this absence of
osseous remains that Lyell remarks “there are regions at pres-
ent, in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, coextensive in area with
Europe and North America where we might dredge the bot-
tom and draw up thousands of shells and corals without ob-
taining one bone of a land quadruped.”

è See AMER. NAT., Vol. XX, p. 1009.

™ Some astonishment was created on board the ‘Challenger’ that the dredge
after having dragged over miles and miles of the bottom of the sea, and up an
down almost every oceanic basin, should never bring up any bones of fish or
whale, or any remains of other large animals which inhabit the ses or whose
bodies may have been carried down to the sea.” Thalassa, J. J. Wild, p- 133-

1896.] Fossils and Fossilization. 997

The explanation of this fact has hardly advanced further
than the theoretical stage. It may be attributed to the dis-
solving agency of carbonic anhydride in the lower strata of
water, to the insidious action of the products of organic
change, which Julien seems inclined to exaggerate, or to the
more ordinary factors of animal consumption. Prof. Verrill
and Mr. Sanderson Smith hold that the disappearance of bone
in the ocean is due to its being attacked and eaten by crusta-
cea.’ If this is true and solution has no practical bearing as
an agent in their disappearance, it seems likely that some
maceration and softening produced by pressure and soakage
reduce the bone to such a consistency as to render it more
easily attacked by these animals, and incidentally render the
bones themselves liable to separation and absorption by the
sea waters. It is peculiar that while great numbers of shells
are raised from the bottom of the ocean, the same areas seldom
or never produce mammalian relics, the otoliths or ear bones
of whales, and the teeth of sharks excepted. The skeletons
of sharks and fishes might naturally undergo softening or be-
come from their semicartilaginous nature the prey of smaller
animals, but the hard parts of whales seem well calculated to
resist attack. These larger animals upon their death may be
dragged by submarine currents into the deeper parts of the
ocean and there become subjected to a stronger chemical action
than is observable at less depths. The theory of Mr. Murray
as to the formation of coral reefs would make it appear that
bottom waters contain more carbonic acid than those on the
surface, but this Prof. Dittmar’ calls in question, thinking that
solution is effected by the prolonged contact with the sea water
itself. At any rate “the alkalinity of bottom waters was

*It is a matter of some interest to learn that “remains of the Atlantic Walrus
in a fossil state, have been found at various points along the Atlantic Coast from
Maine to South Carolina, and in Europe as far south as England and France ”
(J. A, Allen). The most striking instance is that of a skull found on the sea
beach at Long Branch, New Jersey, of which Dr. Leidy said it “ has lost a por-
sion of the cranium proper, and the exserted portion of one -= but otherwise,
except being a little water worn, is in a good state of preservation,”

? The Physics and Chemistry of the voyage of H. M.S. Challenges Vol. I, pt.
1, Composition of Ocean Water by Prof. W. Dittmar.

998 The American Naturalist. [December,

found to be distinctly greater than that of those from the sur-
face, and this increase was exactly proportional to the larger
quantity of lime present in the former,” and upon this fact we
might found a belief that bones disappeared through solution.
At considerable depths pressure would greatly reinforce chem-
ical action, and as carbonic anhydride is liquified under a
pressure of something over 38 atmospheres, in the deeper
basins of the ocean this reagent may exist as aliquid. Ina
French experiment, water, taken from a great depth of ocean,
was under so high a tension from the enclosed gas, that upon
release it spurted in a jet from the containing vessel.

The remains of terrestrial vertebrates represent most gener-
ally the submergence and death of the living animals them-
selves, and Lyell has well described the way. He says (Prin-
ciples, (Vol. II, p. 542), “river inundations recur in most cli-
mates at very irregular intervals and expend their fury on
those rich alluvial plains, where herds of herbivorous quadru-
peds congregate together. These animals are often surprised,
and, being unable to stem the current, are hurried along until
they are drowned, when they sink at first immediately to the
bottom. Here their bodies are drifted along, together with
sediment, into lakes or seas, and may then be covered by a
mass of mud, sand and pebbles thrown down upon them.

“ Where the body is so buried in drift sand, or mud accumu-
lated upon it, as never to rise again, the skeleton may be pre-
served entire; but if it comes again to the surface while in the
process of putrefaction, the bones commonly fall piecemeal
from the floating carcass, and may in that case be scattered at
random over the bottom of the lake, estuary, or sea, so thata
jaw may afterwards be found in one place, a rib in another, &
humerus in a third—all included, perhaps, in a matrix of fine
materials where there may be evidence of very slight trans-
porting power in the current, or even of none, but simply of
some chemical precipitate.”

Entire skeletons of animals or their bones scattered. over
declivities or plains are not so likely to be gathered. together
and deposited in some spot, because, as we have seen, they be-
come subject to decay and dissipation., and because it would

1896.] Fossils and Fossilization. 999

appear that any wide-spread catastrophes killing large num-
bers of a herd are rare, and in the case of individual deaths,
.the remains, if carried by freshets to some lower level, would
seldom undergo the same vicissitudes and be buried at the
same point. Yet the wholesale destruction of mammals in a
state of nature may be considered a possibility, though im-
probable. Sir Samuel H. Baker speaks” of cattle introduced
at his camp at Fatiko,in Africa, who could not live there, “ as
the herbage was quite different to that to which they had been
accustomed.” They died so rapidly and in such numbers that
in three months only three or four remained out of as many
thousand. In the over stocked ranches of California, thous-
ands of heads of sheep have been seen lying dead in vast
heaps in ravines and valleys, as if nourishment had become
exhausted by draughtor by actual deplenishment of the avail-
able pasturage. Is not asimilar mortality possible under nat-
ural conditions when, as in the case of the Fatiko cattle, ani-
mals have been driven by storms into localities incapable of
their support, or when, as with the ranch sheep of California,
an area previously put under severe strain for the support of
its feral population, by an accident of weather or season fails
entirely to furnish its occupants with food ?

Wallace in his Malay Archipelago speaks of the destructive
effects of drought upon animal life in the Arne Islands, where
from an excessive scarcity of water, “sometimes hundreds of
birds and other animals die.” The effects of sudden and vio-
lent falls of hail and snow are noticed by Stansbury, who
found on the shores of the Great Salt Lake, a large number of
young pelicans killed by the severity of a hail storm. The
possibility of numbers of animals becoming buried at once,
may be illustrated in the condition of the banks of the River
Vaal in South Africa, of which Dr. Holub says that “its
banks almost to the very middle of the channel are so soft and
slippery, that draught animals going to drink are liable to
sink so deep into the mud that it is impossible to extricate
them.” The internecine strife of wild animals may itself
result in the accidental death of numbers, as when the hunters

10 Ismailia, Sir S. H. Baker. p. 294.

1000 The American Naturalist. [December,

—the carnivora—pursue their prey and drive them into
lakes or rivers or, perhaps, force them over precipices. Dr.
Hayden has observed similar occurrences, and in the same
place where he records this observation corroborates the inter-
esting suggestion of Lyell as to animals meeting their death
by falling through thinice. He says: “The wolves watch the
deer, antelope and other feebler animals as they go down to
the streams to drink, and all over the wide bottoms are the
skeletons of these animals in a more or less perfect condition.
It is not an uncommon occurrence for a band of wolves to at-
tack an aged buffalo too old to offer a successful resistance.
He must always betake himself to the river, where he is not
unfrequently drowned, or is destroyed by the wolves on a sand
bar or island. Annually thousands of buffaloes are drowned
in attempting to cross the Missouri on the ice, as it is breaking
up in the spring. Their bodies have been seen floating down
the Missouri at Fort Union and Fort Clark by hundreds, and
lodging on some of the islands or sand bars in the river. In
the spring of 1858 several thousand bodies of buffaloes passed
down the Kansas River below the mouth of Solomon’s Fork
and were carried into the Missouri.”

Dr. Holub speaks of the devastation amongst oxen, elands,
hartebeests, sheep, goats, wild pigs, etc., wrought by the at-
tacks of hyenas in South Africa as “really frightful,” and in
pliocene times on our globe similar causes may have led to the
collection of important groups of fossils. Even the instincts
of animals may lead to their wholesale destruction. Mosely
speaks of the migration of turtles at Ascension Islands saying,
“the young turtles on leaving the egg go down to the sea and
disappear, returning only when full grown to breed; this is
the account given by the residents. If they do really leave
the neighborhood of the island, there seems no possible means
by which they can find their way back.”

Although it is impossible that any of the fish beds, found as
fossils, can, at least in paleozoic or mesozoic rocks, have been
formed in the way instanced by Nordenskiold as a cause of
death amongst arctic fish, yet the circumstance is intrinsically
interesting, and the the reflections it suggests as to the likeli-

1896.] Fossils and Fossilization. 1001

hood of general destruction from other causes of the fish in
geological strata, wherein they abound, make it a useful point
of reference in this matter. Nordenskiold says (Voyage of the
Vega), “a large number of fish (Gadus polaris) were seen above
the foot of a large block of ground ice, near which we lay to
for some hours. Next day we saw near one of the islands,
where the water was very clear, the sea-bottom bestrewed with
innumerable fish of the same species. They had probably
perished from the same cause, which often kills fish in the
river Obi in so great numbers that the water is infected,
namely, from a large shoal of fish having been inclosed by
ice in a small hole, where the water, when its surface has
frozen, could no longer by absorption from the air replace the
oxygen consumed, and where the fish have thus been literally
drowned.

However accumulated, whether by the sudden death of
large numbers of animals by floods and storms along the
banks of streams or the margins of lakes, or whether
from other natural causes animals perish in numbers and
upon restricted areas, their bones are carried by water action
into the depressions, sinks, crevices and basins of a country,
and being there sealed up from decomposition or dispersion by
the silt and gathering accretions of various mineral deposits
above them, they become fossils. The caves in limestone dis-
tricts receive a contribution of animal remains partially
brought into them by surface water partially by the the pred-
atory instincts of carnivorous mammalia or birds. Prof. Hartt
in his Geology of Brazil instances the interesting examples in
the Sao Francisco basin wherein the numerous caverns, ex-
tending sometimes two thousand feet into the rock, furnish
abundant remains both of long extinct mammalia as the Glyp-
todon, Mastodon, Mylodon, Megatherium, Chlamydotherium,
Toxodon and Macrauchenia, and innumerable remnants of
the smaller living animals brought there by owls, whose bones
mingle with those of other occupants, as bats and felide.
These variously distributed in the different caves were mingled
in a red clay earth more or less cemented and encrusted by a
stalagmitic crust. Similarly fossil vertebrates have been en-
tombed in the caves of England, France, Belgium, Spain,

1002 The American Naturalist. [December,

Sicily, Germany, Russia and Australia. Many of these caves
open by vertical fissures to the surface,and down these irregu-
lar holes and chimneys the bones have been washed, while in
some cases as at Wirksworth, in Derbyshire, England, or at
the cave in the limestone at Port Kennedy, Pa., described by
C. M. Wheatley, animals may have plunged into them and
died in theirimprisonment. Once gathered in their final rest-
ing place the process of burial goes on, in many cases rapidly,
and in others slowly, and, according to the completeness of
their sepulture, the condition of the bone is more or less per-
fectly preserved. In river floods the animals or osseous debris
borne forward in their waters are soon enveloped in the midst
of the accompanying clay, sand, gravel and calcareous mud
torn from the channel and banks of the stream. They sink
to the bottom and are rapidly covered in by a rising blanket
of deposition. In eaves and hollow receptacles the infiltrating
streams bring constant additions of mud, and by their erosive
action upon the surrounding limestone which they dissolve,
they redeposit carbonate of lime through the interstices of the
granular accumulation or form a hard layer above it, upon
which again later ossuaries may be made, and the cave floor
offer a study of separate and successive periods.

Amongst the multitudinous details connected with the ex-
ploration of caves for the traces and evidence of prehistoric
man, the following facts have some reference to the fossiliza-
tion of terrestrial vertebrates. A cave at Gailenreuth, Ger-
many, contains an enormous quantity of bones and teeth of
animals formerly living in its vicinity, and according to Dr.
Buckland, introduced by a stream which passed through this
chain of caverns in its subterranean course to lower levels. In
the cave of Kiihloch, Germany, a black animal dust covers the
whole floor to the depth of six feet, derived says the same
authority “from comminuted and pulverized bone.” This
accumulation is attributed to the use of the cave by bears
through centuries." In the caves of North Wales near St.

11 The habits of wild animals in resorting to caves is fully established by obser-
vation. The custom of the panthers to make lairs of natural caves is i
by Prof. Baird, and Major Pinto speaks of a circular chamber in a limestone
‘mountain in Western Africa as a “regular haunt of wild beasts, as one might

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1003

Asaph, the bones are in a similarly pulverulent state and pro-
duce clouds as they are disturbed. In a cave at Banwell in
the Mendip Hills, England, thousands of bones of bison, horse
and reindeer were taken out of a red silt which filled the cave
to its roof. The entire deposit has been introduced by water
through a vertical fissure which opened on the surface. In
the Hyena Den, at Wookey Hole, “the organic remains were
in all stages of decay, some crumbling to dust at the touch,
while others were perfectly preserved and had lost very little
of their gelatine.” In an arm or section of this same cavern
according to Dawkins, “ most of the bones were as soft as wet
mortar,” an interesting statement which throws light upon the
probable state of maceration which bones attain before disap-
pearance by trituration or solution. The mineralization of
the bones in the various caves, so patiently explored, presents
striking differences. In some the bone seems reduced to the
last stages of cohesion, while in others it has become filled with
carbonate of lime or partially silicified, and attains a consid-
erable gravity.
(To be continued.)

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BATRA-
CHIA AND REPTILIA IN NORTH AMERICA.

By E. D. Copt.
(Continued from page 902.)
III. THE EASTERN SUBREGION.

The fauna of Batrachia and Reptilia of this subregion is
characterized by what it lacks as much as by what it possesses.
The number of species which oceupy its entire extent exclu-
judge from the air which was perfectly saturated with the pungent smell of cer-
tain animals, as well as from the traces of a lion impressed on the impalpable
powder which covered the ground, where we met with a few quills of the Hystrix
africana.”

1004 The American Naturalist. [December,

sively of other subregions is small, while a larger number are
restricted to parts of it. Verrill divided it into four districts,
viz.: the Carolinian, the Alleghenian, the Canadian, and the
Hudsonian. These are distinguished by the ranges of mam-
mals and reptiles, and the breeding-places of birds. The Caro-
linian fauna extends in a belt north of the Austroriparian
subregion, from Long Island, south of the hill region of New
Jersey, to the southeastern corner of Pennsylvania, and thence
inland. It embraces a wide belt in Maryland and Virginia,
and all of central North Carolina, and then narrows very
much in passing round south of the Alleghenies of Georgia.
It extends north again, occupying East Tennessee, West Vir-
ginia, Kentucky, Indiana, the greater parts of Illinois and Ohio,
and the southern border of Michigan. It includes southern
Wisconsin and Minnesota, all of Iowa, and the greater part of
Missouri. The Alleghenian embraces the States north of the
line just described, excepting the regions pertaining to the
Canadian fauna, which I now describe. This includes north-
ern Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont, with the Green
Mountains, the Adirondacks and summits of the Allegheny
Montains as far as Georgia. It includes Canada east and north
of the lakes. The Hudsonian fauna is entirely north of the
isothermal of 50°. It has great extent west of Hudson’s Bay,
and is narrowed southeastward to Newfoundland.

The information as to the distribution of the Batrachia and
Reptilia now at hand, points to the following conclusions. The
Hudsonian fauna need not be further referred to here, as it is
part of the Holarctic region. The Canadian is sustained, as
defined by the range of certain Batrachia. The demarkation
between the Alleghenian and Carolinian is determined by the
northern limit of most of the species common to the Eastern
and Austroriparian subregions. An important division is indi-
_cated by the boundaries set to the range of certain species by
“the Allegheny Mountains. This division affects chiefly the
Carolinian district of Verrill, and I therefore propose to abolish
that name, and replace it by the two terms Cisalleghenian for
Eastern, and Transalleganian for the Western districts. They
are separated from each other by the Alleghenian district of

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1005

the foot hills, and the Canadian of the summits of the Alle-
gheny Mountains.

The species which are found over the entire eastern sub-
region, and not elsewhere, are the following:

Amblystoma jeffersonianum Osceola doliata triangula Boie.
Natrix fasciata sipedon Linn.

Plethodon cinereus Green. Eutænia sirtalis graminea

Rana silvatica Lec. Cope.

Rana palustris Lec.

The Canadian district is characterized by the following species,
which are restricted to it:

Amblystoma jeffersonianum la- Desmognathus nigra Green.
terale Hallow. Bufo lentiginosus fowlerii
Gyrinophilus porphyriticus Putn.

reen. Rana cantabrigensis Baird.
Desmognathus ochrophæa Cope. Rana septentrionalis Baird.

The list above given as universally distributed in the Eastern
subregion characterizes the Alleghenian district. I know of no
species that is restricted to it. The genera which do not ex-
tend north of it are the following:

BATRACHIA: SERPENTES :

Chorophilus, Carphophiops,
yla, Coluber,
Hemidactylium, Cyclophis,
Oryptobranchus. Natrix,
Necturus. Ophibolus,
Heterodon,

SAURIA : Ancistrodon.
Sceloporus, Systrurus,
Eumeces. Orotalus, :

The two remaining districts include the large number of

species which are common to the Eastern and Austroriparian

. subregions enumerated under the latter head. The Cisalle-
ghenian is further characterized by the following:

1006 The American Naturalist. [December,
Hyla andersonii Bd. Ophibolus rhombomaculatus
Rana virgatipes Cope. Holbr.

To these must be added from the Austroriparian list:
Abastor erythogrammus Daud.

The following a are peculiar to the Transalleghenian
district :

Chondrotus microstomus Cope. Eutenia radix B. & G.
Spelerpes maculicaudus Cope. Eutænia butlerii Cope.

Rana areolata circulosa R. & D. Tropidoclonium lineatum Hal-
Carphophiops vermis Kenn. low.

Coluber vulpinus B. & G. Natrix kirtlandii Kenn.
Ophibolus calligaster Say. Systrurus catenatus Raf.

Probably Hutaenia brachystoma Cope betongs to this district
but only one specimen has been found.

The following species enter this district only from the Aus-
troriparian :

Natrix grahamii B. & G. | Eutænia proxima Say.

Of the species peculiar to the Transalleghenian district, Ophi-
bolus calligaster and Tropidoclonium lineatum extend into the
northern limits of the Texan district.

The genera which do not range northward of the Cisalle-
ghenian district are Cnemidophorus, Liolepisma and Abastor.

