OK) 1 4 2. 2 THE EDITORS: JoHn M. CouLTer, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. CHARLES R. BARNES, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. 2 ASSOCIATE EDITORS: GEORGE F. ATKINSON, ROLAND THAXTER, Cornell University. Harvard University. VOLNEY M. SPALDING, WILLIAM TRELEASE, University of. Michigan. Missouri Botanical Garden. VOLUME XXII JULY —DECEMBER, 1896 Mo. Bot. Garden, 1 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 1896 ————aaeaeaesess THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS TABLE OF CONTENTS: Rose Americans, I, , ; : : ‘ . francois Crépin The development of the cystocarp of Griffithsia Bornetiana. Plates and II una Arma Smith New Mosses of North America. VI. Plates 111~v. fF. Renauld and /. Cardot On the toxic action of dissolved salts and their electrolytic dissociation Louis Kahlenberg and Rodney H. True On the toxic effect of dilute solutions of acids and salts upon plants. Plate vii ; : : ; ; : . Fred D. Heald Flowers and insects. XVII. : : ; . Charles Robertson Botanical opportunity . : ‘ ' ; . William Trelease Botanical papers at Buffalo: Botanical Society of America. Section G of the Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci, ‘ Botanical Club of the Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. The Phalloidez of the United States. I. Development of the recep- taculum of Clathrus columnatus. Plates x1 and xu Edward A. Burt Mechanism of movement and transmission of yess in Mimosa and other sensitive plants. Plate x1 . D. T. MacDougal The morphology and oe of certain pyrenomycetous fungi. Plates XIV—xvI ‘ ; : ‘ . Mary A. Nichols Development of the procarp and cystocarp in the genus Ptilota. Plates xvur and x1x 2 ‘ : . Bradley M. Davis The Phalloidez of the United States. I]. Systematic account dward A. Burt Salix cordata X sericea ; ‘ : . NN. M. Glatfelter A rust and leaf casting of pine leaves. Plates xx1I and XxItt B. T. Galloway The philosophy of species-making : : ; <> ih. FL. Hatley PAGE vt. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXII _ Laboratory apparatus in vegetable physiology. Plates xxiv and xxv a J.C. Arthur 463 Popular American plant names. IV. . - .« Fannie D. Bergen 473 5 BRIEFER ARTICLES— Bark within a tree trunk (illustrated) ; ‘ ‘ FieD. Kelsey A horizontal microscope (plate v1) . : ; hieries Xk’. Barnes A new Viburnum from Missouri (plate v111) W. Deane and B. L. Robinson A new genus of Sterculiaceze and some other noteworthy plants . L. Robinson and a M. Crientaa 168 Notes on two species of Brassica, ; B.L. Robinson 252 A new Mamillaria (illustrated) . J. W. Toumey 253 The distribution of the species of Gyasseboriagivn | in the south . Z Underwood and F. S. tae 255 ; Botanical appliances (plates 1x and x). G. £. Stone 258 The organs of attachment in Botrytis raearis fohate xvin) ‘ Margaretha E. C. hire 329 New West ee lichens, ye BA A Secreta and Z. W. Nuttall 333 Brassica jun . H, Bailey 401 North haetacs iiecies of Eaphraia : ; ae von Wetlstein 401 — Abortive flower buds of Trilliu ; - Arma S. Smith 402 A apes of some Pre ae sakccaek of North Sees Graminee. VII. (plate x Theo. Holm | The habitats of rae rarer icing af ‘Aalienda (plate xxt) e M. Underwood A new smut : J. Davis New and noteworthy Washington pants. Oe ee C. V. Piper Another compass-plan : ‘ C. V. Piper > Ebbromrii s ‘ The government biological survey, A scientific chief for the Atobepal of Agriculture The national botanical organization Correns’ reply to MacDou. gal botanical meetings in Butfal _ Botanic gardens Duplication of publication An American tropical laboratory Botany for secondary schools. . . * OPEN LETTERS— Reply to book review Research work in American bess - D. 7. MacDougal 188 Botanical work of the Tienes of f Agriculture ‘ B. T. Galloway Local floras 2 Edward L. Rand The authorship of cetein names ; . D. A. Cockerell Some recent papers on nomenclature . Roscoe Pound 3 * CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXII Vv OPEN LETTERS—Continued pack A scientific chief for the Department of Agriculture B. T. Galloway 417 The check-list and the new illustrated flora of North America heo. Holm 417 The National oo and the Division of satya . &. V. Colville 418 The flora of Alabama ; ; P. Hf. Mell 420 A tropical ne atory i : : ; : . DT. MacDougal 496 The Buitenzorg Gardens B. 7. Galloway 496 On the use of the term “ ious - AS aotied to on Geo. E. Davenport 497 Duplication of contributions. ‘ : : . D.7T. MacDougal 498 CURRENT LITERATURE 59, 173, 269, 340, 422, 500 For titles see index under authors’ names and Reviews. Papers noticed in “ Notes for Students ” are indexed under authors’ names and subjects. NEws— 75, 190, 271, 350, 430, 512. DATES OF PUBLICATION, 1, July 31; No. 2, August om No. 3, September 23; No. 4, October 20; No. 5, eee 23; No. 6, December ERRATA. p- 10, line 18, for zutfkana, read Nutkana. 5 After line 7 insert the paragraph “ Missouri: on sand rocks near Perry- ville, Perry co. (Xev. C. H. Demetrio, 189 th : 51, line 19, for VENELLA, read TEN p- 52, line 20, instead of “form” sa * forms.” p. 106, line 3, for H, Poy, read H, PO4. p- 185, line 5, for ence, read hence. p. 226, line 5 from nppeee for Gleo-, read Gleeo-, p- 246, line 7, for H., p- 247, line 7, for Baines toe viridifiora. p- 250, line 10 from below, for wiridifore, read viridifiora. p- 428, line 2 from below, for Linden, read Lindau Vol. XXII (= JULY 1896 No. 1 TRE BOTANICAL QAZETTE EDITORS JOHN M. COULTER, Zhe University of Chicago, Chicago, lil. CHARLES R. BARNES, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wes. J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ina. ASSOCIATE EDITORS GEORGE F. ATKINSON ROLAND THAXTER Cornell University Harvard University — VOLNEY M. SPALDING WILLIAM TRELEASE University of Michigan Missourt Botanical Garden ISSUED JULY 31 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Publishes by The Aniversity of Chicago he Aniversity of Chicage Press Botanical Gazette A Montbly Journal Lmbracing all Departments of Botanical | Science Single Numbers, 30 Cents THE “SUBSCRIPTION PRICE’ MUST BE PAID IN ADVANCE, NO NUMBERS ARE SENT AFTER THE EXPIRATION OF THE TIME PAID FOR. NO REDUCTION 1s MADE TO DEALERS OR AGENTS. eGo oy 1 i. “Aces FRIEDLAENDER & SOHN, Carlstrasse Dy BERLIN, N. W. 6 _THE PRICES NAMED INCLUDE POSTAGE, VOLUME XXII NUMBER 1 PSOLANICAL (Ae FULY 1896 ROSAD AMERICAN. I. OBSERVATIONS UPON THE GENUS ROSA IN NORTH AMERICA. FRANCOIS CREPIN. To the Editors of the Botanical Gazette: The preface to the observations on American roses, which it is my intention to contribute from time to time, I shall put in the form of a letter, which will permit me to enter into the sub- ject more easily. Recently I asked whether your excellent journal would grant me the courtesy of its pages to address American botanists upon the roses of their country, thinking that I would reach them better than if I should continue to pub- lish my observations in European journals. You have kindly granted my request, and I hasten to take advantage of it. In the first place, I would call the attention of your readers to the fact that twenty years ago (1876) I published a mono- _ graph of the American roses,’ in which I gave a résumé of our knowledge at that time. Ten years afterwards the late Sereno Watson published a similar work,? but based upon more abundant material than had served for my monograph. This monograph, of incontestible merit and containing contributions to our knowl- edge, was after all simply a preparation for a complete presen- 1“ Prodrome d’une monographie des roses américaines,” in Bull. Soc. bot. Belg. ——-, 1876. ot a“ A nso and revision of the roses of North America,” in Proc. Amer. Acad. 20: —-. 1885. 2 BOTANICAL GAZETTE tation of American roses. Watson did not always seize upon th natural affinities which hold together certain forms, being misled one taking the name RX. Sayi Schwein.; then later into a thir species, R. Engelmanni These three species are actually bu three varieties of the same specific type. Also he has recogniz as a distinct species R. Arkansana Porter, which is perhaps but variety of R. blanda Ait. He has preserved asa separate specie R. lucida Ehrh., which is indeed but a variety of R. ha a Marsh. Finally, he has organized two specific groups under th names RX. Fendleri Crépin and R. Woodsii Lindl., each of whic seems to me to be composed of heterogeneous elements. A for his R. Mexicana, the few specimens which have been collected scarcely permit me to know whether he has well separated it as a distinct species. In any case it seems to belong to the section CAROLINA. In the preface of his monograph Watson says that if the roses were reduced to their primary types North America woul contain but nine species. This proposed condensation indicate: Mr. G. N. Best, took u which he has publish deserve to be consult p the study of American roses, concerni ed a number of interesting notes,’ whi ed by all who study the genus. 7 Thanks to researches and multiplied observations which have — _ been made, the acquaintance with a certain number of species is 3 Garden and Forest, 1887, 46N 88 i ouvelles remarques sur les roses américaines,” iid. 26: —. 1887, and 5 Remarks on the group CAROLIN# of the genus Rosa, in Bull Torr. Bot. C 1887. Remarks on the group CINNAMOME of the North American Roses, id Ameri Toses; remarks on the characters with classification, in /é -“ Trenton Nat. Hist. Soc. 1889, : 8 or ey al ESSE ee eI SP SENN ers ne tay 1896 | ‘ ROS4Z AMERICANA: 3 sufficiently complete, and these species are scarcely able to cause confusion, at least to collectors and authors who will take the trouble to consult good descriptions. These species are: R. setigera Michx. (R. rubifolia R. Br.), R. Carolina L., R. humilis Marsh. (incl. R. parviflora Ehrh. and R. lucida Ehrh.), 2. nitida Willd., R. foliolosa Nutt., R. gymnocarpa Nutt., and R. minutifolta Engelm. But besides these species there are others less well known, which have frequently given rise to confusion. These latter will be considered especially in the notes sent to the BoTanicaL GAZETTE. The genus Rosa has had the singular fortune of having been studied more than any other genus, and of having had its species become more obscure and less recognizable as the work upon them has multiplied, so that today the study of the genus is dreaded by the great majority of botanists. On account of the chaotic state to which the genus has been reduced by species makers, some students have concluded that there are no estab- lished boundaries between the species, and that it is useless to seek for constant characters with which to separate them. For some years I have not ceased to protest against this idea, which is radically false, and contradicts well-observed facts. I will continue to affirm that the true species of the genus Kosa are clearly characterized, and as distinct from each other as those of any other genus. One can attribute the deplorable state of the genus for half a century to two principal causes, viz., the condition of the col- lected material, and the desire of numerous amateurs and florists to discover a great number of new species in a small territory. In most genera the species are represented in herbaria by indi- viduals more or less numerous all of which usually show the char- acters necessary for good specific determination, so that one may compare individuals with each other, may distinguish dwarf and giant variations, and may form some adequate conception of the possible modifications by organs due to lack or excess of vigor. 4 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY But in Kosa this is not the case. The species are represented in herbaria by fragments only, either in flower or in fruit, from which one cannot always obtain all the factors for a just concep- tion. If it had been possible to represent the roses in collec- tions, as has been the case with herbaceous plants, by entire individuals, that is to say by bushes, the recognition of the species would not be inso great uncertainty. To the difficulties resulting from insufficiency of material there are added those which the species makers have accumulated, the ‘counters of hairs,” as they are sometimes called, who have multiplied specific types in a needless fashion. It is to warn my American confréres against the breaking up of species, and to show them how careful one must be before proposing a new type, that I intend to submit to them some considerations based upon long experience, taking up especially species of the section CINNAMOME#, Each species may present itself in three conditions of vege- tation: an habitual state, which may be called the medium, a dwarf state, and a giant state. It is from the medium state, that is, the most frequent one, that the description of the type is usually drawn. The distinctive characters furnished by this state are put in relief in the diagnoses. The dwarf and giant states, however, present certain characters which do not corres- pond to these diagnoses, and lead to an inference of the exist- ence of specific forms distinct from those described. This has frequently occurred. The dwarfing or the enlargement in the — genus Xosa affects the form of the prickles, the dimensions of the leaves, of the flowers, of the fruits, etc.; affecting not only the ensemble of a bush, but also different parts of the same bush. Thus a delicate or more or less exhausted axis may give rise to puny floriferous branches with small leaflets and single-flowered inflorescences ; while a vigorous axis may give rise to floriferous branches with large leaflets and many-flowered inflorescences. These two kinds of branches, if they be isolated, appear very different from each other, and may give rise to the idea of two’ varieties or even of two species. It is the dwarfing or enlarge- a a ee ee ee Pee er he ye ey Cer ae ee ee SS Sp ee E T peee e Fe Ee ae poe Di Ae ed ade eins El it ae aa re See ee eee Wee ce 1896 } ROSE AMERICANAE 5 ment occurring upon a single bush, however, which deserves special study. In the section CINNAMOME# the armature of the axes shows three conditions: (1) all the axes may be covered with setaceous prickles, scattered and more or less abundant; (2) scattered prickles may occur only in the lower parts of the axes, being completely wanting in the upper parts, which thus become unarmed; (3) prickles may be borne, as before, upon the lower parts and disappear in the upper parts, where the armature is reduced to the regularly paired prickles upon each leaf. It may happen that in species normally provided with paired prickles, these may not be produced upon certain floriferous branches, as also at the extremity of the stems. In the first case, in which the axes are completely setigerous, dwarfing has apparently no influence upon the armature; but enlarging produces a diminution in the number of prickles at the extremity of the axes. In the second — nace oe produces the appearance of kl t qually over all the axes; while enlarging increases the unarmed appearance. Lastly, in the third case, dwarfing produces the development of numer- ous prickles equally distributed upon those parts of the axes which are normally without them and introduces an obstacle to the regular arrangement of the paired prickles; while enlarging favors the occurrence of paired prickles upon the extremity of the axis. These variations in the armature result in specimens of the same species differing much from one another, according as they have been taken from the dwarf or giant bushes, or from the lower or upper parts of the same bush. Again, dwarfing may produce the curious result of trans- forming the main stem into flower-bearing branches. These stems, remaining dwarf, instead of terminating in a leaf bud which continues the axis, end in an inflorescence which is more or less many-flowered. These stems are thus transformed into floriferous branches, differing in appearance from the normal floriferous branches, and showing one or two more pairs of leaf- 6 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY lets, with leaves and upper stipules more crowded. It is this exceptional state of growth which seems to me to have suggested the establishment of R. Arkansana Porter. In Europe, the pubescence and glandulosity have played a preponderant and excessive part in the separation of species and have led to the establishment of a host of pretended species. These have encumbered the genus to such an extent, that it has become nearly impossible to study it. I do not intend to rule out entirely pubescence and glandulosity as means of distinguish- ing species, but it is necessary to abandon the idea of using them as distinguishing characters of the first order, and to limit their use to indicating differences of a very secondary value. Many species may be either glabrous or pubescent, glandular or non-glandular; but some are more frequently glabrous, others more frequently pubescent, or more habitually glandular, or more often non-glandular. Finally, there are some species which are glandular with great constancy. What has just been said with reference to smoothness and pubescence, and a glandular and non-glandular condition, is applicable to the form of the. leaf-teeth as well, which in the same species may be simple, double, or glandular-compound, _ The form of the floriferous and fructiferous receptacles is also subject to frequent variation in the same species, Certain species, however, have the receptacles habitually rounded, while others have them more or less ovoid or elongated. In the sec- tion CINNAMOME# the rounded form is the most common. An attentive study of the numerous variant forms displayed by different species reveals parallel lines of variation, which are faithfully repeated in the different species. The existence of these parallel variations strengthens the evidence as to the folly of an excessive multiplication of species. I wish to say, in pass- ing, that the fragmentation of species of Rosa has had in Amer- ica an exponent in Rafinesque. This singular naturalist, whom one should never take seriously, has constructed some species which will remain enigmas forever, In Europe the recognition of true species was retarded for a 1896 | ROSAS AMERICANA: i A] long time by the ignorance concerning the existence of hybrids, whose intermediate and vacillating characters often render obscure those of genuine types. At present, however, since the frequent occurrence of hybrids has been demonstrated and the bastard products partly classified, the distinction of species has become more precise and rigorous. It is probably true that American roses do not escape hybridization any more than the European and Asiatic species, and the American botanists must face the duty of discovering the hybrids of their country, for their first recognition ordinarily cannot be made with certainty except in the field. They will have to examine with much atten- tion the more or less intermediate forms which occur where several species grow in company. Perhaps they will discover hybrids between R. pisocarpa and R. Nutkana, between R. pisocarpa and R. gymnocarpa, between R. blanda and RK. acicularis, etc. M. Th. A. Brutsin has described a R. neglecta, which he considers R. lucida x blanda’ Up to the present, in such herbarium material as I have studied, I have recognized but one form which has seemed to me a hybrid, a form which seems to be R. Carolina X humilis. I herewith close this preamble, which may appear long, but which I thought indispensable to enable my American confréres to understand thoroughly my way of looking upon species of the genus Kosa. BRUSSELS, March 5, 1896. Rosa Nourxana Presl. I begin my remarks with this species because it has just been the object of a new specific creation under the name of R. Macdougali Holzinger.? The description of this supposed new species given by Mr. Holzinger is entirely insufficient, and does not permit even the section to be recognized. Two beautiful specimens that Mr. Coville has kindly sent me® have enabled 6 Vergleichende Flora Wisconsin in Verhand. d. K. K. Zool,-bot. Gesell. in Wien 26: 246. 1877. 7 BOTANICAL GAZETTE 21: 36. 1896. ®Mr. Coville has also sent to me specimens of 2. d/anda, R. Fendleri, R. Cali- 8 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuLy me to recognize the plant. It is a variety of R. Nutkana, with twigs and floriferous branchlets unarmed (in my two specimens), leaflets pubescent on the principal veins, simple teeth, one-flow- ered inflorescence, hispid-glandular pedicels, receptacles beset with numerous glandular hairs, and sepals glandular on the back. The author says that the single character of hispid- glandular receptacles permits his new species to be distinguished from all other American types. However, several other Ameri- can species may have their receptacles as hispid as that of 2. Macdougali. lf Mr. Holzinger had consulted the BoTaNICAL GazETTE of 1894 he would have found that Mr. Merritt Lyndon , Fernald had described (p. 335) a variety of R. Nutkana, under the name of hispida, whose receptacles are strongly hispid- glandular. This variety /ispida was established upon specimens received by Watson from Rock Creek, Montana, and through C. V. Piper from Pullman, Washington. In 1885 Watson in his mono- graph alluded to the Rock Creek plant, and was inclined to consider it a variety of R. Nutkana. Does the variety hispida have leaflets glandular beneath and glandular-compound teeth ? I have reason to suppose that it has. In 1890, Mr. Edward L. Greene sent me some undetermined specimens which had been collected at Lake Pend d’Oreille, which proved to be a variety of R. Nutkana probably identical with the var. hispida, The leaves have become almost glabrous, but are glandular beneath, with glandular-compound teeth, and the pedicels, receptacles and sepals are densely hispid-glandular. In my Prodromus of 1876 I have given a history of R. Nutkana, which at that time was poorly known. Afterwards, the rich material which I have brought together, and the study which I have made of the plant in cultivation, make me somewhat acquainted with the different variations of this type. They are numerous, and can be grouped in several series, which are parallel with the series of variations produced by other species of the same section. These series Jornica, and R. gymnocarpa, cited by Mr. Holzinger in his “ Report on a collection of plants made by J. H. Sandberg and assistants in northern Idaho in the year 1892,” in Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 3: 223. 1895. BRS a A Ne ek A ah a cies Ll nl) eS ee eA ' 1896 | ROSA AMERICANA: 9 show us glabrous or pubescent leaves, simple or glandular- compound leaf-teeth, leaves glandular or non-glandular beneath, and the floral organs smooth or hispid-glandular. Instead of describing at length all these variations, a work reserved perhaps for a monograph, in would seem best to present the characters proposed to distinguish R. Nutkana from the neigh- boring species. I shall compare it first with R. d/anda, which it resembles in certain features. The armature, when it is normally developed, is sufficient alone to distinguish the two types. Both, as is the case habitually among the CiInNAMOME, bear numerous ordi- narily setaceous? prickles below, but in R. Vutkana these prickles are accompanied by stouter prickles regularly paired on the leaves, prickles which are entirely lacking in R. dlanda. The paired prickles of R. Nutkana, on the stems especially, are very peculiar and very different from the prickles of other American species of this section, often being thick, triangular in form, and more or less decurrent at base, normally straight and perpen- dicular to the axis from which they arise. On the branches these paired prickles become less robust, and likewise on the floriferous branches. Watson describes the prickles of R. Nutkana as being decurved, and Best says the same. I have examined sufficient material, both wild and cultivated, to be well assured that the prickles belong to the straight type, only exceptionally becoming decurved and hooked, as is the case in European and Asiatic species with prickles of the straight type. But the decurving is simply an accident, and it is this accident which Watson and Best saw. Prickles normally curved and hooked apparently occur in but one American species of the section CINNAMOMEZ, namely, R. Californica. The paired pricklesalso distinguish R. Nutkana from R. blanda, which is absolutely free from them. But if. for some reason the paired prickles disappear from certain parts of the axes, it is then necessary to have recourse to other distinctions. Such are 9In the variety of 2. Nutkana which I formerly called R. Durandii the setaceous spines are often replaced by pedicellate glands. 10 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [juLy not wanting, but they are not as easy of application as those drawn from the prickles. The form of the leaflets, perhaps, may be usefully employed. In &. Nutkana the leaflets are oval, more or less rounded at base, with teeth rather open; while those of R. blanda are obovate, relatively narrower, more or less attenuate at base, with teeth turned towards the apex. It can be added that the former frequently has glandular-compound teeth, while the latter almost always has simple ones. To judge well the differences I have described it is necessary to compare quite an amount of material of the two species, for fear of being deceived by certain variations of form. The inflorescence can also be used for a distinction, but should be used only with sufficient material for accurate judgment. The inflorescences of R. Nutkana are much more often one-flow- ered than are those of R. dlanda. The statistics which I have obtained concerning the inflorescences give the following pro- — portions between the one-flowered and many-flowered inflores- cences: for R. nutkana, 1.8:1; for R. blanda, 1: Lae The corolla is notably larger in R. Nutkana, and the fruc- tiferous receptacles and akenes are a little larger. The tissue of the fructiferous receptacle at complete maturity is drier and less pulpy than in R. dlanda. 1 wish to remark, in passing, that the size of the akenes, from which Mr. Best has obtained the means of distinguishing R. Carolina from R. humilis, deserves the atten- tion of American botanists. In the section CinnaMoME2 it will be found probably that the size of the akenes may be usefully employed as a distinguishing character, The upper stipules and bracts are habitually much more dilated in R. Nutkana than in R. blanda. All of these last characters, resting simply upon a difference a in size, certainly are of importance, but unfortunately they very often weary the perplexed observer who cannot compare a suf- ficient amount of well chosen material. R. pisocarpa and R. Californica have paired prickles, as in A. | Nuthkana. In the former, these prickles, which are straight, are © Cf. Remarques sur l’inflorescence des Rosa in Bull. Soc. bot. Belg. 347: —: 1895- er Re i lat ee ee aie Se i eee ee ale is aL a aa ose BI ae 5 a a aa a ee le es aa ae i a ae alae NN PLES CET A eh ee ee 1896 | ROSAE AMERICANZE I slender and never take the form, at least on the stems and prin- cipal branches, of the stout prickles of R. Nutkana. Inthe latter, the paired prickles are more or less curved or hooked, and only exceptionally on the slender axes do they become more or less straight. I shall consider later other characters which separate R. pisocarpa and R. Californica from R. Nutkana. Let us examine at present the geographical distinction of the latter. In his monograph, Watson says that it occurs along the Pacific coast from Alaska, in 62° lat., to Oregon, and extends eastward into the mountains of Idaho and northern Utah, where the Wahsatch marks its limit. Including the variety Azspida, its eastern limit is extended into western Montana. From material which I have received, I have recognized the species beyond the limits of the United States in Vancouver island, in the lower valley of the Fraser, along the upper Columbia, also in Alberta. I have received specimens from the island of Sitka, which appear to me to belong to R. Nutkana. The material from the island Kodiak, which I have described under the name of &. Aleutensis, perhaps is, as Watson thought, a variety of the type of Presl, but before accepting this identification fresh investigation must be made. Upon this side of the frontiers of the Dominion the species occurs in Washington and Oregon between the Pacific coast and the Rocky mountains. Does it reach California or Nevada? It occurs in the Siskiyou mountains, at the boundary of Oregon and California. Towards the east it extends to the mountains of Idaho and Montana. It is not very rare in Utah in the Great Salt Lake region, from which I have received specimens collected by Jones. In these localities it occurs at an altitude of 8,000 feet. Mr. Porter has sent me two floriferous branches collected by Mr. John Scott, in 186g, in the mountains of Colorado. These branches, reported as R. Woodsii, seem to me to belong to &. Nutkana. It is altogether likely that the species will be discov- ered in the mountains of Wyoming. According to the known facts, therefore, R. Nutkana has a boreo-occidental distribu- ution. 