yep x N. MANCHESTER, INDIANA THE HECKMAN BINDERY, INC. JOURNAL & PROCEEDINGS OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL. New Series, Vol. XV. 1919. ISIRWILLIAMJONES] MDCCXLVI“MDCCXCIV CALCUTTA : PRINTED AT THE BAPTIST MISSION PRESS, AND PUBLISHED BY THE ASIATIC SOOTETY, 1, PARK STREET, OALCUTTA. 1920. Mi®eOUR! ROTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY DATES OF PUBLICATION. Journal No. 1 pp. fy te ee PP- Nil mands 1919 iy) ae gy i-lxxvi June, ,, een Oy 107, 89° Nil Ate. G jo eee Ss ee Proceedings, pp. Ixxvii-cexxvii Sept. is so NOG DG; 191-262 Vel a », No. 6 ,, 263-302 Proceedings, pp. Shicierticana ily Nov i 2 IS a », @exxxix-cexliv May, 1920. (Volume complete in 7 issues.) DIRECTIONS FOR BINDING. The pages of the Journal should be bound first after the Contents ; they are numbered in Arabic numerals. The pages of the Proceedings should tollow them ; they are paged conse- cutively in Roman numerals. The Index is paged in conti- nuation of the Proceedings. Plates — i-ii to follow page 99 ili-i i oe 29 Ll-1V ¥ 2 2 5 » V-viil »” 9 ” 297 2 1X-x +s be + 317 “3 +1 POR) Cs exliv 2” > 11 ( ed ) 29 ” » Cxclv CONTENTS PAPERS [JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS] ANNANDALE, N. Notes on the Vegetation of Seistan ae a or See also Carter. Aziz, Mp. ABDUL On the identification of the ancient town of Tagara BARTER, ELDER Radiation Pressure: The fallacy in Larmor’s Proof BEVERIDGE, A letter st the Emperor Babur to his son Kamran. BHATTACHARYA, B. C. dentification of three Monuments at Sarnath CarTER, H. G. See also Annandale. CHATTERJI, NRIPENDRA NATH On the Rationalisation of Algebraic Equations CreeHorn, MaupeE L. A note on the vitality and longevity of Silkworm Moths ioe the Cold and Rainy seasons in Bengal Dunnicurr, H. B. The ene of Indian Sesame (Til) oil as es e also Hashmat Rai. Fermor, L. Lera@ igre Easier (Science oo — of Ore Gene’ the Archaean of India Haings, H. H Some new species of plants from Behar and Orissa Hayrpen, H. Annual Address, As. Soc. Beng. (1919) .. Howttet, F. M. reine Address (Science Chingroas)—-Poat-Wae ee Page 321 elxx XxXxxvii vi Page Kasuyap, S. R. Presidential Add (Sei Congress)—Relationships of Liver- worts E ‘ rae YE, G. R. Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy .. ei Sree | Keatinag, G. F. pieaootae Address (Science on toe Saget Economic rs affecting Agricultural Progress : es Ci Kunoyer, L. A. Notes on Vallisneria ae e: + Sa BOS Matiz, D.N. Presidential Address oo a ie Basi cae advances in Physics and Mathem Z cv Law, B. C. A note on Pa ar 3 commentarie 107 Influence rt t five Heretical Woashors on tein and Buddhi ‘ 123 Liston, W. GLE Phddastisl —— Peis ea ace The Next War.’’ Man versus Inse ce PILGRIM, Guy E. Suggestions concerning the History of the ainage Northern India arising out of a a of the ad Boul- der bythe apc PrasHap, B Observations on the Intra-uterine Embryos of Elasmobranchs 149 Rat, esr Note on Nitrogen. A new method of eo us 357 349 Purtonion of Tdi Sesame (Til) oil ae so el See also H. B. Dunnicliff. Rocers, Sim Lronarp Pieitdentinn poscet (Science Congress) ihekels of Bye (Ep. Ind., ii, pp. 410 ff.) shows thas 6 a3 late as t — of oe fifteenth century .D. prasasti fuaiiie ons peg composed b bhattas 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana, 21 with them. Evidently, in such cases, all the particulars concerning the life of the persons in question had been for- gotten, except their names. The coming into existence of a Bhasa literature towards and their spirited panegyrical songs, which had the advantage of being understood and appreciated by everybody, gained a definite victory over the panegyrical poems in Saiskrit, which had never been very popular. The bhaitas of the pragastis gradually forgot their Sanskrit and took to compose in Bhasa, and the genealogical records which were formerly incised on stone, were thenceforth committed to paper.'!_ The precise time when pedigrees began to be put into writing is, of course, difficult if not impossible to determine, but in the case of the Rathoras it is certain that written genealogies of some kind ' Pedigrees, of course, were also preserved by memory. E to day Rajputs and Jats in the desert know their pedigrees by he At Sirdargadh, west of Sur I was surprised to find ru hiyas o find citing to me their pedigrees in harsh Rathi from the name of their father back to a mythical Johiyé believed to be the progenitor of the Ex race. Their parrot-like recitation began :— SI@Sl Wg Sf Weal Tat ar => . WT TT ST WUT FCS ST FLA AAT AT. .cte. ? The position of the above names in the succession of the early Rathora Ravas, may be seen from the list which I give below: 1. Sihd > 2. Asathina > 3. Dhihara > 4. Raya Pala > 5. Kanha Rava > 6. Jalhana > 7. Chadd > 8. Tidd > 9. SalakhO > 10. Virama > 11. Cidd > 12. Rina Mala > 13. Jodhd > 14. Vike. 22 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [NS., XV, consisted of bare lists of names, and a particular feature in them was that they did not begin from Sihé—the founder of the Marwar branch of the Rathoras—, but from Salakho, the part i,” begins from Cidé, two generations after Salakho. y was an imperfect one, and the works were more in the form of a collection of disconnected lists than in the form of orderly treatises. The later pidhiyavalis, which came into existence towards _ the end of the sixteenth century A.D. and which are, intrinsic- ally, the same as those which we now possess, are in the form of orderly treatises. They were compiled, of course, from the earlier works, but on a well arranged plan, and were integrated with the addition of all the genealogies intervening between Stho and Salakho, which had been left out of account in the earlier works. Not only this, but they were also enlivened by 1 Descr. Cat. of Bard. and Histl. MSS., section ii, pt. i, pp. 7-8. 2 Pp 6 3 Here Samvat 1500 is given as a round figure. As a matter of fact a few dates falling within the later half of the Samvat century 1400 are found in the later pidhiyavalis. 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 23 the insertion of short biographical notes on the most distin- which trace their origin to Sihd, is a very simple an the same time a very convenient one. Each generation, ete: from Sihd who represents the first generation, is mar ya progressive number both in the main line and in the yeh: lines, and this number is prefixed to each name in the different lists, so that it is possible to know at once to which generation a particular individual belongs. The first to be treated is, degree of seniority of each line. In some cases, however, the lateral lines were given in an ascending order, i.e. instead of inverted order. This irrational arrangement was, I believe, introduced with the object of bringing into greater prominence the lines and the individuals more closely related to the sovereign ruling at the time, and there can be no doubt that the original arrangement was according to the chronological or descending order, but that res ascending system was intro- duced pretty early is shown b a Jodhpur pidhiyavala of the time of maharaja Jasavanta Singha I (later half of the seven- teenth century A.D.), in which it is adopted.! whom were the pidhiyavalis a 86S ? From the fact that the prasastis of the early Rajput period were composed by — = that the modern genealogists of Rajputana are still known under the name of : ‘ Bhata,”’ which is the sa word, it wOiia seem, from the evidence of this name, that the profession of a bhatta o t bhata has continued uninterruptedly from those early times Pe the present day, and consequently the Bhatas ought to be the authors of the pidhiyavalis. But if we compare the rough, disconnected, unintelligible genealogical lists kept by the Bhatas to-day with the orderly and accurate pidhiyavalis of three — ago, we can sc arcely believe that these could have been made by their ancestors. Anyhow, it is certain that, as far.as the Rathoras are concerned, they had also one or more Jain Jatis who kept regular records of the family, and these Jatis are possibly entitled to some credit for the compilation of the pidhiyavalis. Another thing, which seems equally certain, is that the pidhiyivalis we know so far, | Descr. Cat. of Bard. and Histl. MSS., sect. i, pt. i, MS. 18, pp. 59-63. 24 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, have all been compiled under the aegis of the sovereign Chief by men in his employment or in his train. Works like these cannot be explained as being merely the outcome of private initiative, it is clear that they must have grown under the encouragement of the Chief. Possibly, while ordinary Bhatas were going about begging village for village and door for door with their eesti scribbles as they do to-day, other men better trained in methodical and accurate work were compiling the pidhiyavalis ithe capital, probably in part from the very data furnished to them by the travelling Bhatas. It is not unreasonable to one that these compilers of the got valis were the same men who compiled the chronicles, and bro the same accuracy and methodicity to bear on both the w i Certainly, accuracy and methodicity are not qualities to be balanced judgment ruled by fits of passion and a manner of expression deformed by an irresistible tendency towards hy- perbole and fiction. Bhatas were poets from the earliest times to at least three centuries ago, and now that they are no longer poets, are nothing more than ignorant charlatans, often even more ignorant than the simple people they dupe. Now, poets can hardly be believed to have been the compilers of the pidhiyavalis. The Bhatas were the repositories of genealogical lore from the earliest times, no doubt, but no Bhata probably ever possessed the ability of embodying the loose and un- shaped materials in his possession into an organic work, and if he ever tried to give a literary and finished shape to these materials, it was the sg gh of poetry. There are numbers of genealogical verses—-l.e. verses containing pedigrees—in existence, and these might well be the production of the Bhatas of some centuries a Internal and external sii combine to show that the These genealogical verses are usually in the form of kavitias. They are of two kinds: dynastic and genealogical. The former recor names of a series of rulers who sneuda? one another, and sometimes i irr phase reigns. The latter ore commonly record the names of the sons of a particular Chief, as the kavitia following which contains the names of the twelve sons of rava Cadé: , ne = @® ot oa i) qb S B § ° eh tq oO Laat) er a 2 frqae tat wg Hat VtTSS VST | Usa At LAP yat afe Wa Wa az | art BCSHATS ahea gat wihagu | afeaaie a fast TS ey Sat HET 1919.]} Bardie and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 25 chronicles ee or, as they are locally called, the khyatas, t have come into existence con temporaneously with the prdhiyavalis, t.e. ag meas the end of the sixteenth century A.D. This is not a mere coincidence, and I believe that both the if so, they were even more imperfect and disconnected than the genealogical lists of the early period. Certainly, so far as Jodhpur and Bikaner are concerned, connected histories and chronicles seem to have been cules until the time mentioned above. How could they neni: then, all of a sudden, towards the end of the sixteenth century e explanation is very simple if one only thinks of the political circumstances in which the two principalities of Jodhpur and Bikaner—to say nothing of others—found themselves eer that time. Before the middle of the sixteenth century A.D. both Jodhpur and Bikaner had fallen within the sphere of power of Ser Sah, and a few years afterwards the Princes of the two rival States met each other at the Court of the great Akbar. It is natural that there, boftire. an Emperor who was ever ready to lend an in- terested and benevolent ear to the stories, beliefs, and disputes of his subjects, the Princes of Rajputana brought all their mu- tual rivalries and their controversies about pre-eminence and seniority, and each tried to back his claims with pedigrees of his family and with such stories as tended to add prestige to it. In doing so, they served a double purpose: asserting their right to a conspicuous position among their fellow Princes, and commanding more consideration from the Emperor. It was thus a spirit of emulation and ambition that awoke in the Rajput Princes who gathered at the Imperial Court, an interest in snes hace matters. Such an interest never existed before, when the Princes, living within the ramparts of their cities, were ier pe ith the panegyrics of their bards and the flatteries of their parasites, and never seemed to care much about their remote ancestors nor to inquire whence they came from. But now they began to inquire into the origins A their family, to refresh the memory of their ancestors and the tradi- tions concerning them, and to ‘complete their pedigrees with long lines of pauranika names linking their rogenitors with Rama- candra, Krsna and other illustrious personages of world-wide dl fearrs tra? ay ate ata 21a Gaye | ait afte Ss aur Sa Sas sore ta 26 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, fame. It was at this time that the Guhildtas advanced a claim to be the descendants of Noshirwan,! and the Rathoras connected their origins with the Gahiravalas of Kanauj. It was again at this time that raja Raya Singha caused a long prasasti-inscription to be engraved in the new fort of Bikaner, tracing his descent to Sihd, and hence to raja Jayacandra of himself. And it was at this very same time that regular pidhiyavalis and khyatas came into eaperenion: There is no are 7 the meaning of this coincidence.? the impulse came from that spirit of emulation pigs nach long pre-existent, was intensified and fostered t the Court of Akbar. And the Rajput Chiefs summoned hats bards and genealogists and caused them to compile histori- cal sketches of their families, in the plain language of prose. These were the vamsavalis. Being composed by bards or, at least, from the information in the hands of the bards and from the traditions preserved by them, these historical sketches are far from accurate and reliable, but are not the less important as embodying in themselves muc what was known or believed at the time concerning the eatin period. That they were chiefly composed by bards and from bardic sources, is shown parts, and the prominence given to legends and anecdotes, also by the occasional quotations of Les ae verses and songs and the fact that these quotations are given as documentary evidence in testimony of the truth of the caetative et (sakha rt kavita). The first vamsavalis were works of small pro- portions and humble pretensions, but soon mae as they were taken up by other hands—the compilers of the khyatas— who convert the latter into complete chronicles of the dynasty from the origins to the current day The first khyatas were shicaisied of contemporary events. In contrast with the vamsavalis, which later got incorporated into them much to their discredit, the first khyatas were remark- able for accuracy, sobriety, and dispassionateness. They con- tained no legends, no quotations of bardic verses, no flatteries, no » ties, but merely plain statements of facts teeming with 1 Tod, i, pp. 189-195 (Routledge’s edition); Jarrett’s Aini Akbari, ey Pa oo explanation here given of the origin of the Rajasthani Chron- applies in particular to the case of Jodhpur and Bikaner—the only exp! that the same explanation in the main is adidbabie also to the other “er of Rajputana which rllcer shapes possess a bardic and historical litera- 1919.] Bardie and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 27 names and dates, these facts contemporary and many of them witnessed by the writer with his own eyes. They could not be the production of bards, and if there were a shade of doubt about it, the mere consideration that they do not contain whom were they simaspitied then ? Abul Fazl in several places chapter in his second volume ef meg tells us that in the nineteenth year of his reign (1574 A.D.) Akbar established a Record Office. The example of the Emperor must have been to them that they should also keep records of all the notable events happening in their respective territories and of the cam- . paigns which they were making in the service of the Empire, and they readily responded to the hint. Maybe Akbar wanted these ir mc records to supplement the records in the central] office, or he wanted to have them read before his pre- sence, a suppenion not altogether unlikely in the case of a monarch who caused the Rajatarangini to be translated on the occasion of his first visit to Kasmir.' Anyhow, the Rajput inces kept their own records and in a manner which more than anything gives credit to the view that they were inspired by Akbar. The compilers can hardly have been anybody else but the Princes’ officials themselves, the Paficolis and the Mahajanas, collectively known as mutsaddis, who from those times to the present day have been filling all the most impor- tant posts in the establishments of the Rajput States. These were the only people who were able to write correctly and currently ; te bards having never had a reputation for ‘ortho- graphical and intelligible writing. Besides, they were the only people who could view facts in their natural light, grasp a meaning, and write an accurate and luminous account of t They were ee trained to business transactions, desk iivell. gery, and office routine, and hire arsed were well qualified for a work which is essen ntially k of methodical and patient accuracy. And they 166 tke thamnbslvén of their task admir- ably. nfo rtunately, of these contemporary chronicles which the — that these iS sie er records were safely treasured in ~ 1 Jestott's diné Abbr; ii, p. 380. 28 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, State archives, allowed them to remain with the families of their compilers, the mutsaddis, with the result that they are completely lost to the State to-day. That there are stil! several vahis con- taining khyatas in the houses of the descendants of the old mut- saddis of Jodhpur and Bikaner, is known to everybody, but these vahis are so jealously concealed that even the respective Darbars are unable to induce their owners to produce them. Thus the blind ignorance and irresponsible wickedness of the owners has kept hidden from sight most valuable materials which, if known, would throw much light on the history of the States concerned and of India as well. I have said that shortly after coming into existence, the contemporary records—which, naturally, were in the form of notes not necessarily connected with one another—were incor- porated with the materials of the vamsavalis and, I may add here, of the genealogies, into a unique and in external appear- ance homogeneous composition, also called khydta, but extend- ing from the origins of the ruling family, not to say of the world itself, down to the current times. This happened as early as the middle of the seventeenth century A.D., and the most Singha I, and his prime minister Mihandta NénaSi. The latter, who was especially keen on subjects of historical re- search, is well known in Rajputana and particularly in Jodhpur and Bikaner for a work of general history of the Rajput tribes of Rajputana, which goes under his name. From the times of Jasavanta Singha I to about a century ago, khyatas continued to be compiled, probably by the sa:ne mutsaddis on about the same original lines, and the old khyatas, re-copied with more or less faithfulness, were integrated with the new information of more recent years. But the spirit of sincerity and impartial- ity which characterized the early khyatas was not always maintained. Truths which could. be plainly told in the six- teenth century, became unpalatable in the eighteenth and had therefore to be omitted or disguised in the khydtas of this period. This was chiefly due to the increased susceptibilities of a more dignified form. ‘Sindhayaca Dayala Dasa, a Carana, did this in Bikaner and produced a work which, though fairly accurate in the last pages dealing with contemporary or quasi- contemporary events, is distorted by a large amount of forgery in all the rest, the chief object of which is to exalt the Caranas 1919] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 29 by sai abaadlice the Rulers * Bikaner as owing all their ewe to Karaniji, a Carani woman who apparently lived under ra bigs (end of the fifteenth siaitee A.D.), and was deitied sheet: ards. It is a matter of much regret that, with soe one or two exceptions, the Princes of Rajputana have not yet fully realized the fact that history isa scientific discipline, not an exercise of rhetoric and imagination. Only a man trained in critical work and in the right method of scsccuah can judge the value of the different materials, and sift facts from traditions and fiction, in the light of documentary evidence. Irrespon- sible statements make no history ; they are like castles built in the air. The history of the Rathoras which for over thirty years has been in preparation in the Tawarikh Mehkma of Jodhpur, when it appears, if it appears at all, will be found to possess even less value than the Khyata of Bikaner by Sindha- yaca Dayala Dasa and will not lead our knowledge of the sub- ject a single step further. Why? Because it is compiled by people who are not conversant with the proper method of research. If such ee are written for the consumption of the ignorant and credulous folk in the villages of the desert, they may vet achieve some object, though at an expense absolutely disproportionate with the results, but if they are meant for India and the world, the only object they can possibly achieve is to create a very unfavourable idea of the progressiveness of the State under whose patronage they are compiled. Thus only harm can result from them and it would be really better if aa histories were never written. One can understand the reasons which make some very orthodox Princes of Rajputana hostile to historical research. Not everybody has, like the traditions of his family dissected by the lancet of the critic ; each Prince knows that the records of his family contain 4 great proportion of fiction which often masks an act of trea- panerA oul mu a a rece an admission of subordinacy, aa gular accession, and similar unpleasant truths. It is Pe iieahicn of i icihe | that the Princes fear. We can understand that. But, apart from the fact that most of these unpleasant truths are already known, there is another con- sideration which goes to prove that the publication of the Raja- sthani chronicles far from doing harm, would greatly benefit the Rajputs and the Hindus in general. Itis this : that the history works of the Muhammadan historians. Now, the Muhammadan historians in their works represent the Rajput Princes in a very unfavourable light, these are to them ‘“‘ infidel dogs,” ‘‘ head- strong rebels’? and what not, and Allah is thanked every time a Rajput is ‘‘ despatched to the bottom of hell.’’ In conse- quence of such unfriendly feelings the Muhammadan historians 30 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, us to see the reverse of the medal. For just as the Muham- madan chronicles are more copious in particulars referring to mp materials available for a history in their respective States, catalogue them, and preserve them with all the care which such precious documents demand. Time will come when their descendants will cease to believe the stories of the bards and will search for materials from which to compile a real history. And if they will not find them, they will have painfully to confess to the world that nothing positive is known about the history of their State and of their family. Much has gone lost already, and the necessity for preserving what has been left could never be inculeated too strongly. would demand, I hope that by a judicious choice of the most typical examples, I shall be able to give the reader a fairly impse rst specimen which I give below, is taken from an historical sketch of the Rathdoras contained in an old manu- ipt script preserved in the Darbar Library in the Fort of Bikaner,! 1 MS. 2 of Descr. Cat. of Bard. and Histl. MSS., sect. i, pt. ii, pp. 16-18. 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 31 and is meant to illustrate the vamsavalis which, as pointed out above, were the first historical works to appear on the scene at about the time of Akbar. The present work is just referable to Akbar’s time, it having been composed either during the last years of the rule of rava Kalyana Mala of Bikaner, who died in Samvat 1630, or during the rule of his son and suc- cessor raja Rava Singha. It is written in an archaic form of Marwari, and contains an account of the principal events in the history of the Rathoras, from Siho, the conqueror of Pali, down to rava Kalyana Mala of Bikaner, mixed with pedigrees. It is therefore both descriptive and genealogical, on the whole a very uncouth composition, written in the plainest possible form, not without some charm of naiveté. I give below the. first part of the work from the beginning down to the death of Caddo. It will be noticed that i in the first lines the origin of the Rathoras is traced to Sthé who is Sag as an emi- grant from Kanauj and at ee same time as a contemporary e tradition current about Sihod in those tim A very interest- ing particular is that Dhadhala is snentioned as the elder son of Asathana, whereas in the later genealogies Dhihara is rep- resented as the elder and Dhadhala as the younger. Another pipe ies 2 particular is that concerning the murder of a son of Reni by the Caranas, which is related in the first page. vamsavalt was not composed by a Carana. e possess another later recension of this work which is apparently referable to a Carana,! and it is noteworthy that in s later recension while the narrative has been amplified by a addition of new particulars and the insertion of testimonial songs, the par- ticular of the Caranas murdering the son of Reni has been h possibly be a Bhata. (Extr. 1;) af stapetet aaas sat? one] Bs cfeat A 27: A we east 4 [sta Z]° erfeat @ fare orem alae atest ft cra @ aret glatet wars wat far ga FE faa ast’ g° ce ue AA we’ goa ate F facat arte ug faa rat aTeat aTet qerait arfeat we aT est 7 FAs weate 4 Sy Afar 1 MS. 30 of Op. cit. > Smt, 3 af, + ares, ° ae, 8 are. 32 Journal of the Asiutic Society of Bengal. {N.S., XV. arait at Aaa [.] sre @s (?) Sat [a] Star tex wat q sat ue wat q ta! meat qf staat a wea ta ot dat arfeat @ fear’ aot fad? at arent wreat f aet & tm Aum aah areata F SALT R EAT utaa ast fant [.] wefsat atest @ ® asm’ [ateftan’ utes dtm sat go utea co fa q aes eH Bat | arya wat { Sea quae Ff yar aft arat Sat Q arg FA Aaa ora SH 2 WF gst arat Pais arex afemt war q ware sfeas? Sst afer Sen Aa BN FT SEA TT Sart R Weqala’ Wears’ F sina fa sa aq mew 2 uait ateaq? we cert g Sa Faq? ga afc 9 aria 3 gma wae oa afs art eat faw FF at ue ore a fad aes sat gate Go aie! 3 afetem oe at We faa wat” 3 il i ww, ® Sic for t°, ’ fay, + aret ara arte! 3 a stare aiet Se [Gaga]? ae aife a ufedt ue users avec snk @ ten 3S aS att aTeat Bet fea ae we Se { Fafa’ [a] wrefet arect area ate F arfeat areet ats at we avent ated fm Gf ast’ | wa atafe’ avec dea Atafe’ 3 ated au : 5 “Then Dhira De Mada- vana said: “The feud is mine. I will fight,” and then Dhira De arene from his horse and went [over Goga Del. Now Goga De had [received] a boon from a khetapala® that if he Dhira De fell on the spot. And Goga me laughed. And Dhira tch! De said: ‘“‘ Damned wretch!.......... Then Goga De said : ‘The Johiyas and we have been made aqua [by this revenge]. But now, if there is anywhere a man of my party hearing, [we] have [now] a feud with the Bhatt Ranaga De on account of the insult of the ordure, let him take it on himself.” And this io now terminates her while Cidé was sta aying at Kalai. And [in the course ‘of time] Ciido grew big, and went to [stay] with Malo, . = their wealth he used to fill his belly [with ease]. In this way he, was living. Afterwards, the cocoanuts of the Sakhalas * “(This] Otidd will be the lord ay all,” and to Cfidd espoused 1 Here I have omitted to a the =It ‘* previously ” in the text, els seems en Si uperfluo: 2A Lisle dei xact ae of the phrase which has here been omitted in the translation, ol inane but it evidently contains some scurrilous abuse or impreca we. offers. 5 Lit.: had co: 6 Lit.: had aie: 42 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, [his rae — having [thus] wedded, [Ciidd] went [back] to Mahev Now there Ciidd cannot stay without making Revaztations. So Malo said [to him]: ‘Thou makest devastations,” and [Ctd6d] said: ‘I do not make.” Then [Mald] said: ‘* Put thy hand on my neck,’’! and [Cio] did not put [it]. Then [Malo] was epee and gave [to Cudo] the garrison of Salavari. [So Ciidd] began to stay in the garrison. Afterwards he kept his Sakhali wife and his child Rina Mala at Cidasara and he himself used to come and go [from one place to the other]. And he took Mandovara,* and thereafter he took also } Nagora and Didavand. And he was staying at Nagora. Afterwards Ranaga De espoused [his daughter] to Rina Mala. There at Jagali were staying the Sakhalas. Now the rule of the Sakhalas grew weak. The Sakhalé Méha Raja resided at Pict. But Alhana Si, the child of Méha Raja, had gone [to] Viktpura where the Bhatis Jéto and Lina-Karana were staying, [having been] placed there by ravala Kehara.? Afterwards the Bhati Ranaga De slew them and with them slew also the child of Méha Raja. So Méha Raja too had a feud [with Ranaga De]. Now Méha Raja had said to Cudd: ‘[I] have come [to oe in thy territory, and {lo !] my child has been slain!”’ Then Ciid6 said to Araraka Mala:* ‘The thing that Méha Raja S2YS, “that thou do.” Now Méha Raja went to stay at Bhiidela, a village of Nagora, and [his] spies were wandering sheet ut the surroundings of] Ranaga De. And Ranaga De had kept [his child] Sado at 'Ranehara and there Sadd was stayin Afterwards [Sado] had caused a meal to be prepared in the house of a carpenter woman, and there the carpenter woman said : ** My master has & daughter [who] is worthy of Sado.” Then® Sado said: ‘‘Make me see her with my eyes.’’ Afterwards on the day of the Tijas, the carpenter woman went to Odita, a village of the Mohilas, and there showed [the maiden] to Sado. And Sado espoused her. Now when he was returning, the Sakhalo Méha Raja had him spied, and taking with himself Araraka -Mala ~ some from Nagora, went after him, and then they fell on where Dadhali [is, which is now] called Navo De [saying]: “Show it to my father-in-law. [For] he will say that [his son] was slain for the sake of some bad wench. Now like this was I. And I am now going to burn myself [with the corpse of my husband ”’].® 1 T.e. ‘* Swear by my neck.” 2 Mandor 3 Of Jesalmer. + A son 1 of Cad6 himself. 5 Lit.: there. 6 For another, slightly different, version of nt — see Progr. Rep. for 1916, in Journ. As. Soc. of Be., xiii, pp. 220-22 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 43 Having [thus] slain Sado, Araraka Mala and Méha Raja returned back. Now [the other] child of Ranaga De, Udo, had béen previously slain by the Bhati Kelhana for the revenge of the Bhatis Jéto and Lina Karana who [had been] slain [by Ranaga De] at Viktiipura; and [now] his other son Sado was slain by Araraka Mala. Thus both the children of Ranaga De were slain. ‘And Ranaga De [driving] black bullocks and wear- ing black garments went to ravala Kehara in Jesalmer, [and] then [when] the Ravala went forth to meet him, he said [to the Ravala :] “I have a feud with the Rathoras. ” After was [then] at Rardda (?), a village of Spey ran from there to the pursuit [of Ranaga De] and came near Nala. And there there was no water. Vaghuras! came, and then [Cid6] met the Vaghora Thibha and said jto him]: ‘I have with thee the feud of Goga De, but if thou givest [me] water to drink and helpest ime] to kill the Bhati Ranaga De, the feud is con- doned [to thee].”” Then [Jhabha] gave [him] water to drink from his water-pots which were filled, and the Vaghuras watered his horses. And [Jhabha] joined [Citdd] and off they went. And then the pursuers fell on Ranaga De near the - Loharalai pond, and slew [him], and having slain him they went back to Nagora. Afterwards, in the course of some days, the Prince of Jesalmer said to Kelhana: ‘‘ We have a feud with the Rathoras.”” Then Kelhana was staying with the ' Patisaha of Multan, and forming the vanguard in front of the Patisiha had gone [with an army] to Delhi; then taking oth the army of Multan and the army of Delhi, he went to Nagora over rava Cado and there at Nagora rava Cudd was slain. And after [wreaking this ania Kelhana went back [to his domains]. We will now leave behind this dark period of feuds and personal enmities, and enter into a more glorious period in the history of the Rathoras, when the princes are seen fighting for the land of their conquest. Citdd was succeeded by his son Rina Mala, who was murdered at Citora about the year Samvat 1 Rina Mala’s son Jodhd and Jodho’s son Viké are well- known names; ; the latter, as everybody knows, conquered the Jangala country and founded Bikaner in Samvat 1545. He is turn succeeded by his son Jéta St. This prince nobly fell on the field of honour in Samvat 1598, while defending Bikaner gainst an army sent over him by Mala De of Jodhpur. The particulars of the battle are related in the following extract taken 1 I do not know what tribe or class of people is meant by this term. 44 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, from MS. 30 of Deser. Cat. of Bard. and Histl. MSS., sect. i, pt. ii which, as mentioned above, contains a later recension of the (Extr. 2:) [We ua Aree |* aan ats atom ux wet Ba Sat ux aut Sat feat! ..... asl US Ba a Hatt ua ate ax ate shed aver mat g v8 goal fateh? a aes HE UTA aTHGaM at az |ar sraHe Far feat Vt xr at az Saetsat asa atadt ae ata A yersa Fh a a ata ae ufeat aS a att adt art wi udls wavs Sa a wm Het at a* ast an ara fRat saat faxtanat an aa BL ATA Brat F wat Se Fats A ata asta ot wauat Mt ea ate We Ve ueaat Ha Fa F° wet at atest aa 7 Rem eat ae Hea GZ atara Ei Tet BT Ustst TT q' wus = xa wet weer ae feat ue Fe SE waT Saath Lt AAT sy ATA STAT BTS ATS* zat FE sta aT art fea at Sat at arat we aA ate at AaB Sat AUST Te AS Ut eta St atest at atest F Ba ust @ H Sue sat FE at atest few Faz yst ataa frxat @ wa teat. am az ea edt At maa ce Sua te awe atet cra arfeat & fireat gaz Het ately’ Set aiaat wm ae Wtsa ate ra 2 qe ft yg weal @ ag aTat araait Het wet at atact cat & & cst g ew uta Sat TA SAT Saas Het wat F aa at afaa | mt usa? qty wat zat SRT | leet, *fatet. °g, +83. a ° eet, ‘Hag, at, ° a>...” San; 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 45 (Translation :) [Afterwards rava Mala De] on the one side despatched an army over Virama,' and on the other side despatched Kupo and Jéto [with another arm y| over Jéta St. -Thereupon our? rava Jéta Si also assembled an army and went to meet [the invaders] at the village of Sohavo. Par- leys were een there [and the enemy envoys said to Jéta Si]: “Go to Mala De and bow your nose.” At that time all the nobles [of Bikaner] were present, and they approy ed of [the conditions.] But Jéta Si [noticing that] Mahesa, a Sakhald who had a fief of twelve villages, was silent, asked him: ‘‘Why do you not speak ?”—*“ Aren’t your Rathora kinsmen speaking enough 2”? was the reply. [Jéta Si]insisted: “ Speak you too.” Then the man said: ‘If we do such a thing, our ‘gamete [with Jodhpur] will go by the board, while on the contrary being killed on the field is honourable.” The latter advice appealed to Jéta Si, but did not eee to the nobles. i n the envoys [returning to the] enemy camp, reported o Kupo and Jété that a Sakhalo had pnseied any talk [of nara an Thereupon [the two leaders] sent for Mahesa and asked him: ‘ Why dost thou try to ruin the Rathoras ?”’ And he [merely] GAid > oS tt have caused them to] give a digni- fied reply [to your proposals].’’ Afterwards [they] engaged in battle. The nobles of Jéta Si bolted, but he [remained and] was killed on the field, and together ‘with him others from his retinue were also killed. en Jétd and Kipo went [to count the fallen] on the battle- field, they [began i to] talk [between themselves]: ‘‘ Methinks it looks as if the S&khalé had bolted. Ni ice indeed! after all the proud language he was talking! [Now be sure that} if the Sakhalo is [lying] anywhere, he is lying on the field of battle Sakhal6! thou moanest! do thy wounds cause thee much pain?’ And he replied: ‘No, sirs, it is not my wounds that cause me pain, but because inferior men have killed the great Rava, I am [thus] moaning.” Thereupon they said: “Our Sakhald son® [still] speaks the very same language. ' Rava of Merato. ? Text: uz ** here.” 8 A low form of abuse very common in Marwar, indirectly falling on the mother of the person reviled. 46 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Throw dust into his mouth.’’ Dust was thrown [into the mouth of the Sakhald, and] the augur [who saw it] said: “{As for this] land, [now] the S&khal6 holds it in his jaws.” ! In this way Jéta Si was killed on the battle-field, whereas his nobles dishonoured ‘themselves. And the following verse was composed for the occasion :— The beggarly Rawat fled for his life, And Udo the bully fled too. And Har Raj the shrike relinquished the strife, And Lakhman the sheep also flew. Fled Sanglo the miser.. . .ete.? I shall now close the subject of the vamsavalis, i.e. of the early historical compositions based on the oral tradition and on the legends preserved by the bards, with a fantastical account of rava Jodho’s pilgrimage to Gaya, derived from a work contained in MS. 15 of Deser. Cat. of Bard. and Histl. , Sect. i, pt. i. This work, which in the manuscript is designated by the title of Vata Maravari 17, contains a collec- tion of biographical and historical accounts mostly referring to personages who lived and events which happened during the reign of Akbar. The date of composition of the work also apparently falls within the time of Akbar. That Jodhé, the his way back from Gaya. song quoted at the end is doubtful, but the statement that Jodhé was introduced to the Sultan by a certain Karana, ruler of Kanauj, is not without interest. A “rai Kiran” ruler o ? and it is not impossible that this is the same person with the 1 J.e.: ‘* You will not succeed in snatching this land from the Sakhalas and the Rivas of Bikaner.” 2 Stigmatizing verses of this kind are dreaded by the Rajput, who i open censure, both when deserved and when not, as the greatest possible degradation Censorious compositions are called i a, meaning ‘‘ venomous,” by the bards. 3’ Muntakhabu-t-Tawarikh, transl. by G. Ranking, Vol. I, pp. 403-4. 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 47 Rathora Karana, raja of Kanauj, mentioned in the extract. Jodho must have met Sultan Mahmud, not Sultan Bahlol, as the epithet of Pirabiyé can only refer to the house of Sharqi. (Extr. 3:) as! Bet wait =a wnfeat sae a uredt atafeat act cat aaa aaa Tt wait cats faa =? shits fafaat a® ast axa ofaart sacra at faa ufaarest { yearat uae ahh areas 4 wat S ast wt 2 qaefe’ P ges cat F qua FF escfa gifs suf’ qea’ ac at at at ae atm Z escfa sm at wet cet urfaaresit cr wea Z° HAT Us stat et & faarat act ahitst wfsaresit & fafear ofa areat ats stat q avat yat faw et sare feat’ ofan wat cst sat Harseax Ere} ater sat feat® Fre aaat wait urfaarsit 2 2 aeat aa wR | att az wars ctw fade wat amat sata at fam asst sa") afe 2 aa ata Betsy urfsarsit wat faa’ xte” wet aifaat Bt B ak @ arfesit g scat at art at act a aay aaa Fy ast a fam atx & afta | fawat aat att FTA |! Sarat sirat Stara ae tft Geet spat aret He Ae BLATT | 2 | fam aa a xaet ata & | (Translation:) Rava Jodhé went in pilgrimage to Gaya. As he passed by Agra, there was there raja Karana, the Karana, [who] was an imperi ial emir, represented to the Em- peror: “ Rav a Jodho is the ruler of Marwar. He isa great sovereign. His country lies in front of Gujarat. So if Your ajesty has intention to make an expedition against Gujarat, a /*. - Oe. I. eee, Oe, 1 oh, 8 gta, ° fre, 0 Sa, 1) gee 48 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, [then] let Your Majesty win rava Jodho to your side.” There- upon the Emperor said to raja Karana: “Introduce rava Jodho to me,” and [accordingly] Jodhd was introduced to the Emperor. The Emperor asked rava Jodhd [some] ques- tions, and as Jodhd answered them, the Emperor was ver pleased, and gave him many umbrellas and elephants and horses. And after giving him many things, the Emperor said : much as he wa attacked both the forts. And on that occasion the following song was composed :— His kinsman he met, ornament of the race, And straight to the Court then went the Diwan. Beholding, O Jodho, the light of thy face, Before thee his gifts displays the Sultan ! Such a song was composed on that occasion. That accounts of events which took place centuries before are always more or less inaccurate, especially when based on mere traditions, is easily understood. But if a certain amount of inaccuracy is excusable, wilful alterations and misleading forgeries are not, whatever the purpose for which they are introduced. Now, the Caranas have at all times been great, masters of forgeries: they have invented wonderful stories and to arm them with some kind of sanction, have often docu- mented them with apocryphal testimonial songs. Had the Caranas been as clever as they are wily, they would have clad their counterfeits in the garb ef probability, thereby making only fools. I have given above an extract containing an account of rava Jéta Si’s fight with the army of rava Mala De. This account, in* spite of a certain amount of inaccuracy is on the whole sober, and apart from the anecdote relatin to Mahesa, the Sakhal6, contains nothing to which an intelli- gent reader should take exception. Now, it is instructive to compare the above account with another account given by Sindhayaca Dayala Dasa in his recent ‘““Khyata” of Bikaner. Here we read that Mala De marched in person against Bikaner b 1919.]} Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 49 desertion of the Bikaneri nobles was determined by the following remarkable circumstance. Jéta Si on the eve of battle sud- denly remembered that he owed a certain sum to some merchant, and wishing to pay his debt immediately, rode to Bikaner by night, without telling anybody where he was going to. The nobles soon discovered his absence, and thinking that he had fled, deserted from the camp. n coming back, Jéta Si found himself alone, still nothing dismayed, confronted the foe and met a glorious death sword in hand. As if all these inventions were not enough, Dayala Dasa gives us the moral of the story by representing the onslaught of the Jodh- ur army on Bikaner and the consequent death of Jéta Si as a punishment inflicted on him by Karaniji, the Carani goddess, whom Jéta Si had offended by not properly recognizing the help which he had received from her on the occasion of his fight with Kamran seven years before! I give below the passage containing this impudent suggestion, and I am sure that the reader will never want any more proofs of the crafti- ness of the Caranas. The hemistich quoted in the course of the text and attributed to Vithi Mehd—the author of the adespotic Jéta St ro Chanda ?-—is, of course, apocryphal. (Extr. 4:) & are wat Faedtst at ait faa ast a ee ie FR aT | ate a ata 43 faeza | St ye ata Sat Sa | et sat ga ara Sata wet F ara ate at gat a ane a wal Ta Fatt gaa Het F art MF ao ques ua Aree WIT EAC Roooe @ au Aersila we Era acadtata 3 Sa Parte Soe art... (Translation :) And [when] Sah Kamran fled before Jéta Si, [the bard] Vithi Meho composed quatrains on the occa- sion.» [And these contained also the following hemistich] : Our Sister’s* shafts are the champions that fight ; And Jet Si of the battle enjoyeth the sight.* } fq. with the author of the adespotic JétaSi rd Chanda, mentioned in the inni i ithi : li-known name, and we have of him other works among which a Pabiji rd Chanda (Descr. Cat., sect. ii, pt. i, 2 (6)). 3 Meho, as a Carana, could call Karaniji his sister. : * Meaning: the battle was fought by the supernatural power of Karaniji, and JétaSi was a mere spectator in it. 50 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Now] when rava Jéta Si heard this phrase, he remarked: “Where [thy] Sister’s arrows fell, did [my] brethren’s! ar- rows not fall [as well] ? This much only came to his lips. And subsequently, in the year Samvat 1598, rava Mala De taking with himself [the two leaders] Kipo Mahirajota and Paficayana Sareea with an army of twenty thousand, fell upon Bikan We now step out of the marshes of tradition and legend on to the firm ground of history. _Here is an extract from a Singha I of Jodhpur, and raja Karana Singha of Bikaner.? The portion quoted refers to the Rathoras of Bikaner and con- tains the names of the heirs to the gaddi from rava Kalyana- Mala, son of Jéta Si (17th aeeceritibe from Siho), to rajas Raya Singha (18th generation), Dalapati Singha and Sira Singha (19th abe Grae and Karana Singha (20th generation), be- sides the names of the brothers of Karana sie the names quarter, contains no attempts to place ‘the Rulers of peed in an unfavourable light nor to minimize their merits. (Extr. 5 :) qoyurs® wea Raat B[°] usw! a are ate ¢ aH ARTE US TegAT Sf ual ate sta zersa Fat wal 4 ye aE Wee ae aife Ot are 3 ofa A mat af 3 ufsare °F ara | alo] edoo HEH at urfsare ate ade ask at as Sats qutst atfa® erat utters stuf art farie os’ jrermas gf Farfaat’ Ase AVA Ff Ferhat" | | QS Tey Feats ee Bat aparte aa me waa gat west wat aUMe Bat Wea qe : Le. Rathéra kinsmen 2 MS. 18 of Deser. Cat. of Bard. and Histl, MSS. sect. i, pt. i. aur, # tf, 5a, sa@ifa, 7 wrt 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 51 ara! sihrafe urfsare aaax feat a adh ctare urat Sat? arat 2 wet ee are... oe ae fagst sau atfamer a aetat a[o] edoe TETAUE ATS cA? HEH | .. teleaufa cage atarsa Farae ual urfsare B way aM a ae State Ff cet faa ware wifearest BE qf dare = 7 caqufa sofx fact fat’ canta aig a’ af afx arat Farte aceng feat’ | . e[et’ @eey trmagta dae we weet cet Ueay UH Tet vat Pasa eqafa Z feat? av watt axeay a at it a vat Parte [exteg] 7 feat? at® aatit cet st" do] dua de afe 92 3H ASE ATS TH [eo] odes aT ares afe ya efau are ata sh) ca adt ufemit at Fat . 20 [tT ae aay Ut arte Spare | Relate! cat? qeag a oan" arae ufear St dia are afaat * at Tat Ho] ago vat at ate xarsat uedt are art at aat reiaute urfaarest © ut sit | | | = at tt” axeag a ate at | 3 uat qxery ct . . tépatofa ae’ areerg 4 set Fal Starea ater a cqufa a me a asa” acaae fra 2 52 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, artcat | | . .e] array cat cag Ot facet } ana fifo] (gay cae STE AR wat Bt ufseet azeet feat? a} wat sofa a et wet ae oat wat . Rofareaaca fraafeng [21] . 20 aay fraafes a . 2ofasay frag at . 8 TT URE eA TT | | 0s) foetart aeaacta a? odod ar aafae ate 0 TH FST SAX UW Ha saat ZG Afa A at wa wet urfaaret WTAE aTgefa ge ale] ye— quart ATS UA TET | . telaezxaa foetasita | . 20 | Rattay gecaata | . Ro] sap [aexeatta] | . Ro sadag [Beretta] | . éfatareere firetarsita | . . Ro | ferrag Gtaaetata] | . Ro latexes [aaa] | . Ro laratfag ataaerata | . Re latacra maraeTata | . frit aeaaaia or | (Translation :) 17th.| Rava Katyina Mata, son of Jéta Si. [His] birth| took >» |place] on the 6th day of the bright fortnight of Magha :, of the year Samvat 1575, Friday. Subsequently [to », |the death of Jéta Si, his father,] rava Kalyana Mala », !went to join Virama De, son of Dido, and [then] both 1 Sy, a tet. 1919.] 17th. 29 Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 53 went into the Poorb [where] after spending of [their] purse and serving the Emperor, [they succeeded in] bring the Emperor [against Jodhpur]. In the year Samvat 1600 the Emperor Sir! came [over Jodhpur] and fought [a battle] where Jétd and Kitpo were killed, The Emperor entered Jodhpur, and [reestablished rava 35 i Ser Sah. 2 Burhanpur in the Dekhan. [He] was a great maharaja. [He ruled over the whole] territory [from] the Old Fort of Bikaner to the Panjab, and had [also] Nagora and, at one time during the Muhammadan Raja Raya Singha[was] a son-in-law of Akhé Raja Sonigard. [He] died in Samvat 1679 at Vrahanapura.” 19th.| DaLapati, son of Raya Singha. [He », |was] the heir of Raya Singha in] Bikaner. [But] subsequently [instead ,, [of] going to attend on the Emperor, dark fortnight of Pausa of the year Samvat 1652; and he died in the village of Bori in the Dekhan the 14th day of the dark fortnight of Asadha of the year Samvat 1688. [He was] the son of a Bhatiyani. 54 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, 17th. 18th. 19th. 20th. | Rasa Karana, son of Stra z om s , |Singha. [He is the present] = a # » |ruler of Bikaner. ve ¥3 = 20th.|Sarra Sana, son of Sura asi és rr ». |Singha. Raja Sara Singha ne es 5 », |had first kept [him] in con- aa rm ares », |finement, [but] afterwards, Be - a “a in Samvat 1687, os =4 % ,, escaped from there and had oe nal z _, Jentered into the fiscal terri- a 7 a , |tory; then he went to Vra- ao Sg. 7 ,, |hanapura and threw himself a F a ,, |at the feet of the Emperor. re o ij 20th. | AsO, son of raja Siira Singha. si re: es » |{[He] died a _ [premature] re 9 », |death. EK a fe 3 [were thus in all the aon 5 Be ie of raja Stra Singha. a Ys, 1$th.| BHopati, son of raja Raya Singha. i - » |[He was] the eldest son [and conse- es » |quently] the lawful heir. [He was - ms », |born] of a Sisodani [and was a uter- » » 5» fine] ee of Dalapati. Mihaté is - ,, |Karama Canda administered poison a _ » |[to him] and killed [him]. “a a 19th.;Kisana Srinewa, son of raja Raya 9 a » |Singha. [He was] a nephew of the : ae , 'Nirabanas.! In Samvat 1675 he had 9 io », {come to the [Bikaner] court and had a ee ;> }|become a regular vassal [whereupon | is a ,, |he had been given first Navasar6é and he * » | then cee arp Astabh afterwards he » ” ,, |returned [to his home]. ™ Fe Ae 20th | TER son of Kisana is +" ae » |Singha. 2 » 9 20th. a ae SINGHA, son of Kisa- 2 ry ” ” ing a. ” » yas » » Singha, son of Kalyana Mala. KS 18th. | Prrrut isa son of Kalyana Mala. [His] = ,, | birth [took place] on the Ist day of the dark a, » [fortnight of Margasirsa of the year Samvat curious, but in a very common, way of saying that he was ‘ie son of a Nirabani woman. oe 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 55 17th. 18th.}1606. [He was] a great devout of the Tha- Ss ., |kura{ji],' and composed a great panegyric of . ,, |the Thakuraf{ji] in the form of a Veli2, [He Ps ,» |was] a vassal of the Emperor and had in fief = ,, |Gagurana. [He] died at Mathura in the year 2 Samva 3 t 16 - in 19th. | SUDARASANA, son of Prithi Raja. 3 - 20th. | KESARI lee son of Su- : darasan : rs a Ss 20th. Fae ane [son of Su- me re ej ,, |darasana]. ‘ m8 e 20th. beled clean, [son of Su- 99 m darasa iy - 19th. { Goxaa yee son . of Prithi Raja. os ‘s = 20th. | KIsaNa SINGHA, [son of Go- re " i » |kala Das a = re 20th.| NAHARA Kuan, [son of Go- 7 * F - ala Dasa]. m if re 20th. pee Siuveua, son of Go- 29 7) 29 ala Sa. Bn = a 20th. Govarapmana, son of Go- is Ps 2 [were thus in all the sons] of Prithi - 3 a Raja, son of Kalyana Mala. It only remains for me now to give one or two specimens the contemporary chronicles, both old and modern. To illustrate the former, I shall quote two extracts from a Khyata written towards the beginning of the seventeenth century A.D., when Jahangir was Emperor of Delhi and Gaja Singha and Stra Singha were, respectively, rajas of Foal pie ay Bikaner. This Khyata comes from Phalodhi, and was originally composed under the patronage, or at least within the jorkiictions of the Raja of Jodhpur. The two extracts, which are given ow, have been Botan chosen for the reason that they refer to ‘a well-known chapter in Indian history: the activities of Prince Khurram during the later part of the reign of Jahangir. The reader will thus be able to compare the version of the Marwati chronicler with that of the Muhammadan historians and form an idea of the value of the former as a supplement to the latter. I only regret that the two extracts are too short and that space would not allow me to quote at greater length. As I have pointed out above, the principal point of usefulness of the Rajasthani Chronicles is found in the ample particulars they give concerning the part played by the Rajput Princes at the ° = ir 2 This is vie atts Veli Krisana Rukamani ri noticed towards the beginning of this Report 56 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Imperial Court and in the Imperial campaigns. The Muham- madan chronicles are very deficient in such particulars and on the whole afford no basis for judging what the Rajput life under the Emperors of Delhi exactly waslike. The Rajasthani Chronicles draw before us a picture of the Rajput life under the Emperors, and at the same time also of the Imperial life as seen through Rajput spectacles. The difficulties in which t Rajput Princes must have found themselves on more than one occasion when the Empire was rent by internal dissensions and rebellions, are well exemplified by the two extracts quoted below. In extract 6, raja Stra Singha of Bikaner, summoned by Jahangir on one side, and detained by Khurram on the other, finds himself inan impossible situation from which he can only extricate himself by a hurried and clandestine departure, and in extract 7 he has to bear the consequences of his loyalty to the Emperor and see his camp looted by the vindicative fury of the same Khurram, who would not forgive him his quite justifiable sateckio. Of the two extracts, the former contains an account of the exploits of Khurram from his marriage with the niece of Nur Mahal (Nur Jahan), to his rebellion in Mandu (1622 A.D.); and the latter an account of Khurram’s successes in the Poorb (1624 A.D.) and his subsequent campal defeat at the hands of Prince Parvez and Mohbat Khan. The list of the Rajput Chiefs fallen in the last-mentioned battle, in which the name of an elephant is also included, is piety inter- esting. Lists of killed and wounded are very common in the Khyatas, and thanks to their accuracy, often furnish data of the greatest value (Extr. 6:) Re cake ae sauat 2 ve fam ed? areste wat at Sat A wat TraaT Sat at var st ata arfe A eo A? Fates’ At’ art ao qééR at art AT awa Fat a daa wee... ene Hew! a af aig qares feat’ anat atest! 2 fae at mraaret sag att ay sae afa sat wat qeres ora a watt wremet Fzf TET GUT ZUNE TT ET GT at creadt vat qerea afe 3 afeset are mae ® ara ate get ee UR a)" 2a ate Gaal ater aTesTeT { adem ferret weds ater Z Zatet Z wet aera wat 1 4X throughout, * Othroughout, ° |] throughout, * aT, 5 €T throughout, 5 Sta, 7 Abbrev. for Ut. 1919] Bardie and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 57 aS! qures 2 cesar afd a 34 att Ag Ata BE? aD Gin wet! a at q ucae at qeaea a gamit! a2 aT watt Sae’ + yeas’ ak var aremet aefeae FZ TEMES aL ALAET A Ges Aree aia Ter qures ary tt sink’ wefeae wifa anfet wh que Gf eye ot wt alem Hat aa cfam at cafe sitet fast! tLe] yded ak qua 7 tfan g Aarea ait | ae ae Bat a wait we ¥ users Gt Rat Pasa gad a # tfem ae at watt arene} qeH af ester] 2 end aft 4 gen ¢ cfu Z Aft se am maar RAH HEA 7 WE a ge fears a areal cfem art feo wa at cafwat eo wat aa at wet ee] edo at argu af QR ua aetaae at ares? areal watt ata at @ arfeat fam sux mae Z wafe we mae Fo Sat QarEs wa aaa TE” quarea wae % ares ate (sic!) ats a areaet at wetege a ate wet aS ata q are vara ah fat’ wiasret G ware ak! Stare are wate At utter St areeite at arete FZ erat a[°] qgoe 9 urfseret wHara Vtg gen eqx 2 faaa feat ae fase stat 4 rect a amet SQarast araa’ ar wat a AB =refaget® qaaee a at ate crafagsht Fetee a atat We asta faget > qaee x aa He arafaget') seat a at AS ara ar’ aract feasts wt Re atorqge [ar] aq arnt aging ae dteraat 3 atratat 4 atzatat 4 urfeat até asitat sane & Bt 4 fase ata a fracas att Te qafeat a seat’ a egfest frre at a faeces de atit wefaec weatfeat aqest lant, ” fae, 7 auate, °§ @’, * a7 throughout, tara, °° tT, 1 feera, 8 arnefeestt ° area. 64 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, G teu We BA Be onfet sz ae... at whe SAU UT crit sitewide escy Ba ae wy Bact wat fant area SE ae waRet | FY at fad FHS FZ Qo Hua ae wee waa at ataa ae! aera at eae fat? a aed fea agpiter wert cam ai x 8) Sat av do tomy Sore az! Qa aIgat Ut faayita SR We aacae Face area were! A aad anita Qe AE aa’ ocee cad’ a cafaaa A qacmaet’ a sat watat feat 2 asttew’ aaa ava area aerex’ tt sit erat eerat’ $8 edt fat F Haters” struc © xem F fae ae Sq! steers” aa? EaH UT AT ae STAR aa P aqua Fat sa Bat fam tt atsa St ae saa Aa” FR facet at} saa qa eta" att atat aan? asta a AE aaa EF We Garza frottage Sects & are 9 a8 erat J ait wart se ara .. 4 atten safagst & Aan 3 fasna anit Sta das Feaers satue § Aarm sata St wa yet fac aafaat He sete ae BF aps aaa YE ara TET BA TTT Xo yy Bat aaa yey. wat Oe" wy faaita aeat ot raat aa ER HS Sear ae tant =traafegst dat Bx ates seca” gz vst faaatast 9 fear eri qo atstR wea a wate facta q WIS I ater sat wo Vecy famac az y Rateat ua sefoeat aera 4 earmnft 4 frais sates BE ETA 1 im, * tos eat ? The MS. in several places writes Sffor at. Cir. wiweres and Hisar, 3 ge, * aTSTet, 5 ay, 5 geq, " garaargl, «= ° xaitse, aiai, utae?, |, Paver’, 8 gat, “ acam, © ge, 1 ¢z°. 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 65 ued facota anfaat fprera ddtuc & ante at Ae famax gz 3 ata qaatmaa & atetarat! aux sit art amas 4 ateharat® anfet ME de occu fawax gz ww Ft =k Sed aisat at dtaat aa wat ae do oecy ATA az 3 3 2 aa faxate axtsit a srat ait te aaet EMIUTA SHAS Fe se Aa Bz a a Bhs fae exae Ae att’ faa a az ated feaitem feqaest’ § avn faxta 2 feast aut, wet atfrat 4, aca are, a %, WAY Aedte, UTI ale Ht, TeTR Bet ast a, Anat ata UT Bla 8, ATH TT HET UT Bla 8, Yauram aa tr TT TTR, qRat KATH e, Wala cI Tara 2, ETit 2, tet att fxm ats aet ae Ae aaa Forests 8a @ dhs Shit dte wo accu ara az qy @ fants shit alsat tt aa Sat ... (Translation:) The 5th day of the dark fortnight of Vaisakha [ of the year ] Samvat 1885, maharaja Ratana Singha sat on the Scere in the ava Mahal alace. First [ of all ] the Goede. 6555. the village of Sekhasara made the tilaka 0 on His Highness’s T Sateen y then Véri Sala Sera- singhota, thakura of Mahajana, made the tilaka on His Highness’ 8 [forehead] ; then Rama Singha, thakura of Vidasara made the tilaka on His Highness’s [ forehead]; then Nahara Singha, thakura of Ravatasara, made the tilaka [ on His High- ness’s forehead], and thereafter Ajita Singha, thakura of And as for the nazars to His Highness, first thakura Véri Sala of Mahajana presented [ his ]; then Nahara Singha of Ravata- sara presented | his |; then Rama Singha of Vidasara presented [ his]; then Ajita Singha of Bhikarako presented [ his]; then Lala Singha of Jasano presented [| his]; then Rinajita Singha, thakura ‘of Va aya, presented [his]; then the Vidavatas of Gopalapurd, thakura Sangrama Singha etc., and the Kandha- lotas, the Naranotas, and the Bhatis, each in due succession according to his particular rank, presented their nazars to His Highness and made the nicharavala. Then the State Officials, a... - Wt... - Oh Te... * he. 66 . Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, the Brahmins, and the Haziris presented their nazars and [ made their] nicharavalas. Then His Highness went to the Haramandira and made an offer of [ Rs.]5 to the Thakuraji. *T Shortly ] afterwards [it] became known [that | Bhima Singha, [maha]rana of Udaipur, [had] died on the 15th day of the bright fortnighi of Caitra of the year Samvat 1885. On that occasion a couple of couriers arrived [from Udaipur ], and on the 10th day of the dark fortnight of Vai8akha com- municated the [ sad] tidings. Then [ His Highness ], according to the custom, issued orders to stop the playing of all instru- rana | gave a banquet to the Brahmins Et in which | Re. 1 per a simbhibhekha! of sweetmea a Then came a letter from the Governor General, dated the 16th of May of the year 1828 A.D., [ with] congratulations for the accession, and also a letter from Col Brooke, Resident at Delhi, to the address of the Darbar, in which it was written: ‘ Dhokala Singha a” committing dacoities in the Jodhpur territory, and [I am inform | Your Highness that none of your r subjects shall be permitted to join him, [ and at the same time to request you] to please not allow him to enter your territory.” | His High- ness | took cognizance of the matter and then and there issued [the necessary | instructions [and said]: “Convey these ins 4 Sekhavata Sivaji Singha came from Dadaloda and caused the mourning for the late Maharaja to be discontinued. On the day y of Asadha, Mohata Abhé Singha was dismissed from the office of diwan, and Midharo Vijha Raja Vamsidhara was appointed to the diwanship a was presented with palanquin and robes of honour. Then the dark fortnight of Asoja, a [ second] banquet was gee od the Brahmins in the name of the late Maharaja, and Re. 1 d was distributed in the way of alms. On the 15th flag of the bright fortnight of Kati of Samvat 1885, there was another simbhubhekha of sweetmeats. Then from Udaipur the {maha]jrana Javana Singha sent Cadavata Indra Singha and Paficoli Visa Natha with congratulatory gifts [for His High- ness’s accession and ~~ these | came: one meee oa horses, [various | ornaments and one necklac strapec aiid 1 toras of [silk]-cloth. Ga the 5th day of “a jerk naa | A sort of ng Ta or charity meal given to sadhus, jogis and other oe beggars, for meritorious purposes 2 A kind of o ent worn on the turban. 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 67 depart]. Afterwards, on the 15th day of the bright fortnight of Magha of 1885, there was a fourth simbhabhekha of sweet- meats.... —_—_—_——_ APPENDIX II. Tue Rouxine Famittes oF BIKANER AND JODHPUR AND THEIR CONTROVERSY ABOUT SENIORITY. Rajputana, odho, thereby implying that the ruling family of Bikaner is junior to the ruling family of Jodhpur. Any student of Rajputana history who had any acquaintance with the original Marwari 68 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Chronicles, and therefore needed not jurare in verba Todi, would never make such a categorical statement in the pre- sence of the most disparate and contradictory evidence. In chronological order. All, it is true, agree in representing Nibo, who died before his father, as the eldest son, but as to the other twelve, thirteen, or sixteen sons, the Chronicles are at a variance and do not afford, at a first sight, anv basis for direct statement or information, there is some indirect evidenc which tends to show that rava Viko was elder than rava Sajo, the progenitor of the descendants of Jodhd who have been sit- ting on the gaddi of Jodhpur, and consequently the ruling family of Bikaner is senior to the ruling family of Jodhpur. Futile as the question may seem to anyone who looks at it from a practical point of view and feels inclined to give more weight to greater power and wealth than to seniority, it is not a futile question to the eyes of the modern Rajput, to whom juniority in respect to a rival lateral branch means a condition of inferiority and almost humiliation. When I vis- ited Ratlam in connection with the edition I was preparing of the Vacanika of Ratana Singha, in 1914, and was even without my intention made acquainted with the controversy which the ruling family of that State has with the ruling family of the neighbour State of Sitamau about seniority, I had the first living instance of the importance whick the Rajput attaches to a point that in the eyes of an outsider has, if any, only an ideal value. It may therefore not seem an idle waste of time if I here enter into the question minutely, and examine all th evidence which indirectly tends to corroborate the assertion by the Rathoras of Bikaner that they represent the senior branch. ta, 0 of — Citora about the year Samvat 1500, his eldest son Jodho fled from Citora and eluding the cavalry sent by the Rano to pursue him, sought a refuge in the sands of the Jangala 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 69 country.! Mandora thus fell into the hands of Kibhd, who ages for all his numerous sons. In the case of Jodho the difficulty was perhaps greater than in the case of any other prince, for when he succeeded his father he had not less than a dozen brothers and at least as many sons to provide for. The ! The old name for the desert tract now included within the bound- aries of the Bikaner State, especially the southern part of it. 2 See ** Progress Report etc.” for the year 1915, in Journ. As. Soc. of Be. (New Series), Vol. xii [1916], p. 108. 70 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, supremacy of the Rava.' ‘This supposition is confirmed by the fact that some of the sons of Jodhé went to establish them- selves in places which at the time were either waste or un- important, founding new cities or rebuilding old ones. Thus atala, one of the eldest sons of Jodhd who afterwards suc- . ceeded to the gaddi of Jodhpur, sae to ee nomen in the desert near Pohakarana and Pha i, and fou the new city of Satalamera. It is obvious that Jodho veda have never assigned to one of his eldest sons a fief of that kind, consisting Pohakarana and thus found a large state. The Rathoras of those days were not lacking spirit of enterprise, and on the other hand the exuberant growth of the race made it impera- tive for them to conquer new land and provide free scope for their ambitions and ample means of subsistence for themselves and their descendants. This remark will help to understand the conditions under which Vik6 left the court of his father and went to carve for himself a rew state in the Jangala country. Though some Chronicles give a smaller number, probably through omission of some of the less important names, there can be no doubt that rava Jodho had at least seventeen sons, whereof the names are faithfully recorded in the most accurate Chronicles. These names are, in alphabetical order, the follow- ing: Karama Si, Kapo Clida Rava, Jasavanta, Jogo, Dido, Nibo, Bhara. Mala, Rai Pala, Vanavira, Vara Singha, Viko, Jidd, Satala, Savata Si, Siva Raja, and Sai? The eldest of all was Nibo, and nS eg to all the Chronicles, who speak of him as kavara Nibo, he was the ttkayata or heir- “apparent of Jodho, but he died foo his father, without issue. Nibo had been residing for some years at Sojhata, an important strong- hold, which had also been the residence of Ri ina Mala and later of Jodho himself, before the latter founded Jodhpur.’ By the time when Jodhé died in Samvat 1545, the most enterprising Also it is not unlikely that some of the brothers of J Tee who had ee given fiefs under Rina Mala, retained these under the domination of Citora, and had them lige oa re ecognized by Jodho, when the latter re- established - Se deny over Marw 2p). , 18, pp. 40a-b; C. 2, p. 26b; C. 68, pp. 6b-7a. (In the above, the foitials D.C. stand for Descriptive Catalogue of a and His- torical Manuscripts, and the Jobo C stands for Manus opied, whereof lists are given in the Progress Reports of mig Sur ® Gadana Pasaita in his Jolene, a poem on the ex exploits of rava Jodhso, makes the following explicit allusion to this prince’s stay at Soj- ata: afteat sity sata a8 afestaie oS 4 1G! (D.C.,i, i, 19, p. 1022.) 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 71 of his sons had all established themselves in some part of the country: Satala at Satalamera, Viké in Jangala, Didd and Vara Singha at Meratd, Vido in ‘the Mohilavati, Karama Si at Asopa, Bhara Mala at Kodhano, Rai Pala at Naharasara, Siva Raja at Drunaro, Savata Si at Kheravo. Sujo was probably with Satala, his uterine brother. The Chronicles do not say appears that after the death of Nibd, the legitimate heir, whether by his ope hic aamatt or by his right of birth, was considered to be J Viko, with whom we are here particularly concerned, had long before the death of Jodho gone to settle in cic the country lying to the north of Jodhpur bevond the t tories of Nagora and Phalodhi. The starting point for ‘all - Viko’s conquests in ne part of the country, was a small s oe centring in the fort of Jagala and held by the e&khalas, branch of the paisee Rajputs, who had the title of rings." This small state had been in a position of more or less nominal subordinacy to Marwar since the days of Rina Mala,? and Jodhé himself, when driven out of Marwar, had found shelter and hospitality in the houses of the Sakhalas. The tradition is that Napo Manika Rava ro, the rano of Jagali. being menaced by the Baliicis, went to the court of Jodho for help, and at his request Jodho sent to Jagalii a force under the leadership of Vik6o, assisted by Kadhala, one of Jodho’s brothers. How- t appears that there were two small Sakhala gy 9 scene 28 the time with which we are concerned, the one held by the Jang e of the family, and the other by the Rinec@ line. The ieee a f both, ‘Enea : : t had the title of rina. Jagali, with the territory around it, belonged t the Jangalava rana rritory of the Raine wi it of Nagora and had for its capital Rina, but whe Rina was still the capital of the Rinec&s at the time Jodho, it is difficult to sa. ion of asa Sakhala principality is found in the Chronicles o he time d unecas are often confound th the Jangalavés and vice vers thing is n, that at the ti f to & princip iiey was still in existence, for Jodhé married a daughter of tes @neca rano his s contemporary, her name Noranga De, and she was ~~ mother of Viké and Vid6. 2 See ‘‘ Progress Report, etc. » for 1916 (Journ. As. Soc. of Be. N.S, bane A 304. 