The total number of species of the Eastern subregion is thus:

Generally distributed,
Peculiar to Cisalleghenian,
Peculiar to Transalleghenian,
Peculiar to Canadian,
Common to Austroriparian,

IV. THE AvsTRORIPARIAN SUBREGION.

This subregion is the range of a large number of species of
Batrachia and Reptilia, only a part of which occupy it to the
exclusion of all other subregions, and another series of whi

occupy parts only of its area. Three centers of distribution

°

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1007

within its borders may be discerned—the Ocmulgian, the Louis-
ianian and the Texan. The Texan is especially characterized
by the combination of the Austroriparian fauna with a con-
siderable number of the species of the Sonoran subregion. The

characteristic Austroriparian species are the following:

TRACHYSTOMATA :
>

Siren lacertina L.

URODELA :
Amphiuma means Gard.
Amblystoma talpoideum
Holbr.
Manculus quadridigitatus

Holbr.

SALIENTIA :
Bufo lentiginosus lentigino-
sus Shaw.
‘Chorophilus occidentalis B.
& G.
Hyla carolinensis Penn.
Engystoma carolinense.

LORICATA :

Alligator mississi ippiensis
Daud.

SAURIA:

Ophisaurus ventralis Daud.
Anolis carolinensis.

SERPENTES :

Heterodon simus Linn.

Cyclophis æstivus Linn.

Zamenis flagelliformis Cat-
esb

Coluber spiloides D. & B.

Compsosoma corais couperii
Holbr.

Osceola doliata syspila Cope.

Osceola doliata coccinea
Schl.

Ophibolus getulus sayi Hobr.
Cemophora coccinea Blum.
Natrix clarkii B. & G.
Natrix fasciata fasciata L.
Natrix fasciata erythrogaster
Shaw.
Natrix cyelopium D. & B.
Virginia valeriæ B. & G.
Haldea striatula L.
Tantilla coronata B. & G.
Elaps fulvius L.
Ancistrodon piscivorus La-
cep.
Systrurus miliarius L.
Crotalus adamanteus ada-
‘manteus Beauv.

Thirty-one species and subspecies.

The Austroriparian shares with the Floridan subregion all
of the above species except Coluber spiloides, Natrix clarkii, Vir-
ginia valerie and Haldea striatula, so far as yet known. It
shares with the Eastern subregion the following thirty-four
species.

1008 The American Naturalist.

PROTEIDA :

Necturus maculatus Raf.

URODELA :
Cryptobranchus alleghanien-
sis Daud.
Amblystoma opacum Gray.
Amblystoma punctatum L.
Amblystoma tigrinum
Green.

Plethodon glutinosus Green.
Spelerpes guttolineatus Hol-
br

Spelerpes ruber Daud.

Desmognathus fusca Raf.

Diemyctylus viridescens Raf.

Bufo americanus americanus
Lec.

Scaphiopus holbrookii Harl.

Acris gryllus Lee.

Hyla versicolor Lee.

Rana pipiens pipiens Kalm.

Rana areolata B. & G.

Rana clamata Daud.

Rana catesbiana Shaw.

[December,
SAURIA:

Sceloporus undulatus Latr.
Cnemidophorus sexlineatus

Eumeces quinquelineatus L.
Liolepisma laterale Say.

SERPENTES:

Abastor erythrogrammus
Daud.

Carphophiops amenus Say.

Heterodon platyrhinus
Latr.

Diadophis punctatus L.

Liopeltis vernalis L.

Zamenis constrictor L.

Coluber obsoletus Say.

Pityop his melanoleucus
Daud.

Ophibolus getulus getulus L.

Eutenia sirtalis sirtalis L.

Ancistrodon contortrix L.

Crotalus horridus L.

The following species are restricted to the eastern part of the
Austroriparian subregion, not extending west of the Atlantic
drainage. To this district I have the name of the Ocmulgian.

PROTEIDA :
Necturus punctatus Gibbs.

URODELA :
Stereochilus marginatum
- Hallow.
Chondrotus cingulatus Cope.
SALIENTIA: :

Bufo quercicus Holbr.

Chorophilus ornatus Holbr.
Chorophilus oculatus Holbr.

SERPENTES :

Abastor — erythrogrammus

.. Daud.

Rhadinea flavilatus Cope

Coluber quadrivittatus
Holbr.

Natrix rigida Say.

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1009

The following species are restricted to the Ocmulgian and

Louisianian districts with present information.

First, all the

Batrachia which the Austroriparian subregion shares with the
Eastern, excepting Amblystoma tigrinum, Diemyctylus viridescens,

Aeris gryllus, Rana areolata.
Coluber guttatus L.

Second, Farancia abacura Holbr.,

The following species are to be added to the general Aus-
troriparian (p. 1007) to form the list of the Texan district:

PROTEIDA :
Typhlomolge rathbunii Stejn.

URODELA :
Diemyctylus meridionalis
Cope.
Chondrotus texanus Matth.

SALIENTIA :
Bufo debilis B. & G.
Bufo punctatus B. & G.

- Bufo valliceps Wiegm.
Bufo compactilis Wiegm.
Lithodytes latrans Cope.
Chorophilus triseriatus

clarkii B. & G.

SAURIA:
Holbrookia texana Trosch.
TE maculata B. &

jen collaris Say.

Sceloporus spinosus Wiegm.

Sceloporus consobrinus B.
& G.

Phrynosoma cornutum Harl.

Eublepharis variegatus Bd.

Gerrhonotus liocephalus
Wiegm.
Eumeces epipleurotus Cope.

Eumeces pachyurus Cope.

Eumeces brevilineatus Cope.
Eumeces tetragrammus Bd.
Eumeces obsoletus B. & G.

SERPENTES :
Diadophis amabilis docilis
B. &

Diadophis amabilis sticto-
genys Cope.

Hypsiglena ochrorhynchus
Cope.

Rhinochilus lecontei.B. & G.

Coluber emoryi B. & G.

Osceola doliata annulata
Kenn.

aie episcopus episcopus
Ken

Natrix P T Hallow.
Natrix fasciata transversa
Hallow.
Virginia elegans Kenn.
Eutænia proxima Say.
- Eutænia elegans marciana

Eutænia eques ocellata Cope.

Tantilla gracilis B. & G.

Tantilla nigriceps Kenn.

Systrurus catenatus edwardsii
BEG

Crotalus adamanteus atrox
B. & G. A

1010 The American Naturalist. [December,

Sixty-one species and subspecies, making a total for the
Austroriparian as follows :

Gunemally distributed; cc dss ie ho. L a
Shared with the Eastern subregion, . : ; ; 34
Ontonibiemetly p40. uke . pias on ae
Louisianian and Ocmulgian only, . : ‘ ; 2
Texan exclusively (in the subregion), . . . . 38

115

The species which enter the Texan territory from the So-
noran extend to various distances to the north and east. Thus,
Crotaphytus collaris ranges to southern Missouri, and Holbrookia
maculata to Arkansas. - Sceloporus spinosus extends along the
Gulf States to western Florida. Phrynosoma cornutum extends
eastward to Dallas, Texas. Rhinochilus lecontei on the other
hand has not been found east of Austin. Several species from
the extreme southwest of Texas have not been included in the
above lists, since some of them are well-known to belong to the
Central American fauna, while the range of others is probably
similar, but is not sufficiently known. Of the former kind are
Drymobius margaritiferus Schl., Sibon albofuscum Lac., and
Coniophanes imperialis B. & G. ; of the latter are Lystoptychus la-
teralis Cope, Holbrookia propinqua B. & G. and Hypopachus
cuneus Cope.

_V. THE FLORIDAN SUBREGION.

The species and subspecies peculiar to this subregion are the

following :

BATRACHIA : Osceola doliata parallela
Pseudobranchus striatus Lec. Cope.
Hyla gratiosa Lec. Stylosoma extenuatum
Rana areolata æsopus Cope: Brown.
SAURIA : eet Eutænia sackenii Kenn.
. Seminatrix pygæa Cope.
Ewmeces egregius Bd. i
Rhi . Bd Natria usta Cope.
neura floridana Bd. Natriz compressicauda
SERPENTEs:

Coluber rosaceus Cope.
Coluber guttatus sellatus
Cope.

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1011
= which are wanderers from the West Indian region

wae ricordii D. & B. Crocodilus americanus Seba.
Spherodactylus notatus Bd.

The Rhadinxa flavilatus Cope ranges throughout both the
Floridan subregion and the Ocmulgian district. Two other
species may be characteristic of the Floridan subregion, but
only one specimen of each has been obtained. These are Man-
culus remifer Cope, and Elaps distans Kenn.

Species which the Floridan subregion shares with the Aus-
troriparian are the following :

TRACHYSTOMATA : Liolepisma laterale Say.

Siren lacertina L. Eumeces quinquelineatus L.

SERPENTES:
AMPHIUMOIDEA: ;
3 Heterodon simus L.
Amphiuma means Gard. Diadophis punctatus L.
P Abastor erythrogrammus
SEUDOSAURIA : Daut
? Plethodon glutinosus Green. Farancia abacura Holbr.
Coluber guttatus
SALIENTIA : Coluber quadrivittatus Hol-
Bufo len henori lentigino- br.
8 Zamenis constrictor L.
Bufo qusbhodbits Holbr. Zamenis flagelliformis Shaw.
Hyla squirella Bose. Compsosoma corais couperit
emoralis Latr. Holbr.
Hyla carolinensis Penn. Pityophis melanoleucus
Acris gryllus Lee. Daud.
Chorophilus nigritus Lec. Ophibolus getulus getulus L,
Scaphiopus holbrookii Harl. Osceola doliata coccinea
Rana pipiens sphenocephala Schl.

ope. Osceola elapsoidea Holbr.
Rana castesbiana Shaw. oreria dekayi Stor.

Natrix fasciata erythrogaster
LORICATA : riy
Alligator miwissipionsis | Nétrix cydonivn D, & B
m Eutænia sirtalis sirtalis L.
Tantilla coronata B. & G.

SAURIA: Ela
Sceloporus undulatus Latr. Systrurus miliarius L.
epre sexlineatus Crotalus s ada-
manteus

70

1012 The American Naturalist. : [December,

The total number of species of the Floridan subregion is as
follows:

Peculiar species, . ; : 7 : 15
Species common to the Ocmulgian district, 1
Species common to the Louisianian district,. . . 40
Species common to the West Indian region, 3
Little known species, : 2

61

VI. THE SONORAN SUBREGION.

This subregion presents several natural divisions, as follows :
I. The Lower Californian district, including only the region
at the extremity of the peninsula of Lower California ; II. The
Chihuahuan district, embracing the State of Sonora, Mexico,
the northern part of the Mexican Plateau, Arizona south of
the San Francisco Mountains, most of the peninsula of Lower
California, and most of New Mexico; III. The Basin district,
embracing the Great Basin of Utah and Oregon, to Vernon,
British Columbia; and IV. The Central district, which in-
cludes the high plains east of the Rocky Mountains, from
Texas northward, excepting the river bottoms which cross It
from west to east. This great subregion is bound together by
the general distribution of numerous genera; but I do not
know a single species which covers its entire area which is not
found elsewhere. These define the districts. na

The Lower Californian district is defined by the following
fourteen species, which are restricted to it: =

Hyla curta Cope. Zamenis aurigulus Cope.
Ctenosaura hemilopha Cope. Phyllorhynchus decurtatus
Uta thalassina Cope. ope.
Uta nigricauda Cope. Pityophis vertebralis Blv.
Phyliodactylus unctus Cope. Chilomeniscus stramineus
Cnemidophorus maximus Cope.

Cope. 3 Tantilla planiceps Bly.
Euchirotes diporus Cope. Orotalus enyo Cope.
Lichanura trivirgata Cope.

1896] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1013

~The district shares with the Chihuahuan the following

species:

Bufo punctatus B. & G.

Dipsosaurus dorsalis Hallow.

Crotaphytus wislizenti B. & G.

Callisaurus draconoides Bly.

Sauromalus ater Dum.

Uta stansburiana B. & G.

Uta ornata B. & G.

Sceloporus zosteromus Cope.

Phrynosoma coronatum Bly.

Phyllodactylus tuberculosus
Wiegm.

Salvadora grahamiæ B. & G.

Ophilobolus getulus boylii B.
& G.

Chilomeniscus fasciatus Cope.

Hypsiglena ochrorhynchus
Cope.

Natrix valida Kenn.

Eutænia eques Reuss.

Trimorphodon lyrop hanes

Cope.
Crotalus adamanteus atrox B.

<E
Crotalus mitchellii Cope.

Species common to the Lower Californian district and the
Western subregion (mostly to the Becki district) are the fol-

lowing:

-Hyla regilla B. & G.
Phrynosoma coronatum Bly.
-Verticaria hyperythra Cope.
Gerrhonotus multicarinatus
. Bly.

Opibolus getulus boylii B. & G.
Opibolus getulus californiæ
Blv.

Plethodon croceater Cope.

Total species of the Lower Californian district :

Peculiar to it, : : : : 14
Common to the Ghitiwihwai disteiot, i j : 18
Common to the Western subregion, ‘ i 7

| 3 39

Thirty-eight species, one being twice enumerated as common
to the Chihuahuan district and Western region. .
The Chihuahuan district possesses the following peculiar

species:

1014 The American Naturalist.

BATRACHIA SALIENTIA:
Bufo alvarius Grd.
Hyla arenicolor Cope.

SAURIA:

Ctenosaura multispinis
Cope.
Crotaphytus reticulatus Bd.
Callisaurus notatus Bd.
Callisaurus rufopunctatus
ope.

Callisaurus inornatus Cope.
Callisaurus scoparius Cope.
Uta symmetrica Bd.
Uta bicarinata Dum.
Uta graciosa Hallow.
Sceloporus clarkii B. & G.
Sceloporus couchii B. & G.
Sceloporus jarrovii Cope.
Sceloporus ornatus B. & G.
Phrynosoma solare Gray.
Anota modesta Gir.
Anota maccallii Hallow.
Heloderma ctum Cope.
Gerrhonotus multifasciatus

Cnemidophorus tessellatus

ay.
Cnemidophorus inornatus B.
& T.

Cnemidophorus octolineatus —
B.& S

Cnemidophorus guttatus B.
& G.
Eumeces guttulatus Hallow.
OPHIDIA:
Glauconia dissecta Cope.
Glauconia dulcis B. & G.

[December,

Glauconia humilis B. & G.

Lichanura roseofusca Cope.

Diadophis regalis regalis B.
&G

Heterodon nasicus kenner-
lyi Kenn.

Zamenis semilineatus Cope.

Coluber emoryi B. & G.

Rhinechis elegans Kenn.

Pityophis sayi sayi Schl.

Epiglottophis pleurostictus
D. &

Ophibolus getulus splendidus
B.& G

Chionactis occipitalis Hal-
low.

Chilomeniseus ephippicus
Cope.

Gyalopium canum Cope.

Eutænia megalops Kenn.

Eutænia elegans marciana

Eutænia elegans dorsalis B.

Eutænia augustirostris Kenn. —
Eutænia nigrilatus Brown.
Eutænia rufopunctata Cope.
Eutænia multimaculata
Cope. :
Trimorphodon upsilon Cope. —
Trimorphodon lambda Cope.
Trimorphodon wilkinson
Cope.
Scolecophis emulus Cope.
Elaps ewryzxanthus Kenn. —
Crotalus molossus B. & G:
Crotalus scutulatus Kenn.
Crotalus lepidus Kenn. —
Crotalus cerastes Hallow.

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1015

Fifty-eight species, disposed of as follows: Batrachia salien-
tia, 2; Sauria, 25; Serpentes, 31. Three species of Testud-
nata are peculiar to this district, viz.: Kinosternum henrici
Lec., K. flavescens Agass., Xerobates agasizii Cooper. This district
possesses a larger number of peculiar species than any other in
the Medicolumbian Region.

The Basin district has but few peculiar species. Its southern
boundary may be regarded as the San Francisco Mountains in
northern Arizona. The Crotalus tigris which is restricted to it
has been shown by Merriam to inhabit only the mountains,
and its northern limit is as yet unknown. The following are
the species of the Great Basin:

BATRACHIA : Sceloporus consobrinus B. &
Amblystoma tigrinum Green. .
Spea intermontana Cope.* Phrynosoma douglassii orna-
Rana draytonii onca Cope.* tissimum Gird.t
Rana pipiens brachycephala Anota platyrhina Gird.t
Cope.* Zamenis tæniatus Hallow.t
Pityophis sayi bellona B. &
SAURIA: G.+
Orotaphytus collaris Say.t Chionactis episcopus isozonus

Crotaphytus wislzenii B. &
G.f Eutænia elegans vagrans B.
Uta stansburiana B. & G.+ & G

Sceloporus biseriatus Hal- Crotalus tigris B. & G.t
low.t Crotalus confluentus lecontei
Sceloporus graciosus B. & G.t Hallow.

The species and subspecies peculiar to the Basin district are
marked with a star, and those found also in the Chihuahuan
with a dagger.

The Central district possesses but few peculiar species. These
with certain Chihuahuan species give it a distinctive character.
There are also a few species which enter it from the Eastern
subregion. These are marked with ‘a dagger, while the pecu-
liar forms are marked with a star.

1016 The American Naturalist.

URODELA:
Amblystoma
Green.

tigrinum

SALIENTIA :
Bufo cognatus Say.*
Spea hammondii bombifrons
Cope.*

SERPENTES :
Heterodon nasicus nasicus
B. & G.*

Ophibolus multistratus
Kenn.

Zamenis constrictor L.t

Eutænia radix B. & G

[December,

Eutænia sirtalis parietalis
ay.

Eutænia elegans vagrans B:
G

Orotalus confluentus confluen-
tus Say.
SAURIA :
Crotaphytus collaris Say.
Holbrookia maculata B. &
G;

Phrynosoma douglassii her-
nandesii Gir.

Eumeces septentrionalis Bd.*

Eumeces multivirgatus Hal-

ow.
Eumeces obsoletus B. & G.

The species not marked with dagger or star are Chihuahuan,
except Hutznia elegans vagrans, which is also found in the Basin
district, E. sirtalis parietalis, which extends to the Pacific dis-
trict, and the Amblystoma tigrinum, which is Medicolumbian
throughout.

The total number of species of the Sonoran subregion is as
follows :

Peculiar to the Chihuahuan district,

Common to Lower Californian and Chihashean distic
Peculiar to the Lower Californian district, .
Peculiar to the Basin district,

Common to the Basin and Chihtrafman; ;
Peculiar to the Central district, ; ‘
Common to the Central and Chihuahuan,

Common to the Chihuahuan and Texan, .

Doubles emplois, . ¿ F i ‘ ee Pe

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1017
VII. THe WESTERN SUBREGION.