12 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY ROSA BLANDA Ait. According to Watson, &. dlanda extends from Newfoundland to Hudson’s Bay, and southward to northern New York, whence it extends to the west as far as Minnesota, traversing Ontario, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin, and appearing again to the north in Manitoba. We have in this a boreo-oriental dis- tribution. In the consideration of R. Arkansana a little later we shall see whether this western limit of R. d/anda should not be extended. Recently, Mr. Holzinger (oc. cit.) has pointed out R. blanda as occurring in Idaho (valley of Little Potlatch river, no. 381; Lake Coeur d’Alene, no. 581), but no. 581 of the Sandberg collection, of which I have received a beautiful specimen, appears to me to belong well to R. Nutkana. Its prickles are paired, its leaflets are pubescent and with simple teeth, its pedicels are ordinarily hispid-glandular, and its sepals are glan- dular without. As for no. 381 of the same collection, there is not the least doubt that it is R. Nutkana, with pubescent leaflets and simple teeth, and pedicels, receptacles and sepals smooth. The corolla is very large, R. blanda, which often has pubescent leaves, sometimes displays leaves perfectly glabrous; the teeth are almost always simple, and very rarely do they become glandular-compound. Rarely, also, are the leaves a little glandular beneath, and the receptacles hispid-glandular. Different ages may give rise to various series of variations. Rosa ARKANSANA Porter. In my Nouvelles remarques sur les roses américaines (1889) I have discussed at length the value of R. Arkansana, which I had concluded to consider only a variety of R. dblanda. According to the terms of the original description, the name R. Arkansana can strictly apply only to the form producing simple stems crowned with a terminal inflorescence. These simple stems, about a foot high, are more or less clothed with scattered, slen- der, straight and often setaceous prickles; the leaves, which are really cauline leaves, have four or five pairs of leaflets; and the a a 4 a a ke a BS if 1896] ROSAE AMERICANA 13 exterior sepals sometimes bear lateral appendages. The authentic specimens whieh I have received from Mr, Porter have glabrous leaves. Under the name &. Arkansana, Watson has not well included the preceding form, which alone constitutes R. Arkansana as it had been described by Mr. Porter, but applies it to tall forms, with stems attaining six feet in height and bearing floriferous branchlets which arise directly from the stem or are borne on the branches. According to the abundant material which I have brought together in my herbarium under the name &. Arkansana, this species does not always have simple stems terminated by a many- flowered inflorescence and more or less setigerous. It may give rise to stems more or less tall and branching. In this case, the entire stem perhaps is clothed with numerous setaceous prickles which completely cover it or the greater part of the floriferous branchlets, which are then as setigerous as those of XR. acicularis. It remains to be seen whether X. Arkansana in the dwarf state or in the tall bushy state may not be sometimes completely unarmed, with its floriferous branchlets entirely bare of prickles as are the upper branches. I have reason to think so. But in the last case what remains to distinguish R. Arkansana from R. blanda? Nothing seems to remain, for when the former produces floriferous branchlets upon the stem of the second year, or on the branches, these floriferous branchlets do not have four or five pairs of leaf- lets as in the false floriferous branchlets of &. Arkansana as con- stituted by Mr. Porter, but leaves of only five or seven leaflets, as those of R. dblanda ; and, on the other hand, I do not see any dif- ference between the normal branches of the two species. Per- haps it can be claimed that in R. Arkansana the exterior sepals are a little less rarely appendaged than in X&. dlanda. It appears, then, that between these two roses there is a simple difference in the degree of abundance of prickles. The leaflets are the same, either glabrous or pubescent, and the floral organs appear to be identical. Despite the extremely close affinity of these two forms, I think 14 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY it prudent to obtain additional information before uniting them, Therefore in the dichotomous table at the end of this paper I have separated RK. Arkansana as a distinct species, for the purpose of facilitating investigation. It is especially necessary to examine the mode of vegetation of R. Arkansana, and to discover the modifications involved in dwarf and giant forms. The cause of the dwarfing, which is quite frequent, should be investigated. Perhaps the frequent fires which ravage the prairie region where KR. Arkansana appears to occur may have some connection with the dwarfing. It is important to know whether R. dlanda, more or less typical, does not occur quite frequently associated with &. Arkansana, and whether the latter does not gradually pass into the former by a series of intermediate states. I have specimens of typical R. Arkansana from Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, and Manitoba, and from the Sas- katchewan. I have described the plant from the last station under the name &. dlanda var. setigera. Finally, if R. Arkansana is found to be a variety of R. dlanda, the area of distribution of the latter will be extended chiefly westward. Rosa pisocarpa A. Gray. In 1876 (Prodromus) 1 expressed doubts as to the autonomy of X. pisocarpa A. Gray. These doubts have been removed by — subsequent study of abundant material received from America, 4 and from cultures which I have made. Before entering into the _ discussion, I wish to remark that Nuttall, who first had recognized the character of R. gymnocarpa and R. foliolosa, and likewise of R. Nutkana, which he had designated in his herbarium as 2. mega- carpa, had taken R. pisocarpa for a new species, to which he gave the name R. arguta MS. If Torrey and Gray had retained these two names proposed by Nuttall, there would have been two more species to his credit. 4 In its habitual form, such as Asa Gray described and figured . in the Botanical Magazine (pl. 685 7), R. pisocarpa cannot be con- founded with any other species. Its prickles regularly paired, and its leaflets more or less conspicuously rounded at base, dis- 1896 | ROSA! AMERICANA 15 tinguish it from R.d/anda. Its slender and straight prickles, and its inflorescence with small and usually numerous flowers, separate it from A. Nutkana. Lastly, the form of its prickles, which are straight and not curved or hooked at the tip, permits no confusion with R. Californica. Despite these differences, there is more or less confusion. Thus, specimens of R. pisocarpa received from the Siskiyou mountains, Washington, from Mr. Pringle and Mr. Suksdorf, have been reported by Watson as R. Californica. This error came from the appearance of the specimens and a too narrow concep- tion of R. pisocarpa. They do not always show the small rounded fructiferous receptacles as large as a pea, such as were described by Asa Gray. These receptacles can become notably larger, either strongly constricted at the neck, or ellipsoidal. On the other hand, the leaflets, which are glabrous or pubescent, some- times show small glands upon the lower surface. In the last case, the teeth either remain simple or become glandular-com- pound. Among the rich material from Washington sent to me by Mr. Suksdorf, and which I have placed in my herbarium under R. pisocarpa, there are forms whose leaflets are more or less attenuate at base, as in RX. d/anda, instead of rounded as in the type. Will the contraction of the lower part of the leaflets necessitate the making of a species distinct from R. pisocarpa ? This is impossible, for this difference is not to be regarded. Such contraction will always weaken the amount of distinctive characters which separate R. pisocarpa and R. blanda. R. pisocarpa seems to be subject to the same variations as are R. Nutkana and R. blanda from dwarfing and enlarging, and to show very marked differences between specimens from dwarf bushes and those from more vigorous and taller bushes. The geographical range given to R. pisocarpa by Watson seems to me to need extension, and that, too, probably at the expense of the two groups of forms which he has included under _ the names R. Fendleri and R. Woodsii. Towards the north Wat- son does not extend the limit beyond the southern part of British Columbia. Does the species occur farther north? I am 16 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [july inclined to believe so. Mr, Greene has sent me a small flowering : specimen collected by Mr. Bates, in 1882, near Fort Yukon, Alaska, which seems to me to belong to &. pisocarpa. However, I do not wish to announce this determination with certainty; but — I am certain that it is not &. acicularis, which Watson cites from . the same locality. : : R. pisocarpa passes down the Columbia into Washington and a Oregon, penetrates California in the Sacramento valley, and, I am well assured, reaches Nevada City. ; q It now remains to see whether it does not extend towards the east and south by the Rocky mountain range, as is the case with R. Nutkana. In Idaho Mr. Sandberg has collected, on the} shores of Lake Pend d’Oreille. (no. 871), a form reported by Mr. Holzinger as R. Californica, which appears to me to bea variety of KR. pisocarpa, the same as two other forms obtained by — the same collector in Montana (no. 973 and no. 1009) and — reported by Mr. Holzinger as R. Fendleri. Mr. Greene, also, has — obtained from taaho, near Montpelier, a form which J think — should be referred to R. pisocarpa. 1 have from Utah different — forms collected by Mr. Jones, among which I think I recognize : the type of Gray. Lastly, from Colorado I have received sev- eral roses whose specific identity, for want of sufficient material, — is perplexing to me; nevertheless I have reason to suppose that : R. pisocarpa is among them. These forms of Utah and of Colo-— rado for the most part have been referred by Watson to R. Fend- leri and R. Woodsii. fio Rosa Fenpieri Crépin. I have given the name R. Fendleri to a rose obtained by Fendler in New Mexico. Watson has described under this name — plants from a great number of localities, and upon considering — the description given in his monograph and the extent of the — geographical distribution, one is tempted to believe that he has characterized a good species; but despite long study Iam unable — to form a clear idea of that specific group. I am tempted to believe that R. Fendleri as constituted by Watson is probably an 1896 | ROSA, AMERICANA 17 artificial group formed, in part, at the expense of R. pisocarpa and &. dlanda, and perhaps partly of one or of several other species as yet incompletely known. As for my R. Fendleri of New Mexico I have examined too little material to be actually sure that it is an autonomous type. For elucidating the problem of R. Fendleri a number of investigations need to be made. The botanists who explore the vast region of the Rocky mountains should make careful obser- vations as to the appearance of the bushes. They should examine the variations which accompany the dwarf and giant states, and obtain abundant, well-selected material from which to form a trustworthy opinion of the armature of the different axes. In short, in my opinion, &. Fendleri remains as an obscure species, not capable of being clearly defined in the dichotomous table which I have added at the close of the paper. Rosa Woopsi Lindl. . Woodsii was established upon a plant cultivated in the Garden of the Horticultural Society of London. It was sup- posed to have come from the basin of the Missouri. I have authentic specimens in my herbarium, and have seen others in the Lindley herbarium. One perceives how much cultivation ordinarily modifies the appearance of a species, and how much a description drawn from a single cultivated plant can introduce uncertainty when there is an attempt to apply such a descrip- tion to the wild plant. This is certainly the case with the description of R. Woodsit. I here wish to digress a moment in reference to this. Wat- son established, within the CINNAMOME# which he described, two principal divisions. The first is characterized by the prickles all scattered, and includes R. acicularis, R. Sayi, R. blanda, and R. Arkansana ; the second is distinguished by the paired prickles, and includes R. Nutkana, R. pisocarpa, R. Californica, R. Fendleri, and R. Woodsii. This last division is subdivided into two groups, one of which has the sepals all entire, and the other with the outer Sepals ordinarily having one or several lateral segments. The 18 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY — last includes only R. Woodsii. Certainly the form of the sepals is extremely important in distinguishing species and even sec- ¢ tions, but it is necessary that that form be normal and constant. Now in the section CinNAMOME# the sepals are normally entire, and it is only exceptionally that they produce toward the sum- mit small entire and erect appendages. The difference is great — between these sepals exceptionally appendaged and those norm- — ally producing lateral appendages from the base. It should be * mentioned that the exceptional appearance of lateral append-— ages is not peculiar to R. Woodsii, but may occur in almost all of a other American CINNAMOME. , | It follows, therefore, that the most distinctive character used — by Watson to sustain the autonomy of R. Woodsii has no value, — or at least a very secondary value. What other characters, therefore, can separate this species from its neighbors? I have 7 not been able to discover them. In 1876 I expressed the opin- ion that R. Woodsii was only a variety of R. dblanda. Today I would not dare to be so positive, and would reserve my judg- ment concerning this form. New researches are necessary either to merge it with another species or to establish it as distinct. The original description of R. Woodsii was corrected by Lindley himself in the Botanical Register 12, which contains 4 beautiful figure of it ( pl. 976). This figure, drawn from the cul- tivated plant, of which I have specimens, has glabrous leaflets oboval and attenuate at base as those of R d/anda, and with simple teeth; perfectly entire sepals, although in my specimens the exterior ones are sometimes laterally appendaged ; recep” tacles sensibly larger than in these same specimens ; and lastly, prickles quite regularly paired as well upon the branches as upon the floriferous branchlets, while in my specimens they are gen- erally scattered and paired only beneath a few leaves terminatin the branches. Lindley, in his original description, says the prickles are scattered, but become paired toward the “extremi- ties.” By “extremities” he doubtless meant the summit of the main branches or leaf-bearing branches. In the corrected description of the Botanical Register he declares that they 1896 } ROSE AMERICANA: 19 scattered. It is important to know whether the prickles are normally scattered or paired, for, in the former case it would make FR. Woodstt approach R. dlanda, while in the latter case it would approach R. pisocarpa. This observation must be made in the Missouri region, which appears to be the natural habitat of R. Woodsit. Watson identifies R. Maximiliana Nees as R. Woods. 1 have authentic specimens of that rose obtained by Prince Max. von Wied in the prairies on the banks of the Missouri. Apart from its pubescent leaflets that form shows very close affinity to &. Woodsti, with which it certainly seems to be identical. The armature of its axes very much resembles that of specimens of R. Woodsit to which I have alluded above, and leaves me with- out doubt as to the arrangement of the prickles. In conclusion, R. Woodsii of Lindley remains doubtful to me. Perhaps it constitutes a distinct species; perhaps it is but a variety of R. dlanda or of R. pisocarpa. In reference to &, Woodsii as constituted by Watson, I believe it is composed of heterogeneous specific elements. ROSA GRATISSIMA Greene. Mr. Greene described his R. gratissima in 1891 in his Flora Franciscana, and remarks that it has the look of R. Californica. According to Mr. Greene the prickles, which are slender and straight, are paired only upon the vigorous growing shoots. Upon comparing the descriptions of R. gratissima and R. Californica given by Mr. Greene, we find that the first is distin- guished from the second (1) by its prickles straight and slender, not stout and habitually curved; (2) by its leaves thin and bright green, not firm and dark green, with teeth a little falci- form and not open; (3) by the stipules of the cauline leaves strongly denticulate and not entire. From an examination of specimens sent to me by Mr. Greene, undetermined, but with no doubt as to their identity with R. gratissima, 1 would point out (1) that the prickles are slender and straight, abundant and all scattered on two long fragments of stems, less abundant on the 20 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY portions of the stem bearing floriferous branchlets where they are also scattered or rarely irregularly paired, also irregularly paired but more often scattered on the floriferous branchlets; (2) that the leaves are thin and bright green, with teeth usually simple and directed somewhat towards the apex; (3) that the stipules of the cauline leaves are quite strongly denticulate, but so also are the upper stipules of the floriferous branchlets and the bracts. But Mr. Greene has not remarked the fact that the upper stipules and bracts are dilated, while those of R. Californica remain narrow. This dilatation of stipules and bracts, in my_ judgment, constitutes an important distinctive character. I observe, moreover, that the inflorescences are all pluriflor- ous, with 2 to 5 flowers, that the pedicels are long and slender, quite often a little pubescent, that the pubescence may invade the receptacle, that the sepals may be silky on the back and the exterior ones sometimes furnished above with one or two small very narrow and entire lateral appendages, and, lastly, that th : corolla is quite small. Mr. Greene seems to lay stress upon the fragrant glands of the leaves. I would remark, however, that the glandular character of certain varieties of R. Californica is : more marked and persistent. In 2. gratissima, as in the forms: of R. pisocarpa with glandular leaves, the leaf glands are very small, sessile, very abundant on very young leaves and as abun: dant on the petioles as upon the lower surface of the leaflets but these glands are fugacious and disappear with age, for th most part quite promptly. InR, gratissima these minute glands may also invade the upper surface of the leaflets. The question suggests itself whether R. gratissima constitutes an autonomous specific type, or is an aberrant variety of XR. Cat fornica. The material which I have received, obtained perhaps from one bush, does not permit me to decide with certainty Nevertheless, by reason of its dilated upper stipules and bracts, — and its straight spines, I consider that R. gratissima is specifically distinct from R. Californica, and that other characters do 10 permit it to bea variety of R. pisocarpa. It is important to know whether the character drawn from 1896 | ROSA! AMERICANA 21 the denticulation of the stipules and bracts* remains constant on all the bushes or is exceptional. In the second place, an impor- tant point to elucidate is the normal disposition of the prickles. Are they normally scattered and only exceptionally paired, or are they regularly paired on bushes more or less vigorous ? If R. gratissima constitutes a distinct type, it can be expected to occur with glabrous leaves and glandular-compound leaflet- teeth, and also, perhaps, with pedicels and receptacles hispid- glandular. Rosa CatiFornica Cham. & Schlecht. R. Californica is a species which occurs extensively through- out California. It seems to be somewhat common there and plays about the same réle as does RX. canina in Europe. It ought, therefore, to produce numerous varieties. Watson groups R. Californica with R. pisocarpa and R. Fendlert in a subdivision characterized by its small flowers, ordinarily in pluriferous inflorescences, and its short and narrow stipules; while he forms with R. Nutkana another subdivision distinguished by its large flowers, ordinarily in one-flowered inflorescences, and its dilated stipules. R. Nutkana is well distinguished, indeed, by a large corolla, by inflorescences often one-flowered, and by the upper stipules remarkably dilated; but in 2. pisocarpa the stip- ules cannot be said to be altogether narrow, and the upper ones, although smaller than those of R. Nutkana, are, nevertheless, more dilated than those of the lower and cauline leaves. The same thing is seen in the forms which Watson has described under &. Fendleri. In R. Californica all the stipules appear to remain narrow, the upper ones becoming no more dilated than the lower, as is the case in R. spithamea. This would suggest an important distinction to be established between the species with upper stipules and bracts dilated, including R. Nutkana, R. piso- carpa, R. gratissima, R. Fendleri, R. Woodsii, R. blanda, and R. acic- ularis,and those with upper stipules and bracts remaining narrow, including R. Californica and R. spithamea. 1 would call the ™ An analogous denture is observed sometimes in 2. d/anda and R. Arkansana. 22 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY Pe ha special attention of American botanists to these differences, and — urge them to see whether they are constant. The form of the prickles affords a second important distine- tive character for X. Calfornica. In that species alone are the prickles curved at the tip or more or less hooked. Watson does well to assign straight or recurved prickles to R. Nutkana, R. Fendleri, and R. Woodsit, but in those species, in my opinion, prickles recurved at the tip are only exceptional. It is well to consider the regions of the axes where the prickles habitually show their normal form. These regions are ordinarily situated in the middle part of the stems and branches. On the floriferous branchlets, prickles normally recurved of hooked, following the weakness of the axes, may become straight. These variations in the armature, both in the form of the prickles Ie ges Pn SR ee er eee 1 IRR Re ys ee ee Pe and their arrangement, explain the necessity of judging only. — from quite large specimens, and the extreme usefulness of being able to observe the whole bush. The form of the leaflets seems to vary quite widely in &. Californica, as well as the teeth, which may be simple or glan- dular-compound. The base, however, appears to be almost always rounded, and not attenuate or cuneate. The leaflets are almost always pubescent, with the lower surface glandular or not. According to Watson, they very rarely are completely glabrous, and that author cites but a single case, that of specimens obtained by Palmer at San Bernardino. No. 454 of the Palmer collection, representing R. Californica of that locality, is made up 4 of specimens taken from several bushes which do not all belong — to the same variety or even to the same species, Some have completely glabrous leaves and straight prickles, while others have pubescent leaves and more or less hooked prickles. Engel- mann had sent to me specimens of this last form, also from San Bernardino, If the pubescent specimens belong to R. Californica, those with glabrous leaves appear to belong to another species. In my Prodromus, 1 have described a variety glabra of R. Califor nica, established on a plant cultivated in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, under the name &. myriantha Decaisne, but that plant can 1896 | ROSE AMERICANA 23 as well be a variety of R. pisocarpa with glabrous leaves, and appears to be identical with the X. pisocarpa of Nevada City, to which I have already alluded. Watson attributes to R. pisocarpa and R. Fendleri globular fructiferous receptacles, and to R. Californica ovoid receptacles narrowed above. Even if in the last the receptacles are almost constantly of that form, they may be sometimes globular, as, on the other hand, those of R. pisocarpa and R. Fendleri, in their turn, may be ovoid and narrowed above. Despite these varia- tions, perhaps we should retain for these species the characters drawn by Watson from the form of the receptacles. In comparing the diverse varieties which I include under the name &. Californica, with prickles curved or more or less hooked, and upper stipules and bracts narrow, one wonders whether sev- eral distinct specific types are not included under it, whose char- acters are not yet well known. For want of sufficiently abundant material I am compelled to reserve my judgment upon this ques- tion. I hope that the botanists of California, understanding the interest that attaches to the elucidation of R. Cadfornica, will be willing to send to me numerous specimens of that species, obtained from different parts of their country. Let us examine now the geographical distribution of the species. Watson says that it is found throughout California, ascending the mountains as far as 6,000 feet altitude; that it had been encountered in Oregon and Washington, and perhaps in British Columbia; and existed in western Nevada and extreme northern Lower California. This range traced by Watson seems to me to be incorrect at several points. The specimens which made him include Oregon and Washington in the range belong to R. pisocarpa. As for British Columbia, I believe that it is entirely foreign to R. Californica. 1 have received from Nevada a specimen obtained by Mr. Greene from Reno, in the Sierra Nevada, not far from the California boundary. San Diego is the southernmost point from which I have seen specimens. Perhaps towards the south it extends beyond California into Arizona. I have received from Mr. Greene some flowering specimens 24 ; BOTANICAL GAZETTE [jury obtained by him on Mt. Bill Williams, which have some resemblance to RX. Caltfornica, but I do not venture to pronounce with certainty as to their specific identity. It is very likely, from the known facts, that R. Californica is a species entirely western, peculiar to California, and having the Sierra Nevada as ‘ , its eastern limit. : If one should believe Mr. Holzinger (oc. cit.) the limit of this species should be extended to Idaho, but no. 173 of the — Sandberg collections, reported by that author as R. Californica, is — R. Nutkana, while no. 871 certainly does not belong to &. Cali- fornica. The specimen which I have received is a vigorous flowering branchlet, with inflorescence 22-flowered. Despite this many-flowered inflorescence and quite a small corolla I am inclined to believe that this specimen is a variety of R. Nutkana. In his Flora of California Watson describes a variety of X. Californica under the name wltramontana. This is passed over in silence in the monograph of the same author, and I do not possess authentic specimens of it. Mr. Jones has distributed, under no. 2455, with the name R&. Californica var. ultramontana Watson, specimens of a form obtained at Salt Lake City, which reasonably agrees with the description of the variety wtramontand, but which does not appear in any way to belong to R. Californica. It rather seems to be a variety of R. pisocarpa. ROSA SPITHAMA Watson. R. spithamea was established by Watson in 1880, in his Alora of California, Later, in his monograph, he did not maintain the = species, but reduced it to a variety of R. Californica. Perhaps’ Watson was influenced by the opinion which I had expressed concerning its establishment as a species.” Since 1882 I have received some new specimens of that curious rose, and their examination has induced me to think that it can very well be specifically distinct from R. Californica. In the valley of the Trinity river, where Mr. Rattan first discovered it, it 1s €X- 12 Cf, Note sur les recentes découvertes de roses en ee in Bull. Soc. bat. Belg, 217: 146. 1882. 1896 ] ROSA! AMERICANA: 25 tremely abundant. That botanist wrote to Dr. Engelmann that he had encountered there thousands of plants, that the shrub was habitually but three or four inches high, and that it was only in fertile and shady places that it attained as much as a foot in height. The species seems to preserve its dwarf habit in other localities from which I have specimens. This extremely reduced stature does not appear to be due to accidental dwarfing, and is very constant, constituting very prob- ably an essential difference from R, Californica, which is habitually quite tall. This difference is further emphasized by the fact that the prickles of the former are almost always slender and belong well to the straight type, that the corolla is smaller, and that the receptacles are prominently hispid-glandular, a thing said to be very rare in R. Californica, and which, for my part, I have never yet observed. It appears to me that in R. spithamea the upper stipules and bracts are narrow as in R. Californica. This point, nevertheless, must be verified by more abundant material than I have at my disposal. In R. pisocarpa, R. blanda, and R. acicularis, the stock pro- duces more or less elongated subterranean shoots, which multiply the plants, and quickly transform a single individual into a colony which increases year after year. This very general mode of vegetative propagation among the CINNAMOME# appears in R. spithamea. Does it occur in R. Californica? We should be made sure of it. In his Flora Franciscana Mr. Greene describes R. spithamea as a distinct type, and, by the side of it, he establishes a new type under the name XR. Sonomensis, which seems to be a very nearly allied form. This new species is about a foot high, and is distinguished from R. spithame@a by its stipules with auricles truncate and not acuminate; its leaflets broadly oval or almost orbicular, truncate or slightly cordate at base, and not obovate or elliptical and attenuate at base; its inflorescence usually with more numerous flowers; its floriferous receptacles rounded- pyriform, and not ovoid; and its larger sepals. 