3 The above is the version of the Jodhpur Chronicles ( Cfr. C, 52, p. 28a), and it agrees with a statement in Mahandéta Néna Si’s Vata Sakhala ri: aiat HTURCTS a siagud az eee sit cart at ua Sat aa Sage wa F Fat Aa sive & sre wet fat eiear ‘aract Sat (D.C.,i, ii. 8). The a Bikaner Chronicles which I —_ seen, simply state that Jodho as gned to Viko the Jangala country. to Vid6 the Mohilavati (D. C., i, ii, i 2, p- 7a). Sindhayaca Dayala poate the latest chronicler of Bikaner, gives a different version, which is 72 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, ever that was, certain it is that Viko went to Jagali as a friend of Napo and had the latter’s support in all the conquests which he subsequently made in the country to the north and east.! Jagalii was bordering with the Bhatis of Paigala to the north and west, with the Jatas to the north, and with the Mohilas to the east. Vik6o established himself at Kodamadesara, a village on the oe border of Pigala, founded by rava Jodho during his exile.” a few years, the Jatas were ‘completely beach ted and all ps country to the very borders of Hisara Depalapura fell into the hands of Viko. The Mohilas, aro apparently had alreadv been defeated by rava Jodho years before, were definitely crushed and their territory, bacon as Mohilavati, became the possession of Vidd, a uterine brother of Viké. The Bhatis of Paigala, who at first had watched with apprehension the conquests of their eg heting neighbour, be- came more friendly when they saw that 6 had no aggressive intentions in respect to them, and Sekho, "this rava of Pugala, married to Viko his daughter. Meanwhile, about the year Samvat 1542,3 Viké had begun to build a new fort a dozen miles to the east of Kodamadesara. This was the origin of the city of Rikaner, and it was completed and populated in the vear Samvat 1545.+ n the same year Samvat 1545. rava Jodho died in Jodh- pur. Satala was appointed to succeed him. But from a par- ticular preserved in the Chronicles. it appears that the legitimate successor of Jodho after the death of Nibo. was not Satala but Jogo. “ After the demise of rava Jodho, writes the chronicler, [the nobles} were going to place the t2kd on the forehead of Jogo, but the latter, who had just made his ablutions, said: Wait till my hair is ‘dry. Whereupon all said : We will not ware the tiké to him, and went and consecrated Satala instead.” The probably nothing but his own invention. (See P. W. Powlett’s Bikaner Casateee. po 1, 1 iat See by Col. Tod that Viko fell with his band upon the Sakhalas of Jagalii and ‘‘ massacred ” them, is not only untrue, but also unjustiGable in at no Chronicle contains anything approaching such a zee ment, on the contrary all represent Napo as a friend and auxiliary rava Viko. 2 See 4 Prog ss Report, etc.” for 1916, pp. 217-2 3 Jéta Si rd F Onaniia by Vit = Sajo, 49. Some orcas give the date Samvat Taal.) Ofte D, 0.23, 1, 18; p. ike Jodhpur, Bikane fake derives its name from its founder : fey aba is but the vernacular form of Vikramanagara, meaning ‘‘ the city of ‘ama, or Viko. Sura ster aia Stat stat Zar Bar vet sisfeyt wg ae g FSS GIT Bat sag Ft agi wt Sat a AH az (Fat) sree siparsa a@ feat (D.C., i, i, 18, p. 4440); aT Ts ate Hat sitar a 2a or yet ee are wo aifet et g wat @ aan dat cae 7 ret feat (From a MS. from Phalodhi dating from the end of the Samvat 1919. ] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 73 very ludicrousness of the above account is a proof of the au- thenticity of the main information. It is easy enough to find in this story the pretext with which the chronicler tries to justify the action of the nobles in placing on the gaddi Satala instead of Jogo who was the legitimate heir. And in that case the pretext adduced is a very poor one indeed. But it may also be that Jogo, when offered the ik, disappointed the nobles with a foolish reply like that mentioned by the chronic- ler and that the nobles thinking him unfit to rule, elected Satala in his place.! The latter supposition is confirmed by an information concerning Jogd which we find in the Khyata of Mihanota Néna Si. In his Vata Mohilé ri, Néna Si states that Jodho, after defeating the Mohilas of Chapara and the Pathanas their allies, assigned the Mohilivati to his son, kavara Jogo, but as the latter was a simpleton and was unable to retain the land, his wife, a Jhali, asked Jodhé to recall him back and assign the Mohilavati to somebody else. Accordingly, Jodho recalled Jogd and assigned the Mohilavati to Vid6.? Evihently, Jogd was a man of weak intellect, if not thoroughly inept, and this is probably the reason why he was excluded from the succession, in spite of his right of birth, which he ap- parently had. It may be asked: was Satala the legitimate successor, after the exclusion of Jogs ? From the fact that his election was not contrasted nor opposed by any other claimant, at least so far as we know, it would seem that h s. Satala was involved, it is true, in a war with Vik6 shortly afterwards, but, though the real motives that led the two brothers to fight one another are not known, it seems that the aggressor was not Viko, Ravala of Jesalmer, and the Rava of Pugala, invaded Vik6o’s territory * “ Possibly, Viko after the death of Jodhd, to whom century 1600). Cfr. also C. 52, p. 29a, where a more detailed account is given. _.| From the evidence of the Chronicles it appears that at the time with which we are concerned, every case of succession to the gaddi had he seem rf) t or otherwise undesirable, and elect another, is clearly shown by the case related above. * aifeet UT yet Et usist G [efedt sei). adtaa st us STIS Fax sat A a stg (GE 2] ALN] ve are awe ower S FIC SA He FH argHle Bla | sar S weet ce ae |S F yest are aifeet [= ee sae Bat yea U wires fears wT (sic) BIT ate sts A farce wraa eit areci gat Sar Zaz HIT Sat fae Te TC BHC Tas & weet wre Far ay wet as F went MA SF ga S aT | SIH HAM (D.C., i, ii, 8, p. 23%.) 8 See ‘* Progress Report etc.’’ for 1916, pp. 235-236. 74 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV. he owed at least the submission of a respectful son if not that of a vassal, had refused to recognize the supremacy of the Rava of Marwar, that Rava his brother, and Satala undertook the above-mentioned expedition in order to subjugate him. If this was Satala’s object, he failed in it, and the Rava of Bika- supremacy of Marwar. Satala had a very short rule, for in the year Samvat 1548 a Muhammadan army from Ajmer in- at Kusané lost his life in the field. He died without issue. n as the news of the death of Satala reached Bika- ner, Viko assembled a force and hastened to Jodhpur. Why ? tions, th onicles remove it by explicitly stating that he went to Jodhpur with the hope to succeed to the gaddi of Marwar. Now mere fact that Viko went to Jodhpur against her, could have never dreamt of going there and finding the people so well disposed towards him to consent to set aside-the legitimate heir and elect him in his place. On the contrary, in spite of his right to’succeed, he well knew that most of the people would be hostile to him, and therefore brought a force to back his claims. That he had at least one partisan in Jodhpur, the commander of the fort,! a very high official in those times, is admitted by the Chronicles, all of which agree in stating that it was the commander of the fort who sent word to Viké to come quickly that he might be invested with the i##ké of Marwar. Naturally, the account of the Chronicles of Bikaner differs to some extent from the account given by the Chronicles of Jodhpur. According to the former, Viko delayed on his way to Jodhpur* and thus gave time to the Hadi Jasama De, the mother of Sajo, to persuade the commander of the fort to give the wkd to her son. Viko ' The Bikaner Chronicles give his name as VéraSala Bhivota, where~ as the Jodhpur Chronicles give his name as Varajaga Bhivota. The latter, who was a brother of the former, had commanded the Marwar forces at the battle of Kusano. g AvcA =~ 7 2 ary Mat aeatec Sm efea gos are ea was ac az = 2 wat Fas O arat (D.C., i, ii, 2, p. 175); HaHteMN war 4 fem fe aA 2 SAS BC GA Cel FF Are MAT (D.C., i, ii, 30, p. 1514). _ 3 Evidently, Viké discouraged by the fait accompli of the election of Sajo and by the lack of support on the part of the Jodhpur Chiefs, 1919.1 Bardie and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 75 the other hand say that Varajaga, the commander of the fort, had secretly plotted to open the gates to Viko, but he tinamalotas of Cadi, who first saw the forces of VikO approach- ing, ran to Jodhpur to give warning, and prevented the And afterwards all the Chiefs went to Varajaga and reproached him saying: ‘‘ What didst thou mean by calling Viko here 2,” to which he jocously replied: ‘ Ha! I only meant to amuse myself by stirring up the puppies of Jodho to fight with one another!” * From this last particular as well as from the statement that it was Varajaga who called Viké to Jodhpur, it is evident that Varajaga had been openly favouring the Jodhpur to side with the latter, it has been possible for the Jodhpur chronicler to represent him as a plotter and almost a traitor to his country. But could Varajaga, or any other sane man, have ever thought of supporting the election of Vik6 against the will of the other Chiefs, unless Viko had a claim as a legitimate heir, z.e. as the eldest of the living sons of Jodho, Jogo excluded ? That Siijo, the man who was appointed to succeed Satala, was not the legitimate heir, is implicitly admitted even by the Jodhpur Chronicles. For to justify the election of Sujo, the Chronicles produce the reason that Nard, a son of Sujo who had settled at Phalodhi.* had been adopted by Satala, and when the latter died, renounced his right to succeed him in favour abandoned the enterprise. The Bikaner Chronicles pipe his renuncia- tion to his rights as an act of magnanimity. They ay that Jasama De e from thirst, took pity on the conditions | of the besieged and raised the hrewragary at A belonging to rava }, to wit: an i eee of Naganaca (Naganeci), the kuladevi of the Ratho- ras, made nim-wood, and air of kettledrums (D.C., i, ii, 30, p. l5la). In "is later Chronicles the number of these heirlooms has been increased, the Chronicle ayala Dasa enumerating no Jess than thirteen (D.C., i, ii, 1, p. sols Cfr. also the kavitia quoted in D.C., ii, i, p. 26. 1 OC, 52, p. 32a; D.C., i, i, 18, p..12b. > gal acaia vt ata Ff sae aS SASH @ aerarge az BTL eae B ces F Act AT aqenia aes Sat sirer u Fafcar werat a (Phalodhi MS.); a feaat acorn a agi aS gafeat fas at sistant hl So ftoue sierst a gata ecaat ef (cic) (0. 52, p. 32a). oe ** Progress Report etc.”’ for 1915 (Journ. As. Soc. of Be. (N.S.) xii, 1916). 76 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. {N.S., XV, of his own father Sajo.1. What a splendid example of filial devotion in a period when sons like Udo of Citora and Mala De of Jodhpur used to relieve their fathers of the burden of old age to inherit a few days earlier that power which Naro so magnanimously refused! And how ungrateful the father who, after being placed on the gaddi by the disinterested devotion of one of his sons, designated another son—Vagho—to be his heir-apparent.* Obviously enough, the story of Naré’s abdi- tion by Satala to show that he had a right to succeed. But the mere fact that he had to use such a pretext shows that he How could then Sajd manage to obtain the gaddi if h had no right? How could the nobles of Marwar tolerate an infringement of the established custom, according to which the right of inheritance and succession devolves to the eldest son? There is a consideration which makes the whole thing sons of one rani, the Hadi Jasama De; Viké and Vidéo were Vagho, and not Nard, was considered as the heir-apparent. In fact _ Vagho died before Sijé, and so did Nard, but the successor was a son of the former, not of the latter. 3D aint oes > p- 15la. : + With the help of the Khyata of Mihandta Néna Si, I have succeed- ed in identifying the father of Noranga De, whose name is given in the 15 (D.C., i in the Chronicles that the mother of Viké was the daughter of a rand of the Jangalavas, is therefore incorrect. raéno of Jagald, at the time of Jodhé and Viké, was Napo, the son of Manika Rava. 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 77 and so on.! Now, it is a very significant fact that the successors of Jodhd, from Nibd who was appointed heir- apparent during his father’s life-time, to Satala who supplan- ted Jogo, and finally to Sijé who supplanted Viké, were all sons of one mother, the Hadi Jasama De. Evidently, and the Chronicles seem to confirm it, Jasama De was the favourite tani of Jodhd® and the influence exerted by her during her husband’s life-time was in no way diminished after her hus- band’s death. That she was an energetic woman and took an active part in political events, may be gathered from the Bikaner Chronicles’ account of how she went to negotiate with Viko under the walls of Jodhpur, when he was besieging this city. Those were the times when female intrigues and succession, and that even the nobles could be influenced by. the es a sons by different mothers : Virama De, and Gago. Virama De was elder to Gago, but after Sijo’s demise (Samvat 1572 5), the nobles excluded him from the gaddi because they disliked s mother, and elected Gago, whose mother happened to be agreeable to them 1 The other ranis beet the Hulani Jamuna De, mother of J ogo and Bhara Mala; the Bhatiyani Para, mother of Karama Si, Kipo, Cada Rava, Jasavanta, Rai_ Pala, oo Vana Vira; and the Vagheli Vina De, mother of Savata er ca Siva Raja. 2 baigliade a aratqet ) (C. 52, p. 27a). In an adespotic kavitta in honour of rava a Jodhé contained in MS. 8 (D.C., ii, i), = 205a, Jodhd is given the oritnae of WMPHTe Aa, “ husband of Jasama De.” This ee be taken to indicate a privileged apes of 7% war dig in mparison with pt co-wives, but on the next of t e MS. ee 2066—207a) we find a gita by Baratha Cohatha, alos i tian of rava Jodhso, where Jodhoé is called ‘husband of Noranga De,’ the last-mentioned name being that of the Sékhali rani, mother of Born entally, it may ree surprise that Jasama De did not immo- ras hetselt on the pyre of raéva Jodhdé. But in the Chronicles pao here is no ph he of any rani of Jodho having becom sath a 4 Cie. also bis Boss gaierotee: by some of the Jodhpur aera that it was Jasama ho persuaded Naro to — cate in favour of Sij 5 cree 5, C68, p. igh C. 52, p 6 C. 52, p. 36a- b; C. 39, p- 200. Sintlar instances o f infringement of the rule of primogeniture are by no means uncommon in the an 78 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV. From the cumulative evidence of the facts considered above it would therefore seem that rava Vik6, the founder of Bikaner, was elder than rava Sijo, the progenitor of the Jodha Rathoras who for over four centuries have been sitting on the gaddi of Jodhpur. Consequently, the ruling family of Bikaner is justified in its claim of seniority in respect to the ruling family of Jodhpur. Needless to say, the solution of the ques- tion of seniority in favour of Bikaner, has merely an ideal value, and does in no way affect the existing relations between the two States, nor detract from or add to the prestige of their respective Rulers. For if Sujo was not the legitimate heir of Satala by right of birth, he was the legitimate heir by election, and we have seen that, in the case of Marwar, the assembly of the nobles had the power to set nore the law of primogeniture and legalize the succession of a younger son. Therefore the election of Stjo was baile fecal But Viko, to all appear- ances, was elder than h The problem ‘hick I have tried to solve in the above Chronicles had preserved to us the accurate dates of birth of Vik6 and Sajo. Sursevatibtely: these dates have been altered both by the Bikaner Chronicles and by the Chronicles of Jodh- pur, each of the two sides wishing to represent the progenitor of its ruling family as senior to the progenitor of the ruling family of the other State. Thus the great majority of the Jodhpur Chronicles give Samvat 1497 as the vear of the birth of Viko, and Samvat 1496 as the year of the birth of Sijo, making the latter elder by only one year, just what was suffi- cient for their purpose. To counteract their measure, Dayala n force seme ay the birth of Viko in ioe heey 1495, Phos one ee earlier om in most of these cases. The réle of Raikeyi in the saan wa wel many times by other crafty ranis at the courts of Petes ana, Tradition says that a female had her share in fostering the of excluding him from the succession and even banishing him from Jod pur (D. C.,i, i, 5, pp. 29a rhs Another siastins drama had been enacted Jesalmer about three centuries earlier, when ravala _ po a had banished his eldest son Kelhan na and nominated t cessor Lakhamana, a younger son. In Bikaner itself we find ak Rai Singha (Samvat 1630-68 ?) designate Pedlnmeco a younger son, from affection ase as mar ev y Muhammada storians: ‘‘ The oms of the Rathéras are different from those of other Rajputs a ‘that child sue whose mother be father has loved most, though he be the younger , rom t a above-sin ntioned family custom] it heppanad that on the death of Uae Singha, A toate a Singha, though he was younger than his brothers, succeeded to the title of Rajah . ” (Maasiru-l- umara, transl. by Beveridge, pp. 571: 2). 1919.] Bardic and Histl. Survey of Rajputana. 79 than the date which the Jodhpur Chronicles give for the birth of Sujo. Taking it for granted that the Jodhpur chroniclers would alter any the date of Sajo, the date Samvat 1497 which they give for Viko is probably the correct one. The correct date of Sujo might have been preserved in the Bikaner Chron- icles, but unfortunately none of the Bikaner Chronicles ex- amined by me gives any date for the birth of this prince. In a Chronicle of Jodhpur,! however, I have found for Sujo a date different from the one given by the other Chronicles, and this might possibly be the correct date. It is Samvat 1499. If this date is correct, Viko was elder than Sajo by about two years.? L. P. TrEssitori. Bikaner, 25th April, 1918. tC. 38, p 2 Thou aie portent of this kind are ot worthless and even aa a yet the fact that Sajo outlived 6 by several years, may hav me significance as ‘corroborative evidence in re our of Vik6é’s siderahia: Both Vik6o and Sijo died a natural dea LPP RR Notice. Foreign Societies who favour the Asiatic Society of Bengal with their publications are informed that they may be sent either to the address of the Society at Calcutta, or to the Agent of the Society in London, Mr. Bernard Quaritch, 11, Grafton Street, New Bond Street. AVIS. Les Sociétés étrangéres qui honorent la Société Asiatique de Bengale de ses ee sont priées de les envoyer ou te- ment a l’adresse de la Société, i; Perk Street, Calcutta, ou a Vagent de la "Société & Londres, Mr. Bernard Quaritch, 11, Grafton Street, New Bond Street. ANZEIGE. Auslindische Gesellschaften welche die Asiatische Gesell- schaft von Bengalen mit ihren Publicationen beehren, werden hierdurch ersucht dieselben entweder direkt an die Kadveian der Gesellschaft, 1, die Street, Calcutta, oder an den Agenten in London, Mr. Ber ard Quaritch, 1], Grafton Street, New Bond Street, zu senden. 3. Suggestions concerning the History of the Drainage of Northern India, arising out of a Study of the Siwalik Boulder Conglomerate. By Guy E. Pirerm, D.Sc., F.G.8., Assistant Superintendent, Geological Survey of India.' Published with the permission of the Director, Geological Survey of India. (With Plates I-II.) At the summit of the Siwalik series in India occur a set of conglomerate beds, containing, in many places, pebbles of s i i . Thev ve This paper was written in January 1917. The author was then on i ce ia, and books of reference. It was originally his intention to elaborate it on his return Th d not occur until 1 n the meanwhile one now published. Since Dr. Pascoe appears to question very fully, it seems needless for the author to attempt any more than he has already done. With the exception, therefore, of a few necessary corrections and the addition of some explanatory details, the paper is published in much the same. form as that in which it was ori- ginally written. roe ‘ : 2 G. E. Pilgrim, Correlation of the Siwaliks with mammal horizons of Europe. Ree, Geol. Surv., India, XLIII (1913), p. 324. 82 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, The writer, who has, perhaps. had more opportunity than anyone else of observing these boulder conglomerates through- out India, is inclined to consider that the interest attaching to them is greater than that of any ordinary pebble bed or accu- mulation of boulders. Although their peculiarities have not hitherto escaped me, and while realizing that these features must have some special significance, I have not, up to now, think that, at all events in its broad outlines, it may commend itself to geologists generally. ore proceeding further it is necessary to summarize the known facts regarding the composition and occurrence of the Siwalik boulder conglomerates and of their distribution in India. The area in which these beds reach-their maximum de- thickness of more than 5,000 feet. Thence they regularly re- appear in the same stratigraphical position in each of the five or coarse sandstones with abundant pebbles alternating with clays, with a distinct representative of the Middle Siwaliks and with the Lower Siwaliks or Nahans. It is almost certain that the 1919.] History of the Drainage of Northern India. 83 Kalka. The whole rien of the Upper Siwaliks is, however, shown in the outer hills it is evident that across the Beas the boulder eaioniensies ‘diminish in amount. On the Sutlej they are perhaps 3,000 feet and across the Jumna the actual boulder bed is hardly more than 2,000 feet thick. On the Ganges at Hardwar the boulder conglomerate i is even less and begins to shade into the pebbly beds of the Upper Siwaliks. Middlemiss! has described the Upper Siwalik conglome- rate in the lower hills of Garhwal and Kumaun to the east sandstone appear to replace one another from one locality to another, their respective thicknesses varying inversely as one another. The boulder conglomerate is recorded by Middlemiss as far east as the Nepal border, but as far as one can gather it gaan to be considerably ttines than on the Ganges. allet > mentions the presence of conglomerates in the Siw alike series “of Sikkim, but pebbles would seem to be neither so large nor so abundant as they are to the west. When we arrive at the corresponding series exposed at the foot of the Bhutan hills and described by the writer,’ we find that, although boulder conglomerates exist, the line of demarcation between them and the sandstone beds which im- mediately underlie them is less marked, and often, all that we can say is that pebbles are far more abundant at the top of the formation than is the case lower down La Touche and Coggin Brown in their respective descrip- tions* of the Siwaliks of the Aka and the Abor hills make no mention of a conglomerate, from which we may conclude that it is absent J. M. Maclaren has demonstrated the absence not only of the conglomerate® but of the whole Siwalik series in the neighbourhood of Brahmakund, and generally in the hills which hem in the upper portion of the Brahmaputra valley. e in the other direction, Ze the boulder conglom- erate continues with undiminished strength through Jammu, we find that it aiddaele disappears sen - Chenab. We may 1 C. 8. Middlemiss, Physical ig of the Sub-Himalaya betwee Garhwaland Kumaun. Mem. Geol. Surv., India, XXIV, 2 (1890), pp. ve 2 F. R. Mallet, 30 geology of the er ree district and the Western sear y Mem. Geol. S , India, XI, 1 (187 8 G. E. Pilgrim, Noun on the geology me a ‘portion of Bhutan. Rec. — Sure. India, XXXIV (1906 #7 ..D. Ee Touche, Notes on the epology 0 of the Aka hills. Rec. Geol. Surv., India, XVIII (1885), p. 122. J. a Brown, A_ geological Reconnaissa: nce through the Dihong valley, being the geological results of the Abor expedition. Rec. Geol. Surv., anda, REI ee p- 236. 5 J. M. Maclaren, Geology of Upper Assam. c. Geol, Surv., India, XXXI (1904), p. 193. 84 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, deduce this from some remarks made by W. Theobald in his paper on the Siwaliks.'. The writer has not actually seen them die away, but in the Kharian hills on the eastern side of the Jhelam the highest bed of the Siwaliks is a loosely com- pacted sand, and below this the beds are merely coarse grits, with occasional pebbles. Equally across the Jhelam the uppermost beds of the series die down into the plains at South of the Salt Range the boulder conglomerates are probably less well developed. They were found by La Touche? in the Sherani hills near Dera Ismail Khan. In the Bugti and Mari hills of Baluchistan boulder conglomerates occur 3 to a thickness of some 300 or 400 feet and in the neighbour- To sum up then, the Siwalik boulder conglomerate was laid 1 W Theobald, The Siwalik group of the Sub-Himalayan region. Rec. Geol. Surv., India, XIV (1881), p. 93. 2 T. D. La Touche, Geology of the Sherani hills. Rec. Geol. Surv., India, XXVI (1893), p. 90 8 G. E. Pilgrim, The Tertiary and Post-tertiary deposits of Baluchis- tan and Sind. Rec. Geol. Surv., India, XX XVII (1909), p. 164. 4# W. T. Blanford, Geology of Western Sind. Mem. Geol. Surv., India, XVII, 1 (1879), p. 58. 1919.] History of the Drainage of Northern India. 85 down over a wide extent of country and accumulated toa colossal thickness in Jammu and Kangra between the Chenab and the Beas rivers. Going westward it thins out re but is again developed to some extent north of the Sa lt Range, again dies out southward but repeats itself in Pistiees and Bhutan. On the accompanyin map, Plate II, Fig. 2, repre- approximate position of the Upper Siwalik zone is indicated by a continuous thick line, while the dotted area marks the occur- diminishes to that of an orange. Smaller pebbles than this are not frequent, though there is a certain amount of sand and clay which helps to bind the whule together. As a general rule they are well rounded. The greater number of the boulders are of quartzite but quite a number of slate and vein quartz occur and locally we find them composed of granite, trap rock, limestone, as well as of the Lower Siwalik sandstone. The age of the uppermost beds of the Siwalik series are dated with a fair amount of accuracy by the first occurrence in them of Camelus, probably a migrant from Central Asia. In North America the earliest beds in which this genus has been found have been referred to the lowest Pleistocene. The writer! has placed the whole Siwalik series into the Pliocene, in which case the Camelus beds of North America should perhaps be slightly antedated. He is now inclined to think, however, that the topmost beds of the Siwaliks are nee ya hte aati pressed by Lydekker? thirty years ago. It is ‘generally agreed that no portion of the Siwalik series was contemporaneous with the so-called older alluvium of the Narbada, Godavari and Ganges, and, so Sk ng as an uneonformability between these two sets of beds seems a matter of little moment whether we Cinder that ie Siwalik era — with the Pliocene, or was continued into the Pleistocen The formation or a boulder bed of the kind that has been described may be due to various causes. | G. E, Pilgrim, Correlation of the Siwaliks _ on horizons of Europe. Rec. Geol. Surv., India, XLIII eos p. 3 2R. bp tener § Indian Tertia tbe and P. i ghcpial vertebrate fauna. Pal. 86 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, accumulated in these conglomerates. Nor can an ice sheet be called into action, for we know that, even supposing that any an ice sheet could not have extended so far south as India. Finally the pebbles in the Siwalik boulder conglomerates bear no striations, facets or other characteristic traces of a glacial ri ! Hooker, Himalayan Journals, IT, p. 7. Macmahon, Rec. Geol. Surv., Ind., XIV, p. 310, XV, p. 49. win Austen, J.A.S.B., XLIV, pt. 2, p- 200. Blanford, Manual of the Geol. of Ind., \st Ed., pt. 1, p. 372 1919.] History of the Drainage of Northern India. 87 ally get broken up into smaller and smaller fragments and eventually these and the eee detritus either reach the sea, r form material fine enough to eposited on the land by the river when in flood, so that in a river with a iagre! ‘asian the boulders do not accumulate beyond a certain lim For a precisely similar reason to which the mounds a the foot of the hills owe their origin, the basal bed of a continental for- mation is generally a conglomerate because it represents frag- ments that have become detached from a surface that is freshly exposed to denudation without being furnished with adequate drainage. Consequently a collection of ens ers is formed, which may be widespread but is covered up as soon as rivers begin to flood their banks and deposit pala fine sedi- ment. Medlicott’s suggestion,! endorsed by Middlemiss,* that these beds were formed by rivers debouching from the hills in the same position as they do now, founded on his observation that the boulders show signs of be eing more numerous in the vicinity of these rivers than elsewhere, is no doubt true so ane as it goes. At the same time the boulder conglomerates are ve far from being limited to such areas, and though Medlicott s b to account for the boulder conglomerates reaching such lavan rivers. Equally true may have been La Touche’s suggestion that excessive rainfall and increased erosion are largely responsible for the pebble beds that were accumulated in Pleistocene ti It may well be that the glacial period in India was heralded nf one of phenomenal rainfall, and under such conditions an reased number of boulders would be brought down from the hills and would be carried further afield, but to anyone who has seen these Siwalik conglomerates it will, I think, be obvious that, with the utmost allowance for increased precipita- also seems no reason why the boulder bed should not be as oe: aN A herein the Leche and Sse of - southern dees of the Himalaya: een the rivers Ganges and Ravi —. Surv., Indic, TIT, 2 ( 2 soa) pp- 119, 135. 2C. iddl 8 T. D. La Touche, Helios - the great Ice ep in the plains of North- ern India. Geol. Mag., Dec. 5, VII (1910), p 88 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, well sae ilk everywhere in the Himalayas as in Kangra and Jamm The best testimony to the inefficacy of a river with a regular gradient to deposit the Siwalik boulder beds exists in the absolute failure of thé modern Ganges and Brahmaputra to produce anything of the kind, and also of the Irrawaddy during the Miocene and Pliocene to accumulate any pebble beds in its deposits. Moreover the almost entire absence of pebbles in the lower portions of the freshwater series of India and their scar- oey except in the uppermost beds of the — is not explicable except by invoking some factor which was not in operation previously to the epoch of the boulder zone. 3) There is, however, one well-known cause which is res- ponsible for the formation of pebble beds where none had previously existed. If any portion of the channel of a river is elevated, the depression produced behind this fold becomes a basin of deposition; the deposit will continue, other things being equal, until the basin is filled up and the regular down- ward gradient of the river is restored. If this basin has been produced near a hilly country, where large boulders are often being detached, a series of conglomerates will be deposited. Vredenburg ! has pointed out how a slight earth movement in the Peninsula during the Pleistocene produced basins in the upper courses of the Narbada and Godavari as a result of which over 500 feet of sediment were laid down over a considerable area. In this deposit are many pebbles, but, on account of the remoteness of the hills, no boulder beds were formed. When these sediments had filled up their basins, the rivers recovered their former gradients sat ceased to deposit, while at a still later date they cut into the gravels which had been laid down in the Pleistocene. This is almost precisely what seems to have happened, only on a much larger scale and pc coon by intense folding, in the Siwaliks. Sedimentation appears to have taken place in a broad river valley, into which ne entered from the affluents would accumulate. It may be that during the lower Pleistocene, on account of excessive rainfall, debris eu these tributaries brought down was largely in reased in tity as La Touche has suggested. It is also potable thee ‘is fragments would increase in size and in amount the nearer one 1 E. iar pom Pleistocene movement as indicated by irregularities of gradient of the Narbada and other rivers in the Indian Peninsula. Rec. Geol. Surv., Tndlse. XXXIII, pp. 33-45 (1906). 1919.] History of the Drainage of Northern India. 89 ct ee the streams which drained the oad area, according o the eatek rig of Medlicott and Middlem To complete the explanation of the fasts ‘it. remains consider the question as to where the main river flowed, which carried all these hill affluents to the sea, why in any part of its course it was dammed back on such a huge scale, and how the arrage was continued for such a prolonged period as to account for the vast thicknesses of boulder conglomerate which according to hypothesis were thus formed. Each of these will, to my mind, admit of but one answer, so far as concerns the main issues involved. uring the periods which succeeded the Eocene it is a matter of common knowledge that important elevatory movements in regions pag adjacent to the Siwalik boulder conglomerate between e Chenab and the Ganges are confined to that tract of panties which lies to the north and north-west of the outcrops in question. We cannot invoke any elevation on such an enormous scale and of such duration in any part of the country lying to the south and south-east of the es area. Bengal, the United Provinces and parts of the Punjab formed with the remainder of the Indian peninsula a portion of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland. The remnants of ancient gneiss, which are exposed ng ‘the course of the sidence may have taken place hanes is probable but not the ’. reverse. Even supposing, for the sake of argument, that a movement of elevation in this southern area were at all feasible, and that a basin of deposition had been formed by a ridge stretching across the present alluvial area of Bengal, one would expect that the conglomerate deposited in such a basin would thicken as it approached the hypothetical ridge, but as a matter of fact we find the reverse of this to be the case It follows that the dam must have been formed to the north or north-west of the conglomerate outcrop, and that the river which was thus dammed back, and to which we owe the whole of the Tertiary freshwater etouits of Northern India, flowed from pi ee to north-west through a broad valley bounded on the south by the ancient, pacbably much denuded and not very Se land surface embracing Bengal, the United Ovinces and t of the Punjab, and on the north by the Soke raleeukad saa probably necdhers slopes of the Hima- la While the whole of the Himalayan area since the Eocene been undergoing elevation, two portions of it mav be singled out as presenting special features which distinguish them from the rest. One of these is the north-eastern angle, which « 90 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, is believed to have been elevated first and the other, the north-western angle, embracing Kashmir, the Murree hills and to a smaller extent the Simla hill states, where elevation, less at the commencement, has been most considerable during the later Tertiary periods. This is indicated by the wide distribu- tion within this area of marine rocks of Eocene age and by the great elevations at which these rocks as well as the freshwater Murree beds now occur. Thus, the latter are found at eleva- tions of more.than 8,000 feet or 2,000 feet higher than the same beds occur elsewhere in the Himalayas. The faulted and exceedingly complex structure in the hills separating Murree rom the plains—much more marked than in most other parts I imagine no one will seriously dispute the proposition that the drainage of a considerable portion of India, when it formed the end of the Eocene is attempted, will be sufficient to show how much more probable it is that the drainage of the northern half of India should be in a north-westerly direction than in any other. If so much is admitted, it follows that between the end of the Eocene and recent times the drainage of that part of India must have been reversed. Opinions will only differ as to when and how this took place. With the elevation of the Himalayas and the withdrawal of the sea to the north, the geographical river would cut through the land as it rose from the sea, and, so to speak, follow the retreating sea through the mountainous tract, which would rise on 1919.] History of the Drainage of Northern India. 91 (2) If the rate of elevation was too rapid for the erosive wer of the river to keep pace with it, the latter might be elbowed off to the west. (3) If the elevation was very sudden and the sea were accessible in another direction, the course of the river might be altogether reversed. Whether the first of these results could have been noticed during the early stages of the elevation of the Himalayas or even in the Miocene is matter for conjecture, but in any case one cannot conceive it operating for long or there would still be a great north-westerly flowing river he writer is of opinion that the third of these results did not happen until after the deposition of the boulder beds in the Pleistocene, for, not otherwise than by the train of cireum- stances initiated by the second of the three alternatives, can the writer account for the formation of the boulder conglomerates. The reversal of the drainage concluded the Siwalik epoch and inaugurated modern conditions. It is essential for the validity of the whole theory that it should account not only for the existence of the boulder con- glomerates, but also for the special features and distribution of the whole series of Siwalik deposits which preceded them I, therefore, propose to suggest how the distribution of the Siwalik boulder conglomerates may be explained on the hypo- thesis in question, and how the whole fluviatile series falls into its proper place in the continuons working of the same evolu- tionary scheme. Before doing this it will be as well to give as brief a summary as possible of what we know about.the character and distribution of the different members of the series. In i ing ous ferruginous concretionary masses, of the Bugti hills of Baluchistan, also largely lacustrine in origin. a similar age are possibly the basal beds of the Dagshai series consisting of ferruginous and gypsiferous clays somewhat con- cretionary in character. The deposits of the Murree- beds, consisting of fine- 92 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV. retaining the same character, diminish in thickness towards the S.-E., being reduced to 1,000 feet or so on the Jumma and barely represented on the Ganges. The topmost beds, known as the Kasauli stage, are found in various places between the Jhelam and the Jumna and are probably a lake deposit. The Murree beds exist in the Kala Chitta hills, where they are perhaps 2,000 feet thick, but they thin out going south to- wards the Salt Range, where they appear to be represented by finer-grained and more concretionary beds which are only of a triflmg thickness. South of the Salt Range they die away entirely. The Lower Siwaliks consist of a great thickness of sand- stones. known as the Nahan series, probably reaching their maximum development of some 10,000 feet between the Sutlej and the Jumna, though there is little doubt that they formerly existed in probably equal amount to beyond the Ravi, but are concealed from view by faulting. Eastward they gradually die out, being less than 5,000 feet thick beyond the Ganges, while it is doubtful whether they extend beyond the eastern border of Nepal. East of the Teesta the Siwalik series with a total thick- ness of 11,000 feet! partakes rather of the nature of the coarse- grained pebbly sandstone of the Upper Siwaliks. The Lower Siwaliks are absent over the larger portion of the Murree hills but descending towards Rawal Pindi they overlie the margin of the Murree series. e go south to the Salt Range, they alter in character and consist largely of fine-grained, nodular and concretionary clays with interbedded sandstones belonging to the Kamlial and Chinji zones. They are some 4,000 feet thick here, and, beginning in the Tortonian, extend through the Sarmatian stage of the Upper Miocene. Their lithological character is partially continued in the Nagri beds of the lower Pontian. South of the Salt Range, beds of Lower Siwalik age occur in the Bugti hills and Sind, being in both localities of a concretionary charac- ter but coarser than in the Salt Range. At the top of the Nahans some few hundred feet of beds were deposited of a lithological composition precisely similar to the Lower Siwaliks of the Salt Range. These are probably lower Pontian and belong to the Nagri horizon. They are devel- throughout Kangra and the Simla hill states, being every- where fossiliferous and especially so at Haritalyangar in the Bilaspur State. The Middle Siwaliks which succeed them are coarse cream- coloured sandstones with occasional pebbles and a few inter- 1 Mallet, l.c., p. 47. 1919.] History of the Drainage of Northern India. 93 bedded clays, attaining a thickness of some 5,000 feet north of the Salt Range. They certainly occur in Jammu and on the Sutlej and no doubt in all intermediate areas but are much less Jpper Siwaliks, consisting of pale-coloured, coarse- grained Seciilons:, with abundant but scattered pebbles attain their maximum thickness between the Chenab and the Sutlej, where it may amount to as much as 15,000 f Beyond ‘the eastward border of Nepal it seems exceedingly likely that nearly the whole of the Siwalik series belongs | to this horizon. Here a thickness of some 11,000 feet is probably within the mark, ee it can be little less in the Abor hills. They are less thick in the Salt Range where an average of 5,000 feet is fairly near the correct figure. South of the Salt Range they are known to occur in vari- ous places, but I am unable to give actual “cee of the thick- ness except in the Marri. hills and Sind where 2,000 feet pro- ably represents their total thickness. I have already given an estimate as to how much of this from sige to place consists of boulder-conglomerates. ma, the Irawaddi series does not appear to have begun cata the Middle Siwalik epoch. The writer has seen no clear evidence of the occurrence in it of Upper Siwalik fossils, though it is possible that strata of this age may exist in the lower portion of the Irawaddi valley. Pebbly and con- cretionary beds—so-called Red Beds—occur at its base and coarse sandstones and clays for the remainder. A few thin freshwater horizons occur at lower levels interbedded with marine or estuarine beds of the Pegu series. he Siwaliks of Cutch and Katthiawar, including Perim Island, are, probably, largely Middle Siwalik and it is unlikely that much either = Lower or Upper Siwalik age is contain in them. They may be mere ip ony of a seed larger basin — ym of deposit, now kerio beneath the se shall now proceed to eeiainia ‘these facts into a con- nected history on the assumption of a great Siwalik river flowing westward and north-westward on which chains eon alone, so far as the writer can see, can the character and dis tribution of the deposits be explain Such a river might in Eocene times have entered the sea somewhere near Subathu, following somewhat the same course as the modern Ganges and rising on a watershed, of which a portion may, doubtless, still be seen in the Raj mahal and . 94 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, of elevation is what we should expect. The greater uplift of the region W. and N.-W. of Rawal Pindi may be assumed to account for the considerable reduction of the deposit south-west of the Murree hills, and the simultaneous elevation of the Salt Range is the only reason why we should get any deposit at all in that area. South of the Salt Range sedimentation naturally ceased, tary, already referred to, which drained this country, must by th : . : : 1919.] History of the Drainage of Northern India. 95 slowly and brought down less material. The character of the Nahan cpp bears witness to the probability of this suppositi Buikiward of the dam the flow of the river must have be- me more normal, that is more rapid and so in spite of the still rising Salt Range the Lower Siwalik sediments of this area would be less in amount than, and differ in character from, the Nahans of the Himalayan area, which is actually the case. It is possible, as the writer has suggested elsewhere, that the sand- stone bands of the Chinji beds interbedded with concretionary clays represent periods of flooding alternating with cessation therefrom in a river valley w hose | gradient was fairly constant and sp agen to that of the modern Ganges and Brahma- putra. The successive changes would be due to variations in the rate of uplift both behind and in front of the depositing area. t the close of the Lower Siwalik period, however, the Nahar sediments must have mt ae their basin while the Salt piel and the Himalayas as evidenced by the argillaceous and concretionary character of the beds which succeeded the Lower Siwaliks of the latter area at Haritalyangar and else- where and which are not to be distinguished from those of the Chinji and Nagri zones of the Salt Range. n Middle Siwalik times the elevation of the Salt Range must begs ve been more rapid to account for the greatly ee sedimentation in that area, which diminishes in amount as go eon up the course of the the Pliocene further sbeation ‘of the Kashmir-Jammu area ae have occurred to cause the accumulation of the vast Upper Siwalik deposits. The main river valley must now have coinci with the outcrop of the Upper Siwaliks, as shown on the map, in Pl. II, Fig. 2, completely dominating the old southern tributaries. At the same time the whole course of the river. must have become flatter, with the result that Upper Siwalik sediments are met with all along its valley. In the last stage of the Siwalik period the upheaving forces were intensified, and as a consequence of this the whole area embraced by Jammu and Kangra appears to have been prac- tically turned into a large Jake with an outlet on the western side. The numerous tributaries from the now lofty mountains They, therefore, must have accumulated to form a boulder deposit, generally distributed over the whole of the area in question, though varying in thickness from place to place. y a minimum could have passed over the western edge and been available to paces ont to the boulder conglomerates of 96 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, the Salt Range. This was doubtless supplemented by the now increasing Indus, which drained both the country to the west of Murree and Hazara as well as a great portion of what is A final uplift, on a more colossal scale than any that had preceded it, seems to have been chiefly instrumental in entirely and other rivers into the Bay of Bengal, the two systems of drainage being separated by the hilly country of the Aravallis abruptly south to form the modern Brahmaputra along another ancient channel. The way in which this may have been further question arises at this point as to how these Himalayan rivers, following the direction which, by hypothesis, they did, were able eventually to pour their water into the Bay of Bengal. This water on entering the old channels of the would oppose its passage. Moreover farther south would be presumably a drainage system for the old watershed ,—a drainage 1919.] History of the Drainage of Northern India. 97 system of which the general direction would be northward. It is, therefore, natural to ask how a way may have been opened through this obstruction. I am not aware of any facts which enable us to determine exactly how this was effected, and it must be understood that the explanation that follows is only suggested in order to carry the record down to the establish- ment of modern conditions t the present time in the ‘tract of country embraced by between the deposits of the Mahanadi and the Irawaddi in spite of the fact that the two rivers rise in what must have been, in Miocene and Pliocene times, one continuous watershed, and flow into the same ocean. While the Irawaddi furnishes us ‘with a continuous series of estuarine and flood-plain deposits extend- ing from the Eocene to the present day, the deltaic deposits of the Mahanadi are Sub-Recent and correspond in age only to those of the lower portion of the modern Irawaddi delta. The rise of the Arakan ranges seems hardly sufficient to account for the difference in the deposits of the two rivers. It, there- fore, seems probable that the Eocene and Miocene fluviatile line was not far short of the Andamans, making the continent of India much larger than is the case to-day. During the Cretaceous transgression the sea a undoubtedly flowed in over portions of the ancient Gondwana continent and has left marine deposits along the eastern poker of Madras. Subsequently, however, it certainly disappeared from within It seems, therefore, not unlikely that this area was sub- merged later than the Miocene and that in former times the Mahanadi drained a much more extensive tract of country than it does to-day, which perhaps one would infer both from its present width and its complicated system of tributaries, which are altogether disproportionate to its length as we see it at the present time (see Pls. I and II). Similarly it is likely that the Miocene rivers, which may which rose originally in the same watershed as the Mahanadi (now vanished from that area), were also powerful rivers and ssors enter it to-day. A tilting of this region sufficient to submerge it during the Pliocene would have 98 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [{N.S., XV, comparatively easy matter for the water to find its way into the Bay of Bengal by river valleys which were already in existence. This supposition seems more likely than that the watershed was depressed by local subsidence, or faulting, or that the reversed rivers were able by their own force to cut a way through the watershed to the sea. It is evident that the Godavari and the Kistna have at some period cut back through crystalline rocks which may have formed an outlying portion of the same watershed, since they now rise in the Western Ghats. Similarly the Brahmaputra may have cut back through it in another place and captured the headwaters of the old Siwalik river, either at the time when the reversal of drainage took place or even earlier than this. € may suppose that the portion of the Siwalik river which drained Kangra and Jammu reached the Arabian sea in a somewhat similar fashion. Ever since the origin of the Indus its Punjab tributaries, the Jhelam, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej, must have been cutting back towards the north-east, and by the Pleistocene may have cap- tured a considerable portion of the drainage of the Siwalik river from off the Aravallis and Rajputana. The Pleistocene pebbly- gravels which have been found here and there on the margins of, or as islands in, the Gangetic alluvium, as for example at Allahabad and Sara, are doubtless the first deposits of the new southerly flowing rivers before they had regularly established themselves on their downward gradient to the Bay of Bengal. Ata later stage this class of deposit ceased and was replaced by the modern annual accu- mulations of silt. tion known or inferred which is at our disposal concerning the elevation of the Himalayas. On the other hand, so far at least 1919.] History of the Drainage of Northern India. 99 as the writer can see, it cannot be explained on any hypothesis, which involves a system of drainage in Siwalik times essentially the same as that of to-day, without a serious violation of the observed or inferred data. SUMMARY. The author considers that the peculiar character and distribution of the Pleistocene Boulder beds of the Siwalik cros rse. Since in Jammu and Kangra these boulder beds attain the enormous thickness of 5,000 feet and disappear quite suddenly to the north-west of this area, while to the south-east they gradually diminish in thickness and are feebly represented as far as Bhutan, it follows that such a dam must have been situated north-west of Jammu and that the river flowed along the foot of the Himalayas from south-east to north-west. In Eocene times when sea covered the whole of the Western Himalayas such a river must have risen on a system and breadth of the Mahanadi so disproportionate to what is now the Bay of Bengal from the Eocene onward, rising on the same watershed which is mentioned above. lift on a more colossal scale than any that had preceded it actually reversed the flow of the river in the basin of which the boulder conglomerates were deposited, the water flowed into the channels of the southerly flowing rivers which were ready to receive it. The V-shape of many of the Himalayan rivers along a certain portion of their course (the point of the V facing north-west), is significant as evidence that the northern arms of the Vs represent tributaries flowing in the normal direction which they would take to join a great north- westerly flowing river. The Gangetic alluvium, thick though it is, has all been deposited later than this period in the valley of rivers with a normal gradient as the result of annual floods, depression continuing simultaneously with the addition of flood material and sediments. Jour., As, Soc. eg Vol. XV, 1919. Plate 1. DISTRIBUTION OF LAND & WATER IN ASIA DURING THE A = Pa — peerenes = = ll nt rs tea . i : ae Nes og et Kes Ar | atti} iia 7 \| ! Hil _- = f Wt UHH ‘i | UT s ~ /: TWH Ss uy i Hl he 4 XE a fi A Ti | DISTRIBUTION OF LAND & WATER IN ASIA DURING THE MIOCENE il ie i Pig Yr = 1 (i ca ] | SS iS su : LG . g | | i ; a ‘i aN uh i Jour., As. Soc. Beng., Vol. XV, 1919. Plate II. DISTRIBUTION OF LAND & WATER E DURING TH PLIOCENE Pris aap il Hl i i i ' ett fl | | | | i ‘8 ’ C lee lt > 5 > . % . Zi Ma me eS ot x Bee 4 9 ¥ fs v i, A x Ps . x ‘ OELHI ‘ NI - \ \ Sa BOMBAY) MAORAS { 2 g COLOMBO ‘ MAP OF INDIA DURING THE PLEISTOCENE. THE THICK LINE SHOWS THE APPROXIMATE POSITION OF THE SIWALIK RIVER. THE AREA CONTAINING BOULDER CONGLOMERATES IS DOTTED. 4. A Note on the Vitality and Longevity of Silkworm Moths during the Cold and Rainy Seasons in Bengal. By Mauve L. Cusenory, F.L.S., F.E.S., F.Z.8. (With Plates III—IV.) For some time past I have been working on the improve- ment of silkworms in Bengal by selection for longevity and immunity from disease, but not till about three vears ago were experiments able to be done ona large scale. When dealing with several hundreds of individuals in each generation I noticed that on the whole the moths lived very long during the cold seasons, fairly long in the hot weather, but only a very few days in the rainy season. This rise and fall in the vitality scale. I have also found when selecting for longevity that longer than the mated ones of the same generation. Silkworm moths, whether mated or not, usually lay their eggs a day or two after they have cut out of their cocoons, and I found that the unmated females usually live longer than the unmated male moths. which the long and short-lived moths use up their fatty reserves would also be of interest. However, I have to defer these experiments till later. The family Bombycidae, to which the silkworm moth belongs, and the family Saturniidae, to which the well-known peror moth and Atlas moth belong, unlike other Lepidop- tera, lack a proboscis; in fact they have no buccal orifice ov on their fatty reserves. Another characteristic, which makes silkworms in India well adapted for experimental investigation, is that the Indian varieties are many brooded. They have eight or nine generations during the year, completing about 102 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XIV, two generations in each season. They are also very prolific, as a moth usually lays about two hundred eggs. During the cold season 1915-16 when I had only just begun working on a large scale and had many hundreds of moths from which to select, I found that great numbers in each group of families lived over eight days, so I decided to reject all those which lived under eight days. I continued m selection with regard to longevity through the hot weather of 1916, and although it was quite warm in May and June a very fair number of moths lived over a week. However, in the generation reared in July, the moths of which cut out of their cocoons in August, I was surprised to find that nearly all the 1916 and January 1917, many lived about twenty days. I watched this rise and fall in the vitality of the moths more closely through 1917 and found that it was repeated, for only a few moths lived over six days in August and September. It is well known that all insects complete their larval and pupal] stages quicker in the hot than in the cold weather ; Lam, however, not aware that the effect of the season on the length of the imaginal stages of insects has been recorded. It is well known that many beetles and cicadas live for years, but it is not generally known that moths, butterflies and mosquitos have quite a fair length of life. I have also found that butterflies kept in captivity live longer in the cold than in the rainy season. A specimen of Hypolimnas bolina which lived ninety-two days was caught on the 2nd November and died on the Ist February. The four families chosen to show the rise and fall in vitality during the seasons, were selected because they are des- January 1917 to April 1918 have been represented diagramati- cally in Tables I, 11, If, and IV. Diagrams I and II are of two families reared from March 1917 to April 1918, and Diagrams If and IV, which are of another branch of the same race, were reared from January 1917 to March 1918 and are also in their fifty-seventh generation. In these diagrams the figures on the base line show the number of moths, and the vertical lines above the figures show the number of days the moths have lived. These upright lines must be referred to the column of figures on the left 1918. | The Vitality of Silkworm Moths. 103 which gives the number of days. The length of the uprights always noted as these moths are usually rejected. When the moths have lived wnder a certain number of days I have shown the uprights as broken. However, they are all known to be dead on the first day on which the longer-lived moths were noted as being alive t is apparent from a study of these diagrams, that there is always a pronounced rise in the vitality of the moths in the cold season and a fairly sudden drop in the rainy season. It is always lowest in either August or September, but in March, April, May and June it remains almost stationary, being neither high nor low. Diagram I shows a fairly regular rise and fall, highest in December, when many moths lived fourteen, fifteen, and seventeen days, and one ninteen days; lowest in August, when only six moths lived five days and the remaining eighty- four lived three days and under three days. In March, April, and June the vitality was fairly high, but in October it was lower than might have been expected. Diagram II shows a greater rise and fall than that which occurred in the vitality of family represented in Diagram T. It was, as usual, highest ecember, rising to twenty days, but the greatest drop was in ge Bete har. not August, when it fell very low, none of the moths out of one hundred and fifty-eight living more than three days. In October the degree of vitality remained much the same as that shown in Diagram The two families the longevity of which is represented in greatest drop in September. There is an unusual rise in April when one moth lived fifteen days, two fourteen days, and seven twelve days. In Diagram III the rise and fall in the vitality seems very gradual, the rise is slightly higher than usual and the fall is not as low as shown in the other Diagrams. It is lower in August than in September as pa one moth lived seven days in a while seven lived seven days in September, seven lived s days. and fifteen lived five days, cigs only five lived six dz ys and three lived five days in Au The unusual rise in the August Oe shown in Dia- am III may probably be due to the greater longevity of the parent moths from which it is descended. In fac t the families represented in Diagrams III and IV are from a ach longer- lived branch of the race than that from which the families represented in Diagrams I and II are descended. In all the generations given in the Diagrams the length of days the maternal parents lived is indicated by an arrow. The paternal 104 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [{N.S., XIV, parents have not always been recorded as they have on the whole been short-lived. However, in the 49th generation in Diagram I both parents lived ten days, and in the 48th generation in Diagram III the paternal parent lived nine days and the maternal twelve days. lance at the Diagrams shows that the rise and fall in the vitality of the moths are not always connected with the duration of the larval and pupal stage, for the moths which emerged in January and February lived longest and had a larval and pupal stage of sixty-three days only, while those which emerged in March, after passing through a larval and pupal stage lasting eighty days, lived about the same number of days as:‘those which emer in May and June, which had a larval stage lasting forty and thirty-eight days respectively. From this it appears that if the moths cut out at the end of the cold weather they will not live very long, although they e effects of temperature and moisture on insects have been shown in a number of most carefully conducted experi- ments by Tower on beetles, and fully described in his valuable work “An Investigation of the Evolution in Chrysomelid Beetles of the Genus Leptinotarsa.”” In his experiments Tower used the larvae of Liptinotarsa decemlineata and subjected many thousands of individuals to varying conditions through the larval and pupal stages till the adult insect emerged. As he gives the mortality percentages in each experiment, it is were taken after the beetles emerged, and not after their death, so the death-rate given was taken during the larval and pupal stage and not in the imaginal instar. However, the mortality percentages are very interesting. {In one of his experiments to determine the effects of a high average deviation of temperature on over ten thousand beetle larvae the death-rate was 99 per cent. In this experiment the 403°C er experiment in which Tower subjected over six thousand beetle larvae to a large decrease in the average temperature, about 13:4°C below normal, the death-rate 1918. | The Vitality of Silkworm Moths. 105 recorded was 95 per cent. The maximum temperature in the experiment was 15°5°C and the minimum was 6°C. In his moisture experiments he showed that when there was a moderate increase in the relative humidity the death- rate was only 15 per cent but that it rose to 90 per cent in a saturated atmosphere, and that when there was a large increase in both temperature and moisture condition the mortality percentage rose to 95. rs experiments show how harmful a high average deviation of temperature can be to insect life. They also show that a large decrease in the temperature is also harmful, but not quite as much. In connection with this rise and fall of vitality in moths in relation to the seasons it is of interest to find that Birch, referring to statistics of soldiers’ children in India, which afford full information of the relative healthiness of each month, states: ‘‘ The most unhealthy months are, we see, July, August, beginning and fall from the end of the first-named period is marked by the figures with singular regularity. The increase of mortality and sickness is coincident with the advent of extreme heatanddamp.” The statistics he refers to show that the number of admissions into hospital in January was 440, while in August it was 1,360, and in September 1,024. The number of deaths for January was 41, for February 32, while in July it was 99, in August 155, and in September On the whole it seems very evident that the great heat and humidity to which most forms of life are subjected during the rainy season diminishes their vitality to a considerable extent. The dreaded month of May is somehow not so harm- ful as the Rains, which are looked forward to as a welcome break in the heat. ERRATA. On Plate II under Diagram III in the second group of figures repre- senting numbers of individuals, for 21.9.4 read 21.7. 4. On the same plate under Diagram IV in the same column, for 20. 7. 4 read 21.7.4 Sn ated Plate IIT. Journ. As. Soc. Beng., Vol. XV, 1919. + 20 days 207 days. 18 is 4 Diagram I. {yo 10 | § | | | 54 | | | | | | | ne po ee | ae \ i | | Individuals 28.13.5. 4.4.4.2 19.11.5.4.2 92.13.8. 4.2.1 38.2.1.1. 84.6. 79.7.1 63.3. 2413. 14.3.2.2.1.1. 23.22:2012.1. oe Generation .--_------ ----- 48 th. 49 th. 50th. 51st. 52 nd 53rd. 54th. th. th. Date of Brrrgenos._-- -14 idarch 1917 25 April 2 June 10 July 19Sept. 25 Oct. 19 December 5 March.1918 17 April 1918. eae ease ----55 days 42 days 38 days 30days 33days 38days 38 days 55 days 76 days 43 days. +222 +--+ ------- March 1917 April May June July Aug. Sept Oct. No Dec. Jan.1918. Feb. Mar April me Temperature ae 97 855 843 839 83° 4 83°0 82°5 810 836 65°2 63°4 710 oO Ue § 85°5 Sh cenereesueasm 00-0 103°1 98° 96°6 92°1 91°71 917 90°0 866 801 17T8 92:0 98°8 103°1 ee ara.) «| 10° 4 10°2 150 76° 1 15:6 152 142 580 50°7 478 49°7 60°9 10° & aang Rel. Humidity-._-..80. 18 79. 85. 88. 89. 87. 84 82 81. 85 81. 80 718 20 days. 20 4 days. 15 15 Diagram I. |. 0 | | : 5 soma ti8 1 | | et Individuals-.....-...- ie “ “ ns 6.5. 40.1310.6.4.3.1. 86.3.3.2. 85.1.1 26.1.1.1 152.5. 53.1.1.1.1 48.28 2 4118.11.9.6.3, 32.2010.3, 2.1. 1. Generation . 49th 50th. Slst. 52 nd 53rd. 54th. x . Date of Emergence.. ‘Witereh 1917 23 April 31 May 9 July 10 Aug. 17Sept. 240ct 18 December. 5 March 1918. 6 April 1918. Duragion of el days 40 days 38days 39days 32 days 38days 37 days 54 days 17 days 42 days. Diagrams I and IT shewing the Vitality of Silkworm moths in Relation to the Seasons in Bengal. 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The Annual Meeting of the Asiatic Society of pg was held on Wednesday, the 5th February, 1919, at 9-15 p H. H. Haypen, Esq., C.S.1., C.1.E., D.Sc., B.A., B.A.L, RBS., F.G.S., F.A.S.B.. President, in the chair. The following members were present :— Maulavi Abdul Wali, Dr. N. Annandale, Mr. J. J. Campo Dr. H. G. Carter, Dr. W. A. K. Christie, Miss M. L. Seghaas. L. L. Fermor, Rev. Father E. Francotte, S.J., Dr. F. H. Lt.-Col. W. D. Setienlatd, LMS., Mr. E. Taabe De. Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana, Mr. H. Walker. isitors:—Mr. W. A. Burns, Mr. C. Cleghorn, Miss O. Cleghorn, Mr. B. M. Cooper, Mr. Y. Dewhurst, Mrs. Fermor, Babu fier Chandra Gupta, Babu S. Mallik, Babu S. K. Mitter, Mr. G. Pilcher, Babu Manindra Mohan Ray, Babu Nritya Gopal Sarkar, Babu Sailendra Nath Sen, Miss M. Tannet, Mr. Joseph Taylor, Mr. S. K. Taylor, Mr. J. Thomas and others. The President ordered - distribution of the voting papers for the election of Officers and Members of Council for re and appointed Dr. Satis chantes Vidyabhusana and Dr. L. L. Fermor to be scrutineers. The President also ordered the distribution of the voting papers for the seals of Fellows of the Society and appointed Dr. H. G. Carter and Babu Ramesh Chandra Majumdar to be scrutineers. The President announced that the Trustees of the Elliott Prize for Scientific Research had awarded the prize for the r his two essays entitled ‘‘ On the figures of equilibrium of a rotating of liquid for laws of attraction other than the law of inverse squares,” and “ On the motion of two spheroids i in an infinite liquid along the common axis of revolution.” The President also announced that the Barclay Memorial Medal for the year 1919 had been awarded to Dr. N. Annan dale, D.Sc., C.M.Z.S., F.L.S., F.A.S.B The Annual Report was then Bae li Annual Report. [February, 1919. ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1918. e Council of the Asiatic Society has the honour to submit “the following report on the state of Society’s eink during the year ending 31st Boomer 1918. Member List. The number of Ordinary Members at the close of 1918 was is 26. Two members elected in 1917 have paid their entrance rhc during the year, making a total of 28 Ordinary Members added to the last list. On the other hand, 12 have withdrawn, 3 died, 5 were struck off under Rule 38, and 4 were struck off under Rule 40 The number of Ordinary Members in the past six years is as follows :— PayIne. Non-Payine. 2 YEAR 3 3 ; 3 B Slee lala bl al § dolmie LP cate | Sot-e 1913 .. 200 | 211 19 | 430 | 23 46 69 | 499 1914 .. ~« | IGE 1 187 | 10°) or) 50 76 | 473 1915... ao (oka 188 21 380 25 40 65 445 1916 .. -. | 145 159 18 322 26 60 85 407 1917 .. -. | 150 | 144), 15 | 309! 