This subregion presents two distinct modifications, a north-
ern and a southern. The boundary between the two has not
yet been defined ; it represents the demarkation between the
greater humidity of the north and the arid conditions of the
south. The name of Diegan has been given by Mr. Van Den-
berg to the southern region; to the northern I propose to re-
strict the name Pacific, which I formerly used for the entire
subregion, which had been previously named the Western by
Baird. The Pacific district extends further south along the
Sierra Nevada than in the San Joaquin Valley. Some of the
forms of the Diegan district extend north to the latitude of San
Francisco, but the majority of the species are restricted to more
southern latitudes. How far the Diegan district extends on the
Lower Californian Peninsula is uncertain. The separation from
the Chihuahuan district is also undertermined, and the species
of both districts mingle in some degree on their borders.

Species peculiar to the Diegan district are the following:

BATRACHIA: Zablepsis henshavii Stejne-
Bufo columbiensis halophila eink
B&G Amebopsis gilbertii Van
Denburg.
SAURIA : Verticaria sericea Van Den-
berg.

Uta repens Van Denberg.
Uta mearnsii Stejneger.
Sceloporus orcuttii Stejne-

Cnemidophorus tessellatus
multiscutatus Cope.
Cnemidophorus tessellatus

pas vandenbergianus ent CODE:
i A Anniella pulchra Gray.
Phrynosoma cerroënse Stej-
neger. SERPENTES :
Anota goodei Stejneger. Lichanura orcuttii Stejn.
Xantusia vigilis Bd. Diadophis amabilis amabilis
Xantusia riversiana Cope. B. & G:

Xantusia picta Cope. Crotalus ruber Cope.

1018 The American Naturalist. [December,

To these must be added the species already enumerated as
common to the Diegan and Lower Californian districts, and
the following list of species which occur also in the Chihua-
huan district :

Crotaphytus wislizenii B. & G. Lichanura roseofusca Cope.
Callisaurus draconoides Bly. Orotalus adamanteus atrox B.
Uta stansburiana B. & G. & G. .
Sceloporus biseriatus Hallow.

The following species are common to the Diegan and Pacific
districts :

SERPENTES:
Charina bottz Blv.
Zamenis lateralis Hallow.
Zamenis tæniatus Hallow.*
Pityophis catenifer Blv.

BATRACHIA:

Diemyctylus torosus Esch.
Hyla regilla B. & G.*

SAURIA:

Phrynosoma blainvillii

Ophibolus getulus boylii B.
& G.*

Gray. Eutænia elegans couchii
Gerrhonotus multicarinatus enn.

Blv.* Eutenia infernalis infernalis
Gerrhonotus burnettii Gray. Blv

Eumeces skiltonianus B. &

Crotalus confluentus lucifer
B. & G.

These species are then characteristic of the Western subre-
gion as a whole, except those marked with a star, which occur
elsewhere. | :

The Pacific district is especially characterized by certain
genera and species of Batrachia. No certainly known genus
of scaled reptiles, and a limited number of species and subspe-

cies are peculiar to it. Conspicuous among these are the species

of Eutzenia, which display great variety, while they are but
sparsely represented in the Diegan district. The peculiar spe
cies are as follows:

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1019

URODELA :
Amblystoma macrodactylum
Baird.
Amblystoma epixanthum
ope.
Chondrotus paroticus Baird.
Chondrotus decorticatus

Cope.
Chondrotus aterrimus Cope.
Chondrotus tenebrosus B. &
G

Batrachoseps caudatus Cope.

Batrachoseps attenuatus Esch.

Plethodon intermedius Bd.
Plethodon oregonensis Gird.
Autodax lugubris Hallow.

- Autodax iécanus Cope.
Autodax ferreus Cope.
Diemyctylus torosus Esch.
Bufo columbiensis columbi-

ensis B. &
Spea hammondii hammondit
Bd

Rana temporaria pretiosa

Bd.
Rana cantabridgensis latire-
mis Cope.
Rana agilis aurora B. & G.
Rana draytonii Baird.
Rana boylii Baird.

SAURIA:
Sceloporus undulatus occi-
dentalis Bd.

Phrynosoma douglassii dou-
glassii Bell.

Gerrhonotus principis B. &
G

Cnemidophorus septenwitta-
tus Cope.

SERPENTES:
Diadophis amabilis pulchel-
us B. & G.
Zamenis constrictor vetustus

Contia mitis B. & G.
Eutænia elegans elegans B.

Eutænia elegans lineolata
Cope.

Eutænia elegans ordinoides
B. & G.

Eutenia infernalis vidua
Cope.

Eutænia sirtalis parietalis
Sa

y.
Eutænia sirtalis trilineata
ope.
Eutænia sirtalis pickeringii
B.& G

Eutænia sirtalis tetratænia
pe.
Eutænia sirtalis concinna
Hallow.
Eutænia biscutata Cope.
Eutænia leptocephala B. &
G.

There are therefore peculiar to the Pacific district eighteen
species and three subspecies of Batrachia (two species found in
the Holarctic region represented by subspecies, and one species

1020 The American Naturalist. [December,.

from the Canadian) ; two species and two subspecies of lizards ;
and three species and eleven subspecies of snakes.

We have of species and subspecies of the Western subregion
the following synopsis:

Peculiar to the Diegan district, . , : ; ; 19
Common to the Diegan and Chihuahuan, : 6
Common tothe Diegan and Pacific, . 5 ae
Peculiar to the Pacific, . : i 39

75

VIII. Tue TOLTECAN SUBREGION.

This subregion includes three districts which possess charac-
teristic species, and which differ in climate. The Austroriental
is a humid region with abundant rains and fogs, and includes
the eastern face and slope of the central plateau, with the
mountain elevations, including parts of the States of Puebla,
Vera Cruz, Hidalgo and San Louis Potosi. It is cut off to the
north from the Austroriparian subregion by an interval in the
States of Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas. The middle or Aus-
trocentral district includes the valleys of Mexico and Toluca,
and the region northward to the edge of the Sonoran subregion,
including the State of Guanajuato, and perhaps further north.
The climate of this district is much less humid than that of
the Austroriental district. The Austroccidental district includes
the high lands of Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacan and Jalisco. It
is the most arid of the three divisions, and extends furthest to
the south and west.

The northern boundary of the Toltecan district is not yet
determinable ; hence it is not possible to state whether species —
from the States of Durango and Zacatecas, such as Eutænma
angustirostris, should be referred to it or not. A small collec-
tion made by Wilkinson in southern Chihauhua at Batopilas’
has the character of the Chihuahuan fauna, with the following ;
species not otherwise found in it:
Anolis nebulosus Wiegm. Scolecophis æmulus Cope.
Uta bicarinata Dum.

1 Cope, Proceeds. Amer. Philosoph. Soc., 1879, p. 261.

ee

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1021

The humid and dry districts of the Toltecan subregion re-
peat in petto the differences between the Austroriparian and
Sonoran subregions. The Austroriental district is distin-
guished by the larger number of batrachian genera and spe-
cies, and of certain genera of Crotalide. It also includes some
genera which may be regarded as immigrants from the Cen-
tral American region of the Neotropical Realm.

The characteristic species of the Austrocentral district are? :

BATRACHIA URODELA:
Siredon mexicanum Shaw.
Amblystoma tigrinum Green.

BATRACHIA SALIENTIA :
Bufo compactilis Wiegm.
Bufo intermedius Gthr.
Spea multiplicata Cope.
Spea hammond Bd.
Hyla eximia Bd.

Hyla arenicolor Cope.
Rana montezumae Bd.

TESTUDINATA :
Kinosternum pennsilvani-

cum.
Onychotria mexicana Gray.

SAURIA : |

Phrynosoma orbiculare
Wiegm.

Sceloporus scalaris Wiegm.

Sceloporus microlepidotus
Wiegm. |

Sceloporus torquatus Green.

Sceloporus minor Cope.

Sceloporus melanogaster
Cope.

Barissia imbricata Wiegm.
Cnemidophorus guttatus B.
&G

Eumeces brevirostris Gthr.

SERPENTES :

Conopsis nasus Gthr.
Toluca lineata Kenn.
Chionactis varians Jan.
Salvadora bairdii Jan.

Epiglottophis pleurostictus
D. & B.

Hemigenius variabilis
Dugés.

Natrix storerioides Cope.

Eutænia macrostemma
Kenn.

Eutænia eques Reuss.

Eutænia pulchrilatus Cope.

Eutænia scaliger Jan.
utænia melanogaster
Wiegm.

Tantilla bocourtii Gthr.

Tantilla calamarina Cope.

Crotalus basiliscus Cope.

Crotalus polystictus Cope.

* For the exact habitat of several of these Iam indebted to the important papers
of Dr. A. Dugés, in La Naturaleza, 1888, p. 97, and 1896 p. 3.

a

1022 The American Naturalist. [December,
Of these species the following occur in the Chihuahuan

district :

Amblystoma tigrinum Green. Onemidophorus guttatus B. &

Spea hammondii Bd

Hyla arenicolor Cope.

Sceloporus scalaris Wiegm.

Sceloporus microlepidotus

Wiegm.

Epiglottophis pleurostictus D.
&B

Eutænia macrostemma Kenn.
Eutænia eques Reuss.

The Austroriental district includes the mountainous region
which bounds the Mexican Plateau on the east, from some part
of the State of Puebla to a point to the north not yet ascer-
tained. It is probably separated by a considerable interval
from the Austroriparian in the States of Tamaulipas and
Nuevo Leon. Its climate is moist, and vegetation is abundant,
and of principally Medicolumbian type. Various peculiar
species of Acer, Platanus, Quercus, Andromeda and other forms
are abundant. The Batrachian and Reptilian species are the
following : *

BATRACHIA URODELA: SAURIA:

Spelerpes chiropterus Cope.

Spelerpes leprosus Cope.

Spelerpes cephalicus Cope.

Spelerpes orizabensis Blatch-
ey.

Spelerpes gibbicaudus
Blatchley.

Oedipina lineola Cope.

Thorius penuatulus Cope.

BATRACHIA SALIENTIA:
Hyla gracilipes Cope.

Smilisca baudinii D. &. B.

Sceloporus variabilis Wiegm.

Sceloporus æneus Wiegm.

Sceloporus microlepidotus
Wiegm.

Phrynosoma orbiculare
Wiegm.

Phrynosoma taurus Dugés.

Barissia imbricata Wiegm.

Barissia antauges Cope.

Gerrhonotus gramineus
Cope.

p
Gerrhenetne tæniatus

legm
Gerrhonotus lioc eph alus
iegm.

3 For a knowledge of the ar arg of many of these species I am indebted
is Sumichrast, in i Soe in Seatac ae Che
1873, p. 233, and in litteris.

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1023

Celestus enneagrammus Rhadinxa vittata Jan.
Cope. Rhadinæa decorata Gthr.
Liolepisma laterale Say. Eutænia sumichrastii Cope.
Anelytropsis papillosusCope. Eutænia chrysocephala Cope.

Eutænia pulchrilatus Cope.
SERPENTES: Eutenia scalaris Cope.
Atractus latifrontalis Garm. Eutænia phenax Cope.
Ficimia olivacea Gray. Sibon frenatum Cope.
Epiglottophis lineaticollis Sibon personatum Cope.
ope. Sibon albofuscum Lac.
Osceola doliata polyzona sor pre mexicanus D. &
ope. .
Ninia diademata B. & G. Ophryacus undulatus Jan.
Storeria dekayi Stor. Systrurus ravus Cope.
Storeria occipitomaculata Orotalus triseriatus Wagl.
Holbr.

Of all the above species the following are found also in the
Austrocentral district:

Barissia imbricata Wiegm. Phrynosoma orbiculare
Sceloporus variabilis Wiegm. Wiegm.
Sceloporus microlepidotus Eutenia pulchrilatus Cope.
Wiegm.
Species found in the Austroriparian subregion :

Liolepisma laterale Say. Storeria occiptomaculata Holbr.
Storeria dekayi Stor.

To the Austroriental list might be added Spelerpes bellii
Gray, which is stated by Sumichrast to inhabit also the Tierra
Caliente ; and Anolis nannodes Cope, which the same authority
says ranges from the Tierra Caliente into the Alpine district.
The water-snake Natrix rhombifera Hallow. may occur in the
Austroriental district, but this needs confirmation.

The Austroccidental district is inhabited by a number of
peculiar species, together with some which occur in the other
two districts of the Toltecan subregion. One peculiarity of
this district is the poverty in Batrachia and the absence of
Urodela. The peculiar species are the following:

1024

BATRCHIA ANURA:

Leptodactylus melanonotus
Hallow.
Hypopachus variolosusCope.

SAURIA:

Sceloporus siniferus Cope.

Sceloporus horridus Wiegm.

Sceloporus rubriventris
Gthr.

Sceloporus pyrrhocephalus
Cope.

Sceloporus omiltemanus
Gthr.

Sceloporus dugesii Boc.

Sceloporus bullerii Boul.

Sceloporus heterolepis Boul.

Cnemidophorus deppei linea-
tissimus Cope.

The American Naturalist.

[December,

Eumeces callicephalus Boe.

SERPENTES :
Pseudoficimia frontalis Cope.

Sympholis lippiens Cope.
Atractus omiltemanus Gthr.

_ Adelophis copei Dugés.

Rhadinæa laureata Gthr.

Eutænia godmanii Gthr.

Chionactis michoacanensis
Dugés.

Coniophanes lateritius Cope.

Conophis vittatus Pet.

Himantodes gemmistratus
latistratus Cope.

Sibon personatum Cope.

Manolepis nasutus Cope.

Of the above species there are found in the Tierra Caliente :

Sceloporus siniferus Cope.
Sceloporus horridus Wiegm.
Sceloporus pyrrhocephalus
~ Cope.

Conophis vittatus Pet.
Sibon personatum Cope.
Manolepis nasutus Cope.

And in the region south to Costa Rica :

‘Hypopachus variolosus Cope.

Himantodes geminata
Cope.

The sinensis: district shares with the Austrocentral
the following:

BATRACHIA ANURA: SAURIA:
Bufo compactilis Wiegm.
Hyla eximia Bd. po Wiegm. ie noi
Rana OM bea austricola - Uta bicarinata Dum. |
Cope. . ià - Barissia imbricata, Wiegm.

Phyllodactylus - tuberculosus

1896.] Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia. 1025

Cnemidophorus guttatus B. Natrix storerioides Cope.

& G. Eutenia eques Reuss.
Sceloporus scalaris Wiegm. Eutænia melanogaster
Phrynosoma orbiculare Wiegm.

: Epiglottophis pleurostictus
Anolis nebulosus Wiegm. D. & B:
Tantilla calamarina Cope.

SERPENTES: Trimorphodon biscutatus D.
Drymobius margaritiferus & B.

Schl. Trimorphodon upsilon Cope.
Diadophis lætus Cope. Crotalus triseriatus Wagl.
Osceola doliata polyzona Orotalus polystictus Cope.

_ Cope. Crotalus basiliscus Cope.
Hemigenius variabilis
Dugés.

A number of species inhabit the Austroccidental and Aus-
troriental districts, passing to the southward of the Austro-
central, at least so far as present information extends. These
are the following:

BATRACHIA ANURA: SERPENTES :
Smilisca baudinii D. & B. Rhadinza vittata Jan.
ne rr a
SAURIA:
TES v' ote? Lre .
Sceloporus torquatus Green. Giheyii undulatus Ps an.
Phrynosoma taurus Dugés. Crotalus triseriatus Wag].
Gerrhonotus oaxace Gthr:

The species of the Toltecan subregion are as follows:

Austroriental district; © ~. a 4. ee
Austrocentral district, i : ; ; ; : 36
Austroccidental district, : ‘ à : ; : 24

73
Doubles emplois, ; ‘ : : : : ; 2

1026 The American Naturalist. [ December,
VIII. RECAPITULATION.

The number of species of Reptilia Squamata of the Medi-
columbian regionisasfollows. The species of Batrachia have
been already enumerated in my book on that class.*

Superfamilies. Families. Genera. | Species.
SAURIA.
LS a dene ATENE caveqeeetine! Iguanide 12 79
Nyctisaura A E E OOT 2 2
Kublepharid2.......cscsscereeeess 1 1
oath wena EGI E EA a Holodérnidis reese bsgess ssrin 1 1
Di log ciri Anguidæ 4 17
Laan . Tiidæ 2 11
A antusiide 3 5
S z 20
PEA 1 1
Annielloidea RATT cninsacinssesé. arti 1 2
A ENTE RP Ge Bt tee aaa aera eRe Tuchirotidæ. 1 1
Amphisbænidæ ..........0000000+ 1 1
Total Sauria 31 141
SERPENTES.
POIs E E S Glauconiidæ 1 3
Colubroides Boidz ..... $ :
Charinidæ....s..ss.... iseer sins 1
Colubrid 26 133
Dipsadidæ 10 19
' Elapidæ : a
Solenoglypha.. ........... e. seeeeee| Crotalidee fie a
Cilia ae 188 a
oe am g
oe O pay
Total Squamata 76 329
‘The Batrachia of North America, Bulletin of the U. S. Natl. Museum, No. a

A 1889, p. 451. The spccies of the Toltecan subregion are mostly omitted from
his book.

1896.] Editor’s Table. 1027

EDITOR’S TABLE.

It is difficult to eradicate from scientific literature a name or word
which has become current, even after it has been found to be an expres-
sion of ignorance or error. Thus some names introduced into Zoology
die hard. It is perfectly well-known that the grouping of forms named
by Cuvier Pachydermata, is entirely unnatural, and the appropriate
positon of all of its contents has been exactly determined ; yet the word
occasionally crops up still in the literature. The supposed primary
divisions of fishes Ganoidei and Teleostei, have a still more vigorous
vitality, although it is perfectly clear that there is no use for either
term. The supposed Ganoid division is thoroughly heterogeneous, its
contents forming with the Teleostei a more comprehensive division, the
Teleostomi of Owen, which naturally falls into several primary divisions
three of which were included in the Ganoidei by Agassiz and Miiller.
Perhaps the most pestilent pretender of the list, is the word Amphibia,
which is so frequently used instead of the proper name of the class
Batrachia. The name Amphibia was originally applied to a combina-
tion of the Reptilia and Batrachia, before the fundamental differences
between the two were known. When the Batrachia were first separated
from the Reptilia, the new name was naturally applied to the new
division, and the name Amphibia would have been more applicable to
the larger division of its former self i. e. the Reptilia. As, however, its
definition accorded with neither the Reptilia nor Batrachia, it was not
used for either, nor was it introduced to take the place of Batrachia
with a definition, until a few years ago by Huxley. This was done in
defiance of the universal usage of naturalists at the time, and probably
in ignorance of the real state of the case, since it frequently happens
that men engaged in the real work of biological science, find questions
of names irksome and stupid. Nevertheless it is a distinct advantage
always to have but one name for one thing; and that name should be
the oldest which was applied to the thing in question as determined by
the definition given. Applying this principle, the name Batrachia has
a quarter century priority over Amphibia.