26 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY Not yet having received authentic specimens of R. Sonomensis I can only judge of its value by its description. From a careful examination of the specimens of R. spithamea which have come to me, and among them those which have been obtained from Mr. Greene, I am inclined to think that R. Sonomensis is but a variety of Watson’s species. The future will show whether my supposition is correct or not. In my Prodromus I have spoken ofa rose to which I had once given the name R. Bridgesii, and which I have merged with R. Californica, That rose which I described, and of which I have seen new specimens from the herbaria of Asa Gray, DeCandolle, and the Jardin des Plantes of Paris, may well be specifically identical with R. spithamea. If its identity is recognized, the name X. Bridgesit will have to replace R. spithamea. X. spithamea is noted by Watson in northern California, in Trinity county, and in the middle of the state at New Alameda | and near San Luis Obispo. Mr. Greene notes it in Yuba county, and his R. Sonomensis in Sonoma county. To these localities should be added Fresno county, in the Sierra Nevada, where Engelmann obtained the species in a Sequoia forest. I have : a specimen obtained by Cuming, but without indication of — locality. species is exclusively Californian. Rosa ACICULARIS Lindl. The American R. acicularis has been long confused among the varieties of R. blanda. Borrer, in 18 33, in the first volume of : Hooker’s Flora Boreah- Americana, had been on the point of sepa- — rating it from R. b/anda. According to Watson, Schweinitz had — described this rose in 1825 under the name of R. Sayi. In 1876 Some specimens from San Luis Obispo, which I have seen in’ the herbarium of Asa Gray, often show numerous glandular- . tipped bristles in. the intervals between the pairs of paired — prickles. It should be remarked that these bristles also appear (but rarely) in R. Californica. There is reason to believe that R. spithamea will be discovered in other localities, Perhaps the Tie ep acy Coan SER Saale Oar eee ine te ee eet Seal emesis 5 a ei ER eT TN Ip * 1896] ROS4 AMERICAN 27 (Prodromus) 1 described R. acicularis Lindl. under its variety Bourgeauiana (R. Bourgeauiana Crép. at first). In his monograph, Watson described an arctic form under the name R&. acicudaris Lindl. taking up a second species under the name &. Sayz, to which he referred my variety Bourgeauiana. According to this author this second species extends less north- ward than the first. Under these two names are there really two distinct species? I do not think so. It appears to me almost incontestable that the differences used by Watson to separate his &. actcularis from R. Sayi are not constant, and hence without true value. In describing his R. acicularis of the arctic zone, he seems to try to bring together as near as possible the American form with the form of the old world in attributing to it leaves of five leaflets, elongated receptacles, leaflets mostly with simple teeth and not glandular beneath, and entire sepals. I have not seen specimens from Alaska, but I have received some obtained from Fort Simpson, along the Pelly River, in 63° lat., and in the upper part of the Liard River, in 60° 30’ lat. These specimens show leaves of five to seven leaflets, leaflets glandular beneath and with glan- dular-compound teeth, sepals all entire or the exterior ones provided with one or two lateral appendages, and fructiferous receptacles globular or elongated-ovoid. I have reason to sup- pose that the Alaskan form is not different from those to which I have just alluded. As for R. Sayi, to which Watson attrib- utes globular fructiferous receptacles and appendaged exterior sepals, it almost always occurs with entire sepals, and if the receptacles are often globular they are not very rarely oblong- ovoid. It is a variety of R. Sayi with elongated receptacles which has served Watson for the establishment of his R. Engelmanni.3 There is no doubt in my mind that under the names R. acicularis Lindl. sec. Wats., R. Sayi Schwein., and R. Engelmanni Wats. there exists only a single and unique type, 3Cf. Observations on Rosa Engelmanni Watson, in Bull. Soc. bot. Belg. 287: 93-95. 28 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY to which I gave the name, as above, of the American R. acicularis. It now remains to examine whether this ought to be merged specifically as a variety of R. acicularis of the Old World. As early as 1876 I expressed doubts as to the complete specific identity of these two roses. Today I am not disinclined to separate them from each other, and to consider them as two dis- tinct species, although very closely related. The characters : which separate them seem important and constant enough to jus- tify their separation. Thus, the American R. acicularis has the average leaves of the floriferous branchlets normally of seven leaf- lets rather than five; its leaflets almost always, if not always, glandu- lar beneath, with teeth glandular, apparently simple or glandular- compound ; while in R. acicularis of the Old World the leaves have five leaflets, which are always eglandular beneath and with simple teeth. Besides, in the American rose the auricles of the upper stipules are not so long and of a little different form, the inflorescences are less rarely pluriflorous, and the receptacles are habitually less elongated. It is probable that a more searching study will reveal other distinctive characters. Whether this is the case, is a problem which ought to exer- cise the sagacity of rhodologists. If the distinction proposed is confirmed, the name R. acicularis Lindl. should be retained — for'the Old World plant, and the American R. acicularis should take the name R. Sayi, provided the description of Schweinitz applies, as Watson thought, to the rose in question. . _ Another question to consider is the distinction between the American 2. acicularis and R. blanda and R. Arkansana. There are certainly some essential differences between the first and the other two, but these differences sometimes are not such as to make confusion impossible, especially when R&. d/anda and RX. Arkansana become very setigerous. In the American R. acicu- aris all the axes, from the stem to the floriferous branchlets, are covered with abundant setaceous prickles or bristles. In R. blanda it is habitually only the lower part of the stem which is setigerous, the branches and the floriferous branchlets being Se isa ee eae le SSNS mk 1896 | ROSE AMERICANLE 29 unarmed. In this case it is easy to distinguish the two species ; but if A. dlanda increases its armature by extending it to the middle regions of the bush, and even to certain floriferous branchlets ; or one finds &. Arkansana with axes completely seti- gerous, then recourse must be had to other characters. Those taken from the leaves are most practical. The leaves of X. acicularis are oval, rounded at base, almost always glandular beneath, with open teeth, margins glandular-denticulate or pro- vided with glands; while those of R. dlanda and KR. Arkansana are oboval, relatively narrower, quite strongly attenuate or cune- ate at base, very rarely glandular beneath, with teeth almost always perfectly simple and directed towards the apex. The form of the stipules is a little different in R. acicularis. The inflorescences are much more frequently one-flowered in &. act- cularis than in R. blanda and R. Arkansana. The statistics that I have obtained show that the one-flowered inflorescences are to the many-flowered inflorescences as 3.4 to I in R. acicularis; while in &. dlanda they are as I to 1.4, and in R. Arkansana as 1 to 1.6. Lastly, the fructiferous pedicels of R. actcularis are more slender, less rigid, and often have a tendency to become incurved, instead of remaining straight. As to its geographical range the American &. acicularis occu- pies a very considerable area. In latitude it extends from the neighborhood of the polar circle to 38° in the Rocky mountains of Colorado. In longitude it embraces almost all of the conti- nent within the Dominion. To the south it has been observed in Michigan, Wisconsin on the borders of Lake Michigan, and in Minnesota on the borders of Lake Superior. I have received specimens obtained by Messrs. Greene and Kelsey from Helena, Montana, and by Mr. Coulter from the Teton region in Idaho. It is likely that it exists here and there in the Rocky mountains from the borders of Canada to Colorado, where it does not appear to be very rare. As yet there is no indication of it in Oregon and Washington, or in Vancouver Island. In the Old World R. acicularis extends perhaps farther north, but it extends less towards the south than in America. 30 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY ROSA GYMNOCARPA Nutt. R. gymnocarpa Nutt. presents an appearance and distinctive characters which never permit it to be confused with any other American species. Its stem, branches, and floriferous branchlets are habitually clothed with scattered prickles which are very slender, setaceous and very numerous ; only in rare cases are the branches and branchlets entirely unarmed. In vigorous and slender bushes, at the extremity of the axes the prickles become more sparse and beneath some leaves appear more or less regu- larly paired; but that is a simple accident which may happen in the other CINNAMOME with normally scattered prickles. Its leaflets are remarkably thin, with teeth richly glandular- compound, the lower surface glabrous and the midrib with quite large glands, which very rarely extend to some of the lateral veins. As to their form and dimensions, the leaflets are very variable ; they are very small or quite large, elliptical, oval- elliptical, oval, or oval-suborbicular ; the base is often rounded, and quite rarely attenuate. Watson has described, under the name of variety pudescens, some specimens obtained in the Sierra Nevada by Asa Gray, and in Silver mountains by Brewer. It is really that form with finely pubescent leaves. Does it appear specifically distinct from RK. gymnocarpa? Not having seen it I am not able to express a competent opinion upon it, as upon another form observed by Watson in Montana with corolla two inches if diameter instead of very small. In &. gymnocarpa the inflorescences are habitually one-flow- ered, rarely many-flowered. The corolla is remarkably small, its diameter not exceeding 20™. The very slender pedicels are often glandular-hispid, more rarely smooth. As yet I have always seen the receptacles smooth, but they may be expected to be sometimes glandular-hispid. The fruc- tiferous ones are generally very small, habitually ovoid, rarely globular, and produce a very small number of akenes. This species presents a character peculiar to it, at least in America. The receptacles, before complete maturity, are cut off POC ee ae ee ee en 1896 | ROSAE AMERICANA 31 by an articulation towards the summit, permitting the calyx to detach itself in one piece, leaving the receptacular cavity open. This singular articulation, which is constant, also occurs in two Asiatic species of the same section of CinnAMOME, R. Beggeri- ana Schrenk and R. Alberti Regel. Watson includes in the geographical range of R. gymnocarpa British Columbia, Washington and Oregon, and all of California to the latitude of Monterey. He expresses doubt as to the exist- ence of the species as far south as San Diego. Lastly, he also includes in the range northern Idaho and northwestern Montana. With the exception of Montana I have received numerous speci- mens representing the different regions cited by Watson. The northernmost station from which I have received specimens is situated in 55° lat. These were obtained by Mr. Meehan, I should add, in passing, that I can confirm the exactness of the mention by Mr. Holzinger (doc. cit.) concerning northern Idaho. According to the facts thus far recorded the distribution of R. s&ymnocarpa appears to be occidental, and does not extend very much towards the east. As can be seen from the above remarks, there remain many researches to be made and points to be established before arriv- ing at a complete acquaintance with the genus Rosa of western North America. When it is known how much research the roses of the Alps have demanded, it should be expected that the immense extent of the Sierras and Rocky mountains would in their turn demand an equal amount of investigation. It is reasonable to suppose that these American regions have not yet disclosed all their rhodological riches ; and that there will be discovered there unpublished types. Perhaps many such are already in herbaria, but confused as varieties of species already known. Among the readers of the above paper who desire to coop- erate in the work to which I urge American botanists perhaps there may be found those who shrink from the task of extracting from my notes anything essential or practical for the distinction 32 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY of species. For their benefit I have prepared an analytical key or dichotomous table. In it I will not include species of the sec- tion CAROLINA, or R. setigera Michx., which belongs to the sec- tion SynstyL&. I will confine myself to the CINNAMOMEA, includ- ing with them RX. minutifolia Engelm., from Lower California, which constitutes by itself the monotypic section MINUTIFOLIA. ANALYTICAL Key TO THE RosES OF THE WESTERN STATES. 1 Inflorescences always one-flowered, without bracts ; exterior sepals appendiculate from the base, with the appendages incised or denticulate; leaflets incised ; oo with long silky pubescence - . - - R. minutifolia Engelm Inflorescences one or many-flowered; pedicels with one or more bracts; exterior sepals entire or with one or two small entire and erect appendages at the summit; leaflets toothed ; receptacles smooth or clothed with pedicellate glands ‘ 2 Flowering branchlets more or less ussite with scattered seta- ceous prickles - - - Flowering branchlets unarmed - + z ‘ - 7 Flowering branchlets with pices es ego. under the eaves - 3 Corolla very small (15 to 20™ in diameter); calyx detaching : itself in a single piece during ripening, leaving the receptacles open at summit; akenes not very numerous; leaflets thin, glabrous, with glandular compound teeth - A. gymnocarpa Nutt. Corolla usually much exceeding 20™ jin diameter; sepals erect upon the fructiferous and persistent receptacles - ~~ 4 Inflorescences ordinarily one- -flowered; leaflets oval, broadly rounded at base, with glandular Srksoundl teeth R. acicularis Lindl. Inflorescences usually many-flowered ; leaflets often more or less attenuate at base, with teeth usually simple - : : 5 Corolla rather small (about a0" ih diameter); leaflets oval- paksee — oes outside ; oo and bracts strongly den- ticulat < : R. gratissima Greene Corolla rather large ; leaflets obovate, ei! narrowed or cuneate at base ; bracts usually entire : ee eee ee ee ee STN AT CMe Ee se ee eee 1896] ROS AMERICANA. 33 6 Annual stems often transformed into false flower-bearing branch- lets with leaves 9 to 11-foliate, or normal flowering branchlets densely setigerous - - R. Arkansana Porter Annual stems not transformed into false ath ae branchlets ; normal flowering branchlets with prickles more or less rare R. blanda Ait. 7 Corolla very small (15 to 20™™ in diameter) ; calyx detaching itself in a single piece yop: ba ote: the receptacle open at summit RR. gymnocarpa Nutt. Corolla more than 20™™ in diameter; sepals erect upon the fruc- tiferous and persistent receptacles - - - 8 8 Upper stipules and bracts narrow; sepals usually silky outside, R. Californica Cham. & Schlecht. Upper stipules and bracts more or less large; sepals not silky 9 9 Upper stipules and bracts much dilated ; inflorescences often one- flowered ; corolla usually large; fructiferous receptacles large, remaining quite dry at maturity, with large akenes; leaflets often glandular beneath and with glandular compound teeth R. Nutkana Pres] Upper stipules and bracts moderately dilated ; inflorescences often 'many-flowered ; corolla quite small or middle-sized ; fructifer- ous receptacles small or middle-sized; leaflets usually without glands beneath, and with simple teeth - - - 10 10 Leaflets oval, more or less rounded at base, with open teeth ; fruc- tiferous receptacles often small ; corolla quite small R. pisocarpa A. Gray Leaflets obovate, narrowed or cuneate at base, with teeth, directed toward the apex; fructiferous ee ee or middle- sized ; corolla quite large - R. blanda Ait 11 Paired prickles with tips more or less curved or hooked ; upper stipules and bracts narrow; receptacles nearly always smooth, R. Californica Cham, & Schlecht. Paired prickles straight ; upper stipules and bracts more or less dilated, rarely narrow - - - - Te: 12 Bushes very small, a few inches in height and not surpassing a foot ; upper stipules and bracts narrow; corolla very small, not exceeding 20™" in diameter; uae often glandular- wap R. spithamea Wats. 34 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY Bushes not very small; upper stipules and bracts more or less dilated ; receptacles rarely glandular-hispid - 13 13 Paired cauline prickles stout, more or less triangular, with straight tips; upper stipules and bracts much dilated ; leaflets often with glandular compound teeth; inflorescences often one- flowered ; corolla usually very large; fructiferous receptacles large and with large akenes, rarely glandular-hispi R. Nutkana Presl Paired cauline prickles not stout, slender or quite slender; upper stipules and bracts moderately dilated; leaflets usually with simple teeth; inflorescences usually many-flowered ; corolla middle-sized or small; fructiferous receptacles small or quite ; small - - - - - - - pagans aes 14 Stipules and bracts quite deeply denticulate ; foliar teeth directed towards apex ; sepals more or less silky outside R. gratissima Greene Stipules and bracts entire; foliar teeth quite open; sepals not @ silky - - - - - R. pisocarpa A. Gray BRUSSELS, BELGIUM, ie ee enone at ra ee bea Spd ctl be cae ead CaN Rel ae cee ae (eee = Ste Pome ie pee BP. Mikal tas ase eae on ee ee Sassi Pies 8 eso awe acta ee pe mec ot EL SRS Reg : Be avaerb : Sait SAIN hora Sa eenee Cee adap Re ne aeaana ae THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CYSTOCARP OF GRIF- FITHSIA BORNETIANA. ARMA ANNA SMITH. (WITH PLATES I AND II) THE fruiting portion of Griffithsia was described in 1861 by Nageli,* who, however, excluded from the genus several of Agardh’s species, among them G. corallina, which he included under the genus Heterosphondylium. The fruiting branch of this genus he described as consisting of a basal joint, bearing a whorl of enveloping branches, a short terminal cell, and one or two intermediate joints, bearing two, or rarely three, trichophores and the favelle, besides ‘‘a characteristic rounded, flattened cell.” Bornet and Thuret? in 1867 confirmed Nageli’s observations in regard to the two trichophores borne by the intermediate cell in this species. Janczewski3 in 1877 published a detailed account of the development of the cystocarp in the same species, of which a brief summary is here given. The mother cell of the procarp divides by two horizontal walls into three cells, of which the upper undergoes no further development, while the intermediate cell cuts off an anterior cell, which is functionless, and after- wards produces two lateral cells, each of which divides at once into two cells, one small and appendicular (probably Nageli’s “characteristic” cell). The other, which is larger, divides into a “carpogenic cell,” which touches the anterior cell, and a mother ‘Beitrage zur Morphologie und Systematik der Ceramiacez ; Sitz. d. kénigl. bayr. Akad. d. Wiss. 2: 391-397. 1861, *Recherches sur la fécondation des Floridées; Ann. d. Sci. Nat. Bot. V. 7: 147. 1867, ‘Notes sur le développement du cystocarpe dans les Floridées; Mem. de la Soc. 1877. nat. d. Sci. nat, de Cherbourg 20: 109. 1896 ] 36 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY cell of the trichophoric apparatus, which is turned towards the — neighboring vegetative cell. The trichophoric apparatus consists — of four cells with a trichogyne. After fertilization, all the cells of the procarp gradually die except the carpogenic cell, which increases in size and divides into two cells, of which the upper represents a placenta, giving rise to the lobes of the favella, each consisting of several spores. Only one trichogyne has been — found fertilized in a single procarp. : Dr. Farlow,‘ in The Marine Alga of New England, published — in 1882, says of G. Bornetiana Farlow: “In the structure of — the procarp this species differs considerably from G. corallina as — described by Janczewski. There is only one trichogyne instead — of two, as in the last named species. The procarp begins by the = growth of a hemispherical cell at the upper part of an articula- tion. The cell is then divided into two parts by a partition parallel to the base. It is from the lower cell thus formed that : the involucre is formed, and from the upper arise the carpogenic a | cells in the following way: By usually four oblique partitions ~ there are formed four external hemispherical cells and a central — pyramidal cell with a broad base. By subsequent division of one a of the hemispherical cells, generally of the one lying nearest the — axis of the plant, there is cut off a cell which divides into three | smaller granular cells, the upper of which grows into a tricho- | gyne. The spores are formed by the subsequent growth of the 7 other three hemispherical cells.” : As a more detailed account of the development of the cysto- — carp in this species seemed desirable, the present study was undertaken, the special aim being to learn the method by which — the spores arise and the means of transmitting the fertilizing — influence from the carpogonium to the cell or cells giving rise to” the spores. In the course of the study several interesting resem- — blances between this species and G. corallina were observed, — which have not been published. The work was carried on under the supervision of Professot — Geo. F. Atkinson, to whose assistance in tracing genetic con- — ‘Report U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries for 1879. Washington, 1882. eee ee SS ee ee ee . | 1896] CYSTOCARP OF GRIFFITHSIA 37 nections is largely due whatever of value the paper may contain. The material used in these investigations had been fixed and preserved in a 2 per cent. solution of formalin in sea water. When needed for study, it was stained for an hour inal per cent aqueous solution of acid fuchsin, then washed in fresh water, which was gradually replaced by glycerin, used as the mounting medium. In such preparations it was usually possible to detect the strand of protoplasm passing from a cell to its daughter cell, even though the two were somewhat separated. In some cases, when the connection had been completely broken by accident after mounting, the origin of a cell could be deter- mined by the corresponding portions still projecting from it and from its mother cell. All the important conclusions given in this paper, however, are based upon connections still intact. The thallus’ is normally branched dichotomously, and the fruiting branch forms one arm of a dichotomy, arising from the apex of a joint in the upper portion of the shoot. As the cor- responding vegetative joint soon exceeds it in size and gives off at its apex, in turn, a fruiting and a vegetative branch, the latter often continuing the process, a series of apparently lateral cysto- carps is thus formed. No uniformity in the relative positions of vegetative and fruiting branches was observed, the cystocarp being in some cases on opposite sides of the corresponding vege- tative cell in succeeding joints, sometimes on the same side. After one fruiting branch has arisen, one usually occurs at each succeeding joint, but two or three sterile joints were some- times found intervening, without branching. No case was observed in which, after the production of a fruiting branch, further branching resulted in only vegetative joints. Although the normal branching is dichotomous, cases of trichotomy were observed several times, either three sterile joints arising from the apex of one joint, or a fruiting branch accom- panied by two sterile branches. Judging from the preparations studied, the mother cell of the fruiting branch is cut off before the corresponding vegetative 38 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yJuLy cell, but the latter appears before the first division in the former, a two-celled fruiting branch being accompanied by a correspond- ing vegetative one. When, in rare cases, an older fruiting branch was found alone and apparently terminal, as in fig. 3, it was not always possible to determine whether it was an abnormal state, or whether the sterile cell had been severed by accident. : The mother cell of the fruiting branch is hemispherical, and — is richer in protoplasm than the joint from which it arises. It is soon divided by a wall parallel to its base into a flattened, more or less irregular, hemispherical upper cell and a lower irregularly oblong cell. A cell is now cut off from the upper cell by a wall oblique to the axis of the branch; as is seen in jig. 3. When viewed in some positions this wall appears parallel to the first, as is shown _ in fig. 4. Careful focusing in this case, however, showed that — the third cell lies partially under its mother cell and is separated : | from it by an oblique wall. This may be the terminal cell of Nageli and Janczewski. It lies in this particular case, however, on the side of the branch towards the vegetative cell, while Janczewski, judging from his figures, though he does not explain his view point, terms cells in this position lateral, and these, according to him, arise after the terminal and the anterior cells a in G. corallina., a Spalding $ calls attention to the “ irregularity in both the num- ber and position of peripheral cells in G. Bornetiana.’’ The — present study has confirmed his conclusion, and hence has made the use of such terms as lateral and anterior appear of doubtful Propriety in this species, at least. 7 . Fig. 5 represents the same stage as fig. 4, but with the vegetative cell at one side. Here the first two peripheral cells are plainly “lateral” according to Janczewski’s use of the term, but this was not the case in all the preparations studied. Before the appearance of a third peripheral cell, one of the , two first cut off usually divides into two cells, of which the — 5 Development of the sporocarp of Griffithsia Bornetiana. Abstract; Proc. A. A. A. S. 39: 327. 1890. Se eT eee TN ee Te Se Bia: ha ee See ee pee eee a! RI ree Re en ney Th eee 1896] CYSTOCARP OF GRIFFITHSIA 39 upper is the smaller (fig. 6). A third peripheral cell is now cut off, after which a second peripheral cell frequently divides into two cells, making at this time two two-celled branches and one of one cell arising from the centralcell. The term central cell in this paper, as in the one quoted,’ refers to the second cell of the fruiting branch, from which the peripheral cells are cut off, not to the cell giving rise to the spores, to which the term has been applied by Schmitz? and Hauptfleisch,® but which is here designated as the placental cell, a name used in this sense by Janczewski. This seems to be the normal order, although cases were frequently observed in which only one of the branches consisted of two cells, while in some cases no “appendicular”’ cell was found in the entire branch. Dr. Farlow does not refer to this division of part of the peripheral cells, and whether it is not a constant feature in this species, as Janczewski holds it to be in G. corallina, or whether the appendicular cell, being spe- cially liable to be severed in manipulation, is thus frequently lost sight of, is not easily determined. The fourth peripheral cell, to which both Farlow and Janc- zewski refer, was in no case observed in the earlier stages, and its presence was not demonstrated in later ones. This coincides with Spalding’s conclusion in regard to the variability in the number of these cells. The peripheral cells usually present a flattened hemispher- ical form in optical section, with beak-like projections of proto- plasm where they join the mother cell. When lying over the mother cell, the outline is broadly elliptical. They remain smaller than the central cell, which can readily be distinguished until nearly the last stages of the developmental process by its size and its tetrahedral form, produced by the oblique walls 6 Farlow, l. c. 7 Untersuchungen iiber die Befruchtung der Florideen ; Sitzb. d. konig. pr. Akad. d. Wiss., Berlin,—: 215. 1883. English translation of same by W. S. Dallas; Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. 13:1. 1884. ® Die Fruchtentwickelung der Gattungen Chylocladia, Champia, und Lomentaria; Flora 75: 307. 1892. 