24 45 69 | 378 1918 .. os | MOS.) 145 | 17 |.316 | 43 67 | 382 The following members died during the course of t year :—Syed Abdulla-ul-Musawy, B.A., Maharaja Ranjit Mle and Dr. Arthur Venis, C.LE. Tes members compounded for their subscriptions during this oe The numbers of Special Honorary Centenary Members and —— Fellows remain unchanged at dobvix es 22 respectively. g the Associate Members the of Dr. Ekendra Nath Ghosh and Bada Kaji adihadinn: Singha have been February, 1919.] Annual Report. iii removed at their own request, they having been elected Ordin- ary Members of the Society. The number 1s now Fellows of the Society. e Annual Meeting held on the 6th re 1918, Ocho rg Sidney 8. Burrard, K.C.S.1., F.R.8., J. L. Simonsen, Esq., Ph.D., anh Colonel J. Stephenson, D.Sc. » AB, Major D. McCay, M. D., 1.M.S., and the Hon. Mr. Abdu llah Al-ma’mun Suhrawardy, M.A. Ph. D.., were elected Fellows of the Society. — ere was one death among the Fellows, viz. Dr. A. Veni There were 39 Fellows on the list at the end of 1918. Office-bearers. On the death of Dr. W. C. Hossack in the be f the year, Major D. McCay was appointed Medical Siatdaey De: ff. ce) e. ; as Physical Science Secretary. Dr. N. Annandale resigned the Anthropological Secretaryship owing to his —— from Calcutta and Dr. Gravely was appointed in his pla i. Gravely was also appointed to act as Biological Becvetiany during the absence of Mr. S. W. Kemp. At the request of Mr. C. J. Brown, Li treasure trove coins from the Central Provinces in addition to his own duties as Honorary Numismatist to the Society. There have been no other changes among the Officers of the Booksty since the last annual election. Office. On the recommendation of Major D. McCay, I.M.S., J. H. Elliott, the Assistant Secretary, was granted leave oa 19th July to lst August, 1918, owing to ill-health. Shaikh Abu Nasr Gilani, the Additional Travelling Maulavi attached to the Arabic and Persian Search Department, worked until the 28th February, 1918, when he resigned, en ulavi Haji Moinuddin was appointed from the 24th May, There have been no other changes in the ak Society’s Premises and Property. account of war conditions the building of new premises for sists Society has not yet been taken in hand. e Society’s servants’ quarters have been repaired at a cost of Rs. 338. iv Annual Report. | February, 1919. Indian Museum. No presentations were made to the Indian Museum. The Hon. Justice Sir Asutosh Mukhopadhyaya, Kt., C.S.1., D.Se., F.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E., still continued to be a member of the Board of Trustees on behalf of the Society under the Indian Museum Act X of 1910. Indian Science Congress. The Fifth Indian Science Congress was held in Lahore on January 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th, 1918, under the presidency of Dr. Gilbert T. Walker, C.S.I., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. The meetings were attended by about 300 members and over 70 pers were communicated. Abstracts of these have been pub- lished in our Proceedings, Vol. XIV, 1918, pages Ixxv-celxxxvii. t was arranged that the Sixth Indian Science Congress should be held at Bombay on January 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th and 18th, 1919. His Excellency the Governor of Bombay, Sir George Lloyd, G.C.I.E., D.S.0., consented to be Patron and Lieut.-Col. Sir Leonard Rogers, Kt., C.I.E., M.D., B.S., F.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S., F.A.S.B., I.M.S., was appointed President, with Dr. J. L. Simonsen as Honorary Secretary and Mr. A. Normand of the Wilson College, Bombay, and Mr. D. D. Kanga of the Elphinstone College, Bombay, as Local Secretaries. Meetings, There were no General Meetings of the Society during the months of January and March, 1918 owing to a quorum not being present. There were also no meetings in the recess months of September and October, 1918. n the recommendation of the Publication Committee the Council decided for the present to discontinue the system of having alternate Scientific and Philological Meetings and ordered that all papers passed for reading should be read as submitted. connection with the reading of papers at the General Meetings, it was resolved that the author of a paper or his deputy must be present to read it, if it should not be so technical as to necessitate its being taken as read. London Agency. Mr. Bernard Quaritch has continued as the Society’s Agent in Europe. No copies of the Journal and Proceedings, Memoirs or Bibliotheca Indica were sent to Mr. Quaritch for sale, owing to orders prohibiting the transmission of books for sale to Europe, _ but it is intended that all the numbers issued since the com- mencement of the war should be sent in 1919. February, 1919.] Annual Report. Vv Barclay Memorial Medal. terms of the rules for the award of the Barclay Memo- rial Medal, there was no award during the vear. In connection with the award for 1919, the following members were appointed to form a Special Committee to make recommendations to the Council :—F. H. Gravely, Esq., D.Sc.. F.A.S.B., Lieut.-Colonel W. D. Sutherland, M.D., F.A.S.B.., IM.S., Major D. McCay, M.D., F.A.S.B., 1.M.S., B. L. Chau- dhuri, Fsq., B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., and H. G. Carter. Esq., M.B., Ch.B. Elliott Prize for Scientific Research, The subject selected for the Elliott Prize for Scientific Research for the vear 1918 was Mathematics and the notification appeared in the Calcutta Gazette, dated 4th July, 1917 and 13th February, 1918. Two essays by Babu Bibhutibhushan Datta, M.Se., were received in competition, viz. (1) On the figures of equilibrium of a rotating mass of liquid for Jaws of attraction other than the law of inverse squares, Part I, (2) On the motion of two spheroids in an infinite liquid along the common axis of revolution. The Trustees decided to award to him the Elliott Prize for 1918. In terms of the notification, the award of Rs. 210 will be made to him at the Annual Meeting of the Society on Wednesday, the 5th February, 1919. Finance. The accounts of the Society for the year ending 31st December, 1918, are shown in the Appendix under the usual nternational Catalogue of Scientific Literature’ and“ War Bond.’’ State- ment No. 21 shows the Balance Sheet of the Society and of the different funds administered through it. The credit balance at the close of the year is Rs. 1,96.833-3-3, against Rs. 1,88,429-10-6 at 3lst December, 1917. Of this amount Rs. 1,68.500 belongs to the Permanent Reserve, the working balance—exclusive of funds administered for Govern- ment—being Rs. 28,333 as against Rs. 20,650 at the end of 1917. This increase is chiefly due to the transfer of Rs. 5, the Anthropological Fund to the Society’s Fund. The Anthropo- logical grant of Rs 2,000 has now been made available by the Government of Bengal for the publication in the Journal of papers not necessarily relating to anthropology. The Society has received the usual grants from the Gov- ernments of Bengal and India, including the Oriental Publi- cation Fund No. 2, which has been received for a further period of 5 years from April, 1917. The amounts received were as follows :— vi Annual Report. [February, 1919. From the Government of Bengal— Rs. Vide Statement International Catalogue of Scien- tific Literature .. we LO No. 7 Oriental Publication Fund, No. 1 9,000 es Do. No. 2 5,000 er. | Bureau of Information -« 2200 mae > | Anthropological Fund .. 2,000 re Sanskrit MSS. Fund. . .. 5,600 ke TorTaL .. 23,800 From the Government of India— Rs. Vide Statement Arabic and Persian MSS. Fund .. 5,000 No. 14 Statement No. 15 shows the sums invested in Govern- ment securities, held in deposit by the Bank of Bengal, of the face value Rs. 2,84,300. These comprise Rs. 2,74,200, 34 % and Rs. 10,100, 4 % G.P. Notes. They cost Rs. 2,73,206-3-10, the average purchase price being Rs. 96-1-6. The market price at the time of writing this report is nominally Rs. 74. We have also in the custody of the Alliance Bank of Simla Ltd., 34 %G.P. Notes of the face value of Rs. 500 belonging to the Barclay Memorial Fund. The Budget estimates for the year 1918 were :—Receipts Rs. 21,300, Expenditure Rs. 21,734. Receipts Rs. 26,053, Expenditure Rs. 19,538. This shows an during the year. Other papers accepted in 1918 for future publication will involve a further sum of Rs. 4,323. but this will not become payable till 1919. The Budget Estimate of Receipts and Expenditure for the year 1919 is as follows :— Rs. Receipts .. re! - o. 22,953 Expenditure a ie .. 19,762 the years 1917 and 1918, as shown in statement No. 1 of the Abstract. February, 1919.] Annual Report. vii BUDGET ESTIMATE FOR 1919. Receipts. 1918. 1918. 1919. Estimate. Actuals. Estimate. Rs. Rs. Rs. Members’ Subscriptions 9,000 8,445 9,000 Subscriptions for the So- ciety’s Journal and Pro- ceedings and Memoirs 1,700 1,920 1,920 Sale of Publications 1,300 1,053 1,100 Interest on Investments 8,500 8.913 9,233 Rent of Room 600 600 600 Miscellaneous 200 122 100 Government aii tenia ae merly included in the Anthropological Fund Ac- count—for publication of papers in the Journal .. 5,000 2,000 TOTAL 21,300 26,053 23,953 Expenditure. 1918. 1918. 1919. Estimate. Actuals. Estimate Salaries 7,120 6,746 5,955 Commission 950 799 600 contact 150 103 100 Pens ; 180 197 228 Light “aad Fans 280 96 200 Tax : 1,500 1,495 1,500 pastans 430 532 500 Freight ee 20 ne 500 Contingencies .. 500 373 500 Books eee 500 584 500 Binding ae ae 700 192 500 Journal tte pa mr and Memoir .. 6,640 6,211 6,650 Index sé 800 a 400 Printing (Cireulars, etc.) 360 263 300 Auditor’s 150 150 150 Petty tard 10 44 200 Insurance 344 344 344 Grain Allowance 100 28 i Repairs : 500 338 af Carried over 21,234 18,525 19,127 Vili Annual Report. | February, 1919. 1918. 1918. 1919. Estimate. Actuals. Estimate. Rs. Rs. Rs. Brought forward .. 21,234 18,525 19,127 To Personal Account (Writ- ten-off and Miscellaneous) 500 749 500 Interest on G.P. Notes pur- chase ae a sti 57 aie War Bonus... aa > 207 135 TorTaL ~» 21,734 — 19,588 ~ 19;762 Library. The total number of volumes and parts of magazines added to the Library during the year was 1,889, of which 271 were purchased and 1,618 were either presented or received in exchange Publications. Seven numbers of the Journal and Proceedings (Vol. XIV, Nos. 1-7) were published during the year containing 630 pages and 11 plates. ree numbers of the Memoirs were published, Vol. VI, Parts 4 and 5, and Vol. VII, No. 1, containing a total of 240 pages and 3 plates. The Numismatic Supplement Nos. XXX & XXXI have been published in the Seciety’s Journal and Proceedings, Vol. XIV, 1918, Nos. 3 and 5, under the editorship of Lt.-Col. H. Nevill. The Indexes to the Journal and Proceedings, Vol. 1X, 1913 and Vol. X, 1914, were published. Arrangements have been February, 1919.] Annual Report. ix made for the 50 a of the Indexes for Vels. XI- cen 1915-1917 but no manuscript has yet been received. It w resolved that the indexes to the papers to the ileaioant volumes should be prepared by the authors — and all authors are now asked to index their own paper t was also resolved to index the peste individually and the Indexes to Vol. III, Nos. 6 and 7 and Vol. V, Nos. 4 and 4, were publishe There was also published a ‘Catalogue of the sep gi Serial Publications in the Principal age of Calcutta,” piled by Mr. S. W. Kemp, and on sale a Exchange of Publications. During the year the Council accepted two applications se exchange of publications, viz. :—(1) from La Société d’Etude Océaniennes, Papeete (Tahiti)—the Society's Journal and Pe: ceedings and Memoirs for their Bulletin, (2) from Tohoku Imperial ei eg Society’s Journal and Proceedinas for their Arbet On an S eabek from the Secretary of the Navadwipa Edward VII Anglo- sarge Library, one copy of each complete volume available of the Sanskrit series of the Bibliotheca Indica was presented to ths library. Philology, etc. An account of an Iranian dialect known as Ormuri or Bargista by Sir George Grierson has been published in the Memoirs of the Society, Vol. VII, No. 1, 1918. This dialect is spoken by a tribe which calls itself Baraki, and is settled in the country of the Waziris in Afghanistan. The Barakis were originally inhabitants of Yemen in Arabia, and were brought by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni to accompany him in his in- vasion of India. The account of the dialect is principally voca lary of it will appear. It has been treated in the present nie from the point of view of comparative philology Rev. W. Firminger has edited the Malda Diary and Consultation Book, 1680-1682, in which several important events are recorded. The English ‘carried on business first in a hired house at Malda, subsequently they purchased a piece of land about two miles distant from their factory, now the civil station of Malda, and ever since known as the “ English Bazar.” The third part of the Diary chronicles events during and i to the completion of the factory at ‘“‘ English Bazar x Annual Report. [February, 1919. Mr. H. Beveridge has contributed a paper on the Rawzat- ut-Tahirin, which is a general history. It begins from the earli- est times, and is carried down to the beginning of the 17th century, and contains five divisions, subdivided into chapters and sections. Notices of the work are found in Elliot’s History of India, the British Museum Catalogue of Persian MSS., and the Bodleian Library Catalogue, The contents of the work, and the discrepancies in the copies noticed in the catalogues, are fully set forth in the paper. Arabic and Persian MSS. There are notes on 4 Arabic and 315 Persian MSS., and descriptive notes on 5 libraries visited by the Maulavi. During the year under review Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana contributed to our Journal a paper on the “ Tattva-Cintamoni,” a most advanced Sanskrit ‘‘Bhavabhuti as a Mimansaka”’ is the title of a paper in which Babu Dinesh Chandra Bhattacharyya identifies Bhava- on the authority of certain observations contained in a manuscript of the Malatimadhava and in a commentary on the itsukhi “A short account of the wandering teachers at the time of the Buddha” is the title of a contribution in which Babu Canakya. Anthropology. Dr. Annandale’s note in the Journal on a Bismer Weighing Beam from the Darjeeling District is the only paper relating to anthropology that has been published this year. Biology. fourth and fifth parts of Dr. Annandale’s “ Zoologi- The cal Results of a Tour in the Far East”? have appeared in the Memoirs. They deal with Brackish-water Polyclads (T. Kabu- February, 1919.] Annual Report. xi raki), pe (N. Annandale), Crustacea Decapoda and Sto- matopoda (S. W. Kemp) and the Mollusca of the Tai-Hu (N. Apaktaes. D. R. Bhattacharya has published in the Journal Notes on the Anatomy of a Double Monstrosity in the Chick. BoTAny. Three botanical papers have been published in the Journal : Some observations on the rust on Saunea asplenipolia by K. Mehta; A Preliminary Note on the Flora of the Anaimalais by C. Fischer ; and The Burmese Sesamum Varieties by A. McKerral. Physical Science. Two papers on physics were published aria the year—On a new Theorem in Elasticity, by M. N. Saha, an nd On the Pressure of Light by M. N. ‘Saha and S. Chakravarti. From he i i i mean kinetic, and mean potential energies of an elastic system in terms of surface tractions, and surface displacements. In free from any disturbing act One chemical paper was pebhaied On Porphyroxine, a new alkaloid in opium, isolated by the author, Mr. J. N. Rakshit. Medical Section. Owing to the continued absence at the war of a large number of the medical members there was no meeting during the year 1918. It is gratifying to learn that the sie Science Congress has — medical science within its scope. that during 1919 manv papers will be contri- Sef Hb the medical section of the Society. International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. The Zergepnd of the Regional Bureau for India and — lon (Sir P. C. Ray) reports that during the year no volume of the Cataloaas were received from the Central Bureau, a it is expected that = the abatement of war risks parce els are mrobeey now on the w indexing of ae literature for the year has been aoe and a few hundred slips will be ready for despatch to the Central Bureau during March and April, 1919. xii Annual Report. [ February, 1919. The work of the Bureau has necessarily been much less than in previous years as the distribution of the Catalogue to subscribers and the collection of subscriptions have been suspended, but it is hoped that next year’s report will be equal to the standard of pre-war years. Bureau of Information, A few questions were answered and an opinion was given on the Intercaste Marriage Bill. Sanskrit Manuscript Search and Catalogue, Arabic and Persian Manuscript Search and Catalogue. During the year ten Arabic and Persian MSS., and one Persian book, containing biographies of poets. were purchased on behalf of Government. The following four Arabic MSS. died 879 a.H. = 1474 a.D., a collection of legal opinions accord- ing to the Hanafi school. e second instalment of the notices on important Arabic and Persian MSS., found in various libraries in India, prepared on Suhrawardy, Officer-in-charge of the Search for Arabic and Persian MSS., has been published in the Journal, Vol. XIV, 1918, No. 8. The vi is now king an Nasr Gilani, to continue the preparation of the hand-list of the Government MSS. Under the instructions of the Officer-in- charge of the Search, he was deputed to the Oriental Public Library, Bankipur, to inspect some MSS. there and compare February, 1919.] # Annual Report. xiii certain MSS. of the Government collection with those of the Oriental Public Library. He has submitted a very smtocesang report of his work. The amplification of the Society's Cata legue of Persian MSS. by Maulavi Asad-uz-Zaman Khan is in progress. The Second Travelling Maulavi is pk eats notices of important Persian MSS. of the Government collection Bibliotheca Indica Series. Of the eleven fasciculi of texts published in the Bibliotheca Indica series during the vear under review, four belong to the Brahmanic Sanskrit, one belongs to the Jaina Sanskrit, one to the Buddhist Sanskrit, two to the bardic dialect of Rajputana, and three to the Arabic and Persian languages. These include the Tibetan and Sanskrit version of the last fasciculus of Avadana Kalpalata, an English sili of a fasciculus of Akbarnama and the English translation of a fasciculus of Tantra Varthika. The eleven fasciculi that have been published are mentioned below :— (1) Baudhayana Srauta-Sutram—a Sanskrit work on the Vedic literature, edited by Dr. W. Caland. Fasciculus (2) es Varthika. -Tatparya-Parisuddhi of Udayana- edited by Mahamohopadhyaya Pandit Vin dhyeswari Prasad Dirvedi. Fasciculus V. (3) The Tantra- Varthika of Kumarila Bhatta—a Com- mentary on Sabara’s Bhasya on the Parva Mim- ansa Sitra’s of Jaimini, aaudaied into Baglishb by Mahamohopadhyaya ‘Gangana D. Litt. Fasciculus XV. (4) nae Vijaya—a Sanskrit epic with the com- mentary of Jonaraja. By S. A. Belvarkar, M.A., Ph. D. Fasciculus II. (5) Yoga-Sastra with the commentary of Sri Hem Chan dracharya, edited by Cri Vijaya Dharma Siva. Fasciculus V. (6) Avadana Kalpalata—a Sanskrit work on the Miracles. of Buddha with its Tibetan version, edited by Mahamohopadhyaya Satis Chandra Vidya- bhusana, M.A., Ph D., and the late Rai Sarat Chan- dra Da (7-8) A corr Catalogue of Bardic and Historical — Sections I and I], edited by Dr. L. Pp. Tes (9) Hait-Jolim-_the Geographical and _ Biographical Encyclopaedia of Amin Ahmad Razi, edited by Dr. E. Denison Ross. Ph.D., C.LE., and Khan Sahib Maulvi Abdul Mugtadir. Fasciculus I. (10) Amal-i-Salhi or Shah Jahan Namah of Muhammad xiv Annual Address. [February, 1919. Salih Kambo, edited by G. Yazdani M.A.,M.R.A:S. Fasciculus III. (11) The Akbar-Nama of Abul-Fazl—a history of the reign of Akbar including an account of his predecessors , translated from the Persian by Mr. H. Beveridge, I.C.S. Fasciculus X. Coins. The thanks of the Society are due to the Government of Madras for the gift of 14 gold coins, all save one of these being specimens of the various types comprising the large find at Kodur, District Nellore, in 1913. Among other small addi- tions to the cabinet, mention should be made of the Suri coins received from the Government of Bihar and Orissa. In the two Numismatic Supplements published during the year the principal contributors were Mr. 8. H. Hodivala, who A considerable amount of material awaits publication, the delay being due to financial considerations alone. uring the year 1918 ten finds of coins, comprising 9 of While the cabinet of the Nagpur Museum has been improved by the acquisition of treasure trove coins to a considerable — Dr. H. H Hayden, F.R.S., President, delivered an Address to the Society. Annual Address, 1919, The Annual Report, which is in your hands, speaks for it- self and requires no comment from me. The work done during the past year has been on the whole satisfactory. It was found necessary to curtail the Society’s activities in certain respects, but now that the war is virtually over, it is to be hoped that this will no longer be neces hoped would be of interest not merely to the geological section of our members, but to the Society as a whole. I propose to follow the same course again this year and to put before you February, 1919.] Annual Address. XV briefly to-night the results of recent research on the subject of geological Time, especially in its bearing on the question of the antiquity of the human race. - When geological observation first came to be systematized, it was found that the sedimentary rocks of Europe fell natur- ally into a number of broad divisions, each distinguished a definite and constant position in time and sequence. earth’s crust have often disguised the true sequence, the pre- sence of fossils has served as an unerring guide in the unravel- rocks have been found to fall naturally are known as the Palzo- zoic, Mesozoic and Kainozoic groups. Each of these groups has again been sub-divided into smaller units, known as sys- tems. Most countries have adopted nomenclatures of their own but, in every country, whether it be America, Africa, Aus- xvi Annual Address. | February, 1919. Expressed in the above terms, the geological time-scale is essentially a relative one, and gives no indication of absolute duration in years. Since the middle of the nineteenth century, many attempts have been made, with widely differing results, to translate that scale into years. More than fifty years ago, Lyell suggested 250,000,000 vears as the age of the earth. Other estimates were as low as 10 or 12 million, the latter based chiefly on physical arguments bearing on the age of the sun as deduced from its present temperature ; and towards the close of the nineteenth century, Lord Kelvin’s figure of 40 million years was widely accepted as the maximum possible. Other es- timates were based on the rate of denudation and deposition of sediment, as measured by the amount of material carried in suspension by the great rivers of the present day, and on this basis Prof. Sollas arrived at a period of 80 million years, the time required for the deposition of the sedimentary rocks, the was no longer considered improbable on physical grounds. -being apparently lead. “It is further possible to ascertain the amounts of th lead, occurring in any uranium-bearing mineral and also to the parent element, takes place; from these data the period uring which decay has been taking place, that is to say, the time which has elapsed since the uranium-bearing mineral was formed, can be calculated. In this way, minimum ages February, 1919.| Annual Address. xvii have been determined for radio-active minerals occurring in a number of different geological systems and have given results ranging from 100,000 years in the case of minerals in rocks of the earth’s crust. The results thus given by radio- active minerals have recently been compared and combined by J. Barrell with those obtained from other geological methods of determining the age of the fossiliferous rocks, and the results are shown in the annexed table. MILLIONS OF YEARS. Minimum. | Maximum | ————————$__—__-—— cent Pleistocene } 1 | 1} Pliocene 6 nm Miocene 12 “4 Oligocene 16 16 ocene 20 96 — 55 | a” 5665 KAINOzoIc. | Cretaceous 65 85 Jurassic 35 45 ic 35 45 135 —— 175 MeEsozoic. Permian Carboniferous } ne ~ - 110 130 Devonian i aa on 50 50 ilurian if 40 Ordovician as sa 90 130 Cambrian es Et laps 70 110 —— 300 nec PALZOZOIC. ToTaL fae 550 790 ee a a ecli From this we may deduce that the trilobites ce ckasd feu between 550 and 700 million years ago, the first fish between 350 and d raillion aan ago. The first unmistakable mammals ap- ared at about the same time as the birds, or possibly development in the Tertiary epoch and especially in_the Miocene and Pliocene periods, say, between five and ten million XViii Annual Address. [February, 1919. years ago. The remains of large mammals are extremely abundant in the Siwalik rocks of the Himalaya and the un jab. The last stage. so far achieved in the history of mam- malian development was ushered in by the appearance of man, and it will be interesting to enquire what length of time has elapsed since that occurred. In his relation to the geological record man differs from all other animals, for whereas the existence of the latter t any particular epoch can be inferred only from their actual bodily remains—or in a few cases from their footprints —man has left behind him the results of his handiwork, and it is by these more often than by his bones that his former presence has been detected. The commonest of his produc- tions are implements of various kinds; in the earliest days they were made of stone, subsequently also of bone, and i pi implements or artifacts, as they are technically called, three principal periods are recognised: the Stone Age, the Bronze ge, and the Iron Age; it is the earliest or Stone Age that which we are now concerned. All over the world stone imple- ments are found which are clearly man’s handiwork and are often associated with the remains of extinct animals and of S rr ment supposed to have been held in the hand. In Europe most of the early implements were made of flint, though other hard rocks were also used to some extent; in India, on the other hand, most of the known paleoliths are of quart- zite, flint being much more characteristic of the succeeding neolithic culture. In addition to palexoliths and neoliths, there is a third class, known as eoliths. They are a more recent discovery, and Tertiary system, but it is in the deposits of the Pleistocene or Glacial epoch that the first unequivocal and undi relics of man occur. ~The Glacial epoch was characterised by a great fall of temperature all over the northern hemisphere February, 1919. | Annual Address. xix and the extension of snow and ice far to the south of their a through wee large ie ea ot Nae and boulders of pre pane and its occurrence at any particular spot equally characteristic of the interglacial intervals. Deposits of both kinds are common throughout the British Isles and many as six Glacial and five Y piteslasial epochs has been established in Europe. It is in the river deposits of the Inter- glacial epochs that the oldest relics of Pleistocene man have been discovered. Later on man became a_cave-dweller, and records of successive stages in the history of his develop- ment have been left by him, in the form of remains either of himself or of his handiwork, in the floors of many Euro- pean caves Altogether ten culture-stages of prehistoric man are recognised by archeologists; they are, beginning with the lates ome prt Oe fe OS Iron Age. Copper and Bronze Age. Neolithic. Azilian. ? Transition. Magdalenian, Solutrian, Aurignacian. Mousterian, uetieray Older Paleolithic. Chellean Younger Paleolithic. Each of the above stages is characterised by distinctive arti- facts and many of them by the presence of human remains, especially throughout the later stages, though in the older Palxolithic deposits human remains are rare. Till compara- tively recently, the oldest race known was Neanderthal man, of whom numerous remains have been found in Mousterian de- posits, first at Neanderthal and subsequently elsewhere. This race differed remarkably from modern man (H. sapiens) and is XX Annual Address. [February, 1919. regarded as a distinct species (H. neanderthalensis). The sub- sequent discovery, near Heidelberg, of a jaw of a still more primitive type and, at Piltdown in Sussex, of a cranium also regarded as more primitive than the Neanderthal re- mains, has led to the establishment of a third species for the former (H. heidelbergensis) and even of a new genus (Hoanthro- pus) for the latter; but the generic value of Hoanthropus has been questioned by W. K. Gregory, who has recently pub- lished in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History for 1916 an exhaustive critical discussion of the evolu- tion of the primates; he comes to the conclusion that the Piltdown skull (Hoanthropus dawsoni) should be retained in the genus Homo, and also suggests the possibility of its identity with Heidelberg man. ; With the possible exception of the Heidelberg and Pilt- down fragments, no fossil remains of man are known before implements but no human remains. Unfortunately, the hori- dispute. If, as has been maintained, the deposits in which they are found belong to the first Interglacial epoch, they are clearly much older than the Mousterian man of Neanderthal an carry the records of the human race back almost to the begin- ning of the Pleistocene. Claims have been made for the existence human in type, as may be seen from his reconstruction of the lower jaw. W. K. Gregory, however, takes a different w, and tk j Feb., 1919.] Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. xxi remains of which the age is known exactly are Pleistocene. J. Barrell, in his analysis of the geological evidence, con- cludes that the period which has elapsed since the beginning of the Pleistocene epoch is at least one million, and possibly as much as 14 million vears, and we may thus take the date of Neanderthal man as from half to three-quarters of a million years ago. t is generally agreed that modern man (H. sapiens) is not the direct descendant of the Neanderthal race, but is a collateral branch. W.K Gregory suggests that bo th m ay be descended from the Heidelberg type (H. ina Nebo but too little is known of the latter to permit of any certain deduc- tions being drawn, reg to go back further still. Pithecan- thropus of Java, which is attributed to the Pliocene, is also regarded as a collateral branch from the main stem of the human family. The view now generally adopted is that, peti the anthropoid apes and man are descended from a comm ancestor. the human stem (Hominide) branched off from the simian during the Tertiary epoch, not later probably than the middle of the Miocene period, or from thirteen to sixteen million years ago. So far we can only trace the line back for about ? million years from the present day, but if, as some maintain, the gravels in which the Piltdown skull was found are early Pleistocene, this will carry us back another half million years or so, but even that will be only a small step towards the recognition of the earliest members of the human family. ——<>-— The esident announced the election of a and Members es coansl for the year 1919 to be as follows President. Mahamahopadhyaya Haraprasad Shastri, C.J.E., M.A., F.A.S.B. Vice-Presidents. The Hon. J ustice oy Asutosh acne mt., C.8.5., R.S. S.B ie; DRG: The Hon. Mr. F. J. Monahan i 8 C. S. Lieut.-Col. W. D. Sutherland, M.D., F.A.S.B., I.M.S. G. C. Simpson, Esq., D.Sc., F.R.S. Secretary and Treasurer. General Secretary :—W. A. K. Christie, Esq., B.Sc., Ph.D. Treasurer :—R. D. Mehta, Esq. C.L.E. xxii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [Feb., 1919.] Additional Secretaries. Philological Secretary :—The Hon. Mr. Abdulla Al Ma’mun Suhrawardy, Iftikharul Millat, M.A., Ph.D., F.A.S.B. "Biology :—S. W. Kemp, Esq. » Bie, Natural History F.A.S.B. Secretaries. Physical Science :—Sir P. C. Ray, Kt., C.I.E., D.Se., Ph.D., F.A.S.B. Bee Sates Secretary :—N. ‘Annandale, Esq., D.Sc., C.M.Z.S , F.L.S., F.A.S.B. Joint Philological ‘Secretary : :—Mahamahopadhyaya Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana, M.A., Ph.D., F.A. Medical Secretary :—Lieut.-Col. 'D. McCay, M, D., FAS. Bu, I.M.S. Honorary Librarian:—The Hon. Justice Sir en Mukhopadhyaya, Kt.. C.S.I., D.L., D.Se. R.S.E., F.R.A.S., F.A.S.B. Other Members of Council. A. H. Harley, Esq., M.A. H. G. Graves, Esq., A.R.S.M G. H. Tipper, ns M.A., F.G.S., A.S.B. P. J. Brithl, Esq., 1.8.0. , DSc. POS. , F.G.S., F.A.S.B. A. The et hieapa also announced the election of Fellows to be as follow John es Brown, Esq., O.B.E., M.I.M.E., F.C:S. W. A. K. Christie, Esq., B.Sc. , Ph.D. D.R Bhandarkar, Esq., MA Capt. R. B. Seymour Sewell LM. 3, me The Meeting was then resolved into the Ordinary General ‘ting. Ne Ne ee ee LIST OF MEMBERS ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL PN THE gist PeCEMBER, 1918. LIST OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS OF COUNCIL OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL FOR THE YEAR 1918. President. H. H. Hayden, Esq., C.S.I., C.I.E.,_D.Sc., B.A., B.A.I., B.E., F.G.S., F.A.S.B., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents. The Hon’ble Justice Sir Asutosh ee Kt., C.S.1,, D.L., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., F.A.S.B Lieut.-Col. ie eae Rogers, Kt., .C. LE. ,M. DES. PCP. F.R.C.S. Sy, ho Wdahhesti edoned Haraprasad Shastri, C.I.E., M.A., F.A.S.B. N. Annandale, Esq., D.Sc., C.M.Z.S., F.LS., F.AS.B Secretary and Treasurer. General Secretary :—W. A. K. Christie, Esq., B.Sc., Ph.D. Treasurer :—R. D. Mehta, Esq., C.I.E. Additional Secretaries, Philological Secretary :—The Hon. Mr. A. Al-Ma’miin Suhra- wardy, Iftikharul feral M.A., Ph.D., Bar.-at-Law. W. Kemp, Esq., B.A., F.A.S.B. Natural — Physical Science : —P. C. Ray, Esq. C.L.E., Secre DSc. punieearen Secretary :—N. Annandale, Esq., D.Sc., M.Z.S., S., F.A.S.B. Joint Philological Secretary :—Mahamahopadhyaya Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana, M.A., Ph.D., F.A.S.B. Medical Secretary :—Major D. McCay, M.D., I.M. Honorary Librarian :—The Hon. Justice Sir Asutosh Mukho- Tree Bs. CS. DL. Dse; FRB. BRAS. A.S.B Other Members of Council. The Hon’ble Mr. F. J. Monahan, I.C.S. A. LIST OF ORDINARY MEMBERS. ees Se R.=Resident. N.R.=Non-Resident. A.=Absent. L.M.=Life Member. F.M.=Foreign Member. An Asterisk is prefixed to the names of the Fellows of the Society. drawn up are requested to give intimation of such a change to the Honor- ary General Secretary, in order tha the necessary alteration ma 1 Date of Election. 1909 Mar. 3.,N.R.| Abdul Latif, Syed, Deputy Magistrate. a. 1917 April 4.|N.R.| Abdul Majid, B.A., M.R.A.S. Golagun), Lucknow. 1894 Sept. 27., L.M.| Abdul Wali, Khan Sahib. 23, European Asylum Lane, Calcutta. 1915 Feb. 3.|N.R.| Ahmad Ali Khan, Hafiz, Superintendent, Rampur State Library. Rampur. 1914 Feb. 4.| R. | Ali Chaudhury, The Hon. Nawab Syed Nawab. 27, Weston Street, Calcutta. 1903 Oct. 28.) A. | Allan, Alexander Smith, M-8. Europe. 1893 Aug. 31.| A.- | Anderson, Lieut.-Col. Adam Rivers Steele, B.A., M.B., D.P.H., C.M.Z.S., I.M.S. Europe (c/o India Office). Andrews, Egbert Arthur, B.A. Tooklat Experimental Station, Cinnenara P.O., Jorhat, Assam. 1916 Feb. 2.| R. | Andrews, William Edgar, B.a. (Oxon). 11, Loudon Street, Calcutta. 1904 Sept. 28., R. *Annandale, Nelson, D.Se., C.M.Z.S., F.L.S. F.A.8.B., Director, Zoological Survey of P India. Calcutta. 191i May 3.| R. | Atkinson, Albert Charles. La Martiniere 11, Loudon Street, Calcutta. { Dacca. R.| Aulad Hasan, Sayid, Khan Bahadur. R.| Awati, P. R., ma., Medical Entomologist, Central Research Institute. Kasault. 1912 July 3.|N. a 1904 July 6.|N 1917 April 4.;N . . XxXvVi Date of Election, 1914 Mar. 4. 1870 Feb. 2. 1891 Mar. 1918 April 3 1909 Feb. 3. 1905 Mar. 1. 1918 Feb 6 1907 Jan. 2. 1918 Dee. 4. 1885 Nov. 4. 1898 Mar. 2 1916 Sept. 27. 1909 July 7. 1895 July 3. 1907 Feb. 6. 1915 April 7 1909 April 7. 1876 Nov. 15. 1917 Aug. 1. 1908 Noy. 1909 July 7. | 4,|F.M. N.R. ' N.R. R. N.R. R. R. A. N.R. N.R. .|N.R. R. R. 4. |N.R. L.M. L.M. Bacot, I. 31, Quai d’Orsay, Paris. Baden- Powell, Baden Henry, M.A., C.I.E. Ferlys Lodge, 29, Banbury Road, Oxford, England. Baillie, Sir Duncan Colvin, K.c.s.1., 1.0.8. 89, Queen’s Gate, London. Ballabhdas, Dewan Bahadur, Banker and Zeminder. Jubbulpur Allaha- Banerji, Charu Deb, B.a., LL.B. ba Banerji, Muralidhar. Sanskrit College, Calcutta Banerji, Narendra Nath, Supdt. of Telegraphs r. p Banerji, Rakhal Das, M.a., Supdt., Ar- chaeological Survey. Western Circle, oona. Banerji, Sudhangsu Kumar, Ghose Prof. f Applied nari Calcutta N.R. L.M. F.M. University. Calcutt Barman, Damodar Das. 55, Clive Street, Calcutta. Barnes, Herbert Charles, M.a., 16.s., Per eau Naga Hills. Kohima, Ass Basdekas, Hews "Hilarion (c/o Curate of the Greek Church, Calcutta). a ngna ath Khunraj. (irgaon, Beatson. Bell, The 8 Mr. Nicholas Dodd, B.A., C.1.E., Chief Com- missioner of Assam. Shillong Bell, yes Alfred, c.M.q., I. : s. tok, S wm. jeans Sripad Krishna, M.a., ph.D., Pr ae of Sanskrit, Deccan Colle Gang- Poo Beities. ‘Charles A., M.B., D.P.H. Writers’ enry, F.A.S.B., I.¢.8. (re- — Shottermill, Haslemere, Surrey, Englan pip gr nen "Devaata Ramkrishna, M.A. 16, Lansdowne Road, Calcutta Bhattacharj Manvemeaes Deputy Magis- trate, agar. Nadia Bhattacharii, Shib Nath, m. B. 17, Mohon- bagan Road, Calcutta XXVii Date of Election. 1917 Feb. 1893 Feb. fF Ls 1912 July 3 1898 Feb. 1918 July 1895 Mar. 1917 Oct. 1914 Nov. 1910 July 1911 Nov. 1908 Jan. 1906 July 1907 July 1909 Oct. 1909 Oct. 1901 June 1896 Jan. 5. 1913 Jan. 1. 1900 May 2. 1913 Apl. 2. ae Az P ing bg N.R. N.R. R. N.R. % = N.R. F.M. F.M. Cuttack. P.O. Dumka, Sonthal Biswas, re ree S- Zemindar. Bodding, Revd. Parganas. Bomford, Capt. Trevor Lawrence. I.M.s., M.B., B.S., M.R.0.S., L.B.C.P. (c/o Rev. rT; Bomford, C.M.S. House, Peshawar). Bose, Amrita Lal, Dramatist. 9-2, Ram Chandra Maitra’s Lane, Calcutta. Bose, Charu Chandra, Asst. Surgeon, Medical College. 52/2, Mirzapur St., alcutta. *Bose, Sir Jagadis Chandra, Kt., 0.8.1 - D.Se., oe I.E., F.A.8.B. Presidency College, Cale Bose, estan Nath, M.se. Colle University Botham, Arthur William, t. : s. Boyle, Lieut. Cecil Alexander, llth King Edward’s Lancers (c/o India Office, London). Brahmachari, Upendra anh M.A., M.D. utta. rown, John Coggin, F.G Assistant Soe edie: ‘Ceologival Survey of India (c/o Geological Survey of tia). Government School 0 a Johannes. 1.8.0., D.SC., F.C.8 G.S., + A.S.B. 35, ‘ease Circular Road, Calcutta *Burkill, Isaa c Henr nry, M.A., F.A.S.B. Bo- tanical Cuctons: Singapur. *Burn, Richard, C.1.£., 1.C.S., B. (c/o F.A.S Grindlay & Co., 5A, Parliament Street, London, S.W.). C.S8.I1., Burrard, Col. Sir S. G., K.c.S.1., F.R. India. B.S., oe of D Butcher, ox m.p. Tanakpur, R. & K. Railway. greta} Charles Cumming. Royal Botanic Gardens, Sibpur, Howrah. XXVili Date of Election. 1901 Mar. 6. 1918 June 5. 1918 July 3. 1912 Mar. 6. 1915 Jany. 6. 1910 May 4. 1905 May 3. 1890 June 4. 1909 Mar. 3. 1905 July 5. 1906 Jan. 3. 1895 Oct. 27. 1908 Feb. 5. 1911 June 7. 1916 Jan. 5. 1907 Sept. 25. 1893 Sept 28. 1911 Mar. 1. 1914 April 1. 1907 July 3 N.R. N.R. R. A. R. R. R. R. R. R. N.R. R. a ie Pee! ee Marmaduke, hit Gane Major W. c- 1.4., Political Officer in a The Residency, um ampos, J. J. 12, Wellesley St., Calcutta. Carmichael, His Excellency the Right Hon’ble Thomas David, one of Skirl- ing. G.C.LE., K.C.M.G. (c/o India Office, London). Carter, Humphry G., m.8., ch.z. Economic Botanist to the Botanical Survey, Indian Museum. 27, Chowringhee Road, Cal- cutta. Carter, Capt. Robert Markham, 1m.s. Europe (c/o India Office). Chakravarti, Dwarkanath, m.a., B..,Vakil, High Court. Calcutta .|*Chakravarti, Rai Monmohan, Bahadur, 1 M.A., B.L., F.A.S.B. Comilla, Tip- perah. Chakravarti, a M.A. Presidency College, Caleu Chakravarti, ak Cotton College, auhati. Failing John ee nae Librarian, Im- perial Library. Calcu J eae The ae Mr. ‘Atul Chandra, 1.c Luckno Ohateates Gopal Chandra, M.B. Medical College, Calcu Chatterjee, mc ‘i iitae: F.B.C.S. 74, Dharamtola Street. Calcutta. Chatterjee, Khagendra Nath, B.A., B.L., Attorney-at-Law. 12, Madan Mohan Chatterjee Lane, Calcutta. Chatterjee, Promode Prakas. 8, Dizon Lane, Caleutta. Chaudhuri, B. L., B.a., D.se. (Edin in.), F.R.S.E., F.L.S (Lond.). 120, Lower Circular Road, ‘Calcutta Chaudhuri, Charu Chandra, Rai Bahadur, Zemindar, Sherpur Town. ymensingh Dist. Chaudhuri, Gopal Das. 32, Beadon Row, Christie, William Alexander Kynoch, B.Sc., Ph.D. spe Assay Master, H.M.’s Mint. Caleutta XIX Date of Election. 1909 Nov. 3. 1906 Nov. 7. 1915 Sep. 1. 1908 Nov. 4. | 1907 July 3 1876 Mar. 1. 1887 Aug. 25. 1895 July 3. 1873 Dec. 3. 1918 April 3. 1915 Sep. 1. 1896 Mar. 4. 1916 Dec. 6. 1912 April 3. 1917 April 4, 1910 Jan. 5. 1895 Sept. 19. 1900 Dec. 5. N.R. F.M. a F.M. N.R. *Christophers, Major Samuel Richmond, B., F.A.S.B., I.MS., Mesopotamia Field Force, c/o Postmaster-General, Bom- ay. Clarke, Geoffrey Roth, 1.c.s., Offg. Director- General, Posts and Telegraphs. Caleutta Cleghorn, aude Lina West, r.1.s., F.E.S. Europe (c/o India Office e). Cotter, Gerald de Purgell, B.4., F.a.s., Ass tant Superintendent, Geological Aad of India. cutta. Crawfurd, Jam B.A., 1.0.8. (retired). Thornwood, Uadi ington, Lanarkshire, Scotlan Criper, William Risdon, F.c.s., F.L¢., A.R.S.M. Konnagar, nag Cumming, The Hon. Mr. John Ghest, c.s.1., O.LE., 1.0.8. 3, Loudon Street, Calcutta. Dames, Mansel Longworth, t.c.s. (retired). Ventnor, Wodeland Road, Guildford, Surrey, land ase Bie cere Ratnakar, B.A., Private _to Srimati Maharani of Ajodhya. The : Siateadin, Ajodhya Das-Gupta, m Chandra, M.A., Prof., Presidency College. Das-Gupta, Jogendra Nath, B.A. (Oxon), Barrister-at-Law. 38/2, Lower Circular Road, Calcutta se Sri Baman, , Kaviral, Ayurvedic and nani Physician. 152, Harrison Road, Cale utta. ale Das, baa Nath, Prof., Ravenshawe Col- ] Cuttack. , Asst. Professor, 78, M anicktola Datia, Ras Calcutta University. St.. Calcu David, David A. 55, Free School St., leutta Ca De, Kiran Chandra, B.A., 1.c.s., Commis- sioner. Chittagong Deare, Lieut.-Col. " Benjamin Hobbs, M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.R.o.P. (Lond.), D.P.H (Cantab), 1M.s. 14, Russell Street, Cal- cutta. Date of Election. 1917 June 6. 1904 Sept. 28, 1912 May 1. 1906 Dec. 5. 1916 Dec. 6. 1910 May 4. 1907 Oct. 30. 1898 Jan. 5. 1909 Nov. 3. 1917 Mar. 7. 1902 July 2. 1909 Aug. 4. 1912 April 3. 1917 June 6. 1914 Sept. 2. 1916 May 3. 1877 Aug. 30. 1910 April 6. 1910 April 6. 1911 Noy. 1. 1904 Aug. 3. 1916 June 7. R. Calcutta. .|*Donovan, Lieut -Col. Charles, m. D., Deb, Kumar Harit Krishna, m.a., Zemin- dar, Sobhabazar lai Raja Nava- krishna St., Calcu De Courcy, William ae ee Led- dlesdale Estate, Naduwatum P.O., Nilgiris. Demetriadi, Stephen. Hurope (c/o Ralla Bros., Calcutta). Dentith, Arthur William, t.c.s. Shillong. Dharmapala, Anagarika, Secretary, Moha- ey Society. 4a, College Square, Cal- Dhavle, Sankara Balaji, 1.c.s. Lahiria Sarai, Darbhanga. Dixit, - sop B.A., Dewan of Banswara, Raj Dods, WM illingn Kane, Agent, Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. 1.M.S., F.A.S.B. Medical College, Madras Dousamdup, Kazi, B.B. School. Gangtok, Sikkim Doxey, Frederick. 9, Queen’s Park, Bally- gunge, Cal Drake- Beka: Digby Livingstone, 1.c.8. Saharanpur, U.P. Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar , Capt. Sir George, Bart. 19th Punjabis, Hyderabad, Sind. Dunn, T. O. D., Educational Service. noe ni- aleutta 172, Manicktola fog Cal. Nepal. R. Dutt, Dharanidhar, B.A. Dutt, Kedar Nath. 1, Stkdarpara Lane, Calcutta. Ebden, Capt. F. T. P., 73rd Carnatic In- ao yeh (cjo India office). Elmes, ecil H. 9/4, Middleton Row, a igs Esch, ki Architect. Victoria Memo- rial Building Cathedral Avenue, Maidan, Caleu *Fermor, Lewis Leigh, a.R.S.M., D.sc., F.G.S., F.A.8.B., Superintendent, Geological Survey of India. Calcutta. Ferrer, Joseph Orlando, Cuban Consul. , Ezra Mansions, Calcutta Xxxi Date of Election. | 1906 Oct. 31. 1907 Mar. 6. 1910 Sept. 7. 1913 Nov. 5. 1910 April 6. 1903 Mar. 4. 1893 Jan. 11. 1912 Mar. 1909 Oct. 1916 May 1918 Feb. 1905 July 1912 Aug. ~I 1918 July 1907 Mar. 1869 Feb. 1913 Dec. 1907 Mar. 1909 Jan. 3 6 3 1912 Sept. 4. 3 6 6 1910 Sept. 7 Se ae st terme N.R.| Finlow, Robert Steel. kaniy Expert to the Go f Ass Dacea. R. A. ae Ne pany The Ven’ble Walter Kelly, m.a., F.R.q@.S., Archdeacon of Calcutta, Si. Jolin’ s House, Council House Street, Calcu Noe Capt. Archer Irvine, R.a.M.c. Europe (c/o Army Dept.. Simla). Fox, Lieut. Cyril S. (c/o Geological Survey of India, Caleutia). rancis, Lieut eginald Frankland, Indian Army. Europe (c/o India Office). ane Lieut.-Col. Andrew Thomas, M.a., .B., B.Se,, F.L.S., F.A.8.B. 1.M.S. Royal Bot. Gardens, Calcutta H .|/*Gait, His Honour Sir Edward Albert, K, O81, G81,, CIB, FASB. 108, Lieutenant- Governor of Bihar and Orissa. Ranchi. Ganguli, Manmohan, B.8., District En- gineer. Mirzapur Street, Calcutta Ganguli, Ordhendhu Kumar. 12, Gan- guli’'s Lane, Calcutta euns, M. van. Europe. Ghosh, Bends Nath, M.D., M.Se. Prof. Ghosh, _ Behari, M A., B.L. 59, Sukea Street, C alcutta ox Jnanendra Mohan, Bar.-at-Law. Hartington Street, Calcutta Gidak: Prafulla = br M.A. Presi- dency College, Calcut Ghosh, Pratapa psec B.A. Vindya- chal. Ghosh, Tatapeds. 14, Paddapuker Street, Kidder utta. Godson, Capt. Charles Aubery, 1.m.s. ce). reps Merigaioaees 57, Burtolla Street, Seer aeie William Robert, C.1.E., I.c.s. Euvope (c/o India I sat Corey. Frederic Henry, D F. Assistant Superintendent, Daologial Survey of India. Calcutta Xxxii Date of Election. 1905 May 1910 Nov. 1910 Mar. 1900 Dec. 1917 Feb. 1917 June 1915 Aug. 1901 Mar. 1892 Jan. 1907 Aug. 1908 June 1916 Jan. 1885 Feb. 1902 Dec. 1912 May 1906 Dec. 1908 April 1 1916 Feb. 1897 Feb. 1911 June v 3. 3. 2. 3._ 7 1908 June 3. 3. 2. 2 5. 7 6 4 Le 5. | oN, "Grav es, Henry George, A.R.S.M. | oR. 1, Coun- cil House Street, Calcutta. N.R. Graves-Law, ., 1.0.8. Special Asstt. to the Resident in Kashmir.. Srinagar. A. *Greig, Major Edward David Wilson, m.z., F.A.S.B,1.M.S. Europe (c/o India Office). L.M.| Grieve, James Wyndham Alleyne, Deputy Conservator of Forests. Se inate R. | Guha, Regina, 8.a., B.L. 9, Marquis St., Calcutta. R.| Gupta, Kisorimohan, m.a., Prof. = His- tory, M.C. College. Sylhet, Ass R. | Gurner, C. W.,1.c.s. United ae Club, | Calcutta N.R. | | Habi bur Rahman Khan, Raees. Bhikan- pur, District Aligarh. F.M. Haig, Lieut.-Col. T. Wolseley, C.M.G Indian ow B: M.’s Consulate Genl., Isfahan, Persia. N.R. *Haines, Henry iam O00: WAic8., | F.A.S.B. Rane R. _ Hallowes, Ruowioth Alexander Knight, B.A., A.R.S.M., F.G.S., Assistant Superin- | — Geological Survey of India. ee [Calcutta. R. | Hamilta 2 J., Middleton Street, L.M. *Hoaraprasad Shastri, ieshicalcadh ave C.1.E., M. ae F.A.S.B. 26, Pataldanga Street, Calcu N.R.| Harnarain Goswinn, Shastri. Hindu Col- lege, Delhi R. | Harley, A. H., M.A. Madrassa, Calcutta A. | Harris, Lieut. G:, sae Infantry, FF. (c/o India Office, Lon N.R. | Harrison, Edward Philip, ‘PhD., F.R.S.E. Sialkot R. | Hashmi, Mohammad Yusuf, m.a. Mad- rassa, Calcu R. *Hayden, Henry. Herbert, C.LE., D.Se., B.A., B28.) Rat; A.S.B., Director, Geological 8 Sareey of Saw: Calcutta. R. | Hedayat in, Muhammad. 7-1, Ram- sanker Roy s 8 Bai, Calcutta. N.R.| Heron, Alexander Macmillan, B.Sc., F.G.S., Assistant Superintendent, Geological Survey of India. (c/o Geological Survey of India, Calcutta). XXXiil Date of Election. | 1911 “April 5. IN, R. | 1908 April 1. | 1891 July 1. 1908 July 1. 1910 Jan. 5. 1914 Feb. 4. 9 ote 1873 Jan. 1918 Feb. 6. 1911 Feb. 1. 1918 April 3. 1915 April 7. 1904 Jan. 6. 1916 Jan. 5. 1907 Dec. 4. 1907 Sept. 25. 1908 June 3. 1911 Sept. 1. 1911 Nov. 1. 1891 Feb. 4. 1915 Oct. 27. 1918 July *. 1911 Jan tl. Hiralal, Rai Bahadur, amon, B.A., M.R.A.S. ‘4 Hirst, Captain Frederick Christian. In- N.R. A. R. R. L.M. R. a R. R. N.R. NR. R. N.R dian Army (c/o nab of India). *Holland, Sir Thomas enry, K.C.I.E., D.Se. A.B C.S., F.G.S., F.R.S F.A.8.8., President, Indian Munitions Board. Simla Holmwood, The Hon. Mr. Justice Herbert, 1.c.8. Europe (c/o India Office). Hope, Geoffroy D., B.Sc., Ph 27, Chow- ringhee Road, Calcutta. Hornell, The Hon. Mr. W. W. Bengal Club, Calc utta -D Houstoun. . Johnstone Castle, Renfrewshire, ‘Scotland. Hui, Rev. Sramana Wan. 2. Wellesley Qnd Lane, Calcutta. Insch, Jas. Ironside, The H Peas 2, burn Park, Ca a Ishak Khan, isnewied: M.A. O. College, Aligarh. ee ingen oad Calcutta. W. Wood- Jackson, Victor Herbert. m.a. Patna Col- eg e, Bankipur. Jain, Kumar Devendra Prasad, Secy. All- India Jain Association evah. enkins, Owen Francis, 1.c.s. 1, Cowncil House act Calcutta. Jones, Herbert Cecil, A.R.S.M., A.B.C.S., pierre Superintendent, Geologi- Gietad weeded: Vizagapatam. Kamaluddin Ahmed, Shams-ul-Ulama. Europe (c/o Govt. Madrassa ong). Kapur, Raja Ban Behari, c.s.1. Burdwan. Kaushala, Ram Sawru la City. Kazunobu, Kanokoge, Prof. of Philoso- phy, The Keio sie eae vite ai Consulate, 7, Loudon St., Kaye, George Rusby. i ote "alae of Education, Simla. XXXIV Date of Election. 1910 May 4. 1882 Mar. 1. | 1906 Aug. 1. 1906 Sept. 19. 1918 April 3. 1909 April 7. 1910 Mar. 2. 1914 April 1. 1918 Feb. 6. 1887 May 4. 1889 Mar. 6. 1914 Aug. 5. 1911 Feb. 1. 1914 July 1. 1902 July 2. 1918 June 5. 1911 May 3. 1906 Oct. 31. 1870 April 7. 1905 Aug. 2 1916 July 5. a N.R. N.R. L.M. ~ *Kemp, Stanley W., B.A., F.A.S B., Superin- endent, Zoological Survey of India. Calcutta. Kennedy, ringle Bak, er William Willoughby, M.A., M i 10, arrington St. Calcutta. Kesteven, The Hon. Mr. Charles oo Solicitor to hci rar 26, Dalhous Square, Calcutta. Khanna, Ram Nath, am. Gurgaon. sen John Newport, c/o Mr. B. Dhani M.B., .P. 14, Garden Reach, Caleu ie oct, W. Chartered Bank Build- ings, Calcutta er Laddu, emery Krishna. Queen’s Col- lege, Laig adiad.: Ansari, Shaikh, Historical Research Office. Bh Lanman, Charles Rockw ell. Farrar ate oe ppakarnees U. S. Am - |*La Touehe, Thomas Henry Digges, B.A., F.G.S., F.A.S.B. Alfriston Hills Road, Cambridge, England. Law, Bimala Charan, B.a. 24, Sukea St., atcutta. Law, Narendra Nath, m.a., B.L. 96, Amherst St., Calcutta Law, Satya Charan, m.a., B.L. 24, Sukea alcutta. Leake, Henry Martin, M.a.,F.L.s. Nawab- gun), Cawnpore Lees, W. H., 1.c.s., Commissioner, Burd- wan Dn. Chinsurah. Lomax, C.E., m.a. 11, Loudon Street, Caleuita. t Luard, Capt. Charles Eckford, m.a. (Oxon), Indian Arm my. Nimach. Lyman, B. Smith. se cigs Street, Philadelphia, U.S. Am McCay, Lt.-Col. David, m.p., 1m.s. Medi- cal College, Calcutta MacKenna, J., I.c.s. , Agricultural Adviser to the Government of India. Pusa. XXXV Date of Election, 1893 Jan. 11. 1912 May 1. 1913 Mar. 5. 1893 Jan. 11. 1916 June 7. 1906 Dec. 5. 1911 Mar. 1. 1898 Nov. 2. 1918 Aug. 7. 1918 Feb. 6. 1918 Feb. 6. 1901 June 5. 1907 Dec. 4. 1899 Aug. 30. 1905 Dec. 6. 1916 Feb. 2. 1912 Jan. 10. 1913 June 4. 1917 May 2. 1886 Mar. 3. 1884 Nov. 5. L.M.| Maclagan, The Hon. Sir ae: Douglas, K.C.LE., I., 1.¢.8., Secretary, Government of India, panenien De- partment. Simla R. | McLean, David. Chowringhee Mansions, alcutta. A. | MacMahon, P. S. Europe (c/o Canning | College, Lucknow). L.M.| Madho Rao Scindia, His Highness Maha- | rajah Colonel Sir, ae on nag hadur .C.S.1., G.C.V.O., Maha- | rajah of Gwalior. Jai “Bilas, Guoalior N.R.| Mahajan, Surya Prasad. Murarpur, Gaya R. | Mahalanobis, Subodh Chandra, .R.S.E.,F.R.M.S. 210, Cornwallis Street, Calcutta. R. |" Mahatap, The Hon. Sir Bijoy Chand, | a 1., Mah og seer, of Burdwan. 6, Alipur Lane, Caleu N.R. Maitra, Akshaya_ ify B.A., B.L. Raj- shahi. R. sys coh i Nath, Physician and 68/a, don St., Calcutta. De. Maitra, "Sisir Kumar, Principal, Late Institute of Philosoph y. Amalner ,Bom- bay Presidency. N.R.} Manen, Johan van. Balaclava Hotel, , D.H. Ry. N.R.| Mann, Harold Hart, D.Sc., M.Se., F.L.S., Principal, Agricultural College. Poona. N.R. pps sehen! Lieut.-Col. John, c.v.0., 1.E., India: my. Resident, Kashmir. N.R. eden Lal, "Rai Bahadur, Retired Civil Surgeon. Raz Bareli. F.M.| Marsden, Edmund, B.a., F.R.G.S. 12, Eler- dale Road, Hampstead, London. R. | Majumdar, Narendra Kumar, M.A., he Prof. Caleutta University. Calew N.R.| Mazumdar, Rai Jadunath, Bchac Government Pleader. -Jessore. R. | Mazumdar, Ramesh Chandra, m.a., 16 : pang Fa Chatterji Street, Bhowani- pur, Caleu A. | Meerwarth, Dr. A.M. Europe. L.M.|} Mehta, Roostumjee Dhunjibhoy, c.1.8. 9, Rainey Park, Ballygunge, Cale N.R. Paidatemiss, Charles Stewart, B.A., F.G.S., s.B. Kashmir, Srinagar. XXXVIi Date of Election, 1884 Sept. 3.) R. 1912 June 5.|N.R. 1911 July 5./N.R. 1916 Nov. 1.| R. 1906 June 6. R 1915 Jan. 6:| R 1909 May 5.) N.R. 1901 Aug. N.R 1895 July 3 R. 1906 Dec. 5. ieee | 1908 Dec. 2. | A. 1912 Jan.10.| R. 1909 Mar. 3.; R. 1899 Sept. 29.) R. 1916 Mar. 1./| R. 1898 May 4.| R. 1894 Aug. 30.| R. 1886 May 5.|L.M 1908 Feb. 5.| R. 1892 Dec. 7. 1910 Nov. 2.| A. 1906 Mar. 7.| R Miles, William Harry. 21, Old Court House Street, Calcutta Misra a, Champaram. Partabgarh, Oudh Misra, Rai Bahadur Pandit Shyam Behari, B.A., 1.0.8., Deputy Collector. Unao, Oudh. Mitra, Adar Chandra, s.u. Bow Street, Mitra, Kumar Manmatha Nath. 34 Shampukur Street, Calcutta. Mitra, Prakash Chandra, Engineer and Contractor. 16a, Amherst Street, Cal- culta. Moly Ahmad, Abul-Kalam, Azad. habad. Rane Molony, ead Alexander, 1.0.8. Alla- Monahan, The Hon. Mr. Francis John, 1.C.8. H arrington Mansions, Calcutta. More, Major James Ca rmichael. 51st Sikhs. (c/o Presidency Post Master, Bom- ba ay). Moses, Capt. Owen St. John, m.p. : PS, Muhammad Kazim Shirazi, Aga. 23, Lower Chitpur Road, Calcutta. spp ae Brajalal, m.a. 12, Old Post Office Street, Calcutta Mukerjee, Jotindra Nath, B.A., Solicitor. 3, Old Post Office Street, “Caleut : Mukerjee, Prabhat Kumar, ee ctu, utia Mukerjee, Sibnarayan. Uitarpara, Bally. ee aya, The Hon. hao hg Asutosh, Kt., C.S.1., M.A., ; F.R.S.E., F.R.AS., F.AS.B., Judge, ‘High Court. Cale cutta mg a ica Girindra Nath, B.A., M.D. rs . ris Mukerjee Road, Bhowanipur, cutta Mukhopadhyaya, pono 46, Bechoo Chatterji’s Street, Calcut ray, William Aieed, B.A. (Cantab), M.B. Europe (c/o Assam-Bengal Rail- way, Chittagong). Nahar, Puran Chand. 48, Indian Mirror Street, Calcutta. XXXVl Date of Election. 1918 Sept. 25. N.R 1916 July 5. = | 1917 Mar. 7. N.R.. 1901 Mar. 6. |N.R.. 1889 Aug. 29. L.M. 1913 July 2 |N.R.! 1908 Feb. 5.| A. 1916 Feb. 2.| A. 1906 Dec. 5., R. | 1915 April 7. | R. 1907 July 3 3.| A. | 1901 Jan. 2. ics 1904 Aug. 3. NLR. 1910 April 6. NR 1906 Dee. 5. NR. 1916 July 5. |N.R. | —— Prince Victor N. Cooch Bthar. Naseer Hosein oo Syed. 78, Prinsep St., Calcu Newton , Rev. B. Ps. , Chaplain, Bengal Ecclesiastical sat Raheaant. Dinapur Nevill, Lieut.-Col. Henry Rivers, 1.¢.s., Army Headquarters. Delhi. Nimmo, John Duncan. c/o Mes Wal- ter Duncan & Co., 137, West Beau Street, ag eae Norton, E. L., 1.0.s., District Magistrate. Orient Club Building, Chowpatti, Bombay. - Nott, Lieut.-Col. Arthur Holbrook, m.p., 1.M.s. Hurope (c/o India Office). Oka, Rev. R. c/o Bangae & Co. Europe. | O’Kinealy, Lieut.-Col. Frederick, M.R.¢.8., 1888 June 6. L.M.. 1877 Aug. 1.|N.R_ 1915 May 5. A. 1889 Nov. 6. LM. 1914 Nov. 4./ R. 1904 June 1. | N.R. | | | (Eng.), L.R.c.P. (Lond.), 1. ah Presi- dency General Hospital, Calcut Otani, Count Kozui. c/o Vemidtaibiien: eral of Japan, Calcutta. Page, William Walter Peer. Europe (clo Pugh & Co., Calcutta) Pande, aniiatas, B.A., L.c.8., District Judge. Mirzapur, Parasnis, Rao Bahadur Dattalraya Bal- nt Ww Satara. Patuck, Pestonji Sorabji,1.c.s. Narsingh- pur. Peart, Major Charles Lubé. 106th Hazara Pioneers, Quetta Pease, Col. i. aS CLE., M.R.C.V.S. Veterin ary College, Lahore. Pennell, point Percival, B.a., Bar.-at- Law. Rang Peters, Lieut. ‘Col Charles Thomas, ™.B., I.M.S. Prag Dinajpur. Philby, H. St. J. B., 1.0.s. Europe (c/o Alliance Bank, Calcutta). *Phillott, Lieut. Colonel Douglas Craven, ph.p., F.4.8.B. Indian Army (retired). c/o Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 54, Parlia- don. Pickford Alfred Donald. 12, Mission tia. leu Pilgrim, Guy Elleock, p.se., F.a.s. (c/o Geological Survey of India, Caleu cutta). XXXViil Date of Election, 1910 Aug. 3. 1918 April 3. 1914 Mar. 1880 April : 1895 Aug. 29. 1908 Feb. 5. 1917 June 6. 1905 Jan. 1904 Mar. 1890 Mar. 1917 May 1905 May 3. 1918 April 3. 1913 Sept. 3. 1900 April 4. R. R. R. F.M. A. R. 1901 Dec. 4. FM. 1918 July 3. 1889 June 5. 1903 July 1. 1915 Oct. 27. R. | | : Rangaswami Airs ngar | rum. | Rankin, James Thomas, 1 | Podamraj Jain, Raniwalla. han Mullick’s Lane, oe Prasad, Baini, D.8c., | Bengal, Bihar and Hien, | seum, Calcutta ! oh J oggomo- dt. 7 Fisheries, Indian Mu- Raffin, Alain. Huro [pur. Rai, Bepin Chan rey “Giridih, Chota Nag- * Rai. Chaudhuri, Jatindranath m.A., B.L., | Zemindar. Taki, Jessore. Randle, Siege Neil, B.A. Queen’s Col- lege, Benare r, K. V., Rao Baha- ur, Prof. of History and Economics, H.H. The Maharaja’s College. Trivan- 1.¢.8. Dace ct te E. J. 8, Mortimer Road, Phan brid *Ray, Sir Prafulla Chandra. xkt., p.s F.A.S.B., Professor, Presidency College. Calcutta. | Ray, Dr. Kumud Sankar, m Ch.B (Edin.). Lane, Calcutta. Richardson, The Hon. Mr. Justice Thomas bonsoe 1.0.8. 21, Belvedere Road, Cal- <7 M.A., B.S 44, European pM Robtnane, Herbert C., Director of Ma- seums and Fisheries, a Malay States. Kuala Lum Rogalsky, Poh Burope tito Imperial Rus- sian Consulate General, Calcut tta). “Rogers, Lt.-Col. Sir Leonard, KS.) 0.3.5; M.D., | ; Menta, Hon. Treasurer. No. 11. with the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1918. ment of Bengal for the salary of the Officer-in-Charge. Cr, Rs. As. P. By Balance from last Report oe me nas 1,000 0 0 By CasH RECEIPT. Government Allowance au e Las 1,200 0 0 Tora Rs. es 2,200 0 0 E. & O. R. ‘> MEHTA, Calcutta, 31st December, 1918. Hon. ‘Treasurer. Ixiv STATEMENT 1918. Anthropological Fund in Account From an annual grant of Rs. 2,000, made by the Government of Lar. To CasH EXPENDITURE. Rs. As. P. Re. Ascor Printing" :. eS a ie 16 14 0 Govt. Allowance (transferred to Society’s Fund) Account ... nee whe Aer 5,000 O 0O ———._ 5,016 14 O Balance Pr aes 1052 4 0 Torat Rs, a 6,069 2 O STATEMENT 1918. Sanskrit Manuscript Fund in Acct. From annual grants of Rs. 3,200, made by the Government of Bengal krit Manuscripts acquired by the Society for Government ; and Rs. 2,400 Dr. To CasH EXPENDITURE. Rs. As. P. Salaries... a elt Sak 1,639 11 9 Bonus Bas ie 420 O O Grain Allowance a see ae 5 0 8 Salary of Officer-in-Charge pe ; 2,400 0 0 Contingencies a a bY Bee Be Stationery... s 1112 4 Light and Fans er: 8 6 Insurance .., 125 0 0O 4,638 4 9 Balance ¥: 7,918 13 0 Toran Rs. rye 12,667 1 9 No. 12. with the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1918. Bengal, for the publication of papers in the Journal. Cr. Rs. As By Balance from last Report 4,069 2 0 By Casa RECEIPT. Government Allowance a is » Sans SF 5,625 15 O 5 Anthropologie | Fund or 2,000 O 0O - and Persian MSS. Fund Te 5,000 O 0 i reasu sts Bills re iu. 48,821 14-0 , Personal a ie ee - we 10 8 », Fixed Deposi np F 0 1,15,521 15 7 Tora, Rs, 1,27,216 8 3 Ixxili Calcutta, 31st December, 1918. No, 20 Account. 1918. Cr. Be ABP YS ey BSP By cere Society . 18,856 10 2 . 5, Barclay Memorial Baca e 6 7) , Servants’ et ion Fund 7 16 4 0 % * Buildin ng Fond Lil +0 iy Indian Science Sconce 1,993 11 9 : ee ; Sientel Pablieation em No. 1 ibe 6,880 9 3 % No. 3 387 1 0 te Bureau of Taboigeiaiees 1,200 0 0 = S. Fund 4,688 4 9 45 Anthropological Fund a 5,016 14 0 » Arabic canted Persian MBB. Fund pet 3,842 6 3 », Invest ve 2. bt,082 1h: 0 vabewen ‘Bills . 48,965 10 0 ,, Fixed Deposit . ae ,000 0 », War Bond an ‘ 5,000 O 0 ,, Personal Account ~ 344 0 ancl ee TIS EE OG * Balance 4,(00- 7 30 Ra A, F Biel of Bengal .. 6,339 6 9 vga 6 * 69 2 4 Gash in bend 410 9 » With Jamadar 30 0 Cheque in hand , 1,345 4 0 Torta Rs, 7,788 710 Totat Rs, 1,27,216 8 3 E.é&0 R. D. Menta, Hon. Treasurer. Ixxiv STATEMENT I9DI8S. Balance LIABILITIES. Re. Ae. P. a ee pnt Fund ver, 1,596,888 93-3 arclay Memorial Fund ove 569 2 4 aa Pensidi Fund ows 1,568 3 10 Bauilding Fund 51,172 10 0O ng et of Scientific Serial Pablications, Caleu se 2,500 0 0 Indian Bctinide e Congress 2,190 14 5 f Scientific Literature 697 8 6 Oriental Publication “Fund, No. 1 . 25,890 11 9 = Do. No. 2 .. 14,109 3 0 Do. No. 3 ies 397° 9° 6 Bureau ot Information ides vee 1,000 0 0 Sanskrit MSS. Fund . ves ws 6 ALS TBO ye nibropological eiey re ee 1,052 4 0 and Persian MSS. F vee 8,227 14 4 peas ere dhe. paid in reid sis 188 12 6 $,14,266 14 5 Sundry i cig as agit by tein 8 Officers, viz — Tre 500 0 0 Colle ioe sas is a 100 0 0 Sn 600 0 0 ToTat Rs. ae 3,14,866 14 5 We have examined the Books and Vouchers of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for the yea ended 31st December, 1918, and hereby certify that the foregoing Balance Sheet ce: pose sets forth the position of the Society as at that date according to the best of our knowledge and t information furnished to us gga ts hambers, 6, Hustings Street, Ou ap ali 10th April, 1919, Viney & THURSTON, Chartered dusoieataats, Anditfors, lxxv No. 21, a Sheet. As at 3lst December. 1918: ASSETS. Reo P. Rs, Ag, P, RE Pg 278. 2068 10 Do in respect ¢ of Treasurer's security 500 Treasury Bills ant 24,271 14 0 War Bond re aa 5,000 0 O@ Personal Account 4,100 4 9 $,07,078 6 7 Cash Account ie ane ee 7,788 7 10 TorTat Rs. 8.14,866 14 5 E, & O. E. R. D. Menta, Calcutta, 31st December, 1918. Hon. Treasure. lxxvi Liabilities up to 31st December, (1918. FUNDS. Re. Age. Asiatic Socie 9.682 5 3 ety Oriental pecs: es he. 9,004 10 3 Do. No. 2728 13°29 ToTat Rs, 0 81 SOR 127.5 Copy of Certified Statement of Securities in Custody of the Bank of Bengal on account of Asiatic Society of Bengal, December 31, 1917 :— 34 per cent. Loan of 1842-43 ... 34 2? ”” ” oT 18 3h ” 3? ” ” 33 3” bad > ” 1879 eee see see 000 Mian 4h hay. dee as at See 33 27 ” > ” 1900-1 -- aoe 25,000 ike oe 1896-97 . Hh es 500 ee ie Terminable Loan of 1915-16 . fy car) SOU ToTaL Rs. ... 2,84,300 (* Cashier’s security deposit.—-Ed.]} Copy of Certified Statement of Securities in Custody of the Alliance pre-aes of Simla, Ltd., on account of Barclay Memorial Fund, Jannary 18, 1 3% per cent. Loan of 1854-55 ee ep = a a 34 ” bi 7 0 1854-55 aes oe. oe oer 100 34 ” ” 2” ” 1900-01 see se a eee 100 Toran Rs. x 5. A Note on Buddhaghosa’s Commentaries. By Brmata Cuaran Law, M.A.. M.R.AS. INTRODUCTION. Tradition ascribes to Thera Buddhaghosa the authorship of several exegetical works, which, as we have them now -headed by the encyclopaedic Visuddhimagga. He is said to have written commentaries on the whole of the Vinaya Pitaka including the Patimokkha, the four Nikayas, and on the seven books of the Abhidhamma-Pitaka. The commentaries on some of the important books of the Khuddaka Nikaya are also attribu- ted to him. Regarding Buddhaghosa, Mrs. Rhys Davids says : “It may readily be granted that Buddhaghosa must not be accepted en bloc. The distance between the constructive genius of Gotama and his apostles as compared with the succeeding ages of epigoni needs no depreciatory criticism on the labours of the exegesists to make itself felt forcibly enough. Buddhaghosa’s philology is doubtless crude and he is apt to leave the cruces unexplained, concerning which an Occidental is most in the dark. Nevertheless, to me his work is not only highly te ibe bi but also a mine of historic interest. To put it aside is to lose the historical perspective of the course of Buddhist philosophy.””! Here however we are concerned with the works of Buddha- ghosa as indicating the development of his own mind rather than giving the expositions of earlier thoughts. CuHaPprTer I. Origin and Development of Buddhaghosa’s Commentaries. Before we discuss the question of the origin and develop- ment of Buddhaghosa’s commentaries a word or two about the nature of a commentary seems necessary. commentary — reading new meanings back into old texts according e’s own education and vouslaok: Its motive is to explain ns annie and Cangas of others as accurately and faithfully as possible. This remark applies equally to all commentaries, Sanskrit and Pali alike. The teacher Revata is represented as saying to his pupil Buddhaghosa, “The Pali or Tripitaka only has been brought over here, no commentary is extant in this place. The diver- gent opinions of teachers other than the Theravadins do not 1 Introductory Essay, Buddhist Psychological Ethics, p. xxv. 108 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, likewise exist. The Ceylon- commentary, which is free from faults, and which was written in Singhalese by thoughtful Mahinda after due consultation of the method of expositions, the people of Ceylon. Please go there and eae it, and then translate it into Magadhi which will be useful to the whole world.” ane this it is i that the commentaries were not to be found in India at the time of Buddhaghosa ; they were all to be found in Pecllin. It follows further that the commen- taries, as they come down to us, were not the original com- - in Singhalese and Buddhaghosa a retranslator in Pali. Buddhaghosa himself freely admits in his prologues to several commentaries,’ that he annotated those passages only which were not commented upon by his predecessors, and the rest he only translated. All the available evidences point to the fact that within the first decade of Buddha’s enlighten- ment Buddhist headquarters were established adjoining many important towns and cities of the time, viz. Benares, Raja- gaha, Vesali, Nalanda, Pava, Ujjeni, Campa, Madhura, Ulumpa, and so on. At each of these places sprang up a community of Bhikkus under the gpg and guidance of a famous disciple of Buddha such as Mahakassapa, reas epeaie bewit Mahakotthita, Sariputta, Moggallana, and the like. Followin the rule of the wanderers or sophists they used to sand the rainy season at a royal pleasure garden or a monastery, after which they generally met together once a year at Raja- gaha, Beluvana, Savatthi or elsewhere. Friendly interviews among themselves, and occasional calls on contemporary sophists, were not unknown. Among these various leaders of Bhikkhus, some were ranked foremost in doctrine, some in discipline, some in ascetic practices, some in story telling, some in analytical expositions, some in preaching, some in families, an Vedic literature. It may be naturally asked: What were 1 Mahavamsa, Chap. 7 ; Ba Foon s Pali Reader, p. 28. Vis uddhi- magga, ed. Buddhadatta, p. 2, cf. Sasanava amsa, p. 31; it sel eared bhin- seniy na vijjare as bhineohutys atthi, which is a misinterpretation. Sumangalavilasiai I, p. 1 (P.T.S). Saratthapakas sini, p 3 Vi Etadaggavaggo, Anguttara Nika@ya I; vena sng edited by Geiger. ‘ The Council of Mahakassapa.’ 1919.] Buddhaghosa’s Commentaries. 109 age he aie learned and thoughtful Bhikkhus doing all the "The Buddhiet and Jaina texts tell us that the itinerant _ ee = — c Discussions about the interpretation of the abstruse utterances of the great teachers were frequent and the raison détre of the development of Buddhist Shoes tain particularly of the Comumentstics, is to be traced i in these discussions. topics of discussion among the Bhikkhus, or how their peace was disturbed by grave doubts calling forth explanations either from Buddha himself or from his disciples. Whenever some interested sophists spoke vehemently ‘in many ways in dis- praise of the Buddha, the Doctrine and the Order,’ * whenever another such sophist misinterpreted Buddha’s loon ’ when- ever a furious discussion broke out in an ntemporary Brotherhood,* or whenever a Bhikkhu behaved "himself im- properly, the Bhikkhus generally assembled in the pavilion to discuss the subject, or were exhorted by Buddha or by his disciples to safeguard their interests. It was on one such occasion that Buddha was led to offer a pee exposition of the moral precepts in accordance with amous doctrine. “One should avoid all that is evil, and curtain all that is good,” > that is ro say, an explanation of the — in their negative and itive aspects. This is now incorporated in the first hades otis of the Digha-Nikaya, wai is io taausindy known as the Silakkhanda,—‘ The tract on morality,’’—lend- ing its name to the first volume of the Digha.6 On another occasion Potaliputta, the wanderer, called on Samiddhi, and informed him thus: “* According to Samana Gotama, as : actually heard him saying, Kamma either by way of deed o by way of word is no Kamma at all, the real Kamma era by way of thought or volition only. For there is an attainment after having reached which one feels nothing (i.e. which trans- cends all sensible experience and pleasure and pain ak not friend Potaliputta thus, speak not of him i in this manner. Please do not misrepresent our teacher of view, for that is not good. He would never have said so. bd ‘* But tell me, friend Samiddhi, what a man will experience Vide my paper ‘‘ A short account of the Wandering Teachers at the — = the Buddha.” (J.A.S.B. New series, Vol XIV, 1918, No. 7.) Digha-Nikaéya, I, p. 2 , Majjhima-Nikaya, III, pp. 207-8. Ibid., 8 gaémasutta, II, pp 5 ** Sabba papassa akaranam, Kusalassa upasampada.” 6 «*« The Dialogues of the Buddha.” II, pp. 3-26. 110 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S.. XV, as the consequence of his deliberate action by way of thought, word and deed.”’ ‘‘ Pain,” was the reply When a report of this discussion was submitted to Buddha he regretted that the muddleheaded Samiddhi had given such one-sided answer to the second point of the wanderer, whom he had never met in his life. For the right and complete answer would in that case have been, that ‘ he will experience either pleasure or pain or neither pleasure nor pain.’ But as regards Samiddhi’s reply to the first point, he had nothing 1 The rendering is not literal, though substantially faithful. 2 Majjhima Nikaya, LIT, pp. 207-215. 3 Ibid., III, pp. 202-206. Nettipakarana, pp. 182-183. 4+ Vibhanga, pp. 285-291. _5 Atthasalini, pp. nisin 6 Majjhima Nikaya, pp. 215-222. 7 Ibid., pp. 230-237. 9 Tbid., pp. 70-73. 10 Vibhanga, pp. 70-73; pp. 82-90. Cf. Dhatukatha, etc. tthana Suttanta Dighanikaya. 13 Vibhanga, pp. 99-112. 1919. ] Buddhaghosa’s Commentaries. lll bhajaniya) based upon the sutta exposition.' Sariputta’s exposition contains many of the stock-passages, or the older disconnected materials with which the whole of the Pitaka literature, as we may reasonably suppose, was built up. This piece of independent commentary has been tacked on to the Satipatthana Sutta, itself a commentary, and furnishes a datum of distinction between the Satipatthana sutta in the Majjhima nikaya and the Mahasatipatthana sutta in the Digha- Nikaya. A complete catechism of important terms and passages of exegetical nature is ascribed to Sariputta and is familiarly known as the Maha Sangiti Suttanta,* of which a Buddhist n Sariputta i in the singularly interesting catechism above referred to, characterises two of the older collections, the Samyutta and the Anguttara and certain books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, notably the Puggala Pafifiatti, the materials of which were mostly drawn from the Anguttara nikaya. This is a fact which alone can bring home to us the nature of Sariputta’s work in connection with the Pitaka literature. But Sariputta does not exhaust the list. We have to consider other renowned and profoundly learned disciples of Buddha, among whom some were women, who in their own way helped forward the process of. development of the porns: Take for ex- one in Buddhist Sanskrit, which are all ascribed to him. The few fragments by Mahakaccino (Mahakaccayano) which have reached us are important for another reason, as exhibiting judge from these older fragments, seldom indulges in mechanical enumeration and coining of technical terms as a a did. ; Vibhanga, 193- 2 Digha haga: pp By iT bide for references Prof. Takakusu’s highly instructive article on the Sarvastivadins in J.P.T.S., 1905, ve ahoti C’ Syasm Mahakacc&noimassa hagavata sarnkitte: Vv n + Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. 