In the April, 1896 number of this journal (p. 292) we published
what purported to be a review of a work by Wachsmuth and Springer,
which was signed by one of our frequent contributors. In a foot note
the ye g stated to have been published in 1895, We have learned

1028 The American Naturalist. [December, `
from leading authorities on the subject of the work, (the Crinoidea),
that it was not published at the time the review was issued, nor it is yet
published. We make this statement, since it is-important that the date
of publication of all books, especially scientific books, should be correctly
ascertained and reported, and because we desire to prevent any confu-
sion as to the date of this particular publication which might arise from
our having published the review in question. As is usual with period-
icals, we assume no responsibility for articles published in the NATU-
RALIST unless they are anonymous.

The dates of publication of the numbers of the AMERICAN NATU-
RALIST during the years 1895, and 1896 are as follows: for 1895; Jan.,
Jan. 15th; Feb., Feb. 14th ; March, Mch. 6th; April, Apl. 9th; May,
May, 13th; June, June 3d; July, July 9th; August, July 31st; Sept.,
Aug. 28th; Oct., Sept. 26th; Nov., Oct. 29th; Dec., Dec. 6th.

For 1896; Jan., Dec. 31st, 1895; Feb., Jan. 30th; March, Mch. 9th;
April, Apl. 2d; May, May 2d; June, June 3d; July, July 2d; August,
Aug. 6th; Sept., Sept. 9th; October, Oct. 3d; Nov., Nov. 2d; Dec.,
Dee. 5.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Gregory’s Plant Anatomy.'—Among the host of botanical text-
books that are constantly appearing, it is a pleasure to welcome one
that is a contribution to certain departments of botanical literature,
rather than a mere exposition of the laboratory and lecture methods,
good, bad, and chiefly indifferent, of the author. While it is to be
assumed that American investigations in histology and in cytology have
not been lacking during these past few years, the fact remains that they
have not as yet resulted in an increase of literature upon these subjects.

While there can be no doubt that the tide is setting steadily and
strongly in the direction of higher things in cisatlantic botany, this 1s
as yet a premonition rather than a fact, and the few texts leading to-
ward this are to be regarded as pioneers and valued as such. These
books are divisible into two classes, and in evaluating them, it is neces-

sary to measure them by a proper standard. Thus, a book which purports

to be a textbook should not be criticized because it does not manifest

í Elements of Plant Anatomy, by Emily L. Gregory, Ph. D. Professor of
Botany in Barnard College. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1895, pp- VIII, 148. 8vo.

1896.] Recent Literature. 1029

the depth and comprehensiveness of an exhaustive treatise, nor should `
an elaborate work on original investigation be supposed to cover the
details of elementary science.

The present book is intended to serve as an introduction to the
elements of phytotomy. This purpose is effected more than ordinarily
well. It is no mean task to distinguish between the relevant and the
irrelevant, between the essential and the non-essential in the construc-
tion of an elementary text. In these very points, the author has been
particularly happy, and deserves congratulation upon te coherency
and the coordination manifested in the text.

A striking feature of the book is its prevailing clearness. Many
otherwise well written and helpful text-books are marred by the fact
that too much is written between the lines, a thing deplorable in any
scientific writing, but especially so in an elementary one. The author
bas succeeded, however, not only in establishing delightful Eppan
of style, but also in maintaining it throughout the work. In con
quence, the beginner may find here a text which presents in a ans
ably easily assimilated condition those rudiments of plant anatomy which
should serve as a foundation for advanced botanical study in all lines.

The merits of the book are many and obvious, and warrant passing
its few defects in silence. Its inspiration is readily recognizable as of
the German school, an additional point in its favor were it not for a
prefatory remark to which the reviewer must enter serious objection.
The author states that “it is quite certain that the measure of our
progress in any science may be found in our ability to adapt the
thought and experience of other nations to our special needs and re-
sources,” a statement of such a very peculiar nature that comment is
superfluous.

The book is divided into two parts, the first of which treats of cyto-
logy, or, as the author terms it, the anatomy of the cell. Under this,
the first chapter treats of the cell as a unit, the second and third pre-
sent the subjects of cell-wall and cell-contents in their modern aspects.
The second part discusses the anatomy of tissues, first generally, and
then more specially, with reference to the thoroughly antiquated divi-
sions, Thallophytes and Cormophytes. The last chapter, the irrelevancy
of which is excused by its importance, is devoted to an exposition of
the secondary growth of stems and roots.—FReprric E. CLEMENTS

Boulenger’s Catalogue of Snakes in the British Museum.'
—In this work we have a manual of Ophiology in which the subject is’

1 Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum. Vol. I, nese vol. I, 1894;
vol. III, 1896. By Œ. A. Boulenger; F. R; S.

1030 The American Naturalist. [December,

as nearly as possible brought up to date. The especial advantage of
being the work of the Keeper of the largest collection of Ophidians in
the world, makes this catalogue of especial value to all students. The
author informs us that there are known 1639 species of snakes, of which
1327 are represented in the collection of the British Museum by 11092
specimens.

A good deal of valuable new osteological work enters into the
systematic, which will be at once recognized by specialists. Thus the
determination of the forms which have elongate hypapophyses through-
out the vertebral column is here made for the first time, and the discovery
that all the Colubride of Madagascar have the prolonged series of
hypapophyses, is one of the notable announcements of the work. The
peculiar pterygoids of the Amblycephalide are the author’s discovery,
as are also the split ectopterygoids of Dispholidus, etc., and the con-
fluent optic foramina of the Psammophiine? The labor of specific
determination of over 11000 specimens, in an order where variation is
often conspicuous, is, however, the great feature of such a work as
this, and even the approximately complete form in which it is now
presented, is a monument to the industry and acumen of its author,
and a service rendered to science by the British Museum which will
always remain,

There are, however, some spots on the face of this illuminating
ing production. The labor of determining the true limits of variable
species has in a good many instances, it seems to us, proven too much
for the patience of the author, and he has resorted to the convenient
method of “lumping” too often. He has given up a valuable feature
of the older catalogues, the list of doubtful species. In the present
work all published species are either good or bad, whether the author
has had the requisite opportunity of determining their true status or
not. Thus it has happened in not a few instances that names relega
to the synonymy in the body of the work are reintroduced in the
Addenda as belonging to good species. Had the author the mate-
rial it is probable that a good many others would have been rec-
ognized before the final issue of the Catalogue. The author has been
especially unfortunate in his treatment of North American species, and
the student of North American Ophiology will not find his knowledge
of this subject increased by this publication. Some of the species
studies are on the other hand very thorough, as for instance the genera
Vipera and Naja. The revision of the synonymy of both the older and
later European authors is a service for which all herpetologists will be
grateful, ae
2 ; b Mi is and Rham-
phiophis have no protraitie male mrata seers For iis pens | UDO
to arrange them as a special subfamily, the Psammophiine.

1896.] Recent Literature. 1031

The primary divisions of the Ophidia (or Serpentes as they should
be called) adopted, are nine families, which have very different values.
These can be associated in superfamilies of approximately equal value,
but this Dr. Boulenger has not done, but has contented himself with
giving an analytical table (pp. 1-2), where some of the characters of
these superfamilies are pointed out, in the dichotomous order, which
does not express relative value. Many groups usually regarded as
families are not recognized, as for instance the Najidæ and Dipsadide,
which are included in the Colubridw. In a phylogenetic table the
interesting suggestion is made that the Solenoglyphous snakes are
derived from the Opisthoglyphous, and not from the Proteroglyphous.

In seeking for generic characters the dentition has been closely
examined. The value of dental characters has been thoroughly tested,
and the result is valuable to the student, although we do not always
agree with the use made of the information in the Catalogue. The
author does not adopt the characters used by Duméril and Bibron in
many instances, for good reasons, but he introduces others of bis own
which are no better, as the numbers and in some cases the relative
lengths of the teeth. , In practice it is often impossible to determine
whether teeth are of equal length or a little longer at one or the other
end of the jaw; nor is the number of the teeth in the jaws precisely
definitive of anything but species, as can be readily seen from the
results recorded in the present work. The division or union of the
anal plate and urosteges, is generally rejected as a character, although
its value is testified to by the uniform use made of it by ophiologists.
In fact the generic definitions are based on no uniform principle, and

_the author seems to have been possessed at times with the idea that
it were an especial merit to differ as much as possible from his prede-
cessors.

One result of the study of this work will be to prove to ophiologists
that it is desirable to become acquainted with new characters of definitive
value before we can have the true system of the snakes. An important

_ addition to our knowledge in this direction, i. e. of the characters of the
hemipenis and of the sl came too late to be incorporated in the pre-
sent work.—E. D. Cor

Nuttall’s Handbook of Birds.'—A new edition, with important
additions, and a series of more than one hundred colored illustrations.
14 Popular Handbook of the Ornithology of Eastern North Ameri
Thomas Nuttall. Rev atch and annotated by Montague Chamberlain. Va. aT,
` Land Birds. ol. II Game and Water Bir n ition, with correc
and additions Illustrated with one dated and seventy-two figures, two sabia

*

. The Macmillan Co., 66 Fifth Ave. 1896. Pp. xii, 258; price $1.

1032 The American Naturalist. [December,

This favorite work, easily understood, handy, and popular, including

_all of Nuttall’s delightful descriptions of bird-life, which was some time

since fully annotated by Montague Chamberlain, who added the birds
not known in Nuttall’s time, will be found more useful and valuable
than ever before, Mr. Chamberlain having again gone over the work
with the greatest care, bringing the information down to date.

Colored representations of the birds being desirable for amateurs and
students, a series of twenty plates, containing one hundred and ten
figures of birds, has been added to the present edition. The drawings
have been mostly copied from those of Wilson, and may be relied on
for accuracy, although in some instances the tints do not come up to
the brilliancy of Nature. We recommend the book as the one for the
family, where the strictly scientific side of ornithology is not the chief
desideratum. We mean by this that the work is not devoted to the
anatomy and physiology of birds, but is one by which the species may
be identified, and where descriptions of their habits and geographical
range may be found; all set forth in admirable style.

Education of the Central Nervous System.’—This book is an
endeavor to apply the most recent results of psychology and brain
physiology to the theory of education. The author quotes from Donald-

n and other well-known writers on the topography of the brain and
localization of functions. In view of the close connection between cere-
bral development and mental capacity, he advocates an education
which shall develop all parts of the brain to the greatest possible
extent. He recommends especially that children be trained to distin-
guish every shade of sensation-difference, and to recall in vivid images
the objects of every kind which they have experienced ; if such train-
ing be begun early in life, the brain cells are better developed, and in
after life our mental images are more numerous and more definite.

Unfortunately the book is limited almost exclusively to a discussion
of sensation and memory, leaving out of account entirely the higher
rational processes. It becomes an appeal for an education which is
fundamentally esthetic and literary, as distinguished from scientific.
Book learning for children is decried, and teachers are urged to take
their pupils out into the woods and fields, and have them learn from-
frontispieces, and twenty colored plates, containing one hundred and ten figures
of the most important land and water birds. 2 vols. Crown 8vo, Cloth, extra,
gilt top, $7.50 wet; half crushed Levant morrocco, extra, gilt top, $13.50 net.—
LITTLE, BROWN & Co., Publishers, 254 Washington Sreet, Bosto

? The Education of the Central Nervous System, by R. P. Halleck. New York,

1896.] Recent Literatre. . - - 1033

. nature herself. This was the education, the author thinks, which made

_ Shakespere really great. The study of nature is certainly of value,
and the author’s recommendations, together with the practical exercises
in sense-training which he gives, will doubtless be an aid to this culture.
But in these days of the supremacy of science, it is far more important
to begin early to lay the foundations of habits of correct scientific
thinking. The possession of clear and vivid mental imagery is a factor
in correct thinking, of course; but unless accompanied by the logical
treatment of ideas it is quite as likely'to lead us in the wrong as in the
right direction.

As a manual on the education of the central nervous system Mr.
Halleck’s work is very incomplete ; it must be supplemented in several
directions, and notably by a considerable amount of that very “ book-
learning ” which the author treats so lightly. The treatment of motor
education is inadequate, being confined to a single short chapter at the
end of the book. By way of minor criticism, we may notice the author’s
fondness for repeating the same illustrations (e. g., pp. 82,248). Some
of his deductions are based on very inadequate data (e. g., p. 64); but
this is rather the fault of his authorities. His list of great men who
began to show talent at an early age, though large, calls to mind so
many exceptions as to throw considerable doubt on the position which
jt seeks to establish.

The chapter entitled: “ How Shakspere’s Senses were Trained,” is
interesting to the student of literature, though somewhat too detailed.
Throughout the book there is a wealth of quotations from Shakespere,
Milton, and other writers, which add to its ee finish, if they do not
improve its scientific quality. —H. C.

Lydekker on the Geographical History of Mammalia.'—
I have already referred to this work in the last number of the Naru-
RALIST in a paper on the Geographical Distribution of Batrachia and
Reptilia of North America. I then pointed out that the author adopts
the three Geographical realms of Huxley with the reasons why in my
opinion the Ethiopian should constitute a fourth Realm. The divisions
of the Notogzeic Realm of Lydekker’s system, are the Australian, Poly-
nesian, Hawaiian and Austromalayan. The Neogæic realm has a sole
region, the Neotropical. The Arctogæic is divided into the Malagasy,
the Ethiopian, the Oriental, the Holarctic, and the Sonoran. Having
otherwise disposed of the Ethiopian and its subdivision the Malagasy,

1 The Geographical History of Mammals; by R. Lydekker A. B., F. R. S., V.
P. G. S., ete. Cambridge University Press, 1896. 8vo. pp. 400

1034 The American Naturalist. [December,

I adopted the three remaining regions, the Oriental, the Holarctic, and
the Medicolumbian ; the last name being derived from Blanford, and
used as a substitute for Sonoran, which have been previously used for
a subdivision,

This work is a magazine of information on the subject of which it
treats, and a unique feature is the
large amount of reference to the
facts of paleontology. This increases
the value of the book to the general
reader, but cannot be said to be
è ermane to its main object. The

Plagiaulax minor from the English introduction of the extinct forms of
Wealden; much enlarged. ife necessarily changes the aspect of
the faunal lists of a country to a marked degree, nowhere moreso than
in the Arctogæan Realm. Each geological period had in fact its own
geographical distribution of forms, and when all are discovered a series
of books on geographical distribution in each period might be written,
each different from every other one.

K =
orean

>

Manis tricuspis West Africa.

The well-known familiarity of the author of this book with both
Mammalian zoölogy and paleontology, gives it a value which no
similar book possesses; and its compact form and fulness of illustration

BUIUESIY WOY sngnpnaiagny snypyoOUDT JO WOJ|EAS [BULO}XGT

‘

*poon pot qyonul

THAXX GLV1d

1896.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 1035

make it especially convenient for the traveller who reads as he goes.
The author writes clear and direct English, and correct classical ortho-
graphy. His systematic of the Mammalia given on p. 11 is uncritical,
though it includes most of the groups brought to light by paleontology.
More detailed classification in later chapters elucidates the subject fur-
ther.

The accompanying three illustrations give a good idea of their
their general character.—E. D. Cope.

AMERICAN NATURALIST LIST OF RECENT BOOKS
AND PAMPHLETS.

Baur, G.—The Stegocephali Aus d. Anat. Anz., XI Bd.,1896. From the
author.

Bessey, C. aa Essentials of Botany. New York, 1896. From Henry
Holt and Co.,

Biographical aces of Dr. Robert W. Shufeldt. Extr. from Physicians and
Surgeons of America.

Curster, A. H.—A Dictionary of the Names of Minerals including their His-
tory and Nomenclature. New York, 1896. From John Wiley and Sons, Pub

JORGENSEN, A.—Ueber den Ursprung der Alkoholhefen. Kopenhagen, 1895.
From the author.

Dasney, C. W.—Vivisection in the District of Columbia, Washington, 1896.
From the Dept. Agric.

Dalı, W. H.—Diagnoses of New Tertiary Fossils from the Southern States.

—Diagnoses of New Mollusks from the Survey of the Mexican Boundary.
Extrs. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1895. From the Museum.

—— Defence of Wivivection. Resolution Adopted by the American Medical
Association, May 6, 1896.

ET, M.—Sur I’ Age de la Terrasse quaternaire de Villefranche. Extr. du
C. R. des séances Soc. Geol. de France, Paris 1895. From the author.

Dexter, F.—A Contribution to the Morphology of the Medulla oblongata of
the Rabbit. Reprint Achiv, fiir Anat. u. Physiol. Anat. Abth. Boston, 1896.
From the author.

Dumerit, A. ET F. Bocourt.—Etudes Sur les Reptiles et les Batraciens, Troi-
sième Partie. Recherches Zoologiques, Miss. Scientif. au Mexique, etc. Mexico,
1895. From M. Bocurt.

EARLE, C.—Notes on the Fossil Mammalia of Europe. Extr. Amer. Nat.
Phila., 1896. From the author.

Farrcuitp, H. L.—Glacial Genesee Lakes. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.,
Vol. 7, 1896.

——Proceeds. of the Eighth Annual Meeting, held at Philadelphia, Dec.,
1895. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., April, 1896. From the Society:

1036 The American Naturalist. bonnie.

FowLER, C. N.—Speech on the Free Coinage of Silver at the Ratio of 16 to 1.
Washington, 1896. From the author

' GARMAN, S.—The Cyprinodonts. Extr. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College,
Cambridge, 1895. From the author.

GATSCHET, À. S —The Whippoorwill as named in American Languages. Extr.
Amer. Antiquarian and Oriental Journ., Jan., 1896. From the author.

GULLIVER, P. F.—Cuspate Forelands. Extr. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer , Vol. 7,
1896. From the Society.

GEROULD, J. H.—The Anatomy and Histology of Caudina arenata Gould.
Extr. Proceeds. Boston Society Nat. Hist., 1896. From the Society.

HAssALL, A.—Check List of the Animal Parasites of Chickens. Cir. No p U.
S. Dept. Agric. pr Animal manent ecg ag 1896. From the De
* Galena epee on
siidlichen Wisconsin und des nördlichen Illinois. Aus Zeitschrift fiir Krystallo-
graphie, ete., a. Leipzig, 1895. ‘

— A Summary of Progress in ae in 1895. ptr Monthly Notes in
the AMERICAN wo alps Ist. Madison, 1896. From thea :

Lawson, A. C.—On Malignite, a Family of Basic ads Orthoclase Rocks,
rich in Alkalies and Lime, intrusive in the Coutchiching Schists of Poohbah
Lake. Extr. Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Calif. Berkeley, 1896. From the author.