40 BOTANICAL GAZETTE - [juny meeting at the apex. The change in its contents by which it is also made conspicuous in the later stages will be described later. One of the peripheral cells first produced, which has already cut off an upper sterile cell, now grows rich in protoplasm and becomes the supporting cell of the carpogenic branch, cutting off the basal cell at one side, but apparently not always on the same side, as may be seen by comparing figs. § and g. In fig. § two of the peripheral cells have cut off each a sterile cell. The third peripheral cell has been severed from its mother cell, but the point of former contact may still be distinguished on each cell. In fig. 9 the mother cell of the carpogenic branch has divided into two cells, which are still in very close connec- tion. Here the supporting cell of the carpogenic branch is the only one with an ‘“‘appendicular” cell, and as neither of the others shows indications that one has been broken off, it is prob- able that no other has been produced. In none of the mature carpogenic branches observed were — fewer than four cells found. The branch is curved so as to form almost a right angle at the second cell (figs. ro-13). The. terminal cell, the carpogonium, is smaller than the others, nearly triangular in outline, and prolonged into a trichogyne from the pointed apex. The trichogyne is an elongated slender structure, as long as the remainder of the fruiting branch, and is straight or only slightly curved, lying in a direction parallel with the axis of the branch. Its diameter is slightly greater at the apex than in the portion adjoining the carpogonium. Its contents do not take a fuchsin stain, but a decidedly granular appearance is observ- able. In fig. 11 a peculiar development is shown, and a somewhat similar, though not quite identical, appearance was observed in another case. The supporting cell of the carpogenic branch has given rise, not to a single sterile cell, but to a branched cellular filament. The carpogonium is slightly larger than usual, and no trace of a trichogyne is seen. It seems probable that in 1896 | : CYSTOCARP OF GRIFFITHSIA 41 default of fertilization the disappearance of the trichogyne has been followed by vegetative growth in the carpogenic branch and by the production of extra vegetative cells elsewhere. Here, too, there seem to be four peripheral cells, though the relations of the two cells lying below the central cell were not positively determined. The process of fertilization and its immediate effects were not observed, lack of suitable material making a nuclear study impossible. In fig. z2 a pollinoid is shown in contact with a trichogyne, which is enlarged at the point of attachment, but how far fusion takes place was not ascertained. After fertilization, the trichogyne gradually withers and soon disappears, the basal portion remaining for a time attached to the carpogonium. The latter loses its contents, assumes an irregular form, and becomes disorganized. The adjacent cell at the same time apparently increases in size, but it also soon loses its contents, and in some cases appears to become disorganized, while the two lower cells take a deeper stain than before. Whether the intervening walls are absorbed or a transfer of pro- toplasm takes place through the enlarged pit connections was not determined, but it is evident that with the disorganization of the upper portion of the carpogenic branch, the supporting cell and the central cell grow rich in contents, the latter especially at this time taking a very deep stain with fuchsin. The carpo- gonium does not persist long after fertilization, either individually or as a part of a large fusion cell. Schmitz (1. c.) includes Griffithsia among the genera in which conjugation probably takes place between the carpogonium and the supporting cell, which thus becomes the auxiliary cell. He does not state, however, that he has observed the process in any species of the genus. The two cells do not always lie sufficiently near together at the time of fertilization to allow direct conjuga- tion, and no evidence was seen either of change of position or of the growth of ooblastema threads. In no case was any indication of spore production seen until after a gradual loss of contents in the upper cells of the car- 42 BOTANICAL GAZETTE - [rom pogenic branch, which seemed to be followed by changes in the appearance in the lower ones, both following upon fertiliza- tion. At this stage the supporting cell, now rich in _proto- plasm, increases in size and cuts off a cell, which, in turn, becomes larger, though without taking a deeper stain, and becomes the placental cell. From all sides of this cell, cells arise which are distinguishable at once by their large nuclei, and it is by their subsequent division that the lobes of spores arise, each cell thus cut off from the placental cell developing into one lobe. Each cell cuts off small cells from the sides and end, and soon assumes a cuneate form, the individual segments having a similar or a clavate form. Each lobe consists for a time of a compact mass of cells, but as the cells separate and become rounded off as spores, it develops into a branched tuft made up of loosely con- nected chains of ovoid or elliptical spores, developed in basipetal succession, each with a large nucleus. The process, however, is apparently not strictly uniform in all cases, as may be seen by comparing figs. 75-19. The lobes arise successively, and thus different stages of spore formation may be seen in a singie prep- aration (figs. 15-19). According to Harvey? each lobe con- stitutes a favella, and thus several favelle are contained withina | single involucre, while Farlow regards the lobe collectively as 4 constituting one favella. : The favelle, as well as the vegetative cells of the thallus, are — surrounded by gelatinous membrane, which has been omitted in the figures for the sake of clearness. Around the vegetative — cells it is so swollen by the glycerin as to be very evident, but it often remains in such close contact with the lobes of spores — as to be detected with difficulty. Directly after fertilization, as the central cell begins to take a deep stain, the growth of the involucral branches begins. The basal cell of the fruiting branch cuts off cells, which remain small and oblong, but from each of which another ‘cell is cut off, § 9 Nereis Boreali-Americana 2:227. 1853. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl- edge No. 5. oS ag I i a a a a i at 1896 | CYSTOCARP OF GRIFFITHSIA 43 which grows rapidly, assumes at first an obovate, later an elliptical form, slightly reniform, and a length greater than that of the cystocarp. The cells form thin, translucent, expanded plates, and although they completely envelop the favellz, the cells within may be studied, the details, however, being greatly obscured by them. Seven of these involucral branches were counted in one case, but the number varies. Nageli and Janczewski call attention to the bicellular character of these branches in G. corallina, which, the former states, had been overlooked by systematists, and to which the present writer has found no reference in published descriptions of G. Bornetiana. Although the later stages in the development of the cysto- carp are made out with difficulty, the placental cell can be seen to stretch out and become irregular in form, and it seems highly probable, though not quite certain, that fusion takes place between it, the supporting cell, and the central cell, forming one large placenta, the lobes arising from the portion corresponding to the original placental cell. Fig. 79 is drawn to the same scale as the others, and thus shows not only the great irregularity in the form of this fusion cell, but also the great increase in size over any cell previously met with in the cystocarp. It is diffi- cult to determine the exact nature of the large cells joined to it, but they seem to be sterile cells unconnected with the Sporogenous cells, which for some reason have taken on this increase in size. No evidence was found that the peripheral cells other than the supporting cell of the carpogenic branch have a part in spore production. They gradually become inconspicuous after fertili- zation, and finally disappear with the carpogenic branch and the Sterile cell given off from the supporting cell, unless the branch referred to in the preceding paragraph and represented in fg. 79 is made up of such cells which have taken on vegetative growth. It is easier to conceive the influence of fertilization as transmitted to the supporting cell through the cells of the car- pogenic branch than to the other two or three peripheral cells, 44 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY either through the central cell or by separate conjugation with the carpogonium, The development of the cystocarp in this species thus rr bles very closely that of G. corallina as described by Janczewskt, with the single exception of the one carpogenic branch instead of two. He does not speak, either, of the fusion forming L. a. large central cell, though one of his figures (7) suggests that it + may take place. : The process has its more or less perfect analogy in related 4 genera also. In Ceramium decurrens, according to Janczewski, the supporting cell, which, after cutting off a sterile cell, gi rise to two trichophores, becomes the “ carpogenic cell,” cutting off an upper placental cell after fertilization. Schmitz concludes that here conjugation probably takes place between the carpogo- nium and the Supporting cell, but does not claim to have observed it. Janczewski represents the two cells as lying adjacent, and ae this fusion would be more easily accomplished than in Gyriffithsia Bornetiana, where they are not always close together, though they are in some cases, as is seen in fig. ro. 2 sterile branches, becomes the auxiliary cell, cutting off, after fertilization, an upper sporogenous cell. In these cases the carpogenic branch is the process. According to Phillj the sporogenous cell, the auxiliary cell, and its sterile branches in P. nigrescens and P. Jastigiata, while in P. violacea, as appat- ently in Griffthsia Bornetiana, the central cell is included in the fusion. Ps, fusion takes place between *° On the development of the cystocarp in the Rhodomelaceze, Ann. Bot. 9: 289 1895. 1896 | CYSTOCARP OF GRIFFITHSIA 45 In connection with this study the question naturally arises as to the proper limitations in the use of the term “auxiliary cell.” Schmitz applies it to cells performing slightly different func- tions. 1. To acell of the thallus or of the carpogenic branch which grows rich in protoplasm and then gives up its contents to an ooblastema thread, thus supplying it with the extra nutriment necessary for the production of spores, as in Naccaria and Petro- ces. 2. Toacell which enters into conjugation with the ferti- lized carpogonium or with a filament arising from it, and which after thus receiving the influence of fertilization, itself cuts off a cell from which the sporogenous filaments arise, as observed by him in Gleosiphonia. It is in this sense that he applies the term to the supporting cell in Griffithsia, assuming that conjugation takes place between it and the carpogonium, either directly or by means of a short conjugation process. Mr. Davis,’ in his description of Champia parvula, applies the term to ordinary thallus cells, which, so far as he has observed, do not fuse with any of the cells directly concerned with the development of the cystocarp, but which give rise to the wall of the cystocarp, after a modification of their contents and union with one another and with the supporting cell by means of protoplasmic processes. It seems very doubtful if such a use of the term is in accordance with Schmitz’s application of it. It would seem much less ques- tionable to apply it in Griffithsia to the supporting cell, which gives rise to the placental cell, even though the influence of fer- tilization is transmitted through the cells of the carpogenic branch by a broadening of pit connections or the absorption of walls instead of by means of conjugation between the carpogo- nium and the supporting cell. Janczewski following Bornet and Thuret applies the term carpogenic cell to the cell which gives rise to the spores, whether it be the carpogonium, which these writers regard as a part of the “trichophoric apparatus,” or some other cell which performs the function of spore production. Later writers limit the application of carpogenic cell to the cell directly beneath the trichogyne, whatever its fate after fertiliza- ** Development of the cystocarp of Champia parvula, Bor. Gaz. 21: 109. 1896. 46 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY tion, and there seems to be at present no general term agreed upon for the spore producing cell. The study of the exact proc- ess of fertilization and its effects in a greater number of species is necessary before the question of homologies, and hence of terminology, can be definitely settled. Besides the greater complexity and the presence of the enveloping cells, which render it more difficult to trace the later stages of the development of the cystocarp in Griffithsta Borne- tiana, the obscurity is increased by the presence in large num- bers of dichotomously branched hairs, which sometimes nearly cover the cystocarp. Dr. Farlow calls attention to these hairs arising from the upper border of the thallus cells. In the pres- ent study they were never found elsewhere than at the upper portion of a joint, and, with one exception, never on other joints than those bearing cystocarps. In that case it seemed possible that a cystocarp had been broken off, though that could not be demonstrated. Although a cystocarp sometimes occurs without these hairs their presence was found to be so nearly constant as to suggest a possible connection between the two, either mor- phological or physiological. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. EXPLANATION OF PLATES I AND II: All the figures were drawn with the aid of the camera lucida from material stained with acid fuchsin and mounted in glycerine. j. Joint from which the fertile branch has arisen. 4. Basal cell of fruiting branch, c.c. Central cell. #. Peripheral cell. s¢. Sterile cell cut off from peripheral cell. s. Peripheral cell functioning as supporting cell of carpe genic branch. c.Carpogonium. 7. Tiichogyne. £/. Placental cell. /. Spo- rogenous lobe. sf. Spore. 6.72. Basal cell of involucre filament. 2. Ter- minal cell of involucre filament. v. Neighboring vegetative cell. Fic. 1. One-celled fruiting branch, somewhat separated from main joint, but connécted by a stout strand of protoplasm. Fic. 2. A two-celled branch. F1G. 3. The first peripheral cell has been cut off from the central cell by an oblique wall. The vegetative cell has not developed or has been severed. Fic. 4. The four-celled branch lies over the vegetative cell. One periph- eral cell lies partially beneath, the other above the central cell. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX1/1. PLATE /, SMITH on GRIFFITHSIA. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX/I. PLATE ih ee heel ‘ AAS-4e, SMITH on GRIFFITHSIA, 1896 | CYSTOCARP OF GRIFFITHSIA 47 Fic. 5. A different view of a stage similar to that represented in fig. 4. Fig. 6. The branch lies under the vegetative cell. One of the peripheral cells has cut off a sterile cell. Fic. 7. The third peripheral cell has been cut off from the central cell. Fic. 8. Two peripheral cells have divided, and the supporting cell has produced the basal cell of the said se branch seb a c.). One peripheral cell has been severed from its mother c G. 9. The carpogenic aie now consists of two cells. The second so pe cell has no appendicular cell. G. 10. The entire fruiting branch lies above the corresponding vege- tative aia; The carpogenic branch has reached maturity, and the carpo- gonium is prolonged into the trichogyne. Fic. 11, An abnormal vegetative development from the supporting cell. Fic. 12. A pollinoid (f.) is attached to the trichogyne. Penultimate cell of the ae yee branch large and lying partially beneath the second cell. 13. The trichogyne has disappeared, and the carpogonium and Peis cell have lost their contents and shrunken. The second cell of the carpogenic branch, as well as the basal cell, is rich in protoplasm. Fic. 14, The supporting cell and the central cell have abundant proto- plasm. The former has cut off the placental cell. The meaning of + is uncertain, its connection with any other ceil not being clearly made out. The involucral filaments have begun to develop. Fic. 15. The entire branch has increased in size. The carpogenic branch has become disorganized, the basal cell remaining attached to the supporting cell. Several lobes are arising from the placental cell, and are seen in differ- ent stages. Involucral threads omitted to avoid confusion. FiG. 16. A similar or slightly later stage than fig.1§. Involucral threads again omitted. Fic. 17, The young cystocarp inclosed in the involucre. Three of the Sides 48 fully grown; one is still small. Fic, 18, A slightly later stage with involucre omitted. FiG. 19. A still later stage. Fusion has apparently taken place between the placental cell, supporting cell, and central cell, and lobes are arising from the large fusion cell (7). Some of the spores are mature, and their connec- tions have been broken. Most of the sterile cells have disappeared, while Some seem to have developed abnormally. NEW MOSSES OF NORTH AMERICA. VI. How EN AULD AND. J. CAR DOT, (WITH PLATES III—V) GYMNOSTOMUM CALCAREUM N. et H. var. Winonense Holzinger — in litt-—Differs from the var. tenellum Sch. by the leaves acute and the capsule not constricted at the mouth. Very small and loosely cespitose or gregarious. Minnesota: Winona, amongst the stems of Myurella Carey- ana (J. M. Holzinger, 1893). Dicranum Demetrii.—In very compact, yellowish-green tufts, brownish and a little tomentose below. Stems erect, simple or sparingly branching, three to four inches long. Leaves crowded, — erecto-patent when moist, Crispate when dry, from an oblong- obovate base rather suddenly constricted and linear-subulate, — canaliculate, smooth, quite entire or subsinuate at apex, 3-0o long, 0.30-0.60"" broad at base; costa narrow, percurrent oF — subexcurrent; cells smooth, small, quadrate or short rectangular and incrassate in the upper part, becoming narrowly linear and — slightly porose toward the base near the costa, the alar looser, 4 subrectangular. Perichetial leaves from an oblong sheathing base suddenly long cuspidate. Fruit unknown, Seems dicecious. Labrador: Rattler’s Bight (Rev. A. C. Waghorne, 1892: comm. Rev. C. H. Demetrio). Specimens bearing young fructi fications and remains of old pedicels. Seems to have some affinities with D. elongatum Schw., but is readily distinguished at first sight from this species by its leaves crisped in dry state, which gives it rather the appearance of D. montanum Hedw., and also by the very different areolation of the leaves. : Dicranum trachyphyllum.— Dicecious. Cespitose, green OF olivaceous. Stems erect; 2-6 long, simple or ba 48 ; 1896 | NEW MOSSES OF NORTH AMERICA 49 sparingly tomentose in the lower part. Leaves falcate or flex- uous-patent when moist, flexuous-crisped when dry, often tufted, linear-lanceolate, canaliculate above and rather thickly subulate, strongly serrate on the margins, spinulose-dentate at apex; costa stout, about one-fourth the width of leaf-base, generally very rough at back, percurrent or short-excurrent into a spinulose-den- tate point; cells of the upper part quadrate or subrotundate, mostly papillose on the back, oblong or linear and smooth toward the base, the alar lax, inflated, brownish or hyaline. Perichetial leaves from an oblong sheathing base constricted into a long rough subula; costa narrower. Pedicel pale, at last twisted to the left above when dry. Capsule and peristome as in D. Suscescens. Newfoundland: Leading Pickles and Hermitage Bay (Rev. A. C. Waghorne, 1893 and 1895). Closely allied to D. fuscescens Turn., to which it might be sub- ordinated as a subspecies, but nevertheless easily distinguished by the leaves more strongly serrate, very rough on the back, less narrowly subulate and the nerve thicker and broader. DicRANUM FUSCESCENS Turn. var. Eatoni Ren. et Card. in Badd. de Vherb. Boissier 4:15. (Musci Am. Sept. Exsicc. no. 206).—A striking form, approaching var. flexicaule BS., but forming dense deep tufts; stems erect, not flexuose, reaching 20™ high ; leaves shorter; lower cells less elongated and with thinner walls, New Hampshire: Mt. Washington (D. C. Eaton, 1894). Sterile specimens only. We received this very interesting variety from the lamented D. C. Eaton some weeks before his death. Dicranum subfulvum.— Loosely cespitose, dark green, filled with earth below. Stems erect, 1-2™ high, simple or sparingly branched, little radiculose. Leaves erecto- -patent, flexuous, Crisped when dry, narrowly lanceolate, acuminate-subulate, sub- ula canaliculate, subentire or minutely denticulate at apex; costa Strong, very broad, about half width of leaf base, smooth or nearly so at back; cells very small, opaque, quadrate, scarcely papillose, somewhat larger and quadrate or short-rectangular Mo. Bot. Garden, 1897. 50 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY below, all very chlorophyllose, the alar lax, enlarged, quadrate or subhexagonal, pellucid, yellowish, brownish or subhyaline. Flowers and fruit unknown. Distinguishable from D. fulvum Hook. by the stems not flexuose, the leaves not tufted, nearly entire, the costa broader, smooth or only very slightly papillose on the back and the supra-alar cells chlorophyllose, scarcely distinct from the others. FIsSIDENS DECIPIENS DeNot. var. Winonensis.— Differs from the type by its smaller size, the smaller and narrower leaves with the pellucid border most often indistinct and the less opaque areolation. Minnesota: Winona (J. M. Holzinger, Mosses of Minnesota, no. 6). Trichostomum indigens.—Very small, gregarious, dirty green, stems “scarcely 1-2™" high. Leaves patent, subcirrate when dry, 1.25-1.75™" long, oblong-lingulate, obtuse, apiculate of subacute, margins revolute below, plane above, very minutely crenulate by the projection of the papillz ; costa stout, percur- rent or vanishing just below the apex; cells minute, rotundate or subquadrate, densely papillose, becoming gradually larger, oblong, rectangular, pellucid and smooth toward the base. Per ichztial leaves from an oblong and loosely reticulate base, linear-lingulate, obtuse or mucronate. Pedicel thin, reddish, paler above, 4-6™ long, slightly twisted to the left under the capsule when dry. Capsule small, erect, oblong-cylindrical, | chestnut-colored, about 1™™ long. Lid unknown. Annulus — simple, teeth of the peristome purple, slightly twisting, on a nat- row basilar membrane, segments filiform, minutely granulosé, — marked with a longitudinal line, articulate, slightly nodose and partly connected in the lower part. Probably dicecious (male flowers unseen), Newfoundland (Rev. 4. C. Waghorne, 1895). Resembling the smallest forms of Barbulg unguiculata Hedw, by the shape and the areolation of the leaves, but well distinct by: | the peristome much shorter and less twisted, the teeth describ- : ing scarcely half a spiral turn, : 1896 | NEW MOSSES OF NORTH AMERICA 51 Urora crispua Brid. var. dolosa.—Distinct from the genuine form by the dark green tint, the leaves less crispate and generally broader and the areolation less incrassate, the lower cells looser, shorter, hyaline or greenish, not yellow. District of Columbia: Tenallytown, mixed with Orthotrichum Ohioense and O. Braunit (J. M. Holzinger, 1892). This variety differs considerably from the type by its much looser basilar areolation, and would be easily taken for a well distinct species; but we have specimens, gathered at Atco, New Jersey, by Mr. H. A. Green, which are intermediate between this variety and the typical form. AMBLYODON DEALBATUS Pal. Beauv. var. AMERICANUS Ren. et Card. in Bull. de herb. Boissier 4:13. (Musci Am. Sept. Exsicce. no. 180).—Differs from the European type by the segments of the endostome more subulate, nodulose and strongly granulose, and by the leaves more distinctly serrate above. Minnesota: Osceola, St. Croix river (J. M. Holzinger, 1890). : PHILONOTIS VENELLA C. Muell. var. Coloradensis.—Areolation more chlorophyllose; marginal cells narrower, teeth of the leaves more patulous. Sterile-—Perhaps a small, depauperate form of Ph. Muehlenbergii Brid.? Colorado : Springdale, Boulder co. (Marie Holzinger, 1892 ; comm. J. M. Holzinger). ANOMOBRYUM FILIFORME Husn. var. Americanum,— Differs from the var. concinnatum (Bryum concinnatum Spr.) by the more slender and shorter stems, the smaller leaves and the shorter cells. Costa percurrent or vanishing just below the point. Sterile. Wisconsin : Trempealeau Mt. (¥. I. Holzinger, 1893). With Rev. Boulay, we consider Anomobryum filiforme ( Dicks.) Husn., 4. Jjuliforme Solms, A. sericeum De Lacroix and A. concin- “atum (Spr.) Husn. as belonging to the same specific type, which is widely distributed under numerous local or regional forms, throughout Europe, Africa, North, Central, and South America, 52 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY HypnuM CHRYSOPHYLLUM Brid. var. BREVIFOLIUM Ren. et Card. in Bull. de Pherb. Boissier 4:19 (Musci Am. Sept. Exsicc. no. 248). —Leaves shorter and areolation somewhat looser than in the typical form. District of Columbia: Rock creek (¥. M. Holzinger, 1891). Sterile specimens. | Hypnum implexum.—Tufts depressed, light green. Stems intricate, pinnately ramulose, branchlets hooked, fastigiate above. Leaves falcate-secund, from a broadly ovate-deltoid base rather suddenly constricted into a narrow subulate acumen, plane on the margins, quite entire or subdenticulate at the base of the acumen ; costa double, short ; cells narrowly linear, those of the angles few but distinct, small, quadrate, greenish or pellucid. Flowers and fruit unknown. Labrador: Seal Island (Rev. Arthur C. Waghorne, 1893). Allied to H. hamulosum Sch., but more robust, and distinct by the light green tint; the leaves broader at base and more sud- denly constricted into a subulate acumen, and the alar cells more numerous and more conspicuous. Much resembling the small green form of H. cupressiforme L., but in this the leaves are nat- rower and the alar cells still much more numerous and conspicu- ous, Hypnum subeugyrium.—Moncecious, resembling H. eugyrium Sch. var. Mackayi Sch., from which it differs by the alar cells of the leaves small, quadrate, not forming excavate auricles and the capsule exannulate. From the forms of H. palustre L. hav- ing the leaves subimbricate, it is distinguishable by the minutely — denticulate apex of the leaves and by the costa always double and shorter. Newfoundland : Exploits (Rev. A. C. Waghorne, 1893): HyYPNUM ORBICULARICORDATUM Ren. et. Card. in Bull. de V’ herb. | Bossier 4:19 (Musci Am. Sept. Exsicc. no. 249). Tufts very soft, pale lurid-green above, decolored whitish-yellow and brownish-variegated below. Stems slender, erect, 4-9™ high, simple or sparingly branching, not radiculose, cuspidate at apex. Leaves soft, erecto-patent or very loosely imbricate, subundu- PLATE II. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX11I. | MO0SCDOg SO @O6 ee 2Oag SADA ae 7 aa es eS Je lags toe et oe on SE = a — ——S= —<———— ae oe Se ET wes ae SY RENAULD and CARDOT on NEW MOSSES. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX11. PLATE TV ue bs arp Nr fasarsyt rs — ee yee tre ee nieae icetente 5) i OF cee eA ai ‘s Ae = Oe C3 RENAULD and CARDOT on NEW MOSSES. PLATE YY, BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX1I. RENAULD and CARDOT on NEW MOSSES. 1896] NEW MOSSES OF NORTH AMERICA 53 late when dry, decurrent at base, broadly cordate-suborbicular, very obtuse, quite entire, slightly sulcate ; costa thin, vanishing far from the apex; areolation loose, pellucid ; cells soft, thin walled, rhomboidal-hexagonal in the middle, the marginal nar- rower, the upper shorter, the alar very loose, large, soft and empty. Flowers and fruit unknown. Northwest shore of Hudson’s Bay: Depot Island, N. lat. 63° 79’, W. long. 90° 20’ (George Comer, 1893; comm. D. C. Eaton). Easily distinguished from the allied Z. cordtfolium Hedw. by the stems nearly simple, the leaves very soft, broader, and the looser areolation. VESOUL AND STENAY, FRANCE. EXPLANATION OF PLATES III-V. All the figures magnified are drawn by means of Nachet’s camera lucida. PLATE III. A. Dicranum Demetrii. a, entire plant ; 04, leaves ; c, alar cells; @, areolation in the middle of the base, near the costa; ¢, areolation of the upper part. B. Dicranum trachyphyllum. aa, entire plant; 54, leaves; c, Portion of a leaf in the middle; de, point of same; f areolation of the borders inthe middle. C. Dicranum subfulvum. a, entire plant; 440, leaves ; ¢, point of a leaf; d, basal areolation ; e, areolation of the upper part; /, transverse section of a leaf, PLATE IV. A. Trichostomum indigens. a, entire plant; 0d, leaves; c, basal areolation of a leaf; d, point of a leaf; ¢, capsule; /, two teeth of the peristome with a portion of the annulus; g, portion of a segment of a peristomial tooth. B. Hypnum orbicularicordatum. a, entire plant; 440, leaves; c, basal areola- tion of a leaf; @, areolation in the middle; ¢, areolation of apex. PLATE V. A. Aypnum implexum. a, entire plant; 4644, stem leaves ; ccc, branch leaves ; d, angular areolation; ¢, acumen, B. Hypnum subeugyrtum. 4, entire plant ; 64d, leaves ; ¢, angular areolation ; d, areolation in the middle ; * areolation of the point. -BRIEFER ARTICLES. Bark within a tree trunk.—The accompanying photograph is from a section of an elm tree about eighty years old, grown at Oberlin, Ohio. Some forty years ago, by an accident of some kind, the trunk was split down the entire side and the inner parts rotted away. The — split was gradually closed by growth and the two opposite sides folded inwards, each side covered with bark, until the result was reached as seen in the photograph. The two sides produced such a pressure a to obliterate the bark at the line of contact, and a few years more would : doubtless have closed the wound with a continuous cambium. When cut down the bark seemed as vigorous and nearly as thick within the trunk, where it must have been quite dark, as on the outside of the tree. The section is preserved in Oberlin College museum.