110 F: TH, pp. 78, 194, 223. 5 Viz, Nettipakarana, Petakopadesa, Jfianaprasth&na Sastra. 112 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, He, on the contrary, confined himself to bringing out the inner significance and true philosophical bearing of Buddha’s first principles. Then we have to make our acquaintance with Thera Mahakotthitha, who was an authority next to none but Buddha himself on Patisambhida or methodology of Buddha’s analytical system. He gives us the characteristic marks or specific differ- ences of current a sean terms signifying the various elements of experience. e warns us at the same time against a possible misconception. reat understanding, perception, sensation and so forth are not entities. They are not dissociated, but all are inseparably associated ® in reality. The first part of Maha- kotthitha’s explanation may be said to be the historical founda- tion of the Lakkhanahara in the Nettipakarana, of some pas- sages in the Milinda-Pafiho * in the commentaries * of Buddha- ghosa; we have similiar contributions from Maggallana. Ananda, Dhammadinna and Khema, but we need not multiply instances. A careful examination of the contents of the second book of the Abhidhammapitaka has proved beyond doubt that there is no hard and fast line between the Sutta andthe Abhidhamma Pitakas, the division resting mainly upon a difference of modus operandi. The Abhidhamma method was based upon, and followed closely in the line of, the Sutta a rape which is evidently earlier. It goes without saying that the spans between the two methods is not only one of < ee, but a times, one of kind. In spite of the fact that the Abhidhamma exposition is direct, definite and methodical, we cannot s that in all cases its value is greater than the Sutta teas tion. There will always be a difference of opinion among Bud- dhist scholars as to whether the Abhidhamma books contain the genuine words of Buddha Gotama.’ It is nevertheless certain that the major part of that literature is based upon the teachings and expositions of the great teacher. There may be a Sariputta or some other unseen hands at work behind the scene, but on the whole, the credit, as history eae it, belongs ultimately to Buddha himself. The whole of the Abhidhamma Pitaka has been separately classed by Buddhaghosa as Veyyaka- rana or Exposition. We are told that this class comprises also the gathaless or prose suttas which are not found in the, re- maining eight classes of early Buddhist literature.6 The fore- going discussion has shown that the Vedallas need not be 1 Pajanati pajanatiti...... tasma pafifiava ti Misia Vijanati vijanatiti...... tasm4 vififananti vucca es jhima Nikaya, I, oe 292, 2 Ibid.—Ime dhammA samsattha& no visamsattha.... . : Malinda Paaho, p. 62. (Edited by ee. rend + e.g. Sumangala-vilasini, 1, pp. 62-6. 5 See for a learned discussion on ae subject among the Theras, Atthasélini, ts 6 Suma ngala-vilasini I, p. 324; Atthas@lini, pp. 25-26. 1919. | Buddhaghosa’s Commentaries. 113 grouped asa separate class. There is no reason why the Cala- vedalla and the Mahavedalla suttas in the Majjhima Nikaya should not be included in the veyyakarana class. At all events it has been clearly proved that in the Tripitakas, excluding the Kathavatthu, which was composed in the 3rd century B.C., we have two layers, so to speak, of Veyvakarana, viz. the Sutta- bhajaniya and the Abhidhamma bhajaniya. Khandha, Vibh- anga, Niddesa—these are but different synonyms of the same term. That is to say, the suttas containing terminology, definition, enumeration or explanation, whether with or with- out such names as Khandha, Vibhanga, Niddesa, constitute the first great landmark ; and the six Abhidhamma books, largely based upon the suttas, the second landmark in the history of the Buddhist commentaries. The third landmark is not so easy to determine as the first or the second. Here we have a choice between a few works ! ascribed to Mahakaccano and the Kathavatthu of which Thera Moggaliputta Tissa is said to be the author. As regards the date of the latter, it is pretty certain that the book was composed about the time of the third Buddhist council held under the auspices of King Asoka. The case of Mahakaccano’s works is somewhat different. A careful survey of the Petakopadesa which is still buried in manuscripts shows that whatever its date of composition, it is a supple- mentary treatise to the Nettipakarana of which a beautiful edition in Roman character is given to us by Prof. EK. Hardy. A Buddhist Sanskrit work, the Jianaprasthana Sastra, by a Mahakatyayana, is held, as Prof. Takakusu informs us, as an authoritative text by the Sarvastivadins. This Sastra is mentioned by Vasuvandhu in his Abhidharmakosa® as one of the seven Abhidhamma books. The work was translated into Chinese by Sanghadeva and another in A.D. 383. Another translation was made in A.D. 657 by Hiuen Tsang, who trans- lated also the Abhidharmamahavibhasasastra, a commentary Kaniska. The Chinese traveller tells us that the ean age ed | Hardy. Introduction to the Nettipakarana, p. 33, F. I. Kaccay- anapakaranarn, Mohanenittipakaranam, Nettipakaranam, Cuttanenitti petakodesa, and Vannaniti. E. Burnouf’s Introduction, p. 447. ae 3 Beal’s Buddhist Records, J, pp. 174-175. Cf. Bunyunanjio’s Cata- logue, Sub. No. 2 114 Journai of the Asiatic Socrety of Bengal. [N.S.. XV, Judging from the valuable extract from the Jiianaprasthana given by Prof. Takakusu we can decide once for all that the work is not identical with the Pali Abhidhamma book latter. The Netti and Jfianaprasthana have many points in common, as they were written to serve a similar purpose. ning paragraphs or pages of his two books, Mahakaccayana frankly states that his work was not to start a new idea but to produce a s systematic analytical exposition of the expressions of others (paratoghosa).! The parikkharahara * of the Netti is a chapter based upon the patthana, though it throws new light on the subject of causal correlation. As appears from the section on Nayasamutthana, Mahakaccayana refers to the Buddhist schismatic or heretics (Ditthicarita asmim sasane pabbajita), whom he sharply distinguished from the outsiders (Ditthicarita ito bahiddhapabbajita). Such a thing as this is not possible within the first century of Buddha’s Nibbana. It presupposes the four nikayas and all other older books of the three pitakas from which it has quoted several passages. Without going into further details, we will not be far from the truth to suppose that the works of Mahakaccaiyana were indeed a connecting link between the Tripitaka on one side and all subsequent Buddhist texts on the other. Thus if we have to choose between his works and ns Katha vatthu, the priority must be said to belong to the form The Kathavatthu, which is a Buddhist book of debate on matters of theology and philosophy represents the fourth landmark. Buddhaghosa’s® plea for affiliation of this signifi- cant text to the Pali canon is ingenious enough. Buddha laid down the main propositions (Matika) which were discussed later by the adherents of different schools of thought.* It may however be doubted whether a book of controversy such as the Kathavatthu can be regarded as a landmark in the history of the commentaries. But a closer investigation will make it evident that this book of controversy is looked upon in one way as no more than a book of interpretation, as Maha- kaccayana * rightly points out that the Buddhist heretics, in spite of their individual paiseets. agreed in so far as their regard for the teachings of the master was concerned. The few imens of controversy which the Kathavatthu has embodied exhibit that both sides referred to Buddha as a final court of appeal. All have quoted passages from the canon, though their interpretations differ widely. Next we have to think of the ‘‘ Questions of ee Milinda’’ (Milinda-Patho), which is a ! B. M. Barua’s Prolegomena to a history of Buddhist Philosophy, pp. pag: 42. 2 Net Dane ce PP. 78-80. 8 Ibid., pp. 110-112. ® Atthasélini 5 Nettipakarana, p. 112. 1919.] Buddhaghosa’s Commentaries. 115 the Milinda-pafiho,’ the Pannattivada of teachers other than the Theravadins,’ certain Vitandavadins, Pakativada° (the Sankhya or the yoga system), and the views of Bhikkhus * of Cey- lon. To sum up: we have seen that there is evidence enough to’ confirm the truth of the tradition that neither Buddhaghosa, nor Thera Mahinda, nor the Theras of old, were the originators of the commentaries ; but we cannot agree with them when they all deny their claim to originality. The Niddesa which is an old commentary on certain suttas in the Sutta Nipata can- not compare favourably with Buddhaghosa’s Paramatthajotika. The Petakopadesa! of Mahakaccayana, of which a passage is quoted by Buddhaghosa, is not the Atthasalini. In justice to all, we can say that Buddha himself, his disciples and their disciples were those who prepared the way for great Buddha- ghosa, the commentator. CnaptTer II. Enquiries into Buddhaghosa’s Commentaries. 4. critical survey of Buddhaghosa’s works suggests to an inquiring mind many far-reaching questions of which very few Se tre rare 1 Kathavatthu Commentary by Buddhaghosa; Vasumitra’s work on the 18 schools, the Samanadha Paracancakra by Bhavya, etc. Vide uddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics,” pp. XXiii-xxiv. 3 & + Atthasalini, pp. 151, 399, 407, 420. 5 Sumangala-vilasini, pp. 11 6 Atthasalini, pp. 112, 114, 119, 120, 122, 142. 7 Puggala Pafifatti Commentary, P.T.S., pp. 173-175. 3 Atthasdlini (Ceylon Edition), pp. 3, 90, 92, 241. 9 Puggala Pafifiatti Commentary (Ceylon Edition), p. 172. ** Titthiyinam anupakatipurisadikassa va »” (Visuddhimagga, . 407). ** Kimpakativadinam pakativiya avijja pi akoranam mulakora- nam lokass&ti,”’ p- ‘ 10 Atthasalini, p. 165; Petake Vuttarh. 116 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [{N.S., XV, have indeed been hitherto examined or answered. Perhaps the most important of them is this :—How far has Buddhaghosa — himself in his commentaries headed by the Visuddhi- In other words. what reba sane of Buddhaghosa’s life can be culled from his works ? er questions that may arise are all subsidiary to this. We La ask, for example, (1) Supposing, as the Mahavamsa would have us believe, that uddhaghosa was born in a Brahmin family of Gaya, mastered the Vedic literature with all its auxiliary sciences and arts and learnt the views of Patanjali so well that he could cite by arguments in a philosophical discussion ? (3) Can we adduce any substantial proof in support of the tradition that he wrote his Atthasalini while in India? (4) at reminiscences of Ceylon are to be found in his commentaries? (5) What light is thrown by his works on the social, political, philosophies literary, and artistic history of India of his time (6) What is the relation of Buddhaghosa to Buddhadatta ha other teach- ers of South India in regard to the interpretation of Buddhist philosophy ? (7) Whatare his special contributions to Buddhist or to Indian philosophy ?. (8) In what way was Buddhaghosa a connecting link between Northern India, ‘the Deccan and Cey- lon? (9) Can we discover in Buddha aghosa any anticipation of Sankara ? (10) What is the place of Buddhaghosa as a writer and philosopher in the history of India, particularly in the history of Buddhism? (11) How is it that Buddhaghosa makes no reference to Mahayana Buddhism? (12) What is the imme- diate background of Buddhaghosa’s philosophy ?. (13) What is the ieee we of eee to the Buddhist kings and teachers of Ceylon? As e of these questions requires a separate oe we shall pare ourselves in the following pages with attempting to answer only one with the help of the records well within our reach. Cuaprer III. Buddhaghosa in his Commentaries. iat has left for us no other record of his life than Bi d his commentari he information that comes from other s is mips Mr. Gray was the first to collect in his these works are hardly anything but anecdotes which may summed up as follows. Buddhaghosa was born in a Brahmin family in the vicinity 1919.] Buddhaghosa’s Commentaries. 117 of the Bodhi terrace. He was brought up during his early years in Brahmanic tradition. He mastered the three Vedas together with all the supplementary works on sciences and arts. He was an adherent of the system of Patafijali previous to his adoption of the Buddhist faith. Following the usage of his time he wandered about the country as a sophist. He called at a monastery where he happened to meet a Thera Revata, who is said to have defeated him ina philosophical discussion. He studied the Pali Tripitaka under Revata. He wrote a philosophical treatise entitled the Nanodaya. He also wrote a commentary on a certain section of the Dhamma- sangani under the name of the Atthasalini. He was engaged in writing a Parittaatthakatha when Thera Revata urged him to go to Ceylon. The Sasanavamsa tells us that he accidentally met on the way Thera Buddhadatta who was then returning where he composed all his commentaries ; thereafter he returned to India, It is recorded in the Sasanavamsa that Buddhaghosa. was a native of Ghosagama near the Bodhi terrace. The Brah- min Kesi was his father and Kesiya his mother. The primary object of his voyage to Ceylon was to retranslate the Tripitaka into Pali. The Mahavamsa is silent on these details. Buddhaghosa is reticent about himself. He nowhere tells us who he was or where he was born. There are occasional references to Ceylon and to his teachers and friends, from ives an apology for undertaking to write a commentary on the Vinaye Piteke first in reversal of the usual order of Dham- aand Vinaya. He says that ‘Vinaya is the foundation of the Buddhist faith. The Samantapasadika was followed by his commentaries on the four Nikayas in succession, which preceded his commentaries on the seven books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. he Jataka commentary was evidently composed before the Paramattojyotika.” being a serial commentary on | Sdsanavamsa, page 29. : 2 Papciaaishaseke, Jl. Ed. Helmer Smith, Vol. 1, page 21. ‘‘ Esa jatakatthakathayam vutta idha na vittharita. 118 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, certain books of the sina nesge pene es His later commentaries refer to his earlier ones! and all presuppose his Visuddhimagga.” Hence a concordance of them may be an invaluable aid to the study of Buddhaghosa and his works. haghosa was an inhabitant of south Behar. This tion with ahmin family and with Brahmanic tradition is undeniable. The li of his commentaries amanty testifies to the fact. His comment upon the Pali passage ® relative to the waicomintian¥ | rete of the Vedas could not be expected from one who was not conversant with the whole of the vedic literature. His emphasis on Vinaya is another proof of the influence of his previous learning. His definitions of killing, theft etc. shows an enormous improvement on older exposition 8. Buddha as a psychologist Was quite reac with oe definition mari). hb ye) ° B a3 —s ~Q fe) ia S — & 5 2 mua bade ° a 2 th ° be] ~ © fe] ct —s o i=) ms _ = D ° & © — ie eo) 5 = 5 SS. the will is Liar manifested i in conduct,’ which goes to prove that his point of view was juristic or practical. The tradition telling us that he was an adherent of the system of Patafijali also seems to have historical accuracy. He is nai throughout his works in his attacks on Pakati- vada, the Sankhya or the Yoga system. He shows ex- and the Yoga systems. His conception of ot Nediaatipor i is verit- ably like the Sankhya conception of Purusa and Prakriti. ! Sumangala-vilasini, I, p. 70. ‘* Atthakehi ee ae Vinayatthakatha am gahet abbarn.”” Puggala- Pafifiatti AS : yarh Miguttarettbakabheveas nayo.” See p. 247; asalini — to the Samanta-Pasadika, pp. 97, 98, ani ~ i 1 to the > Vibbaiigs omm ie . 40 2 Atthasélini, pp- “gs 1 pot 187, 190, 198. Sumangala-vilasini, I, p- 2. Puggala-Paffiatt 3 Sumaigala-viliini, Fig ap 247-248. ‘*Mah4@purisa-lakkhanan ti mah&purisaénam B uddhadinam lakkhana-dipakam dvadasasahassagandha- PpamSnarh as * Ibid. bee 69-80, gsi han 85-182. Paramatthajotika, I. ewe 8 “* panopana- upakl kSyavact-dvarinach afifia arappavatta vadhaka-cetana panit ipato.” e.g damatgits-Vikuit Vaan ——— —— & honti: “ stead upakkama-te: sonnita Vadhaka-utt am ti.’ 6 Vis Sahitatacin: Ceylon edition, "207-8. 8. Atthasalini (P.T.S.), p 180. Prolegome a. op. cit., p. 43. PP. 1919.] Buddhaghosa’s Commentaries. 119 two conceptions are illustrated is the same.' It might be argued that Buddhaghosa based his conception on the author- ity of the earlier Buddhist thinkers, notably Nagasena and Asvaghosa.? But who can deny that the Buddhist thinkers, steadily tending towards the Sankhya conceptions of the Puru- sa and Prakriti. It would be going too far away from our pemasiats object to institute an enquiry into the relationship between the Buddhist philosophy and mode of self-realization on one hand and the Yoga system on the other. Accepting as a working hypothesis that the relationship is in many respects very close, we need not stretch our imagination to realize how uddhaghosa easily passed from the old to the new. The fact of Buddhaghosa being thus a connecting link between the two systems is enough to accord to him a very important place in the history of Indian Philosophy. Buddhaghosa enriched his Buddhist heritage with fresh materials from other systems ; consider, sai example, his use of the term s emniibae) which minds at once of et yee s Mahabhas There are many sthey » imilar passages.” The student of Banihaghoas can judge for himself the great scholar’s tender regard for his friends in Ceylon, his devotion to his teachers, his gratitude to his patrons, his meekness of spirit, his resourcefulness, his vast erudition and other traits which characterize a great t teacher of mankind. Although it is not definitely known at what age he died, it is conceivable that he lived long enough to see his labours amply rewarded, enjoy the world-wide fame that he so well es not live in vain. As long as Buddhism remains a living faith among mankind Buddhaghosa will not cease to be remembered with reverence and gratitude by Bud- dhist peoples and schools. We shall touch on just one more point before we conclude. Buddhaghosa is perhaps the greatest of celebrities of the Mahavihara at Anuradhapura, but it remains oe to determine his place in the ee of the relation of 1 Cf. The passage quoted in Vyasa’s saminaaaces on Yoga Sitra III, 44, tan 6) is termed e ‘day measure’ (antya (v) sn GCF = cpr = CD/RC =r sin § tan ¢/r cos 6 an ¢ tan 6, and GCF = Aa is termed oe “ascensional difference’ (chara).* (6) In figure 2, NES is the horizon, NZMS is the meridian (yamyottaravritta), QKE is the equator, ZH is the prime Mine cal (samamandala); X is the position of a star, and MXF i Fig. 2. its arate Mans The angle ZPX=h is the hour angle (nata), the are NSH = a is the azimuth, ZXP is the parallac- tic angle, NXS i is the so-called ‘circle of position, and NXP = € is the aksha valana, or ‘ deflection due to latitude.’ (c) In figure 3, QTY R represents the equator and CY L the ecliptic (apamandala). The point Y is the so-called ‘first * The hour angle ROF = 90° + A a, consequently cosh = —sin Aa = — tan > tan 3. ‘ : =! 1919.] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 157 point of Aries.’ The sun moves along the ecliptic in the direc- tion YdL. The circle PXP’ is a declination circle (krantivritia) through the star X, and KXXK’ is a circle of latitude (vikshepa). In some Hindu texts Ya instead of Yd is termed the longi- tude of X, and Xa instead of Xd is termed the latitude. These are sometimes called the ‘polar’ or ‘false’ longitude and Fig. 3. latitude. The obliquity » = LYR is only indicated as the maximum declination of the sun, or LR, and is generally assumed to be 24 degrees. Denoting the true longitude Td by \ and the false longitude Ya by 4’, and similarly the true (dz) and false (ax) latitudes by B and f’, and the angle Tab by 4, and noting that the angle of afb =, and Yba = 90° and also Tdc = 90°, we obtain from the spherical triangles Tab and xda (i) tan A =cot w/ cos’, (ii) sin A = sin B/sin f’, (iii) sin A —\’= tan 8/tan A. 158 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, (d) In figure 4, OA =g represents a vertical gnomon (ganku), NOS and BOW are the north and south and east and west lines through the base of the gnomon. If OF =e is the equinoctial noon-day shadow (vishuvadbha) for northern lati- tude ¢, then FG, parallel to OW, is the locus of the equinoctial shadow, and the line BO =s8 represents = shadow at a time when the sun’s declination is south. Draw BH parallel to NS and denote BG by A; then BH = yf +e. The line BH = s. sin 6 is termed: the bhuja, BC = s. cos 6 the koti, and BG or A =s. sin 6 —e is termed the agra.* The angle FAO = 9, and BAO =z. Rules and problems. 6. In this section we summarise the principal rules given in the siddhantas. A Fig. 4. &) The gnomon.—From figure 4 the following are ob- ined :-— = +(ssiné when B i th of H ee Soe 24%. WO). is north of ZW (the positive sign to be ~ 1919.] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 159 (i) Angle CAO =z, =o —8 WD ne ee (iii) tang = OF /OA =e/g (iv) sn z = BO/BA=s/H (v) cosz = AO/ BA =g/H. (b) The hour angle, azimuth and zenith distance.-—In the tiangie XPZ in figure 2 we have ZP = 90° — 9, XP = 90° — 8, les a aiid XZP = 360° — a. From formulae i-iii in nT 2 we obtain (i) cos z = sin ¢ sin 8 + cos ¢ cos 6 cosh (ii) sina sin z = — cos 6 sinh (iii) cosa sin z = cos ¢ sin 8 — sin 9 cos 6 cosh and from these we get (iv) cos h = cos z/cos ¢ cos 6 — tan > tan 8 = (g/H cos » — sin 4 sin ¢/ cos ¢)/ cos 6 (v) cos a = sin 3/sin z cos ¢ — tan 9/ tan z. At the moment of rising, since z = 90°, we have from (iv) (vi) cos h = — tan > tan 6 or, if h = 90° + Aa we get (vii) * sin Aa = tan ¢ tan 6 where Aa is called the ascensional difference (chara or ‘ vari- able).’ (c) Declination and longitude.—In figure 3, if a is the posi- tion of a star on the ecliptic then Ya is its longitude 4, ve declination 5 = ab, and its maximum declination o = LYR. Solving the right-angled triangle Tab we have sin 6 = cos a7Yb sin aY¥ = cos w sin A. (d) To find the zenith distance when the star is on the prime vertical.—If the star is on the prime vertical, that is at x in figure 2, then a = 270° and cos a = 0 and from (6) (i) and (iii) cos z = sin 8/sin ¢ = sin A sin w/sin 9. (ce) The konasanku.—Again in figure 2, if SH = 45° then a = 180° + 45 and cosa = — 1/2, and from the triangle XPZ or b (v) we get * Of these only (iv) and (vii) appear explicitly in the texts. 160 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, sin 6 = cos 2 sin ¢ + sin z cos cos @ = cos z sin — sinz cos ¢/*/2_ or cos* z(2 tan® ¢ + 1) — 4 tan ¢ cos z sin 8/ cos 9 + 2 sin? §/cos*¢—1=0. Substituting in this e/g for tan » and sin a, for sin 6/ cos ¢, and solving for cos z, we get gesina , g* (4—sin? a) (ge sina)? | cos r= Se J e+ g*/2 * (2 + g/ 2) (f) The agra. —Substituting sin Mo for sin 8/cos 9, s/ H for sin z, and g/ H for cos z in (6) (v), we get (i) scosa+e=H sina. For the point B in figure 4 we have 9 and z hd positive, 6 negative (which makes sin a, negative), a = 90° os a = — sin BOH. Consequently (i) becomes s sin BOH — e = H sin a,. ae sin BOH = (BG + GH)/ BO =(A + e)/s and ssin BOH —e= A. Consequently ork A = 4H sin a = H sin 8/cos¢, where A is the agra—which may be defined as the perpendicu- lar from a extremity of the shadow to the equinoctial line. (g) T he drikshepa. —The central ecliptic point, or point on the ecliptic that is 90 degrees from the horizon is termed the Fig. 5. nonagesimal point or tribhonalagna o r vitribha, and the sine of its _ zenith distance (z,) is termed drikshepa, and its cosine driggat. 1919.] Ancier.! Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 161 The rule for the drikshepa or sin z, is evolved thus: In figure 5 where Vv # is the ecliptic, v # the equator, HHS the horizon, ZMS the meridian and WN the nonagesimal, we have Hy N = 90 degrees, Hv HE =o, and rv HH = 90° — 9. From the triangle Y HE we obtain sin HE sin YHH = sin YH sin HY E£, or (i) sin a; = sin A; sin w/ Cos 9, where a; denotes the amplitude of the rising sign or lagna (H) and , denotes its longitude (YH). Also HEH = SA, since ELS = 90° and HA = 90° and therefore the angle ges = a). Now in the triangle ZMN we have MZN =a,, ZN =z, 2M =z, and the angle ZNM = 90°; and consequently + sini ZN sin ZMN sin ZM, or sinz, = sin ZMN sinz. If now ZMN be ‘bensiderad” a plain triangle we have sin ZMN = cos MZN = cos a; and finally (ii) sin 2, = sin z cos q = a/ sin*z — sin*z sin*a, as given in the texts. h) The valana.—In figure 6, NES is the horizon, CX the ecliptic, NXS is the circle of position of X, P is the pole of the equator and K is the pole of the ecliptic ; PX = 90° — 8 is the hour circle of X and XPZ =h is its hour angle, Z being the zenith ; PN = ¢ and PK =o. Fig. 6. According to the Paulisa siddhanta the valana or angle of position of the point X on the ecliptic is the angle NV. XP = é,* * Apparently with reference to the use of the ‘ polar latitude’ (see § 5c). 162 _ Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, but later siddhantas more correctly imply that it is the angle NXK = é — x, that is, the angle between the circle of Wales and the circle of latitude, or, what is the same thing, the angle CXE’ between a circle (X. BE’) parallel to the prime Sarin! and the a In the triangle oo since KXP = x, PK = wo, KX =90° and XP = 90° — 6, we hav (i) sin x = sin PX sin XKP/sin XP = sin w sin (90° + A) / cos 6 and in the triangle NXP (ii) sin € = sin PNX sin ¢/ cos 6, a hoa the text substitutes sin A sin ¢/cosé. The angle = € is termed. aksha valana, or ‘ deflection due to latitude,’ and oe angle x is termed dyana valana, or ‘ deflection due to obliquity.’ (t) The drikarma and planetary conjunctions. By some of the later Hindu astronomers the subject of planetary conjunc- tions is considered. Two planets are said to be in conjunction when they are on the same circle of position (that is on the same P Fig. 1 tigre td to the ae vertical), and on such a circle the stars and set simultaneously. Unless, however, the circle of oon coincide with a pig a of latitude, the two stars cannot 1919.] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 163 have the same true longitude, and it becomes necessary to find the longitude of the point of intersection of the circle of posi- tion with the ecliptic, when the true longitude of the star is known. In figure 7, 2’a is a portion of the ecliptic, and aX and a’X are respectively the circle of latitude and the circle of position through the heavenly body at X. The problem is to find the longitude of x’ when that of a is known. Let xab be the day circle of the point a and x the point of intersection between this day circle and the circle of position, then the first step in the solution of the problem is to assume that az is sufficiently nearly equal to x’a for the purpose in hand. Draw the declination circles Px, Pa, Pb through the points a, a, and X, the last cutting the day circle in 6, and denote We solstices aX and aP coincide and ab disappears. The process of determining ab is therefore called ayanadrikarma ; while at the equator aX and Pb would coincide and then xb would dis- appear and the process of determining xb is termed akshadri- karma. (i) Ayanadrikarma.—The angle PaX between the circle of declination Pa and the circle of latitude aX is the ayanavalana (see § (h)) and we have sin y, = sin aX sin PaX /sin PX = sin B sin x/ cos 8. (ii) Ayanadrikarma.—The angle PxX is nearly equal to the akshavalana, ¢, and sin aX = sin bX /sin Xxb and bX = 8’, the polar latitude, so we have sin y, = sin xX sin PxX / sin ra = sin f’ sin £/cos § sin X2b_ nearly and at the horizon the angle Xzb is equal to the colatitude of the place. The ascensional difference. At the equator, where the horizon is at right angles to the equator, the apparent daily paths of the stars are circles at right angles to the horizon, and we have right ascensions ; while at the poles the apparent daily paths are parallel to the horizon; but at any other latitude (?) they are inclined to the rizon and we have oblique ascensions. The Greek astrono- on to the relation between right mers paid considerable attention t and oblique ascensions and determined therefrom correct rules for the calculation of the length of the day, rules and tables connected with the rising sign or ascendant or horoscope, 164 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, culminating signs, and problems i in which the sun’s declination and terrestrial latitude were involved A Fig. 9. with CA and TA = YB is the siveding of YC in right as- cension, or the right co-ascendant; for the latitude ¢ the equivalent in oblique sbediicn (or oblique co-ascendant) is YA, and is the ascensional di In the panies TABC we hive TC = or 360° — A, CB = 6, ara angle AY C= », and the angle ACB = ¢; and conse- quent: 1919.] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 165 (i) sin TB =sino, =sin dA cos w/ cos 6 (ii) sin AB = sinay = tan > tan 6 (iii) TAi=.0,5 =a,+ Aa where a, denotes SE of a) oblique ascension, and Aa ascensional differe calculate the time of rising of any particular sign we have (iv) tn = Ay(n) ~~ (Aan Sh A an-1) where ¢, is expressed in degrees, and n refers to the n“ sign according to the order given in tables 6 an The Paulisa Siddhanta gives the ascensional differences in the form 20e, 164e, 6e where e is the equi inoctial noonday ha dhanta gives She ascensions, but none of the early Hindu texts appears to give correct tables for oblique area or ascensional differences. The fairly accurate tables give tables 6 and 7 are taken from Abi ‘Ali al-Marrakoshi (13th century). 8. e lagna.—The point of the ecliptic on the horizon (horoscope, Nobenioa) at any time is termed the lagna. Its ogee armies may be explained by an example. Suppose that 7 hours 17 minutes has elapsed since sunrise at a fegoo whose latitude is 36°N., and that the longitude of t degrees. The tbls of oblique ascensions ‘enti 7), aieded into time units, gives for latitude 36° dice JY 19%, oP Bl ST ST", bee B21, = 2° 28". Since the sun has at 12 degrees into the second sign we have first to find how much of f, has not been used up. This is (1" 31”) x (30° — 12°)/30° = 55 minutes approximately. Now 7°17" = 66" + 1°57" + 2° 21™ + (2° 4"), Led last term pene less than fs ane time then corresponds to ome point in f, (Leo); and sin x /30 = (2° 4 vn 28”) gives x = 25° 8’ the npr of the lagna is approximately a —— 25 degrees 8 minu eon (c. A.D. 380) calculated the lagna 0 or ¢ ‘ horoscope” n the same way, tor: with reference to temporary Apparently the Hindus did 166 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S 4, ength of day.—The difference between the length of ‘he as and night is equivalent to twice the angle GCF in figure 1, when FGR represents the path of the sun. Now sin GCF or sin Aa has been shown (§ 5(@) v) to be equal to tan » tan 6. The length of the day in hours is therefore (180° + 2 Aa)/15 and in ghatis it is ‘130° + 2 Aa) /6 where sin ae = tan ¢ tan 6, and for the longest day ule is given by Paulisa (PS. ii, 11) and Beckinigupis and Aryabhata (G19) notes the connexion with the ‘six hour 1 circle.’ Aa = tan ® tan w No tables of the lengths of days are given in the early kos Hindu texts: the following is taken from Abt ‘Ali al- Marra- hi. Longest days for different latitudes. Latitude. | 3” shes g° ie | i 12 12 13 hal 12/12 .. | 10/21/31 te 12/44 | ripe 18°|21° | | 40 4 2 hg 13 idl isl 13 14 14 4 15|15 15] 16 42 53 a ak 29 24° 27° 52 56 58 52. 8 54 4 The planets. 27a 9" 36" 30°30 45° 48°|51° 54° 1256 11 28,45 5 | 27 hl ic 18 19 | 61} 21 33 | 52 28! 4 4\ 0 10. All the planets, including the sun and moon, are sup- posed to have the same absolute daily aeeeee of about 12,000 yojanas. The orbit of the moon bei wn, the orbits of the other planets are found by (orbit of moat: x ik / ere Ff, d revolutions in a cycle of the moon and the planet respectively. obtained fr Whether the elements the moon were rom parallax observations or not i there is no direct evidente of such pou Teta uncertain, but The follow- ing table is based on the elements of the later Sarya Sid- dhanta :— t any time employ ‘ temporary ’ muhiirtas or ghatis, but see Albiriini (India i, eget who discusses this is intresting topic. mode: rm op Seta cos h = length of of the day oJ seated Vedanga rule is :— length of day = 12 + 2 (183 — n)/61 muhirtas where 7 is the number of days ae from a solstice. The longest day ours 24 minutes, pat sail day is is therefore 18 muhirtas rr muhirtas = 9" 36™ and the fara increase is 2/61 m np tan 5 where 2/15 is the oe tod 7 ae The Paitémaha Siddhanta gives 1 se (= 10" 36” Pits te the short- est day and 3 palas for the daily 22 28 32 | 1919.] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 167 A B | +B es SIDEREAL PE- | ge gga | ; Yojanas. Days. | Yojanas. Moon * i eet 324,000 27°321674 | 11,858°7 MERCURY .. se 1,043,209 87°969702 11,858°7 VENUS an a 2,664,637 224°608568 11,858°7 Sun is oe 4,331,500 365+258756 11,858-7 Mars <é ws 8,146,909 686997494 11 ,858-7 JUPITER ks me 51,375,764 4,332°320652 11,858°7 SATURN vas .. | 127,668,255 10,765°773075 11,858°7 The ¢ diameters of the planets other than the sun and moon generally given in terms of that of the moon. There is little agreement as to the values, some of which are shown in table 4 11. Mean motions.—The mean motions of the planets are shown in the form of the number of revolutions in a yuga cycle. For example,j Aryabhata gives the sidereal revolu- net in 4,320,000 years as Sun ‘ 3320, MeErcury 17,937,920 Moon .. 57,753,339 JUPITER 364,224 M aut ,296,824 © VENUS . 7;022,388 SATURN .. . .- 146,564 Since at the beginning of the Kaliyuga (i.e. sunrise at Ujjain, 18th February, 3102 B.c.), or at the beginning of the Kalpa, all the planets were supposed to be in conjunction, ¢ the findin of the mean place at any particular time is not a difficult matter. If ¢ be the time elapsed from the epoch, then having reduced ¢ to savana days, d. (i.e. Thee calculated the ahar- gana) the position is obtained by dR / There is no indication as to the means by which the revo- * The early Hindu astronomers were course, well aware of the natural order oF the planets, but usually va place them in the ‘ week- day order. + For other values see table 2. t z4 is the period (P) of the planet, but the Hindus did not generally utilise “ile ratio as a single element—See, however, the Parchasid- dhantika, Ch. XVI. 168 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, lutions (#) given were obtained. They first appear in the texts in a fairly accurate form and their appearance coincides with the introduction of the larger cycles—which, indeed, were introduced in order to express the planetary revolutions in integral quantities. 12. Synodic revolutions.—The synodic A adateare are not usually given in the texts, but they occur in a somewhat disguised form in the Pafichasiddhantika (Ch. xviii). if re is the synodic period of a planet and P, is its sidereal period and E is the sidereal year we have where the upper sign is to be taken for a superior and the lower for an inferior planet; and since P, = YE/R we have P,= YE/+(Y-—R) which is the ae ‘implied by Varaha Mihira. His synodic revolutions are given in saura days as ows :— Mars. Mercury. Jupiter. Venus. Saturn. 768% 114.8, 393} 5752 3722 saura days. and since 360 saura days = 365°256 mean solar days approxi- mately these values becom Mars. Merc Jupiter. Venus. Saturn. 780 1159 3988 583°9 378 days. 13. Epicycles.—The calculated mean positions of the planets were corrected for the so-called ‘ first inequality ’ (that one, namely, which depends on the planet’s position relative to the sun), in the Greek fashion, by assuming certain epicyclic motions. The Greek astronomers taught that, while the planet’s mean motion could be represented as a movement on the circumference of one circle, called the deferent, its actual motion was on the circumference of another circle, called the epicycle, whose centre was the mean position on the circum- ee & the deferent. This is the scheme in broad outline only: it was apparently based on the principle that the motions of a Fania nly body must be made up of pure circular motions —a principle that does not appear to have influenced the Hindus In figure 10 the epicyclic motion of an outer planet of the type of Mars is roughly represented. The point E repre- sents the position of the earth, the circle A, A, Ag, etc., is the position of the planet is at A,. The e epicycle is not drawn for other mean positions, but its radius is marked (A, B,, A; Bz, etc.). The points A,, A), A,, etc. mek the mean position on 1919.] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 169 the deferent at intervals of 30 degrees, the corresponding posi- tions on the epicycle being B,, B,, B,, ete. The period of the planet, and th ference of the epicycle is the sidereal year (2). At HA, B, the earth, sun and planet are in line: the point B moves from 5, to B, while the point A moves from Ap to A, and we have angle BA; >; _ 1/# _ 1. in the figure. angle A,H A, 1/P, From B, to B, the planet retrogrades and the angle of retro- gression HZ is in the figure approximately 25 degrees. The stationary points are determined by Br | EB = (velocity in deferent) / (velocity in epicycle) = u/v.* * See § 20(a). 170 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal [N.S., XV, If S, 8, So, ete., peice the orbit of the sun, then B, S), B,S,, B, S55 etc., represent the distance of the planet from "the sun , and, 8 since ES is, apa the superior planets,* always aie lel to AB (because the period of B is the same as that o namely the sidereal year), BS is always equal to HA. anet is nearest the earth when in opposition and burihieat pine when in conjunction. e superior and inferior planets require different treatment with reference to the relative motions in the defer- If the anomaly (that is the ges in the epicycle) be reckoned in the more modern way from the radius A,6, always parallel to the original ditestion Ay Bos then the following scheme holds + :— PERIopDS OF REVOLUTION. On the deferent. | On the epicycle. Superior planets | Sidereal period of | Sidereal year. MODERN Way i planet. Inferior Sidereal year. 9° weet ce Hagens of plan But the Greeks and the Hindus generally er the anomaly from the directions HA), HA), etc., that is from the apogee of the epicycle, and consequently the sate were— Superior planets ANCIENT WAY Inferior ” Hindu s 15. The disturbing curses of the On the deferent. On the epicycle. Sidereal period of Pp * Sidereal year. secs period of synodie period of plane the Sirya Siddhanta (ii, 1-4), as follows :-— cheme.—The general explanation of the planetary motions is, in the wo: f Mercury 6 same as + In 4 wit may be termed the ‘modern while the « and Venus the centre of the epicycle is on the line psy to the ae re of the sun, since in these c: of ases the period of anomaly’ is v + u, lanet maly ’ is v; and, since for a superior p eernters +1/P. or (Pc + P,)/Pe= P/E; Sociale et ae +/H, wehave v/u=P,/ Pz. Similarly for an 1919.| Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 171 “Forms of time. of invisible shape, stationed in the zodiac, called sigrochcha. mandochcha, and pata, are causes of the motions of the planets. The planets attached to these beings by cords of air are drawn away by them with the orbit in front of the planet, draws the planet forward : like manner, when in the half orbit being the sp it draws it backward.” e term mandochcha, or ‘ apex of slowest motion,’ cor- rapa to the term aphelion, while the term Sighrochcha, or ‘apex of swiftest motion,’ corresponds to the term conjunction. * ea but on what principle the actual values given were obtained is not indicated. For the te a of apogee or aphelion the following longitudes are given Sun. Mars. — Jupiter. Venus. Saturn a cama 8 pees ee 110° 220° I hmasphutasiddhanta a 127° 227° 170° 90° 252° a Siddhan 7... 136" 220° eg 80° 237° and the following are the Bae given to the lines of seme a in 4,320,000,000 years :— Sun. Moon. Mars. ami Jupiter. Venus. Saturn Brahmagupta 480 488,105,858 292 382 855 653 Sarya Siddhanta 387 438,203,000 204 368 900 535s 39 For Saturn the motion of tity ae amounts to about one minute of arc in five thousand y The Pafichasiddhantika nh teal “The Sun is the so-called ighra,”’ and in the Hindu system, as in the Greek, the revolu- tion of the conjunction of an inferior planet takes the place of the actual revolution of the planet itself. 6. The two epicycles.—The Hindu scheme differs con- siderably in detail from that of Ptolemy. The object appears to have been the attainment of the correct apparent position of the planet without reference to the representation of its is wis therefrom the date of “A A Bye astrono volution ek cs oleae complete only when the planet had passed ‘eoegh pe whole zodiac: this Venus and Mercury are only able % accomplish as they accompany aca sun in its apparent annual motion. 172 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, any tim The ‘Hindu system involves the use of two different and independent epicycles for each planet (except the sun and moon) and four sets of calculations, and the epicycles, at least in the later works, vary i n dimensions with reference to their positions on the deferent. In the Stirya Siddhanta these epi- cycles are termed manda paridhi, or ‘epicycle of the apsis, and sighra paridhi, or ‘epicycle of yee asal and their dimensions as given in that work are as follows * DIMENSIONS Or EPIcycies. Circumference of manda | Circumference of sighra paridhi = Ey. idhi = Ee. Anomaly | Anomaly Anomaly | Anomaly 0° or 180”. | 90° or 270’. | 0° or 180”. 90° or 270”. eel asst eee | eS Federal 41 ae a 14° 0’ | 13° 40’ Moon .. ..{ 32° 0° | 31° 40 Mars a | ke 235° 0’ 232° 0’ MERCURY Boe Ae 28° 0" 133° 0’ 132° 0’ JUPITER 33° 0’ 32° 0’ a ow =. VENUS igo” 1 262° 0’ | 260° 0” SaTURN 49° 0’ 48° 0’ ai | 40° 0’ The change in ae dimension of the epicycle is proportional to the sine of the anomaly. If aZ is the difference as given in the table and 9 the anomaly then the dimension at 6 i 8 given y £— aE. sin 4, or, if the Hindu sine function is used, by E- aE.sin6/r. This result is based upon the proportion Ms sin 6 AE - sin 90° where zx is the diminution at 6. If pee e. 360° =F — AE sin 6, or E — ~~ sin 0 we may term ‘e’ the reduced epicyele. * Brahmagupta gives: Sun 14° to 13° 40’; Moon 36° 31’ to 30° 44’. 1919.] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 173 But E and ¢360° are only apparent dimensions, and t change is probably due to a supposed change in the iene from the centre of the deferent to the centre of the epicycle, and is connected with the “second inequality ’—due to the excentricity of the orbits he values of EF are re the circumference of the epicycle in terms of the circumference of the deferent. For example the value 72 for Mars means that the circumference of epicycle _ (ee the circumference of deferent 360 ape or r./T2 = 1/5 where r, is the radius of the epicycle and 7, is the radius of the deferent. We shall denote r,/rq by é, or e, according as the epicycle of the apsis or the eae. of con- junction is employed. 17. The equation of the centre. —The processes in- volved in determining the equation of the centre are generally four. If A denotes the mean position of the planet then the first correction gives A, = + ¢,/2 where ¢, is the equation second correction gives A, = 4; + €,/2 where « is the 23 ee derived by employing the epicyele of the apsis; 4, =A + «, res again the epicycle of the apsis is employed ; and finally 4 =A, + «, where the epicycle of conjunction is again em- Haped. The calculations may be summarised thus :— : é,. . sin », (i) 4, =A + <,/2 where sin ¢, = : wu a/ €-2 + 2, . COS V% + 1 (ii) A, =A, +q/2. » Se = @, - Sin v," (iii) AA =A + © >» Ange €. Sno, ivi kd €,. . SIN UV; iv) A= Ag + & , 1,2 / e,* + 2e,. cos v3 + 1 where Vy =A AS V3.= Ae — Ags 1 = Aa — A; * The oval’ has been applied to the epicycle in this connexion but is ihe os her a Theo ve teal, at at the oF — of the change in dimension oe hone epicycle i. panel In the the moon the effect of the inequality was always to aaa ies absolute value vo the first oe, particularly in the quadratures. “ The obvious inference was,” writes J. L. E. Dre ic cle a of lengtl , gre q in 7 i Ee P Ptolemy the centre of the soto move on @ poled el ric so that its distance from the earth varied and co ntly so did the apparent dimensions of the epicycle. The excentric appears comparatively late in India. See the Siddhanta Stromant, G. v, Tf. 174 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, and v,’= A, — A,; and consequently Uz = Vy — €; and v,'= v,’ — «, /2. The calculations according to the Panchasiddhantika (ch. xvii) may be expressed in the following form. The later texts give rather more complicated but not essentially different rules, of which a specimen will be exhibited in due course. i. il. | iii. iv. | a) =e, sin v a =e, sin v)’ | ag=e, sin vy’ | ay=e, sin vg | b) = e, cos v Rati | by =e, cos v3 | c) = a)? + (rz + 2 es ataa eas | eg ag? + (rq + 04)? { | . i ? | ; e) =sin-! a) r/c) @=sin-la, | eg=sin-!ag | «=sin~] ayrg/cy | AHA +e /2 RAE wil 2| Aemed ® 9 | Ag Ag + ey | Wi Ag HA, [MAB =P 1P. ot twit, o 3 The problem is to calculate « = B, EA,. The line B, M =a is perpendicular to HA, while A, M = 6. ‘Now EM? + a? = EB,’ a ; or (ra + 6)* + a® = EB,* and —~ = sin €; EB, but 6=r,.cosv and a=r,. sin v, therefore Te. Sin Vv PIS SONI AS Eee carcino Kee a/ 2 2 8 (ra +7. . cos v)* + 7,2 . sin? y é€.sinv ee — n/1 +2 + 2e. cosv A simpler formula is (i) sine = js where e = —. Ta E Ta + Te COS V e. sin v sin v =__ lt _—_—_—__—___ l+e.cosv§ lje+cosv’ 1919. ] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 175 but i Hindus, like the Greeks, did not employ the tangent func The maximum value of « occurs when EB is a tangent to the pe that is when AB is at ey angles to HB; and then sin « = r,/rg = e, and v = 90° 19. "The following calculation for the equation of the centre 7 Venus is based upon the later Surya Siddhanta elemen The equation of the centre for Venus. Given mean longitude B18? 13", Longitude of conjunction.. 10* 21° 50’: anomaly v = 2° 3° 37’. Longitude of apsis 2 19° 52’: anomaly v’ = 5* 18° 35’. Epicycle of conjunction Epicycle of apsis . E- varies from 260° to 262° Redu ced . Ea varies fro ee a = se Differe: Difference A HE, = 2°. sai nptiagt Ak= = a”; AE. anv deseo f. Reduced pair vig (Ba For ae of | For ouneliots of | For ae of | For a of conjunction. apsis. apsis. conjunction. Longitude Aon 8° 18°13" | ay oe 9 1°17" | ag =O 1°28" | Age 8? 18° 30’ Anomaly vy = 2° 3°37 | vy)’ = 5° 18°35’ | 1’ = 5°18° 24’ | vg 2" 3°14’ sin v sin v = 3080’ | sin vy;’= 689’ | sin v2 = 691’ sin v3 = 3069’ cos v cos v = 1527’ | cos vy’ = 3369’ | cos v2’ = 3368’ | cos vg = 1548’ Corrected epicycle ¢ | = °723 €g = 0328 €a = 0328 €e = “723 a@=esinv = 2226’ @y = 22°3’ ag = 22°6’ ay = 2218’ b=ecosv = by, = 1104’ bz = 110’ bs = 11074’ bg = 1119’ c= /at+(r + bp ec) = 5058’ Cg = 3548’ cg = 3458" Cy = 5067’ sin-] ar/e=e« ; ag €2 = 0° 22’ €; = 0° 23’ €, = 25° 59’ Corrected longitude | a +5 = = 9°1° Th « + 9 1°28’, + 3 = 8* 18° 36’ As + eg = 9° 14° 35’ , is the same as that of the Pafichasiddhantika except ced. The be see that vested a aeyeles have eon introdu * Since v = 90 + « we have e tan ‘ae l—esine of which a solution is sin «= e. + See J.A.0.8., 1858, 213/. or sin e =e (1 —sin*e) / (1 — e sin e) 176 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, 20. The only process required in the cases of the sun and moon is the ‘correction for the apsis,’ which may be repre- sented by tan « = (e sin v) /(1 + ecosv). The early texts give tabular results by means of which the calculations may, to some extent, be avoided. These, however, are not very com- plete and are not altogether in agreement.* 20 (a) CO —In figure 10 (a) if BB or B'S’ (=r.Avorr. Av’) is the are on the epicycle passed over in time At, r being iis radius of the epicycle, and v = CAB or CAB’ being the anomaly, then if Bf is small, the angle BBn = ABB’ and Bn = BB cos ABB’. But By/ EB =aa’/R where # is the radius of the deferent, therefore BB ‘= R. EB = — : aa By / R ap 008 ABB "R.r.av. Bu Br Br Pet ee ot ee R.av or = B.av. t Fig. 10 @) that a’a shoes equal and opposite to the motion in the deferent, that to Jacobi ‘and Sewell (Epigraphia Indica, i? 441 8 xiv, 10) sin «=e sin v where ¢ is the ‘ reduced epicycle’ (§ 16) is senaietey emp! 1919. ] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 177 Br Br au R. bu ap 4” 0, then ES tine and B is a ‘station’ of the planet and 2AZB is the angle of retrogression Instead of Bz the Surya Siddhanta gives ‘the difference between the hypotenuse and the radius,’ that is R — EB or EB’ - R. e text then gives the angles ABE for the stationary points B as follows :— Mars. Mercury. Jupiter. Venus. Saturn. 36 50 7 6 16 from which the angles of retrogression AHB may easily be calculated if r/R be known. The Hindu texts do not give this value definitely, but it is approximately e, calculated for the epicycle of ‘conjunction.’ 21. Latitude.—The node, Rahu. is said to cause the deviation of the planets in latitude (SS. ii, 6). The later rule for latitude given is _ B sin AA B ae r / yr’ where £’ is the maximum deviation as seen from the earth at its mean distance, 7 is the true distance of the planet from the earth, and 7’ is its mean distance, and 4A is the distance of the planet from its node. The deviations are given as follows :-— Mer- | Moon. | Mars. cury. Pafichasiddhaéntikaé f OT arr 1s bE a eles 2 oe ee Siirya Siddhanta.. | 4° 30’ | 1° 30’| 2° 0/| 1° 0’| 2° 07; 2 O Jupiter.| Venus. | Saturn. Parallax. the meridian. This latter statement is not true, as Whitney points out,* unless the ecliptic is also bisected by the meridian. (See § 6(9) ). * J.A.0.S.—1858, p. 286. 178 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, The horizontal parallax of the sun or moon is assumed to be equal to the motion of the planet during four nadikas, or one-fifteenth part of a day. We thus have 7 = (daily motion of sun)/15 = 6,/15 for the horizontal parallax of the sun, n’ = (daily motion of moon) /15 = 6,, /15 for the horizontal parallax of the moon, where @ is the angular motion of the planet during the day.* Since 6 = s/r nearly, where r is the radius of the orbit and s is the are traversed in one day, and since, in the Indian system earth’s radius; and = becomes equal to s/15r = p/rt which is approximately true when r is great compared with p. Sometimes the difference between the parallax of the sun and moon is given. Thus the parallax in latitude is given in forms that may be expressed by , ™3, —7™, = (9, — 6,) (sin z,)/15 = 49’ (sin z,)/7r = (sin z,)/70 where sin z, is the drikshepa (see $ 6(g9)). The rule for parallax in longitude may be expressed by ™, = 7 COS Z, Sin (Ay — A) where X is the longitude of the star and Ay is the longitude of the nonagesimal.§ The Hindu rules for parallax may then be summarised thus : (i) Horizontal parallax += 6/15 (ii) Parallax in latitude ™, =7 sin z, (ili) Parallax in longitude +, = = cos z, sin Ay — A while the corresponding approximately correct formulae are (i) sn + = p/r (ii) *, = = sin B, sin (y — 8)/sin y (iii) =, = = cos B, sin (4, — 4) /cos B * The mean values of the daily motion usually given are: moon 13° 10’ 34”; sun 59’ 8”, which make 7’ = 52:7 and 7 = 3°9; but the texts give no actual parallax values explicitly. The Sirya Siddhanta implies m’ = 53°3’ and 7’— x = 49’. + The Stirya Siddhanta value is 11,858°7 yoja Z Sin 7 = p Ft. § In the texts the meridian ecliptic point is sometimes substituted for the n i point. 1919.] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 179 where \ and £ are the stars, geocentric longitude and latitude, and A, and 8, are the longitude and latitude of the zenith, and tan y = tan B,/cos (Az — A). We then have (i) 6/15 = p/r nearly ; (ii) 7 sin z, = 7 sin B, sin (y — B)/sin y; and (iii) 7 cos z, sin (Ay — A’) = 7 cos £, sin (4. — A)/ cos B; and as £ is generally considered negligible in these Hindu calculations we have z, = B, and sin (Ay — A’) = sin (A, — A) where 2’ is the apparent longitude ; and as a matter of fact the zenith distance (z.) of the nonagesimal is equal to the latitude of the zenith (8,), and the longitudes of the zenith (.) and the nonagesimal (Ay) are the same. Lunar eclipses. 23. Diameter of the shadow.—In figure 11 we have (i) the angle TEM = PTE — POE = PTE — Q’ES = PTE — (QES — QEQ’) where S, E, and M are the centres of the sun, earth and moon respectively, HP and SQ are perperdiculars to OPQ, TM is Fig. UI. 180 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, the centres of the moon and sun from the centre of the earth, then, since the angles are all small, we obtain from (i) (ii) R, = R, — R. (R,/ Re — 1) ry / 15. The Paulisa Siddhanta simply assumes that R, = 38’: the old Surya Siddhanta gives the rule in the form Te: | BO 4h, = 36° — 36’ =/ ° t / 276 which * is obtained from (ii) by making R, = 18’ and R, = 73-2’; while the modern Surya Siddhanta gives it thus— R, = Re My + Rem, (Ry / R,) — Ry m, (Ry / By) where m,, and m, are the ratios of the true daily motions to the mean daily motions of the moon and sun respectively. This rule implies two assumptions, neither of which is strictly accurate: (a) that the ratio of the true daily motion to the mean daily motion is equal to the ratio of the mean distance to the true distance; (6) that R,,/R, =7,,/r,, which implies that the mean apparent values of the diameters of the sun and moon are equal. . 24. Duration.—In figure 12 let M be the centre of the moon when about to enter the shadow, C the centre of the shadow whose radius is R,; let AN be the ecliptic and MN the moon’s path. If » is the velocity with which the moon travels from M to M’ then the duration of the eclipse is 2 . 60” a Go i: 0, where 8 is the moon’s latitude at the time of opposition, and since there are 60 nadikas in y. For the time between the first and last moments of inter- nal contact we have iv) (=i VR Rae (iii) t=2MM’jv= J/ (Rk. + Ry) — Here the values are in lengths and the corresponding value of the moon’s orbit would be 800 = 18> 7290 (see table 4). To reduce to minutes of arc we must therefore multiply by 360 x 60 +7290. + The time rules (iii) and (iv) may be obtained direct from the odern rule a = 4/(8 — bt)? + (m — sf 2B, where 6 is the rate of the moon’s motion in latitude, and m and s are the 1919.] Ancient Hindu Spherical Astronomy. 18] The Pauliéa Siddhanta gives rule (iv) in the form t= 2.5 fe — /4(5 — An)(10 — (5 — ad)). Since B y 240’ = sin 4 A/sin 90°, where 240’ is the moon’s greatest es and 4A is the differ- ence in longitude between the moon and its node; and since sin AA/sin 10° = 4a / 10, nearly, where 10° is the limit from the node for a total eclipse ; ave B = 240’ x 21 x an/10 x 120 =214n/5, where 21’ is the sine of 10 degrees and 120’ is the sine of 90 degrees Soe to the Paulisa Siddhanta tables (see table 8). ow have =: s (2taay 221 se me ee ‘ss 21 ([S)=-2 v6 aN(0—(5 — 4d). These rules appear to ignore the variation in latitude that takes place, but the Sirya Siddhanta directs us to find the value of the moon’s latitude at first contact from the value of t, to substitute this value and repeat the process till ¢ is con- stant: that is, as we know the longitude of the moon at the time of first contact, we calculate the latitude and substitute the value so obtained and repeat the process until the results no longer Solar eclipses.—Apart from the preliminary calcula- tions involving parallax very little is given about solar eclipses. The Paulisa Siddhainta gives the time of duration as t= 3 v/ 64—-— ar eae appears to be obtained from the usual rule = SAE, + R,)? — Bar; for Ba=5 An approximately, and t + R,, = 36’, and v = 720/60 is the oe between the mean motions of the moon and sun in a ika 26. The projection of ec _ - “Since, without a pro- — (chedyaka), the precise difference between two eclipses not understood, I shall proceed to explain the exalted pd a of the projection,”’ writes the alee of the Sitrya Siddhanta rates - the sun’s motion in longitude, by making a = Re + Ry» and solv- for ~~ vebualne (iii) and Be). neglect bt but the Surya Siddhanta rule is an attempt to account for * For the Greek scouinncsit of this topic see the Almagest, VI, xi-xiii. 182 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, In figure 6 let X be the position of the moon at the moment of opposition, then N XS is the circle of position and ce) moon, while the circle XZ’ at right angles to NXS marks the east and west direction. The angle NXP =CXE’ is the valana, which gives the directions of the ecliptic with reference (XE’). e at opposition, to 6 at last contact, and the problem is to find the locus of bed. Now make the angles EMa, eMN, and WMc equal to he valana at first contact, opposition, and last contact res- pectively, and make ab, Me and cd equal to the latitude of the centre of the moon at those times, due care being taken with reference to the directions. The points b, e, d are thus fixed and the circle drawn through these points is assumed to be the path of the centre of the shadow. — The Sérya Siddhanta concludes the section dealing with this subject with the caution that “This mystery of the gods is not to be imparted indiscriminately.” TABLES. 1. Cycles, years, months and days. Jyotisha | Romaka Old Sirya | Aryabhata and Strya Ved&iga. | Siddh&nta. | Siddhanta. Pulida. Brahmagupta. Siddhanta. Years in cycle 2 5 2850 180,000 4,320,000 4,320 ,000,000 4,320,000 Intercalary months: Mi 2 1050 66,389 1,593,336 1,593,300 ,000 1,593,336 Omitted tithis , Do 30 16,547 1,045,095 25 082, 280 25 ,082,550,000 25,082,252 Solar months ., Mo 60 34,200 2,160,000 840,000 51,840,000 ,000 51,840,000 Synodic re ye M: 62 35 ,250 2,226,389 | 53,433 336 53 433,300,000 53,433 ,336 Sidereal _,, M, 67 a 2,406,389 57,753,336 57,753,300 ,000 57,753 ,336 Solar days Do 1800 1,026,000 800, | 1 555,200,000 1,555,200,000,000 | 1,555,200,000 Natural ,, D 1830 1,040,953 65,746,675 | 1,577,917, 500 1,577,916,450,000 } 577,917,828 i Di 1860 1,057,500 66,791,670 | ; 1,602,999,000,000 | 1,603,000,080 Sidereal days o D, 1835 1,043,843 65,926,575 | 1,582, 237, ‘500 1,582,236 ,450 ,000 | 1,582,237 ,828 | } Note.—Mo = 12 Y Do = 30 Mo aan | M: = Mo + Mi Di; = 30M: Dp = Di: — D : My, =Mi: + ¥ D =D;=— Do D, =D + [6161 ‘fimouousp yoosaydy npuryy yuawup €sI 2. Sidereal revolutions of planets. Aryabhata. Puliéa Brahmagupta. Sirya Siddhanta. Sun ‘ «e 3320, 4,320, 4,320,000,000 4,320,000 Moon * : ee 57,753,339 57,753,336 57,753,300 ,000 57,753,336 ARS .. ‘ 2,296,824 2,296,824 2,296 828,522 2,296,832 Mercury : 17,937,920 17,937,000 17,936,998 ,522 17,937,060 JUPITER ts 64,2 64,2 226,455 : VENUS... +s 1,603 ,000,080 1,603 ,000,080 1,602 ,999,0 Moon’s synod. rev. ,,__,, 53,433,336 53,433,336 5 058°200 + ‘Bl ee yes . 57,753,336 57,753,336 57,753,300 » @mnom. 4, 5, 45 »265, ,265,117 57,265 194-142 eS 8 Gs. vs es we — 232,238 — 232,226 —232,311°168 MOE os oe ie os ve 488 ,203 488 ,219 488, 105-858 Jupiter's id os 2 ae 364,220 364,224 364,226°455 Rev. of sun’s apsis . pees 80 lace of sun’s opeia at o kali yuga - ee 77° 7 48” 78° Of 0” 717° 45’ 36” "4 —* rf is a is 90° 0’ 0” 90° 0’ 0” 125° 29’ 46” on i ery upite = i. i 0 0 0” 0° 0 0’ 329° 27’ 36” Circum. of as. epiayele - ie a 14° to 13° 40’ 13° 30’ 14° to 13° 40’ + moon’s af oat es 2, Sh Ww 31° 30’ 31° 36’ to 30° 44’ ‘yobuag {o fijzavog vynisp ayy fo pousnosr ‘AX “S'NI 10. Modern Values. | | ; SIDEREAL PERIOD. | | | _| Synodic Sidereal | Inclination |Equatorial Mea Mea co Mean distance. eriod in mean daily to semi-dia- longitude of iocigtvade of | coisa motion. ecliptic. | meter. * the node. | the perhelion. Mean solar) Tropical | day days. * years. | | | = | Sun 3 eee eee eee | aes wees ists 16’ 1-18"| View ines be OO Moon Cee yd + 8 ae 29°531 ee 5° «8’ 48°38" | 16’ 31:87” aes Sees | eee Mars o 1:6237.. | 686°9797| 1:8809 | 779°94 1,886°52” | 1° 51’ 0:9” 4°68” | 48° 55’ 66:9" | 334° 34’ 54”| 18° o Meroury § 0°3871.. | 7:9693 ‘2408 | 115-88 |14,732:42”| 7° 0’ 11:6’ 3:34” | 47° 22’ 16” 716 Ti’ =. = | clan, 25-2028... | 4332-588 11-8622 | 398-8 229-13” | 1° 18’ 27-7”| 1’ 37°36"| 99° 37’ 47:9"| 13°. 1’ ° » VENUS g@ 0°7233 .. 234701 06152 | 583-92 | 6; 76767" | & 23° 378" 8°40" | 75° 67’ 2:2” |-180° 257 627" per (ina SatuRN h 9°5388 10759°20 | 29-4577 | 378-09 120°45” | 2° 29’ 29°6”| 1’ 24-75” | 112° a a 3” | 91° 27’ 39:27; & Bp arth 6 365-2564 00m eee | 3548-19" | 0° 0" 0° ee | [101° 82/ 50:0" |. & Solar — lax bide’ 4 coonas’ bee Length of month : a nera criti + ). Synodical .. 29°530588 days = m 9-88, Obliquity of tho ecliptic ee Sidereal sober ae po a _ aa Equatorial spa parallax of the moon 57’ 2°6 oe ga apm SEE teeth iy Mean distance of earth to moon 384,411 ob te ve 238,862 Anomalistic =... 27°554550 ,, = 27" 13" 18™ 33-1*. statute miles o "60° 2678 radii. Length of day: Mean distance of earth to sun 149,504,201 kilometres Sidereal _, 28" se™ 4-001* of mean solar time = 92,897,416 miles. Mean solar .. 24" 3™ 56-555° of sidereal time. Length of year: Earth: Tropical ape — 0°0000000614 (4 — 1900) Equatorial radius 6378-388 kilometres = 3963°34 statute ays miles. Sidereal . 365: — — 0: 0000000011 (t — 1900) Polar radius vee rane = 3949°99 statute (All these values except those marked * are taken from the American Nautical yee for the year 1919), [6161 ‘fimouousp yosydy npury yuaoup | = ue Reger era A leet Come PROCEEDINGS OF THE INDIAN SCIENCE CONGRESS. The Sixth Annual Meeting of the Indian Science Congress was held in Bombay, from January 13th to 18th instant. After the Patron, His Excellency Sir George Lloyd, G.C.I.E., D.S.O Governor of Bombay, had welcomed the visitors in a short speech, the President Lt.-Colonel Sir Leonard Rogers, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S., F.AS.B., IM.S., delivered his address. Presidential Address. When I received the flattering invitation to preside over the Indian Science Congress at Bombay, I felt that I was un- fitted for the position, because medical science had not hitherto been included within the scope of the meetings; but on learn- ing that it was desired to include a section on medical research this year, I was very glad to accept the honourable and respon- some practical life-saving advances in tropical medicine, I feel trolling amoebic dysentery and liver abscess; the prepara- Ixxviti Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, moogra and hydnocarpus oils in forms suitable for subcutane- ous and intravenous injection for use in the treatment of leprosy, and also during the last year of a similar preparation from codliver oil, which appears to be of considerable value both in leprosy, and in that greatest scourge of suffering hu- manity, tuberculosis, which is estimated to destroy one-seventh of mankind mostly when in the prime of life: a subject I shall be dealing with in the medical research section, and for the chemical portion of the work on which I am indebted to Dr. houg of the mouth lesions 1 suggest that this affection should be further studied bacteriologically on the lines which have enabled me to cure many cases of sprue by oral streptococcal vaccines, an advance which has recently been confirmed by Dr. Nicholls of the bacteriological institute at Colombo. Once more sodium azar a colloidal antimony sulphide very kindly made for me by r. F. L. Usher of Bangalore at the suggestion of our energetic secretary Dr. Simonsen, and have found it to be even more effective and much less toxic than the antimony salts already mentioned, and J think it may also e of great value in 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. Ixxix EARLY RESEARCHES ON CHOLERA. I must first briefly refer to some points in the history of very hard, and it was not until Ernest Hart, at the first Indian Medical Congress in Calcutta in 1894, poured ridicule upon it, organism is indeed present in such enormous numbers in the rice-water stools of severe cholera cases that it could scarcely be overlooked by a well-trained bacteriologist, who, however, that th stools of cholera cases, and had clearly stated that the causative organism would found in the evacuations. few years later he went on leave and studied the then young science of bacteriology at his own expense, with a view to tackling the same Government, however, within a year gave to a German bacteriologist, who had in the meantime discovered the comma bacillus in Egypt, every possible facility to investigate cholera in India. I have in my possession Dr. Macnamara’s own account of this sad episode, which reflects so little credit on Indian administration. I am glad to say he has lived to see lxxx Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, German culture so completely exposed by the great war that the recurrence of such a discreditable event seems scarcely possible in the future. This episode is, ee typical of the want of encouragement Indian Medi ervice pene. met with up to two or three deacon ago, which happily given place to a very different spirit, and the immense value of the research work done by the bacteriological depart- ment, to which I have not myself the honour of belonging, in the last few years is reflected in the bestowal of four decora- tions among the thirteen original members of that small but growing body of medical scientists. The establishment of the comma bacillus as the cause of cholera greatly strengthened our hands as far as regards pre- ventative measures against the disease, and its epidemic spread both beyond India and by pilgrimages within the country has much more efficiently controlled during the last two or three decades than formerly, although the sanitary arrange- ments for the prevention of the occurrence at and spread from Puri in Orissa, still leave much to be desired, as shown by the ve rious epidemic which occurred at the last especially largely attended Ete festival in 1912. Greig then showed h he recovered pilgrims leaving the hospital no less than 36 cent were cholera carriers, and a number of outbreaks took place in the Central Provinces after their return, although unfortunately my suggestion to the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India to investigate that spree: * was in enormous numbers in the intestines, but only in , maar tively small numbers in the internal organs, it was at first hoped that the oral administration of intestinal qassioctants might cut short the disease. Unfortunately this hope was disappointed, and I ha in the course of my work that the dilute mineral acids, at one time given for that purpose, were seually harmful by ieee t the death-rate from suppres- sion of urine. An important sanitary advance was however made by Dr. Hankin’s use of Eomermonee to disinfect wells for ee cholera outbrea cholera. This brilliant pe just failed to be a great discovery because no means was then found of retaining the fluid in we circulation, so that the apparently miraculous immediate of reviving the patient as one from the dead was ae 1919.] The Siath Indian Science Congress. Ixxxi followed by fatal recurrence of the terrible drain of fluid from the system. At the time I commenced my investigations the method was seldom used, as shown by the fact that a search tal from 1895 to 1904 showed no case in which large saline 87:4 per cent. Indeed it was generally recognized that once an European patient reached the collapse stage in cholera recovery scarcely ever took place Recent RESEARCHES ON THE TREATMENT OF CHOLERA. s the first whole-time professor of pathology in Bengal, the ita of cholera, who stuck to unlucrative research work for any length of time, this fell disease naturally attracted my attention, but it was not until after the completion of the first edition of my work on Fevers in the tropics, the collection ‘of material for which occupied me for twelve years, that I was able take up serious work on cholera in 1908. I had ou ae made a number of blood counts and, with the help of m friend Major Megaw, I.M.S., had studied in 1906 Latta aiid Mackintosh’s plan of injecting large amounts of normal or isotonic salt solutions, that is one peer 3 the same pro- while to try a stronger salt solution, a on return from 190 last three periods of furlough I discovered respectively the development of the Gagatlace stage of the Leishman-Donovan body, furnishing an important t clue to the probable mode of infection. of kala-azar, the hypertonic saline treatment of exacting labours. Up to this time the strength of salines generally advised in cholera was 0°6 per cent, although recent Ixxxii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, physiological text-books have eae the figure for normal saline t. As I wis to give a hypertonic solution, that is one containing more gets than the normal blood, I doubled the former “strength and used a 1°2 per cent of sodium chloride. or 120 grains to a pint, to which I afterwards added 4 grains of calcium chloride, because physiologists have found the latter salt to be beneficial to the heart. Captain, now made a seri sently. Cholera, sade gh and septic cases were in those days 1 old nurse who laboured for nearly ten years in these dismal surroundings. ‘They may be summarized in a sentence by saying that by using two teaspoonfuls of common salt to a pint of water instead of o one, the mortality of cholera was nearly halved. Nothing could well Be slospler, yet nearly eighty years had elapsed since salines were first injected intravenously in cholera vows the physiological principle of using a hyper- tonic instea an isotonic solution was established. It was at once clear to me that a great advance had been made which stimulated me to persevere with my investigations of the blood changes in cholera, so as to place the whole subject on a firm scientific basis THE BLoop CHANGES IN CHOLERA AS A BASIS FOR THE HYPEerTonic TREATMENT. In the first place I estimated the amount of chlorides in I further established that the hypertonic saline did specially raise the salt content of the blood, and to the greatest extent in recovering cases, which explained ‘both the failure of the former isotonic and the success of the hypertonic solutions. ther important point was to estimate the amount of fluid lost from the blood in cholera, so as to ascertain if the amount was in proportion to the severity of the case, and to learn how much salt solution it is necessary to inject to replace 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. Ixxxiii with those of normal blood the percentage of fluid lost from the blood could be estimated. For example in a severe case only 18 out of the original 55 per cent of serum remained, showing a loss of no less than 67 per cent of the fluid portion of the blood as a result of the copious evacuations. A series of such observations showed that in mild cases of cholera not showing any serious collapse an average of 35 per cent of the serum was lost; in collapse cases recovering after the hyper- tonic saline injections the loss averaged 52 per cent, while in extremely severe cases, who were lost in spite of the new treat- cholera in which the blood was so thick that on opening a vein a drop of black blood slowly exuded having the consistency almost of tar: a condition which must rapidly terminate fatal- ly if not quickly relieved. By repeating these estimations im- mediately after several pints of saline had been run rapidly into a vein in collapsed cholera cases, I was able to ascertain the quantities required to restore the normal fluidity of the blood, and found them, as I had suspected, to be much greater in severe cases than had formerly been given when isotonic solutions were in use. The haemocrite, however, is too much of a labora- tory instrument to be generally available so a simple bedside method was needed. I therefore made use of Lloyd-Jones’ method of estimating the specific gravity of the blood by means of a series of solutions of glycerine in water in small labelled as six pints may often be injected with great advantage to the repeated as a guide to further treatment, and in several ex- tremely severe cholera cases over thirty pints of fluid have thus been injected in the course of several days with ulti- mate success in saving the lives of the patients. This test has deeply indebted for giving me charge of these wards to facili- te my researches on cholera and dysenteries. Ixxxiv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV. PERMANGANATES AND OTHER DRUGS IN THE TREATMENT OF CHOLERA. The success of the hypertonic saline injections in enabling the collapse stage of cholera to be largely overcome opened the way to a trial of drug treatment such as had never before been possible; for it is clear that unless the circulation can be res- tored and maintained drugs given by the mouth will not even be absorbed, and can have no chance of exerting their beneficial action. Great care is required to make such tests reliable on account of the numerous sources of fallacy in estimating the effects of a given treatment. For example, I found from an examination of the Calcutta Medical College records of the eleven years before I commenced my new treatment that the case mor- tality was 66-7 per cent in the first quarter of the year, but steadi- ly declined to only 46°7 per cent in the third quarter. Again in a Karachi epidemic the death-rate in the first one hundred cases was 79 per cent, and in the last one hundred only 40 per use specially printed forms, the regular filling in of all the headings and columns of which ensures completeness of the notes in every particular—the two series can be compared as regards all points which previous studies have shown to be the causes of the high mortality. To takean example of this method of investigation, the late Sir Lauder Brunton, some years ago SESE f conclusive results. I therefore gave the drug hypodermically in addition to the routine treatment in every other case 0 cholera in my wards for a whole year, with the result that the mortality was much lower in the atropine series, while a care- comparison of the two sets of cases as regards their severity showed them to be strictly comparable. I have therefore added atropine to my system of treatment with, I am sure, beneficial results. In a similar manner emetine was found to be useless in cholera. 