LEFFINGWELL, A.—Does Science need Secrecy? A Reply to Prof. Porter and
Others. Reprint from the Boston Transcript. Providence, R. I., 1896. From
the author.

LEIDY, J.—Fossil Vertebrates from the Alachua Clays of Florida. Edited by
F. A. Lucas. Extr. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Science, Phila., Vol. IV, 1896.
From the Editor.

Linet1, M. L.—Description of a New Species E wept Beetle from Costa Rica.
Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII

Lucas, F. A.—The Taxonomic Value of the kai in Birds. Extr. from The
Auk, Vol. XIII, 1896.

MEEK, S. E.—A List of Fishes and Mollusks collected in Arkansas and Indian
Tene, i in 1894. Extr. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1895. Washington,

1896. From the U. S. Fish Commission.

MERRIAM, J. C.—Sigmogomphius lecontei, a New Castoroid Rodent from the
Pliocene, near Berkeley, Cal. Extr. Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. Calif. Berkeley,
1896. From the author

Merriam, C. H —Revision of the Lemmings of the Genus Synaptomys, with
descriptions of New

—— Preliminary Synopsis of the American Bears. Extrs. Proceeds. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 1896. From the author.

Mocquarp, M. F.—Note sur quelques Reptiles du Cap Blane. Extr. Bull.

Mus. @hist. nat. Paris, 1895.
——Sur les Reptiles recueillis à Madagascar de 1867 à 1885 par M. Grandidier.
Extr. Pall Bon: Failon. ieis 1995.
ectio ‘115 a AD g N M. M. Alluand
et Belly, i c. Bete, 1895. From the author.

1896.) Recent Books and. Pamphlets. 1037

Annual Report of the Yorkshire Society for 1895. York, 1896. From the
oe
, C. B.—Certain Sand Mounds of Duval Co., Florida.—Two Mounds on
ari a Florida.
—— Certain Sand Mounds of the Ocklawaha River, Florida. From Advance
sare of Se Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., Vol. X. Phila., 1895. From the

oe W. F.—The Terminal Loops of the Cones and Rods of the Human
sig with Photomicrographs. Reprint from Amer. Ophathalmol. Soc., Trans.
895.

yee E.—Las Rocas eruptivas del suroeste de la Cuenca de Mexico. Extr.
Bol. Inst. Geol. de Mexico., Mun. 2. Mexico, 1895. Erom the Inst.
PALMER, T. S.—The Jack Rabbits of the United States. Bull. No. 8, U. S.

PARKER, E. W.—Asbestos and Soapstone in 1892. Abstract from Mineral
Resources of the United States, calendar year, 1892. Washington, 1893. From
the U. S. Geol. Survey.

—The Production of Salt. Extr. Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Sury.
1894-95, Pt. IV. Mineral Resources of the U.S. Washington, 1895. From
the U. S. Geol. Surv.

PEALE, A. C.—The Production of Mineral Waters. Extr. Sixteenth Ann.
Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1894-95, Pt. IV. Washington, 1895. From the U. 8.
Geol. Sury.

Pietre, Ep.—Hiatus and Lacune Vestiges de la Période de Transition dans la
Grotte du Mas-d’Azil. Extr. Bull. Soc. d’Anthropol. Paris, 1895 From the
the author.

Report of the American sprog Assoc. on Vivisection in America adopted at
Minneapolis, Minn., Sept. 26, 1895. Chicago, 1896.

Report of the Meeting held for the Penisin to adage Bonney of his
Portrait, presented by his former pupils. London, 18

IDGWAY, R.--Description of a New Subspecies of the Genus Peucedromus,
Cones. Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus. From the um.

SHater, N.S.—Peat Deposits. Extr. Sixteenth ay head U. S. Geol. Surv.,
1894-95. Pt. IV. Mineral Resources of the United States. Washington, 1895.
From the U. S. Geol. Surv

Simpson, C. P.—Description of Four New Triassic Unios from the Staked
Plains of Texas Extr. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1895. From
the Museum.

Sumner, F. B.—The Varietal Tree of a Philippine Pulmonate, Reprint from
Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sciences, Vol. XV, 1896. From the author.

Swank, J. M.—-Iron and Steel and Allied Industries. Extr. Sixteenth Ann.
~~ U. S, Geol. Surv., 1894-95, Pt. III. Washington, 1895. From the U.S.

l. Sur

ee S. W.—On the Skull of Ornithostoma. Extr. Kansas University
- Quarterly, Vol. IV, 1896. From the author.

1038 The American Naturalist. [December,

General Notes.

m

PETROGRAPHY.'

The Sioux Quartzite of Iowa.—The Sioux quartzite has long
been known as the oldest sedimentary rock in Iowa. It has recently
been studied by Beyer.” It is a white or red vitreous rock with which
is associated a8 its upper extension a series of mottled reddish or pur-
plish-black slates. The quartzites present the usual aspects of indu-
rated sandstones. The constituent quartz grains are rich in ‘ quartz-
needles’ which can be traced directly into rutile spicules. The slates
are arenaceous. They exhibit no traces of slaty cleavage, though in
some cases their quartz grains and micaceous constituents are distorted
in such a way as to testify to a horizontal movement in the rock mass
containing them. All the slates are mottled by spheroidal masses of
a lighter color than the body of the rock. These masses are spheroidal
with the longer dimensions of the spheroids in the bedding planes of
the shale. Their lighter color is supposed to be due to the removal of
iron from those portions of the rock they occupy. Associated with the
quartzites is a great mass of olivine diabase consisting of a coarse
grained aggregate of Jabradorite and oligoclase zonally intergrown,
olivine, augite, biotite, hornblende, apatite and magnetite. Most speci-
mens are much altered, the components having been changed into the
usual secondary substances common to diabase. In structure the rock
varies from the ophitic, in which the plagioclase is older than the
augite, to the gabbroitic, in which the augite is the older mineral.
An analysis gave:

SiO, TiO, Fe,0, FeO Al,O, CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O P,O, Total
42:85 tr 13.66 20.23 6.85 3.42 1.90 5.78 .88 tr —100.57

The Peridotites of North Carolina.—In connection with a dis-
cussion of the occurrence and origin of corundum in North Carolina,
Lewis’ gives us an interesting account of the basic rocks associated
with the gneisses in that portion of the Appalachian belt included with-
in the limits of the State. These basic rocks, consisting mainly of

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

? Iowa Geol. Survey, Vol. VI, p. 69.

3 Bull. No. 11, North Carolina Geol. Survey, 1896.

1896.] Petrography. 1039

peridotites, occur in small Jenticular masses or in narrow strips, which
are always enveloped in a sheet of schistose talc or chlorite, and thus
are never in direct contact with the gneisses through which they are
believed to cut. They are classed as peridotites, pyroxenites and am-
phibolites, the former being the most common, The peridotites pre-
sent several types in each occurrence, all merging into one another and
forming a single geological unit. The principal types of the perido-
tites are dunite, harzburgite, amphibole-picrite and forellenstein. All
are massive, as a rule, though exceptions arenoted. The dunite is com-
posed of olivine grains, octahedrons and rounded grains of picotite and
chromite, plates of enstatite, prisms of light green hornblende and
various alteration products of these, the most common being serpen-
tine tremolite and chlorite. The Harzburgite and the other perido-
tites present no unusual features. They appear to be transition phases
between the dunite and the various pyroxenites among which are rec-
ognized two types, an enstatite rock and websterite. The enstatite
rock is made up almost exclusively of enstatite or bronzite and its al-
teration product tale. An analysis of the enstatite gave :

SiO, Al,0, FeO CaO MgO MnO H,O Total
51.64 12 9.28 .45 31.93 .56 5.45 99.43

The amphibolites are composed chiefly of amphibole. The most im-
portant type is composed of grass-green hornblende, anorthite and
more or less corundum. The rock is fine grained and it is usually
gneissic, although occasionally massive. Transitions through forellen-
stein into dunite were observed, although the distribution of the rock
occurrence in a system of dykes cutting the latter rock.
The hornblende has the following composition :
SiO, Al,O, Cr,O, FeO NiO MgO CaO NaO K,O H,0 Total
45.14 17.59 .79 3.45 .21 16.69 12.51 2.25 86 1.34 — 100.33
Genth called the mineral smaragdite. Dana regards it as edenite, In
addition to the rocks mentioned above, there are also present in the
region massive serpenite, which was unquestionably derived from dun-
ite, tale-schists, and soapstones derived from enstatite rocks and chlorite
schists. -

In a second paper* the same author gives his reasons for considering
these rocks as eruptive in origin.

Shales and Slates from Wales.—-Hutchins’ continues his
studies of clays, shales and slates by an investigation of the nature of

* Elisha Mitchell Sci, Soc. Jour., Pt. II, 1895, p. 24.
5 Geol. Mag., Vol. ITI, 1896, p.

1040 The American Naturalist. [December,

shales taken from some of the deepest coal mines in Wales. The
chemical composition of the particular shale analyzed does not differ
materially from that of some of the carboniferous shales from other
coal fields. Physically the deeper shales are not much more compact
than hard clays. The author reviews the results of his observations on
shales and slates. He states that what takes place in a rock during its
progress from clay to shale, is the development and crystallization of
muscovitic mica and the production of chlorite. He also calls atten-
tion to the fact that dynamic metamorphism is made to explain many
phenomena connected with the crystallization of slates, that are capa-
ble of being explained better by static metamorphism. The spots of
many contact rocks are now thought to be secretions from a mineral-
izing solution, depositing in these spherical forms material collected
from the rock body. By crysiallization the spots pass over into cor-
dierite, biotite or staurolite crystals.

Notes.—Cushing® declares that in addition to the rocks described
by Kemp from. the eastern Adirondacks there is a system of diabase
dykes, which are older than the monchiquites and camptonites of the
district.

By melting certain rock powders in the presence of reagents Schmutz’
has obtained aggregates of minerals which in most cases are very dif-
ferent from those composing the original rocks. Eklogite fused in the
presence of calcium and sodium fluride yielded a mass of meionite,
plagioclase and glass; leucitite with calcium chloride gave a mass com-
posed of a glassy groundmass and plagioclase; with the addition of
sodium fluride and potassium silico-fluride it yielded scapolite, mica,
magnetite ; with sodium chloride it produced augite, scapolite and mag-
netite and a glass matrix. Granite fused with magnesium and calcium
chlorides and sodium fluoride gave andesine and olivine in a ground-
mass containing augite. Other rocks treated with other reagents gave
analagous results, j

As the result of a series of experiments made with the view of dis-
covering a medium with a very high specific gravity that will not at-
tack sulphides, Retgers® finds that the acetate and the mixed nitrate
and acetate of thallium are both neutral toward sulphides. The for-
mer is available for separating minerals with a density below 3. 9, and
the latter those with a density below 4.5.

6 Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci, XV, 1896, p. 249.

1 Neues Jahrb. f. Mia at., 1896, Í, p. 211.
8 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1896, I, p. 213.

1896.) Botany. 1041

In an article in the Neues Jahrbuch Bauer’ gives a German trans:
scription of his article’ on the rocks associated with the jadeite of
Turmaw, Burmah.

‘Schroeder vander Kolk" describes ‘peelly a series of rocks collected
by Martin in the Moluccas. In the southern part of Amboina the
rocks are mainly granite and peridotite, while in the larger northern
part they consist of modern volcanics, as they do also on the other
islands studied. These rocks are principally dacites and liparites, but
on one island andesites occur. oth the dacites and the granite con-
tain cordierite. The dacites are pyroxene and biotite varieties. The
andesites are pyroxenic; mica schists, breccias and limestones occur
also on the islands. The residue left after treatment of the limestone
with acid contains quartz, sanidine, plagioclase, biotite, amphibole,
orthorhombic pyroxene, hematite, garnet, cordierite, sillimanite and
pleonost.

BOTANY.’

The Evolution of a Botanical Journal.’—In November of the

present year the Botanical Gazette reaches its majority, by attaining
theage of twenty-one years. It first appeared in November, 1875 under
the name of the Botanical Bulletin, and consisted of four pages of short
notes. It was edited by John M. Coulter, then professor of Natural .
Sciences in Hanover College (Hanover, Indiana). In his introductory
_ note the editor stated that the object of the new journal was “to afford
a convenient and rapid means of communication among botanists. The
context shows that it was started as a distinctly western journal, in-
tended to supplement the work of eastern botanical publications.

The first volume included notes by the editor, and Thomas C. Porter,
Samuel Lockwood, G. C. Broadhead, M. S. Coulter, Mary E. Pulsifer
Anes, J. T. Rothrock, H. C. Beardslee, Coe F. Austin, George Vasey,
Alphonso Wood, Isaac Martindale, Elihu Hall, E. A. Rau, and others
who have long since diappeared from the. botanical field. With the

® Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1866, I, p

1 Cf. AMERICAN NATURALIST, June, ae p. 478.

11 Ib., 1896, I, p. 152.

1 Edited by Prof. C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska,

2 Read before the Botanical Seminar of the University of Nebraska. October
10, 1896.

1042 The American Naturalist. [December,

opening of the second volume its name was changed to the Botanical
Gazette, and the name of M. S. Coulter was added as joint editor. In
1883 by a reorganization of the management, John M. Coulter, Charles
R. Barnes and J. C. Arthur became editors, an arrangement which
proved to be so satisfactory to the botanists of the country as to become
permanent.

The next few years were trying ones for the ambitious editors, but
the impetus given to botanical thought by the incoming of modern
methods in teaching and study, and perhaps, alsv, by the organization
of the Botanical Club of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, proved helpful in many ways. The Philadelphia
(1884) and Ann Arbor (1885) meetings of the Botanical Club created
much botanical enthusiasm, the results of which accrued to the benefit
of the Gazette.

The beginning of its second decade saw it much enlarged, improved
in typography and apparently well established in the confidence of
American botanists. Year by year it was still further increased in
size, better paper was used, and the quality of the matter steadily im-
proved. From the fifty-two pages of short, and mostly local, notes of
volume I, we turn to the five hundred and sixty-eight pages of struct-
ural, physiological, ecological, systematic and paleontological matter
in volume XX. With the opening of the twenty-first volume an addi-
tional enlargement was found to be necessary, the numbers averaging
sixty-five pages each.

In the earlier volumes there were no plates, the first one occurring
in volume VI, illustrating an article by J. C. Arthur on the trichomes
of Echinocystis lobata. In the twentieth volume there were thirty-seven
plates, while for the first half of 1896 the number was twenty-nine.

The last stage in the evolution of this important factor in American
botany was reached a few months ago when its financial management
was transferred to the University of Chicago. It thus happily becomes
an endowed institution, and the editors, relieved from all anxiety as to
its business management, are free to develop it along strictly scientific
lines. To the three editors whose efforts have given it the foremost place
place among botanical journals are hereafter to be added several
“associate editors ” ; at present these are G. F. Atkinson, V. M. Spald-
ing, Roland Thaxter and William Trelease. Under the new regime it
promises to be more cosmopolitan than before, and accordingly we are
assured that the names of one or more Kompan botanists will soon be
added to the corps of editors.

1896.] Botany. 1043

This factor in botanical science has thus been a growth, and it rep-
resents to-day much more than so many pages of printed matter. It
has grown and developed as the science of botany has grown and
developed in this country. When we look over the earlier volumes
with surprise at the little notes which fill the pages, we must not forget
that American botany had not then generally risen above such contri-
butions. It is true that we had a few masters in the science, with Dr.
Gray still in his prime, but these masters wrote little for general read-
ing, and their technically systematic contributions were mostly published
in the proceedings of learned societies. The one thing which stands
out to-day in sharp contrast with the botany of two decades ago is the
very great increase in the number of masters in the science who are
making liberal contributions from many different departments. The
many-paged Gazette of to-day, with its rich variety of matter, differs no
more frum the four-page Bulletin of 1876 than does the botany of the
two periods.—CHARLES E. Bessey.

The North American Species of Physalis and Related
Genera.—In a recent number of the Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical
Club (Vol. IV, No. 5) Mr. P. A. Rydberg publishes an important con-
tribution to our knowledge of our species of Physalis and related
genera. Every one who has attempted to accurately identify any of
the native species of Physalis knows well how difficult and discouraging
the task has been. Commenting on this Mr. Rydberg says : “ The reason
is not that the descriptions are so badly drawn, but that only about one
half of the actual number of species have, as a rule, been recognized.”

After a critical discussion covering fifteen pages the author char-
acterizes the six genera which he includes in his monograph. These
are Margaranthus, with four southwestern species; Physalis, with
thirty-nine species; Quincula, with one Rocky Mountain species;
Leucophysalis, with one species of the northern United States and
Canada; Chamesaracha, with four species of the southwestern United
States ; Oryctes, with one species from Nevada.

Throughout the paper the nomenclature and synonymy receive full
attention, the citations being unusually complete. The descriptions are
concise, and apparently drawn with great care. And last, but by no
means least, there is a full index of species and synonyms given at the
end of the SS a it is an unusually good piece of
work.—CHARLES E. B

Professor Prentiss.—The recent death (August 14th) of Professor
Albert Nelson Prentiss of Cornell University calls for more than a mere
72

1044 The American Naturalist. [December,

brief mention. Born in Cazenovia, N. Y.; May 22, 1836; educated
in the Oneida County Seminary, and the Michigan Agricultural College
(B. Sc., 1861 and M. Sc., 1864). After short periods of service in the
engineering corps of the United States Army, and the public schools of
Michigan he became professor of botany in the Michigan Agricultural
College (1868 to 1868). After six years of service he was called to the
chair of botany in Cornell University (1868), where he remained for
twenty-eight years when on account of failing health he was made
professor emeritus (1896). In these years of work Professor Prentiss
was emphatically a teacher. The building and equipment of his depart-
ment, and the training of men who went out to be professors in many
colleges, left little time for investigations and the preparation of papers.
He chose to impress his thoughts upon men rather than upon paper,
and he will be remembered not as a writer, but as a teacher. His life
shows how much more effective our work is when we teach men directly
by our spoken words rather than through our printed papers.—C. E. B,

The Nomenclature of Mycetozoa.—Professor Mac Bride has
been studying the question of nomenclature among these organisms
(plants he calls them, and, therefore his results are noticed here) and
finds great difficulty in applying the “ priority rule” to the solution of
the problem. He calls attention to the well-known fact that the earlier
botanists did not understand the nature of Mycetozoa and that their
descriptions and even their figures in many cases are unintelligible.
Rostafinski a little more than twenty years ago gave us the first rational
account of the group, and for the first time gave us descriptions by
means of which we may know certainly what he had in hand when he
applied a particular name. His nomenclature is, therefore, to a large
extent the earliest which is authentic. Practically all earlier descript-
ions are unrecognizable, and therefore, Rostafinski had to take up the
work de novo. Professor Mac Bride says: “ The fact is that when Ros-
tafinski gives credit to his predecessors it is for the most part purely a
work of courtesy and grace; there is nothing in the work itself to com-
mand such consideration.” He therefore concludes that “ the man
who in his search for priority ascends beyond Rostafinski, does 1$ at
-the risk of endless confusion and uncertainty in the great majority of
cases” and that for these the initial date must be that of his great woti,
“Sluzowce Monografia” in 1875.—Cuarves E. Bessey.