—F. D- KELSEY, Oberlin, Ohio. 54 Ue 1896] BRIEFER ARTICLES ce A horizontal microscope (with plate VI).— The laboratory for plant physiology can hardly be considered adequately equipped which does not possess a microscope adapted to measuring directly the vertical growth of plants. The auxanometer, in simple or com- plex form, is scarcely more indispensable. If no specially constructed instrument is available some makeshift must be devised to enable direct observation of growth. After utilizing common microscopes in various degrees of disorganization, but with unvarying dissatisfaction, the instrument illustrated by plate V7 was devised by the writer, in consultation with Dr. Rodney H. True, to facilitate whose researches it was immediately needed. It will be observed at a glance that the general idea of the instru- ment is that illustrated in Pfeffer’s Phystologie 2:85, fig. 8, which is essentially the form still used in the Leipzig laboratory. Upon com- parison, however, it will be readily seen that the instrument here des- cribed has a number of points of superiority in the accuracy, readi- ness, and range of adjustment. It was constructed from my drawings by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., of Rochester, N. Y., to whose courtesy I owe the illustration. The base is the large lead-filled brass tripod of their “ Investi- gator”’ stand, with leveling screws. This base is the only part which I now think could be improved. It would be better were it some- what larger and heavier. Its radial spread is now 10™; it might well be 12™ with correspondingly increased weight. From the base rises a tube 3 in external diameter, sawed at the top, where it is pinched by a screw collar. Within the outer tube slides a nickel draw-tube, 22™ long, which can be set at any height, up to its maximum, by means of the screw collar. The upper end of the draw-tube carries a Pinion, with double milled heads, engaging a rack on a triangular slide. By means of this rack and pinion the body, which has been roughly brought to the required height by means of the draw-tube, can be accurately set. A finer adjustment has not been found neces- Sary, since a 1” objective has given the highest power required, and with this the micrometer lines can be made to coincide accurately with the tip of the object under observation. At right angles to the triangular slide is fixed a tube in which moves the nickeled body, actuated by a pinion which engages a rack on the body. This adjustment serves to focus the instrument. Above the pinion, between its milled heads, is fastened a spirit-level, accu- 56 BO TANICAL GAZETTE rately se with the body, so that by means of the leveling scre it can be made horizontal. ; The optical parts consist of a ain eyepiece, 1" and 3" objecti Fixed in the focus of the eye lens of the ocular is a microm _ divided into tenths of a millimeter. ; The method of using the instrument is so obvious that it needs : special explanation.— CHARLES R. ee University of Wiscons. Madis son. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX1//. PLATE VI. EDITORIAL. THE ESTABLISHMENT Of a biological survey by the Department of Agriculture, under a recent act of Congress, should mark the beginning of a new era in the botanical field-work of the United States. Some work of this kind has been done by the general government, and by different institutions, but it has been desul- tory and without any general plan. At the head of the new survey no more competent man could have been placed than Dr. Merriam, for his whole work has tended in this direction and his publications have shown a wide grasp of the problems. To be made most effective, large cooperation must be obtained from local organizations, which will work along definite lines in a general plan. The natural allies of the Department will be the Experiment Stations already established in every state, but even these should not be regarded as adequate. Where state biological surveys are organized, these should be associated with the govern- ment survey and work under its general direction; and where they are not, such organizations should be formed, or the biologists of the state should individually associate themselves with the general survey. There can be no doubt that abundant and important service can be suggested to every worker by Dr. Merriam. The new survey should prove a great stimulus to the coming generation of botanists, and to the strong movement in botany which is impelling them to emerge from herbaria and laboratories and to come in contact with the larger problems of plant-life. The gradual shifting of the botanical standpoint is becoming daily more evident, and the period of mérphology is merging into one to be dominated by physiology, not merely the chemistry and physics of physiology, but the larger field of ecology. THE MoveMENT for the appointment of a scientific chief of oo of agriculture seems to have received a check, 57 : 58 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY whether through its friends or enemies we are not informed, But as it has received already the cordial endorsement of a con- siderable number of the foremost scientific men and societies, it is be to hoped that it will yet be carried to success. What may be the condition in other lines of scientific work we do not know, but we do know that under the present division of labor in botany there is a dissipation of energy and a duplication of work that might be largely avoided under a more logical and consistent organization, such as could probably be secured by a wise and broad-minded scientific executive. Now that the head of the department holds a cabinet portfolio, it is out of the question to expect other than a political adviser of the President to be appointed. If under him there were a permanent chief, empow- ered to organize and harmonize all the scientific divisions as the president of a university directs its policy in consultation with heads of departments, we should find increased economy an efficiency of every division. Under the present conditions there is a division of botany, a division of agrostology, a division of forestry, and a division of vegetable physiology and pathology . It is needless to point out the absurdity of the naming of these divisions, which have been split off one by one from the original division of botany. Each now is wholly independent of the others in control, appropriations, quarters and equipment. There is a force of live young men in these divisions and a very great amount of work is done, on whose high quality we have had occasion frequently to comment. There should be a chief of the division of botany, with general direction of all botanical work; the present “division of botany” should be rechristened, while it and the other botanical divisions should be made sections, each in charge of an assistant chief. This would make it possible concentrate the office and routine work so that each chief would be left freer to push the work of his section, There can be 1° doubt that under some such plan we should see even more impo™ tant advances in pure and applied botany than have been possible under the present system. CURKENT. LITERATURE: BOOK REVIEWS. Missouri Botanical Garden.* THE ANNUAL REPORTS from this garden have come to be regarded as among the most important contributions to American botany, and the one before us is worthy of its predecessors. The three scientific papers are as follows: 1. Juglandacee of the United States, by WILLIAM TRELEASE. Since 189 Dr. Trelease has been preparing a synoptical revision of this group, its publica- tion being delayed from time to time on account of the necessity of additional material. Now that the family has appeared in Sargent’s “Silva,” Dr. Tre- lease has thought best not to publish the entire manuscript, and has presented in the paper before us “merely such a tabulation of the fruit, twig, bark and bud characters as it is thought will be helpful in field studies.” It is certain that these so-called “ winter characters” will be extremely useful, but we wish that Dr. Trelease had given us the benefit of his complete revision. It seems that most of the species are more readily recognized in their winter condition than during the period of flowering or the early summer season. The revision Contains our ten hickories and four walnuts, with notes on certain hybrid forms, which are very helpful in explaining certain puzzling forms, which have long troubled botanists. The twenty-five excellent plates, many of them from remarkabl y clear photog phs, thoroughly illustrate habit, bark, buds, etc., and there would seem to be little excuse left for not recognizing our species. 2. A Study of the Agaves of the United States, by A. ISABEL MULFORD. The exceptional facilities at the Missouri Botanical Garden for the study of this interesting and difficult genus are well known, and Miss Mulford seems to have availed herself of them fully. The paper is a clear and full presen- tation of her results, which the thirty-eight plates make still more valu- able. A general account of the genus and of its economic uses, which are ee nerous, prefaces the synoptical presentation of the species. The subgeneric divisions based upon differences in the inflorescence, recognized by Dr. Engel- mann, are followed, but Baker’s substantive names, Manfreda, Littea and Euagave, are applied to them. The specific limitations are not distinct, as is to be expected in such a group, and absolute precision in definition is not to be looked for. About twenty species and varieties are presented, three of which are Proposed as new. “Missouri Botanical Garden. Seventh annual report. 8vo. pp. 210, pl. 67. St. Louis, Mo. 1896. 1896] 50 60 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY 3. The ligulate Wolffias of the United States, by CHARLES HENRY THOMP- Son. Under this title reference is made to the subgenus Wolfiella, which the author is inclined to believe is a distinct genus intermediate between Wolfia proper and Lemna, but unfortunately it has never been known to pro- duce flowers. Only one form has been credited to the United States, and that a variety of the Mexican W. g/adiata, known only from the subtropical region of Florida. Mr. Thompson found it among the collections of Bush, made in the swampy region of southeastern Missouri, and has also discovered the Mexican W. dingudata in California, growing in an irrigation canal near Bakersfield. A careful account of these two forms is given, illustrated by three plates.—J. M. C. A popular work on ecology. UNDER the somewhat uncertain name of The Great World's Farm, a valuable and delightful work has been written by Selina Gaye.? The title was suggested by a passage in Professor Drummond’s account of untrodden Africa, and refers to the way in which plants establish themselves and flourish unattended by man. The subjects treated are the natural methods of soil formation, water and food elements in soil and air, the action of leaves and roots, flowers and their pollination, the distribution of seeds, friends and foes, the chances of life, changes due to man, and similar matters. This enumeration of subjects does not, however, give any suggestion of the great diversity of topics and the extraordinary array of facts which have been brought together. The work is written from the most modern point of view, and although dealing with scientific matters, technical terms have been so skilfully avoided, that any well informed person may read the book with enjoyment, without possessing previous knowledge of the subject, or of its terminology. The volume also contains much about worms, insects, birds and other animals in connection with the account of vegetation. There are so few lapses from full scientific accuracy that they may be ignored by both reviewer and reader. Some of the historical statements may be taken with a grain of incredulity, such as the story of the Persians keeping pollen of the date for nineteen years during a civil war in order to secure 4 crop of fruit at its close, yet they are Currently accepted and serve to accent- uate general truths. : The book is well printed and the illustrations, mostly full page plates, are especially commendable. Altogether the work forms a compact volume of entertaining and instructive information, and can be heartily recommende to the lover of nature whether dilettante or earnest student.—J. C. A. *GaYE, SELINA.—The great world’s farm; some account of nature’s crops and how they are grown. With a preface by G. S. Boulger. 8vo. pp. x + 365: Illustrated. London: Seeley & Co. 1893. Chicago: The Macmillan Co. $1.59. 1896} CURRENT LITERATURE 61 The spraying of plants. NOTHING more remarkable has taken place in the history of botany than the development of methods for the protection of cultivated plants against the attacks of fungi and insects, especially by spraying, and the consequent encouragement given to the study of the life history of fungi. It is scarcely more than a decade since the first impetus was felt, its inception being traceable to the discovery of the value of Bordeaux mixture as a fungicide and Paris green as an insecticide. The former was first used in France and the latter in central United States. The importance of these discoveries cannot be overestimated, and the extent and variety of the practical and scientific results which have followed can only be fully appreciated by one studying the sub- ject. It is therefore a valuable service which Mr. E. G. Lodeman? has rendered to practical and scientific men alike by the publication of a work on the general subject of spraying. In four hundred closely printed pages he has recorded a great number of facts and opinions, and given a clear survey of the growth of the subject and its present status, Beginning with the history and principles of spraying in general, he traces its rise and adoption in foreign countries and in America, together with improvements in machinery for its application ; then discusses the action of fungicides and insecticides upon the parasite, the host, and the soil, and devotes the last third of the work to descriptions of fungous diseases and insect enemies of many kinds of plants, with directions for treatment. There are several aspects in which the work is a specially valuable con- tribution to scientific literature. The chronological study of the subject in its different lines of development and from various geographical centers, with the abundant reference citations, presents a record of lasting importance, although necessarily limited by the size of the volume. The fact that America leads in the study of plant diseases, in devising new remedies, perfecting those already known, and in the readiness with which the cultivator accepts and applies the suggestions of the investigator 'S Cause for congratulation, as it augurs well for the continued growth of pathology and incidentally of other branches of botany in this country. The number of diseases brought to light and the number of remedies Suggested have been so perplexingly numerous that the cultivator and the investigator alike will welcome the part of the work dealing with specific diseases and their treatment. Although necessarily brief, it is sufficient for the guidance of the cultivator, and affords the student a needed survey of the field. It is fortunate that insects and fungi are examined with equal 62 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY thoroughness in this work, as it gives an opportunity to compare the results of the labors of entomologists and mycologists. As a piece of book making, the work leaves nothing to be desired. It forms the second volume of the Rural Science Series, edited by Professor L. H. Bailey of Cornell University —J. C. A. A new “‘ Vegetation der Erde.” THE CLASSICAL Vegetation der Erde of Grisebach will always be looked upon as one of the great books upon the distribution of plants. But recent progress has brought to knowledge much of detail which now needs to be incarnated in general principles. In brief, such is the plan of Professors Engler and Drude. They propose to edit a collection of mono- graphs upon the various phases of plant geography under the general title Vegetation der Erde, thinking that the time is ripe for at least beginning a publication which shall, on the one hand, bring to light the lifelong work of some of the older savants, and, on the other, enable younger investigators to know what needs to be done and to plan their studies accordingly. No definite order for the monographs can be announced, and almost entire freedom will be allowed individual contributors in the arrangement of their material. Naturally the countries of central and western Europe will be the first to be treated, on account of the ‘more thorough study to which they have been already subjected. Each monograph will constitute an inde- pendent volume, to be published in the German language, by translation, if need be, from the native tongue of the author. The editors themselves promise some of the general work upon plant geography and plant history, together with the special treatment of certain regions. Thisis a courageous plan, demanding even more optimism and energy than the inception of the great Pfanzenfamilien which is now nearing completion. We trust that the senior Proposer, Professor Engler, of Berlin, will be enabled to see this materialize, as he has seen his monumental Pflanzenfa- milien, Certainly he will have an able coadjutor in Professor Drude © Dresden. No one who inspects the tentative outline of the work can fail to be impressed with its comprehensiveness. Three sections are suggested The first, treating of climatology in its influence upon the distribution of plants, the developmental history of floras, and phylogenetic investigations upon geologic and biological principles, will naturally be the last to begin. bution as illustrated by natural floral regions, An editorial in this journal recently * urged students, instead of compil- Ing state floras after the usual pattern, to work out carefully the distribution ‘BOTANICAL GAZETTE 21: 303. May 1896, 1896 | CURRENT LITERATURE 63 of plants in relation to others and to geographic and climatological features. If any one desires to see what this suggestion means in detail he would do well to examine the first volume of this projected Vegetation der Erde,namely, Willkomm’s Grundztige der Pf tung auf der iberischen Halbinsels The Iberian peninsula is particularly well suited for a special study of this kind, cut off as it is from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees. While its limit is thereby defined its interior presents exceedingly diversified conditions, the rainfall alone varying from less than 300™™" in small regions about Sala- manca and Lérida, to over 1600™™" about Santiago and Roncesvalles, while a large part of the table-land of Old Castile, New Castile, and Aragon receive less than 400™™, With six mountain systems, in five of which peaks and chains reach the alpine region, and in one the snow-line with peaks of 11,000 feet ; with a coast line of 2250 miles, sometimes abrupt, sometimes sand dunes backed by marshes, as diversified a surface as can well be imagined is presented. After giving an account of the history and literature of botanical explo- ration in the peninsula and its physical features, Willkomm discusses the peculiarities of the combination of the Iberian flora and its biological statis- tics; the distribution of the plant formations ; the limits of various species whose polar or equatorial limit is therein reached ; and the relation of the Spanish-Portuguese flora to that of neighboring countries and islands. The second part, which constitutes the larger partof the book, depicts the formations and the collective vegetation in each of the five districts into which he divides the region, viz., the Pyrenaic, North Atlantic, central Medi- terranean, south Atlantic, and west Atlantic. An appendix treats of the changes in the vegetation through cultivated and adventive plants. It is impossible for any foreigner to criticise such a work, whose details must be tested by local botanists; but it cannot fail to leave an impres- sion of great thoroughness. To it the venerable author had devoted a good share of his life. It was fortunate indeed for us that he was able to complete the manuscript and to see more than half of it through the press before his eath a few months ago. A more auspicious beginning of Engler and Drude’s great work could scarcely have been made. From the publisher's point of view the book is faultless. The two maps, one showing isohyetes and the other the steppes and the vegetation limits, are exquisite specimens of modern cartography. —C. R. ra MINOR NOTICES. Dr. T. F. ALLEN has published another fascicle of his Characee of Amer- %ca, being part II, fascicle 3. Ten species of Nite//a are described, and i *‘WILLKomM, Moritz. Grundziige der Pflanzenverbreitung auf der iberischen aibinsel. 8vo, pp. xvi -+395,/. 27, pl. 2, maps 2. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. I M. 12 unbound; M. 13.50 bound, 64 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY illustrated by nine handsome plates. V. Lezbergiis a new species from Ore- on; J. transilis is a new species of the north Atlantic states; and V. Asa- greana Schaffner, in Herb. Farlow, is Mexican. The other species are J. mucronata A. Br., N. capitellata A. Br., N. gracilis (Smith) Ag., JV. cenucssima (Desv.) Coss. et Germ., V. pygmea A. Br., N. minuta Allen, and XN. inter- media Nordst.—J. M. C. THE METROPOLITAN ParK Commission of Massachusetts has issued a catalogue of the flora of the Blue Hills, Middlesex Fells, Stony Brook, and Beaver Brook Reservations, compiled and edited by Mr. Walter Deane. The work could not have been put into more competent hands, as Mr. Deane’s acquaintance with the flora of the whole region is most intimate and accu- rate ; and although he insists that the list is but a preliminary one we ques- tion whether it is not more complete than most catalogues. The 7508 acres of very diversified territory have furnished a large list of plants, many of which, it is to be hoped, will be carefully guarded. In addition to the vas- cular plants, the numerous mosses are presented by Edward L. Rand, the Characee by J. W. Blankinship, the alge by F.S. Collins, the lichens by lara E. Cummings, and the fungi by A. B. Seymour and Flora W. Patter- son. The pteridophytes are furnished by G. E. Davenport.—J. M. C. IN THE SERIES of bulletins issued by the laboratories of Natural History of the State University of Iowa the current number bears the date of Feb- ruary, 1896. r. R. I. Cratty makes some useful notes on the aquatic “ phenogams”’ of the state; Mr. Paul Bartsch deals with the Cretaceous flora of western Iowa; Messrs. Ellis and Macbride publish a list of Nicaraguan Hymenomycetes, collected by the university expedition to that country ; Mr. B. Shimek notes over fifty species of plants not heretofore recorded as gTOW” ing in the state, and also new stations for very many of those already recorded, making the very sensible remark, ‘ The object of this list is to add, if possible, to the knowledge of the plants of the state, not to the volume of the nomenclature literature. Therefore, without regard to the present con- troversy, the nomenclature of the latest edition of Gray’s Manual is followed, as the plants will be readily recognized by the names therein given;" 4n¢ Professor Macbride describes an interesting Nicaraguan puff-ball, Bovista lateritia Berk.—J. M.C A conspicuous example of the bookmaker’s art is The White Pine, 4 by Pinchot and Graves,‘ and this in more senses than one. For the book '§ scarcely more than a magazine article as to length, by the printer’s skill put together most admirably to form a dainty volume. As to contents, its facts and conclusions are confessedly “based . . . on a short period of observation and a comparatively restricted number of measurements.” It may be ad °PINCHOT, GIFFORD, and Graves, HENRY S.—The white pine—a study. with tables of volume and yield. 12mo, pp. xii + 102. New York: The Century Co. 1896. 1896] CURRENT LITERATURE 65 that these were made in a still more restricted region, viz., the pine forests of Pennsylvania. Itis hardly conceivable that tables based on data from 160 trees of which only 100 were over 100 years old, in one of the most unim- portant pineries of the country, can be sufficiently well founded to command confidence, Whatever of good is accomplished by the book will be in showing what forest study aims to do, and how it can be made in this country, as in Europe, of direct commercial value.—C. R. B. * NOTES FOR STUDENTS. CZAPEK has examined the acid root secretions’ and found that the com- monest source of the acid reaction is primary potassic phosphate, primary potassic oxalate occurring in only a few cases. No free acids, with the excep- tion of carbonic acid, were found. MM. BERTRAND AND MALEvRE, whose work upon pectase, a new dias- tatic enzyme, has already been noticed in this journal, find that it is very widely distributed among plants ; so widely that they feel justified in saying that it may be regarded as universally diffused in green plants.’ It is especially abundant in the leaves and probably spreads to the other organs. It may be prepared from alfalfa or clover by braying in an iron mortar full- grown plants, whose juices are then expressed. This fluid is saturated with chloroform to prevent alteration by micro-organisms and set aside for 12-24 hours in an open flask protected from light. It then undergoes a special Coagulation, which renders it easy to filter. To the clear liquid twice its volume of go per cent. alcohol is added, which throws down a white precip- itate which is collected and dissolved in a little water. After twelve hours it is filtered and the almost colorless liquid which runs through is received in four to five volumes of alcohol. The pectase separates anew and is collected and dried in a vacuum. In this way a liter of juice yields 5~8*™ of a white, non-hygroscopic substance, very soluble in water, which produces a vigorous pectic fermentation. A 1 per cent. solution of pectin will be coagulated in forty-eight hours by the addition of +syy of its weight of the pectase from alfalfa, or +55 of the pectase from clover.—C. R. B. MOLISCH describes? a new microchemical reaction for chlorophyll, which depends upon a special relation to potassic hydroxide. Ifa bit of tissue con- - ‘aining chlorophyll, which should not be wet with water, be transferred to a Saturated watery solution of KOH, the chlorophyll bodies become almost h instantly yellow-brown, changing again in 15-30 minutes almost to green. The ” Berichte d. deutsch. bot. Gesells. 14:29. 1896. *Jour. de Bot, —: —. 1896, * Ibid. p. 16. 66 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [jULY change of the yellow-brown (which the author compares to the color of living diatoms) to green follows immediately upon heating to the boiling point or by the addition of water, and somewhat less quickly upon the addition of alcohol, ether, or glycerin. Chlorophyll bodies killed by boiling water, by drying, or by any medium which does not destroy the coloring matter, show this reaction likewise. Solid chlorophyll prepared from an alcoholic extract also shows it. Alkali- chlorophyll does not; which confirms the contention of Tschirch, Schunck, an archlewski, as against A. Hansen, that dilute alkalies do alter chlorophyll. Diatoms and brown alge, after being killed by boiling water, upon which they become green, show the reaction, but in Floridee and Cyanophycee its value is impaired by the accompanying reactions of phycoerythrin and phy- cocyanin. No other bodies have been found by Molisch to respond to the chlorophyll test—_C. R. B. . Mo iscu also gives an account” of the crystallization of xanthophyll and his method of recognizing this yellow coloring matter which always accompa nies chlorophyll. Inasmuch as the two are separable in solution, it seem possible to devise a mode of removing the chlorophyll and leaving the xal thophyll zx the leaf. The process is as follows: Fresh green leaves or small pieces of them are brought into 40 per cent. (by volume) alcohol which contains 20 per cent (by weight) of KOH. In this they remain several days protected from light, until all the chlorophyll is extracted. To prevent absorption of CO, this should be done in glass preparation jars with close-fitting glass StP" pers. The potash solution is then washed out for several hours with distilled water and permanent preparations made by mounting bits of the leaves in pure glycerin. The xanthophyll is found crystallized in almost every pre- viously chlorophyllous cell. | - This process has yielded the described result in about 100 genera of seed plants at different times of year. Only rarely does the xanthophyll remain as yellow drops or diffused in the cell sap. _ After giving an account of the physical and chemical peculiarities of the crystals Molisch points out the close similarity of the yellow coloring matters; a xanthophyll, chrysophyll, etiolin, phycoxanthin, etc., and their relation t0 a carotin. He proposes the use of the word carotin in the broad sense, already a given to it by Zimmerman,” to designate all the yellow and orange-red CTy> 4 tals of the leaf obtained by the method described. It would therefore desig: — a nate not a chemical individual but a group of nearly allied substances, jut 2 as ‘‘sugar’’ and “albumen” do.—C. R. B. *° Berichte d. deutsch. bot. Gesells. 14:18. 