1919. | The Sixth Indian Science Congress. ]xxxv in my work I cannot speak too highly of, all the more important points of my cholera cases, now amounting to just over 2,000, and have closely studied the records of all fatal ones to ascer- tain the reasons for the failures with a view to findin of lessening them. The following examples will illustrate some of the results thus obtained. After an experience of a year and a half of the hypertonic treatment, I realized that something more was required if the mortality was to be still further reduced. The failures ap- eared to me to be largely due to a recurrence of the collapse on account of absorption of the toxins produced by the cholera bacillus in the intestinal canal with the restoration of the cir- culation after the saline injections. Now the toxins are con- testinal antiseptics may very possibly add to the toxin ab- sorption by killing the bacilli, which is, I believe, one of the reasons for their failure as already stated. I therefore sought for some method of destroying the toxins themselves while still unabsorbed in the bowel, and, bearing in mind that they are largely albumoses and other unstable albuminous products of the metabolism of the organisms, and that such substances are readily destroyed or rendered inert by oxidizatio ri- mented with various oxidizing agents, and particularly with ermanganates, whic wn to rapidly destroy in previously worked. I was thus able to demonstrate that several times a lethal dose of dead comma bacilli containing the toxins of course it cannot by itself save the most severe cases with extreme collapse ALKALIES IN THE PREVENTION OF FataL RENAL CoMPLI- CATIONS. There still remained one very important line of investiga- tion, which has recently led to a further substantial reduction Ixxxvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, of the death-rate of cholera by enabling the common and most deadly suppression of the renal functions to be largely averted. I know of nothing more disheartening than after successfully Light was first thrown on this problem by an American physician Dr. Sellards working in the Philippines, who suspected a diminution in the alkalinity of the blood, or acidosis as it is generally termed, because he found that large doses of alkalies by the mouth failed to make the urine alkaline as it would do in health. He therefore added sodium bicarbonate to the saline cation had become established. Early in 1912. I therefore commenced an investigation of the changes in the alkalinity of the blood in cholera, which Sellards had not then done, and finding an extreme degree of reduced alkalinity in all cases with 00 from a normal of about 95 fatal suppression of urine took place in spite of very copious alkaline injections. It thus became clear that in all severe cholera cases sodium bicarbonate should be added to the hypertonic saline solution as a routine measure to combat the acidosis from the first, and prevent it reaching a rous degree. The results of this addition to the treatment 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. Ixxxvil t> acidosis there is also a retention of phosphates in cholera, which can be reduced by the administration of calcium salts in the form of lime water ; but I have not yet been able adequate- ly to test this hypothesis. From this point of view calcium permanganate may be preferable to the potassium salt, but in earlier work I found the calcium salt to be less convenient on account of its extremely hygroscopic nature; but it is worthy of further consideration. THE DIMINUTION IN THE MORTALITY OF CHOLERA. ration my system of treatment with increasing knowledge derived from combined clinical and pathological investigations extending over twelve years, and culminating in a reduction of the mortality between 1895 and 1905 before I began work of 59-0 per cent to one of 19°1 per cent between 1915 and 1917 or one-third of the former rate, while in 1917 among 208 cases it was but 14:9 per cent, or one-fourth of the earlier figure ; without the stamina to allow the treatment to ha chance are included. I therefore think it may fairly be claimed that cholera has now been robbed of most of its terrors by ion with the aid of physical methods in the use of the haemocrite and specific gravity test; chemical research in the use of permanganates to destroy the toxins in the bowel, and alkalies to combat the deadly acidosis and physiological principles leading to the use of atropine and the ential hypertonic saline injections. More may yet be done, but sufficient has already accrued to prove the inestimable life- saving and economic value of medical research work, and to encourage both administrative authorities and philanthropists to look on liberal expenditure on medical research as the best possible use of public and private money. Ixxxviii Proceedings of the Asiatic Soc. of Bengal. [N.S., XV, TABLE OF CHOLERA MorTALITY UNDER DIFFERENT METHODS oF TR Years. Cases. Deaths. Mortality. Recoveries. NorMat SALINE SUBCUTANEOUSLY AND PER RECTUM. 1895 to 1905 =: 1,243 788 59°0% 41:0%, Normat SALINES INTRAVENOUSLY. 1906 112 57 51:99, 49°19, NorMaL SALINE SUBCUTANEOUSLY AND PER RECTUM. 1907 158 94 59°5 40°5 HYPERTONIC SALINES INTRAVENOUSLY. 1908 to 7-1909 294 96 32°6°%/, 67°49 HYPERTONIC SALINES PLUS PERMANGANATES. 8-1909 to 1914 858 299 25-9, 741%, Hypertonic Sanines, PERMANGANATES AND ALKALIES. 1915 to 1917 638 122 19°31, 809% THE Furure or MepicaL RESEARCH IN INDIA. The great lesson to be derived from the researches on cholera which I have related is the importance of combined clinical and pathological investigations. So strongly do I hold the necessity of medical research workers being in the closest di three important research laboratories being placed on remote hilltops for the sake of the relatively insignificant mortality from hydrophobia to the grave detriment of work on all the more important tropical diseases. Now that the treatment of hydrophobia and other bacteriological methods can be carried out in the plains with the help of a refrigerator (and where opportunity which Rangoon took advantage of, and now that the terrible kala-azar is again ravaging the Sibsagar district, cases have to be imported into Shillong to enable the one re- search worker of the province, who is tied to the Pasteur Institute for want of an assistant qualified to carry out the routine hydrophobia treatment, to have some slight oppor- tunity of tackling the greatest problem of Assam and other arge areas of India. 1919. ] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. Ixxxix The serious disadvantage which so many of the members of the bacteriological—or as it should be called medical re- opened, when team work so essential to the solution of the larger medical problems will be possible. In addition, all the staff and the patients to have the immense advantages in the diagnosis and vaccine and other lines of treatment which a they can be rapidly diagnosed and efficiently treated, and without this aid even the most experienced physicians too often cannot do full justice to their patients. Until recently the professors of pathology in our medical colleges have been also physicians, and naturally spent most of their time in clinical work and general practice. and with rare exceptions, such as McConnell of Calcutta, added not little to our knowledge of the pathology of tropical diseases. It was only in 1899 that the on the pay it carries and continue my investigations, but for “ f the accident that I married late in life; surely not a very necessary for their researches may sometimes be a difficult problem, although as a rule clinicians are quite willing to give to a long series of superintendents and resident surgeons of the Calcutta European General Hospital for opportunities, without which the material for my book on fevers in the i o ated searches, however, more complete control of clinical cases is required, and this urgent need led me with the invaluable help of the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine. This will allow of the cases of any special disease under investigation to be placed at the disposal of a particular research worker to the necessary xe Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, degree without his being burdened with the charge of clinical material of all kinds as in former days to the detriment of his research work. In future I understand pathologists of our medical colleges will be supplied from the bacteriological or research department, and will make the subject their life-study, and not be eligible for clinical posts. In order to get the medical officers with the highest abilities and scientific training required for success in research to devote their lives to it, and to abandon the much more lucrative clinical side of medicine, it will be absolutely necessary to give them salaries in proportion to the long and expensive scientific training of from six to eight years, which they receive after finishing their general school education. THe NeEep or Liperat ENDOWMENTS oF MEDICAL RESEARCH value of the labour forces. Bombay has always been noted for the liberality of her citizens, so I confidently appeal to this great city to do at least as much for my friend Colonel Liston’s school here, which he has laboured so long and patiently to found in connection with the Parel laboratory. 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress, xci life has at length ceased, I should like to see the flow of money diverted to the noble object of saving life by means of a great extension of medical research, and I can concei f no more fitting thank-offering for the delivery of the world from the greatest menace that has ever threatened modern civilization. What is wanted is an Indian Rockefeller to come forwa:d with have the far greater satisfaction of seeing for themselves the seed they sow in faith bearing fruit abundantly. As example anything I am not willing to do myself to the limits of my power. In addition to the rich Princes and noblemen who ultimately derive their wealth from the agricultural labourer, I especially appeal to those who have made their fortunes in commercial enterprises to do all they can to help in this practical way the labour forces to whom they so largely owe their prosperity ; so it is to the large commercial towns that we must also look for the help we require to bring the blessings of medical research to the aid of the hundreds of millions of patient toilers of India, Section of Agricultural and Applied Botany. President :—Tur Hon. Mr. G. F. Keartines, C.1.E. Presidential Address. Somer Economic Factors AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL PROGRESS. It is my pleasing duty to welcome you here to this session of the Agriculture and Applied Botany Section. We have before us twenty papers on a variety of subjects connected i i ave t e some very interesting discussions on these papers. I much appreciate the compliment that has been paid to me in asking me to preside over this Section of the Science Congress, the more so since I cannot claim to be a scientific X¢cii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.8., XV, investigator. During the past 25 years, however, I have had Officer, to study the economic condition of the cultivators in this Presidency, and I propose to address you on some econo- mic factors which I conceive to be of fundamental importance in the matter of agricultural progress. Political Economy has, 1 believe, — described as the “ dismal Science.” I fear that you may my remarks dismal, but I hope that you will not tind them omelets. My excuse for addressing you on a subject somewhat remote from Physical Science is that I think that all you agricultural workers in this country, whether you n great value to the community, but the economic condition is often such that hardly anyone is in a position to take advant- age of your discovery. This cannot fail to be very dishearten- ing to yourselves, to the public nye is looking for material advancement at your hands, and t e Governments to whom we have to look for increased ee If the existing econo- mic difficulties were insuperable, there would be little use in railing against them; but it is because I believe that they can overcome and that a situation can be created in which the practical value of a labours can be greatly increased, that I venture to address you on the subject. Stated in its briefest possible form, my proposition is this. In farming there are two fundamental units, the farm and the farmer. Yor agricultural progress it is necessary that the farm should = rg fixed and permanent unit, so that it may admit of nt improvement and adequate development, and that the sama should be a fluid and moveable unit, so that the right men may get to the tight places. Speaking generally we find, to our misfortune, that in India the exact reverse is the case, that the farm on the one hand is subject to a continuous ries of economic earthquakes, and that the farmer on the aie hand is fixed and rooted. To turn first to the farm. So much has been said during mentation of holdings, and the evil has b een so generally recognized that I do not propose to go into in an ti No orderly development, no effective improvement can take place in a holding which is the wrong size and sha and which has no stability. The fact that this is true not only in theory but also in practice can be verified by anyone who 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. xClil the landowners. To develop and improve a permanent 10 or 20 acre farm is an intelligible proposition ; but to develop and improve a 10 or 20 acre farm which must in the near future be split up and fragmented is not an intelligible proposition to any- one; and since this is the proposition which confronts the seriously. In this way a low standard is set of agricultural methods and of agricultural results, a serious obstruction to permanent. His farm may fly into fragments and grow steadily smaller, but, generally speaking, he himself persists, whether he be a good, bad or indifferent farmer. In highly individual- istic and competitive countries, efficiency is secured largely by been periods of agricultural depression there, when unprogres- sive farmers have been ruined and squeezed out wholesale, while on some kinds of soil it is recognized that a bad farmer their places to the obstruction of the more effective members of the community. It is by no means contended that there t. the farmers are deficient in skill, industry and energy, and balance a low standard of endeavour by a low standard of living. These are the fundamental obstructions to agricultural progress to which I have to refer. The question is how we are xciv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, to overcome them. It is clear that what we have to do is to endeavour to create and maintain suitably sized and suitably situated holdings which will admit of adequate development, the most progressive farmers who will be in a position to make the best use of them. If we can do this we can trust to the natural pipe of the soil and the natural industry of the armers to secure the progress which we vid aided by the scientific investigations which have ng made and which will be made in future. But until we can do the we shall not secure anything like the full results ‘that we cig for from our natural advantages or from our scientific labour ow what is it that prevents us from aking action of the nature indicated ? Whenever any remedial action of this would be / uprg spi _— cps frre and to their sentiments, and that a shuffle of an armers would constitute a po- litical danger. These aspects of the question must, of course, be carefully considered. is is a country where religious = Sesdiniental ideals count for much, where political dangers given due weight. But there is also a persistent ienede on the part of a eucticii of the population for material progress. We have come to the parting of the ways, and India must decide which road she wishes to take. You may set u a sentimental ideal, an aesthetic ideal, an ideal of voluntary poverty, or an ideal of political caution. Such ideals are quite intelligible. The trouble is that to a large extent they are not compatible with the ideal of material progress. All that I say is this—if the former ideals are chosen to the exclusion of the latter let us stop all talk of rapid material progress: for we shall have deliberately refused to take the first steps that lead to it. The fragmentation of holdings as it affects ee nice of agricultural improvements.—By B. C. B is claimed that though the as of the un-economic holding is caine and progress necessarily must be gradual and follow general economic development, there is Sriportaniey for immediate steps to dis- courage entation of holdings. Two instances are given of the way in which the fragmentation of holdings imposes a definite limit on the por es ma Bee! of agricaltn improvements. It is considered that in emindari pi ces changes in tenancy law are possible and pop which call 24 phi ag the formation of compact holdings reasonably eas _ The prevention of soil erosion on tea estates in Southern India.— By R. D. AnstEap. the Meeting of the Board of Agriculture in India held at hg in 1016, the subject of.soil erosion was discussed, and it was resol 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. XCV bring to the notice of planters the fact that the serious losses due to soil erosion in the plan pein districts which have taken place in the past, are, oa table. In Java soil erosion is prevented by ldntis the land before it is planted. In Southern Jane the " pidtiienk resented is to stop erosion in old established tea, and the paper describes two siete of doing this in a practical and economic Wey. which have proved successful and have been widely adopted. The first is gradually to build up terraces by means of burying prunings in trenches dug along the contours of the me oa leaving the butts of the prunings projecting 6 to 8 inches from the ing and plucking are then done along the contours and at successive prunings the ‘? oO m The second method is to stop all fatls ig gi clean ih peta on teep slopes and to keep these permanently, covered with a crop of eted weeds, legumes for rt oa Such a crop is established by teaching the weeding coolies to leave the weed chosen, and remove all others. The best plant so Pig found for the ln is Cassia mimosoides, L. Parochetus communis, Hamil. has also been used. When these legum es ee ree tablished use is made of other weeds which grow easily, and lar; are now under Ovalis corniculata, L., which has proved an pore pines for the - pusgta and has done no — to the tea. eed is considered better than ee and use has been made of ie {ollchetiners —Cotula australis Ca ardamine hirsuta, L.; Galinsoga parvifiora, Cav. ; Laurenberghia hence This use of weeds thal effectively stopped wha t is known in Travan core as ‘‘dry wash,’’ a slipping of the loose textured soil in the hot weather Note on land drainage in ee tracts of the Bombay Deccan.—By ©. C, Ine Just as the conditions pra determine irrigation practice he Bombay Deccan differ in alm very essential from those of Northern India, so the Speen which sgt the stamens of land drainage a also essentially different n the Bombay Pisooan : _ (1) The damage is entirely due to - canals, (2) Sodium s mers hate is the chief (3) Substrata vary excessively and abruptly, and (4) Groandfall is very great (about 1 in 150 Each drainage may be looked pe - a deep valley once denuded of soil and later filled up with colluvial sil There are five distinct types of strata :— (1) Soil—impermeable when wet, (4) oan substratum—very perm apie fen fissured, and (5) Fissured noek-alightly to very permeable ; and for our purpose these should be looked on as ihre layers of perme- “( ) An ia be! mooeneene layer, (2) A moderately permeable middle meee (3) A very paraeates hard substratum xevi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, At the top of a ridge the soil Piha ig is red in colour oe Nag bin, and lies directly on the very permeable substratum: dow. e sides the ridges the soil deepens bo th i oe snag our snag depth, sad, a a : - - : i n conditions arise, and the vac ome rae nse nnot aa away is forced uu portions until the pan Stk ey carries 0 3 perder If we bore a hole in a salt area we do not find subsoil water near the surface, and it is not till we pierce the moderately a subsoil layer at about 5 to 10 feet that Sar rushes in with a hissing noise. e permeability of the permea ble cde is eananearet by the rate of recuperation in the bore holes by the formula - 1 Glo H a= le FT where K = Coeffici T = Time in bee bs Sa head of seer he of leona a ahs T hours. Unfo iS this only eae us a measure of the permeability of the wih 2a does not necessarily show that it is a main avenue of drainage. n supply may come 5 heir fissures at a great depth, and pos- ably thon ugh rock. e essential point is that we are dealing with a pressure ; hence The very open risegend of the problem e permeable subsoil — not be looked on as an avenue for drainage but merely as a medium through which the deep subsoil-pressure is di What we have to do, pric is o find out ae natural deep sierap rd the original denuded valleys nai open thorn 6 + down to the a ery ratory ver: nalas do not follow the natural drainages, and Mot seldom Where the permeable stratum is at such a depth that a drain reach- ing down to it is out of the question, see ean still be done by driving down bore holes rane “this saubnes, when the water rises per pressure and can be carried away in a pipe drain. The frequent failure of a large sisal of the rice crop in Chota Nagpur.—By A.C. BS. The soil of the Chota Nagpur — ame for - most part on solid neissic rocks, and the subsoil water i rived from the local psc essation ° } se rraces therefore fester to the point of cracking about a fortnight after the last shower. is eherstore safe only on the concave surfaces of 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. XxeVii here are We ppg ~ exports of food in rmal season and s ity a prevailed in t parts of the District i in say yon years wane 1896, enelaites of the fendi yaar Statistics of the rise and fall of the water in a es on the raged Farm show that the rise of the subsoil water in the monsoon up to certain point amount to five or six times a contemporary rainfall measured in —— whereas the fall at the end of the monsoon is about 38 inches in a month. The sa foty of the paddy crop, depending on the aa water, could ed if the subsoil water could be maintained at a sufficiently high level by holding up water in tanks placed in Schall # r t rimeter of e luff he highest terraces. E ce indicates that h tanks, filled me hii y by showers and leaking mevsgrincters 4 into the n 8 , need only hold about 5 ft. of w one time in order to y or ver three or f ks of arodght Tanks, 100 ft. wide, the capacity of which could be increased at a low cost, ec wo ient in Poort S bow wie and are economically justifiable They would be c and each would have an emergency outlet fi into the paddy nfld iiseeciiabaly behind it and below the previous If the rain wa t now runs off the surface could ime are be brought eae deveral Seat in this way, I} page orse made available for six months in the year, on a Searels estimate, fo from the Ranchi District (7,000 sq. oslo) pf aa The importance of the development of the dairy industry i i y W. SMITH Development of —— industry in India is important from an Pichocdicned point of view because (1) Only by this means can the greatest of of 0d —— problems i in g pro India—the cattle-bree (2) It perticularly. lends itself | to development on co-operative lines. Agricultural co-o on has been the business salvation of the small holder in many ec cakes ; it should be so in Tn ‘dia (3) The solving of the cattle-breeding peabion on da airying lines e same time enormously increase pani, e e farmer will breed, rear and feed his nimal on his own land, and its amiaia e will be available to renew ae fertility of the soil year by me eral or national point of view it nae 5. t because c ar row aes paar aan s essential to the health of the community ; they cannot get it now, and nothing but the development of dairying as a national aaa will give it to them The oy peaiern of tostion dairy cattle—By A. K. YEGNANARAYANA IYER A brief statement of the present condition of ne dairy industry is and the are reviewed. iven : i improvement of the mulling qe quality of dairy, sors A) b y confining opera- tions to the indigeno and grading them up by ” selection, and (2) by the introduction of fe — a blood by phoee breeding with Ayrshire or other British or Aus tralian breeds, is desc The milkin re bred 5 on, as the only means of guarding against t disappointment in in pope: performance of the cows of crossbred progeny. xcvili Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, The use of poppy seed cake as a cattle food and its effect on yield of milk and Pigs anomie of butter fat.—By H. E. ANNETT and J. Sen The seed forms a valuable secondary crop to the cultivator of opium poppy. The bulk of the poppy seed produced in India used to be export- ed, but owing to the war there hed: been a falling off in the export. At the same time the internal demand for the seed is not likely to increase seems to be little difficulty i in finding a meee for perne seed oilin India, In this sis pee n the question of the use of the poppy cake as a food: stuff has arisen. Experiments were pee ae ee taken on this subje ub stitution ot poppy c cake for mustard cake does not seem to hav influenced either the yield of milk, its percentage of fat or the eeicaae tion of the butter fat. The experiments were carried out on one cow and two buffaloes. The animals readily ate poppy cake and seemed to flourish equally well on poppy cake or on mustard cake. The reputed Se gee of poppy cake in producing drowsiness and watery milk were not observed. During the nascent . Be work it was i te that author rane dat red seemed to influence, rtain extent, the composition of butter fat. This may be due to bethadley effects (e.g. a rush of green food after ater Studies in the chemistry of sugar-cane—By B. Viswa- NATH. A method has been devised for extracting small grt of juice from sugar-cane, without appreciable injury to the cane, by means of a modified form of h ypodermic needle. © juice so obtained can be examined for its total solids con- ent by means of the BEES refractometer. The refractive indices of sucrose, glucose and substances found in sugar-cane, are found to be the A number of canes nearing maturity as judged by the eye and experience have been examined one “after atte dere — m bo ee to : content o sugar Soca could not Poe definitely located at any pasnaaies ‘eohenistll but is n never above the dead leaf joint. variation is thought to be a to different degrees of se, RR canes examin A number of young canes have been tested joint by joint month after month, and it has been found that when the cane is young the maximum sugar content is at the basal joints and gradually this moves upwards to the highest dead leaf joint as the cane matures © function of the leaf being a physiological one, it was thought that a joint would have accumulated its sugar to its fullest rented by the ese the leaf is dead and cast. This is found not to be the A oes af increase of sugars occurs in an internode even after the death of ea Two possible e a eet a for the increase of sugar are offered. They Print {1) the inf influx of sugars from ¢ above as the cane grows, (2) the sitios: on 0! death f +h, 7 2 £. y pathorea ‘and converted into carbohydrates of highe r molecular weight than sugars, such as cellulose, starch, gums and the like. Starch and diastase have been ee in the younger parts of the cane, but none are found in the older join join It has been shown, on the au athonty of ox existing literature on the physiology of sugar-cane, that the storage of cane sugar in the sugar-cane 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. xcix is not such a simple process as the aoe eagerness Pen sugars into sucrose, and that the caer explanation seems more reaso The necessity for further investigation into the rode of formation of cane sugar in the Sra is indicated. The effects of va ft on the growth and composition of sugar-cane varieties —By R. KrisHNaMuRTI Rao. During 1913 in a portion “ Block II (Field Nos. 12, 13 and 3) of the newly-acquired Cane- ing Station, Coimbatore, many thick and thin cane varieties and some Madras seedlings si for the first time planted. Most of the thick cane varieties died and a few aa came up were very , th : s expected. Madras seedlin causes for ‘this tear ueian result of canegrowth, field No. 3 as rep senting Block II was chosen, and on it year after year some cane varieties owth is better an varieties that were doing well in Block IT es er A comparison of t of the well waters of rant grit two blocks soned that Block I rane ae much less chlorine and sub-soil Be ee than Block Il; the well water of Block I pie Poo Dey 33 parts of sodium chloride in 1 of water, whereas the well wetect of ren II (well No. 3) con- h as 189 pa a excess 0 sodium chloride in the _ ation rotate in the composition of cane juices obtained ek Block Tr (field No. 3) which showed a large excess of ee and potash. As e s of chlorine was found to be yen: atte by e Lope stonigh not in any definite sess etermination ste obthe considered sufficient to get an idea of the. quantity of the other. The e determination of potash is not easy and takes much ee: and so i in re) so g lime water and alumina cream, ich gives satisfactory results, was When the nature of varieties that have from os year a till now come up well and of those that have not done well in ock II is analysed, P average — d, whereas in Block [ it = only 0°15. It was also found that i i lo - — — the same conditions, ‘to this the jaggeries made at the Cane Indian thin jane do not oes well and have a tendency to run to liquid when kept lo Hav en cans excess of chlorine in cane juices to be the chief cai for the ntre growth of canés, for low sucrose, glucose and purity ¢ pomeerered c Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, of acy and ae se the pal jaggery ee i is suggested that chlorine dete ns of ju ould giv indication of the dteaing qualities = pe juices. ¢ examined and "0k poy ae of jaggeries one is likely to get from such juic ayo new gia affecting Pe yreping quality of gul or rude 8 ar.—By T. 8. Sw aaah a -important for Ania of gul during the mons The ‘ome ee supposed chiefly to affect the acd aas | is the ripeness of the can The new aes which are equally or even more important, as ob- served by the author in age connanet wont, emanate from the pre- sence of alkaline salts e water used for nen and in the soil producing the g =: The ese ro ais er into t the mposition of the gul and adversely affect the ep ros are found in 4pssothe proportions in br: wa water and some kinds o e is also a belief in the locality to the above effect though rather va, "Bofor re undertaking the investigation attempts were ris ~ improve the defect in the gul, peculiar to the conditions stated, the lines aha known on ae sc but little success was se by the uthor, There is ample proof to show that alkaliie salts exist in greater or smaller A each ian gul. or the reasons and proofs given, the author is led to the conclusion that water be so ar — an important bearing on the question. e remarks e Agricultural Chemist on the quesle sent for analysis are fain cor been i of the iene s observations. A study of the conditions under which water of —_ — creeks is utilized for crop production in Konka Ws sh GOKHALE. A practice of using the water of saline tidal os ~~ oe to the notice of the writer, the results of whose study of the ditions under which it is done are embodied i in the pou Ales briet description < of der observation ci side lands, the several factors which have been found to determine = successful cultivation of certain crops with saline poe are discussed. e figures of analysis of the samples oie ater taken at each water- ing given to a crop of Brinjal cultivated with the exclusive use of water from one of the large tidal creeks have been given; these show that in i ion a of the cree e January and February, the salinity increases to nearly 850 parts of total salts per 100,000 parts, out of which 650 parts are sodium Giiethiess Wort ebru aters oe too saline oaching a total salt content at cheek: of. a — or near. i abicgartoenrthe-s of the salinity of the average sea-water, and a not asod ces sed — thereaf of the several la arge and Sopot creeks as represe ted ey t the mena F districts of = shores it is to be observed that it is mae to the last 8 10 mile sect: t the sweet water a of a 25 to 35 mile length of a tidal pest ser that the cultivation of certain ¢ — is found to be being t cree ters in these sections are said to be less saline rotranrad in the lower sections towards the sea, pate it is in these 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. ci sections that hg having deep and fertile soil and sufficiently high not submerged by high tides, but not too high to preclude cheap water und. rops that are seen successfully cultivated under such conditions are brinjal (Solamem melon yt an nM ie (Capsicum frules cens), brinjals being the commoner 0 , chillies being supposed to less resistant to salt or brin i Uablor (Ricinus communis), sw: emi grown e borders spa as a sprinkling in the main crops 0 inje and. chilli N te varieties speciall apted for saline eae r sual sweet water varieties being cultivated under salt-water condit ing is done in the le of October, and the nc tivation is as gpd similiar to t eet water ; ure is t nly manure given, if at all, and where avail- abl oor de same plac ae not carry the cultivation for more than e to three years continuously according to the nearer ‘ekg r farther situa- sed to = from the sea, as the soil is sup t ‘* salt sic ' Saline water of the pe is the only water given ei m the time ot planting to the end of February, at s r intervals of a day or so for the first month and thereafter at longer intervals of four to eight day according to the retentive nature of th After February the water is recognized to get too saline to b watering is don t the nts have to depend on the residual soil moisture on which they survive and continue to bear till the end of the hot season. Sometimes distinct incrustation It is visible on the surface of the field later in th eason sually at high tide that watering is done as the rise of the water level reduces the lift or lead; no di nce is, however, rec tide a igh tide waters; the full moon or the new moon tween lo u ] saree together with — on the two or three succeedirg days, are id h i ter. h the pickings from Sa ee ceerania are small with small-sized fruit having often an acrid t : has been aes that the ee of Phare certain a with saline water is yet unknown on the creek sides i the Thana and he r larly ces arr but where the practice described in the paper is no know a" benefit by the presentation of the results of the study made in It would also be worth while to pec — sbi conatelly those which, parading to present kno wledge, recogniz we resistant, under the ee herein de rs d with a "view sr ea: if there cn any new and more remunerative crops tha n be ated . those mentioned in the paper. This would form one of "the fos of future study ‘of t the subject. Rate of nitrification of different green manures.—By N. V. JOSHI It is shown that the rate of nitrification for different green m is different, varying with the amount o woody tissue and pith ae so i that the The nitrogen content of the above groun d portion of leguminous plants is about three-fourths to nine-tenths of the wey nitrogen of the whole cil | Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, plant. The rer of leaves also is much higher. It is also shown that starch, cose, filter paper, straw and sawdust affect the nitrification of oil- ne haan ammonium sulphate. The experimental oe of Oryza sativa var. plena, ares y B. K. Bur To all outward appearances, oa sativa, var. plena, Prain, or the double spies pedaly of Bengal, looks like an ordinary Hest But it has this pee that nearly every spikelet contains two to five ovaries instead of one, the number of well-developed grains ‘tee icin only one or At Alibag, in a plot of about 100 plants of an ordinary variety of rice, called Morchuka, the writer found this year that in 8 or 10 endenc a flowering glumes and pales and sometimes ovaries also, these spikelets bed ing often sterile or one grained, though rarely they may produce two ains also. The additional glumes and nies: have a tendency to be cut up, variously transformed, or so aoies reduced. It has been sug- g is sport might be beginning of t volution of the double grain pi - Specimens showing the abnormalit different stag been collected an o illustrate - r wane to collect seeds of the strongly Sportive plants and to grow a al generations from them to see if by selecting from them the sug- withedl expectation will be realized. Notes on the ring fume of potato.--By S. D. Nacpur- KaR and H. H. Man Ring of potato is a bacteria st which is the seymne enemy of potato salikeabiaes on the Deccan. The experiments w ied out at means the crop c ould be preg A nd ehsiods: of tl these was the dominant cause of the perpetuation of the ase in the fiel The experiments recorded confirm previous gerard as to = convey- f t i i otato from crop to cro th: through the and the soil. They show the extremely infectious character of the disease in that not onl e seed, also every thing whi been in conta ith it, even t ife by which affected sets h s capable of conveying the disease to a healthy tuber and hence to a healthy plant tion does Owever, appear to live in the soil in a virulen ition to affect new — was uce After five to six and a half months the ‘ioe ae sae of. the soil io new It d i potato plants had disappea wo us appear that if land is kept ee from pot lants, or other plants capable of carrying th , for six months the danger of infection through the soil is very small six months or more is usually allowed to elapse between cro th land in the Deccan it would a appear that the danger of infection — the soil under Saas conditions is small, if the diseased plants are care- fully removed during the growth of each crop. This agrees wi ith ieee ractical experience and enables attention to be focussed on the provision of disease- free seed as the main line of attack on this very fatal disease. Methods of planting oe and position of seed in ground.—By M. L. KuiKarnt. Results of experiments of the si single-eye method of planting sugar- ‘Cane sets, with the eye planted upwards, are given in the present paper, promised las d these figur i 6-8) defects are also shown, and further e experiments with alterations to re- 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. cili move the defects, as suggested to the writer, were conducted during the current year and the altered method explain e experiments tried last year in pots, w with different kinds of seeds > Asami (cg marco were tried in a few rows of each in the field with sults as obtained in pots last year. e root system of plants ‘germinating from s in different positions (especially of cotton) ined and found to be the cause of unevenness of plants in different sioniti ons. Some foreign insect pests which we do not want in India.— By K. R KRISHNA IYER. me ee pmiee of frequent and rapid communication between coun- ntry. This a brief list of some of the most important foreign insects which w would do well to know aanthind about, and w = _ Sheepmae a our Feb to keep out. The most important of rsa e San scale, the cotton boll args the Codlin Sante: as artisan fount fly and the grape Phyllox Notes on a Moringa stem borer.—By T. V. SUBRAMANIA IvE The ‘paper ae with the life-history of a longicorn beetle boring on the ign baler _— eee: pterygosperma). The insect has not yet been se when reared out at the insectary was found to be this beetle. ter- wards a pair of these beetles were caught during copulation and made to lay eggs in captivity and the life-history was completely studied. insect is not a serious pest but it is seen occasion nally scraping away the bark of the plant when an adult and boring in moringa twigs during its arval stage. The biological determination of the relative availability of different nitrogenous organic manures in black cotton soil.—By F. J. Puymen and D. V. Bat. 1. The relative renin ps es common oil cakes used a have been determined by considering the Seas at cre “the aseacaihs Pahiny soil of the Deccan 3. Excluding ‘oil free tili cake, karanja and cotton cakes appear by to be" the most quickly available and castor cake is not much tnferior them 4. Tili cake is not quite so active, although the nitrogen nitrified v8 OF dhe compares favourably with - ae = other cakes Rese e various poner —_— riment with the rons eg Ait sars the cea so far as its nitrifiability roa ne ar soil is pcebiesa . The nitrogen in m ua e is neither ammonified nor nitrified to any appreciable extent during a period of 8 w eeks. civ Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Earcockle in the Punjab.— reve Dr. Mitne. The ap bes Pape Sercona is Tylenchus scandens, a nematode worm. It enters the and produces galls ins nie of wheat grains. A brief outline a co life. Sators of the disease in wheat plots at Lyallpur is WwW ripen in April. The dance in the — and young buds, and were very active. Where many e bu i i a ull ec never met with this slimy bacterial substance except on plants affected by earcockle. Lightly sieeonen pants showed little sign of the disease unless minutely examine he worms are carried up with the wheat head as it comes out of the ear, collect. in the ovary and suck the juices whic e em ge-layin of March. Hatching starts by the end of pape nd ends in early April, e me. ousands of young worms may be Soaps in one gall. The galls dry and the worms menses quiescent. They may remain in this state and The been met with where it has «sa 50 to 80% of the crop ina etantls r 2} | is a no expense in a si without upsetting their rotations, by simply sowing clean seed grain. types of wheat agony on _— Punjab are immune from the disease. Barley is affected by the same The galls ec ner be best abbas | from the grain by a combination of winnowing and s The ge Dele among farmers is that the disease is due to bad phe . untimely rains, ete., and that it is hopeless sneer’ to aed the , think we should bee this work by ‘selecting a few very a ttime. We y had very esults with this m ethod of convincing —— of the agar * “setting rid of t gh wotrwt Later we can the services 0 age District Boards and Co- ocean Credit Societion t in he Earcockle differs from all tine wheat diseases in the aman in that cases have occu aak in which individual farmers have lost most of their crop for several years in succession by its ra vages. This fact ap it out as by far the most deadly wheat disease in the province. be glad of Is any information regarding its occurrence, etc., in her parts of India. Drainage and crop | eorccanpa in India.—By A. Howarp and G. L. C. How One of the factors which rane p production over large areas of the monsoon fed area of India is detective drainage. In the oS of 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. . ev India this arises either from surface waterlogging or by the limitation of percolation brought about by the rise of the ground water. The effect of this on growth and root development is discussed and some recent results with Java indigo are described in detail. The wider aspects of drainage in- volve the employment of engineers and the construction of =" Some observations of the life-history of an erotylid breed- ing in Italian millet—By P. V. Isaac. Section of Physics and Mathematics. President :—Dr. D. N. Maui, B.A., F.R.S.E. Presidential Address. REcENT ADVANCES IN PHysics AND MATHEMATICS. I beg to thank you for the honour you have done me by ae hes to preside on this occasion. en it was intimated to me that the Committee had been pleased to ask me to preside over the Physical and entire field. I knew that the task would not be an easy one. But I had not realized that it would be such a difficult—prac- tically an impossible task. ing to speak on recent advances, I naturally re- detailed = g@ 8 ia) jor + o) ot Be far) 3 fa?) 6 + 2 jor < Be =) ° ia") mM ° Lear) ch er + | oO 5 uh ~ og £ that the lead, so authoritatively given ranges in the present able position, then, for one was clear as to what had been achieved and one had a cheerful belief that the position was unassail- able. It is no longer sonow. The present position can only be described as bewildering. Physicists, at the time of Tait’s ex- w of time and space. They had also a perfect faith in mathematical symbols, so that the calculus was to them an unfailing instrument, if only it could be somehow brought to bear on physical problems, duly suggested however by experi- ments. All that is changed now. It seems in the present day that the learning and teaching of physical science 1s almost a udge at least in which ridicule is often heaped on “text books” and “‘ present-day teaching.” Things are, however, not so as evi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, any rate now a clearer apprehension. of the nature of the problem that awaits solution, than in Tait’s time. The recent advances, accordingly, are real, even although every physical concept, nay every notion that was formerly regarded as funda- mental has had to be re-discussed and no final pronouncement is as yet possible on their true nature. orce, for instance. Its objectivity was implicitly acknowledged, not merely in text books but scientific discus- a proper investigations it is legitimate to proceed on the postulate of physical existence of forces. ‘To say’ (says Larmor) “that force is a mere figment of the imagination ..... is to assume a scientific attitude that is appropriate for an intelligence that surveys the totality of things.” And accordingly, we find that the latest form of the Electron Theory, for instance, pro- e on the admission, not that we know what force is but a we can identify and thus take cognisance of it, objec- tively. We have, thus, an indication of how our scientific ideas are undergoing re-adjustments, and there are many others Some of these we shall have to refer to in due course. Broadly stated, however, the great general problem of modern Physics, as I conceive it, is the i and the processes associated with it. This appears to be the meaning of the following extract from Sir Joseph Larmor. Referring to the title of his paper read at the Congress of hematicians at Cambridge in 1912, on the “ Dynamics of Rediation,” he says :— 1919.| The Sixth Indian Science Congress. evii ‘The subject of this title is co-extensive with the whole range of the physics of imponderable agencies. For, if it is correct to say with Maxwell that all radiation is an electro- a as ; established by the operation, on the molecules of those bodies, of fields of force which are propagated in free space as radia- tion and in accordance with the laws of radiation from one body to the other.”’ As the simplest illustration of an electro-magnetic field, we may take the region in the neighbourhood of a wire carry ing current (as well as inside it). There is flow of electriciiy, , attendant effects, essentially associated with it. And even without know- ing the intimate nature of electricity, flow of electricity, mag- netism, and magnetic effects, we may well call this an electro- magnetic field. Another, a less simple one, would be the field due to a con- denser, charged in the usual way by a frictional machine or a voltaic cell, . in particular, the dielectric region between the two conducting surfaces. The sum total of effect is to stati- cally charge the condenser, but when the intimate nature of the eres is analy zed, one is constrained to admit that there is a “movement” across the dielectric, in the samé sense as there i vement in a wire carrying current. For, if the difference of potential between the plates is_ suffi- ciently increased, there is set up a measurable current with or without luminosity (an electric discharge, silent or lumin- ous). Across the dielectric, therefore, one may describe the effect as that of peice displacement, completing the electric circuit, as in an inary wire circuit. It follows, according- ly, that the siahis effect observed is of the nature of a convec- tive equilibrium, so that a charged condenser is to be regarded also on this view as giving rise to an electro-magnetic field. And if this is granted, there would be no reason for deny- ing that any so-called electrostatic field is also in reality an electro-magnetic field, even though no direct magnetic effect may be Npaesteegh in i nother illustration, we may again take a condenser, dain or : discharge e it, at intervals. It can be directly proved that the discharge is oscillatory, and the period of oscillation can be calculated ow, as we know, by suitable arrange- ments, the effect of this oscillatory discharge can be detected d - - is thus taken up by the field or the medium and induces oscil- tory movement, thousands of miles away, the practical'reali- zation of which represents the latest triumphs of wireless tele- graphy. ~ eviii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, As to the properties of iain field, there is one fact that is RO her known e medium does take part in the transfer- ence of energy, a and so doe the luminiferous medium through which the vibratory energy of which light is known to consist is transmitted from the source to the eye of the observer. Are the two mediums identical ? Since the velocity of propaga- tion of an electromagnetic disturbance (of which an oscilla- tory discharge is the source) is equal to the velocity of propaga- tion, and high frequency electric oscillations are attended with luminosity of pt te conductors, only one answer to this periments, undertaken in an attempted verification of the theoretical provisions of Maxwell. To these, therefore, a brief reference will be necessary Briefly stated Maxwell's theory amounted to this. The displacement. Now, if electromotive intensity is assumed to be proportional we electric displacement, the never energy of the field can be written down as a volum ral, in terms of élebteio Mplnsebdans. The elovtioiingnetic energy can, in the same way, be expressed as a volume integral, in terms of magnetic induction. Assuming further, that the former is potential energy and the latter kinetic, energy, by the application of a general dynamical principle, called the Principle of Least Action, the equations of motion of an electric disturbance can be obtained sce ‘ere are found to be meg it to transverse wave propagat well was thus led to conclude that ‘tlie electromag- netic field and the luminiferous medium are “identical.” His now being reviewed, in terms of the latest theories. “To fill all space,”’ said Maxwell, “ with a new medium, whenever any new phenomenon is to be explained is by no means philosophical; but if the study of the different branches has independently suggested the idea of a medium and, if the properties which must be attributed to the medium, ous medium, in order to account for the phenomenon of light, the evitieae for the physical existence of the medium will be considerably strengthened.” And this evidence appeared to direc rye ste eagag it will fee ‘dbtieable | for us to examine briefly, in d 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. cix It should be noted here that there is an exact concordance , of There is one suggestion supplied by this concordance, however, which may be of far-reaching importance. In order that Mac- the medium. This may accordingly be taken to be implied in the electromagnetic theory on Maxwell’s scheme, so that the medium postulated therein, cannot be that of a stagnant ether. A further point emerges from this concordance that is also worthy of note. It is assumed in Maxwell’s theory that the electrostatic energy is potential and electromagnetic energy is kinetic. On the above concordance, therefore, the potential energy is due to molecular rotation. And if, further, we agree that this molecular rotation corresponds to a vertical spin, we must be disposed to agree that the so-called potential energy is also in reality kinetic. Thus, when a body is charged, a subtle ethereal motion must be conceived to be induced in the field, surrounding it, (and inside it), and the corresponding kinetic energy would then account, partly or wholly, for the static energy—so-called —of the electrostatic field. Again, when radiation is propagated through the (ethereal) medium, the propagation is associated with convected momen- tum of the field, which accounts for the entire energy of this radiation. It is this momentum which seems to appear in Poyn- energy. This would indicate that the entire energy concerned in the propagation of radiation is entirely kinetic and, in this event, the intrinsic energy postulated above must also be entirely kinetic. If this be so, the ethereal medium in free space may prove to be neither stagnant nor immobile. may have relation to the propagation of gravitation, in the nature, conceivably, of longitudinal waves, propagated with very high velocities. At the time Tait wrote his recent advances, the doctrine of energy had been placed on what then appeared to be a firm ex Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, footing—summarized in the two laws of thermodynamics. But on the ultimate nature of this energy, there was hardly set on foot a single enquiry. It was recognized, no doubt, that the intimate nature of potential energy required investigation, but it application of thermodynamics has suggested the discon- through the medium and magnetic effects associated with them. The questions that are pertinent and have been the subject matter of recent investigations, is what is it that moves in the ‘charged’ bodies and in the medium, and what properties must be postulated regarding the latter? We have had, according: ly, the hypotheses of two fluids and one fluid to explain the en, to its mathematical conclusions, in Maxwell’s theory. Basing his views on the Faraday-Maxwell theory of stress in the medium, Sir O. Lodge briefly answered the first of the questions in his Modern Views of Electricity, by saying that it was the ether. Ether in static stress is according to Sir O. Lodge static electricity, ether in motion is current electricity, ether in vibra- tory motion is concerned in the propagation of the electro- dynamic disturbance which constitutes radiation generally, while ether in vortical spin is magnetism. This was an interesting way of bringing out the relations between the different aspects of the field which seemed, at the time, wholly justifiable, but since then important modifications have been called for, both on experimental and theoretical un For it was at once seen that the simple theory of Maxwell, modified in some particulars by Hertz, was capable of explaining only the more simple optical phenomenon of ordinary reflection, refraction, and double refraction but could render no ‘Satisfactory account of metallic reflection, dispersion and aber- electrostatic unit, which was, at its inception, a mere matter of definition i 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. exi conception of imponderables was foreign to the prevailing scientific belief, Maxwell’s pronouncement on the intimate fluid, there is , as yet, no experimental evidence to show whether the electric current is the current of a material substance or a double current or whether its velocity is great or small.” had, in fact, > i to measure the inertia of electricity but without success. Evidently, a more refined process was necessary as that which he employed. This has now been accomplished and we now know that: the unit charge of electri- city is about 4'5 x 10-'" electrostatic unit, the unit of negative charge, having a mass of about 8°8 x 10- 38 gramme (under the conditions of the experiment for its determination), while the unit of positive oe has a mass, comparable to that of an ordinary material atom. The postulate of an absolute unit of charge is, in fact, implicitly contained in the statement of Faraday’s laws of a ode, It is, a priori, evident, therefore, that this is the smallest quantity of electricity that takes part in electrical phenomena and has, therefore, as Helmtolz pointed out in 1880, the characteristics of an atom or absolute unit of electricity. Measurements under this and other conditions have established its identity as an invariable change. And, if we call it the electron, we must conceive an atom showing no electrical pro- perties as the result of combination of one or more electrons with what may fittingly be called a certain number of positive particles. This would then amount to the statement that elec- a Pore phoresis rays, which follow a straight path, n exii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV. matter where the anode is placed, and are deflected by a magnet. When these are reflected by an aluminum shield, the resulting change of momentum yields the ethereal pulse which is held to be propagated as X-rays. It is believed that such a discharge tube contains electrons, positive particles, and neutral particles, existing in varying proportions under varying conditions of pressure and electric intensity, and as such has supplied a fruit- ful field of inquiry as to their properties. ven more remarkable than this is the behaviour of radio- active substances. It has now been established beyond mess that they spontaneously suffer disintegration, giving off t so-called a-rays which are charged helium atoms carrying iis units of ocmive charge, B-rays which are electrons possessing much greater velocities than the cathode rays generally and y-rays which are of the nature of the X-rays. We have thus in solids, liquids and gases, which may be taken to be different types of singularities of the electro-mag- netic field, agglomerations of less complex structure, the pro- perties of which are intimately connected with those of the electro-magnetic field which modern Physics is attempting to decipher The same postulate of an electron, as a physical entity, was arrived at by Lorentz and Larmor, on theoretical grounds. It is indeed implicitly contained in Maxwell’s theory. He gives two equations involving electric displacement ; one apparently appropriate to free ether, the _ to media containing free electricity. When this is interpreted in terms of the electron theory, it is found that the total: current (which is subject to the condition that the current of an incompressible fluid must satisfy) is found to be made up of a polarization current and an electronic current or current due to electrons in motion. It is further found that it is not necessary to regard magnetism as a separate entity at all but a condition of the ethereal medium ceive, in fact, issuing from the source of electro-magnetic energy, Faraday tubes which move through the medium at right angles to themselves along the line of energy-flow, with the velocity of light, as an essential constituent of the pheno- menon of radiation. And we may explain the associated pro- perties of magnetism by saying ‘‘that the disturbance 3 the i of ether exerts influence in the same general kind of way pressure, involved in the inertia of moving anid, con- mis the motion of the vortices or solid bodies which are 1919.] The Siath Indian Science Congress. exiii immersed in the fluid” or are travelling in it. The familiar example in hydro-dynamics, of motion of a sphere or a cylinder through a frictionless fluid will occur to all. The hypothesis of electrons may seem to that extent to be a modification of the generalized statement of Lodge. But it appears that the mass of an electron is—partly at least—to be attributed to its motion, while as to the charge, nothing more is so far known except that it may well be associated with a vortical spin. . Moreover, since the electron is a constituent of a material atom, the mass of a material particle as well as the which will naturally modify speculations on these lines. O i dea of energy, may account for many outstanding problems such as the bright line spectra of incandescent gases ; but without entering into these details, it is not difficult to see that suc a theory, if it proves acceptable, will profoundly modify our entire con- ception of the processes operating in the electro-magnetic field. For, if we must accept the operations of finite forces in effect - ing changes in the field, we have to admit that we can be cognizant of time, only as durations and intervals, as small as we like, but not as the continuously flowing quantity of Newton. exiv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV. The question of aberration raises difficulties of another kind. When star places were accurately observed, Bradley found that they all appeared to describe small ellipses parallel to the ecliptic and to complete a cycle in a year. It was, therefore, a priori, evident that the observed motion was only apparent and must be due to the motion of the observer, carried by the earth in its motion round the sun. On the Undulatory theory, however, the explanation naturally presented a difficulty, as the operation of the medium ad necessarily to be taken into account. An explanation he effect in Fizeau’s experiments, depending as it did on the velocity of the medium (water), gave no information as to the velocity of the earth. (Relative to the constant ethereal , if any, will depend on the square of earth’s velocity, relative to the ether. This is the principle of Michelson and Morley’s celebrated experiments, but no such effect has actually been observed. Th s, the conclusion is either that the ether of space is moving with the velocity of the earth, which is evidently untenable, or that there is some compensating cause which leads to the null-effect observed. 1919.]