The Flora of Wyoming.—Professor Aven Nelson of w
versity of Wyoming recently issued a valuable “ First Report on Be
Flora of Wyoming,” based upon field work in 1892 (by Professor —

1896.] Botany. 1045

fum), 1894 and 1895 by Professor Nelson. The catalogue of plants
includes 1118 species of Spermatophytes, 14 Pteriodophytes, 26 Bryo-
phytes, 3 Algæ, 8 Fungi and 7 Lichens, making a total of 1176. The
trees of Wyoming are listed as follows: Rocky Mountain Yellow Pine
(Pinus ponderosa scopulorum), Rocky Mountain White Pine (P. flex-
ilis), Lodge-pole Pine (P. murrayana), Engelmann’s Spruce (Picea
engelmanni), Blue Spruce (P. pungens), Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga
douglasii), Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana), Black Cottonwood (Pop-
ulus angustifolia), Rydberg’s Cottonwood (P. acuminata), Quaking
Aspen (P. tremuloides), Sand-bar Willow (Salix longifolia), Almond
Willow (S. amygdaloides), two other species (S. flavescens, S. lasiandra),
Green Ash (Fraxinus viridis), Box Elder (Negundo aceroides), Scrub
Oak ( Quercus undulata), Wild Plum (Prunus americana), Wild Cherry
(P. demissa), Choke Cherry (P. virginiana), Hawthorn, two species
(Orataegus rivularis and C. douglasii), Service Berry (Amelanchier
alnifalia), Silver Berry ( Elæagnus argentea), Buffalo Berry (Shepherdia
argentea), Black Birch (Betula occidentalis), Black Alder (Alnus in-
cana viresceus), Sage Brush (Artemisia tridentata).

The last species is sometimes so large that “a man on horseback may
ride erect underneath the branches.”

We notice a curious slip by which Actinella glabra Nutt. is listed
among the new species, although it was published as a new species fifty-
five years ago in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,
and a year or so later appeared under Nuttall’s name in Torrey and
Gray s Flora of North America, II, p. 382.—Cuaruegs E. Bessey.

The Lichens of Chicago.—Bulletin No. 1, of the Geological and
Natural History Survey of the Chicago Academy of Sciences is devoted
to an enumeration of the lichens of Senda ae visisit, WN E er
W. Catkins. One hundred and twenty-five
very briefly characterized. The paper is sapped by a useful but
incomplete Bibliography of North American Lichenology.—CHARLES
E. Bessey.

Eastwood’s Plants of Southeastern Utah.—In the Proceed-
ings of the California Academy of Sciences (2d series, vol. VI) Miss
Alice Eastwood enumerates 162 species collected in 1895 in the valley
‚and on the plateaus of the San Juan River in southeastern Utah, a
desert region with curious oases about springs and along cafions.
Several new species are enumerated, three of which are figured in the
plates which accompany the report.—CHARLES E. Brssry..

1046 The American Naturalist. [December,

Correction.—On page 748, by a slip of the pen the “ popple” of the
Colorado Mountains is given as Populus balsamifera candicans ; it
should be P. tremuloides—_Cu ares E. Bussey.

Botanical News.—A suggestive pamphlet on “The Pathology of
Plants” by B. T. Galloway comes from the Office of Experiment
Stations of the United States Department of Agriculture. Its object
is to point out certain lines of work in plant pathology that might be
undertaken by botanists in the state experiment stations—From the
Division of Agrostology, (U. S. Dept. Agriculture) we have “ Fodder
and Forage Plants, exclusive of the Grasses” a pamphlet of fifty-eight
pages, by Jared G. Smith. It is a descriptive, illustrated list of these
plants, written in semi-popular language. It will be of value not only to
stock growers, but to scientific botanists as well—Professor W. J. Beal has
recently published a Report of the Botanical Department of the Mich-
igan Agricultural College from which we learn that there are in the
herbarium 54,243 specimens, and that the botanic garden, begun in
1877 now contains 1335 species.—The Contributions from the U. 8.
National Herbarium (Vol. III, No. 9) issued August 5, 1896 contains
the following papers: The Flora of Southwestern Kansas, a report on
a collection of plants made by C. H. Thompson in 1893, by A. S.
Hitchcock ; Crepis accidentalis and its allies, by F. V. Coville ; Plants
from the Big-Horn Mountains of Wyoming, by J. N. Rose; Leibergia,
a new genus of Umbelliferse from the Columbia River Region, by J.
M. Coulter and J. N. Rose; Roseanthus, a new genus of Cucurbitacee
from Acapulco, Mexico, by Alfred Cogniaux.

ZOOLOGY.

Notes on Turbellaria.—1, On THE OccuRENCE OF BIPALIUM
KEWENSE (MOSELEY) IN THE UNITED STATES. :

Since the appearance of Moseley’s' paper in 1878 the species has
been recorded from other parts of Great Britain and Ireland, and from
Berlin and Frankfurt, A. M. on the continent. It has also been found
at the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, in the colonies of Queensland, —
New South Wales and Victoria in Australia, at Auckland in New Zea-

1 Moseley, H. N. Description of a New Species of Land-Planarian from peed
Hothouses at Kew Garden. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 5. Vol I, pp- 237-20"
1878.

yaang Zoology. 1047

land, Upolu in Samoa and Joinville in Brazil. The wide distribution
of this, the largest of land planarians, has doubtless been brought about
through the agency of man, the well-marked genus being indigenous
only in Japan, China, India, Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago and the
East Indies, but this species, Bipalium kewense, has never been found
in these countries; its home is unknown.

The purpose of this communication is to record the existence of the
species in the United States. It is quite abundant in Cambridge, Mass.,
and has been found there in two different greenhouses. A methodical
search would no doubt reveal it in others of the many greenhouses in
the vicinity. The largest of the Cambridge specimens measured 300
mm. in length, with a diameter of 4 mm., shorter individuals measuring
from 15 mm. upward with the same diameter of 4mm. The smallest
of the specimens always lack the semilunar head end, ey = with-
out doubt, the products of reproduction by transverse division in w
the head-end had not yet regenerated.

In 1892 Sharp’ published the description of a Bipalium from a green-
house in Landsdown, Pennsylvania, which he called B. manubriatum.
It was suggested by Colin? that Sharp's specimen was nothing else than
B. kewense, for with the exception of the statement that the median
stripe is the broadest of the longitudinal markings, the descriptions of
B. manubriatum agrees in every way with that of B. kewense. Varia-
tions in the width of the median band in different regions of the same
individual of B. kewense have been described and figured by Richter‘ and
Bergendal, and Dendy® has shown the great variability of land planar-
ians within a single species both as regards color and markings. There
can be little doubt, therefore, that the single specimen studied by Sharp
was the Bipalium kewense of Moseley.

The writer would be grateful for any information as to the occurrence
of the species in other parts of the United States, and would be glad to
have material from other localities.

Sharp, B. On a probable New Species of Bipalium. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phitad., "i, pp. 120-123, 1892.

3 Colin, A. Mittheilungen über Würmer. Sitzungsb. Gesell. naturf. Freunde
Berlin, Jahrg. 1892, No. 9, pp. 164-166.

t Richter, F. Bipalium kewense Moseley eine Landplanarie des Palmenhauses
zu Frankfurt, A. M. Zool. Garten, Jahrg , XVIII, pp. 231-234, 1887.

ô Bergendal, D. Studien über Turbellarien. I. Ueber die Vermehrung durch
Quertheilung des Bipalium Kewense tae: Kongl. Svenska. Vetensk-Akad.
Handl., Bd. XXV, No. 4, 42, pp. 1 Pl., 189

6 Handy: A. Notes on Some New atk Hale tase Land planarians from Tas-
mania and South Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Vol. VI, pp. 178-188,
Pl. X, 1893.

1048 The American Naturalist. [December,

2. ON THE IDENTITY OF PRocoTyYLA FLUVIATILIS LEIDY AND
DENDROCGELUM LACTEUM OERSTED.

Procotyla fluviatilis was first described by Leidy’ in 1852 under the
name of Dendrocelum superbwm Girard. In Stimpson’s Prodromus?
(1858) we find for the first time the form under Procotyla fluviatilis
Leidy M S. with the synonym Dendrocelum superbum Leidy (non
Girard). Stimpson’s nomenclature evidently being taken from manu-
script notes of Leidy, but Leidy himself did not use the name Procotyla
fluviatilis until 1885. In 1893 Girard” in an exhaustive paper on
- North American Turbellaria makes a new species out of Leidy’s first
description, which was not his (Girard’s) D. superbum, calling it Pro-
cotyla Leidy (with the synonym Dendrocwlum superbum Leidy (non
Girard), and also retains P. fluviatilis as a second species of Procotyla.
In other words, Girard in the same work under two different names
gives two different descriptions of the same species. He thus adds
greatly to the confusion existing in our knowledge of North American
Turbellaria. When our Turbellaria become better known there is
reason to believe that the existing large list of species will be much
reduced.

A careful study of the structure of Procotyla fluviatilis has convinced
the writer that this, one of the commonest of our freshwater planarians,
is identical with the widely distributed Dendrocelum lacteum Oersted
of Europe, and that the genus Procotyla should be abandoned. It was
predicted by Hallez™ that Procotyla would be eliminated when its
internal structure should become known. The anatomy and histology
of Dendrocelum lacteum has been most carefully worked out by Iijima.”
His account and figures agree in every way with the American form,
as does also the older account of Oscar Schmidt." The variation in

7 Leidy,J. Corrections and Additions to former Papers on Helminthology.
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci."Philad., Vol. V, pp. 288-289, 1
name of Dendrocælum supatbuin Girard. In Stimpson ’s® Prodromus

8 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol. IX, pp. 23, 1857.

®Leidy, J. Planarians. The Museum, Vol. I, No. 4, p. 5. Philadelphia,

18

ai Girard, Ch. Recherches sur les Planariés et les Némertiens du l Amérique
du Nord.. Ann. Sci. Nat., Zool. Tom., XV, pp. 164-166, 1893.

u Hallez, P. Catalogue des Turbellariés (Rhabdoceelides, Triclades et Poly-
clades) du Nord de le France, ete. Revue Biol. du Nora de la France, T. IV
No. 11, p. 454, 1892.

12 Iijima, I. Untersuchungen über den Bau pád die Entwickelungeschichte der
Süsswasser-Dendrocæœlen (Trichleden). Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Bd. pp

9-464, Taf. XX-XXIII, 1884. :
er Siders O. Unterschungen über Turbellarien von Corfu und Cephalonia,
Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. Bd. XI, pp. 1-30, Taf. I--IV, 1862.

1896.] | Zoology. . 1049

the number of the eyes in the American form appears to be peculiar, as
no mention is madè of it in any of the foreign descriptions. In about
thirty per cent. of the individuals there are more than the normal
number (two) of eyes, the number varying from three to eight, three
being the number most frequently occuring.

A detailed account of this and other American Turbellaria, based
upon collections made by the Illinois State Natural History Survey
and submitted to the writer for study, is in course of preparation.—
W. McM. Woopworru.

On the Genus Callisaurus.—Two new species of this genus
present lateral fringes of the toes. These are not so well developed as
in the species referred to Uma, but they are sufficiently so to show that
the latter name must be abandoned, and the species referred to it be
placed in Callisaurus. Thus, Uma notata Baird, U. scoparia Cope, U.
rufopunctata Cope, etc., must be called Callisaurus notatus, etc. The
two new species referred to are both from lower California.

CALLISAURUS CRINITUS—Callisaurus dracontoides Cope, Proceeds.
U.S. Natl. Museum, 1889, p. 147. Two series of frontal scales, sepa-
rated from the rather larger supraoculars by two (or one) rows of
small scales. Large supraoculars in four or five longitudinal rows,
the inner row largest, the patch bounded by granular scales ante-
riorly and posteriorly. Interparietal plate longer than wide. Hind
leg reaching to front of orbit. Second, third and fourth fingers with
well-developed fringes, which are weak on the inner side of the second
and third. External side of second, third and fourth toes with well-
developed fringes. Femoral pores twenty-three, the scales which they
perforate in contact with each other. Color above asin O. draconoides.
Below a blue patch on each side, with three large oblique black spots
and a trace of a fourth. Total length 200 mm., head and body 87 mm.,
hind leg 72 mm. U.S. N. M., No. 14,895, one specimen. ;

The differences from C. draconoides are the digital fringes, the larger
number of femoral pores on adjacent scales, and the three or four
black spots of the belly patch; the shorter hind legs, and the longer,
interparietal plate. This species has the larger size of the form C.
draconoides ventralis. i

—One row of frontal scales separated
by small scales from the rather obscure patch of supraoculars. Inter-
parietal as wide as long. Gular scales subequal. The hind leg ex-
tended, reaches to and beyond the end of the muzzle. Well-developed
fringes on the external sides of the fingers and toes, excepting on the

1050 The American Naturalist. [December,

first and fifth. Femoral pores fifteen and sixteen, in scales which are
separated by intervening scales. Coloration above as in C. draconoides ;
below a blue patch on each side which is crossed by three oblique
black spots, the third generally followed by a fourth black spot, which
does not reach the abdominal border. In front of the blue patch and
posterior to the axilla a large rosy spot. A large rosy spot on the
gular region. Size smaller, equal the C. draconoides draconvides.
Numerous specimens from lower California from A. W. Anthony. As
this species was accompanied by Uta parviseutata V. den B. and Cro-
talus ruber Cope, the locality is not the Cape San Lucas country. It
approaches nearer the C. draconoides than does the C. crinitus. The
differences are, the digital fringes, the three or four black abdominal
spots, and the rose spots on the sides and throat.—E. D. Cope.

The Food of Birds.—A report upon the food habits of the catbird
( Galeoscoptes carolinensis) the brown thrasher (Harporhyncus rufus)
the mocking bird Mimus polyglottus) and the house wren (Troglodytes
aédon) by S. D. Judd, contains the following information. The wren
is exclusively insectivorus, and, therefore highly beneficial to agricul-
ture. Among the pests destroyed by this bird are the snout beetles, of
which the plum curculio is afamiliarexample. Stink bugs and cater-
pillars, both of which are plant feeders, are also made way with in large
numbers. The catbird and thrasher do much less good than the wren
because of their mixed diet of animal and vegetable food, the propor-
tion of the former in the thrasher being 63 per cent., that in the cat-
bird 44, for theentire season. The number of mocking birds examined
was only 15, so that their character, as friend or foe of the agricultur-
ist, is still undetermined. The stomachs of those examined, however,
indicate that thé bulk of their food is animal.

Mr. Judd concludes his report by advising farmers to secure the
services of the wren by putting up nesting boxes for them, and protect-
ing them from the quarrelsome English sparrows.

A second interesting paper on the food habits of birds records the
results of the examination by Mr. F. E. L. Beal of the stomachs of 238
meadow larks, and 113 Baltimore orioles. The meadow lark is a
ground feeder and the great bulk of its food is grasshoppers, of which it
consumes an enormous number. -The other insects eaten are ants, bugs,
caterpillars and beetle larvæ. — > :

The oriole feeds largely on caterpillars and wasps, eating so many of
the former that it is a highly important beneficial factor in agricultural

1896.] Zoology. 1051

A summary of the stomach contents for the whole year. shows that
nearly three-fourths of the food of the meadow lark for the year, includ-
ing the winter mouths, consists of insects.

The oriole has a similarly good record. The food for the whole
season consisted of 83.4 per cent. of animal matter and 16.6 per cent.
of vegetable matter.

These statistics show the importance of according these birds the
protection they so well deserve. (Year book Dept. Agri. for 1895.
Washington, 1896.

Preliminary Description of a New Vole from Labrador.
—In the summer of 1895, Mr. C. H. Goldthwaite made a trip to Ham-
ilton Inlet, Labrador, to collect mammals for the Bangs Collection.
The material he got is of much interest, but as I am obliged to delay
publishing a full account of it for the present, I take this opportunity
of making known saiieaien the only new species he took—a rather
remarkable vole.

MICROTUS ENIXUS 8

“etd specimens, all pe in the immediate vicinity of Hamilton
Inlet

Ty ype from Hamilton Inlet, Labrador.

No. 3973, @, old adult ; collection of E. A. and O. Bangs; collected
July 15, 1895, by C. H. Goldthwaite. Total length, 210; tail verte-
bree, °67 ; hind-foot, 22°5.

General characters: Size medium (about that of M. pennsylvanicus) ;
tail long; hind-foot large and strong; colors dark with a sooty brown
east to upper parts; skull differing in many minor particulars from
that of any eastern vole; molar teeth extremely small and weak, the
tooth row very short ; incisor teeth long and projecting.

Color: Upper parts a dark burnt umber brown, with many black-
tipped hairs intermixed, and a general sooty cast; nose patch the
same. Underparts dark gray (some specimens in fresh pelage slightly
washed with buffy). Feet and hands dusky. Tail indistinctly bicol-
ored, black above, dark gray beneath.

Cranial characters: Skull rather small (smaller than the skulls of
examples of M. pennsylvanicus, the external measurements being sub-
stantially) the same; rostrum slender and straight; audital bulls of
moderate size, very round ; palate without so pronounced a “step” as
that of pennsylvanicus. Incisor teeth, both upper and under, long,
slender and projecting outward at a decided angle. Molar teeth very
weak and small, the tooth row averaging 1 m. shorter than in skulls of

1052 The American Naturalist. [December,

pennsylvanicus of equal size; posterior loop of last upper molar ex-
tremely small, enamel folding otherwise much as in pennsylvanicus.

Size: Average measurements of ten old adult topoty pes—total len gth
189-4 ; tail vertebre, 60°4; hind-foot, 22-4—Ovurram Bangs.

Zoological News.—Ca@LENTERATA.—Mr. Whiteaves records the
finding of a second specimen of the branching Alcyonarian coral,
Primnoa reseda, in the Pacific waters, off the coast of British Columbia.
This is the third species of large Alcyonaria now known to occur in
this region, viz., Verrillia blakei Stearns, Paragorgia pacifica Verrill
and Primnoa reseda Pallas. Fine examples of each of these are in the
Museum of the Geological Survey of Canada. (Trans. Roy. Soc.
Canada, Vol. I, 1895—96.)