1896. ** Bot. Mikrotechnik 99. | 1896 | CURRENT LITERATURE 67 IN A SECOND CONTRIBUTION on “ The influence of light upon the form of Cacti and other plants,’ '* Goebel discusses the dependence of the form of the leaves of Campanula rotundifolia upon the intensity of light and intro- duces some remarks upon the dependence of the heterophylly of a few other plants upon external factors. The usual form of Campanula rotundifolia is well known in the northern states. The early round leaves, from which it takes its specific name, form a radical rosette, but often perish early, so that the name seems very inappro- priate when only the linear-lanceolate upper leaves are seen. The erect flowering branches arise in the axils of the lower leaves of the rosette and normally produce elongated leaves. Goebel was able, by diminishing the light, to cause shoots to produce round leaves exclusively until more strongly illuminated, when they formed long leaves. Others in weak light produced shoots in the upper axils bearing round leaves. But the most instructive case was that in which a shoot, after producing normal leaves, gradually returned to the development of round leaves, those at the tip of a 20™ shoot being of typical orbicular-cordate outline. To determine whether the formation of the round * leaves could be suppressed by strong illumination from the beginning, or whether the process of development is so ordered that under all conditions round leaves appear first, plants were subjected to artificial illumination, finally with two arc lamps of 2000 c. p. each. But in no case was the formation of round leaves hindered. Goebel argues, therefore, that Campanula rotund- ifolia has not inherited the An/age of two (or if one considers intermediate forms, many) leaf forms whose appearing is determined by the different degrees of intensity of light as a releasing factor, but only the An/age of the round form, which under the normal condition of sufficient light is trans- formed into the long type, not suddenly but gradually, so that various intermediate forms appear. In the course of the ontogeny of an individual leaf these intermediate forms do not appear because the transforming factor very early directs the development of the leaf Am/age into another course. But if this factor be removed the inherited form reappears, as in the cultures in weak light.—C. R. B. Dr. J. WiEsNER, who has contributed so much to the general subject of Physiology, gathers up™ in a rapid review the suggestions he has made in regard to the phenomena and terminology of the inequilateral growth of plant members. Having summarized the various forms of heterotrophy of tissues and members— evidently in many cases a complex phenomenon, which is Conditioned on the one hand upon innate peculiarities and on the other upon Flora nr I-13. 1896. “'Goebel says, apparently by a slip of the pen, “Lan r d of “ > gblattform,” instead o Rundblattform.” as P . “ Berichte der deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft 13 : 481-495. 1896. 68 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY external influences —he proposes to cover all cases by the simple special term ¢rophy, which he defines as follows: ‘ By zrophzes I understand all one- sided accelerations of growth in tissues or organs which depend upon the position of the organs concerned ; position being taken in its widest sense as indicating the spatial relation of the heterotrophic organ to the horizontal . and to its mother shoot.” '5 As to position with reference to the horizontal, there are to be distin- guished epitrophy and hypotrophy; as to position with reference to the mother axis, exotrophy and endotrophy. The two latter are fixed by heredity. Influences effective by reason of position with reference to the horizontal, such as light, gravitation, and unequal wetting by precipitation, lead to paratonic trophies, which may be more exactly designated as phototrophy, _ §eotrophy and hydrotrophy. Wiesner then sums up the final results of his researches on anisophylly, which he holds to be evidently the result of combined trophies, in these words: “1, Anisophylly, z. ¢., the inequality of the leaves of the shoot in conse- quence of position (in the above exactly defined sense) serves, as a rule, to make possible to those plants with more abundant foliage a suitable fixed light position of the leaves themselves without the twisting of the internodes. “2. For attaining this object plants utilize various trophies, either sponta- neous (commonly exotrophy), or paratonic (phototrophy, hydrotrophy, probably also geotrophy), or both, which is the common method.”—C. R. B. IGNAZ FAMILLER has a paper in the current number of Fora (April) entitled “ Biogenetic researches upon reduced or metamorphosed sexual organs.” A brief extract of some of the important points will be useful, but the full paper should be read to appreciate the investigations upon which the conclusions are based. Cases in which plant organs have been reduced oF transformed to meet changed conditions are by no means rare, and in the floral parts these phenomena are quite extensive. The author disregards all isolated observations of reduction and transformation, because only chance observations are accessible ; and also excludes all diclinous plants, as they would need an entire paper for adequate consideration. His application of sexual terms to stamens and carpels is certainly reprehensible, but using his own phraseology, the main points are as follows: Male Organs. normal anther, development t — Viewed from the standpoint of the typical structure of s* the rudimentary organ remains permanently in some stage © hrough which the normal organ passes. The degree of devel- *S“ Ich verstehe unter Trophieen alle an oo Geweben oder Organen vorkommende® einseitigen Wachsthumsférderungen, abha i i 1896] CURRENT LITERATURE 69 opment may vary considerably, sometimes the reduced organs being almost imperceptible and sometimes almost normally developed. Goebel remarks “That ‘normally’ reduced organs occasionally develop is common enough.” The ray flowers of Composite, the fifth stamen of Acanthus mollis and the outer flower of Viburnum Ofulus show the stamen in the form of a roundish elevation hardly perceptible to the naked eye. In a further step this first development is visible but no archesporium is formed. In many cases the rudiments are raised upon filaments as in Ca/a/fa, or the entire organ may have a leaf-like aspect as in staminodia of Linum. Another step shows that a cell-division which would otherwise lead to normal anther development sets in, but the staminodium remains in an inter- rupted stage. Here great variations are possible. Only the archesporium mother-cell may differentiate. Usually, however, more divisions occur an one can find the development arrested at all stages. In Boronia the stami- nodia in outward form closely resemble stamens. In Boronia megastigma, in earlier stages of development, stamens and staminodia show the same cell divisions, but in the staminodia the archesporium is smaller and so changes itself by repeated division that in the mature staminodium the cell divisions bear no resemblance to those of stamens. A nearly normal development is seen when the anthers form regularly but remain smaller than the perfect anthers, as in Cassia. When staminodia are to serve as organs of secretion, cell divisions resembling archesporium formation set in, but the epidermal cells frequently take part and so furnish an outlet for the secretion. The case in which staminodia become petaloid with no trace of anther formation must be considered the most extreme transformation. As to the function of staminodia, two observers disagree. H. Miller” and Heinricher 7 regard them as useless organs, while Kerner v. Merilaun doubts whether any plant produces anything which is not of advantage and which is not necessary. Even those organs which people so freely call “rudimentary” are not without meaning for the life of the plant. Our author believes that the transformed stamens play a useful réle in the economy of the plant. They may serve for attraction, they may be a protection to the young stigma, they may furnish a resting place for the insect visitor, they may secrete honey, they may direct the insect to the honey or prevent the honey. from running out. j In flowers with many stamens and staminodia the transition from one to the other is gradual. A reduction of the anther-cells in size and number, a one-sided development of the same, a crowding from the normal position and also changes in the vascular bundle, filament and connective are shown by transitional forms. Schenk, Handbuch der Bot. 1. 7 Oesterreich, Bot. Zeitschrift 44:—. 1894. [no. 2.] 70 BOTANICAL GAZETTE , [yuty Various examples from Acanthacee, Bignoniacea, Commelinacea, Gesne- riacee, Labiate and Scrophulariacee are considered in detail. ; Gynecium.—Reductions in the gynecium are not uncommon. Some- times there is only a slight trace of it, or the carpels may appear as little elevations, the ovary may form and show the beginning of a placenta, the ovule may appear but with the embryo-sac-mother-cell and the integument formation checked, or the embryo-sac may form but with the integuments suppressed, or, finally, the ovule may form normally and may seem capable of fertilization, but on account of position or general weakness of development may become stunted. Several members of the Cafvifoliacee, Valerianacee and Umbellifera are considered in detail. Quercus and Tilia proved very difficult, and deci- sive results were not obtained. Entire Flowers.—The most easily explained case of reduction of the entire flower is that in which the upper flowers of a rich inflorescence fail to develop because the nutritive materials are taken by the earlier, lower flowers. Flowers may become sterile on account of abncrmal enlargement of the floral axis as in the garden form of Ce/osia cristata, or through the enlargement of the floral envelopes as in Viburnum and Hydrangea. This completes the transformations which are caused by an effort on the part of the flower to serve other than reproductive purposes, like the attractive apparatus of the transformed flowers of Muscari comosum, the reduced flowers of Rhus Cotinus, whose pedicels serve as wings for the seed, or, finally, the transformation for glands in Sesamum. Arum maculatum, Brassica oleracea, Celosia cristata, Hydrangea serrata, Muscari comosum, Oncidium heteranthum, Rhus Cotinus, Sesamum orientale, and Viburnum Opulus were the forms studied. The author's résumé of his entire work is about as follows: : 1, The reduction or transformation of arrested organs is a standstill (stehen bleibe) at different stages of normal development. 2. In arrested male organs the commonest cases are the following: (a) A standstill at a primitive stage with a feeble development of a perianth, OF (4) a part of the cell-divisions appears which in the normal organ leads to the formation of the anther wall, but the usual archesporium does not procee further or divide. In female organs, generally, but not always, the embryo-sac is formed but integument formation is reduced. If the reduced ovules develop like the normal in their entire Structure, they are at least smaller. 3- In flowers with many stamens and staminodia the transition from one to the other is gradual. s 4. If the reduced male organs form pollen, the pollen grains, though iene in number, are still like those of the entirely normal organ, an observatio® which agrees with the results of E. Amelung in his work ‘Ueber mittleré 1896] CURRENT LITERATURE 71 Zellengrissen,"’ where he says different sized organs of the same sort in a plant individual consist of cells of the same or nearly the same size (//ora —: 207. 1893). . Filamentous staminodia as they appear, ¢.g., in species of Pentstemon correspond not to the filament alone, but they show in young stages a rem- nant of anther formation in their cell structure even if this is not outwardly apparent. 6. The transformed male organs, like normally transformed and sterile entire flowers, serve for the enlargement of the attractive apparatus, for mechanical devices for the direction of insects or for secretion. 7. There is a genuine transformation of the organ. Staminodia begin like normal stamens and partly complete the further development, but toward the end they form organs of secretion. Finally, it must be noted that mechanical causes cannot explain the reduction or transformation of these organs, because often from the first, without an external cause, a different formation is recognizable. It may be necessary to take into consideration an inner power resting in the plasma, so that sometimes, as Eichler remarks, the later development of the flower even at its earliest inception may exercise a noteworthy influence, and sometimes, by the entrance of internal disturbances, changes in the typical, external form may take place without necessitating the question of atavism,—CHAS. CHAM- BERLAIN. Oren cele RS. : To the Editors of the Botanical Gazette:— Will you kindly allow the following few words of explanation in reference to certain statements made in ‘a book review in the April number of your magazine? The writer first begs leave to thank the reviewer for the occasion thus given to make at the same time an explanation, or perhaps an extension, of the preface of the little book on plant anatomy. It is quite evident that it was the first effort or its kind ever undertaken by the author, and it is a somewhat consoling reflection that probably had a clearer and more definite statement been made of the purpose for which the book was written, it would have prevented, in some degree at least, certain unfavorable criticisms. It was taken for granted that the title, Evements of Plant Anatomy, would of itself suggest the fact that the plan pursued by the author in teaching these “dry bones” of the science was an exact parallel to the modern one adopted by biological teachers in the different departments of descriptive work, or that known as the type system. According to this, a bird’s-eye view of the field is first taken and a foundation laid upon which the superstructure is to be raised, either by lectures or text books of an advanced character OF both. But nowhere in the book is it stated that it was designed of for teachers but for students, and to be used by them as a framework merely; upon which each individual teacher could build by filling out the outlines 11 his own way. It is in no way fitted for a reference book except for the learnet It was therefore by design and not through accident or ignorance that the recent theories, such as those relating to nuclear division and the nature of the starch grain, were omitted and the simple elementary facts upon which the later investigations are based were alone considered. That a serious and disappointing error has been made in the determination of what is really ele mentary in character is certainly a matter to be regretted. At the same time, as the reviewer kindly suggests, it is a mistake which may easily be corrected in a future edition. It is, however, quite otherwise with certain statements made in the review which must have resulted from a hasty or careless perusal of the text and It is to these especially that the author begs to call attention. That a misstat® ment or a misrepresentation of the facts of the development of the tissues of plants has been made, is a charge so serious that simple justice must allow the author a chance to plead not guilty. In answer to several of these charges, it is only necessary to refer to num- erous German, French and English text-books whose authority rests pei 72 r 1896] OPEN LETTERS 73 original monographs. For example, the definition of bark, which is criticised, differs in no essential point from that given by De Bary in his text-book on anatomy and repeated by Vines in his text-book of botany, published in 1895. In fact, the same definition was given in an article on “ Cork Wings,” which was printed in the BOTANICAL GAZETTE in 1888, The expression objected to in regard to the f tion of th bi is a very common one innumerous German books, and its truthfulness has never before been called in question, at least tothe author’sknowledge. Thisisalso true of the statement made concern- ing monocotyledonous stems, namely, that they may change from the mono- to the dicotyledonous type. It is not quite so evident perhaps that the tra- cheids and accompanying cells may be called the assistants of the ducts and sieve-tubes. Even here the author can lay no claim to originality, Almost all modern text-books of plant physiology contain a similar statement or inti- mate that such is the fact. The phloem carries the prepared food about the plant, the sieve-tubes the insoluble, the accompanying cells the soluble por- tions; while whatever may be the function of the ducts it is admitted by all authoritative writers that the tracheids aid them in this function, or, in certain cases, supply the place of the ducts which are wanting. With reference to the “confusion regarding the elements of secondary bast,” etc., it is, perhaps, only necessary to say that the statements made on this subject were the result of the comparative study of all the leading text-books as well as numerous original articles, and, we may add, a modest amount of original work on the part of the author. The language was made as simple as possible, and it may be that the entire omission of the customary technical phraseology caused the reviewer to suppose something must be wanting. For one familiar with the facts of plant anatomy by years of study, not only of text-books but also of the plants themselves, it is hard to conceive how a candid critic could take exception to these statements. Indeed, if the author may not be considered “authority” on these subjects she has erred in company with the illustrious scientists of the present and past, with such men as Naegeli, Cramer, De Bary, Sanio, Vines, Reinke and Schwendener. The author heartily agrees with the reviewer in wishing the book were better and also in the hope that a revision, in the near future, may be made which will render it more useful. Emity L. Grecory, New York City. _ [The reviewer must call attention to the fact that as regards the “bark” he merely raised the question whether it was the Bore of the Germans which Is “commonly called bark.” He is aware that in English translations of Ger- ngs works this word has been translated dar, but he is unwilling to accept authority” on this question, with which he may deal elsewhere shortly. ‘ As 0 the cambium ring: since the completion of the ring by the forma- ton of interfascicular cambium recedes the formation of secondary bundles, reviewer cannot understand how the ring “may be said to be formed either 74 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY by the intercalation of new bundles or by the formation of interfascicular cambium,” And that ‘numerous German books” say it in no wise enlightens the obtuse critic. Dr. Gregory misses the point of the criticism regarding the so-called change in structure of a stem as it grows older from the mono- to the dicoty- ledonous type. The fact was not questioned. But does it not strike her asa poor sort of classification (albeit widely used) which makes no better provi- sion for such a fact? Is it possible to maintain as types of structure those which are subject to so many exceptions as these? The statement that “there is certainly confusion regarding the secondary bast fibers and the similar tissues arising from the pericycle” is based not upon simplicity of language but upon the author’s inclusion of all thick-walled fibers and stone cells in the “elements of the secondary phloem” (p. 129). If they are not included by her in that category, then there is the entire omis- sion of any statement that such tissues often belong to the pericycle instead of to the secondary phloem; in which case the confusion would be transferred from the author to the students using the book.— ED. | NEWS. Dr. WILLIAM TRELEASE is now in Europe. He will return about August first. HARVARD UNIVERSITY at its recent commencement conferred upon Professor W. G. Farlow the degree LL.D., an honor most worthily bestowed. THE Last IssuEs of Lloyd’s Photogravures of American Fungi (nos. 9 and 10) illustrate Polyporus Berkeleyi, and maintain the high character of the previous issues. Proressor D. T. MACDOUGAL has an untechnical article on the colors _of plants, especially the non-green colors, in the May number of the Popular Science Monthly. PROFEssoR Tuos. A. WILLIAMS, professor of botany in the Agricultural College of South Dakota, has been appointed an assistant in the Division of Agrostology in the Department of Agriculture. R. J. W. HARSHBERGER, in pursuing his ethno-botanical studies, has reached the conclusion that the pumpkin is indigenous in America, a view which he elaborates to some extent in Science (June tgth). Mr. A. A. HELLER has been appointed instructor in botany and curator of the herbarium in the University of Minnesota vice E. P. Sheldon, who resigns to find a more congenial field in the real-estate business. MR. JAMES BritTEN has published an account (Jour. Bot., June) of Arruda’s Brazilian plants, the occasion of it being the doubtful or inaccurate Citation of them in what he is pleased to call ‘‘ Jackson’s Index.” _ A NEW CASE of apparent symbiosis, between Tetraplodon and Peziza, 0 which the rhizoids of the moss were associated with the fungus hyphz, has been found by Professor F. E. Weiss. (Rep. Brit. Ass. 1895: 855): IN THE Bull. Torr, Bot. Club (May), W. W. Rowlee and K. M. Wiegand describe some very interesting hybrids of Sa/ix candida, found near Ithaca, N.Y.; and S. M. Tracy and F. S. Earle describe numerous new fungi from Mississispi. A LIST OF forty-seven freshwater alga new to Great Britain is given by W. and G. S. West in Jour. Roy. Mic. Soc., April, 1896. Fourteen new Species are described with two new genera, Two plates of very crowded illus- trations accompany the list. —S. = 75 76 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ JULY Dr. V. F. BRoTHERUS, of Helsingfors, left about the middle of April upon a botanical journey into central Asia. He will explore the high moun- tain flora of Issikul, giving particular attention to the mosses. He expects to return about the first of September. PRoFEsSOR C. S. SARGENT, of Boston, and M. H. de Vilmorin, of Paris, are the best known of the four recipients of the Veitch medals, awarded by the Royal Horticultural Society to gardeners promoting the advance of horti- culture. (Gard. Chron., May 16).—S. PROFESSOR GANONG, of Smith College, has distributed, as a separate from the elective pamphlet, an outline of the courses in botany offered for 1896-7. It would be useful to botanists if the practice were general, so that each might know what is offered to students in the way of advanced work. A WELL-EXECUTED colored plate of Erythronium mesochoreum Knerr is published in the commencement number of 7he Mid/and, the college maga- zine of Midland College, Atchison, Kansas. A short general account of the plant by Professor E. B. Knerr is also illustrated by text figures of sterile and fertile plants of £. albidum and E. mesochoreum. A CONTINUATION of Briquet’s Zadiate forms part 1340f Die Natiirlich- en Phlanzenfamilien. We note in it the splitting up of Cedroned/la, retain- ing the old name for the single species of the Canary islands, and recognizing two American genera, Meehania Britton, and Brittonastrum Briquet. Part 135 contains the conclusion of Engler’s Burseracea, and Meliacee by H. Harms, Mr. F. S. Ear te, formerly connected with the Gulf Station of the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station and with the Agricultural Department of the United States, was appointed adjunct professor of horti- culture at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute in January last. Upon Professor Underwood's appointment to Columbia University he was recently promoted to the professorship of biology. : FOLLOWING the appearance of our violets in the Synoptical Flora, Pro- fessor E. L. Greene (Pittonia, May 16), and Mr. C. L. Pollard (Proc. Biol. Soe» Wash., May 26) have added to the literature of the genus. The work of the former was mentioned in this journal for June. Mr. Pollard deals with the purple-flowered acaulescent forms of the Atlantic coast, presenting te forms, of widely different limitation and nomenclature from the presentation of the same forms in the Synoptical Flora. j RECENT NUMBERS of the Gardeners’ Chronicle (Apr. 4, 18, and May 2) give considerable space to a discussion of the larch disease, or blister, caused _by the fungus, Pesiza Wil/kommi,. with several illustrations. The disease originates probably in early spring when the hydrostatic pressure is consider- ee ee a : 1896] NEWS . 77 able. Though essentially a bark disease, it frequently causes malformations of the trunk and even the death of the tree. Cold and damp are thought to be the prime causes. —S. IN A PAPER read before the London Pathological Society, Mr. S. G. Shattuck gives the results of some investigations in regard to the healing of incisions in vegetable tissues. When both surfaces were freely exposed to the air, on each surface a layer of cork was formed, which gave place to the underlying parenchyma when the twocorky layers met. The other common method of healing was by cell-division on either face of the injury and was usual when the surfaces were not sufficiently separated to admit the air. (Gard. Chron., May 23).