} The Sixth Indian Science Congress. cxv If, for instance, as was suggested by Fitzgerald, either of the tubes contracts in the process of the experiment by a suitable amount, a contraction which will again require explanation in its turn, the null-effect is cage but if this is the case it follows that it will not be ible, by means of any such experiment, to find this slative velocity, if it exists at all. Moreover, experiments show that no optical, electrical or mechanical effects are observable that can be ascribed to the contraction, on Fitzgerald’s hypothesis, so that there must be causes nullifying the effect of contraction, as deep-seated as e mechanism of these phenomena themselves. We have seen that neither Maxwell’s simple theory nor Hertz’s modifi- cation of it for a moving media is competent to account for aberration, even up to first order effects, as observed in s experiments. With the help of the electron theory, however, the Fresnel formula can be obtained on the simple postulate that the total differential with regard to time, involves the velocity of the moving medium, as in hydro dynamics. ut in order to explain the null- effect of Misheleon and Morley’s experiments, we have to adopt the procedure of Lorentz and Larmor. This is to transform the equations of the electro-magnetic field, in terms of new co-ordinates referred to moving origin; the new X, Y, Z, T being related to the the equations remains unchanged. This requires not only that the new co-ordinates should involve To, but that the new T should involve Xo, Yo, Zo. This amounts to the assumption that the charge of an electron and the associated magnetic field are invariants for all such transformations. It is then found that the Fitzgerald contraction can be explained as well as the various null effects, already referred to. An altogether different and novel pee here of these has this form, the principle does, by no means, appear to be new. But the special implication contained in the principle is that time in the moving system depends on the time as well as the corresponding scan ah emmy of the first cog as in the exvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, viz. that the velocity of light propagation is the same, what- ever the frame of reference (whether the source is at rest or in motion), and it is then found that the equations of trans- formation from #,, y,, z,, t,, to v, y, z, t, are the same as in the electron theory of Lorentz and Larmor, and the Fitzgerald-con- traction as well as other null-effects are then similarly explained. I may cite the simple case of local time which depends on the standard time as well as the position of the observer. Of this, Kinstein’s conclusion may be held to be a generalisation based are ultimately based on an optical method, and a r dards depend on the velocity of light. Since, therefore, any uncertainty in thi ld introduce a complete uncertainty into the entire range of our experience, Einstein’s postulate of constant light velocity, which also enters as a constant in Lorentz and Larmor’s equations, seems to be a priori justified. The justification of a theory is best measured by its power to explain outstanding problems, and accordingly an attempt has been made to apply the theory of relativity to explain several phenomena of this nature. I shall refer to two of these : ted with relativity phenomena Since, then, however, he has made further researches and he now writes to me to say that it is now certain that the red shift on the sun is not even in - part due to Einstein effect. argued on the other side that a suitable modification of the New- tonian theory is competent to yield the same result also, It does not appear, in fact, that a final pronouncement on the point is as yet possible. __It must be admitted, however, that the future is rich with possibilities for this theory. If this is so it suggests a difficulty, which though serious does not seem to be insur- mountable. For it seems to indicate that any two frames of reference, are equally valid frames of reference, no matter how they are moving relatively to each other provided the unique condition as to the constancy of light velocity is satisfied, with 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. exvil reference to them. If one of these frames of reference be situated in the ethereal medium, supposed to be the same as the electromagnetic field, this apparently leads to the conclu- sion that the ether may be supposed to be moving with any arbitrary velocity, whatsoever. Now various lines of arguments seem already to point to the conclusion that the electro-magnetic field, if identified with an e 1 medium cannot be held altogether to be either inert or immobile. There is the intrinsic (kinetic) energy of the field to be accounted for, as well as the property of the medium as a carrier of momentum of radiation. And as to 4 oe a) fae) bs = 5 a 5 5 n @ 5 — oO bar | 2) ° a 5. Qu 2 5 =} or a eed tA 5 et ° 2 = ro) = = ia?) B re 7 . c cal discussion of all physical measurements, a careful study of the exact meaning of continuity of functions, of limit, of infinity, have removed much vagueness and want of precision that previously obtained. The theory of Fouriers series, for instance, in its original form and much subsequent applications took, as we know, much for granted. An enquiry has been successfully instituted in recent times as to the extent to which these assumptions are valid, and this has led to a clear understand- ing of a function of a real variable, of convergency and of deal with similar functions in three or four dimensions, we may well look for important generalisations of the theory from the point of view of modern physics. ae Again it may be well to remember that application of exviii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, mathematics to physics is based on the postulate that physical problems can be expressed by differential equations. But it is now recognized that our knowledge as to the possibility of solving differential equations is of the most meagre description. An inquiry into the subject, which has been largely undertaken in recent years, is of immediate physical interest though it is generally classed under pure mathematics. same way, a new investigation has been under- he question of the stability of the solar system, has immediate and pressing interest to the physical enquirer. Talking of the foundations of the dynamical theory, I cannot omit to refer to the change of Method due to G. W. Hill and others, whereby planetary and lunar theories have under- from a xed orbit, and this has introduced a remarkable sim- ones | into the treatment of celestial mechanics. A group is a set of operations, which is closed, in the same sense that the performance of any two of these operations in succession is equivalent to another operation of the set. We know, for instance that the result of a successive translation and rotation of a rigid body is equivalent to a single movement. And it is clear even to the uninitiated like most of us that the subject is likely to be fruitful on both the physical and mathe- matical side. as to the theory of numbers it is only _ Recessary to mention that men of highest mathematical genius, such as Gauss and Dirichlet, who are also among the founders 1919.) -. The Sixth Indian Science Congress. cxix of Mathematical Physics, have devoted their energies to the elucidation of the mysteries of numbers, which, indeed, enter truth we seek but form part of a greater whole. If we do so, and in so far as we do so, our quest can never prove either meaningless or barren of results. Quantum peat of electric discharge.—By D. N. Maik and A. B. D. On i e quantum i eory, the energy of a vibrating system is a quan- tity which depends only on the wave lengths of the rapt ogre r the t in mt gas as those obtaine t relationship between the _ free path, the cathode of potential, as well as the minimum potential difference requi ired for a spark and this energy is also considered. The curved paths of ts balls and curling stones.— By . Wat R.S com ecoentrici tie ret most acat - objects used in our e na the is bathe ‘Aon rling pres will, OP the ice is not much below the freezing point, curve on flat ice to the right or left according as it is rotating clockwise or counter-clockwise. The Splanbetis is hg n to ina paradoxical behaviour of the friction aan is less on the foreerd than ward half of alth f side is greater: and this is due to the property of ice of melting under sufficient pressure, the property which renders eating possible. Earth-air current at Patna.—By V. H. Jackson and K. N. ANERJEE. Most of the measurements of the earth-air current a recorded have been made by eye observations only, which are necessarily limited in number. In consequence, very little is known Fr maa the diurnal exx Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, and annual variations. Automatic fig of the atmospheric conduc- tivity and pote: eg koe frecirat have been employed by Kahler at Potsdam and Dorno at Davos in order to Miscin the current. A more direct auto- = ne - pla o o the air and kept a © potential was devised by Simpson at Simla, but his pee Sai aeler toa ear of only ten phi in the month of Novem Owing t iflealtive connected with the water-dropper and with the insulation of the large plate necessary in this arrangement, the authors i by Pp ter e — one volt by the introduction a —- capaci ty, and is measured by itive Dolowslak electrometer, the deflections being + recorded photogeaphica lly. The variation of tnt potential gradient, which intro- due cting factor, is recorded by a Benndorf nage hale and pa roa iaflestor The authors give details of the final form of the arrangement, which was adopted in August 1918, and i agony the results of a reliable prelimi- nary series extending over the wh of the months February to May 1917 uar ri i i ' rnoon. e mea 10~'8 amp. ney is rather lower than most of the ook G5 whi ch oe been obtained else- where, but there are indications that as in the case of the pers the eatth-air current at Patna senchae its minimum in the month of April A method of measuring 8 parity of gold-leaf electro- —— —By A. T. Mux The Se te for saa . alti electrometer for accurate work, devised by V H. Jackson and the present author (continuation of , and shown in otential, ne volt. As the capacity of the quadrant system can be varied by othe sliding ¢ con- denser, the capacity of the electrose can epics easured at different voltages. There is a small but definite increase of capacity with voltage. The method is compared with those of Lester Cooke (Phil. Mag. Vol. 6, 1903, page 410) and T. Barratt (Proc. Phys. = peti it dh thus Loft pages 162-171). The Secours of a small &@-ray electroscope c about 100 volts ~ hip easured by the three ihethade with the ‘Bitiow: ing results :—Pre pei ee 0°78 +°01, Lester Cooke’s method, as im- proved by the cae: 0. ‘754-01, and Barratt’s method 0°73 + ‘03 E.8.U, Some observations of the ionisation of the air in India.— By A. SrricuEen In the years 1917 and tos I examined th e ionisation of the air in 5 different places in India. I had a double whpees in view when beginnin 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. Cxxi the work. al first object was to get ica 1 values of the ioni- sation of the in India, as only very little is ‘known of the air in pelle climates. My second object was to yeehorrs se in- fluence of the nature of po Bits on the rit od a the a My pla of observation were chos o as to suit this double object. Gearenions were made in the following Tocalit ties :— 1. Bombay and Khandala, in at aust Trap (basalt), 2. Mt. rele in the Ascneeet S 3. Tumrikop, in the Dharw ag 9 sediments), 4, Anand, in the Alluvium (Pleis tocene), I consider my work to be still Sotpudane and I intend to continue it in some more places. Summary of Results. 1. E has been ie in 5 different places 2. Asarule E> Hor _E= E nearly, only comannee: 4B< _ E. 3. In certain places as at certain times in fi ame place Ham. 7 Ep.m,, in other pl aces Eam. < The ine tity depends much on the ake of the air as to smoke, Saat; Riera pier et of the wind in ee and in the afternoon. s more affected be — of the air ea +E. 5, Great and rapid changes were obse bgoieey of the difierenies in Sern ae on ‘E has been observed ndala in Boinba t Kha a. "Be the air coming from the peager seems to possess a ye Bot okey Beane clot charge than that coming from t The © of the humidity of ee air on —G is obliterated in boos b other “uncontrollable factors. the the rock and soil in a district seems to affect E considerably. A new form of ae plate interferometer —By H. Para- MESWARA IYE hort account is given of experiments made with a eee — Fa a Sacra formed by a seis of liquid on top of a layer of mercur A scientific definition of the consistence of mortar.—By R. S. CREE Brown. Nebo on whic e crushing strength very rede epen odift cation of the Vicat needle is describ reby a cone, weig ated with mmes, i wered into a of the mortar m. thick. The gr S, 1 1 distance from the point of the cone to the base of the specimen, when equilibrium is estab ished, is read e eall sistence Number. It is shown to vary inversely with the quantity of mortar. he meaning of this number is further analysed, and its connection with the ‘* Hardness Number” of Brinell and arrvigarterr is shown. navapalben ith = apparatus the Hardness Number of fres angie made mortar can tained to the same scale as the hardness number for steel. The ree meaning of this number is discu Mutual potential —By D. N. Matrix. for mutual In a former Pepet the — oie se n expression tential in the form of an al involving surface elements with pon ener da The present caaete deals pur further vere ares of the same formula. exxii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, On the fundamental law of electrical action.—By M. N. SaHa. pon e time component) obtained by the phat is differe tion that i b r he n ta are then deduced from the Principle of Least ion. Tt i is t pages wn that the i Sr cea ebtained are simply a different form of ra “Min kow- skian Equati On some problems of spectral Boece M. N. Sana. ctr helium is next ¢ It is ray ai in the light of the quantum nS the problems classified :—(i) problems of general a i e. emission yen a system contain- 0 atomic systems combined in a molecular gri ah wale with the quanta-conditions have also been inNaitigpace Notes on some newly designed physical apparatus.—By - N. Marrra. The paper contains a short descri iptive ae oe of aie g ee ments specially designed and made for lect e demonstrat (i) a differential ialuoene, (ii) a hydodynasiie ti m sas for sowie flow of heat along a bar hea © end, (iii) apparatus for exploring the perature tient along a hot bar, (iv) demonst tion apparatus for showing conductivities of r, ifferent metals, (v) a p r com- paring thermal conductivities by a null ethod, (vi) apparatus for show- ing the adiabatic heating of uddenly tehed Indi ber, (vii) apparatus to show a contraction of stretched I ubber on : oO ad of 1 - iegoug and gas tourniquet, (x) appeceins to show the convection of i oe aclge ®& Hew ase of anne and (xii) an apparatus to investigate the 1919. | The Sixth Indian Science Congress. CXXili A new coefficient of correlation with applications to some — and sociological data.—By P. C. Mauwa NOB Section of Chemistry. President :—F. L. Usner, Esa., B.Sc. (Presidential Address). A ReEvIEwW OF THE EvIDENCE FOR TRANSMUTATION, To form a sound and dispassionate judgment on a con- troversial matter while the evidence on both sides is still in course of production, is a task that requires a rare critical faculty to which few can lay claim. Four years have, however, elapsed since the last contribution was made to the subject of the supposed apices of the elements, and there are several reasons why I now venture to offer some remarks on it. One is that, a some at least, the contemplation of a little pure chemistry will be a welcome. diversion amid the plethora of industrial problems that have lately, been our portion ; another th reason is the great interest which the subject itself must have r the chemist, chiefly, perhaps, because “é ao to his Sia sinatlees as much as na his intellectual fac The evidence for transmutation is of =i sind, observa- of the difficultiesin the way of accepting such evidence as may be fortheoming By observational evidence I mean —. that certain elements have appeared as the result of some natural change, under circumstances which preclude the possibility of their having been imported, ready-made, from another place ; or of their having been present unobserved prior to the final obser- vation. The only observational evidence which we need consider at present is, first, that which is based on spectroscopic ex- amination of the celestial bodies, and, secondly, that which of the phenomena of radioactivity. Few chemists who have given any thought to the matter are likely to reject the con- clusion that transmutation of the elements—what has been nebulae, such a conclusion appears to be inevitable. There is, if possible, even less doubt about the degradation of the radio- attive elements, which can be observed by the chemist within exxiv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, the limits of his own laboratory. The outstanding feature of these transformations is their entire independence on any con- ditions which it has been within human power to impose, and it must be admitted that this indifference to all the charms in the repertoire of the modern chemist and physicist can hardly be considered a favourable omen for their attempts to carry out a process similar to one over which they cannot exercise the smallest control. Nevertheless such attempts have been made, and if no definite conclusions are apparent, the reason lies rather in the difficulty of interpreting the meaning of the experiments, than in any doubt regarding the results. I propose to pass over the earliest work, done by Cameron and Ramsay in 1907, on the production of lithium from copper ca by the action of radium emanation, not because their sults have been proved to be of no significance, but because soins of error which they did not suspect were afterwards discovered, and because no positive results have been obtained when those sources of error were absent. The neat at he ages of helium, the detection of which was the object of e experiment, was doubtful, but a gaseous substance which condensed in liquid air to a snow-white solid was observed. It appeared to be carbon dioxide, but was not further examined. c.c. of carbon dioxide. After 168 more days 1-08 c.c. of carbon dioxide was found. At this pre ‘ control experiment was set up, consisting of a solution of 3 0 grams of mercuric nitrate contained in a similar flask ite pike a in exactly the same way. From the 14th August, 1907, to the 30th March, 1908, 1:209 c.c. of carbon dioxide was obtained from the thorium nitrate solution, and 0-015 c¢.c. from the mercuric nitrate. On the 9th February, 1909, a further quantity of carbon dioxide, amounting to 0°622 c.c. was recovered. Thus the same solution of thorium nitrate had given off cies 4 c.c. of carbon dioxide, in a little less than three years, and showed no signs of stopping. Among the various possible explanations of the origin of the carbon dioxide, which I will refer to presently, is the one which postulates a degradation of the element thorium, under 1919. ] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. CXxv the influence of its own radiations, to the lowest member of the group. If this explanation were correct, it should be pos- sible to obtain carbon from thorium, and possibly from other curous nitrate were performed at the same time. In these obtained varied directly with the atomic weight of the element treated, except in the case of lead, which furnished only ‘013 ¢ t will be noticed that the suggestion here is that thorium from an ny known natural radioactive process. It is true that the adioactiv to the helium group, are partially. transformed into helium, the | Aeon member, but this of helium. The experiments are, however, to be judged on their merits. Whence comes the —. Excluding for the possible s sources. The first may be rejected, since the amounts of carbon dioxide found seal correspond with a leakage of air very many times greater than the capacity of the vessels used. The solutions employed were all acid, and so could not absorb carbon dioxide selectively ; ep were prepared with extreme care, under conditions which sec red the absence or the des- shown that small amounts of this gas can be evolved persist- ently from carefully cleaned glass vessels under bombardment by cathode rays, and presumably also under the action of the radiations we are consideri In this connection it is perti- nent to call attention to two points: first, that no carbon dioxide or monoxide could be found in the gases from mercurous exxvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, nitrate ; sn mee that glass itself contains silicon, one of the elem which the transmutation hypothesis regards as being sae of degradation to carbon. A strong argument against the absorption explanation is that the internal surface of the vessel at the end of an experiment must have been these experiments furnish a strong case for further investiga- tion, ye with the use of quartz vessels, and that mean- e impression left on the mind of an unprejudiced critic is at unfavourable to the hypothesis of transmutation. e come now to a series of investigations on the produc- tion of two inactive gases, helium and neon, as transmutation passed over because the precautions observed were not such as were subsequently found to be necessary. We md therefore, start with the observational evidence recorded by Ramsay in mainly of nitrogen, and contained in addition 0-726 % of argon, 0°233% of neon, and 0°030% of helium. The corresponding figures for atmospheric air are: argon 0°932, neon 0°012, and helium 0:0004. The inactive gases in the water may have been derived from the atmosphere, or by radioactive changes. The only known source of argon and neon is atmospheric air, whereas helium is one of the commonest products of radioactive change. The water in question contains dissolved radium, an is saturated, coe the ae a obtaining, with emanation. The helium, which is prese nt to the extent of 73 times the amount in atmospheric air, Go certainly derived from this radium and emanation ; the argon, which amounts to three- present in air, is not so easily accounted for. If it is of atmos- pheric origin there should be a correspondingly large propor- tion of argon also: if it is not from the atmosphere it must be a product of radioactive change. In support of the latter alternative, Ramsay found that emanation which had been left to decay in an wets — of thorium nitrate, or simply in water, gave rise to n when the most stringent precau- tions were taken against tie entrance of traces of air. In one such experiment, the neon spectrum Shee ok. was more bril- liant than that of the neon from 0°5 c.c. of air, whilst the argon _ Spectrum was invisible unless a jar and spark gap were inter- posed, when the blue lines became just visible. 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. CXXVii It is evident that the crucial question is whether or not sufficient air leaked in to account for the neon observed. 2, Collie ae Ddisen. bape NET ts and ig ome "of each other’s experiments, obtained some very discharge in highly exhausted vessels. It had been shown by Ramsay in the same year that the glass of old X-ray bulbs which ad become deeply coloured through long use, gave off an appreciable quantity of helium, mixed with a trace of neon, when heated in a vacuum. Since the quantity of helium found, had it been of sige ai im origin, would have required the leakage into the bulb of 22 c.c. of air, and since the bulbs, with pu heated, it was probable, although not certain, that the inactive gases liad been generated within the bu y the electric discharge. Thus the ground was prepared, in some measure, for the later published Hasan s of Collie and Dadtatien. Collie found that fluorspar, when bombarded by cathode eye, pata chie hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and that a small rede: of neon was left after removing the other gases. A similar result was obtained on substituting ge the fluorspar some very pure calcium fluoride prepared by treating freshly burnt marble with excess of hydrofluoric acid and heating the Bastiie toa bright red heat for two hours. In another experiment care ully cl aned glass wool was used in place of the caleium in small traces. Blank experiments were made on the gases, glass, and aluminium electrodes employed, but in no case in which the discharge had not passed could any neon be detected. exxviii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, In view of — t sersoaes that the tubes themselves might be permeable to atmospheric neon while the discharge was pass- ing, the susie tube was enclosed in an outer tube, which in the usual quantity of neon, quite free from helium, was found in the inner tube; but in the one in which the outer tube had been evacuated, on washing the latter out with a little an oxygen, a residue was obtained about fifty times as great a that from the inner tube, consisting of nearly pure helium, with a trace of neon. the meantime Patterson, working independently at Leeds, had submitted pure hydrogen at very low pressures to the action of the discharge, a ad in many cases obtained the discharge obtained helium therefrom. On ing a dis- charge through the inner tube when the sbenipeee: was filled with pure oxygen at about 15 mm. pressure, neon, not helium. was obtained. The volume of the helium or neon obtained from the outer jacket, both in Collie’s and Patterson’s experi- ments, was about 1 ¢.mm., the amount iene the inner tube corresponding roughly with ‘that i in 1 ¢.c. of a The next contribution, > Merton, appeareas in the follow- ing year. Merton made use of a very simple and ingenious tus in which no ‘reautetense of the gas for examination was submitted to bombardment by cathode rays. In eight consecutive experiments, a Aero capillary tube full of mixed neon and helium at about 2 mm. pressure was obtained. For the ninth experiment a more powerful coil with a mercury break was used, and no helium or neon obtained; on reverting to the use of the old coil, these gases appeared as before. In no one of these experiments was sufficient argon present to give anything but a faint spectrum ore a nee set disc e. A general description of the types of apparatus used, and o the results obtained, was published oa ty “Collie, Patter- son and Masson in 1915. It me ‘Stated that by the rine tinum, fluoride, potassium chloride, vouiuianin iodide, rubidium ohis- with a trace of neon, whereas if no special anticathode was 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. CXXix used, neon was the main product. No helium or neon was obtained from calcium or glucinum oxi y Egerton repeated some of the sipertite which have sak " disodhad: and obtained only negative results. He also attempted to show by calculation that under the condi- tions of the experiments, it was unreasonable to expect any detectable amount of cto to be produced from hydrogen in less than about 10 years. The calculation, however, was based on certain assumptions foe the mechanism of the process, and regarding its energy requirements, in respect to both o which we know nothin o survey of this nature would be complete without refer- ence to the results obtained by Sir J. J. Thomson by his posi- tive ray method, particularly as his opinions have been cited both in support of and against the transmutation hypothesis. obtained helium from a large number of substances, many of which had been purified in such a way as to exclude the may be regarded as a model of caution, fortunately do not affect his experimental results, which are, qualitatively, similar to those of Collie. But the positive ray method is so exceed- ingly sensitive that it is better, for our purpose, 2 rely mainly on the velgis coca: previously described, in many of which the iivglidats positive ones heaps all the conditions are e known an understood. In the work under discussion this is far from be- ing the case. Those chemists who have obtained positive results have obtained still more proccie ones, under apparent- ly identical conditions. In one ance, as we have seen, a small coil with a hammer break was satfedtive when a more power- ful one with a mercury break was not. It may not be out of place to call attention to the extraordinary behaviour, recorded by Gray and Ramsay (J.C.S. Trans. 1909, 95, 1083), of a f paraffin, was placed outside the bulbs containing it, gradually ceased to evolve the gases, the weekly volume of which dwindl to 0°5 c.c., until the apparatus was removed, after which the normal rate of evolution was recovered. Attempts were m exxx Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. {N.S:, XV, to observe this remarkable phenomenon again, and although the conditions were reproduced apparently in every particular, it was never again observed. Although this incident has no radioactive processes, vs — difficulty of reproducing the full eee or of an experim regard to this nec experiments we have bee pects there has been no question of faulty observatiba? h the main or only product, the source can hardly have been at- mospheric, for the light inactive gases from air show a strong neon spectrum in which the helium is visible with difficulty. Yet in many cases, notably in the cathode ray bombardment of heavy metals and salts of caesium, rubidium, and potassium by Collie, and in some of the jacketed tube experiments o Collie and of Bhiteresi’ helium was the main product. In spite of the criticism of Soddy, it is extremely unlikely that, powder used by Collie in connection with Merton’s nd could have furnished helium in the quantities observed had it been produced by the natural radioactivity of the metal. has been observed, the helium must have been present in con- siderable quantity, for comparatively large amounts of helium may be present in neon without the spectrum of the former being visible. The possibility of the pre-existence of helium or neon in the materials used has constantly been kept in mind, and no trace of either of these gases has been detected when the hydrogen and oxygen used in the experiments were examined, nor when the glass was fused in a vacuum, and the metal elec- trodes fused or dissolved. have purposely refrained, in this brief survey, from attem mpting an any explanation of the results described, ‘becau use fu only in so far as it suggests further experimental work, in which case it may well be left to those 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. CXxxi recorded, and when we revert to normal conditions we may continuance of the experiments. Colloidal antimony preparations.—By F. L. UsHEr. Many attempts have been made to prepare stable sols of metallic antimony for medicinal use. Chemical reduction methods gave the metal in the form of a precipitate in i Me caves e, except at nitions too sat c great to be of deed ter value. By electrical dispersion gaan a ere obtained in me , ethyl, and nepropy oer ak and in methylal, and acetic aot: bu cept i of ethyl aleohol they very u e. Attempts to transfe he dispe: sed alcohol to water led to the 4 repaaly : of unstable sols. isira pe peeetely. charge d, sik wa idly oxidised by d sited air, and then coagulated owing to Acbralidation of the charge. Coagulation das took place when ai ea ex Sa eer s regards an mpo ounds, - was fesaine that Paal’s protalbic acid method is iapehntie we antimony, stable sol of the oxide could be prepared. At present sols of the aisha, of saps ioe 1 in 500, are used. They are very beable when protected with gum mie te of naphthol ethers.--By G. B. KotHaTKaR. Methyl ae mas A nee of 8 naphthol, ris ether of a naphthol, and methyl e of Seep are nydrelvie sed by . HCl on a boiling water! bath i in sealod ¢ tub ether to HCl wa ee or some Solos ated eee ig Sodantaes than the ethyl ether. The reaction being = a 0- geneous Bie the extent of hydrolysis depends mostly upon volume of = used and is only slightly affected by the amount = the ether t tai of the acid has a very aa influence on the extent of the feat te tach Condensation of benzoin with diamines.—By S. C. CHATTERJEE and B. N. GHos With the idea of preparing substituted paphiho Sipyriaiee or , Pie benzo some of the naphthyl ene diamines, using the correspon nding prin: a bedee- chlorides as condensing agents. Only in the case of 1-4 and 1-5 diamines, the reaction took place in the manner desired—a molecule of the diamine combining with two oe of benzoin with ‘the elimination of four molecules of water. There are three p ible formule for each of these substances ghn roof is available, on the strength of indirect evidence as aaee that each ‘ages atoms in both ao substances — part of a six-me' mteeed ring ontrary to expectation, t 2 diamine yield product which appears to be identioal with O. Posker s inmine akydronaphthoquinoxe- line ier, 1893, 26, 192). ntally, os reaction between benzoin and benzidine was also studied sy n this case the closing of the sine 4 gid. not take ig the compound o ined having the following structure - exxxii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [(N.S., XV, jaa NH. CH .(CgH;).CO. os | ba, attempt was made to close the ring by boiling with acetic anhy- aride but this only resulted in the formation of a diacetyl derivative. Synthesis ~ ipytenal derivatives——By A. K. Das and B. N. Guo osh and his collaborators have shown (T. 1915, 107, re TIS, 113, err that aromatic ohydroxybenzaldehyde conden with sub- stances containing the group ‘CO-CH - CO- to form Py wicks derivatives. With alkali a. pound is first obtained and this or the obtoheas substances in al- coholie ree with dry hydrogen chloride gave the desired pyranol eri he present investigation a substance of similar type such a dosoxy-benzoin Sank wekaue was taken. Here the methylene group is situat 1 and a phenyl group instead o yranol derivative was isolated by treatment with dry hydrogen chloride but the intermediate ‘salicylidene’ compound could obtained wi ka ide stituted for t ound. But ing separat- with alka an hydroxide eS with | yore ede a substance was obt a which could not be crystallized. med pe ati ar and — efore bone investigation was further to “to other. aldehydes such as anisaldehyde, png and p- CH,00,H,CH= i bo. Ph th dry hydrogen chloride under different experimental conditions a Peleg ads desoxybenzoin h nk CH;0. CsH,CH = “- Ph and (3) Bags Pacino desoxy benzo: = canta = soxybenzoin two subst benoos were isolated, na lp rd ye d (2) chloropiperony] desoxybenzoin, and Re ptoluy! aahyde “) peeled amaron and (2) qnaerocehay] desoxy- Tt i is ae es when the hydroxy tp remains free t action is retarded but if this is methylated as in anisaldehyde or 0 position taken up by a a methyl group as in prtaltiys eebede the reaction goes on in the usu Condensation a 1-phenyl-3-methy1-5- — with al co er etones.—By S. C. CHATTERJEE @ B. N. Guo Sis, tpg ectetprmacice is heated with aldehydes in molec fare ons, condensa ually takes place with the oe of water. The compounds thus obtained have the general orm 1919.] The Sixth Indian Seience Congress. CXXXiil ya rok C=CHR N Laie by CH; These substances contain ~ any -CO.C=C and are ay tad col- oured. The present paper describes how aldehydes may be m with pyrazolone, without she. vclirhins ation o are rm the ane diate additive hydroxy pamgpey which bear the same relation to the compounds of the first type aldol does to crotonaldehyde. These compounds have the general Preston Poni C3H;N CH.CH (OH).R N C.CH3 The chromophoric group ave C=C is absent in them and _ necessarily they are either colourless or at any rate — on regan than the cor- responding unsaturated uate nds, An a@ to synthesise iso denivedives from the pyrazolone and vianiiraiesen is also des- eribed ie condensation products with lpg eer and ketones have Som been prepa: and in this connection it een pointed out that the : aliphatic | poripode are much less reactive than ae of the aromatic series Note on an alkaloid in Argemone mexicana.—By D. N. CHATTERJI. Argem exicana or prickly poppy, which belongs to the pager order farrier is widely distributed in India. It is known in U.P. and the Punjab by the vernacular name Satyanash ra ls bs A ag 2 © P perties of the seeds, great diversity of opinion exists. While ‘ sidered them to be inert, many regarded them to have toxic properties in th s similar to what exists in opium, and ably morphia Whil 1 have regarded the seeds to narcotic, no 8 opinion is on record with regard to the juice of the pl obtained an alkaloid which he found to agree in reactions with morphia. My own experiments show that the seeds contain only a trace of an alkaloidal substance, a very small quantity of ich ¢ ined from the other parts of the plant. It thus fol- lows that i ve any. narcotic properties, it is improbable oe they are due to the alkaloidal substance pr nt, t hi a bstance, whic btained on extracting the whole plant in yell -white crystals, had a bitter taste, a in its eek n. Though behaving in some respects like morphine, it was fo iffer from the latter in many of its reactions. It d solved in cold or hot strong sulphuric acid with the almost immediate formation of iolet colour, whi to re after a time. eating the violet soo to blackis co of nitric acid to the sulphuric acid solution, the violet increased an n ‘ey with simultaneo formation of a - On was © green 0 the bluish green tinge with the subsequent production of — iyo found to be very characteristic of the substance under ex com- bined sulphuric and nitric acid tests may be employed ‘tor the detection exxxiv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, of this — Fol arg No other alkaloid is known to me that gives similar reaction The 0 aetna ~ Pees sesame (til) oil—By H. Rat and B. Duy “Tad: fas is used aetoc in the SS ON of soap, Indian perfumes and margarine and also as an edible The objects of the experiments Sauuieeioa were (1) to decolorise, (2) to deodorise and (3) to harden the oil by methods capable commer apyay oO Li on the subject, beyond hydrogenisation, gives no special method ris bleaching the oil. The oil w under suitable conditions, treated with several filtering materi ici, cook: as charcoal, bone charcoal, yal earth, French chalk aod the like. The effect of exposure to air and sunlight, both separately and collectively, was studied. Further, the effect of galpaucis acid and caustic soda was The fo haba conclusions were arrived at :— (1) Of a filtering materials used, bone charcoal and French cha la are teens best oe agents. All of them are in- ecti s deodoris (2) i posite. o sunlight pt brs adie improvement in colour but the odour still persi (3) troatehent with air alone inpeewes ‘the colour but the odour is not remove (4) Exposure to both air and sunlight combined has a very marked seat on Pgs colour. The odour, though not absent, is not (5) Sulphate ¢ acid reduces the colour very slightly, but the odour practically pendg em (6) Caustic soda acts both as a very good decolorising and a deodorising i. (7) In _ abe: blaagned alps the colour more or less comes back ing for a long period (8) Gu: heating all the deodori med sampl es, the odour becomes perceptible. On cooling, Sawacie. it disappears. Note on a new method of preparing nitrogen.—By H. Rat. Nitrogen gas may be readily p ed by passing an electric current through an am ee a chloride solcticns with platinum foil electrodes, the a and the cathode mbers bein Air is excluded from the electrolytic cell eee connecting an ure nit in cent of oxygen. It should, however, be colle ced eh over caustic soda solution so as to absorb any cane gas that may possibly be mixed with it Thi ords and ready met geod” ig the aap anata a a con- tinuous dioely of tite 5 bikkteon. Studies on the dependence of optical rotatory power o emical oe Part I—By B. K. Sinen me J. K. Mazump Frankland in 1896 (T. a ee) ree that the order of rotatory power of position isomerides shou ortho < unsubstituted nucleus < meta < para. This theory was again revived by him in 1912 in his Presidential Address to the Chemical Society cr 101, 634). With the object of testing 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. CXXXV eeity of this theory, several series of new compounds have: been ex- ned; it is found that in no case is Frankland’s pil sade out by Deine omie Ss. The effect of conjugation on rotatory power is also studied. Salts of porphyroxin.—By J. N. wining hick An alkaloid, laa acne has been state of purity from Indian opium and its hydrochloride, chloroplatinto, hydrobromide, hy- droiodide, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, acetate xalate, tb Tat ‘aieabe: and picrate have been prepared and their piaper tisk studie The resolution of the systems: nitric acid—sulphuric acid —water and nitric acid—water on an industrial scale.— G. 8. BUTLER. The crear etnias considerations underlying pee resolution are briefly outlined. A description is given of the manufac fend processes hitherto used for effectin 2 this resolution, followed by an unt of an experi- mental investigation into the processes both in the laborateey and on the large scale. The outs aceaat a of the —— si oer are pointed out : ; afin n of y an experimental re: a reser guided the pao in designing an improved process and plan An account follows of extensive experiments on a Seragueatastibineg poset re) parvereh the conclusions petewan arrived at and leading up to the design of a large scale industrial plan An improved process and apparatus for obtaining on an industrial scale concentrated nitric acid from liquors in Mate red acid is present together with water.— By G.S. Ru TL : ign working of the ae and pinta are ba upon the nrjaepies es- tablished in the a s S first pene The process is a continuous one an ing the concentration of sulphuric acid in the plant gf by t wg and the separation of nitric acid from very weak aqueous shod tio The diazo-transformations of amino-coumarins.—By B. B. ev and H. Dalal. In course of an ee. be the orientation of the halogen atoms in Bani ated and brominated coumarins, several chloro-, bromo-, o-, and cyano-coumarins ‘iste ve sw pei red by the diazo-reaction from different sriciasrocmaadinl ana amino- Lope Ae nly a few of these are known, having been synthesised from the corresponding salicylaldehydes by the Pe ik reaction; the yield obtained, however, — very _. hardly re 3 per cent of the possible. The pr ribed in paper serves as an excellent method of pbtansnas good Haide of the asad in a piren of purity. A theory of valency based on the Ss la of organic compounds of the elements. ——By exxxvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, The examination of the potash nen if mi the ashes of Indian indigenous plants.— . NEo uthor draws attention to the fact that acs in the form of fend dikar has been prepared in India from tim © immemorial by burn- of ashes of these plants have been analyzed and their potash content d mone with a view to their use for the manufacture of cihiale titi the “The enolisation of carbonyl compounds under the influence of Grignard’s reagents.—By V. K. Buaavat and J. J. ae UGH. at 904 Hibbert and Sudborough showed that an amy] ether solution lb methyl iodide produces sae ations enolisation in the case a gr te acetoacetate, the volume of me © measured corresponding ith enol Jtey The action of the same reagent towards various aldehydes, ketones tonic esters has been studied by determining the volume of olyl ben n ehyde, n butaldehyde, isobutalde yde, isovaleraldehyde, cinnamic dehyde, ethyl coe ethyl acetosuccinate, benzoylacetone, acetylacetone. The onaggeoene ae of glycerine by means of castor seed lipase.—By J. J. Supporoven, H. E. Watson and P. A. VaRM The ors have studied the action of castor seed lipase on cotton oil vith the object of obtaining the best condition for using the process for the manufacture of a e glycerine in India. iments e French, German patents have bee eriments show that a concentrated crude gl rine, which com- These glyce pares favourably with undistilled Twitchell glycerine, can be obtained by a agp of the French method. Details of methods of treating the oil and the roan wl and of the quo Pp nies of the sweet li r before concen are given Questions of optimum ye at one of co-ferments are mr e ° — he opinion that the castor seed at method should be able t tiated with the Twitchell process for the manufac- ture of Podioests oth of free fatty acids for use in soap and pele re aking. : These + ana peed out with an apparatus, which is spe- cially ial for _ purpose, and which i is based on the principle of the the unequal aenicuies of adsorption i in the two bulbs on both sides of the manometer, _are measured by effecting certain volume changes neces- sary to re-establish the equilibrium. These changes are effected in a cali- co! ; It is shown that the pa se on which the successful working of the apparatus is based, does not depend on the knowledge of the equation of state of the gas ‘alier tarsisteots on and it holds to the first approxima- tion for any gas law. 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. CXXXVii asurements are made at the + page of — air, viz. —190°C and at various pressures between 25 mm. and 350 the quan- tities of hydrogen adsorbed, at these eis Pressure, by 100 sq. em. of rtz surface, and r educed to N.T.P., being 2-0 c.mm. and 10°5 c.m ve It is observed that rq scuetey low pressures there is a finite adsorp- tion of 2 c.mm., and it i nrg eon this effect is similar to the effect of fixed adsorption in the 6 e of char Ds The results of these pened aieesesiaps e used in the calculation of the necessary correction to a hydr ogen gasthermometer made out of quartz : p 90°C the magnitude of the correction is very 8 mall. imilar experiments are being continued on nitrogen and other gases and at various othas tempera A note on the inna power of cocoanut charcoal.— By H. KB. Wat ts | I made to determine the amount gas adsorbed by diate of ppg charcoal made at various tempera An apparatus has been designed suitable for a oid test for com- mercial purpo oy It is found tha a adsorption of a a weight of charcoal increases with the temperatur which it is made, that is to say it increases as the quantity of volute matter decre a. Derivatives of gallic eg. eaten note.—By R. L. ALIMCHANDANI and A. N. MELDRU Section of Zoology and Ethnography. President—F.M. How:tet, Esq., B.A., P.E.S. Presidential Address. Post-War ZooLoey. (With Plate I.) I feel, as I stand here and try to look as much like the President of the Section of Zoology and Ethnography as pos- sible, very much. like an impostor. For I have been engaged coats future tendencies of zoology as a whole. About “post-war Zoology,” then, you know at least as much as I can ever pretend to do, but ith is a subject which is of such _ pene importance—as we already know from C 1. of animals—and especially of inucialniide ean h there is another set of no less definite shaiaaae characters. That each order, family. genus, and species has an individuality exxxviil Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, quite apart from that which we have in the past made the basis of our zoological classifications. at is to say, a definite chemical personality, as definite in its way as that complex of morphological and psychological characters that goes to form our ordinary every-day concept of a mouse or an elephant. If the bodies of different animals are analysed, or if par- ticular organs or tissues are analysed, they are found to be by no means of the same composition in different genera ; and the same holds when the chemical behaviour of tissues is examined —such as the absorptive power of the blood for oxygen, or the action of the excretory organs. ammals, for instance, get rid of their nitrogenous waste- products in the form of urea, whereas in the Selachians there is a remarkable amount of this substance in the blood. Birds chitin, uric acid, or substances akin to guanine, to mention only three, and possibly in other ways that are not yet known, as very few cases have been examined. These chemical personalities of different species, though they may be indistinguishable to our unaided senses, are un- doubtedly distinguished by many parasites with the utmost clearness. There are innumerable cases where animal parasites, are good examples, and the same thing is seen in the vast number of insects that infest only one kind of plant or a few closely related plants. x chemistry whereby the degree of chemical relationship between organisms may be tested. fusca, but not with that of a tree-frog or a toad. Similar reactions hold with invertebrates, and my present purpose is merely to recall to you the fact that there exists here a whole . . personality underlying the morphological, and that the chemi- _ cal personality is of the two infinitel i 1919.| The Sixth Indian Science Congress. CXXXIX I will take as exemplifying this importance what seems to me to be the chief problem of applied zoology, and in particu- lar those departments of it that deal with measures against harmful animals, and more especially against insects. It is often assumed that the aim of the eerige yi cae the Mycologist, the Sanitarian, the Medical Office h mologist, who may have to deal with harmful organisins such as fungi or insects, is the destruction or “eradication’’ of the plant or insect that is doing damage. But this singteueniats of the noxious organism, though of preventing contact. in reality, the prevention of contact is our primary aim. No one minds a caterpillar. for example, so long as it does no damage to certain particular plants we are fond of; and if it would refrain when asked to do so from eating hem, m sure no tender-hearted person would think it necessary to kill it as well. If 1 may make a short reese I might remark that whatever may be said of our general administration of this country, our judicial eietial has in certain areas compelled an unusual degree of re respect. In certain parts of Bihar, when a crop is badly eiticked by cater- pillars, the local priest posts in the field a proclamation which is couched in the correct official terms and language of the ) to their homes within a specified period, on pain of severe penalties, Probably the proclamation is as often as not effective, and = fact that at caterpillars—by the end of the specified riod—may ed themselves up, gone into hiding, and ated, need ae detract from our appreciation of the testi- rh to the effectiveness of our legal methods. The procla- mation clearly recognizes the fact that prevention of contact In the case of almost all insects “effective contact” means not merely bodily contact but feeding. An d feeding implies not merely ee mechanical contact of the pure _— and so forth, with the — of the victim, but ided in our every action by the light of pure reason, never absent- minded, and accustomed to eat what to a caterpillar or a mosquito would seem the most amazing and repulsive collec- tion of foodstuffs, it ~— seem a little pedantic to insist on the necessity of food-recognition. exl Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, But an insect has often to confine itself to a particular diet with a strictness that no human doctor would ever insist a try something else which does not ee w the proper recognition- Some years ago I compared insects in general to human beings in the condition commonly known as a hypnotic trance. A person in this condition may follow out with the utmost concentration a tog set of instructions, but be almost ob- livious of anyt which does not come within the prescribed circle of ideas. ak o it seems to be with insects; there are certain instructions, so to a as to how to recognize food, where to lay eggs, and so on, and they are followed. The more narrowly precise sad definite the instructions (i.e. the more specialized the insect and the deeper its ‘‘ trance’’) the greater the concentration — which they are obeyed and the greater the pager’ of erro defining effective sen Ne we must then take recognition as a definite factor. It is necessary for an insect to recognize its food and also to be in sufficiently close bodily contact with it. ut “an insect”? may be all sorts of different things at different periods of its life; the caterpillar, for instance, was hatched from a harmless egg -and will turn into an equally harm- less sb ae: and then a — charming butterfly, all quite incapable of damaging plants. No one is afraid of a plague-f -flea’s oes: or of an Anopheline larva so long as it re- mains a larva. That is not the time at which it is dangerous. We see then that if an insect is to make effective contact with its victim it must fulfill three conditions: it must be in bot y and “psychological”? or sensory contact with it, and must also be in what we might call “ temporal” contact ; ie. at the right time, the right period of its own and the sg s development. now, having got these three essential factors, bodily cacaiie: sensory contact, and time-contact, it seems to me that host ; ~~ although this model must, owing to our ignorance of many important matters, be very inc omplete, it will at least have the merit of being something a something one can look at and think about and criticis Let us take a simple case, itthaok say a ‘‘ hardy annual,” and consider the extent of its mobility, its bodily range of motion in — We assume that the only time it ex hibi iable ie eatd is at the season when it exp its tnhge gy scattering its , and for the rest of its life its 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. exli mobility or power of expansion—excluding a certain growth of roots and branches—is n e might then represent i it by this wet showing the variation of its mobility with time. (Fig. 1.) Bodily Range SEED PLant Scarrsnine Detoune Frowen Avteons vrunteR Senine Sunndah Fig. 1. Now let us suppose that the flowers of this plant have a th very attractive scent. We can then represent its nip ap ness by another similar curve, a ‘“‘smell-curve.” (Fig. Smett FrowenR Fig. 2. Now if we assume that the intensity of a smell diminishes more or less as does the intensity of light, inversely as the square of the distance from its source, its diminution with in- creasing distance will follow a course _ a taking the origin as being the source—the flower. (Fig. Then by combining these three sono we get a solid form showing the bodily and sensory extent of the plant at differ- ent periods of time, assuming for the sake of —— that only the flowers are attractive, and _ they owe their attrac tion entirely to their nice smell. ( Pl. I, fig. 1.) exlii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, I have taken the case of a plant because it is relatively simple, but you will readily see that we could construct similar =: INTENSITY DISTANCE PiG.o. them from a distance by their smell. This curve shows his power of range, or mobility, at differ- ent stages. (Fig. 4.) Bodity Range Ecc Laava Pura Imaco Fie. 4. The immobile egg, hatching into a grub which we will suppose to burrow in the soil and have a limited range; then the immobile pupa, from which emerges the winged beetle with considerable range of movement. So far we have treated the beetle like the plant, but on the sensory plane it is obvious that we are not practically interested in the attractiveness of the beetle, since this doesn’t affect his oe ee _ the plant. What we want to know is something about his susceptibility to the plant’s attractions, the delicacy of his perception of the smell of the flower. 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Conaress. exliii Now you know that with ourselves any stimulus, such as a smell, a light or a colour, a sound, a touch, or a taste, has ) e above e height if it is to pass the threshold of our consciousness, and the height of the threshold varies in different people and at different times. The lower the threshold, the more delicate the perception. So instead of plotting the beetle’s attractiveness we will represent the variations in the height of his sensory threshold for the smell of the flowers on which he feeds. ust as the seed of the flower had no attraction, so we may or it that the beetle has no perception . flower-smell when he is an egg, or even when he is a grub or upa; he is to pass a very high threshold before they can penetrate to his consciousness. But the height of the threshold will drop abruptly when he enters the final winged stage of his existence, wherein he depends on the flowers for food. Two things will then chiefly interest him—finding his proper aes and finding a mate: but if we omit the complications associated with the latter pursuit, we can represent the va eee of his flower-smel! thres- hold by a curve like this. (Fig. 5 Threshold. ij T T a Eco Larva Pepa imaco Eco Fre. 5. shows the intensity of the — that he is able to ihe at different periods of his ca is attention will “i be engaged by any smell whose iribeainity “alls below the lin i will see that this means that the beetle cannot make elléetivs, contact age his range of mobility extends at least to this —_— (Pl. I, fig. Then it will be te. that if this point is a little beyond the average mobility of this kind of beetle, only exceptionally cxliv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, active beetles will be able to find food, and the species as a whole will decline in numbers. If on the other hand the point of sensory contact lies within the normal beetle’s range in space, then the species will increase up to the limit of the food- supply. There will in fact be a correlation between an insect’s range in space, its sensory threshold, and the period of its life- cycle. Moreover, we can use our model in considering the practical measures to be adopted against insects or other noxious animals; for if the model is made on sound lines, we reason is a very simple one: I had to. For many years insects have been studied far too much as lc organisms. Their external form and the bare facts some particular name to an insect. Certainly the wrangles, though undignified, were amusing, and of course morphological and life-history studies are valuable—up to a point. But it is nature of the relation between a parasite and its host, a nox- ious organism and its victim—has, in the case of insects, been almost entirely neglected. And this is in no way an isolated case. For in all the more difficult problems of Applied Zoology, di man; an we are ever to attain to an effective control of noxious organisms, and in particular to an effective and eco- nomical control of insects based on some real understanding we must frankly recognize that entomology alone, as ordinari- ly understood, is unequal to the task. It has indeed proved itself unequal. The war has done many things. It has let the cold Proc. As. Soc. Beng. Vol. XV, 1919. Plate | Fig. 2 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. - exlv wind of reality play upon many of our cherished opinions and beliefs, and one of the beliefs that has wilted under the blast has been the belief that entomology, as generally practised and understood in England in the past, was competent to meet the practical demands of a big campaign. In the past three years T have had the privilege of being in charge of some of the entomo- logical research carried on by the War Office at home, in response to demands from various fronts, and my experiences during that time brought home to me, as nothing else could ave done, the extraordinary neglect of those departments of of physiology and psychology which must be the ultimate basis of oe and destructive measures against them Such measures, if they are to be scientific—in other words, if Hay are to be efficient and economical—must be based on knowledge. And that knowledge must be something that goes ? future ° progress. the war that is coming, the war against insects, we must enlist these men in our ranks, and realize that no one department of science—and in particular no one department of zoology—can be, from the practical point of view, efficient if it tries to stand alone The stopeeon geographical distribution and iis significance of outrigger canoes.—By J. Hor Outrigger canoes co boats are divided into two main sal ouble and single outriggers. e latter are the more var aried, the main varia- Vi outrigge’ compound masts, high su rstructure such as the outrigger design per- rite, an ahi ate th two quarter n sigan rs, are depicted in numerous beautiful pane ies sed in the acquisition of the requi- site ship-building skill +d put together such great and complicated oe There is little doubt that before e Christian era the Javanese were expert ors. That the romee os to the Arab and the Indian is reasonably certain. Double th triggers have never been used in India so far as all evidence goes. This knowledge gives the key to the puzzle of how the ancestors of the Malagasy tribes of Mad ar arrived wave after wave in that island. In great ships of the Boro Budur type exlvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV. this Jong voyage is neither difficult nor dangerous in the fine weather h wi . da re archipelago at a bier moro ag was wabaaty by a = aa oloid people, 5 3 8 Hi Zz. q5 S03 ° =n ct a oO. A ct DQ Bes & 68 af ians. as taking Oieik ie aes rigge - with them waaeeee poet "drifted t ° the Indian and Ceylon coasts, or took r ne va in the islands off the wes coast of Sumatra (the Mettawei islanders); the others passed to the myriad islands of the Pacific where considerable min ngling with the Oceanic Negroes took place pe certain island groups. That the Poly- nesians have been long settled in the chief main Pacific islands other than Hawaii and N aland, is proved reat divergence in esign met with in different areas. is however the focus of all these designs eir geographical distribution when n @ map shows that all rincipal forms radiate fan-like from New Guine culiarly interesting t to note with regard to g of Indo- nesi nd Pap n outrigger canoes is that the sail — is usually an antique form o nee lug ° pv — deen for meres n ith bamboo poles along each long side; the e peculi fig was oye in the Boro Budur ships, and it is this sail, ~ataohiiahy differen t alike from any modern Arab or Indian design and from any used by the ancient i i od Gre . Egyptians hoenicians a eks, that the Hamitic and negroid at employ in the naggars of the U per Nil h r ing as“in the some parts of the Far nd facts to- i . do nesian affinity, point suggestively to a connection between East Africa and Indonesia in far-off days, much stronger than has hitherto been suspected. The oe of the oculus in boat decoration.—By J. into disuse; survivals are still to be fous d on the "Purtacacks. Italian, ian an kk Ita. No Muhammadan boat en to spe- cially linked with the protection of Indian boats; probably this is a survival of a once universal belief cage pepoapts even for the English habit of considering all vessels as femin custom of employing the wtie in India was probably wide- 1919. | The Sixth Indian Science Congress. exlvii spread in former times; two boats figured in the Ajanta frescoes show it oe Another old instance dates back to Buddhist days in Java; = of — Boro Budur = depicts a two-masted ship bearing this pears tio The stud of Sige ates Qiliates in India.— By B. L. BHA Neglect st on “tpg of fresh-water Protozoa in India Previous record 0 geno ae Ciliate protozoa from India, based on Met. mice a research briefly described. “ts new od sah slowing the movements of oo moving forms. ont genera and species, most of which is believed, are hanes for oes Rest ries from any part of India, with brief notes. Notes on the life-history of two fishes—Callichrous bima- culatus, rea one Notopterus notopterus, Pallas. —By C.R NaRAY The paper reby in possibility of bee occurrence of m than one local race of Callichrous aon culatus, as the differences on hie the view is b a — an individual vaiindiciia I velopmen- tal history of thi ‘Sede a h the caudal which is entire e isa dcteaa iakte we as the same Is a ermanent adult character in a us. rtain examples of Notopterus noto pterus that were locally eed appeared to be crosses between to- pterus an d the variations a a gs of Ni i a — to each oth d to the substratum on which they are de pos and the development of the more interesting ted in small clumps, sdephiological characteristics is sanuble d. A revision of the genus ee with special refer- ence to the species record Indian fishes.—By T. SOUTHWELL an RASHAD. These cestode parasites for the most part ccmgpat the spiral valve of selachians. Only five — - have as yet been recorded from Bo dian fishes and these are dealt h in deta iL "Tabieen sine aod important ad- ditions are made to our lanes of the anatomy and distribution of the Indian poms) Intra-uterine embryos of Indian Selachians.— By T. SoutH- nd a Pra In authors, after describi ing the various modes oviparous pete, ‘anda lac “es pie ssl onan soe sm siaplest oviparou he se complicated ‘viviparous types. e ¥ ~~ ion of the evolution of the various types is very interesting 0 wing the different types amongst the liv ese elasmobranchs ips. n the aad wastes the structure and evolution of the y different types i i cat as found in the or cental viviparous forms is treated of in - ail The structure and fun tion of the branchial filaments is also dese . A short note on the distribution of a recently-described genus of fish.—By CHAUDHURI Over six bar ago I came across some very inter ing ser of fish in the Family Cobitidinae pa the Dibang river nary’ nnected exlviii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, aot on the N.-E. Frontier of Assam which I described under the 8 1 2 recently-discovered genus becomes very interest ing and is er aes ble to the distribution of the well-known genera Licassis and Semiplotn The development om breeding habits of a politic water polychaet worm from Madras. ih . Gopata ATYER. In the piece of backwater near the nteer Garde Rifle Range on the road to Adyar, a number of pear-shaped stalked spawn masses can be observed almost throughout the yea They are very numerous during the hot season, less so during the. rainy months. Some of them are ers, big, and all of them have their stalks running down into the mud where each one becomes oo tag the bagchiwied inhabited by a t enu numbers of eggs and young larvae. Tt is 5 suggested (a) that the jelly - fords protection to the e ggs from the sun’s rays when the tide runs ou and leaves the m exposed ; (6) that ane a affords a comparatively safe place of development e initial stages ; (c) that ithe. jelly prevents wide emcee of the larvae, i.e. adapta- to backvitar conditi paths stage is absent. There is however a pr cla igg sig be icra ed by me tatrochophore ete nectochaeta stages The first two stages are passed cosas io aoe oar third s xa outside ch creeping at the bottom. A fre ge is absent, probably oe of the greater part of the wae violas being passed in the jelly The ork ceen and a = setae are ite Rashme In very young worms three kinds of setae can be observed: pillary unjointed setae, compound a with a awn terminal inkpsiee nasa pound setae with a moderately long terminal bla e last kind, it is suggested, is deri by the een oe the terminal blade of the ariety. In adult worms obtained by digging from the clay, setae with a short toriainil blade are not found at all. Unjointed capillary setae and falcigerous setae ar fd’ in the anterior > an pillary in r 1 condition is ry late. The worms grown in the laboratory from eggs up to late stage develop compoun ae with a terminal blade, and capillary setae in the “haps asses segments. But the terminal blades of the compound se tae elongate, bringing about _ is ate condition. When more than a hundred and fif fifty segmen e been formed the formation of the compound setae is given ye ao ‘geniers setae alone are developed at the posterior region. Thus fixity of setose characters is Larval eyes disappear and their place is taken by a pair of adult 1919. ] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. exlix yes. The tentacles are peculiar in appearing very late. The median their aig appearance in the larvae of pe Be polychaets. The larvae were kept developing for over 6 months and during pss pha Be the number of sasha Pog! eloped was about 170. Judging om this it is inferred that growth in these worms is very slow and that worms dug up from peeel ha ‘ae as many as seven hundred segments ce : : : ull de escription of the Adyar worm is given and some of the individual variations in the gills also noted. cide a new type of Annelid excretory system in earth- ms.— By K. N. Bau. The two types of excretory systems recognized in Annelids are the ** meganephric’”’ and the ‘‘ plectonephric.” In the earthworm investi- alimentar ary can al all along its gO The terms ‘‘ diffuse’’ and ‘‘ plec- tonephric”’ are clearly inapplicable to ‘the ee oo in this earth- worm since there is no network anywhere in the s The elaborate system of ducts manitat oak ith nw nephridia, and never — gas so far as I know, ar pean of a pair of septal excretory ducts on ptum and a pair of supra-intestinal excretory ducts situated Besa the forest eid It is these ducts that communicate segmentally with the lumen of the gut. The erga ans of calcareous opercula by longicorn larvae oup Cee: (Coleoptera. Cerambycidae).—By F. “é BEE Species of longiorn ae of the group Cerambycini close their pupal chambers with deposits of calcium sith ito secreted in the Malpighian see The deposits re the form of variously-shaped opercula or of a mplete internal lining of lime, to which is sometimes added a film of chitinons aa ie al. opercula of the genera Aeolesthes, Derolus, Dialeges, Diorthus Hoplocera: ” BS 2 and Plocaederus are described and the ‘method of construc- tion out eam) ions are put forward to explain the object of the setditons The possible objects are ia) rotection against natural enemies, parasite: and predators, (b) protection against intrusive moulds an: parasitic fact. d ; ve deine ped opere The life-history of a midge, Culicoides (oxystoma ?), with remarks on the early stages of Ceratopogon. —By P. G. PaTEL. Very few observations have previously n made on the bionomics of Indian midges. The eggs of some four casted of Culicoides (including el Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, C. kieffert and C. oxystoma) are of a curiously elongated form, ye oval as yon date described for kieffert. Those of oxystoma hatch in from 3-11 days according to weather. The larvae are legless and ivolts, “tev in se. tine fas y life, bu e and breathing by sia of characteristic shape the different species Pupation in 10-46 days, the pupal period Taeting 4-7 days. The adults have a characteristic habit of altel with head downward and pressed close to the supporting surface. The females (only) bite by day yrs a: thor distending themselves with blood. Eggs are laid in ashings of stables, though all other species observed breed in ‘ive 1 pshoan th. Some points of comparison between the larvae and the biting habits of Culicoides and Ceratopogon are indicated. A note on the effects of Mercurous Chloride on Culicid Larvae.—By 8. K. Sen Pa re eedingly small doses a in 10,000) of mercurous chloride have a arkably organise tate nm the larvae of Culicidae, death occurring within 12 to 18 hou i or different proportions of the salt in relation ie vache quantities, depths and sur areas of wat Pp ous effect is compared with that of mercuric chloride and other halogen salts of th 1 rom the results ob d it is concluded ) its action is sa othe ae 0 ~- ; fi aces 3 pag o~ in | litre) heca urated solution of t the ct; and therefore 2) that the pleut undissolved canuctes of sae salt act through the mouth, or cutaneously, or bot A preliminary note on the action of acids, salts and al- kalies on the roi ean of culicid eggs and larvae.— By H.N. Suar These experiments consisted in placing eggs of Culex in solutions o various strengths and noting the effect on {L) dhspeeces 5 (2) rate of develop- ment of larvae, pure water being used as a c arked differe re found in the ane a oh the salts, several— ite jer citrates aie. pss: s—increasing gen sy - development sede tice The chemicals employed w Acide —Tanni GC; pei boric, citric, met Duty, acetic, lactic, ri oO tartrate, Sodium one. Sodium oxalate, and Potassium citrate. ium i i cium On some Trichonym pha of the intestine of Leucotermes indicola.