Pisces.—A new genus (Apogonops) of fishes from Maronba Bay,
New South Wales, is described by Mr. J. D. Ogilby. The genus is
founded on a single specimen to which has been given the species name,
anomalus. At first glance this genus appears to belong with the
Apogonidæ, but the absence of vomerine teeth and the number of dorsal
spines preclude such a classification. (Proceeds. Linn. Soc. New South
Wales, 1896.)

RertiLIA.—Dr. Alfredo Dugés has recently published in La Natur-
aleza, a useful list of the Batrachia and Reptilia of Mexico, with the
localities in which they have been found. While a good many species
are omitted, the lists of localities are of much value to the student of
geographical distribution.

Aves.—From personal observation M. X. Raspail findsthat the time
occupied by the Magpie (Pica caudata) in the incubation of its eggs is
from 17 days to 18 days and 13 hours. The young come from the egg
entirely bare, without even a trace of down, and are cared for by the
parents about 25 or 26 days before they attempt to leave the nest.
(Bull. Soc. Zool. de France, Juillet, 1896.)

The birds collected by Dr. A. Donaldson Smith in Somaliland con-
tain a number of species and genera which find their closest allies in
the Cape fauna. In a notice of the collection, Dr. Bowdler-Sharpe
states that they are more nearly related to the birds of the Cape than
to the fauna of Abyssinia or East Africa. (Geol. Journ. Sept., 1896.)

The collection of birds made by Mr. Abbott in Central Asia has been
presented to the National Museum. It numbers 210 specimens, repre-
senting 97 known species, and one new to science. The collection has
been catalogued by Mr. C. W. Richmond, who embodies in his paper
a number of interesting notes on many of the species. (Proceeds. U.
S. Natl. Mus., Vol. X VIII, 1896.)

1896.] Entomology. 1053

Mammaria.—Dr. C. H. Merriam has recently revised the Lemmings
of the genus Synaptomys, giving descriptions of three new species.
He finds that this genus instead of being monotypic, comprises two well
marked subgeneric groups—Synaptomys’ proper and Mictomys; that
the first of these groups inhabits eastern Canada and northeastern
United States from Minnesota to New Brunswick, and contains four
fairly well defined forms; that Mictomys has a transcontinental dis-
tribution from Labrador to Alaska, and contains at least four species.

(Proceeds. Biol. Sc., Washington, Vol. X, 1896.)

ENTOMOLOGY: ©

A New Era in the Study of Diptera.—The work done on
the classification of North American Diptera falls naturally into three
periods. The first ended with the publication of the “Catalogue of
North American Diptera,” by Osten Sacken, in 1859. The descriptive
work of most value previous to this time was by Wiedmann and Say,
and a little by Loew toward the last. Harris, Macquart and Walker
had also published numerous species; but there had been little coöp-
eration, and it was nearly impossible to determine from the descriptions
the synonyms that had been created. Osten Sacken recognized this
condition, and did not attempt to solve such problems in his catalogue.

The following nineteen years to the second edition of the catalogue
in 1878 comprise the second period, characterized by the singular fact
that the vast amount of work accomplished was almost wholly by
Europeans. Walsh published some twenty species, Riley eight, and
several others from one to four each—scarce forty in all—while Loew
had in the same time performed the monumental work of describ-
ing at least 1300 North American species, Osten Sacken had added
several hundred, and Schiner and Thomson a considerable number.
Moreover, the new edition of the catalogue was enriched with a vast
fund of information gathered by the author in the study of American
types in all the principal European collections, revising the synonymy
and correcting the generic references as would have been impossible in
any other way. About the time of the issuance of the catalogue, the
collections of Loew and Osten Sacken were deposited in the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, at Cambridge, Mass. This marked the con-
clusion of what may well be called the Loew—Osten Sacken period.
Loew died, and Osten Sacken retiring from the diplomatic service, re-
sumed his residence in Germany. His dipterological writings since

1 Edited by Clarence M. Weed, New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.

1054 The American Naturalist. [December,

1878, while very important, include only one work which describes
new North American species—Vol. I of the Diptera in Biologia Cen-
trali-Americana.

In 1879 appeared the first paper of S. W. Williston, inaugurating a
new American period, which has continued to the present time. After
a few years D. W. Coquillet began to publish, followed by C. H. Tyler
Townsend, and he by others, until the number of those who publish
occasional papers is now ten or more.

The recent appearance of Dr. Williston’s Manual of North Ameri-
can Diptera’ gives reason to hope that the immediate future will greatly
increase the number of workers in this order, so that we will be justi-
fied in counting a new era from 1896. It is now possible to determine
the genera of nearly all the flies of North America, including the West
Indies, with no other work of reference than this volume. More than
Cresson’s Synopsis does for the Hymenoptera, or Leconte and Harris’
volume does for the Coleoptera, this book does for the Diptera, because
it includes the territory southward to the Isthmus of Panama. Only
the Tachinidee and Dexiide are not tabulated and analytically reduced

to genera, and in this confused mass a bibliographical generic list is
given, extending to 272 numbers.

While the book purports to be a second edition of the small one pub-
lished by the same author in 1888, it is practically a new work, having
been entirely rewritten, greatly enlarged, and extended to include the
entire order with the exception noted. The bibliography since 1878 is
given, and all genera not found in Osten Sacken’s catalogue have refer-
ences (in the index) to their descriptions.

The external anatomy of Diptera is very fully treated. Dr. J. B.
Smith’s interpretation of the mouth parts is given in addition to the
usual one, the author not assuming to decide between them. Professor
J. H. Comstock’s system of wing nomenclature, as used in his manual,
is given a place for comparison, but is not used in the work “ for two
reasons: First, that it has not yet been fully crystallized into perma-
nent shape; second, because nearly all the existing literature has the
nomenclature here employed, and to use a new one would largely de-
feat the object of the work in the hands of the beginner.” Baron
Osten Sacken’s system of bristle-naming or chetotaxy is quite fully set
forth. Each family table is preceded by a full exposition of the family
characters and a description of the larva, its mode of life, food, ete.
(where known). ;

2 Manual of North American Diptera. By Samuel W. Williston, M. D., Ph. D-

. LIV, 167. James T. — New Haven, Conn., 297 Crown St. Paper,

$2.00; cloth, $2.25. -

1896,] Entomology, 1055

The family known heretofore as Blepharoceridz appears as Lipo-
neuride. This change of name was made by Osten Sacken several
years ago. He has more recently abandoned the change in a published
paper, and there seems no reason why the old name should be displaced.

The families Xylophagide and Coenomyide are united with Leptide,
thus simplifying the family and generic diagnoses. This seems a rather
surprising arrangement, yet may be logically defended.

The family Lonchzeidz is united with the Sapromyzide. Aside from
these changes there are no important differencesin the higher categories
between the last catalogue and the present work.

While the printing and binding are excellent, there are a number of
typographical errors especially in the spelling of generic names, as for
instance in Subulomyia, p. 43, the list of lepidopterous genera on p.
146 (five mistakes) and the list of Tachinid and Dexiid genera, p. 147
(four mistakes). But few of these, however, are more than the inter-
changing or omission of a letter.

This book is Dr. Williston’s most important single contribution to
dipterology thus far, and it worthily exhibits the industry, experience
and ability of the author, which have secured for him world-wide re-
cognition as a dipterist of the highest rank.—J. M. ALDRICH, Moscow,
Idaho.

Color Variation of a Beetle.—Mr. W. Baterson gives an ac-
count of his statistical examination of the color variations of the beetle
Gonioctena variabilis, which appears to be abundant in hilly places in
the south of Spain. He finds that we have here to do with a species
whose members exhibit variation in several different respects, and that
the variations occur in such a way that the individuals must be con-
ceived as grouped round several special typical forms. There is thus
not one normal for the species but several, though all live in the same
localities under the same conditions, and though they breed freely all
together these various forms are commoner than the intermediates be-
tween them. Some time since, when calling attention to the excessive
variability of the color of Coccinella decempunctata and the no less
striking constancy of C. septempunctata which lives with it, Mr. Bateson
remarked that to ask us to believe that the color of the one is constant,
because it matters to the animal, and that the other is variable because
it does not matter, is to ask us to abrogate reason. Mr. Wallace, it
seems, is of this very opinion ; but he does not explain how it is that the
color of one is so important, and the color of the other unimportant to
the beetle. (Journal Royal Microscopical Society.)

1056 The American Naturalist. [December,

American Nematinze.—The third of the technical series of bulle-
tins from the U. S. Division of Entomology is entitled “ Revision of the
Nematinz of North America, a Subfamily of Leaf-feeding Hymenop-
tera of the Family Tenthredinidx.” It is by Mr. C. L. Marlatt, and
extends over 135 pages, with one excellent plate and several illustra-
tions in the text. We quote from the introduction as follows:

“The subfamily Nematine of Thompson or Nematina of Cameron
(Konow’s subtribe Nematides) comprises a very large group of closely
allied species, distributed in the classification adopted by the author
among nearly a score of genera. They range from very small insects to
medium sized, but include no very large species, or in length from 2 to
12 mm. They are for the most part smooth, shining, and rather soft
bodied, and are variously colored, but yet presenting frequently a
confusing similarity in general form, and particularly in coloration,
rendering their generic and specific references in some cases difficult.
In point of number of species and abundance of individuals this sub-
family far exceeds any other of the corresponding groups in the family
Tenthredinids, and in variation and peculiarities in larval habits and
in economic importance many of the species belonging to it have a
very great interest.

“Geographical Distribution—The Nematinz are distinctly northern
in their range, reaching their greatest development in abundance of
species and specimens in the transition and boreal zones, and extend
northward into the cireumpolar regions—species occurring abundantly
in Greenland, Iceland, and Spitzbergen. Southward they become less
and less numerous, and are particularly wanting in tropical countries.
This is illustrated very forcibly in Europe by the occurrence of over
70 species of the old genus Nematus in Scotland (Cameron) and 95 in
Sweden (Thompson) as against 12 about Naples, Italy (Costa); and
the same discrepancy exists between the temperate and subarctic region
of America and the Southern States and Mexico.

‘‘Food-plants—Their food-plants cover a wide range, some species
affecting grasses, one or two very destructive to the grains, others
various deciduous trees and shrubs, and still others conifers. The ma-
jority of the species occur, however, on plants of the families Salicaceæ,

‘Betulacese, Rosacese, and Conifers, in the order given.

“Life history and habits—The Nematines are among the first sawflies
to appear in spring, occurring abundantly on trees on the first appear-
ance of the leaves. They do not often frequent flowers, except, at least,
those of the plants upon which their larvæ feed. Many willow species,
for example, occur abundantly on the earliest spring bloom of the

1896.] Entomology. 1057

willow. In common with other sawflies, however, they rarely leave
their larval food-plants, and to be collected successfully a knowledge
of their habits in this respect is very desirable.

“ In number of broods great diversity is found, and the normal rule
of most Tenthredinids, of a single yearly brood, is frequently deviated
from. Some species are known to be limited in number of broods only
by the length of the season, as, for example, Pteronus ventralis Say, the
common willow species. Two annual generations are common, but
many species are single brooded, the larve entering the soil or other
material or remaining in their galls at the completion of growth and
continuing in dormant condition until the following spring, when shortly
before they emerge as perfect insects the change to the pupal condition
takes place. The males normally appear a few days before the females,
and the duration of the life of the adults of both sexes is short, not
often exceeding a week or ten days. Of a large percentage of the species
no males are known, and in the case of many species careful and
repeated breeding records indicate that males are very rarely produced.

“ In some species parthenogenesis is complete ; that is, the eggs from
unimpregnated females produce other females. In other instances of
parthenogenesis, however, either males only are develuped from unfer-
tilized ova or females very rarely.

“ The union of the sexes takes place very shortly after the appearance
of the females, and egg deposition closely follows. The eggs are inserted
either singly or a number together in the young twigs, larger veins,
petioles, in the surface parenchyma, or in the edges of the leaves, the
single exception being the case of the gooseberry sawfly (Pteronus
ribesit), which merely glues its eggs to the leaf without making any
incision whatever. :

“ Most of the species are external feeders on the foliage of plants, but
the species of two genera, Euwra and Pontania, so far as their habits
have been studied, are gall makers, and pass their early life in the
interior of the plants, either in the stems without causing abnormal
growths or in the excrescences or galls on the stems and leaves, At
least one American species develops in the rolled or folded edges of the
leaf. The larvæ are 20-footed, some solitary, others gregarious—the
latter usually more brightly colored and possessing means of protec-
tion in glands secreting a noxious fluid. Most of the solitary ones are
green and not readily observed. They usually feed from the underside
of the leaves, eating from the edge or cutting circular holes in the gen-
eral surface, and in some cases taking everything but the stronger
veins. Many species rest quietly during the day, feeding only at night.

1058 The American Naturalist. - [December,

Some have the habit of throwing the posterior segments violently
upward to frighten away parasites or enemies; others adhere to the
leaves or twigs by the thoracic feet only, coiling the posterior segments
under the middle ones.”

Entomological Notes.—Prof. F. L. Harvey monographs in an
elaborate manner the Currant Fly, Epochra canadensis, in the report
of the Maine Experiment Station.

The North American species of Nemobius are monographed by Mr.
S. H. Seudder (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Sept., 1896). Several new
species are described.

Mr. Alex. D. MacGillivray has recently monographed the American
species of Isotoma in the Canadian Entomologist

In the check-list of the Coccide published by Prof. T. D. A. Cocker-
ell, in the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History
(vol. IV, pp. 8318-339) 773 species are listed.

A number of new species of Scarabeidæ are described by Martin L.
Linell in the Proceedings U. S. National Museum (vol. XVIII, pp.
721-731.

Prof. J. B. Smith discusses again the San José Scale (Aspidiotus
perniciosus) in Bulletin 116 of the New Jersey Station.

“The Principal Household Insects of the United Stated ” is the title
of the extremely valuable and interesting Bulletin No. 4 of the Divis-
ion of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. It was prepared by
Messrs. Howard, Marlatt and Chittenden.

The Lamiinz of North America are monographed by Messrs. C. W.
Leng and John Hamilton, in the Transactions of the American Ento-
mological Society (vol. XXIII, No.2). Inthe same issue Mr. William
H. Ashmead describes a large number of new parasitic Hymenoptera.

Mr. F. M. Webster discusses the Chench Bug in Bulletin 69 of the
Ohio Experiment Station, and several destructive insects in Bulle-
tin 68.

The Phylogeny of the Hymenoptera has recently been discussed by

r. Ashmead in an interesting and authoritative paper in the Proceed-
ings of the Entomological Society of Washington (vol. III, No. 5).

1896.] Embryology. 1059

EMBRYOLOGY!

Movements of Blastomeres.—In a copiously illustrated and
extensive paper on the cleavage of Ascaris megalocephala Otto zur
Strassen’ lays special emphasis upon certain movements of the cells of
the embryo.

In the living egg most remarkable rearrangements of the material
are easily seen when the first four cells glide over one another. In later
stages changes in form are traced to movements of the cells that must
have taken place though not actually seen but inferred from a very
detailed study of preserved material. The author confined his atten-
tion chiefly to the ectodermal layer of cells and knowing the pedigree
of a very large number of them was able to affirm that the changes in
shape that the embryo exhibits are due, in part at least, to an actual
migration or rearrangement of cells. Cell division and surface tension
are not the only factors concerned in this change of position of the
cells; there must be some individual movement of certain cells.

This movement of the cells is regarded as being of the same nature as
that observed by Roux in the isolated cells of the frog’s egg and is,
therefore, designated Cytotropism.

he production of form in the development of the Ascaris embryo
has then this important factor—a power of cells to move towards one
another and thus change the shape of the entire mass. This movement
is in addition to any purely mechanical movements due to surface ten-
sion and is due either to attraction between cells or to repulsion between
cells. In either case it is assumed that chemical influences are at work :
that this movement arises from chemotactic strains.

The movements are much restricted in that a cell travels its own
length at most and is never free from its sister-cell. In fact the two
cells that arise from the division of one remain connected and are not
to be separated by any intrusion of migrating cells and the author
thinks that the movements are probably even more restricted in being
merely the rearrangements of two groups of such sister-cells both
derived from one parent, being merely readjustments of four grand-
children of one cell! The entire ectoderm may then be regarded as a
mosaié of such sets of families of four, each having its own internal
readjustments.

i Edited by E. ` Andrews, Baltimore, Md., to whom abstracts reviews and
preliminary notes sent.

ries 3 aroteorio aik; 3, 1896, pps. 27-101, 133--188, Pls. V--IX.

1060 The American Naturalist. [December,

Moving pigment in Eggs.—In a carefully illustrated account’ of
the cleavage of the Planarian, Polycherus caudatus Mark, Dr. E. G.
Gardiner describes most remarkable changes in position of peculiar,
algalike, pigment bodies which color the eggs orange-red for a certain
period. These bodies appear in certain cells and then others, they lie
along the lines where cleavage is to take place.

They move up from the centre of the egg to the surface and move
from place to place.

Fertilization.—By the use of nitric acid Kostanecki and Wierze-
jski find that the so-called achromatic substance may be demonstrated
with remarkable clearness in the eggs of the pond snail Physa fontinalis.
In a detailed description‘ of radiations, or stars, of this substance seen
during the process of maturation of the egg and during fertilization,
illustrated by many remarkable figures of reconstructed sections, the
authors give the facts that lead them toward the following hypothetical
conception of the true nature of the process of fertilization.

The object of fertilization is the union of the nuclei; but the neces-
ary condition to make this of avail is that the egg be able to continue
to divide, to undergo cleavage. This power is brought to it by the new
nuclear part of the sperm.

Each sexual cell needs to be supplemented by what the other has and
it itself is deficient in. This lack is in the protoplasm.

The egg has large amounts of nutritive material while the sperm has
none. The former has thus relatively too little protoplasm to continue
dividing by itself. During maturation, by dividing twice to form polar
bodies, the egg uses up its remaining power of division and must have
this added to it again if it is to cleave at all.

What the sperm brings in to replace the exhausted cleaving powers
of the egg is the connecting piece of the sperm, the portion near the
head or nucleus, that contains achromatic material centered on the
centrosome or speck next the head. This material isthe remnant from
the achromatic figure of the last cell division in the formation of sperms.