—S. AT THE CALL of a committee of representative persons interested in Maine botany, a convention was held at Portland, July 12-15, 1895. ‘The dif- ferent sessions were attended by about one hundred persons, many of whom expressed a desire to become members of a permanent organization, and as an outgrowth from this convention the Josselyn Botanical Society of Maine was formed. The second annual meeting was held in the State Normal School, Farmington, July 7-10, 1896. The general plan for the meetings is to devote the first two days to papers and discussions, and the last two to field expeditions into the surrounding country. E FIRST BULLETIN of the New York Botanical Garden, recently issued, contains a full statement of the status of this important enterprise. Of special interest to botanists is the agreement with Columbia University, whereby the large herbarium and library of the college is to be deposited with the Garden. This will make the latter at once a great botanical center, situated in surroundings which will give ample room for expansion, and for the proper development of every phase of botany. In the interest of botanical science in America it is to be hoped that Dr. Britton will find generous sup- port for the development of his far-reaching plans. Such opportunities should) develop more than a great taxonomic center, but to accomplish it New York must continue to be very generous. Otro KAISER has reinvestigated the nuclear division in various cells of Characee. He finds that mitosis alone occurs in all apical, segment, nodal and peripheral cells, in the nodal cells of the cortical lobes, the cells of the antheridia and of young oogonia. In the segment cells, especially in those of the so-called leaves, the aster, metakinesis and diaster stages are somewhat different from the ordinary form, being of the barrel type. Centrosomes were present with the resting nuclei as well as with all stages of their divi- Sion. Fragmentation occurs only in the cortical cellsof older oogonia, and in the internodal cells of the stem, of the “leaves,” and of the older cortical lobes. Only in these is more than one nucleus found. Kaiser's best results 78 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuLy were obtained with material fixed in corrosive sublimate solution, or Her- mann’s or Flemming’s fluids. Staining with Heidenhain’s hematoxylin pro- duced sharply outlined mitotic figures. THE CORNER STONES of the Hull Biological Laboratory of The University of Chicago were laid July 3d, with appropriate ceremonies. An address was delivered by Dr. George L. Goodale, of Harvard University, upon “Some of tory to modern thought and modern life, strong statement concerning the claims of al schemes and also upon the community. M. Coulter officiated at the laying of the comet Hall and made a brief statement concerning the ad Spoeuie of the building. In the evening the visiting biologists kin entertained by The University at the Quadrangle Club House, where informal responses were called for by President Harper. Among visiting botanists present were: Dr. Geo. L. Goodale, Harvard Univer sity; Dr. T. J. Burrill, University of Illinois: Dr. T. H. MacBride University of Iowa; Dr. Charles R. Barnes, University of Wisconsin; Dr. F. Pierce, University of Indiana; Dr. C. F, Millspaugh, Field Columbian 1896] : NEWS 79 Museum. The accompanying cut will give some idea of the external appear- ance of the building, which will be ready for use in the spring of 1897. THE RECENT TORNADO at St. Louis was so destructive that much anxiety was felt by botanists as to the fate of the Missouri Botanical Garden. In the absence of Dr. Trelease, Mr. C. H. Thompson, Acting Director, has furnished the following statement for the readers of the GAZETTE: “The Garden was in the direct path of the storm, at the very beginning of the territory destroyed, and received less injuries than the region east of us. However, the damage done in the Garden is very considerable, the most of it being in the arboretum, where something like 160 trees were either uprooted or broken off near the ground, so that they had to be taken out. These, of course, were total losses. Something over 250 were very badly damaged. In many Cases the tops of the trees were almost entirely carried away. Many of these, by judicious pruning, will in a few years grow to be beautiful trees again, while many are so badly broken that it is probable that they will die. The shrubbery was badly whipped and broken, but fared better than the trees. The bed plants were almost totally destroyed in the exposed parts of the grounds. However, these are now replaced. The wreckage from the trees is rapidly being gathered up, and the Garden promises by another month to be as beautiful as ever, with only the vacant places here and there to remind us of the ravages of the storm. Buildings suffered somewhat. The Linnean house, which shelters the palms in the winter season, had the glass portion of the roof entirely _ demolished. The office building had the tin roof torn from the south wing, and other buildings escaped with slight damages. At the office building, where the library and herbarium are kept, no damage whatever was done to the contents of the building. No permanent damage was done to the Gar- den, and most of it can be repaired in a short time.” PROFEssoR E, L. GREENE, in the continuation of his “studies in Composite” (Pittonia 3: 43), presents further conclusions in regard to the “asteraceous" forms, Generic lines in this vicinity either were or are in a and possibly ever will be. Apparently species may belong to any one of several genera dependent upon the standpoint of the observer. In the present paper the genera Oonopsis (a new genus), Xylorrhiza, Heleastrum, Dellingeria, Eucephalus, and Macheranthera are present synoptically, Aster and Applopapus being the most frequent synonyms. Dr. Joun K, SMALL, in Bud/. Torr. Bot. Club (May), has taken Rai- mann’s work on CEnothera, as presented in Engler and Prantl’s Natirlichen. oF ‘flanzenfamilien, and applied it toa study of North American materials. The Composite character of this Linnzan genus was notably pointed out by Spach 80 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuty in 1835, but his numerous genera, for some reason, were not largely accepted. Raimann adopted Spach’s idea, but seems to have presented his conclusions ina more satisfactory way. Dr. Small presents fifteen genera as represented in North America under the single generic name G@:nothera, the old name retain- ing but five species, such as ©. humtifusa, G2. laciniata, @&. rhombipetala, etc. Those having somewhat acquainted themselves with the genus will be lost for a time in the maze of revived generic names. A new genus, Gaurella, is described, founded upon @, canescens Torr. & Frem., a number of new species are described, and abundant opportunity is given for new combina tions. It is to be hoped that such extensive fragmentation may not be found necessary in many of our large genera, or there will be a call for an inter- national congress to define a genus. WE HAVE RECEIVED a bulletin from the Alabama Experiment Station which should occasion some remark, It is Bulletin 70, and is entitled “The Flora of Alabama, Part V,”’ by P. H. Mell, botanist to the station. The four preceding parts have never come to our notice, but the present one deals with the Leguminose and Rosacee. We suspect, however, that this is the first part to appear, as certain prefatory matters would indicate. The author seems to be aware that botanists have been doing something in the last “ten or twelve”’ years, for he says so; but just what, he is evidently uncertain about, as the list testifies. We would suggest that if an “up-to-date” flavor be desired for the catalogue, the conspectus of orders had better be chang in several particulars, at least by removing the gymnosperms from their unnatural position between dicotyledons and monocotyledons; some dubious species had better be investigated, and all of them should be substantiated by herbarium specimens; and more than all, Dr. Chas. Mohr’s relation to this work should be clearly stated. Botanists outside of Alabama have know? for years that Dr. Mohr has been working upon a flora of his state, and we have expected a model state flora, because Dr. Mohr’s zeal and patient accuracy are well known. In the list before us certainly one-half of the Leguminos@ and one-third of the Rosacee are credited to Dr. Mohr alone; and we cannot believe that this extensive information was obtained from out good friend with the expressed intention of anticipating his own flora. In other words, Dr. Mohr must have granted a favor that has been abused. CAMBRIDGE BOTANICAL SUPPLY COMPANY 1286 Massachusetts Avenue, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. National Herbarium All Articles for Mounting Paper. Spring Classes in Botany. New IN PRESSES, COLLECTING BOXES ew Devices AND HERBARIUM CASES. SEND FOR NEW PRICE LIST, Everything Useful to Botanists. Colorado Plants In the fail of 1896 I shall issue sets of Colorado Flowering Plants, also sets of Mosses and Fungi. Will supply to specialists and others large series of any species obtainable. Only first-class specimens sent out. The material will be plentiful and complete as possible. My trips will cover both plains and hills, from 4,500 to 12,000 feet. mitguamees”* CARL F, BAKER, Fort Collins, Colorado. "Psi oy complete and well prepared, and will compare favorably with any we obtain from numerous ea “ Having studied your collections during the past three years, Imay ey s. I consider your specimens up to America.”—Prof. C. F. Wheeler. SPECIALLY PREPARED HERBARIUM PAPER for BOTANISTS This paper is offered at the moderate price of $5.50 per ream. We also furnish: af Ae No. 1. Genus Cover. 16% X 24 inches, at $4.00 per 100. 2. “ “ « “ “ bs 3. “ “ “ “ = 1.50 Dryers, i xe 1s 2.00 a Species Sheets 16% X 23% “ GOO Orders will receive prompt attention. : Write for samples. / ae Rs PENNSYLVANIA AVE., N.W. E. Morrison Laper C0. pasmacton be A New Series of ... Dissecting Microscopes . . . is described in our 1896 Catalogue, sent free 4q Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. ROCHESTER, N. Y. ___ NEW YORE Gi q HENRY HEIL CHEMICAL CO. = ST. LOUIS, MO. 4 Chemicals, Glassware AND OTHER APPARATUS FOR Chemical, Botanical, and Bacteriologica Laboratories IMPORTERS OF SPECIAL APPARATUS FOR VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOG | BEFORE RATED GIVE US A TRIAL, YOU WILL FIND US PROMPT AND CHEAP. - ORDERING ELSEWHERE, GET OUR QUOTATIONS... LARGE ILLUST CATALOGUE ON APPLICATION. Botanical Gazette Beginning with volume XXII (the current volume), the BoTANIcAL GAZETTE will be issued in two annual volumes, its largely increased size demanding this change for convenience in binding. Volume XXI closes with the June number, which contains the usual volume index. Volume XXII, beginning with the July number, is issued — from The University Press, with some changes in form and typography. Each number will contain at least eighty pages, which will be increased if necessary to meet the demands of contributions. The illustrations will be of the best grade of ‘lithographs and photo-engravings. The character will depend | ‘upon the subject, and will be determined by the So cane ince consultation with the author. ate That the Botanica, GAZETTE may be more fully repre- 4a sentative of botanical activity, a staff of associate editors has been organized. Those for America are: Groxce F- _ATKIN- S e _ SON, Professor of Botany, Cornell Unive rsity ~ VotNEy M. a SPaLpine, ‘Professor of Botany, University of Mich ‘ies RoLanp : eed: Assistant Professor Ae Shes oes ee Fi re BOTANICAL GAZETTE CONEENTS. a: : ROSA AMERICANA. I. Francois Crépin - - = : . e THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CYSTOCARP OF he Sain sa aoe BOR- _ NETIANA eed Plates I vs Il). Arma Anna Smi : a NEW MOSSES OF NORTH AMERICA. VI (vith Plates u11-V). F) i enauld and J. Cardot ae ae BRIEFER ARTICLES : : ‘ : Bark Wirmn a Tree Trunk (ill.). - D. Kelsey. <. HORIZONTAL Microscope (with Plate VI). Charles R. Barnes. . EDITORIAL ee ee ee . ‘THe oe Brotocicat SURVEY. a gee iste hk SCIENTIFIC CHIEF OF NT OF “AGRICULTURE. CURRENT I LITERATURE = - - = a BOOK REVIEWS, : ns _ Missounr BoTANicaL Garpen. J. M,C. = Porutar Work . oN Ecotocy. /. C. A, : ‘THE Srmaving oF Pants. J. C. A. New | VEGETATION DER ERDE.” C & B. : -_miwor wortces Pee eae. See “NOTES FOR STUDENTS Fe ae 5 - =e OPEN LETTERS oS ree ee 228 Repty bg Boox Review. Emily L. Gregory. NEWS a e a ee Bee VOL. XXII. NO. 1 Bee : JUL} Vol. XXII © AUGUST 1896 No. 2 + | THE | BOTANICAL GAZETTE EDITORS ) JOHN M. COULTER, Zhe University of Chicago, Chicago, Til. é CHARLES R. BARNES, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. = J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafavette, Ind. ASSOCIATE EDITORS GEORGE F. ATKINSON ROLAND THAXTER Cornell University Harvard University VOLNEY M. SPALDING WILLIAM TRELEASE University of Michigan Missouri Botanical Garden — bs] ~ : ISSUED AUGUST 31 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Published by The Bniversity of Chicago fie @nibrrecty of Eirags ‘Press Botanical Gazette BA Monthly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science Annual Subscription, $3.00 Single Numbers, 30 Cents THE SUBSCRIPTION PRICE MUST BE PAID IN ADVANCE. NO NUMBERS ARE SENT AFTER THE EXPIRATION OF THE TIME PAID FOR. NO REDUCTION IS MADE TO DEALERS OR AGENTS. In Great Britain, 14 Shillings. Agents, WM. WESLEY & SON, 28 Essex St, Strand, s Pie Germany, {4 Marks. Agents, R. FRIEDLAENDER & SOHN, Carlstrasse ii, BERLIN, N. W. 6. THE PRICES NAMED INCLUDE POSTAGE. parate Copies.—Contributors are furnished on request twenty- five separate copies of their articles (free) when two pages long OF more. Additional copies will be supplied at the following rates: For each four pages or less, per roo, $1.50; for each plate, per 100, $1.00 A less number at the same rate. 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Subscriptions and all business correspondence should be addressed to The University of Chicago, University Press Division, Chicago, Il, Money Orders and drafts should be made payable to The University of Chicago- [Entered at the Post-office at Chicago, Ill., as second-class postal matter. | ee | VOLUME XXII NUMBER 2" MOTANICAL” GAZETTE AUGUST 1896 ON THE TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS AND THEIR ELECTROLYTIC DISSOCIATION.* Louis KAHLENBERG and RoDNEY H. TRUE, THE THEORY OF ELECTROLYTIC DISSOCIATION. During the last decade work in physical chemistry has been characterized by a thorough and systematic study of solutions from both theoretical and experimental points of view. As a result of the activity along this line our knowledge of the nature of substances dissolved in various solvents has been greatly extended. In 1887 van’t Hoff,? basing his argument upon the osmotic experiments performed by Pfeffer? ten years earlier, was enabled to show almost a complete analogy between the behavior of solutions and gases. This analogy grows out of the fact that when the volume of a solution and its osmotic pressure are taken into” consideration the same laws hold as in the case of gases hen ‘the volume of the gas and its pressure are considered. So Meee i is the analogy that, considering the temperature — constant, 82 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [Aucusr volatilized and as occupying the same volume as that possessed by the solution. Thus van’t Hoff showed how the laws of Boyle and Gay-Lussac can be applied to dilute solutions. He was also enabled to make the following important extension of Avogadro’s hypothesis: Equal volumes of all solutions having the same temperature and the same osmotic pressure contain an equal number of molecules, which number is identical with that contained in a gas having the same volume, temperature and pressure. When Avogadro put forth his hypothesis that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pres- sure contain an equal number of molecules, facts were found that apparently spoke strongly against this view. Thus it was observed that the vapor density of the chloride of ammonium was only a little more than half as great as was required by the principle of Avogadro, or, in other words, the molecular weight of the chloride of ammonium as calculated from the vapor den- sity was found to be only a little more than one-half of that expressed by the formula NH,Cl. This fact at first caused much opposition to Avogadro’s views, which was finally cleared away, however, when it was shown that in the vapor of the chloride of ammonium there are not simply molecules of that salt, but also hydrochloric acid and ammonia molecules, the products into i which ammonium chloride in the va ciated. The theory of van’t Hoff had to contend with a similar diffi- culty. While the behavior of many solutions was such as t0 | strongly support the theory, a large number of solutions (partic-_ ularly aqueous solutions of acids, bases and salts) showed com siderable deviation in their behavior from what the theory required, inasmuch as their osmotic pressures were greater than they ought to be according to the theory. The empirical results of Raoult,t which led to the methods for determining molecular weights of dissolved substances from the diminution of the vapor tension (or the elevation of the boiling point) of the 4 Compare Ostwald, I por state is largely disso- -ehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie 1:715, 748. 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 83. solution or the lowering of the freezing point of the same, were explained from theoretical standpoints by the above mentioned work of van’t Hoff, and so these methods were placed upon a thoroughly scientific basis. Solutions that showed too great an osmotic pressure also showed too great a diminution of the vapor tension or too great a lowering of the freezing point, and conse- quently too small a molecular weight. In his mathematical formule van’t Hoff for the time being arbitrarily introduced a factor 7 to account for the deviations that such solutions showed from what the theory required. Soon, however, Arrhenius,’ from the relation between the lowcr- ing of the freezing point of solutions and their electrical conduc- tivity, came to the conclusion that in aqueous solutions of salts, acids and _ bases, in short, in solutions that are conductors of electricity, the dissolved substances showing too small molecular weights (as did the chloride of ammonium in the vapor state) are to be regarded as being dissociated® into part-molecules or ions.? These ions are charged with electricity, each gram-equiva- lent bearing 96,540 coulombs. This latter figure has been deter- mined by experiments on electrolysis and has well been termed the constant of Faraday’s law. There are ina solution of an electrolyte as many ions charged with positive electricity as with negative electricity and thus the electrical neutrality of the solu- tion is preserved. Viewing things, then, in the light of the theory of Arrhenius, we have, for example, in a solution of sodium chloride sodium tons and chlorine ions, besides a certain number of undissociated. sodium chloride molecules. Experiments on the electrical conduc- tivity show that in this case dissociation is practically complete when one gram-molecule (7. ¢., 23+35.5=58.5 grams) of the salt is dissolved in 1000 liters of water. There are at this dilution then , solution not NaC] molecules, but Na ions and Clions. These are usually written Na- and Cl, 5 Zeitschr. f, physik. Chem. 1:631. 188 . i j ; 4 * . : el Because this dissociation takes place only in case of electrolysis it is termed. oe issociation, ‘ A term that dates back to Faraday. 84 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST It has often been asked in what way Na ions and Cl ions differ from ordinary sodium in the metallic state and ordinary chlorine gas respectively. The difference lies in the energy possessed by the substances in the ordinary state and in the ionic state. Ten grams of chlorine ions, for example, contain less energy than do ten grams of chlorine. Supply the energy to the ions, as is done in the case of electrolysis, and the ions are changed to ordinary chlorine gas. The lack of understanding of this point at first caused much reluctance to accept the theory of electrolytic dissociation (or the theory of free ions as it is also called), notably on the part of English chemists. Since Arrhenius published his theory of electrolytic dissocia- tion, all investigations made on salt solutions have confirmed it. In addition to the lowering of the freezing point and the elec- trical conductivity, the elevation of the boiling point, the specific volume, and the optical and thermal properties of solutions of electrolytes, all strongly support the, views of Arrhenius. This theory in the hands of Nernst® has yielded a clearer understand- ing of the processes that take place in voltaic combinations and has made it possible to calculate with accuracy in advance what the electro-motive force of a galvanic chain will be. It has ena bled Ostwald? to place analytical chemistry upon a firmer scien tific basis. In short, all the physical and chemical properties of aqueous solutions of electrolytes are well explained by o assumption that in these solutions the dissolved substances a split up into part-molecules or ions, and that the various proper ties that the solutions possess are due to the properties of the ions, The more dilute the solution of an electrolyte is, the greater is the percentage of the dissolved substance that is dissociated, and only at infinite dilution is this dissociation complete. In the case of many substances, however, namely strong acids bases as well as salts of these, dissociation goes on very rapidly Pea Nernst, Theoretische Chemie 563-569, where other references will also be ound, iat * Die wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen der analytischen Chemie, Leipzig, 1894- 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 85 as dilution increases, so that, as was pointed out above in the case of sodium chloride, dissociation is practically complete when an equivalent in grams is dissolved in 1000 liters of water. Hydrochloric acid dissociates into H ions and Clions. A dilute solution of sodium chloride and one of hydrochloric acid both contain Cl ions. Their difference, then, is due to the fact that the former solution contains H ions, whereas the latter con- tains Naions. To this difference are to be ascribed all the dif- ferences of properties that the two solutions possess. Solutions of all acids contain H ions, solutions of all chlorides contain Cl ions, those of sulphates SO, ions, those of nitrates NO, ions. Salts of copper in solution yield Cu ions, those of lead Pb ions, etc. In general, if BA represent the formula of a salt, B repre- senting the basic radical and A the acid radical, then in dilute aqueous solutions this compound is to a greater or less extent dissociated into the ions B* and A-, and, as stated, all the physical and chemical properties that such a solution possesses are due to the properties of the ions together with the proper- ties of the undissociated molecules present. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS. It has always been taken as axiomatic that the physiological action of any substance is due to its chemical character. Now if, in the case of the solutions in question, all the chemical and physical properties are due to the properties of the ions plus those of the undisso- ctated molecules it contains, it seems very probable that the physiologt- cal effect produced by such solutions is also due to these. This thought, simple as it is, has to our knowledge never before been expressed. Many investigations on the physiological action of aqueous Solutions of salts on bacteria and higher forms of plant life as well as on‘animals have been made. The strengths of the solu- tions with which these experiments were performed have always been €xpressed in per cent. by weight; thus chemically equiva- lent quantities (7. e. molecular quantities) of the different sub- stances were not compared, and it is probably for this reason that general considerations have entirely escaped observation. 86 : BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ aucust If a very dilute solution of sodium chloride differs from a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid only in that the former con- tains Na ions and the latter H ions, then the poisonous action of the latter is plainly due to the H ions present. In like manner comparing a very dilute solution of sodium nitrate with a similar solution of nitric acid, the poisonous nature of the latter would ‘be due to the H ions present. In general, if the solution is suf- ficiently dilute so that the acid is completely dissociated and the acid radical is of such a nature that at this concentration its ions have practically no poisonous action, the toxic value of the acid solution is due only to the H ions present. Now strong acids are highly dissociated in aqueous solutions, thus rendering these relatively rich in H ions. Weaker acids are not as strongly dissociated, their solutions contain less H ions, and are comnse- quently less active. It must be borne in mind that the salt remaining undissociated is present in the solution as well as the ions. That these undissociated remainders and the anions of the acid radical also exert an effect is not to be denied, but im many cases, such as that of the Cl ions in hydrochloric acid solutions, the action is practically mi/ at the strength at which hydrochloric acid is still effective, since a solution of common salt containing as many Cl ions as the hydrochloric acid solution in question is ineffective. The same reasoning may be applied to nitrate of sodium and nitric acid, also to sodium hydroxide and common salt. In the latter case the solutions differ from each other in that the former contains OH ions, whereas the latter contains Cl ions. All solutions of bases (lyes) contaill : OH ions and their toxic action is due to these alone, provide i that the metal or radical forming the cathion is itself harmless at the concentration used. Thus it is evident that H ions and OH ions have toxic properties. That it is the ionic condition which brings this about is shown by the fact that in the case fs water where we have these constituents in practically an undis- sociated state, there is no toxic action. The poisonous property of a very dilute solution is then due to the ions it contains, and if at the particular concentration ae 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 87 hand only one physiologically active ion is present the effect- iveness of the solution is to be attributed to that one ion. Solu- tions of hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids are nearly com- pletely dissociated when an equivalent in grams is dissolved in 1000 liters of water. Hence such or more dilute solutions of these acids, when chemically equivalent quantities are dissolved, ought to have the same toxic effect, the Cl, NO, and SO, ions at such dilution being harmless. That these radicals are harm- less is shown by the fact that like concentrations of the sodium salts of these acids are harmless. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. We have tested this point experimentally for the higher plants by ascertaining the strength of solution in which roots of the ordinary field lupine will just live. We have found that the limit for these acids is reached in case of a solution containing one equivalent in grams in 6400 liters of water. We may say, then, that one gram of hydrogen ions distributed through 6400 liters of water will give a solution in which roots of the lupine will just survive. It is entirely immaterial at this dilution whether we take hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric acids; the toxic action of the solutions is the same, provided they contain the same amount of hydrogen ions. The molecular weight in grams, or simply one gram-molecule of acid sulphate of potas- sium in 6400 liters, would contain as much ionic hydrogen as @ gram-molecule of hydrochloric acid, and should therefore have the same toxic effect. This has been confirmed by €xperiment. It seemed best to confine our first investigations to one order of plants, and, by reason of the nature of the ques- tion under consideration, to operate with objects which by Previous physiological study have become in a degree well known to botanists. It is for this reason that the seedlings of Lupinus albus 1. were selected. This seedling is remarkable for its straight, clean radicle, the ease with which uniform speci- mens can be obtained, and for its great sensitiveness to solu- 88 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST tions.” The seeds were germinated in the usual manner. After being swelled in water they were placed in moist, loose cotton batting and set in the dark until the radicles had reached a length of from 2™ to 4™, when they were ready for use. Experiments were made with solutions contained in glass beakers of convenient size that were, of course, cleaned with the utmost care each time they were used. To support the seedling in proper position the following arrangement was used. Through a large cork fitting loosely over the beaker was thrust.a glass rod which played rather tightly through it. Another and smaller piece of cork (small enough to allow ample room about it in the beaker) was likewise tightly pushed on the rod. To the circumference of this inner cork the seedlings were secured by means of glass pins, and by sliding the cork support up o down on the rod they were set into the solution at the desired depth. The large cork, by closing loosely the mouth of the beaker, allowed sufficient change of air within, at the same time preventing undue evaporation from the solution. Since in the experiments the prime thing sought was the degree of concentration at which each solution just allowed the radicles to live, it became important to avail ourselves of all the means which would aid in deciding whether a radicle was living or dead. As Askenasy™ has pointed out, almost the only reli- able indication concerning the condition of a plant is its growth rate. Accordingly access was had to the well known method of Sachs.” A fine mark of India ink was made 15™" from the tip of the root, a distance safely including the entire growing zone of the radicle. Thus marked, the roots were placed in the solutions, set in the dark, and again observed after a perio of from fifteen to twenty-four hours. In order to deter © True, On the influence of sudden changes of turgor and of temperature me growth. Ann. of Bot. 9: 372. 1895, i *Askenasy, Ueber einige Beziehungen zwischen Wachsthum und Tempera Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Gesellsch. 8:75. 1 ; : Sachs, Ueber das Wachsthum der Haupt- und Nebenwurzeln. Arb. d. bot 6% ut Wiirzburg 1: —. 1873, and Gesammelte Abhandlungen itiber Pflanzen-phys* ologie. 2:778. 1893. 1896] TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 89 mine the condition of the roots, the general appearance and the growth made after the beginning of the experiment ‘were taken into account. If a much too concentrated solu- tion was used a plainly abnormal aspect was usually found. In the acid solutions the satiny luster of the normal sur- face was lost and a dead-white color was observed, suggesting a condition perhaps best described by the word coagulated. Although difficult to describe, this condition is quickly detected by the observer, and is undubitable evidence of death. An instructive discussion of this and other fost mortem symptoms has recently been presented by Paul Klemm. The radicles killed in colored solutions, as salts of copper, iron, cobalt, etc., took on more or less decidedly the color of the. medium. Some radicles after death assumed an unusual transparent appearance. This was the case with those in potassium hydroxide, and in mercuric cyanide, potassium ferro and ferricyanide, hydrocyanic acid and potassium cyanide. Another evidence that death has taken place is seen in the flabby condition following the loss of turgor pressure. This, in the extremely dilute solutions here used, could in no case be due to the osmotic properties of the solutions, and it would be still more improbable that, after fifteen to twenty-four hours in the medium, the flabby appearance could be due to this cause. Turgor accommodation in a normal root, when placed in a solu- tion osmotically equivalent to those here used, would take place very soon,” and living roots would be turgid. Another indication of the condition of the radicles was sought in the changes in length occurring after the beginning of the experiment. In strongly toxic concentrations where death occurred very quickly, the accompanying loss of turgor left the roots shorter than at the beginning of the experiment. As the solutions were increasingly dilute but still, within the time limit of our experiments, fatal, various amounts of growth were found *3 Paul Klemm, Desorganizationserscheinungen der Zelle. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 28: 30. 1896. True, ibid. 382. go BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST to have taken place before death, sometimes nearly equal- ing the normal under the prevailing conditions of temperature, etc. It was thus possible from the ante mortem growth in a series of solutions to locate roughly the concentration limit sought. When neither aspect nor growth rate gave plain evidence, the radicles were measured and returned to the solutions to be again observed. If between the last observation and the first, no elon- gation had occurred, it was inferred that the roots were dead at the time of the former inspection. Since, as the concentration decreases, an increasingly long exposure is necessary to work fatally, it was decided to choose a period of exposure to the solutions within which the action of the same should be judged. This period was from fifteen to twenty- four hours following the introduction of the roots into the solution. Although the time limit may seem rather broad, it must be borne in mind that solutions were always diluted by one-half, and there- fore witha Strong time limit, we should still be far from any absolute concentration limit.