—By F.p The author Bee ye sali the Congress the results of say studies on f Leu m, belonging to the gener ne parasi cotermes 7 Wasm, belon he genera Trichonympha Gide 1877) and Leidya (Franca 1914) the present paper, the e dealing with the parasites of Indian Termites, reference is made to the original description of Leidy, re his plate 51 belonging on ha can accepted as of Tr. agilis. Leidy has made some mistakes in his studies of Tr. agilis, and these mistakes have been spread by text-books 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. cli on Shp org which illustrate their descriptions with figure 10 of idy’ The. anthee gives a de oe Feng 3 a of the morphology and methods of multiplication of the parasite, confirming as regards the latter the observations of Foa in Italy ; pone as his description differs totally from that of — brias athens in what concerns the movements of Trt conympha, and in e points from those of more —, authors as Franca, Ray Lankessel, their paliek ss are quoted and criticiz anca has created the genus Lezdya, and maintains that ‘the so-called ur ya hnikowt pideemr 1914) has been found in the rectum of Leucotermes indicola and t ed shows that the Sant 11-22 from pend 3 Dini ae belong to the mane idya. Two n ew species are described an med a idya rp Finally a study is made of t e bodies contained in the endosarc of mphae richonymp esti rrp ‘this Rp asite requires fu Mhise ig heceet totes but it is probable that some of the so-called chee of spores described by Leidy have some ieldion4 os this parasite. The reproductive habits of Htroplus suratensis. By N. P. PANIKKAR. gh breeds twice a year ; in May—June “ase in October—N ov- ember ; becomes sexually mature at the second y 2. Breeding Em acm at shallow shady chai on the bottom of fine san dm ack waters, chron ponds and canals and in fresh-water rivers as A as tide lim 3. pa takes place pan at aie beginning of both the a cae male fish prepares surface for the Siisiicaint of the ova and also a feevel nest, the latter by excavating small pits by taking the mud in the mouth and throwing it away. 5. The ertehs a larvae attach themselves to the egg membrane for a short tim , when they are remov ved to the pit by the male by o a h xo they are removed from one place to another by the same proce ss. This 28 is riceepetvonie in the case of E. peo 08% e female broods over the eggs a e larval nest is guarded se ae neck sensoneh especially by the onde gta defends the nest from gris, 7. eggs hatch on the fourth or fifth day. The larvae remain in the congo tfor about seven days and then leave it. They are — — about ii the nts in neue of foud. ie adult form is a nly about oaths ter hatching. The ocellus then appears on the soft rays of ney dures) fin which apace fades away after four. outta: ame species, latus and gobies are the 8. Member of the s E. Mac most common enemies in the larval stage of the fish. young chiefly feed on minute animal life. Vegetable food is taken only after reaching the saath form 10. Two for arvae are distinguished ; one with a round yolk sac in which a dilatation appears at the cardiac ienhlk when the yolk sac is half a the other with a more or less oblong yolk sac in which no such Giotetion appears. clii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Section of Pure Botany. President—S. R. Kasuyap, Esq., M.Sc., B.A. Presidential Address. THE RELATIONSHIPS OF LIVERWORTS ESPECIALLY IN THE LIGHT OF SOME RECENTLY DISCOVERED HIMALAYAN Forms. The new light thrown on the general trend of evolution in the Liverworts by my investigations of the Himalayan forms signed to this group in a scheme of evolution of the Vegetable Kingdom have induced me to select this subject for my address r hypothetical forms have been assumed to bridge these gaps. but it must be said, so far without any success e evidence in tracing relationships is derived chiefly from the comparative morphology of living and extinct plants and it is supplemented to some extent by facts supplied by the study of development. If we could find a gradually ascending 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. cliii series of forms as regards their differentiation from the oldest rocks to the present day our task would be quite simple. We have, however, no record of such a complete series. There is no doubt that in a general way we have the strongest possible evidence of evolution from art but many stages in the series are missing, and, what is more, we have not. reached the beginning of the series vet. Among the plants known from the most ancient rocks a large number show a comparatively high grade of differentiation, far higher than that of the Liverworts, and we have no data as to what kind of plants which preceded them gave rise to them. As regards the fossil history of the Liverworts themselves I cannot do better than quote Dr. Scott. He says :-—“‘ The Palaeozoic records of this class of plants to which some botanists have assigned so important a place in the evolution of the Vegetable Kingdom are both scanty and doubtful. Inthe absence of any evidence as to reproductive organs or anatomical structure, it cannot be said that the pre- sence either of the Hepaticae or of the true Mosses in the Palaeozoic rocks has yet been demonstrated. It is that no trace of either group has yet been found in the fied carboniferous material, crowded as it is with all Kinde ef vegetative remains in which the most delicate tissues are often preserved. In fact the fossil records, as a whole, lend no sup- rt to the view, so often ma aintained on purely “arte grounds, that the anes plants owed their origin to ryo- phytic ancestry.” (Progressus Rei Botanicae, 1907). He then that in the tertiary and later formations ties rworts are occa- sionally met with, but all the forms discovered are closely allied to existing species and throw no light on the origin o the Hepaticae. This disposes of the palaeontological evidence. Evidence from development within certain limits is some- times useful but great caution mets be used in drawing con- alone. Like mature structures developmental stages are also aes to variation especially when such stages are not concealed within elaborate protect- ing structures as is the case in Liverworts. Some examples of ares from this source roe occur in the course of this addres Thus our main evidence is aia from the comparative morphology of living plants. Here again it must be emphas- ised that generalisations from too small a number of forms are apt to be mistaken. This is one of the points which has been — —— home by the discovery of some Himalayan forms by the writer. In considering a number of forms belonging to any par- ticular group it is often possible to arrange them in a series cliv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [NS., XV, from the simplest to the most complex, especially if only one or two characters are taken at a time. This is certainly the case with the sa agerecony! the Marchantiales. Sup- posing that a given se of this kind represents a natural group of plants we have 0 iuades further whether it is really an ascending as it is of course possible that the forms in found in nature or sometimes put in hypothetically to complete a series. The argument from such forms cuts both ways. If we possessed all the intermediate forms necessary to bridge the gulf between the Liverworts and the Pteridophytes for example (and we do not possess these) it would not necessarily prove that the Liverworts were the plants which gave rise to i Pteridophytes or some similar higher forms. The converse v have been the case. That it has been so, can. I think, be airs a clearly. Bearing Pshess considerations in mind let us see what con- nection can be traced between the Liverworts and the Algae. As has been stated above there is a big gap between the two and it has not been found possible to bridge it so far. sl tt forms among the Algae do show a certain amount of re: blance to the Liverworts but this is bade sitientsh ond very incomplete even when we consider a single character. Three algal forms have usually been mentioned in this connection, Coleochaete, Chara and Ectocarpus. It is not maintained that a _— the plants are widely different in other respects. oleochaete resembles the simplest genus of the Marchan- Ay Riceia, in having a small globular fruit—body resembling the capsule of the latter. It is well known, however, that the outer envelope in Coleochaete has an altogether different origin from that of the wall of the capsule of Riccia and belongs to a different —_— Then the structure of the thallus and of the sex organs in Coleochaete is ee different from the structure of even a simple at Campbell says, ‘‘ It is pretty gener- ally conceded that the origin of the whole archegoniate series is to be sought somewhere among the green Algae, and that on the whole pap emt is, perhaps, the form which i is nearest to the ec ineae.”’ A little later he says, “‘ At best, the connec (a honaeels any known Alga and the Muscineae is 1919.} The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elv a very remote one.” As a matter of fact we can safely say that there is no connection at a In Chara the antheridia and oogonia: have a certain resem- blance to the antheridia and archegonia of the Bryopliytes in so far that they are multicellular and have a similar shape but their mode of development and the structure of the thallus of Chara are entirely different from those met with in the Bryo- phytes, while anything like a sporogonium even in the most rudimentary condition is unknown in Chara. The multilocular sporangium of Eetocarpus has served as an organ from which the antheridia and archegonia of. the Bryophytes might be derived according to Davis. Apart from the purely hypothetical nature of the derivation there is noth- ing in this Alga which can show in any way that it has any- thing to do with the ancestry of the Liverworts nder the influence of a pet theory various attempts have been made to derive the Liverworts from the Algae by imagin- ing hypothetical processes and even ie pee eR forms, and the undisputable fact that no connection can be demonstrated and the obvious conclusion that therefore aes is most prob- ably no grea a between the two have been ignored. Let us accept the fact that no connection has been demonstrated and also the se i et that therefore there is no connection between the two. We shall see presently that this conclusion harmonises with that arrived at by a consideration of the com- parative morphology of the Liverworts. On the other hand if we consider the Liverworts in rela- tion to the Pteridophytes we find several common features in the two groups. The thallus of some Liverworts is very much the general structure of the sex organs in c t of the two groups is very similar; and the process of spore-formation is the same in both. annot believe as Tansley does - tures on the Evolution of the Filicinean Vascular System) that such characters have developed independently. They plainly show a common origin. The question only is whether we are to consider these forms in an upward line or a downward direc- elvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, have hardly given rise to the Pteridophytes—but on the con- trary may have been derived from them. The writer has tried to establish certain principles of that reduction as well as the paths along which it has proceeded from the study of the Indian forms. It is curious to note that Professor Goebel was led to the idea of reduction in the Liverwo rts from his study in been lost since then, until it was discovered accidentally by Goebel and investigated by him fully in 1910. The principles mentioned above are best seen in the Marchantiales, perhaps, because _ plants have been more thoroughly studied by the wri but similar principles also discernible in the J SS and the hip seecgee I will take the genus Dumortiera first as it illustrates very clearly the process of reduction and some other phenomena. carum) three species and a fourth was described by Campbell from Borneo afew months ago. (Annal of Botany, July 1918.) _Of the first three, two, D. hirsuta and D. trichocephala, have been known from India and other parts of the world, but the third, D. velutina, has been said to be endemic only in Sumatra and Java. It has, however, been found by the writer to be jeeling, including some parts of the middle range of the main chain, e.g. the Chamba valley. It may incidentally be men- tioned here that arguments from the distribution of some genera and species may not be very safe in the present state of knowledge. It should be mentioned however that the Hima- layan specimens differ slightly from the type, especially in their densely setose male receptacles. Probably this plant has n pains to be D. hirsuta in the Himalayas. with its aquatic habit of an entire absence of air-chambers in the mature thallus, the presence of such chambers being an important character of the Marchantiales. The air-chambers come fname later. Tt i is Fate eres that the process in this case is that of reduction. The third species shows no trace of air-chambers even at the © 3p the reduction having gone further. There can be no of the higher forms of the group. In D. velutina these papil- late cells are met with all over the thallus even in the mature 1919.] The Siath Indian Science Congress. elvii state, and the boundaries of the chambers are indicated by reticulations on the dorsal surface. Similar reticulations, but more faint, are met with some distance behind the apex in D. hirsuta also, but the surface is otherwise perfectly smooth in this species and in D. trichocephala. As a matter of fact we can trace all the stages in the process of reduction in different genera according to their more or less aquatic habit. Preissia commutata, occurring on moist soil, shows the typical structure h Ss an aments. of the higher forms with air-chambers, pore I Fegatella. The species of Dumortiera show the remaining ter mooth at maturity. This interesting series showing the reduction of the air- chamber layer is however only a special case, as it is due to the presence of a special factor, the aquatic habit, and I would not have alluded to it if this were the only point illustrated by this genus. For, however clear this phenomena may be in this particular case it cannot be made the basis of a general con- clusion regarding the whole group to which these genera be- The other interesting point in this genus has been observed quite recently by the writer. Both in D. hirsuta where the air-chamber layer is confined to the apex and the cells anywhere on the thallus, papillate cells are met with on the female receptacle. Here we have an illustration of the well- The pores in the higher forms of the Marchantiales are barrel-shaped both on the thallus and the receptacles. This is the case, for example, in the genera Marchaniia and Preissia. In certain forms which are undoubtedly lower as judged by other characters, e.g. Fegatella, Reboulia, etc., the pores are barrel- shaped on the receptacles but those on the thallus are simple. elviii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. {N.S., XV, In some species of Plagiochasma examined by the writer it has been found that the pores on the female receptacle are barrel- Shaped while those on the male receptacle are simple. Inter- preted with the help of the principle enunciated above it means that the latter forms are reduced. We shall presently see that this conclusion is confirmed by other considerations also. In other forms like Exormotheca and Stephensoniella the pores are simple on the receptacle as well as the thallus. These forms would thus represent a still lower stage in the series. Lastly we come to the forms where there are no definite pores at all, as in the genus Riccia It is interesting to note that in some species the stomata are altogether lost, at least sometimes, while in others a ten- dency in this direction is distinctly visible. Cyathodium tubero- sum, since then sent to him from other parts of India also, often pos- sesses no stomata in the sterile plants. In a plant recently sent to the writer by Professor Fyson from South India and ‘which will have to be referred to a new genus, the thallus is very long d narrow and possesses no stomata in the greater part of its length and dey only occur in its anterior part. In both these cases, however, air-spaces are present in the interior of the thal- lus. In the South-Indian plant the spaces in the posterior part a very small, suggesting that they are gradually being elimin- a Another important point is the position of the receptacles. In the higher forms the male and female organs are found in groups on stalked receptacles which are usually terminal. In other forms they are dorsal. The stalk of the terminal recep- tacle is in direct continuation of the midrib and in the highest type, Marchantia, it possesses the typical pores and air-cham- bers on the dorsal side while it bears scales ventrally. It is, therefore, generally admitted that the stalk is a direct upward continuation of the thallus i in these cases and the lobes of :the receptacle represent the branches of the thallus. On account of the dorsal position of the stalk in some genera, like Plagio- chasma and Clevea, Leitgeb considered that the stalk of the latter genera is a mere dorsal outgrowth and not homologous with the stalk of the higher forms. The case of Preissia com- mutata in which a terminal stalk becomes dorsal by the further growth of the thallus had been long known but on account of e groove on its anterior side it did not lead him to consider that the dorsal position of the stalk in the other genera might secondary. Apart from the plausibility of this view on purely a priori grounds it has been shown by the tid that in Plagiochasma articulatum the stalk is terminal at first and be- comes dorsal by the further growth of the thallus. "The dorsal position is therefore secondary. The dorsal position of the stalk is arrived at similarly in the genus Stephensoniella des: 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. clix cribed by the writer some years ago. This genus is extremely interesting in that it shows a close relation with the widespread its body; the air-chambers, pores, scales, stalk, receptacle, capsule-wall and elaters. There can hardly be any doubt that, like the dorsal position of the stalk, these different struc- tures are derived from more complex ones and the plant is a direct descendant of Hxormotheca. The short stalk and the very shallow groove are particularly interesting as they definite- ly show the transition from a stalked toa sessile receptacle along with the disappearance of the groove, while the dorsal the decrease in the size of the seta. As a matter of fact it is an all-round reduction. In view of the transitional nature of the plant referred to the genus Stephensoniella between the so- called Marchantiaceae and the so-called Corsiniaceae it is not justifiable to keep the latter as a distinct fami The last stage in this series would be the total suppression of the involucre and a further reduction of the sporogonium. organs are not in groups but scattered singly and in this respect s elx Proceedings of the Astatic Soctety of Bengal. [N.S., XV, that reduction or differentiation does not affect all the organs equally. Now I come to the two genera which are usually placed in the family Targionaceae. They differ considerably from each other. The study of the Indian species Cyathodium tuberosum by the writer has att n that the family is not so distinct from the so-called Ma i glases as has generally been supposed. The great interest of the study of Cyathodium lies in the fact that the genus is undoubtedly reduced and is accepted as such The most distinguishing character of this family is the ter- minal involucre situated at the apex of an ordinary vegetative shoot. We might say that the erect stalked receptacle of the Marchantia-type has become prostrate, or better still that the the present series vegetative growth has taken plac hind the sex organs with the result that the latter appear, not on an abbreviated receptacle, but at the en or less elongated vegetative shoot. The transitional form between the stalked terminal receptacle of the Exor motheca-ty pe and the y nap is of the same general structure as that of the two adjacent types. The series is so complete that there can be no doubt as to the forms being really related. The only question that can arise is as to the direction in which egy tage has proceeded, up- wards or downwards. It is here that duced genus Cya- thodium aflords us great help as meena did in a similar matter. The male receptacle in this genus under ordinary con- ditions is a simple cushion-like structure situated on one side of a vegetative shoot or in between two such shoots. In bet- ter developed plants under favourable a gre onesie the receptacle mes large and of a composite type comparable with that of Marchantia but sessile and therefore Be OM ing the more receptacle of Aitchisoniella but having more lobes. It show that the original form — which Cyathodium has arisen came from a higher type like Marchantia The Targionia-type “eh still firihes led to lower types by the gradual shifting of the sex-organs to the dorsal surface and the elimination of the involucre. so that ultimately the same type is reached which was arrived at in other cases by a differ- ent route described above. This is astrikingexample of conver- 1919.] The Sizth Indian Science Congress. elxi ance of vegetative growth. e intermediate stages in this series are shown by species of Cyathodium and Riccia. Most spe- cies of the former genus have their archegonia on the under- surface of the involucre as is the case in the higher types. One species, however, which is more reduced than the others in other respects also has the archegonia shifted actually to the u 1905.) The antheridia in Targionia are often found on the dorsal surface of a vegetative shoot. The archegonia are car- ried to the same position in a more pronounced manner in spe- cies of Riccia, which is a step further than is the case with the species of Cyathodium mentioned above. In the higher forms of by the writer. It shows no trace of a median groove, no scales, no tuberculate rhizoids and only a slightly differentiated epider- mis. e absence of scales in the Indian species of Riccza is remarkable, the writer having come across no less than three such species, whereas Goebel mentions only R. erystallina, and even that as a doubtful case, in which scales are absent, in the whole of literature. I am afraid I have devoted a long space to the Marchantia- les though even now I have not touc all the important to follow them in detail in the other groups where moreover they have not been worked out in the same detail. he most tiales can perennate in some way and some never pro duce any spores at least in certain localities Two species of Marchantia are quite common in Lahore but I have never seen any sporogonia on those plants during a number of years that they have been under observation. The transf the stalk and female receptacle of the same species are pheno- mena of common occurrence. Similar shoots are very often met with arising from the male receptacle or from the base of the celxii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, female receptacle in the genus Dumortiera. The power of revi- val after desiccation is an extremely common and well-known ane of the foliose Jungermanniales. The reproduction by spores, i.e. sexual reproduction ultimately, plays a very small part in the life history of the Liverworts, and tha t may pos- sibly be one reason of the reduction which they progressively show. I shall consider the Jungermanniales very briefly. They form, particularly the foliose forms, by far the largest number of Liverworts. They are, as a rule, met with in shady and moist places while the thallose forms occur, asa rule, in exposed places. It appears that the thallose forms have been derived from the foliose forms, as an adaptation to a drier habitat, by condensa- n. The transitional forms between the foliose and the thallose species are so common and so familiar that I need not mention them. I shall merely briefly refer to one point, i.e whether the evolution has — from the thallose to the foliose forms or in the opposite direction genus Fossombronia which is usually described as leafy, though the leaves are not very sharply marked off from the mere lobing of the thallus, is closely allied to the Himalayan genus Sewardiella described by the writer a few vears ago. two genera indicates that it is most probably a case of direct descent. Investigations of other plants on similar lines would probably reveal more cases of this sort. he Jungermanniales are as a rule prostrate or ascendin and as a rule dorsiventral, the curious family Celobryaceae contains erect forms. e plants are radiai in Calobryum, but conflicting tag are met with regarding the second genus Haplomitr A detailed investigation of this family should also ak to i interesting results but be erie informa- tion is unfortunately not gine at prese If the view as to the origin of the ‘Baltoce forms advanced by the writer is correct the further reduction of these to forms like Sphaerocarpus would naturally follow. There is absolutely no need of the eee of a hypothetical form like Sphaero- riccia advanced by Lotsy. 1919. | The Siath Indian Science Congress. elxiii respect. A gradual shifting of the archegonia is also seen in the other Anacrogynae. The Anthocerotales can also be considered very briefly. There are only three or four genera in this group and both highly lobed and simple thallose forms are met with. Though at present there is no clear indication within the group as to which form, lobed or entire, is more ancient, in view of the relation of the group to the Pteridophytes to be mentioned presently, it seems highly probable that the lobed correspond- ing to leafy forms are more ancient and have given rise to the thallose forms. This would also be in accordance with what has more comple es. The capsule in this group is an elongated structure which, in the higher forms like Anthoceros, projects far beyond a short involucre and opens by two valves the very simple genus Notothylas the capsule remains enclosed ithin the involucre and has never any occasion to open by valves, vet the position of the valves is clearly marked off even in this genus. This could hardly interpreted in any other way but as a case of reduction. Similarly the marginal position of the capsule in this genus has been retained from the ancestral form, while the dorsal position In Anthoceros is A. erectus discovered by me some years ago. This species ascending or quite prostrate habit. In the latter case indica- tions of the derivation of the prostrate oat from the erect a: e e with the prothallus of a Pteridophyte. Having considered the general line of evolution in the elxiv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, various groups of the Liverworts let us see what relation they can have with the adjacent groups. We have seen that no connection can be demonstrated at accept the view elaborated above that the simplest terms are the last terms in.a descending series. If these simple forms are derived from the Algae it is strange that no trace of this relationship has been left anywhere. On the other hand we can say that there is no trace because there has never been any relationship. On the other side we find several organs in common in the Liverworts and the Pteridophytes. The natural conclusion is that they have had some connection. Whether the Liverworts are derived from any of the modern groups of Pteridophytes through some unknown forms or from an extinct related group it is reasonable to suppose that, since evolution in this group has been towards simplification, the best developed gametophyte in the Pteridophytes would be somewhat like the ancestral form which gave rise to the Liverworts. Sucha gametophyte is met with in some species of Lycopodium, e.g. L. cernuum. It is erect, radial, with a basal cylindrical portion and an upper leafy or lobe-bearing portion with a meristem all round. It is generally admitted that the genus Anthoceros approaches the higher types more nearly than any other Liverwort. on account of the highly differentiated capsule and the imbedded sex-organs. In this connection the radial and erect specimens of Anthoceros erectus referred to above acquire # peculiar signi- ficance. These specimens are very much like the prothallus of Lycopodium cernuum in general appearance except for the lobes of the latter There must have been at least three different lines of simplification from such a type, represented by the Marchan- tiales, the Jungermanniales and the Anthocerotales. The first step would be a change from the erect and radial position to a prostrate and dorsiventral habit. Such a stage is very clearly shown by the prothallus of Equisetum debile described by the writer a few years ago. (Annals of Botany, 1913.) It shows a greater ressemblance with the types of the Marchan- tiales than the prothallus of any other Pteridophyte. It but it has no basal erect region at all, in which respect it differs from the prothallus of Lycopodium cernuum. nder certain conditions the prothallus of Equisetum debile develops only a single growing point like the prothalli of other species of this genus, and is then very much like an unbranched Riccia, only very small. The fully developed prothallus however may be as much as an inch across. The erect branched lobes of this prothallus correspond to the lobes of the prothallus of Lycopo- 1919.] The Sixth I ndian Science Congress. elxv dium cernuum, as well as to the erect assimilating filaments and probably also to the walls of the chambers in the Marchantiales on the one hand and the leaves of the Jungermanniales on the The prothallus of Eqgisetum debile is thus a highly synthetic structure showing relationships with several groups. It thus p s that the Liverworts are more closely related to the Equisetales than to any other group of the Pteridophytes. In this connection the reduction shown by the genus Hquisetum in its leaves and its vascular system and the presence of spiral bands on the walls of its sporangia which are so common in the Liverwort capsule-walls are perhaps not without signifi- cance. I have used the word reduction throughout to indicate the process of evolution in the Liverworts, but it should not be f reproduction implies some modifications in the vegetative region. There can hardly beany doubt, for example; that leafy Liverworts are still undergoing modifications and producing new species by the variations in their leafy shoots. This conception of the process of reduction in the Liver- palaeontological evidence that whole groups of plants like the teridosperms and the Sphenophyllales which flourished in allies in later times. (Progressus Rei Botanicae, 1908. gain Lady Isabel Browne says: “ Many Equisetaceae as the direct descendants of the Calamariae. For as pass upwards from the Palaeozoic tree-like Calamites, to the older of the Mesozoic Equisitites, which, though still very large, were smaller than Calamites, and to the more recent species of Equisitites and finally to the living Equisetum we trace a steady diminution in size.” (New Phytologist, Vol. IT.) To me it appears just what one might expect in many cases. During the evolution of the Vegetable Kingdom the forms elxvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, which are superseded would perish but it would be strange if all such forms perish all of a sudden. It would be more likely that disappearance. Many forms, therefore, which, like paar pers or the Liverworts, are apparently perfectly sound and se supporting to all intents and purposes are really on the yeaa ward slope leading to extinction, though some like the Junger- manniales show a flicker before final disappearance. My firm belief is that Rethel og: has played a far more important part than is generally believed: in is history of the Vegetable Kingdom The Myxophyceae of Lahore.—By S. L. Guoss. , Practically no work has been done on the Indian blue-green algae, with the exception of a few pails of some species by foreign writers. The blu m algae in Lahore are found in (1) dra ne and water- courses, (2) artificial tanks, (3) natural ponds oe P ikem gy (4) lawns i unks. nds, after Habit and description of the “sagan ag speci are given :—(1) ur tidus, Kuet: Clathro nf, : Gsciligtoria terebriformis, Gom.. (6) Oscillatoria tenuis, Ag., (7)., Arthro- spira Jenneri, Kuetz. ini ; » Vauch, Kuetz., (16) 7 othriz distorta, Kuetz.. (17) Tolypothrix byasoidea, pene Bids olypetire arenophita, West, (19) eset besa Berk. trial forms perennate by e ing themselves an. k, firm s dine ro Re esting spores have been preven: in all stages a ek prs in Tolypothrix distoria, Kue ay Conclus A more detailed research into the modes of peren- nation, m multipli cation and ie Pen cines is til needed to complete the study of the blue-green algae of Lahor Variation in the — of Jasminum malabaricum, Wight. —By H. H. Man fina flowers of the jasmines are reap sgpac — as to the number of corolla-lobes and calyx teeth which they ain. A recent stay in the acighbourhood of he Western Ghats in re Istitude of Belgaum in Pavia d May enab statistical study of these variations in Jasmenum malabari isin: in an wadoubtedly eae condition, to be made. Nearly 3, "060 corcllae were examined, and ov ,500 calyces. The variation in ie pet of corolla lobes is between three and twelve, the most frequent aciabore peng. eight. A smaller number than the mode is more likely than a larger number. The standard deviation . e ¥ 7 ari- Th the four and eight, five and six being a almost equally freq ent. The standard iation is 0°614, with a probable error of + 000155 55, the variation being plies. results indica: the variation is chiefly a proegetont of the individuality of the plant, ohena! that the number of calyx teeth se not determined by the position on the plant, or by the sasitaeas - laten the — ers. The correlation between the number of — lobes and of calyx teeth is positive, but slight. The coefficient of correlation works out at 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elxvii +0:1148 only,,with a probable error of +0°0071. That is to say there is a — but only a slight, tendency for - the number — — lobes to in- se as the naan of calyx teeth increases, and v On the ecological position of some types of Indian grass- and.—By L. J. Sep@wick. Plant igre va as study of great importance. Talbot’s statement that mbay Presidency no grassland formations is probably g- The Siaane of the Bombay Carnatic is a true grassla bid climate, 7 : b ‘*savannah”’ is too loosely u ming uses certain formations within pisces clas n formation of tall, stiff- wth. Th be limited t ey a all tropical grasslands containing teouro sr is not therefore sav (3 are 8 of monsoon forest we have eo & ‘* psilophytes,”’ s,” and (5) that the first two mix w ith monsoon forests trated. There and ac third with thorn scrub. Points (2) and Ss ee illus y be savannah trees in India, but the second condition—character of the j me must isfied n these pu aet wher rice there is probably no true savannah inthe Carnatic. T types of grassland are then —(1) N. a formation of tall, cuttable grasses with a dense mat of short-lea als, osely placed culms, (2) CHARAN, ro (3) BARREN a gee ive pnp! pe at n asses edges with a strong admixture of flowering herbs, all of han show i fe) adaptions to © xerophtytism. “Type s (1) and Type (3) mixes with thorn serub. The latter is described. Its mem mbers ane datecent: from the incon ir of the forest. The need of an ecological survey of India is urged. The ee and fresh-water algae of the Punjab.—By zm TH Need of w vy on the algae poe the pipe neglected, pehere rien to their r gre ee similarity in Beef a of the world. 2. Sub-sert al f Several sf collected by the author oscillatoria and common. oi alitick ter Sieien e ied fro: i th oecological point ws view exhibited by the algae. The author's ol i dec v. internal conditions determine the formation of the sexual . Some interesting new species collected by the author Note on the euclogy of equate squarrosus, Li “e F. Fyson oé. BaLASUBRAMANIAM. clxvili Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, behind the root- ep. is developed as a special mucilage-secreting layer, and that root-hairs are not aa _ - part is much older, and are confin parts near ie e surface and. This peculiar cugetinges secreting layer has been pss oie yeaa ‘tom only one or two grasses which belong to the desert of North Africa, and which are in no way allied to Spinifex. The existence of the m mucilage and the arrangement of the sear points to the species being properly a xerophyte, and is relative the question whether the strand-formation of the tropics should ee Separdad as halophytic at all. An oecologically regressive vegetation on the Tinnevelly P. F. Fyson. coast.—By An account is =_— of the vegetation of the promontory which juts out setiaetews! the north end of the island ~a Ceylon. The predominant tree is Acac * plan nifrons, W. & A., which is a feature of inland dry country. This occurs not only as forest oe wi shade below, h dense but in two other forms of dwarfing, with strongly epinastic shoots and branches Six di eevee meets are noted, and it is shown that these repre- sent a mixture of regressive inland fore on n, with a progressive ensstvhenraasions, and this is fita in with current belief that the sea has encroached on what was a complete sokeatiens between Ceylon and the mainland. The occurrence = bance noted of a _— association of sa Naiadaceae plant, Cymodocea revenge Trim., on the submerged co shelf which bounds the north onitpe f the protoontory, while two i species grow amongst the algae of the south side. The flora of the Indian desert.—By E. BuarreEr. The paper gives a qeoseel aspect of the flora of Jodhpur and Jaisal- It does not enter into ecological details, as these will be dealt t with ¥ umer n umbers of their respective genera and spe he prevalent orders are mpa th t redominant in som er botanical regi study of the sine cas on of the desert flora shows th Il marked elements: A western (comprising African, Oriental, and Mediterranean species), an eastern (Indo-Malayan), and, fin Se a — general element (incuding those species which are neither eastern nor western exclusively). Of endemic elements 17 new species are mentio ry Morphology of some species of Pteries and Adiantum.— Mir 1. The following ferns were examined :— Adiantum Capillus-Veneris, A. Caudat A, Edgewarthi, A. lunw- latum, pte! longifolia, P. cretica, P. Dera. P. ensiformis Var. Vic- toria uadriaurita 2. In Bo to obtain the skeleton of a fern it should be boiled in caustic aia dissolved in water. n one of these was found a solenostele and in the rest simple forms of dietebelaln: In some the strands going to nove traces and side branches ‘matas each Prams in pkey and in. ben sae some other poi = roca heory that ‘‘ frond is a Paeailed-a eaten other than leaf-gaps a pa ee é The ai simplest type of leaf trace is one with two cab protoxy- lem groups. 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. e]lxix The rhizome and frond of Gonioptreis Prolifera (Rox).— G..8. avers i. eae inatza 2. hizo pap nins e nal es internal anatomy, effect of seasonal variations, di Sereniert in the sizes of gaps, variations induced artificially , extraction we P hilobaphe tc —Im Satan t fea :—Exter oy cn es rs, its habit, description of sorus, earn) pica ool nature of the bud, multiplication. Notes on Vallisneria.—By L. A. Kenoyer. Study of Vallisneria spiralis, collected in northern India has resulted n the reco gnition of at least four forms s wide ly enough separated to be e e Ww nown as varieti d shallow-water form and a large deep-water form is most striking. The floral characters are in the main closely similar in these Indian forms. he comparison of the floral characters of the ry nines form, as figured by Kerner, the American form, as described and figured by Wylie, and the Indian forms, sororrd striking differences oe decteaee it highly pro- bable that share are a number of species of Vallisner A general consideration of some aspects of the fresh-water algal flora of Madras.—By M. QO. ParrHasaratuy AYYANGAR. Though the fresh-water algae of the Indian region has been ure out by or algalogists, the Madras fresh-water algae have not been worked out at all. 2. The algal vegetation of Madras during the North-East ateenaag s very interesting. The conditions of lighting, temperatur e amount of gas dissolved in the r, ap ch som t to conditions preva egions; and so the algal flora, too, iling rat r assumes for the time being a temperate character. The blue-green algae which are generally predominant in the tropics are less dominant then. The green algae are more common as in a temperate regions. 3. Green algae can be seen growing everywhere in sub-aerial regions are uring this se wn ae te Ss of the situations. he fo lowing c coul seen com- monly o ing on the walls of ae giving them a bright green colouration as ei the temperate regio 1. A species of Pisssiphon.: 2. A species of Ye woe 3. A species of Pleuroc 4, Trickling ——- masses 0 e-green algae which are gener- ally characteristic of the su oe regions of pe tropical uplands occur i ilar situati o ing the time. species of Nitella sania on een pee then. Members of the Volvocacese also occur on wet sand around pools of rain water isonet gtr Trentepholia and Oph been met oak by me rahegoeiar The place a species of Rh 1 evades wh ich commonly occurs throughout t the year in all moist shady sub-aerial situations. 7. The Cladophorales are represented in Madras by Cladophora, Pithophora and Rhizocloniu 8. The members of the Volvocaceae ee commonly in many pools during the monsoon season, for abana th lamydomonas Gonium, EBudorina, Pleuodorina and Volvoz. . Many ge tern forms which are generally rare in the tropics oecur commonly during this season, for example, Ulothrix, Hormospora, elxx Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Schizomeris, Draparnaldia, Sirogonium, and Spirogyras with replicate end s, etc., etc. i; smids, both filamentous and solitary forms, are v mon uring the mensoon seasons, especially in rain water seule; ditches and paddy-fields, 1 1. Clathorocystis is a dominant plankton form in many open Seg : Raph is — adapted hy stand the strong tropical illumination. But during the oon season it dies out in large quantities owing to the Wak ote’ areninnet ion. Section of Geology. President—L. Lricu Frermor, O.B.E., D.Sc., A.R.S.M., F.A.S.B., 'P. GS Presidential Address. SomE PROBLEMS OF ORE GENESIS IN THE ARCHAEAN or InpIA (With Plate IT.) CONTENTS. Page I. Introduction elxx II. The origin and relationships of the Siehisek i caabiona of India . 1xxii iil. Ore Sepositiodl in ~ a Rechscdas of T eee A. Syngenetic sedimentary oe dap of the Dhar- wars ay elxxix 1. Iron-or ne 2 ae te oy aiexix 2: Mingits nese-ores se .. elxxxi B. Syngenetic, igneous ore ; ducal ia: .. elxxxiii C. Epigenetic ore-deposits due to granitic intrusions 1. Singhbhum a a < elxxxviii 2. Sikkim xci 3. Kolar exci IV. Summary l. Inrropvuction. At a scientific meeting the scope of a paper is usually circumscribed by the necessity of producing the facts concern- ing the views, hypotheses, or theories advanced, or is devoted to describing facts of Nature. But a presidential address may regarded as freed to a certain extent from these necessary restrictions, éording the author a — opportunity of discussing one of the broniber aspects of his science. Accord- and the privilege of placing before you, a summary of ideas resulting from considerable experience of the most ancient rocks of India 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elxxi A glance at the geological map of India shows at once that the Peninsula (as distinguished from the mountainous > Purana and Gondwana rocks. There is a comparative sim- tions. At first attention was directed mainly t nd wana coalfields on account of their paramoun a importance to the industrial welfare of the country, the ancient Archaean rocks being disposed of in a very cursory manner. But durin the last three decades an ever-increasing amount of attention has been given to the mapping and study of the vast areas occupied by the land rocks of India, which are proving = be treasure houses not only of fascinating stories written stone, often very damaged and difficult to decipher, acimertint the early segs: of our globe, but also of vast stores of mineral wealt not pe pasion upp that, during the short ex- istence of this Congress, two Addresses before this section have already been devoted bs pone of Archaean geology. In 1915, ie the second Congres ss, Dr. Smeeth read a very inter- esting paper entitled ‘‘ The Geo logical. History = Southern India !”’, which has been subsequently reprinted in a somewhat amplified form as an “Outline of the Geological "History of Mysore*’’, a part of India almost entirely occupied by Archaean rocks. In 1917, Mr. Middlemiss, as ine dent of this section i the fourth Congress, discoursed on aeons of Archae Geology in India*’’. Both these geolouiies in eesialetng the results of their prolonged researches in nto the damaged documents of Archaean times, concerned themselves with the broader and mo th etical aspects of Archaean geology and left untouched the philosophically narrower questio i portant nevertheless to man. erning st stores ce oe wealth preserved in the Indian Archaean form tion: ae seems to me fitting, therefore, that we should now devote ened attention to this more practical aspect of Archaean geology, a I propose in this address to consider Some problems of Ore Genesis in the Archaean of India Ld Oa A By yi eG 141-151 peg ee 2 Bulletin, No. 6, Dept. “ee f Mines Geology, Mysore State (1916). 3 J. é& P. A.S.B., XUI, a ee one (1917). elxxii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Il. Tur Origin aNnD RELATIONSHIPS OF THE ARCHAEAN FoRMATIONS OF INDIA. We must first refer briefly to the views of Dr. Smeeth : ; : : iddlemiss respectively. Dr. Smeeth’s views. Pp vely >? of Mysore shows elongated narrow strips of schistose rocks ar i variety of rocks, some of which, such as hornblende-schists. are of undoubted igneous origin; others, such as quartzites, limestones, mica-schists, phyllites, banded iron-ore rocks, an “As to their sedimentary or aqueous character, definite roof is lacking, but the great consensus of opinion is in favour of such a view.” In addition to postulating an igneous origin for nearly all the rocks of the Dharwar system, Dr. Smeeth also regards this system as older that the associated ‘‘fundamental gneiss”, base of the Dharwars, which were once supposed to be true sedimentary conglomerates, indicating that the Dharwars are younger than the underlying fundamental gneisses, are now regarded by the Mysore Geological Department as of auto- clastic origin. Mr. Middlemiss (/.c., p. cxevi) finds the— Dr. Middlemiss’ vi : mousiy under ‘ muse wiowS- pers of the Mysore Geological De- h partment, regarding the origin and relative age of these rocks and the series of mineral and physical transforma- tions through which they have gone”’ 1919. ] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elxxiii very hers ele Se’ at least in its entirety, and proceeds to cite cases of exposures in the Salem district where outliers actual junction was found, fragments of Dharwar rocks were seen to be included in the Hosur gneiss. As Mr. Middlemiss observes (/.c., p. exevii) :— “With everything else in favour of the Dharwars being the younger formation, here is an appearance that I think . the majority of observers would say rors that the intrusive gneiss was younger than the Dharw And, after summing up the evidence to the pag Mr. Middlemiss writes (2 ¢., p. exevili) :— hus the evidence is conflicting. Whilst general con- clusions that have great weight are in favour of the younger age of the Dharwars, the particular section given above ones be held to prove just the contrary. , 1 think, by looking upon the Hosur gneiss as a rock that has passed through (it may be) several vicissi- tudes of solidification and plutonic re- melting without ever having developed much intrusive motion as regards the formations above, can the above conflicting testimony be rmonised.”’ ee With pes) to the igneous origin that Dr. Smeeth wishes to ascribe to the at, formation, Mr. Middlemiss observes (l.c., p. eaecil t “No graphic aE on of these extraordinary wholesale transformations of granites, quartz-porphyries and other igneous rock types, into schists, conglomerates, limestones and quartzites, has as yet appeared from the pencil of any of those responsible for the statements,”’ and decides to suspend judgment until such data are forth- coming. He then proceeds to cite data collected by himself, sedimentary origin for the crystalline limestones and cale- Spat complica ated in the latter case, according to Mr. Burton and myself, by lit par lit injection producing hybrid arta Finally, Mr. Middlemiss turns the tables on Dr. Smeeth with the following closing passage (l.c., p. ¢ pigs ine ‘Consequently, it seems to me ag in dealing with any rock that appears to be abe doubtful spiel or mag- matic origin, it is above all necessary in these days to ascertain in wach direction the pian of change is moving. elxxiv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, To put the matter bluntly—an apparent ortho-gneiss with its contemporaneous veins may quite as well be an in- eure metamorphosed sediment with pegmatities formed t by ‘selective solution’ as it may be the extreme, foliated or otherwise modified, se prcomp anlar? of a canta gabbroid or hybrid abyssal injectio Perhaps, I may be now sanggiene . express my own views ‘Dileite eile’. on these points ; for, without formulat- ing, as far to the origin and reliationahips of the various members of the Archaean complex, it is impossible to deal satisfactorily with Laeagptag of ore genesis in the Archaean. Most of my field- k in India has been devoted to the study of ore-deposits located in Archaean formations or to the geological oe of areas in which Archaean formations predominate. In particu- lar a phe has lain in the Central Provinces and in Singh- bhum, but I have also been fortunate in being able to visit at one time or another Ajmer-Merwara, Central India, Hazari- bagh, Orissa, Sikkim, Ganjam, Vizagapatam, Bellary, the Sandur and Nilgiri Hills, Mysore State, Ratnagiri, and Portu- ese India, saad have thus been enabled to examine typical exposures of all the formations of Dharwarian aspect, viz. the arwars, Champaners, pi Ghat series, the Aravallis, and i Dalings, to study the relationships to these formations to e Archaean —. bere granites, and also to make the cquaintance of the rn Ghats type of Archaean rocks, aes terised sectaly “ay this khondalite and charnockite ‘Baal on this ss oc wert I feel convinced that we saat the lace, accept a eral oontonspardnelty for the Pviectinis of Dharwaria ie . This view cannot, ourse, be supported on palzonto- logical grounds, as no satisfactory evidence of the existence of life in Archaean times has yet been discovered in the Dharwar rocks ; but it is justified on grounds of general degree of meta- morphism, folding, and relationship to other Archaean forma- tions. It is probable that no one area shows the complete General contempora neity of Dhiraceu. for- in deposition giving rise to considerable unconformities within t. ars. Secondly, as regards the bib of the rocks comprising the ar formations, I prefer with Po, gun sre rel aoe get let Middlemiss to await the production of evidence by the Mysore Geological Sis cca a oe their eaten conclusions as the origin of the Dharwar schists. But I am probably 1919. ] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. clxxv prepared to go further than Mr. Middlemiss to meet Dr. Smeeth, for I have long ago recognised certain quartzites in inghbhum as crushed vein- quartz and certain micaceous schists in Chhindwara as crushed gneisses, whilst I have been compelled to ae ine as autoclastic every Dharwarian conglom- erate I have ever seen (not a numerous) except one in the Champaner abies near Jhaban in the Panch Mahals.' More- over, at one place in the Bala iat district Mr. Burton and I found it impossible to decide, even after chemical tests, whether or acid igneous rocks; and, of course, | accept as metamor- phosed su ethaege rocks alininlt all epidioritic rocks and horn- blende-schis Fur Gace work carried out in Singhbhum last winter renders it likely that the potstones and other magnesian schists in the Dharwars are merely metamorphosed ultra-basic rocks. But, with these exceptions, the general eee of evidence Sedimentary members #PPears to me to favour the view that seh Draven. the majority of the lahat phyllites, ica-schists, and quartzites o Dharwars are metamorphosed sediments ; and although I was main, a etamorp. part by contact-metamorphism and in part by lit par lit nee tion of acid igneous material. : In my brief visits Sandur hills, Mysore, and Goa, that is, to parts of India “ which Dr. Smeeth’s views more particularly apply, I saw w phyl- lites and quartzites that appear to me to be indistinguishable from the presumed sedimentary Die of the Central Pro- vinces and Singhbhum As regards the relationships of the Dharwars to the a: oe ental gneisses ’’’, all the evi- oo ee pabeene than the dence I have seen forces me to the rng acct 2 wey conclusion as meeth, viz. that the Dharwars are the S alddek rocks wherever they occur, and that the associated gneisses an ssose Sper gous in their relationships. The jeueiein are obscured by debris, but, where visible, often show inclusions of the Dharwar rocks in the gneiss or granite (e.g. in Singhbhum and granite in the Dharwars (e.g. at Jothvad). At other times the junction is a shear junction characterized by autoclastic rocks 1 W. T. Blanford, Mem. G.S.I., VI, p. 41 (1869). 2 Rec. G81, XLV, p- 102, (1916). elxxvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, (e.g. in Rohra Nala in West Balaghat, Central Provinces, and near Srinagar, east of Ajmer). At still other times relatively unmetamorphosed Dharwars rest direct on granite, but with- out any intervening conglomerate (near Chaibassa). Finally, in many cases, both Dharwars and granitic rocks have been so severely metamorphosed ie they dip isoclinally, and, as would be expected, it is no longer possible to unravel their relation- ships (e.g. in the Nagpur- Belaghat plain). ut, on looking at the geological map of India, many geologists find it difficult to accept the idea that the vastly predominating gneisses and granites of India have intruded themselves into = much smaller shreds and areas of Dharwarian rocks. Accepting the view that a portion at least of the Dharwar schists was scr deposited as sediments, we must admit the previous existence of an earlier solid crust or land-surface, not only to provide by denudation the sedi- mentary material required for deposition, but also to provide Pre-Dharwar gneisses re-melted. Where is this early crust and the gneisses and granites (with perhaps still earlier sediments and lavas) which we may assume composed it? We must suppose that during the course of tectonic movements, the Dharwar sediments and lavas were ten more than once, its age must date from the time of its latest enh Thus we see that the “ fundamental gneisses ’ se they show intrusive relations towards the Dharwars, lust ee regarded as each 1 younger, but nevertheless they must, in part, represent the older crust—locally modified plain the genera ral absence of the basal conglomerates in the Dharwar formation. This hypothesis does not inhibit the local preservation of the older gneiss and base of the Dharwars, but it is doubtful if such a case of preservation has yet been clearly identified. According, therefore, to the ideas now —- posit may regard the “fundamenta Bric cart oke pecmn c pacer a ae eiss’’ as co mposed in part of re-Dharwar gneissic crust re-melted itl in part of sah era granites intruded from a lower 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elxxvii Hitherto we have dipnusoet the origin and relationships Sibi anes may be designated the normal Archaean rocks. B India we have another set of formations, which extends southwards into the hill masses of Southern India and Ceylon. This peculiar and abnormal set of formations may be designated the Eastern Ghats facies of the Archaean and com- prises the charnockite series of Holland, the khandalite series of T. L. Walker, and a series of garnetiferous biotite-gneisses. Last winter I had occasion to tour Orissa in search of mica through country much of which is still geologically unsurveyed. As one result of this tour, I was led to discover the existence of what may prove to be a very SOE geologival boundary or line. Its approximate position, as judged from my own to the south of Sambalpur, as far as a point to the north of Borasambar. South of this line practically all the rocks are garnetiferous, consistin gneisses, of the garnetiferous schists and gneisses comprising the khondalite series and the hybrid Bezwada gneiss, and of basic members of the charnockite series, sometimes but not always garnetiferous. No rth of this line we have normal non-garnetiferous gneisses an s and normal Dharwar sediments with basic epidioritic i be tion of the line (or zone) separating the normally garnetiferous formations from the normally non-garnetiferous formations, and to determine to what extent the difference between these two facies of Archaean formations is due to original differences of composition and to what extent to differences of dynamic or thermal history; but we may convenience refer to the two es of Archaean formations in Chota Nagpur or nor- rere as te Chota Nagpur facies or pee ee ee Ae ae ae Eastern Ghats facies or = vely. In discussing now the ore- acetely of the Archaean in India, I propose to confine my attention to those found in the no or Chota Nagpur type of Archaeans, except for a brief refer- ence to the ore-deposits of the Eastern Ghats type at the end. In view of the foregoing discussion on the origin and ao he ule rmal relationships the aang of ae pete gpcsoenataeentene aang t of Archaeans in India, wot ai rary Rt may Sak the following general classification :— (1) Oldest gneisses and granites—not yet certainly identi- fied. elxxviii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, (2) Dharwar sediments and contemporaneous lavas. (3) Oldest gneisses re-melted—now post-Dharwar and pro- ba ai sears a considerable portion of the “‘ funda- (4) Post- Dhatwar aeitbbiaivee: (a) Peridotites and ater. ultra-basic rocks. (6) Granites and pegmatites (c) Epidiorites ated ie and gabbros). (d) Elaeolite-syenites. These intrusives, especially the granites and xeiated ri acer: tities, may belong to more than one period of eruption IIT. OR&-DEPOSITION IN THE ARCHAEANS OF INDIA. Br ocianeoa ct st fecal cota may now turn to the consideration of of Nature . : ore-deposition in the Archaeans of d . Mining Society some years ago, entitled ‘‘ What is an Ore? (Jour., Sibpur C.E. Col. Min. Soc., Vol. ahs p. 39, 1908), 1 arrived at the following definition of an ore ‘*A mineral substance containing an cuviaitianlly valu- able metal in such quantity that, given a sufficiently large deposit of such mineral substance and a favourable situa- tion of the deposit as regards transport and corre cen- tres, it will pay to work the mineral substanc And, ae he psi point of view, I showed eit we could rega ard an “ es res ay of the concentration by the processes of Nature of the originally very sparsely distributed metals, into mineral substances fulfilling the conditions as to com- position just stated.” We will approach our problem from this latter point of tinsel of oa iew. Theoretically, any of the Ar- posits inthe Archaeans, Chaean geological formations might con- tain concentrations of metalliferous mi- sone suitable for use as ores; but from the nature of things ust leave out of the question the hypothetical oldest seisinbea! From theoretical] considerations—which will appear later—it seems probable that the re-melted gneisses and granites 1 The Mysore Geological Department has r enue % o less than three successive post-Dharwar granitic intrusives, known respectively as the Champion Gneiss, the Peninsular Gneiss, and the younger granites, e. The in the re-me Said war gneisses io de my division (3). 1919. ] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elxxix of division (3) should also be poor in related ore-deposits. This leaves for consideration the Dharwar sediments and the post- Dharwar intrusives, and in practice we find that nearly all the varieties of epigenetic deposits formed of minerals introduced uring and since the folding and metamorphism of the Dhar- wars; in particular, ores of copper, gold, lead, and zine, with rarer ores of iron, tungsten, and uranium. As will be shown below, the presence of these ores is in all probability due in many cases to granitic intru Of the post-Dharwar intrusives the eo — do n monly carry valuable ore-deposits, having, as a rule, in course rw ae mica deposits cars so metimes, in Se i pockets o' ores of the rarer metals, such as uranium (pitchblende and Seharekies and tantalum (columbite and tantalite), as in Chota Nagpur and Nellore. The epidiorites are commonly devoid of valuable Accueil: but may occasionally carry Pe ap of titaniferous magnetite, as in Singhbhum; otherw ere is little evidence that the doleritic intrusions of various ages in deposits have been found in connection with the few known occurrences of elaeo lite- svenites, although i in Coimbatore asso- ciated felspar-rock carries ‘corundum in large quantities. may, therefore, suitably confine our attention to Classification of Indian three gro ups of ore- deposits in the Archaean ore-deposits. Archaean, viz. :— (1) the Aike aniee sedimentary deposits of the Dharwars, mplifi by i iron and manganese deposits (2) he clack igneous post-Dharwar deposits exempli- fied by chromite deposits in peridotite ; an (3) the — ore-deposits (mainly in the Dharwars) due to granitic intrusions, exemplified by lodes of copper, lead, zinc, gold, ete A. Syngenetic sedimentary ore-deposits of the Dharwars. Tron-ores. The banded rocks composed of magnetite, hematite, and quartz, or a fine-grained jasperoid or cherty form of silica, are elxxx Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV. noteworthy components of the Archaean terrane in many parts a satisfactory solution of the difficulties in reat pei with heir origin in one part of the world s prove very useful in solving the problems connected with | similar rocks in other parts. Although these silica-iron-ore rocks and associated iron-ore deposits occur in great abundance in various parts o India (e.g. Singhbhum, Mysore and Salem), nevertheless the ) e boring operations that would enable us to draw conclusions as to both the origin and extent of these deposits, or summarising the results of the Sawin. (extending over many years) of Von Hise, himself, and their co-workers', these rocks were originally deposited as a series of aqueous sediments, rtly as cherty iron carbonates, partly as ferrous silicates, ri chemical changes due to the influence of waters carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide, the iron as oxide and the silica have segregated from each other, with various results according to the structural conditions and subsequent tectonic history o each case, the resultant rocks being ferruginous cherts, jaspers, amphibole- -magnetite-schists, and iron-ore bodies, all of which types of rock are found in India In Singhbhum and Orissa large bodies of hematite have been yeas recently along a high range extending for some 40 miles in a S. 8. -W. direction. Enormous —. of these ore-bodies to the deep can safely be made in’ advance of the results of diamond drilling. At the surface such ore-bodies, which are usually composed of hemnsite, my often found to be hydrated, Singhbhum and Goa, with production of a limonitic ee ing, ‘uiiadiately below which lies the compact hematite. Such development work as has yet been done in Singhbhum and Goa indicates, however, that below the com pact hematite lies friable micaceous aa and it is a matter of great practical interest to Surface modifications. 1 erie: Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 101- 163 (1005). 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elxxxi 2. Manganese-ores. Turning now to the sedimentary mangarrese-ores, we find a belt of country extending from Jhabua in Central India through the Nagpur- Balaghat portion of the Central Provinces sometimes, as in the Nagpur district, exceedingly crystalline. Not infrequently, these rocks are cut by pegmatitic and granitic intrusions, which sometimes carry fragments of these exceptional minerals. On these Peon hs we are sale in concluding that a portion at least of the frequently highly crystalline gonditic ores are of pre-pegmatitic age, and on grounds of chemical composition and stratigraphical relation- ships, we are further justified in regarding them as representing braunitic ores (usually also carrying aie. whilst the less pure ores yielded the mixtures of braunite, result of segregative changes during metamor hism, assumed for the Lake Superior iron-ore formations, it is impossible now to say. 1 Memoirs, Geol. Surv. is Vol. XX XVII, p. 306 (1909). 2 AS 8 p. 5 (1911) 3 Mem. G.S.1., XXXVII, p. 646 6 336. celxxxii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Mention has been made of the action of waters carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide in effecting a re-arrangement and concentration of iron in the Lake Superior iron-ore deposits. ention has also been made of the surface hydration of Surface modifications, dian Dharwar hematite bodies with formation of limonitic cappings. alo- gous cases of surface hydration of gonditic manganese-ores are rare,' but there is one very interesting case of surfac modification worthy of special notice. The manganese-ore braunite, with three minerals new to science,—hollandite, a complex manganate now found to be a crystalline form of psilo- One other aspect of the gonditic ore-deposits deserves mention, viz. the progressive increase in the phosphorus con- tents with increasing depth being experienced in practically all the manganese mines of the Central Provinces; the cause of this increase is at present unknown. I , as seems possible, the low phosphorus contents of the surface ores is due to surface leaching of the phosphorus compouud (? apatite), then the : aes Nagpur district, is a good example. See l.c., p. 949. C., p. 785. § G. H. F. Smith and G. T. Prior, Mineralogical Magazine, XVI, p. 84 (1911). 1919. The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elxxxiii increase in phosphorus should cease once the ground water- level (past as well as present) has been reached. B. Syngenetic igneous ore-deposits. Chromite Deposits. ale e, ar Savantvadi, the other chief group of deposits (those of Baluchistan) occurring in saxonites of cre- taceo ese, I have been enabled personally to study conve by shearing into talc-schist ore-bodies are usually in the form of bands, which, according to the evidence, are primary segregations drawn ne case 0 serpentine, was also found. Further to the east, in Dhalbhum, where the Dharwars have suffered much. more intense metamorphism than near modified by more intense metamorphism. The possible chemical equations representing | the forma- tion of serpentine from olivine have been recently investigated by R. P. W. Graham,! in connection with the Quebec occur- to iron-bearin ntine by simple hydration and oxidation without gain or loss of silica or magnesia, e.g. for Mg: Fe =1:1;— But with Mg : Fe = >3: 1, the conversion of olivine into ser- pentine must be accompanied either by addition of silica or by 1 Econ. Geol., Vol. XII. pp. 162-170 (1907). elxxxiv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, loss of magnesia. Taking the simplest cases, the equations would be— 3Mg,Si0, + SiO, + 4H,0=2H Mg,8i.0, | and 2Mg SiO, + CO, + 2H,0 =H,Mg,Si,0, + MeCO.. action of siliceous waters, for along a considerable portion of their margins, the peridotite massifs have been replaced by in the Mysore district, where bands and lenses Although it is now generally recognised that chromite deposits must be regarded as primary segregations from ultra- etre Mer eG do one peeks 1 P. Sampat Iyengar: Records, Mysore Geol. Dept., Vol. VII, pt. 2, Pp. 38 and 39. 2W. F. Smeeth and P. Sampat Iyengar; Mineral Resources of Mysore, p. 111. 1919.j The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elxxxv basic magmas, owing their present shape and distribution to factors pre dating the serpentinisation of such rocks, yet Indian geological literature contains suggestions that serpentinisation is accompanied by the segregation of chromite, in particular with piso to the deposits of Salem and Baluchistan ;! so that , perhaps, not out of place to record that the result of a pete study in the field of the evidence both in Singhbum and Baluchistan? is to show conclusively that in both areas the present form of the chromite deposits is the result of primary segregation, except where modified by movements due to me- chanical causes. That this should be so seems reasonable in view of the great chemical stabiiity of chromite as yar vvigeta y the formation of the chrome-chert and chrome-marble ferred to above, and as is ioken advantage of in faanadtrotoal practice when chromite. is used as a neutral refractory mate- rial for separating the pee roof from the basic hearth in open- hearth steel-furnaces C. Epigenetic ore-deposiis due to granitic intrusions. Three cases of the probable introduction of valuable ore- afte into rocks of ag oie’ age by the intrusion of granitic magmas will be referred t 4) The wolfram, apa ache, -magnetite, copper, uranium, argentiferous galena, and gold deposits of Singh- (2) The -HabcbenG armhole and blende-galena lodes of ikkim. (3) The gold lodes of Kolar. It is now a generally —— idea that, when a granitic age lee 7 ma solidifies, all the surplus con- ion rom * orate eae aire stituents not required in the formation mother- liquor—constituents that were present only in minute quantities in the whole mass of the granitic magma being often thus soianenbented into this residual fluid. The principal constituents of this residtial magma are water, silica, alkalies and alumina, often with useful metals such as tin, tungsten, commonly chlorine ; but the exact nature of these constituents in a given case will naturally depend upon the composition of the original magma. It is difficult to formulate clear ideas as to the physical state of the constituents of this mother-liquor, but it seems PQ. Ss, Micidlaarion: fee ge Geol. Surv. Ind., XXIX, p. 33 (1896); G. H. Tipper: Zhob Dis: etteer, I, p. 187, (1907). 