This material is conceived of as concentrated and not, as yet, recog-
nized till it gets into the egg; then it swells up and extend in radii as
an umbrella unfolds. As the sperm revolves through 180° after enter-
ing the egg the middle piece preceeds the sperm head or male nucleus
in its journey towards the female nucleus. The middle piece appears as
a star centered about the centrosome and rapidly grows in all direction

3 Journal of Morphology, XI, pp. 155-171.
t Archiv. f. Mik. Anat., 47, 2, Apl , 1896, pps. 309--379, Pls. 18--2).

1896.] Psychology. 1061

by “ assimilating ” the net-work of theegg. Thus the star, so remarkably
distinct in these snail eggs, about the centrosome of the sperm is to be
regarded as at first of male origin and then as gradually getting control
of the net-work protoplasm, or the archoplasm, of the egg so that it is
eventually the centre of an entire rearrangement of this egg material
focussed about the male centrosome,

he centrosome next the famale nucleus disappears and the star about
it is “assimilated” by the star that arose about the male nucleus.
Sooner or later the male star and centrosome divide to furnish the two-
centered system concerned with division of the cleavage nucleus. The
male and female nuclei unite to make the cleavage nucleus and the two
protoplasmic stars do all that remain to be done in the subsequent
cleavage.

The substitution of the new male system for the effete female system
of radiate protoplasm is regarded as so complete that the chromosomes
in the female nucleus become subjected to the domination of the male
system by the growing male radii attaching themselves to these chromo
somes by a process of .“ assimilation ” of the old connections, that the
author believes to exist between the female chromosomes and the female
centrosomes. It is assumed that this male system is all along con-
nected with the chromosomes of the sperm head and that the contrac-
toin of the radii draw the sperm head toward the female nucleus.

Along with the reduction of the chromosomes in both egg and sperm
there is probably a reduction in the mass of so-called achromatic sub-
stance so that in fertilization there may well be restitution of the normal
amount by a mutual supplying of the deficiency.

It will be seen tbat. this concen st the pronen of fertilisation. is
that of Boveri t entros ded as of no importance
and the surrounding, radiated sea becomes the essential factor
for cell division. The authors follow Heidenhain in regarding the
centrosome as merely the point of insertion of that active, contractile
part of the cell that radiates out from this centre.

PSYCHOLOGY.

The Effects of Loss of Sleep.—Prof. Patrick and Dr. Gilbert,
of the University of Iowa, have reported in the Psychological Review
some experiments on this problem. Three normal subjects were kept
awake for a period of ninety nours, without resort to stimulants or other

1 Edited by H. C. Warren, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

1062 The American Naturalist. [December,

physiological means. During the four days and three nights of the test
they were engaged, as far as possible, in their usual occupations; their
meals were of the customary kind, and were taken at the ordinary
times, with the addition of a light lunch at about midnight. At inter-
vals of six hours a series of tests was made on each subject, to deter-
mine his mental and physical condition. To eliminate the effects of
practice, these tests were begun three days before the experiment. The
test of the first day of experiment, before any loss of sleep had actually
occurred, represent the normal condition of the subject. Tests were
also made after the night’s sleep that followed the conclusion of the
experiment. One of the writers was the first subject. The two other
subjects were instructors in the university ; the latter were experimented
upon at the same time.

Some of the results are of special interest. The reaction time (for
sound) showed a gradual increase for two of the subjects, which was
masked in the third case by increase of practice ; at one period (differ-
ent in the three cases) the time was considerably greater than earlier
or later in the experiment; the mean variation was somewhat above
the normal, but not remarkably great. The acuteness of vision, meas-
ured by the distance at which a page of print could be distinguished
and read, actually increased during the progress of the experiment,
and fell off again after the ensuing sleep. The memory test of the two
last subjects consisted in committing random series of figures; the time
required for this memorizing fluctuated considerably, with a marked
lengthening towards the close of the experiment. One of the subjects
was unable to memorize the figures at all at two of the last day’s tests ;
he found it impossible to hold the attention upon the task long enough
to complete it. The time consumed in adding sets of figures was fairly
constant, with two or three exceptions; it was apparently independent
of the memory conditions. “Voluntary motor ability,” tested by the
number of taps that could be made with the finger in five seconds,
showed no marked alterations ; neither did the susceptibility to fatigue,
as tested by continuing this tapping for sixty seconds. The strength of
grip, measured on the squeeze dynamometer, fell off from 20 to 30 per
cent. at the end of the second day, but afterwards recovered—in two
cases fully, in the other partially. The weight of the men remained
fairly constant, showing a slight increase towards the close of the
period, and the variation of the pulse was within the normal range of
daily fluctuations.

The first subject suffered from marked visual hallucinations after the
second night. “ The subject complained that the floor was covered with

1896.] Psychology. 1063

a greasy-looking, molecular layer of rapidly moving or oscillating parti-
cles. Often this layer was a foot above the floor and parallel with it,
and caused the subject trouble in walking, as he would try to step up
on it. Later the air was full of these dancing particles, which developed
into swarms of little bodies like gnats, but colored red, purple or black.
The subject would climb upon a chair to brush them from about the
gas jet, or stealthily try to touch an imaginary fly on the table with his
finger. These phenomena did not move with movements of the eye and
appeared to be true hallucinations, centrally caused, but due no doubt
to the long and unusual strain put upon the eyes. Meanwhile the
subject’s sharpness of vision was not impaired. At no other time has he
had hallucinations of sight, and they entirely disappeared after sleep.”
Neither of the other subjects experienced these hallucinations.

At the close of the experiment the subjects were allowed to sleep as
long as they desired. Tests were made upon the first subject, however,
at hourly intervals during the first night, to determine the depth of his
sleep. He awoke naturally after ten and a half hours, and remained
awake during the rest of the day, but slept two hours more than his
normal amount the second night. Of the other subjects, one awoke of
his own accord after eleven, the other after fourteen hours’ sleep ; both
felt quite refreshed ; they required no extra sleep the next night, and
felt no ill effects from the experiment.

It will be noticed that the sleep made up was but asmall proportion
of the amount lost, viz., 16, 25 and 35 per cent. in the three cases
respectively. Two possible explanations for this are offered: either a
greater depth of sleep may make up for a lesser duration ; or sleep is
a relative phenomenon, and the subjects, while apparently awake, were
in reality partially asleep at times during the experiment. The authors
believe that both of these facts are true, and that they operated
together in the present instance. While the subjects were not allowed
to go tosleep for an instant, and the slightest tendency to close the eyes
was met by active measures, still there were indications of the presence
of dreams, in lapses of memory and occasional irrelevant remarks. “It
must be understood,” say the writers, “that these dreams were instan-
taneous and the subject as wide awake as he could be kept; but these
facts reveal a cerebral condition related to sleep. This hypothesis
alone, however, would not seen to account fully for the small proportion
of sleep made up. And, indeed, a study of our special tests shows that
restoration took place chiefly during the profound sleep following the
sleep fast, and took place rapidly. That this sleep was actually more
profound, and that the profound part of it was longer than usual, was
shown by our experiments in depth of sleep,” on one of the subjects.

1064 The American Naturalist. [December,

The authors think it would have been possible to prolong the experi-
ment beyond the ninety hours without danger, except in one of the
three cases. These results contrast favorably with those obtained by
M. de Manacéine upon young dogs. The animals were kept from
sleeping and died at the end of the fourth or fifth day.—H. C. WARREN-

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

American Philosophical Society.—November 6, 1896-—The
following communications were made: “ Recent Archeological Ex-
plorations on the Shell Keys and Gulf Coast of Florida,” by Frank
Hamilton Cushing, followed by Dr. D. G. Brinton and Prof. F. W.
Putnam.

November 20, 1896.—Prof. H. V. Hilprecht addressed the Society on
his recent archeological discoveries at Nippur, and exhibited a collect-
ion of tablets with Summerian inscriptions. A paper on “ A New
Physical Property of the X-Ray,” by Charles L. Leonard, M. D.,
was read.

University of Pennsylvania, Bro.tocical CLus.—November 2,
1896.—The following demonstrations were made ; Descriptive Exhibi-
tive of Streptocarpus and Ephedra by Dr. J. M. McFarlane and of
Botrychium by H.C. Porter. The following communication was
made ; School Museums, by Mrs. L. L. W. Wilson.

H. C. PORTER, Secretary.

The Biological Society of Washington.—The following com-
munications were made; Theodore Gill, “ The Category of Family or
Order in Biology ;” C. Hart Merriam, “ Notes on the Fauna of Ore-
gon;” E. A. DeSchweinitz, ‘Some Methods of Generating Formalde-
hyde, and its Use as a Disinfectant ;” C. Hart Merriam, “Supplement-
ary Notes on Tropical American Shrews.

November 21st.—The following communications were made: G. H.
Hicks, “The ‘Mildews’ (Erysipheæ) of Michigan;” Frederick V.
Coville, “The In florescence of the Juncacee;” Theodor Holm,
“The Alpine Flora of Pikes Peak and Grays Peak in Colorado ;”
C. L. Pollard, “Some Further Remarks on Briton and Brown’s Illus-
trated Flora.”

FREDERIC A. Lucas, Secretary.

1896.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1065

National Academy of Sciences.—A scientific session of the
Academy was held in New York, at the Columbia University, begin-
ning November 17, 1896, at 11 o'clock, A. M.

The following papers were read: “On Certain Positive Negative
Laws in their Relation to Organic Chemistry,” A. Michael; “The
Jurassic Formation on the Atlantic Coast,” O. C. Marsh; “The
Hydrolysis of Acid Amides,” Ira Remsen; “The Isomeric Chlo-
rides of Paranitroorthosulphobenzoic Acid,” Ira Remsen; “ The
Equations of the Forces Acting in the Flotation of Disks and
Rings of Metal, with Experiments Showing the Floating of Loaded
Disks and Rings of Metal on Water and on Other Liquids,” Alfred M.
Mayer; ‘On the Geographical Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia
in the Medicolumbian Region,” E. D. Cope; “On the Solar Motion
as a Gauge of Stellar Distances,” S. Newcome; “Memoir of F. B.
Meek,” C. A. White; “The Evolution and Pylogeny of Gastropod
Mollusca,” A. E. Verrill; “On Flicker Photometers,” O. N. Rood;
“A New Type of Telescope Free from Secondary Color,” C. S. Hast-
ings; “ A Graphical Method of Logic,” C. Pearce ; “On Mathemati-
cal Infinity,” C. Pearce.

A reception was given to the Academy by Mrs. Henry Draper, on
the evening of Wednesday, November 18.

Boston Society of Natural History.—November 4th.—The
following paper was read: Prof. George Lincoln Goodale, “The Re-
claiming of Deserts.”

November 18th.—The following papers were read: Prof. George H.
Barton, “ Observations upon the Inland Ice and the Glaciers Proceed-
ing from it in the Umanak District, Greenland;” Prof. Alfred E.
Burton, “ The Topographical Features of the Umanak District, Green-
land. Other members of the Greenland Expedition were present, and
took part in the discussion—SAMUEL HENSHAW, Seeretary.

The Academy of Science of St. Louis.—At the meeting of
November 2, 1896, Mr. Colton Russell spoke of “ What an Entomolo-
gist Can Find of Interest About St. Louis,” illustrating his remarks by
numerous pinned specimens of insects, giving particular attention to
the butterflies, and speaking at some length of the phenomena of peri-
odicity, migration, polymorphism, etc., as illustrated by these insects,
his paper embodying the result of a large amount of field work per-
formed during the last ten years. Resolutions were adopted opposing
the passage of the antivivisection bill now before the United States
Senate. Three persons were elected to active membership.

1066 The American Naturalist. [Decem her,

At the meeting on the evening of November 16, 1896, Dr. Charles
R. Keyes, the State Geologist of Missouri, read a paper entitled, “ How
Shall We Subdivide the Carboniferous?” and Professor J. H. Kinealy
exhibited a chart for determining the number of square feet of low-
pressure steam-heating surface required to keep a room at 70° F., and
gave a description of the method of making the chart. Two active
members and one life-member of the Academy were elected.

WILLIAM TRELEASE, Recording Secretary.

New York Academy of Sciences.—November 9th—Members
of the Columbia University Expedition to Puget Sound made reports
on the summer’s work.

Mr. N. R. Harrington gave a short narrative of the expedition, in-
cluding a description of the equipment of the laboratory, dredging, in-
vestigation and plankton collection.

In addition, he made a report on the Echinoderms, Crustacea and
Annelids. Mention was made of the relation of the asymmetry in
Scutella excentrica to its habit of burrowing and its vertical position in
the sand. Abundant material, both larval and adult, of Entoconcha was
obtained. This mollusk had been noted by Miiller in 1852, and Baur
in 1864, in Synapta digitata and by Semper in Holothuria edulis.
The present material was found in an undetermined species of Holo-
thuria. About forty species each of Crustacea, Annelids and Echino-
derms have been identified.

Mr. Bradney B. Griffin presented the following report on the
Platodes, Nemerteans and Mollusks:

The Platodes and Gephyrea are relatively scarce. They are repre-
sented solely by two Dendrocoels, and one Phymosoma respectively.
The nemertines occur very abundantly, fully fifteen different species
were obtained, most of which appear to be undescribed, though some
seem to approach more or less closely the European forms rather than.
those of the east coast of America. The European species are the
more numerous.

The Molluscan fauna is very rich and varied, ninety-three species of
sixty-nine genera were collected. These include among others the
large Cryptochiton stellerii which, when alive and expanded measures
over 20 em., besides numerous smaller species of Mopalia, Katherina,
Tonicella, ete., that occur in vast numbers on rocks and piles between
tides. The Nudibranchs are notable from their bright colors and
large size. One species of Dendronotus attains a length of over 25 cm.
Cases of color variation ( Cardium and Acmaea) and color series (Lit-
torina) were to be met with, as well as color harmonization; many

1396.) Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1067

Chitons and Limpets are colored so as to more or less resemble the
speckled and barnacled rocks upon which they occur. A complete
series of Pholadidea penita (the “ boring clam”) was obtained, which
shows the gradual atrophy of the foot and concrescence of the mantle
edges as the adult condition is attained. Specimens of Zirphea cris-
pata were collected, a related form in which the foot remains functional
throughout life. A series of maturation and fertilization stages of this
form was obtained. Lepton is not uncommon, a Lamellibranch that
lives with commensal attached by its byssus to the abdomen of the
Crustacean Gebia, and has caused the atrophy of the first pair of ab-
dominal appendages of its host. It has developed a median furrow on
each valve in adaptation to the body form of Gebia. An interesting
case was observed in which an otherwise nearly smooth Placuanomia
shell had assumed during its growth the concentric raised lines of a
Saxidomus valve upon which it was attached.

The insects are not very abundant, they are represented in the col-
lection mainly by a few wood beetles, myriopods (Julus, Polydesmus),
and a species of Termes.

Mr. Calkins reported on the Protozoa and Coelenterates of Puget
Sound and of the Alaskan Bays.

The Protozoa and Coelenterates collected during the summer by Mr.
Calkins belong chiefly to the group Flagellata for the former, and to
the Leptomeduse for the latter. In addition, there are nine species of
hydroids—a large number, considering the very limited representation
of this group in the western waters. Twelve or fourteen species of
Actinians and about the same number of sponges, and several Scypho-
medusae complete the list of Coelenterates.

Mr. Bashford Dean reported on the Chordates and*Protochordates
of the Collection. The Ascidians are represented by about a dozen
species, Fishes by upwards of forty. The most important part of his `
work had been the collecting of embryos and larve of Chimaera ( Hy-
drolagus colliei) and a fairly complete series of embryos of Bdellos-
toma, including upwards of 20 stages from cleavage to hatching. Of
Chimaera, upward of eighty egg cases had been dredged in a single
day ; but in every case these were found to be empty. The eggs were
finally obtained at Pacific Grove, California, from the female, and
were incubated in submerged cages. It was in this locality that the
eggs of Bdellostoma were collected.

C. L. BRISTOL, Secretary.

1068 The American Naturalist. [December,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Hindshaw Natural History Expedition returned to the Univer-
sity of Washington at Seattle, June 15, 1896 from the eastern part of
State. The party consisted of Henry H. Hindshaw, Curator of the
Museum, Mrs. Hindshaw, and Trevor ©. D. Kincaid, Laboratory
Assistant in Biology. Transportation was secured for the members of
the expedition from the Northern Pacific Railroad, through Surgeon
F. H. Coe of Seattle. The party made headquarters at Pasco, where
they proceeded to collect a fine lot of plants not found in other parts
of the state. In all there were acquired several hundred specimens,
covering 150 species. Arrangements were then made for an explora-
tion for Indian relics up the Snake river; and in the meantime Mr.
and Mrs. Hindshaw proceeded to the sand hills of Douglas county.
These were reached by a trip to Ritzville, thence to Hatton, and from
there a drive to the hills of about sixteen miles. Mr. Hindshaw reports
some interesting geological facts concerning these sand-hills, or dunes.
By an examination of the surrounding blanket or cover of basalt; he
concludes that the area covered by these dunes was left uncovered by
the general flow of lava making the basalt. This deposit of sand is the
layer known as the “John Day” bed. It is the water-bearing rock of
Eastern Washington. Farmers come from miles to these sand-hills,
where they get plenty of water with little digging. Away from the
dunes artesian wells have been sunk. Water is obtained, but some-
times it is necessary to bore through hundreds of basalt to reach the
“John Day,” or water-bearing, rock. The “John Day” beds carry
most interesting fossil bones. Mr. Hindshaw brought home many teeth
. and bones of the fossil rhinoceros and horse, the latter probably the
three-toed ancestor of the present horse. These bones have been worn
in the waves of moving sand as badly or worse than is a shell battered
by the waves of the ocean. Only the hardest parts of the bones remain,
but these are of great interest until further explorations yield more
perfect skeletens of these prehistoric mammal remains. After making
a thorough search of these sand-hills and procuring all the fossil bones
in sight, the party returned to Pasco. Here Mr. D. A. Owen, an en-
thusiastic collector of Indian curios, had perfected arrangements for a
trip up Snake river to Page’s ferry and on to the deserted cattle-ranch
known as McCoy’s. These places were evidently the camping grounds
of great bands or villages of Indians before the arrival of the white

1896.] Scientific News. 1069

man. Many of the old graves are cut out and washed away by the
river, but the expedition succeeded in obtaining many valuable spec-
imens, such as stone mortars, pestles, hammers, skin-scrapers, arrow-
and spear-points, all of different sizes and shapes. At one place was
found a large stone anvil, around which were many fragments of flint
and basalt and half-formed arrow-points, showing the remains of a
genuine Indian weapon factory. A number of Indian skulls were also
obtained. Mingled with these remains and old stone implements, were
old brass buttons, blue beads, and an old iron adz, showing that the
time of the making of the graves and caches was about the time of the
Hudson Bay Company’s occupation of the territory in the early part
of this century.

Mr. Kincaid secured about 3,000 specimens of insects, comprising
about 300 species, which will make a valuable addition to the Univer-
sity’s entomological collections.

Thus far the expenses of these collecting expeditions have been borne
by individuals, though the University gets the full benefit of the work,
and the entire collections.

Other expeditions are planned for the summer months in the various
fields of natural science.

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