2 Rec., G.S.I., XLVI. p. rT 1917). elxxxvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, safe to say that the more volatile Sy will not be avis liquid as long as the temperature is above the critical point for water. Moreover, as long as the retcaiaes is at all high, there will be a tendency for a portion of the less volatile elements, such as silicon, aluminium, etc., to be kept in the vaporous condition by the help of fluorine, chlorine, boron, etc., which constituents are usually known as mineral- be w distance from the granite, in the nature of the substances eposited. In a complete case mica-bearing parma will be eposited in and next to the granite, Sequence of en in an ideal c SS a samarskite, columbite, and other rare-earth miner- The pegmatites pass upwards into aggregates of minerals di water—cassiterite, topaz, and tourmaline, being specially nhikrabbeatotie of this zone. Above the cassiterite zone should mingled, is also probably of pneumatolytic origin. Above this should come a zone of hydrothermal deposition ‘characterised by sulphide minerals such as those of copper, iron, lead and zinc, with gold and silver, of which the copper and iron sulphides tend to be depo sited nearest to the granite. Higher up still we may find penal quartz veins representing the surplus silica, and these may be succeeded by hot springs representing the final surplus of water. This is, of course, the simple and ideal case pieced together from the evidence of many localities in different parts of the world. In practice, in any given case, some of the zones of deposition may be missing ; in addition, as the general tempera- ture decreases, each zone may r recede towards the granite, so that, e.g., ae characteristic of the hydro-thermal zone superposed on those of the pneumatolytic zone of a nag aw earlier eel of deposition e following study of ore deposition in Singhbhum, Sikkim ahd Mysore, we shall in each case find it reasonable to attribute to intrusions of acid igneous magmas the intro- 1919. ] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elxxxvii duction of valuable minerals into rocks of Dharwar type. It may well be asked how is it that, considering the vast area or Peninsular India occupied by ‘Are aean granitic gnei a Co omparative scarcity of 7 2 Asihacich aoismabies ake mot are so scarce? The answer deposits in India. either in Dharwar schists or in vce cataniasd gre Meorbhy have posits, or, if so, that the conditions of solidification were favourable to the concentration of these constitue on aes ore-bodies. But there may be another vey good r We have already eee a that a considerable piel 8 the ‘‘fundamental gneiss” of India may be an older pre- Priva a 4 Dig cvar gneiss re-melted so as to granites.» CP pear now as a later intrusion. This old ; doubtless lost its mother- nia metalliferous contents, and mineralising agents, at the time of its original solidification. Re-fusion could not put these constituents back into the magma, except in so far as porti re-melted and assimilated in the granitic magma, This con- sideration means that, whereas Wwe may expect a primary or virgin granitic magma to produce mineralisation of the rocks into which it is ae we can hardly expect this of a secondary or re- inated ek In addition to the penal ser ore-deposits discussed in — section of my paper, there i d Sea ee siderable number of small sppvaite of copper, lead, gold, etc., scattered over the Archaean terrane of India. It will be of interest in the future to determine the extent to which these deposits are to be regarded as due to post-Dharwar granitic intrusions and the extent to which they are in any way related to the suggested re-melted gneisses. Some of these deposits, particularly some associated with silicate minerals such as garnet, diopside and ‘tremolite, in such a way as to suggest that they may be con- tact-metamorphic deposits ; if so, future research may point to the necessity of establishing a eee of the epigenetic . deposits to — such occurren _ Let us now discuss in turn pin of the three areas Singh- bhum, Sikkim, and Kolar. elxxxviii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. {N.S., XV. 1. Singhbhum. (See Plate IT.) In Singhbhum a great batholith of granite (the Singhbhum granite) has lifted up the Dharwar rocks—chiefly phyllites and quartzites —which, consequently, as arule, dip off the granite. i- mately parallel to the N.E. and N. margins of this granite, but contained within the Dharwars, is a belt of old copper workings, which is continued to the west by further old workings associa- Copper-ores. related to the Singhbhum granite and the Akarsani grano- phyre).! Several miles to the north is a large intrusion of dolerite known as the Dalm: Trap and now altered to epidiorite. This trap also exhibits parallelism to the copper belt. But, At intervals along the copper belt we find, intercalated in e Dharwars, small lenticular bodies of magnetite-apatite-rock, which are specially abundant in Dhalbhum (at Patharghara, Badia, Sunrgi, etc.) and are so closely associated with the copper deposits that they often crop out in the sides of old work- i At one locality (Sunrgi) the magnetite-apatite-rocks are stained with green and yellow in- crustations of torbernite and autunite. On the dumps of the old workings are often found small fra ts of pegmatitic and granitic rocks indicating the existence of apo- physes of these rocks in the Dharwar sediments. At Kalimati, some five miles north Magnetite-apatite-rocks. Uranium. Pegmatite. doen of the granite, there is an isolated wol- fram-quartz deposit, and, at a much greater distance, moderately Argenti close to the Dalma Trap, lies the argenti- oe ferous galena deposit of Dhadka in Manbhum. stan S22, MAB accompanying V. Ball's «Geology of the Districte of ro hgigag and Singhbhum.” Memoirs, Geol. Surv. Ind., Vol. XVIII ). 1919.| The Sixth Indian Science Congress. elxxxix In addition, various occurrences of auriferous quartz lodes aéia’ ve been located, of which perhaps the most noteworthy i is — of Kundra- kocha close to the southern boundary of the gra erhaps, I should mention that the ankriny of all these mineral deposits is to occur in impregnated zones, lenticular veins and lenses pose itek to the lamination of the enclosing phyllites and schist In considering oh spatigigialatc: of these various ore-deposits a possible index to their source, we au to granite probably’ are eAoatenasee with the presence of 1 pg var y ather than Dahna two sets of igneous intrusives, viz. the ranites and granophyres, and the basic aoe constituting the Dalma Trap and the numer- ous dykes traversing both the Singhbhum granite and the Dharwar schists. At first sight it might seem that either of these sets of intrusives might equally well be regarded as the source of the mineral-bearing solutions. But, in view of our knowledge of such rocks elsewhere, we are compelled to attribute the pegmatites and the wolfram-quartz deposit to the acid magma, and the close association of the copper deposits and the magnetite-apatite-rocks with the Dharwar-granite boundary leaves little doubt that these minerals, as well as the associated uranium, must also have emanated from the granite. This leaves Pane! the argentiferous lead deposits and the gold deposits. will be seen from the account given above of the general ae of deposition in a typical case, we might expect lead, gold and silver to be deposited at a greater distance nearer to the Dalma Trap, so that the proximity of pera Ole cma a Dhadka to the Dalma Trap may have no genetic significan The suriferous veins of Singhbhum are widely distributed and seem to favo r by their sy wage et neither the acid nor i ew of the fact that i is Poararrars associated with ne gold, and the fact aves 8 vi- sions, W 5 Fs a considered, we are brought to the oe that the deposition of the gold in the veins resulted fro 1 Rec., G.S.I., XXXVIIL, p. 36 (1909) ; and XLIL, p. 75 (1912). 2 Records, Geol. Surv. Ind., XX XI, p. 81 (1904). exe Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Although as shown above, I am inclined to look for the ultimate source of the gold in the acid intrusives, it is not in the least impossible that the later basic intrusions may have led to some subsequent re-arrangement, with possible further concentration, in some cases, of mineral contents already contributed to the Dharwars by the granites. Accepting as a working hypothesis the view that most of the epigenetic ore-deposits in the Dhar- wars of Singhbhum owe their origin to the intrusion of the granites, we may briefly notice the evi- Order of deposition. : ay the pegmatites than to the other deposits. Where the magnet- ite-apatite-rocks and copper deposits occur to ether, the chalcopyrite is found to replace metasomatically the magnetite and the apatite. In the magnetite-apatite lenses themselves the magnetite is later than the apatite. The uranium c belt, we should attribute a slightly later age to the wolfram. This would be a reversal of» what is customary in other countries, e.g. Cornwall, and’ the position of the wolfram deposit may be explained in two ways: either the wolfram 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. excl Oldest. Pegmatites . Pegmatitic zone. { Wolfram-quartz veins] ! Magnetite-apatite rocks > Pneumatolytic zone. Unknown uranium mineral]! 3) Chalcopyrite Argentiferous galena Hydrothermal zone. old Barren vein quartz There will, of course, prove to be local exceptions to this order. 2. Sikkim. In Sikkim, numerous se ee lodes and argentiferous blende- -galena lodes have been discovered inter- bedded with the slates, phyllites and schists of the Dalin ing series, regarded as equivalent to the Dharwars of the Peninsula.’ rea occupied by the Daling rocks is not large, ~ is surrounded by gneisses, regarded as of younger a In addition, there is a granitic intrusion in the midst of the Dalings. Basic igneous intrusions are rare. Copper deposits have been found in many parts of the Daling area, both with reference to the Dalings, and, in vie w of the rarity of basic igneous rocks, we are on fairly safe Laer? in attribut- ing the minerals es the acid intrusives. Althou gh the condi- 3. Kolar. The gold of Kolar occurs in veins of blue or grey quart enclosed in the hornblende-schists of the Lower Dharwars of the Mysore Geological Department, and in rnin relation- ship to these hornblende-schists is a gneiss Champion gneiss by the same Department. in "addition to 1 Exact position of minerals in brackets uncertain. 2 Rec., G.S.I., XLT, p. 74 (1912). excii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [NS., XV, gold, the quartz contains very small amounts of pyrit h Macl in hi rehensive work on gold, divides the pre-Cambrian gold deposits of India into two groups, viz those of Arc age associated with blue or grey quartz and those of Cuddapah age associated with white quartz found in the Dharwar phyllites and chlorite-schists of Dharwar nue Singh bite. With reference to the latter, Maclaren writes ! ** In all cases it would appear that the auriferous solutions have been set in circulation by diabasic flows and intru- sions, but not even a guess may be made as to whether the gold was a to its present position by the uprising diabasic magma or whether the diabasic and dioritic tennibars found the schists already pisses and served only as carriers of heat and of solvent vapour For Singhbhum we have above adopted the tases alterna- tive, if the intervention of these basic magmas is to be admitted at all. In the case of the older group of gold deposits, such as those of Kolar, belonging to his Erythraean province, biokiblendé schists and t aaanhabornies and an upper division consisting of greenstones, chlorite-schists, Bae chlorite-schists and talcose schists. They write (/.c., pp. “Maclaren has noted the above Tae, between the auriferous veins of the chloritic and hornblendic rocks the schists and gueisses and therefore of post-Archaean ney Weare unable to agree with this latter suggestion. It m be true that the dark veins in the hornblendic rocks are older and more crushed than the white veins of the chloritic series, but even this is by no means certain. egree of crushing is locally very variable in both cases, and some of the white veins show considerable signs of crushing and movement, and appear to be older than many of the barren veins of quartz and pegmatite which occur in the schists 1 Gold: Its Geological Occurrences and Geographical Distribution, p. 54 b (1906). 2 (Mineral Resources of Mysore, pp. 7 and 8 (1916). 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. excili and gneisses and which are intruded by the dolerite dykes. The latter show no signs of crushing or movement whatever. It must be remembered that Maclaren regarded the schists as laid down on, and later than, the fundamental gneiss and was therefore debarred from regarding the latter as a source of the quartz and gold. We take the opposite view as explained in the following section.” According to these authors (/.c., p. 10)— ‘*The auriferous veins of the Kolar field are intrusive to be regarded as one of the end-products of a granite intrusion. Tongues of micro-granite which are regarded as belonging to the Champion gneiss come into the Mysore mine in close proximity to the Champion lode and the quartz of the latter has been observed to penetrate these tongues.” ‘On the other hand, the great mass of the Peninsular gneiss cuts off both the auriferous schists and the Champion gneiss while the pegmatite veins and cross-courses which cut the Champion lode are probably products of the intrusion of the Peninsular gneiss. The auriferous veins of Kolar appear therefore to be subsequent to the Champion gneiss and prior to the Peninsular gneiss (or some of it) and in seeking a granitic origin for the gold-bearing veins the Champion gneiss. appears to offer a handy and suitable source.”’ the gold with the Champion gneiss, I am inclined to_ Smeeth and P. Sampat Iyengar in attributing the auriferous exciv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, deposits in the Dharwars of India to the activity of acid rather than of basic igneous rock IV. Summary. now summarise briefly the views expressed in this address. Discussing the conflicting opinions of Dr. Smeeth and Mr. Middlemiss as to the origin and relationships of the Dharwars, we find it probable that the rocks constituting the Dharwar formation are in part of sedimentary and in part of of autoclastic ws al and no undoubted case of the pear ws resting with a basal sedimentary conglomerate on an olde es series oy been found. The so-called “ fanelisanital whi e Dharwars often appear to rest, frequ- itty nike ‘inisive relationships towards the Dharwars, and consists partly of ered post-Dharwar granites but is perhaps in part composed of pre-Dharwar granites or gneisses re-melted, so that they now pteukiit intrusive contacts towards the Dhar- wars, and must be treated from the ae point of view as ick Dia arwar. In fact, asfar as we know, the Dhar- wars must be regarded as the oldest known rocks in India this basis the Archaeans of India may be classified as follows :— (1) the oldest aes known representatives ; (2) the Dharwar (3) the oldest sh obiete re-melted and now post-Dharwar ; (4) tena intrusives, comprising peridotites, gra- ga dioritey and elaeolite-syenites. This classification applies to what may be termed the hot gneisses. In discussing problems of ore genesis, I have confined my attention a the Chota Nagpur type of Archaeans, and have given brief accounts of the three chief groups of Indian Arch- aean ore-deposits, viz. :— (1) metamorphosed syngenetic ween olen ore- — represented (a) by the quartz-iron-ore roc ocks mangan re deposits of the Central Provinces ; (2) syngenetic ig a ore-deposits represented by the chromite deposits of Singhbhum, Mysore and Salem ; _ (3) epigenetic veins and impregnations in the Dharwars which, for three different areas, viz. Singhbhum, (wolfram, apatite, magnetite, copper, argentiferous PROC., AS. SOC. BENG., VOL. XV., 1919. | a hi 5 _ js 45 86 fs e Nimd Sta es Wien M A fe ert aurreneosere® me. | GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP OF SINGHBHUM — reece af oe oo ts ms ee a if ary. ‘onape A R A Ww p « A J SHOWING Kharsawane N MINERAL DEPOSITS : iu . Pp eee. Sini Jn “ Duarparam Reghadih ane on it : i dg Geology compiled from maps of case si Jee, OM pee V. BALL, J.M. MACLAREN & L. L. FERMOR. as Scale 1 inch = 8 miles, in. | 7 SGaludih Stn. Lota Pahar Stn. “ i ¥" SS 7 Kalkapur > Rak erga Porahat é : ts “ P Hold ipshe Str. ; “mines ®& . “ ors ag ae : oO Mao, Ghatsi/a Stn. Scaua Stn, ge Ly ‘ a ¥ ‘ ‘N a ESE: <— Dg Ee ey / pis ‘\ IN S ko Ne SA BSG ee, 4 g” , Laukisra Ns fe) thon Buru sor oe Pi ‘G Dee H ag ©. ; Heatharghara mel X nie 8 prec as % Ap ® 5 ele > Matk amhaty \ ae bere 4 a, fh \ ; . 4 Pp 30° oa : ; m0 Jojohatu’ Chitung Gitilpi & Mn Mn af | Sox oy ie gat ag Jeg a Mushabani Dhaibhumgarh Stn. ahardiah x Au Goiikera Stn. B --18 a ] Bi PB, OF a f ee : 5 uFu if PA ES oe : Badia 30 x ror Le Kelenda 4 Mn J Ny ON ee : Pa - Mn ic a 2 ~= A. \ Fo se ttinsns Kanyaiuka\ ky 1 ‘ age \ Ng Soe An 5 Posoita Stn. \fA Leda Buru nrc aia ; iat 2077 - O Jhoradihi Stn, Sunrgi < ea Deo R Khejurdari f& Manharpur Stn. a. rE ~ AO 7 a ~ \ ot | Oniajori Sta. O Banagadia ~ 7. Viibis ta si A = perennial Mica } ‘ ~ Cu B H sz] Bamanghati A ———— Bhairagora 15 * Fe Fe by, tion Bandgaon bisai c a 1 Chemeed Fe Sulaipat x Fe 2835 Badampahar 2730 * Fe Chandi! Stn. fi if * Fe vA Baromora VA Fe * Dumeria 7 30 INDEX. — 6. Laterite and alluvium. a Bi Cuddapah, a _| 4. Epidiorites, En] 3. Granites, granophyres & gneisses. GY 2. Peridotites. EE] 1. Dharwarian. Geological boundaries. fmf Fault. Trap dykes, TPR wee ewe eaeee wee eee =o ppar-zone. —smemeem: [ron-ore range (Fe) MINERAL DEPOSITS IN ORDER OF AGE. 6. Alluvial gold (not shown). xX Mn 6. Manganese-ore. 5, Limestone (not shown), x Au 4, ( Gold. or X Pb 3. { Lead-ore. @ Cu Copper-ore, @ Ap Magnetite-apatite-rocks. x W Wolfram. X Mica Mica. X Cr 2. Chromite. x Fe 1. Iron-ore (secondary in part). Reo, No. 2847 E 19 Heviozincocrarnep at THE Suavey oF Inoia Orrices, Caccutta. 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. exev galena and gold) ; Sikkim (copper, iron, lead, bis muth antimony, tellurium, cobalt) and Kolar s their present position to the intrusive action of granitic magmas, which are supposed to have pro- vided the metals as end- a aii on coolin ng. sis, Serve as an aria in istuiens the primary or nh character of such batholiths. Ore-deposits and minerals of economic value are compa- ratively scarce in the Eastern Ghats type of Archaeans, but mention may be made at this point :— (1) of the manganese-ores formed by alteration of the rocks of the kodurite series of aquartz-magnetite-ores and small segregati s of menite associated with the charnockite series (4) of the monazite of Travancore, associated with peg- matitic intrusions in the charnockite series, but per- haa also occurring in this series itself. EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Puate I1.—Geological sketch map of agiasioa showing mineral deposits. Scale 1 inch = 8 miles The pegmatites considered as an index to the age of some of the unfo marin rocks in the Indian Peninsula.— By E. VREDENBU Re _— are given for RE is that none of the Peninsular pegma- ites wer than the termination of th ———— period. In some instances sce doubt has been ex mang as to whether certain rocks are arwar or post-Dharwar aati : C) at of pegmati ite veins would fix their reference to the Dharw The peg paecig of ores of tungsten and tin in Burma.— B; wn Brown and A. M. Heron The and for tungsten caused by t misc aah war has resulted in the omen voc setae and prospecting of the wolfram deposits of Burma ; cassiterite, being intimately associated with wolfram, has 8 exevi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, in the same activity. In this paper, the authors limit their observations to geological and pomrdlogion, data and give a general idea of the situa- tion, characteristics, and mineral associations, of the wolfram and cas- siter’ They odes They sho ow that all the wolfram vam ae lodes in Burma are of the Tenasserim Division. s of tungsten tin, which are such resided singer minerals in the pa a teeta with al yee st agi unquestionably been introduced from the granitic Some of the sources of these ores are pegmatites and greisens, pa this fact is S held to give a clue to the presence of the same minerals in true quartz lodes of the ordinary type. hilst the detrital or alluvial deposits occurring on hill slopes adjacent t ak parent lodes may carry both wolfram and cassiterite, the ule true aBeviad et: as a ru . rry cassiterite only, wolfram being found only when tightly enclosed in a matrix of quartz. This is due to the perfect cleavage of the wolfram resulting in its ready disintegration on m : oduction of a comminuted form eminently suited ion. n different parts of Burma the ak pig oe of the ores is not pe same. “es as only been found at Byingyi in the Yamethin dis- in a and upper Nestea zone a the cieciviag portions of the granite itself. Some saussurite boulders from aycuaae study in saussuritisation —By D. N. Wap e writer describes a number of snow-white boulders of saussurite, o- duaved’ from the amorphism an original coarse gabbro (euph tide). The chemical and microscopic study of these boulde reveals an ng series of mineral changes, commencing with the scapolitisa- tion of t rse felspar phenocrysts into meionite (sp, gr 2°74), the alteration of this to a d cryptocrystalline zoisite aggregate (saus- surite), (sp. gr. 3-0), which in sam is observed to change completely into grossularite (sp. gr. tena tees mate product in this series of altera- tions is a dense, compact ‘chests rock, composed = lly of garnet with subordinate inclusions of epidote (elinozois isite) and . ee hornblende. The stages in the alteratio: ah the typical» emeceegt products formed, as well as the tra nsitional « ro - se tet in the ctr and m intel ferric minerals of the original gabbro (dialog ess ethop si ananged to uralite, thence to serpentine and bastite oge 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. exevii These wisreseh ona support Weinschenk’s a that ee result through the intense contact and dynamic tamorphism of gab- broid rocks ag an end-product of the changes initiated by saussuritisation. On the discovery of basic and ultra-basic members of ine reed ome series in the Central Provinces.—By K. HaLLoweEs. e date when Sir T. H. Holland discovered and described the Charnockite fm ries in several places in 8 India, naming them after Job Charnock, the founder of Calcutta, other observers have met with them path within and without the “He see of the gouny Empire ker found the basic group of the C Charnockites represented in as Kalahandi State ane ies in Ganjam and Vizagapatam. Outside India, ee -norites, rete ks the ean group of the ry fr the Ivory Coast, French mi gg and Liberia, were 5 tl ; md . i of the bas ie group of charnockites, which have been microscopically examined by G. W. Tyrrell, who finds them to be hornblende-augite- To , the above localities for the charnockite series the writer is now able to add the discovery made during 1917-18, of basic and ultra-basic members of the series in the Central Provinces, where they were not 0 0 before known t cur; at several points along the Wainganga River Valley, in the districts a Lp sy ger Bhandara, and Chanda, are expo- su oo “ a ese rocks, intrus nto hornblende and biotite gneisse y consist of (1) biotitenorites, (2) augite-norites, (3) garnetiferous- angaetnas, (4) hornblende-augite-n cag and (5) pyroxenites. These are composed of Swone sthene, mono ‘octiads pyroxene (pale gr Regier felspar (orthoclase, microcline, and labradorite), and paced ong with the accessory m inerals garn , bioti te, secondary hornblende, apatite, pelece iron ore and iron pyr fie Some recent falls of aerolites in India.— By H. WALKER. paper places on record the known facts concerning the falls of four aerolites. Descriptions of the inabaseitie are ors and they are assigned to their p i e systematic classificati Two aerolites fell in India during the y 1916. Of these the first fell at Sultanpur, a village in the Bollia District of the Uni ovinces, on the 10th July. The total weight of the material retrieved is 1.710°57 and thi weignt is apportioned bet ve pieces. T nd grammes. In 1917 two aerolites fell in India. One fell - re —— ganas, on the 20th February. Fo we! vered o total weight of 3 grammes. e other aerolite fell on on ae ord. Sealy at nore in Coc ate. 1,4 mes of materi ve page nts. The paper is illustrated nog photograp A short sketch of the geology oie iibcoing and _ its mineral resources —By I. C Cuac fi be divided amahad. et into ven zones, of w the easternmost is the f crystalline rocks broade leptynites and sco mai of the charn and dolerite. This zone occupies the raver slope of the exeviii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Hills and sontans the most elevated ranges and hills of Travancore, Anamala, the highest peak, rising to about 9,000 fee Ransee sea-level. West of this lies the zone of residual a a rising ec ven mo 0 feet above sea-level and sloping gently towards the t. mes the zone of sedimentary beds known as the Warkala "(Warkal beds. Finally there is a coastal zone ashe seat of “see er d river mouths, which a few centuries ago a miniature Sunder he author takes the opportanity ed iscussing the agra of the word laterite and also gives an account of the oce n Travancore of deposits of monazite, gtiphite, chon, Pre of watphiaies “of iron and copper. Sedimentary origin of the Dharwars.—By A. GHOSE. The author taro to the dive — views at present held by Indian gotlowtets concerning the origin of the rocks of the Dharwar formation According to th geologists of Mysore, those rocks are, without exception, h conglomerates ; oo accord- ing to investigations carried out in other parts Py India, many members iron-ores and manganese ores, and a to certain markings on p yllites from Sandur, which may possibly be either tracks or impressions of organisms. Note on “ gohas le prmed by the burning of Coalseams.— By L. L. FER In a note read sant ae s Mining and perenne rbot . India a athens account has been of ¢ ocks and breccias produced by the fus' “ai oe gfe shales ana scotia aeociated wit ams, whos he latter catch fire at the outcrop scopic study of the ks has s een carried out and has revealed sence of cordierite, sillimanite, fayalite, ibe plagioclase, and iron- mate typically as porphyritic crystals in a glassy base. There these k are many varieties of rocks dependent on the omg aerac toe the material tg aves he o fusion; but, oe ge ack they m be described as vitroph ket qualified nam 8 sha inet perenne such as siuilac tevieeoihers se anatase ieiileyre A peculiar limestone ey South aa” K. Re Krisuna Iyer and 1. C. Coacko The authors describe a peculiar limestone from the Aramboly Pass in South Travanco cae The rock contains from 4 to 60% of raghalenag e i ins garnet, quar iron-ores. The issi uw and appears to have been formed in the belt of weathering by the meta- somatic Bes. gga by means of calcium carbonate of the felspars of an original leptynite. On the remains of carnivorous rage from the Lameta oe at g pabbalpors, —By C. A. Mat Since ouncement at the last Congress of the discovery of bones of ———— (sauropod) and carnivorous (theropod) dinosaurs near Jubbulpore the author has made another brief visit to the locality 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. excix and found further remains of both anonpe of dinosaurs, of which he has made as yet only a preliminary examinati A considerable portion of the skeleton cot a carnivorous dinosaur r has It des a cra one rts of the upper lower jaws detached teeth, about vertebre (mostly caudal and ranging with interruptions to the tip of the tail) some chevro es, 8, several limb bones, including a femur, t fibula humerus, carpa ones, metacarpals or metatarsals, 5 ungual stihind ges and 8 other phalanges. There are also a large number of dermal ex mostly small, of which nearly 500 have been collected. ew parts of a aaa ind ividval were also found at the slightly higher horizon which yielded Titanossr us indicus last year. They i verteb terest of these specimens pacha partly in the fact that the 8 teeth ascribed to Megalosaurus sp. and partly in the discovery of dermal plates. Apparently only one instance of a penarrcrots dinosaur ne Laine ete spe dermal armour has hitherto been Pe is is the specimen of Tyrannosaurus (Dyna i PA from the be i se of Wy The reptile po ars fd gh Ng been 20 feet or more in length, of active habits, with eye — ted bones, a long flexible tail, sharp cutting teeth, claws and s ind limbs. It was probably adapted for running. The teeth are st ee but it does not belong to the genus Megalo- saurus Notes on the Panchet reptile-—By H. C. Das-Gupta. This paper is divided into two parts. In part I a few bones of the celebrated Panchet reptile obtained “aa the neighbourhood of Asansol are descri d i I the question of the systematic position bed, an part I of the reptile ‘is reviewed, as, of late, doubts have been raised regarding its dicynodont nature. The conclusions arrived at by the author may be iersarioet s follows :— (1) An examination of all the materials available shows that ——— without the discovery of an sane skull, Fe zoologi e Ptychosiagum= Ptyc us, Owen. The only catia » send page which some of the Panchet bones agree is rs don, he presence of tusks shows that it cannot be assigned (2) sett re pega e a appear to have been sr tified previously : and the restoration of the pelvic Sone (3) Only nt posily be — Panchet reptile is known, and not two as (4) Following the ral of proxy, the Panchet reptile should be (5) We are still ie state parasncasets habits of Lystrosaurus. Note on a mammalian fossil ann Bhavanagar (Kathi- awar).—By H. C. Das-Gurt In this paper the author has described =~ aage ammalian humerus ob- tained at Hathab. The fossil is fragmentary d no generic determina- tion is possible. It is, however, sneenon as ea the first record of a G4j mammal obtained in Kathia ce Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, On the Inclination of the thrust-plane or reversed fault between the Siwalik and Murree zones of formations, near Kotli, Jammu province.—By C. §. MrppLEemtss. ibes, jis reference to data phi from geological details laid dines ci on ma w 1”=1 mile contoured sheets by the Surve ey of India, the accurate angle ‘of inclination of the above, gett: which is widely different from what poe generally been assumed in similar Sub-Himalayan sections elsewhere The succession of the tertiary marine faunas in the Eas Indies, based principally on a ie 4 fog ihenbaeata: tous gastropods.—By E. VREDENB A detailed analysis of the oe tae aoe enter the lower eocene of the Ranikot of Sind, the upper limit of which corresponds with the Cuisian. It is equally — ‘that the Khirther ris the equivalent of the Lutecian. tercalation of a well-developed stage, locally termed the Laki, indicates that th ian seque i additional ter issing, or imperfectly developed, in the classical exposures of th Anglo- Parisian ° 8s are given for consider equivalent to Le F nnian”’ of the Paris basin, and to the Lybian of Egypt This stage appears to be w loped in the Mediterranean countries where it has been mistaken sometimes for the lowe ce e fo utecian. The B e of —- is upper. eocene and ng ari fauna coincides largely, on the one hand, with the oligocene fauna of Europe, on the other a with that of the Yenangyaung — (amended) of Burma, whose oligocene pb is t — reby established. In = way has been sis lished the low ocen he Gj a ries ava. of the ‘* — miocene”’ (mainly vindobonian) Tjilanang series 0 a dia. Mekran and Kari a faunas of India closely uae with the pliocene Sonde series of Jav Py | ae 5 ~ 5 Two new fossil localities in the tertiary rocks of the Garo Hills —By E. 8. Prnroip The fossil ne described are on the southern borders of the Garo Hills; the first is four miles north of Dalu on the road to Tura and the second is i ts ous bed in the two localities is of the same age. The absence of similar beds from the intervening sections examined m may be due to the poor state of exposure—most a te the area in ‘which the rocks might be aapected to occur is under alluvi The rock containing the a is a blue shale cone _ inpincccug rd hard bands. The fossiliferous eps n both localiti not more two feet in thickness a in eac tote single se pa “ext om observed. This was crowded seg —- ca preserved shells, chiefly gas- tropods and lamellibranche, The horizon is near the top of the sandstone mulitic li = 8. pre ing dip is nontete and the occurrence of the fossiliferous bed at the —- ra Pete’ of the hills indicates a position amongst the highest rocks ae Hi redenburg, who has kindly undertaken to examine eth fossils, reports ‘that there is every reason to conclude that the rock in w t temporaneous with the Gaj of Western India ite there- 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. cei ore lower miocene in age. Rocks of this age have not previously been nan ceabtd definitely from any part of Ass Note on the marine fossils Serriabige by Mr. Pinfold in the Fae Hills.—By E. Vere a1 ll The Pino consist chiefly of gastropods an d cdidtliprene, the grea ad F pripots n amongst which are specifically determinable. Amongst the forms sufficient tly well, preserved for identi- cation, some represent species hitherto undescribed, while the ma- jority are specifically identical with shells characterizing the Prome beds of Burma, equivalent to pe j of Western India and “ lower miocene of Java. There is every reason to co het ay that the strata containing these fossils are contemporaneous with the Gaj of Western India, and therefore lower miocene in age. Section of Medical Research. President—LiEUTENANT-COLONEL W. GLEN Liston, C.I.E., M.D., D.P.H., 1.MS Presidential Address, ‘The Next War.” Man versus INSECTS. I have much pleasure in welcoming you to this first meet- ing of the Medical Research Section of the Indian Science Congress. It is surely a good omen that this section of the Congress holds its inaugural meeting at the close of the Great War. Men’s minds and thoughts have been concentrated a four long years on devising means and methods of winning the war, Enormous sums of money have been spent in aitatins this end and countless lives have been sacrificed in the great full of schemes for reconstruction. Energy is now t away from creating appliances for destroying human life and is devoted to planning measures for conserving it. One war has ended but another has begun. Men have ceased to kill each other and are now taking cognisance of their common The last war was won after many painful failures ; success has only been attained after careful preparation and qua alifica - non for the task—a task which was at first greatly underesti- Let us hope that the lessons we have learned will fit us aay that Next War, which is the eee of my address to- azine’’ by Sir Harry Johnston in which he pleaded for a wider knowledge of the subject of Entomology. _ He drew attention to an din a book entitled “ Insects and Man” by Mr. Blond and he says, “‘ All ccii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N'S., XV, rp continues, ‘“‘results in able-bodied men and women being carriers of bugs, fleas and lice either on their persons or on their garments or belongings. Immediately following this dis- horror inspired amongst those who were new to the Army by the blankets served out for the recruits to lie on, or to oO provincial prisons by the first imprisoned suffragettes, who, as soon as they were released, spoke of the cockroaches, the bugs, and the lice tolerated in His Majesty’s gaols, all of them in condition of life. Those who dwell in high places know very little about the torture and suffering of the poor; they may strive to do many things for them, but they do not know how to bring health and happiness into the lives of the humble. In short, as Sir Harry Johnston says, “for the Next War as for that we are now waging against a human enemy of civilisation and happiness we must be equipped with a modern and essen- ially practical education.”” We may not all perhaps agree with Sir Harry when he suggests that “the whole curriculum of our schools wants overhauling and that instead of Euclid should be taught Entomology or the science of insects ; in of puzzling over Algebra boys and girls should be well-grounded s 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. cciii War because we learned the truth of this last statement and acted on it. we in India learn the necessity of acting malaria. I had then quite recently completed my college course but had little practical knowledge of insects. I had earned how insects were divided into a number of groups, I had learned that they had six legs and that many of them went through a complete metamorphosis during their life, but I had no idea what a mosquito was like. nor did I know anv- thing of its life history. Although I sought for literature on the subject, I was nearly two years in India before I dis- covered Dr. Christy’s little book on mosquitoes. Subsequently I obtained Colonel Giles’ work and entered into correspondence with him. From his private means he supplied me with an outfit for collecting and preserving mosquitoes; he thus en- couraged me to take an interest in the subject so that when I able to discover a number of new species of Anophelines. I had an opportunity to study the habits and breeding places of this malaria-carrying group of mosquitoes and in due course submitted a report, through the usual official channels, recom- mending measures for the destruction of fever-carrying mos- quitoes by training the river which passed through the Canton- cciv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, customed to receive such an elaborate report, asked him what was to be done with it, he replied “‘ File it, Bacharam.” That Ellichpur. A very successful conference organized by that enthusiastic member of the Indian Medical Service, Colonel Buchanan, closed for the time being my work in connection with mosquitoes tained an introduction to the Hon’ble Charles Rothschild, from whom I was able to learn something about these insects. After sanctioned but they were not completed till the Plague Re- search Commission was appointed. This Commission worked under the auspices of an Advisory Committee in England which was furnished with funds by the India Office. Dr. C. J. Martin, 1919. | The Sixth Indian Science Congress. ecv who had much to do with the initiation of this scheme and with the selecting of the workers. chose an admirable team, each individual was endowed with different qualities and the whole team made a splendid working party under the leadership of the late Major Lamb. The Advisory Committee never failed to comply with all reasonable requests for financial estate made by the workers in India. The workers themselves decided to co-operate together and publish all their at) in the common name of the Plague Research Commission. The result of this Commission’s work is well known to you all: through their efforts more is known about plague than probably any other disease. I have taken the liberty of recounting some of my personal experiences in connection with research, for I think valuable search : the success of the Plague Research Commission. however, did much to change this attitude. The Research Fund Asso- ciation has been established and is supported by Government. The funds are distributed on the advice of a Scientific rare Board which came into being shortly before the war. The tivities of this seraaaemelgs have been somewhat sibivaned ¢ on account of the war but good teork has been accomplished. Reorganization is moatenaiaea which will result in closer co- operation between the different branches of medicine. Revie ing some of the work of the Plague Research Commission a a bs similar gathering to this held in Bombay in the year 1911, aid :— It will be convenient in a brief review of this kind ‘e nioaider separately the work done in the laboratory and that accomplished in-the field and in the hospital. These different departments of the work, however, deen be regarded as dis- tinct from one another, any one branch of the work could not be pursued profitably without the assistance and co-operation of the other. We have referred to this matter because we think it is one which should be seriously considered by this Sanitary Conference. It appears to us that at the present time in India there is too great a tendency to confine work and workers to special departments so that there is an absence of mutual co-operation in the different departments—the sanitary, the bacteriological and the clinical branches of our profession are becoming too specialised. There can be no reason why a anitary officer should not be a good doctor, and we are certain that neither the sanitary officer nor the clinician can carry out their work successfully unless they are bacteriologists. oe largely due to the fact that the laboratory a0 has been com- bined with work in the field and in the hos But, Gentlemen, co-operation is not nore’ During the course of the late war we frequently heard that what was ecvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, wanted to win the war was “ men, money and amgeeies Well, that is exactly what is wanted to win the Nex Men are wanted ; but even more than men, oie of men are required. We want generals and particularly A General. The army of the Medical Profession is an undisciplined army without unity of command. This is eminently true of that branch of it which is concerned with research. In this force each individual works on his own ; there is not enough platoon and company training ; there is little esprit de corps. One man hurries into print because he has done a little piece of work, another hastens to let the world know that he has made a particular discovery first. A body run on these lines is a not an army; the leaders, if there are any, are the men who shout the loudest, who beat the big drum ; they are often not the men who do the best work. The system of publishing papers in a unlimited list of journals and, that veiled form of advertising, the systematic distribution of reprints, calls for reform. The publication of carefully prepared reviews within recent years has made these methods o and work them in teams. rogress in medicine is so rapi now-a-days and the field of work is so extensive that post- graduate study is essential. I am of opinion that any credit for successful work should go - the post-graduate school, not to the individual men who do the work. The units in the Army do their work, not for i ee aa LR but for their regiment. Of course, in exceptional circumstances, an indivi- dual may be rewarded bu t the reward Gcakis come through his school and not through the press. The men in the school and those scholars who show the greatest aptitude for a er line of work should be selected for that work. Money will be required. This is the most necessary item in carrying on the war against ees Without money erga’ men nor munitions can be secured. The amount of money required for any catnaing cork will depend on the magnitnde of the work; a proper estimate of the task jeeae ae of the small sums available aa disappointi ne resul On account of our limited resources an attempt should be made to somal ee the fighting ; guerilla pase Gt: is only adopted by the vanquished. As well might we attempt to 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. ee vii spect of success would be brighter if m as forthcoming for the fight but with limited resources efforts must be concentrated on one or two diseases only. he diseases which are transmitted by insects are eminently suitabl or selection. Malaria, plague, typhus and relapsing fever, But, again, let me say, we must thoroughly understand the strength of our enemy and our preparation and resources too clearly recognized that money spent on efficient health administration is in a very special sense remunerative. Munitions are required to win the next war. This is an axiom that needs little explanation. India has been provided very badly in the past with medical munitions. Every medical man should possess a microscope ; it is an instrument even more useful and necessary than a stethescope in tropical countries. How few medical men use this instrument; they must learn. n concluding this address I wish to express the hope that the lessons of the late war will not be lost on the medical and scientific professions. The calling to which, Gentlemen, ceviii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. {N.S., XV, you and I belong, will Lota the soldiers and the generals of the future; and the struggle upon which they are to engaged will be as ae as that now so happily past. The organized intelligence. In this endeavour the State and the public are interested as vitally as ourselves, for it is they we serve ; but the support of the one and the confidence of the other will be gained only if we, the medical profession, prepare to abandon the futilities and half-measures with which we have been content in the past ; if we resolutely determine no longer to tolerate incompetence, evasion of responsibility, or inade- quacy of education in our midst ; and if we will display i in the may aspire to greater victories and. more lasting triumphs than the world has hitherto seen The — places of Phlebotomus in Lahore.—By J. L. MITTE The di Sica in locating the breeding places of Phlebotomus are due to = fact tha . the larve and pupz escape detection owing to their minute si The e aaiiot of material under a binocular epson kt gives the pro Retire réscilte and i is the only means of securing a larger of larve and pupe The bree ding places ok Phlebotomus are not restricted to rt particu- be sites in India, such a aie, rubble walls, caves, latrines, etc., but ese flies are capa sie of Salings | in any place where the eg Ne are pets able. The necessary conditions are darkness, a certain degree of moisture, — the presence of decaying vegetable matter, which must remain undis- urbed for some time. e conditions of breeding places tor gees | vary in different species. The © papatasit require a mats river abs amount of darkness, but this condition is not a ial in the case of m e suggestion of Sapte Manet of a host being probable is incor- paiigs as ba the whole cycle of development is passed in decaying vegetation The results of a mosquito aa of Indore City.—By M. O. TrrunaRaYANA IYENGAR The paper deals with the different Letending habits of mosquitoes found in ure City and their prevalence in relation with the en nviron- ments. It also includes an sislonical study oa the aquatic plant-life an nd nigeLlife which to a large extent determ the got articular species of mosquito breeding in the water. Other # ampocte of aquatic biology are ve Anophelines, namely Anopheles rosst, A. culi ictfacies, A. stephen- si, A. fuliginosus, and A. barbirostris , breed in the rivers and Indore in bers condition of the waters. sepa of aquatic sh age tot semi-aqua b-aquatic ; : ee 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. ecix rivers; their distribution in relation to the nature of the water; their rtance as providing food and shelter to mosquito larve Contamination of the river with sullage takes place by the inflow of e City’s a into the river; bu alari jes 0 co 8 =| cot p> B. 5 ma ° =] [om Fd a o This is ies. At the process of self-purification of sor streams as a result of various factors, physical as well as biological ; rease of aquatic veget- _ growth as a result of the onuealnahians : : once ion of larvicidal oo study is made of the comparative prevalence of the different spe- cies of anophilines in nase pp to the variation in dissolved oes Rev patra in waters ; the r d fall of the different — as shown by a graph. “The ilamentanilicians in i oo to disease; suggested setbosibn of control ; control. of a — —— and algal growths. Experiments on the me In s chilus, Ba ee and Nuria A discussion on the usefulness of aquatic birds like ducks and g Hydrocyanic acid “i as an insecticide.—By W. GLEN Liston andS8S. N. Gor The officers of the Parel Laboratory have for some years been engaged in the study of a variety s mepctiener. with the re ape a a num- ber of useful means for destroying insects have n sed each of which is applicable for use under s aegiat circumstances. Of ‘lly gies insecticides kerosene oil or hydrocarbon emulsion have been very effective “Canain ham’s method of killing fleas by laying aaa anc sun these ides car s RY found to rm of little practical use while Hydrocyanic Acid Gas, used n the limit of temperature found in Bombay, has been proved to be effective i in killing the eggs, larval, = and imago stages of insects. Much ingenuity has been expended in devising methods for applying this gas to practical purposes and while ee yet remains to be oO per- fect the er gcmipn ‘considerable Progress ress has been made. One ps in the sighs gh of these methods has been the use a solutions . pot assium cy and sulphuric acid for generating the gas. Experience has shown that te most convenient concentration of these solutions for use is 33°3% strength of each in i ae All that is required to effect the convenient generation of the g pour the two solutions into separate vessels and to allow the Taide t in mix slowly open dish placed within th solutions are passed into the nay Magneto is bed ted through tubing and they allowed to run into th ame rate bei ‘ . The two tubes pv ss the ‘solutions into the open immediately over the flat dish fixed in the The whole ‘appaiseas can be fixed to the r of a room as is iow ar he plan An arrangement of this kind is eminently suitable for small rooms of from 100 to 500 cubic feet capacity but a ge rooms “vty < be used more elaborate arrangements for co e gas thro room are required. The arrangements satiate for a a room for de- lousing the kit of soldiers is shown in the next plans. The quantity of chemicals required for one hundred - cubic » Sook: “ are half eac sulphuric acid. It is important to note that the potassim ease pure. Under satisfactory conditions where rel is very little i of gas from the room and the room is empty, half an ounce by when of potassium cyanide mixed in this way with half an ounce of ana et cex Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, acid will give sreroneey.: id parts of HCN per 100,000 parts by volume a ruses gase Now s been jou = hat 30 parts of HCN per 100,000 parts of air =e a Bea acgch ill suffice to ee all stages of development including the eggs of bugs and lice provided an exposure of two hours is given at that concentration o ae that when a r is fill ith clothing the concentration of the gas very appreciably decreases; it rge rooms co: ing clothing are being treated, not only to convey gas to different parts of the room but also to Fe cipiontid xe eans estimating the strength of the gas acter within This has been effected by the arrangement t which i illustrated. a cubic foot of the air within the room is withdrawn by means of an eine ; the air, as itis drawn from the room, is passed through a weak solutio n of caustic soda. The solution very rapidly absorbs the gas contained in the sample and the concentrati H in the solutio; ted b ns of a standard silver nitrate solution y me using potassium iodide as an indicator. The igor silver nitrate solution is of rat a strength that 1 c.c.=10 parts of HCN per 100,000 air when the quantity of air withdrawn is half a cubic foot. The standard s olen on is esr by di Guoltind 5114 grammes of silver nitrate in | litre of pi wa seri n oa gas for different periods on eggs, larval and imago stages of lice bugs and cockroaches. The pan of these experiments are recorded in the joi table. w S &. 3 5 8 experimental ae will be on view at set ae and is g the d and other vermin in beds, in clothing and in furniture. No tat: in India should be without one of these very a vermin-killing rooms. The method of ised 3 is very simple and can be used without danger if attention is paid to certain very elementary ace meen of eating 1,000 cubic feet of space ‘at pre-war rates n pplie mals as compared w relatively less susceptible thn poizonouss effects of rr gas. Birds are very easily kille 4 co oncentration the gas which are harmless for men. A sparrow may sed to indi sate: when a place containing the gas 1s safe to enter. "Tihalations of small quantities of gas fo i —— periods, e.g. when working with it does not cause toxic In this latter respect HCN has a great advantage over panei vl fermen poisonous gases. ve Bsns Vina of deficiency disease,—By R. McCaRRI- Co ee el Marrs recounts the results of his experiments on feed- ing pigeons on a diet consisting solely of polished rice; that is to say, on ess t 10% di pie of starch, with less than 10% of protein an complete aksence of a t One and sixty-eight f th veloped polyneuritis avium within the period of the ex- perim e heart’ he i f dr Th and inane two birds so fed were examined bacteriologically at autopsy ; of these ninety-four were found to have had concurrent septicemic infec- tions of various kinds, while the heart’s blood and organs of forty-eight were sterile. Four out of one hundred and forty-two had tubercular dineunts of the lungs or abdominal viscera, or both. 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. cexi Seventy-two pigeons were employed as controls; the blood and i ternal eae of sixty-three were examined Sar ares at ston time ea ave ic i tio Two had Satbainoata peritonitis. The incidence of Sabervulat disease in the pigeons employed was thus 2°7%. The organs of a large number of ese birds h. usions have been reached bi ar spe emp roy baste teriological observations :— Ve rok e of certain accessory food factors from the dietary, improperly te iad * anti- marie? leads not only to nates changes n the Sh eoamintica system but to similar changes in every organ and tissue of the bod we The morbid state to which their absence gives rise The ey 2. wx, Gor complex resulting from the abse f these substances i is due (a (a) to a sesh inanition, (b) to deirtincohaney' at function of the o f digestion and assimilation, (c) to disordered endoc fun oe ion, especially of the adrenal glands, and (d) to enalnatettion® of the casi 3. organs undergo hypertrophy; others atrophy. Those which hypertrophy are the adrenals. Those which atrophy, and in the order of s named, are the thymus, the testicles, the spleen, the ebony bila co nereas the heart, the liver, the kidneys, the stomach, enlargement of the adr a true ee agit Pe in so far as t is associated with a sconces ng increase of t glands’ adrenalin- ayes The eas ‘aie quality of banger in "the Pye ki ertrophied area for area, approximately the same found in the alticieds: in health. The Fe peakinntiy: is - cata en pod in both sexes Sy 0 trophy of the adrenal glands. while 85%, of all cases having great hypertrophy of these organs cedema in some form. The amount of adrenalin, as determined ‘Se phy te ar noe in such cases 8 been considerably i in excess of that found in cases not Sorted this $s al norm: ema of inanition and of beri-beri is believed fu be initiated y the increased intracapillary pressure which results from the incre production of adrenalin, acting in association with malnutrition of the tissues. Failure of the circulation and venous stasis may subsequently contribute to it. Age is an important factor determining its occurrence. This finding is held to account in great measure ra the occurrence of e ar in Wet beri-beri and dry beri-beri are consaaibalts the same dise’ the former ‘diftocs from the latter in the greater derangement of ae adrenal glands. 8. Gaakiss. intestinal, biliary and pancreatic insufficiency are important consequences of a dietary too rich in starch and too poor In ** vitamines”’’ and other i sential ¢ the foo suggested nar some of the obscure metabolic disorders of childhood might be aaprrsqanlg m this view-point as well as from that of endocrine gland starv: mn. aw e of acidosis results from the absence of so-called ‘* anti- neuritic siomiaee ; this state is due to the imperfect metabolism of carbohydrates and to acid sry geonosen of starches in the intestinal ract. Clinically, it is evidenced b. reg i g the Pr cgp re Geons ‘atrophy of muscular tissues Tesults from | deficiency of sjiience food factors; it is due in part to bolism in consequence of dis sordered endocrine function, in part to the action of the aes : “gp hetninnd blood to the vegetative organs of the body at the expense 9 uscles cexii Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Il. Ps capi gi wales of the reproductive organs is an important vitaminic’ deficiency. It leads to the cessation of the ch degree 8 in females. T i th is held to account in great measure for the currence if L SD he when they occur are due ma vied to i malted f iesittagk abtivity of n cells; much more sles to their degenerati . It is thought that, oe se of their atrophy out of all proportion to other tissues, the thymus, ms gee — ova —— and the spleen provide a rese ood fa use ions of 4 o ° u Le | te — re) 5 fe) fe) @ 2 ° a er 15. The red cells of the blood are diminished by about 209% whole morbid process is believed to be the result of nuclear of all tissue cells ven the adrenals, wh e of a organs of the undergo enlargement, sho se pa changes im heir cells indicative of nuclear starvation. The called ‘‘ a neuritic ins creed * are nuclear nourishers without winiehs: coll svaltiptider a oes “ead Fin ally, en hough deficiency of certain accessory food factors is the essential sates sm in the genesis of beri- beri, it is held that the onset of sy Vitaminic deficie besies renders the body very liable to be overrun by the rank growth of bacteria Beri-beri— By Masor-Generat HeEntr. ® paper contains a description of the serge Me f beri-beri that from t December, 1915, to the 29th of Apri: 1916 The outbreak as responsible for 1: issions, all among British Troops. No case ecurred among the Indian Garrison who, however, suffered ee from scurvy. The great majority of the beri-beri cases occurred durin e first er 3 three months of the siege in spite of the fact that the food ration then pa ilgd in respect of quantity and vari iety than at a later pease ef the as seen in Kut-el-Amara presented no very unusual ymptoms , and 45 per cent of he cases eae invalid All two of the men T aaote d had been in ines ON from an early stage of the expedition: non- oo pene eee gm and privates were equally affoc ted; there were ng acinar asc Severe continuous exercise appeared pi paodiphtints the ost cases. ina number of cases diarrhea or con racy Hoe 1 distatbance k. Mos the cases had _—" previously from ere sig but as few men in the force esca malaria altogether this be only @ coincidence: the oe Bi ad had a higher malarial sthense than the British escaped from beri-beri se, er. intimate enitelasio on between the prolonged use of tinned meat ethos beri wis —- or white bread, of British Troops and the occurrence — gan "oot the a tk of Kut are described. In view = the fat ‘that Ind dian Troo very severely effected from scurvy during the month of Pcie: wheres the British Troops escaped and 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. eexiii that the British Spite ed from beri-beri, a disease from which the Indians were iigares makes a comparison of their diets of peculiar i ea oy itis Troops ate horse ee ; ~ Pe idians did not. Indian Troops ish f e the absen diet of British ba os led to reduction in body Eakeny sepa ed tem ture, slowing of the pulse ee marked de bility. The vitamine theory of beri-beri is rata a and the investigations carried out at beat Lister “Tnatituts y Miss Chick and Miss Hume are referred to in some detail and the eaniae. subscribes to the conclusion reached by Miss faiecgs and Miss Hume that the British Troops were protected sien vy by the ample em gs fick meat or horse flesh and that the India ealdiers, though protected beri-beri by the nature of their corel ration, failed to prees a fin a ate of anti-scorbutic vitamine owing to their refusal to eat fresh meat. The rations issued to British and tiated Troops during the three stages of the siege are detailed in an appendix to the paper. Quinine in the treatment of malaria—what is known and what is not known about quinine.— By J. W. ConnwaLv. _ We are not yet in possession of complete sahil’ ge of the action immediate and remote, of the majority of t ney drags which are freely that it de by so ie ie in pee sls with the proper oxygenation of the t d ngs heat production ; bl it esi all cellular enzymes, and so lessens the — supply os hormo and checks digestion and sentcaiftatiein's that it de epresses the “circulatory and respiratory m echan- isms, and that watts products t tory functions oe in partial char degre In robust health the a entaaae nd compensator ay nigeae’ f the tissues enable an individual to withstand a dosage which i eee state would be more than his weakened organs could dea Lw it In the tre recta ‘ot malaria the non-selective, toxic effect of quinine has been Bevel ca y ignored. Too much atten — has been paid in India to relatively unimportant sulsinlenibel side issues and too little to co-ordinated scientific inquiry into ~ oP athology o et abana nd the p hnemacology of quinine following matters call for investigatio ay Whether quinine in harmless doses can act as a rebable prophy- t Br uld cease. (2) Whether malari n be cured by doses of quinine which, pared with the harmfal Pub dot of ‘te parasite, are pareve harmless to the patien (3) Whether any usefu i purpose is served by dosing a patient with (4) Whether any other Aaa ig be found weer will sonra! the genet i — without at the same time serio harm ing the t : (5) oe what Fe dhaieie changes are caused by the malarial parasite cexiv Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, (6) phonons brs pathological changes are caused by therapeutic dos uinine—(a) in health, (b) in cachectic states. The ats of malaria by quinine. —By Masor-GEnERAL HEHIR tent to which quinine is curative of malaria has only recently The been investigate ed and recorded scientifically. Careful malarial work has been i ess at home during the war, and ica Dagshai Malarial Depot i is carrying out similar work in India. The results of this i inquiry, it is hoped, will anh some definite ie n regarding the minimum ose of quititins necessary to Urkaibate the dis The Dagshai Malarial Depot was opene ed i Ms ee il, Ges for the treat- ment of 2 ish Troop end ef ne com- modation was available for 45 cases i és now 1 000 ¢ used. The cm dt of this ry for the period ending the 30th of Mind inesatg 1918, h ai the mased conditions are very favourable for the treat- ent of chronic malaria for there are n pheline mosquitoes ther me reinfections are eliminated. gations have b concentrate the tre ent o ic malaria, especially the prevention of re pses se soo administration of various quinine salts given in diffe igen ov in arying quantities. i : a ses except two were chroni infections ies ich h i quinine. Inv nic benign resisted estigations were seientifialy arried out, well controled, and carefully recorded. No case was treated till the parasite und, The ahldidg Niuhiods were tried at Dagshai ;—- ConTINUOUS. ORAL ADMINISTRATION OF 2 marae: SULPHATE. (a) In doses from 15 to 30 grains daily for ut of 73 cases Rervages 34 Valngaca Mb aes i eks eiieand by 15 grains or 90 dave Out of 93 cases ixiated 7 ie ate within 5 (c) In owes of 30 grains daily for 8 weeks. Out of 91 cases II lapsed within 5 weeks. INTERMITTENT ORAL ADMINISTRATION. (a) 45 al on two consecutive days bai for 8 weeks, Out of s 32 relapsed within 3 we is method was more Engl and as details of pare aealis carried out by Professor Stevens show Out of 110 cases pain retehtce gine during shaw ment. It is remarkable me this mK rg ould be m n the same quantity dg daily for 8 asia. e most successful method t: Stevens reports two Leg 5 = Gpiml - = gla nd on similar lines pe using huge doses ha grains). Ino his experiments 62% did n relapse within 60 days. Ina sedond. 04% relapsed in from 12 to 53 day the discrepancy is not explained. INTRAVENOUS INsEOCTIONS. The groups of cases treated with intravenous injections are too to give any reliable results, but as far as t venous trea or th on account of the rapidity with which the drug : : ; with the parasite, it is useful in pernicious t be reserved for intense and dang ean MANE RON 1919.] The Sixth Indian Science Congress. eexv INTRAMUSCULAR QUININE. Twelve Past pa 0 of bihydrochloride on alte e days combined with 30 grains of quinine sulphate orally on the intervening days and 15 grains of the dich me salt early on the days of injectio Other methods of oral administration were combined with intr atihisdicles injection. The results show that Sing ure i not prevented but that the peripheral blood was tele in 24 TREATMENT OF INITIAL INFECTIONS. Initial infections are much more easily poms” ia tiger One of the most important facts demonstrated in recent times is thatif initial infections are treated with large doses (30 to 45 pn daily) for a sufficient period (not less than me Badge omplete ake waren of the disease may be hoped for in the majority of cases. It is wrong to reduce the dose after the circulation is leas ed of the parasites. One may develop in this way a quinine-resistant parasite. Putas much quinine into the system as practicable without injuring the patient, if not orally, then either intramuscularly or intravenously. In malignant tertian fiiteotindy s give quinine when a large number of parasites in association with concentrated pigment indicate that a sa a nin and for long periods unless it i is orderly t the patient has malaria and af One may d patient by pushing the drug unnecessarily The diagnosis of the i8 easy an potas should always be 9 e before quinine treatment is adopted. On t endeavour t me “the possibility of relapses by early, vigorous an mr well- wustaine d “treatin ent. The older the a-exual cycle of the parasite associated wit a relapse the more Sonatas it is to quinine. f quinine fails to control vaelaaiaas in the blood faulty absorption should lle suspected. It is possible, though not proved, that the parasite may me i q ype igures 8 cl instituted show ie out of 750 ¢ examined 193 were missed at the t examination. In this divighostr the old diagnosis of fever of uncer- tain De ge rapidly per place to malaria; the same applies to the VIth Divi DIET. Sufficient attention is not paid to diet and rest in the treatment of raalaria, ne, spe in the treatment of relapses. The system should be well nourished, toned up and adequately rested. acca | patients in bed for hibit fernuevale is useful. ConcLtUDING REMARKS. Quinine is still the best remedy we possess for malarial fevers. an untreated population. Quinine may fail to cure c ar a f cases, but properly admi: red, it controls t sease. know of no better remedy its value should not on any unt be decried. While quinine will cure malaria acco bed a search for other drugs for this purpose should not - made. Any w drug is not likely to replace quinine but supplement i eexvi Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. [N.S., XV, Some a prophylaxis oo from Army Head- quarters — By W. W. Brow e following is a cursory less ig the returns ‘prepared by the Lisiiaes medical authorities in connection with a scheme to test the tain aie aeersnaty effect of quinine on malaria rs in cer stations in India e figures must vat with reserve, since (a) in many cases the quinine was not regularly aitictilaliaal (b) - corrections have speak applied ; (c) the cases have not been examined in ate As a matter of interest ishieot a are given to show the incidence of in- sen pinciigat men taking prophylactic ainiics and those not taking Total No. of men| Total Malaria : i dealt with. cases. Ratio per mille. be bo © ~ ~J —— te ~ or A | B 3,051 76 24-9 C | 3,337 95 28°4 A-} 49 80 162°2 B-1 | 334 : 70 208-5 Ou | 378 84 222-2 | » B-1 and C-1 _ men who had malaria within 12 months but were supposed to bec A, B & Chad no ‘ankes within 12 months of the commencement of sere ath treatmeat and A-1 had 7} ers, pore daily during the period of trial. and B-1 had 15 ger 8. quinine on 2 consecutive a weekly. C and C-1 had no mamas daring the period of tri Ratio per mille Influenza acs : admissions. 1. Men taking quinine prophylax re a 126-4 2. Men not taking quinine ire RO rs 89-0 A simple gery for ee fecal carriers —By W. GLEN S. N. eins Liston, he detection of ‘‘ carriers’? has come to be recognized as a factor of prime im hone iy ny campaign ry Dedinas the incidence of a disease among a communi t no period in medical history has this method of combating disease been more at hea studied than during sage Great War. The opening of an Enteric Depét at Parel during the War, workin tip 1 ssociat with the Bombay Bacteriological Labo ie atory,. afforded a unique De or tunity to study the various method ich mg the isolation of typhoid and allied bacilli cea the + cra of ca consideration of the methods generally adopted rev ma gre fact that most of t cial for the d oe of ‘* carriers” are , Ty A . is Ae Paratyphosus as pl © ay All but five of these would be classed as chronic carriers if we take 3 months from the commencement of the illness as the limit of a temporary carrier, but only 13 became true chronic carriers, the remainder ceasing to excrete the bacilli at varying agcip up bid 9 mo: onthe from the com- mencement of the illness. Of these true carri 8 are carriers of zeae Baratyphows Bes”? 7 “ e Typhos 1 isa carrier me ne UL aptaae oto “