% Individual differences in the seedlings frequently show themselves, one radicle at times being killed, another beside it surviving. In such cases, the first suf viving individual indicated the concentration sought. Usually two seedlings were placed in each concentration tested, but Sometimes only one was used, When grounds for doubting the accuracy of results were present, experiments in question were repeated. It is not to be inferred that the limits here obtained represent the greatest strength of the given substances that these radicles can endure, since a gradual increase of concentration allows 4 very considerable accommodation on the part of the plant to be made, and the consequent toleration of solutions that would upon immediate use have proved fatal. This was shown in sev eral experiments in which dead roots were left for a time in the solutions. Laterals pushed out above the dead region and grew in the solutions without serious harm, ~ ‘SP. Klemm, zd¢d., 33 (for acids), 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS gt TABULATED DATA. The detailed results of the most essential experiments are presented in the appended tables. At the top of each table is given its number, the substance used, and, in the second line, the date at which the radicles were set into the solutions, and the date at which the results were observed. The distance at which the mark previously mentioned was placed from the root tip was always 15™". In the first column appear the concentrations used expressed in gram-molecules or gram-equivalents per liter of the solution. The column headed “length’’ shows the distance between the line and the root tip, giving, therefore, after subtracting 15™™, the growth made during the period indicated. If further observations and measurements were - made, the dates and lengths are placed in adjacent columns. Under “remarks” are verbal indications on the condition of the radicles. Death or survival indicates the condition at the time given in column two. The number of horizontal readings under each concentration shows the number of roots employed and their individual records. For a large majority of the substances, there appears in the table the record of the last plainly fatal dilution and of all weaker solutions as far as tested. Thus the concentration limit in most cases is the second con- centration in the table. It will be noted in the concentrations not fatal, that, in general, the amount of growth increases as the concentration decreases. Since, in these experiments, external conditions were not particu- larly controlled, the value of the growth rates must not be over- estimated and are significant only in features recurring with regularity. Tables 1 to 5 show that the seedlings just survive in a solu- se that contains szoy gram of hydrogen ions per liter. It is evident from what has been stated before that the anions have no toxic action at this dilution, and that the poisonous action of the solutions is solely due to the hydrogen ions present, inasmuch as these various acids affect the seedlings alike. g2 BOTANICAL GAZETTE Hyprocuioric acip (HC1). (Begun January 9, 8 P.M.; closed January 10, 3 P.M.) acon ne i PMs Length Remarks : s300 17.8™m flabby, dead a tae 19.0 “és a 4“ sao0 29.0 “ appearance normal : 18,5¢ tip dead 2. Hyprosromic acip (HBr). (Begun January 11, 6 P.M.; closed January 12, 10 A.M.) Concentration gm. equiv, per liter Length Remarks 15,500 flabby, dead 18.0% 27.5 * agp norma] 2G flabby, 28.5 “ ce eee: 31.5 ‘ec “ “ 3. NITRIC ACID (HNO,). (Begun January 11, 5 p.M.; closed January 12, 10 A.M.) Concentration gm. equiv, per liter ribo too rates Length Remarks q flabby, dead apparently normal 4. SULFURIC ACID (H,50,). (Begun January 9, 9 P.M.; closed January 10, 4 P.M.) Concentration gm, equiv. per liter Length Remarks flabby, dead ae “ apparently normal “ bed “ se [auGustT 1896 ] TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 93 5. ACID-POTASSIUM SULFATE (KHSO,). (Begun January 10, 6 P.M.; closed January II, I P.M.) Concentration gm, equiv. per liter Length Remarks soo bo ieee flabby, dead e200 30.5. apparently normal Pee Teo 2.0 wee se “ Tab00 ope ssi se “6 6. Hyprocuioric acip.. MARCH 7, IO A.M. (Concentration: yyyy gm. mol. per liter.) No. os * tee 7,2 P.M. ie S pes 7,3 P.M. I iso 3.0" 7.o flabby 2 13.5" 5 19.0 “ ol 3 13:5 co 16.5.- © 4 19.5 66 4.5 ‘ 19.5 ‘“ Av. growth perhr.o.g1™™ | All dead. 7. HyprRocHLoric acip. MARCH 7, IO A.M. (Concentration: ;#yy gm. mol. per liter.) March yas , 8 P.M. March 8, 11.30 A.M, No, 20° C. 7,2P.M me oo 7,8 P.M os*C. 11.30 I 19. eens gece 20 Se ar 34,00" II omm™ 2 | 18.5 “ 24%). baog * a0“ faee 2.5 “ 3-205 POS 22.0 “ 2.5 * 28.0 * 6.0 : 4 1 190 * 40 * 22.5 “ 3.6“ | 340 “ 11.5 Av. growth per hr. 1.03™™ Av. growth per hr. 0.5™™ | Av. growth per hr. 0.2™™ i ie Pe ae eet eC cae It will be noticed, on inspecting tables I to 5, that in the lowest fatal dilution, a growth prior to death of from 5™™ to 10" usually occurred. This raised the question whether, in case of the acids the hydrogen ions might not act catalytically and hasten the chemical processes of the cells and possibly also the growth of the radicle. Experiments with hydrochloric acid 94 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [auGusT have thus far yielded entirely negative results. Tables 6 to II give the record of these experiments, but more work along this line is needed. The first column simply numbers the experi- ment; the remainder give the results at the times and tempera-_ tures named. 8. DISTILLED WATER (Controi). MARCH 7, 10 A.M. hea 7) 2PM. cg 7,8 P.M. — 8, 11: 30 PoM: 20°C, °C, 25°C, 19,0" 4.0™™ 23.0™™ 4.0mm 31 .omm 8.0m" a ee 26.5 “ 5.0 “ 36.5 “ pgs’ 41:0“ 6.0 28.5 ‘ oes 43.0 “ 14.54 21.0 “ 6.0 “ 26.0 “ 5.0" 36.0 “ 10.0" Ay. growth per hr. 1.5™™ | Avy. growth per hr. 0.87™" | Av. growth per hr. 0.69™ 9- DisTILLED WATER (Control). Marcu 14, II AM. March 14,3 P.M. | March 15.10 a.m, |March 16, 9:30 A.M.| March 17, 11 A.M. March 19, 3 Ee 20° C, 22°C, 25°C, 23°C. 20° C. 18.5™™ 3.5™ | 345mm 16,¢mm | gy mm 175"™ | 66.0™™ 14.07 | 86.5% 20 17.5% 2.5 eee 105" 1545 % 20.5" | 71.0" 165% | 968” ae 1851 35% 1360" 17.5% | 56.0% 20.0% | 76.5% 20.5“ [104.0 “ ae 18.5 3.5 28.0 “ 0.5 “ 45.0 “6 17.0 “ 59.0 “ 14.0 $6 87. 5 20. Ay. growth per Av. growth per |Ay. growth pe hr. o. Av. th per hr. 0.81™™ hr. 0.8 yum : aah 0.63" to. HypRocHLoric acip. MARCH 14, II AM. (Concentration: shy gm. mol. per liter.) March 14, 3 Pm. pees 15,10 A.M. {March 16, 9:30 4 n:.| March 17, 11 A.M. ey 195 . ae" C, oe 20° C. Cc c 23°C c pa ed : 17.0°" 2.9mm 26.0™m omm mm mm m mm | 87, — Bo" < 30% Vaggu ; a ese ThST | 5.0m BEST es «“ < 5-0 15. 60.0 -0 ie CO 4 pe 18.5 « 3.5 a 20.0" 11.5 ‘kc : “ 0° 19.0 = “ } “ - 39.5 9.5 “ 52.0 “ 12.5 Fi. . 0 — apie a 14.0“ | 49.0% 16.0% | 69.0% 20.0 * | 90.0 “ — Petree ae ee ari, Av. growth per |Av. growth per Ae A wth per : v. v. gro hr. 0.78™m hr. 2 ge gp tee a aed Pa hr. 0.357 mm ee, | 1896 | tot I. TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS HypROCHLORIC ACID. (Concentration : xstoo gm. mol. per liter.) MARCH 14, II A.M. March 14, 3 P.M. zo" UC; March 15, 10 A.M, 22°C, March 16. 9: 30 A.M. an Cy March 17, 11 A.M. aa" Ue March 19, 3 P.M. 20° C, phy 7A gad 2.9™m 25,000" I 2,gmm 4 I .omm I 2.9mm 5 i: cum 1:50" vee 20,50" ma ge (436%. 13.5. | 50.0%: 18.0" [66.0% -160- ags. 25S 18.5 . a5" -l200° 10.5% | 39.0% 100% [50.0% ie gee” geo” 17.5 2.5 1 24.0 65° pas 4% -ato 2c oe FS70 5. the" Av. growth per 6.720" Ay. growth per br.6.56°" i Ay. growth per hr. 0.50™" Av. growth per br 0.527 Av. growth per br 0.35"" 12. POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE (KOH). (Begun January 9, 9 P.M., closed January 10, 4 P.M.) oncentration gm. mol, per liter Length Remarks zbo0 165°" rather transparent—-alive(?) oes ae 17 5 “e “ee “ “cc ? abo 27.01" apparently normal—alive reid 28.0 * “ec 2 ‘“ és sou 36 o * “ sc “ ie00 32.0 ‘“ ‘ rT) ‘6 guoa 42 re) ee “ ad “ee sato0 37.5 66 6 «“ ‘“ The above table for potassium hydroxide shows that the seedlings plainly live when the solution contains ;}, gm. mol. per liter, The potassium hydroxide used was free from carbon- dioxide at the beginning of the experiment, but of course the Solution absorbed the carbon-dioxide given off by the plant as well as some from the air during the progress of the experiment, so that the hydroxyl ion is to be regarded as somewhat more Polsonous than the above figures would indicate. Tables 13 to 15 show that in case of the three copper salts u vestigated, the strength of the solution in which the seedlings hy Just survive is 5,45 gm. mol. per liter. As these salts can eee as practically completely dissociated - at this Ses , and as they act alike, it is evident that this figure gives SO cae the tables of the electrical conductivity of copper salts collected by Ost- rbuch d. allgem. Chem., 2:770[ed.2]. The electrical conductivity of 96 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [auGustT the concentration at which the copper ions in the solution are insufficient to kill the beans. 13. COPPER SULFATE (CuSOQO,). (Begun February 26, 4 P.M.; closed February 27, [2 M.) Concentration . gm. mol, per liter Length. Remarks a5¢00 16.0%" discolored, dead go ae 16.5" “ és 51200 2t.0 alive a #20" alive (?), tip slightly discolored 2.0" alive 204800 io “ «“ ——————_ 14. COPPER CHLORIDE (CuCl,). (Begun February 26, 4 p.M.; closed February 27, 1 P.M.) Concentration gm. mol, per liter 15. COPPER ACETATE. ~Cu (C,H,0,4)9- (Begun February 26, 5 p.M.; closed February 27, 12 M.) Length Remarks dead ia alive (2), tip slightly darkened alive Concentration gm, mol, per liter Length Remarks Seay eR eS MEER oie Bseo0 16.0™™ dead Oe ee 16.0 “ “ sitoo 20° alive 8 e 6 22.0 * oe rov200 21.0 ** +“ par 31.0 “ “ s0eso0- 28.0 A Ae 26.0 “* . solutions of the compounds used in the above tables 1 to 6, as well as of most inorganic substances menti buch, 2: 722-772, oned in this paper, are also to be found in Ostwald 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 97 16. 1CuSO, + 1C, -H,,0O,, +:3K08, 200 cc. CuSO,4, s$y gm. mol. per liter; 200 cc. sugar, y}y gm. mol. per liter; 3 cc. normal KOH. (Begun December 5, 8 P.M.) ntration Conce Length Length gm. mol. per liter | Dec.6,9A.m. | Dec, 9,9 A.M. Remarks xoo 15.0" o2008 living ee 19.0 “ 21:05" Me (Slight precipitate, probably due to contact with air and CO, excreted from roots. Concentration given based on CuSO, content.) 17. 1CuSO, + 1C,,H,,0,, + Ca(OH),. 200 cc. CuSO,4, $y) gm. mol. per liter; 400 cc. sugar, ;49 gm. mol. per liter; 106.4 cc. Ca(OH), (saturated solution). (Begun December 5, 8 P.M.) Concentration Length Length gm, mol. per liter. | Dec. ap A.M. | Dec, ste A.M. Remarks 0.00142 19.5™™ 46.0™™ alive 19.5 “ 8.5 “ . : (Solution deep blue. A slight precipitate formed on standing. Concentration Siven based on CuSO, content.) It has been shown” recently that in Fehling’s solution and allied solutions containing copper the copper does not exist as an ion by itself, but as a part of a complex ion formed with the rganic substance present. Such complex ions, according to our theory, we should naturally expect to have a quite different toxic action from that shown by copper ions. Experiment has verified this. In tables 16 and 17 are given the results obtained with Solutions of the character just mentioned. The composition of the solution is indicated in each table. Cane sugar was used instead of Rochelle salts in order to avoid getting too many salts Pd ha solution. An excess of caustic alkali was also avoided Da It would have introduced hydroxyl ions into the solution which are of themselves poisonous. The beans grow in this 17 : Kahlenberg, Zeitschr. f. physik. Chem. 8: 587, 608-613. 98 BOTANICAL GAZETTE case in solutions that are perfectly blue in color and contain qj gram atom copper per liter. The enormous contrast that this result presents with that obtained in the experiments in which the copper exists in the solution as ion (tables 14 and 15) apparent and shows that the copper ion is far more poisonots than the complex ion which contains copper. 18. FERRIC CHLORIDE (FeCl, ). (Begun December 5, 9 P.M.) ae ae gig Boca ns. Remarks oe ae cr 0.0906 ones” 15.0" dead, mahogany red 15.7 fe ae ae “ Fe, 0.00500 cr Ate Suga 19.7 “ turgor gone, dead 20.5 . “ ‘“ “ Fe, 0.00250 ) Ch nread totes 2L5°° 21.07" dead 215 = are “6 : (Concentration allowing growth not reached. Probably found at next with half the Fe and Cl content of the last in the table.) 19. DIALYZED IRON (FeCl, ), (Begun November 21, 5 P.M.) Con i : Length reciguenes Nov, ag A.M, ape ye he ag i ae eee Fe, 0.009555 ; Cl, 0.0093 eae 18.5m dead, laterals oe “ “ “i “ : Fe, 0,004774% the Cl, 0.00047 ; ees 23.5" §1.5™™ living, surface reddish 24.0 “ 62.0 “ . ss 4 26.0 “ 5 . . joe ee] From table 18, giving the results obtained with ferric ride; it. 1s evident that ferric ions have a quite strong toxic: It is known that ferric chloride splits up hydrolytically in solutions, which makes this case somewhat complica main object, however, was to compare the action ‘ 1896 } TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 99 chloride solution with that of a solution of dialyzed iron,” which contains no ferric ions inasmuch as potassium ferrocyanide (which is a test for ferric ions) produces no precipitate in the solution. The absence of chlorine ions in the solution is shown by the fact that silver nitrate produces no turbidity in such a solution. The tables show conclusively that ferric ions are much more poison- ous than are the complex ions containing ferric iron in the dialyzed iron solution. 20. FERROUS SULFATE (FeSO, ). (Begun March 7, 12 M.; closed March 8, 12 M.) Concentration gm. mol. per liter Length Remarks Tat00 18.0™™ dead, purplish spotted ee ee 19 “ “é “ee oe astou 240 alive, tip somewhat discolored eae 22:0: * dead, discolore 51200 34.0.7 alive, root-tip dead st eo a 29.0 bad “ “ “ Table 20 shows that for ferrous ions the concentration limit at which the seedlings will just survive is ;;},;) gram ion per liter. The same limit obtains in case of the nickel and cobalt ions (tables 21 to 24). Two nickel salts and also two cobalt salts were tested in order to show again that it is immaterial at this dilution whether the nitrates or the sulphates are used; in other words, that the toxic action of the solutions is solely due to the ions of the metals present. 21. NICKEL suLFATE (NiSO,). (Begun March 7, 11 A.M.; closed March 8, I2 M.) Concentration 2m. mol. per liter Length Remarks Beso 19.07" dead aes 22:5 “ epee stho0 4.6 alive ee a 31.0 de “ cn 18 i ; acco: i Solution of dialyzed iron used in the experiments of table 19 was prepared Tding to the directions given in the British pharmacopeeia. 100 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST 22. NICKELOUS NITRATE (Ni(NO,) 9). (Begun March 20, 4 P.M.) Concentration Length | Length gm. mol, per liter|March 21, ro 2 March 23, 3 P.M. Remarks ee a5800 26.0™™ 26.5™™ dead ie ae 20.0 ** 20.0 “* “ sihoo 28.0 “ 28.0 “ “ ee 37.0 “ 45.0 “ “liv. Mar. 21 23. CoBALTOUS SULFATE (CoSO,). (Begun March 20, 3 P.M.) Concentration Length Length me gm, mol, per liter|March 21, 10 A.M.| March 23, 3 P.M. Remaree poceoere Taboo 2.07% I9.0™™ dead re ee va 22.0 “ “ 35800 23.0 “ a5 % “liv. Mar.2! ee ta 27.0 “ 33.0 “ “ec PP aus | “ srd00 35.0 “ o2.4.° alive 35.0 “ 46.0 “ dead, liv. Mar. 21 na 24. COBALTOUS NITRATE (Co(NO;) ¢)- (Begun November 23, 5 p.M.; closed March 24, 3 P.M.) Concentration gm. mol, per liter Length Remarks ee estou 38.0™™ alive eae 16.5% dead srd00 40.0 “ alive Wea aie 28.0 “ “ wi (ee That cobalt, nickel and iron in the ionic condition thus hat the same toxic effect would tend to arouse in the mind 0° chemist the question whether this is not connected with that these metals have nearly the same atomic weight. Be ‘os there is a definite relation between the toxic effects oF the of the metals and the atomic weights of the latte? ie words whether the periodic law finds application here, is 4 ‘- tion that can be answered only after more experiment : have been gathered. i 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 10] 25. CADMIUM NITRATE (Cd(NO,),). (Begun March 23, 5 P.M.) Concentration Length Length gm. mol. per liter} March 24, 3 p.M. | March 25, 3 P.M, Remarks iosa00 200°" 16.50 dead Fee ee 20 20.5 “ e 204800 29.0 “ alive are 24.0" eo This table shows that cadmium ions are exceedingly poison- ous in character. 26. PorassiuM cyANIDE (KCé). (Begun February 3, 4 p.M.; closed February 4, 4 P.M.) Concentration gm. mol. per liter Length Remarks e400 pe alive, near boundary ee oe 18.0 “ “ “ “ tatoo 20.5 “ Boe as 21.0 “ “ss 2500 25.0 “ eee 18.0 “ “ sidoo 30.0 “6 “ Tov4es 26.5 “ rT} 202800 33:5 “s “ 27. POTASSIUM FERROCYANIDE (K,FeCn,). (Begun December 15, 7 P.M.) Concentration Length h gm. mol. per liter} Dec, Sef 12 M. Deno Aa Remarks ————————— 1b0 17.0"™ dead, transp’rent vbo 17.0 “ z..o—" living, appear- so 16.0 “ 17.5 “ rbo 19.5 “ 19.0“ | dead bas 17.5" 18.0 “ living, ap. nor. abo 20.0 “ 21.5 “ 2 : fe 4 Aes 23-5 “ as “ 1800 24.5 “ 30.0 “ see 24.5" 43.5 . ee 102 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST 28. POTASSIUM FERRICYANIDE (K, FeCnaya (Begun December 13, 8 P.M.) yess sal per Hee egg ee Thai ge Remarks _3b0 15,5 18.5™™ alive, boundary ren ij.0 * 19.0 “ Wid es a0 20.5 “ 26.0 “ “ . 20.0 “ 20.0 “ “cc ‘“c wdo 27.5 ‘“ 41.0 ‘“ “c “ ee aes ly 600 27-5 52.0 es ee 25.5 “ce 45.0 “ “cc “ Table 26 gives the concentration of cyanogen ions that the lupines can bear; it is about the same as that for hydrogen ions. In potassium ferrocyanide and potassium ferricyanide the irom and the cyanogen radical form complex ions’? which, as tables 27 and 28 show, have the same toxic effect. This is much less, however, than in the case where iron exists in the solution a ion by itself or where cyanogen ions as such are present in the solution. Experiments were also performed with a solution of mercufe chloride. The detailed results of these have unfortunately beet 7 mislaid, but the concentration of this solution that the ip : can bear was found to be ;54,, gm. equivalent per liter. Me curic chloride is a compound that is but slightly dissociated ek concentrations at which it is ordinarily used in laboratories; # the above mentioned concentration, however, the dissec” must have advanced to a considerable degree. From a solution of mercuric chloride mercuric oxide can precipitated by means of potassium hydroxide. If, howeveh* considerable amount of dextrine be first added to the ne chloride solution caustic alkali no longer precipitates mercunt oxide. erc 19 ‘ These ions are Fe!’ CN, and Fe’'’ CN, respectively. 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 103 29. MERCURIC CHLORIDE-+DEXTRINE+CAUSTIC POTASH. The detailed record having been mislaid, the end results are here given. (Concentrations calculated on the mercuric chloride.) Concentration gm, mol, per liter Result died = | Om te a Se BSS S235. Saqgqgt*a 4 a _ = 2s ao joey 30. Mercuric cyAniDE (HgCN,). (Begun February 25, 5 p.M.; closed February 26, 3 P.M.) Concentration : . gm, mol, per liter Length Remarks zst00 24.0%" transparent in growing parts, dead 4 P g +8 6 Oe > 28.5 ‘ ‘“ 66 ‘és “ 31300 255 dead Weak py 30 fe} “ec it 1oz400 45.0 “ alive 1otEen 44.0 “ “ 00 45.0 oe “ BrvE00 44.0 “ “ 6 eh aw 46 fe} “ ce EES SE Mercuric cyanide solutions possess no measurable electrical conductivity, This compound is then practically not dissociated In Hs solutions. Its toxic effect is consequently due to the undissociated salt (HgCN,) in the solution. The fact that the roots can bear only tuzr00 gm. mol. per liter of this substance Speaks for its pronounced poisonous character. In tables 31 and 32 are the results obtained with solutions of Silver nitrate and silver sulfate respectively. That these solu- tions behave alike toward the lupines is again evidence that it is = the silver ions they contain that are active. Their extremely Polsonous character will be noted. They are the most poisonous lons that we have investigated. 104 BOTANICAL GAZETTE 31. SILVER NITRATE (AgNO,). (Begun February 3, 6 p.M.; closed February 4, 10 A.M.) Papaie ght oe Length Remarks zuts00 Boao dead DVVENT 20.0 * alive (?) Bisz00 32,0." alive aie fe 5700." ra 1sssz00 22.0 “ ‘ 32. SILVER SULFATE (Ag,SO,). (Begun March 23, § P.M.) Concentration Length tenoth i en . 7: gt ‘ks £m. equiv. per lite arch 24,3 P.M. | March 25, 3 P.M. pase 210°" discolored, dead eee oe 16:0 * “ “ 23.0 “ 22,.0m™m dead Cera ears 25.0 “ 26.0 “ “ 25.0 alive, distorted ya ui 29.0 “ ee “ CESS HESS a ec : 33- SILVER NITRATE (AgNO,) 5 gm. mol. per liter, 10 Porassium Pree RON) ot > Me 3 (Concentrations estimated on basis of Ag present.) (Begun April 14, 4 P.M.) s Cele Sar Ns Se 2 Reem irabon: Length Length oS ee oer tier April 15, 4 p.m. | April 17, 4 P.M. — | fete il SA ba eee ES ne woo | = 22.0™™ =| -22,0mm | dead, discolored eos Ms 42.0 “ 2 : ‘issvy | 22.0 “ 23.0 * es i : St Aes eee aa. a ; ao “ 20.0 “ a : : : re 24.0 “ce 26.5 “ alive April 15 ane sito0 25.0 “ gam * . : tee 96.6 4 ato ea : - ‘ “ . ivi ee ee aes | ne pase 9.5 39.0 “ ss " yt Ae] 41.5 fe 31.0 “ to<* - Tove aso * 61.0 * c Se re 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 105 34. SILVER NITRATE (AgNO,) 5/5 gm. mol. per liter, 1occ. POTASSIUM CYANIDE (KCN) +... #0 7 4". aa gGe. (Concentrations based on Ag present.) (Begun April 14, 5 P.M.) ec eek pas tae Kote rs | Sah Remarks rzho0 21.085 21.ou™ dead Pees 20.0°" 20.0," s : 25600 20.0 “ are ° “ alive Apr. 15 rae map 24.0 ee 26.0 “ “ce “ “ sird0v pat Ae 25.0 ue living ee oa.5°' 26.0%" a Tos 100 24.0 “ 36.5 “ . Se cigieal a 23.5 “ 27.0 “ “ 200800 st." 46.0 “ - ee 37.65): 30.0" dead zove00 21.0.% 66.07% living When silver nitrate in solution is treated with potassium cyanide solution, a precipitate of silver cyanide is formed, which upon further addition of potassium cyanide redissolves. The solution of silver cyanide in cyanide of potassium is due to the formation of potassium silver cyanide, KAgCN,, which in aque- ous solutions dissociates into the ions K+ and AgCN;. The latter are very stable, and we should naturally expect from the theory that they have a different toxic action from the Ag ions. his is confirmed by experiment. The results are given in tables 33 and 34 which show that the ions AgCN; are far less poison- ous than silver ions.” A few other inorganic acids will now be considered, the action of which is not quite as readily explained as that of the acids mentioned in tables 1 to 4. Hydrocyanic acid is practic- ally not dissociated in aqueous solutions, for its electrical con- ductivity is almost nil, The toxic action of this acid must be due, then, to the undissociated HCN present in the solution. Table 35 shows that the lupines will bear zg4y9 8™- mol. per liter of this acid, 20 . : Compare iron and the potassium ferro- and ferricyanides as given above. 106 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST Although phosphoric acid is a tribasic acid, the electrical conductivity of its solution shows that it splits up chiefly into the ions H* and H, Poj,** and consequently we should expect 2t See Ostwald’s Lehrbuch, /oc. ci¢. a solution containing phosphoric acid (made up molecularly) to show the same concentration at which the plants will grow in tt as a solution of hydrochloric acid for instance, for the content of hydrogen ions is the same in both cases. Experiment verifies this as table 35 shows. 35. Hyprocyanic acip (HCN). (Begun March 2, 4 P.M.) Concentration Length Length : gm. mol. per liter} March 3,5 Pp m. | March 4, 3 P.M. Remarks sto0 io dead vies 16.5 * “ rato 17,0 a 17.90mm ‘“ Ere 21.5 “ : alive 25600 ohn « eset es 21.0. ** ‘“ sid00 an5 “ ee ee 39 5 “ee ‘“ 36. PHospuoric acip (H,PO,). (Begun January 31, 4 P.m.; closed February 1, I P.M.) Concentratio: gm. mol, perliter Length Remarks szoo po flabby, dead gna 19.5 “ “ “ sz00 335 ~ apparently normal : ery 28.5 (73 ‘ec ‘“ rat00 27.0 ‘“ ‘“ ‘“ ok 21.0 “ é ‘“ o ee | Tate 36 shows the toxic effect of a solution of chromic pe ae This is a weak acid and is probably not completely dissociate? * a ous concentration at which the roots survive in it. hethet © ion ~Cr, O- e only is harmless at this concentration can of cours : 1896] TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 107 be settled by testing a solution of potassium bichromate or sodium bichromate, in which cases the salts are to a high degree dissociated. The cathions are harmless, and consequently the concentration limit for the ion Cr,O, can be found. 37. Curomic acid: (HM Cr.0.) (Begun February 1, 5 P.M.) Concentration Length Length gm. mol, per liter| February 2,.3 P.M Feiss ITA,M euxaies s¥00 17.0°" dead ee; 5% . e200 pie pes 27.0™ alive bent 28.0 “ 34.5°% a4 T2b00 25.0 “ B vies 18.0 “ a 38. Boric AcIp. (Begun February 3, 1 p.M.; closed February 4, 10 A.M.) Concentration gm. mol. per liter Length Remarks fs 18.0™™ dead Per 16.0 se “ec as 16.6" “ ig 18.0 “ alive (?) so 17.5 “ living (?) oan 21.5 “ ido 28.5 * apparently normal oe 25.0 “ * - abo 39.0 ee oe “ é “ eee 35.0 oa ‘ xbo 32.0 “ “ . “ee “ ek 29.5 ners: 1e00 29.5 “ ee “ vie 22.5 ‘ “ ‘“ sano 28.0 ee “ec “cc a Se 35.0 “ oe saon 30.5 ‘ee ee eo ee a 39.5 “ faa Boric acid solutions are poor conductors of electricity. The acd is then but very slightly dissociated. Experiments on this acid seemed desirable since it is used so much as an antiseptic. 2 See Ostwald, Zeitschr. f. physik. Chem. 2:78. 108 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST 39. MANNITE. (Begun February 3, 1 P.M.; closed February 4, 10 A.M.) Pst got inter Length Remarks ts 26.5™™ alive :, 45 * : 32.5 oe 31.5 ee “ so 27.0 “ «“ roo 26.0: “ “ 200 44.0 “ ad abo a7.0-"" a 40. BORO-MANNITIC ACID. (Begun February 3, 1 P.M.; closed February 4, 10 A.M.) gm, aon ok Baad Length Remarks ie ee ds 15.5™™ dead Pas 16.5 “ “e 30 18.5 “ « (7) ++ 18.0 “ ge ae. 1b0 22.0." alive abo 32.0 “ bs abo 34.0 ‘“ “ abo 35.0 “ " tdo0 34.0." ‘“ 41. Boric ACID AND CANE SUGAR. (Begun February 3, 5 p.M.; closed February 4, 10 A.M.) Concentration gm. mol, per liter Length Remarks Shiela aed eae vs 16.57" alive ? . 1b * ! sly 19.0 oe “és ! a ey 19.0 “ “ 1 tbo 22.5 ‘ “ eee 20.0 “e “ss weak action of the acid is apparent. Mannite has no eo action on the seedlings, as is shown by table 39; however well known that when boric acid and mannite solutions 1896] TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 109g mixed the resulting solution has an acid reaction caused by the presence of hydrogen ions that have resulted from the electro- lytic dissociation of a complex boro-mannitic acid that has been formed in the solution. We should, therefore, expect such a solution of boric acid mannite, containing more hydrogen ions than a solution which contains the same amount of boric acid but without the mannite, to have a greater toxic effect than the latter. Table 40 shows results that confirm this. Cane sugar and boric acid do not form a complex acid with each other, conse- quently no increase of concentration of hydrogen ions is caused by mixing them, and of course we should expect the mixture to have the same toxic action as an equivalent solution of boric acid without addition of cane sugar. A comparison of tables 38 and 41 shows that this is in accord with experimental facts. In his extensive work on the affinity of constants of organic acids, Ostwald?3 determined the electrical conductivity of a large number of acids, thus giving us a knowledge of the degree to which these acids are dissociated in their solutions. The most dilute solutions with which he worked contained I gm equivalent in 1024 liters. Only a relatively small number of the acids he investigated are highly dissociated at this concentration. In investigating the toxic effect of organic acids upon the lupines, it was found that the concentrations in which the plants would just survive are less than 1 gm. equivalent in 1024 liters, So that it is impossible from Ostwald’s determinations to tell - what degree the acids are dissociated at these higher dilu- tions. In only a few of the cases investigated can the acid be considered as practically completely dissociated, as was done in nee of the strong mineral acids, so that the effect of the undis- sociated acid present cannot be left out of account. This anion, too, in many cases no doubt exerts a distinct poisonous action of its own, ‘Typical acids from the fatty series and from the aromatic series Were investigated. The results are given in the tables that follow. * Zeitschr. f. physik. Chem. 33170, 241, 369. 110 BOTANICAL GAZETTE 42. FORMIC ACID. (Begun January 11, 8 p.M.; closed January 12, II A.M.) Concentration gm, mol, per liter Length Remarks * s200— 4 ag flabby, dead ae eee 19.0 € ‘“ “ € 28.0 “ apparently normal cee e 27.5 66 “ “ rates .O “ce “ oe oh Se “ i “ 43- ACETIC ACID.* (Begun January 11, 9 p.M.; closed January 12, II A.M.) gm, mol, oes Tek Length Remarks s200 18,5™m dead . eee es 18.6: “ ‘6 Te0U 25.0 “ alive 3200 30.5" . eto0 30.5‘ sd rEb00 30.0 “ « 44. Propionic acip.- (Begun January 11, 10 p.m; closed January 12,11 A.M.) it : gm. on grin Heer + Length - Remarks ey [ane mote Cros 100 . 18,5™™ dead oe aie 28.5 4 | alive “ eden . 28.0 “ . a : taboo 34.0 “ a : - =, . 48:. Borvaic activ. (Begun January 14, 10 P.M.) Concentration | Length , bie mol. per liter) Jan’y 15, 10 A.M, eke Remarks ae PO eS omm 18.0™™ dead Ber 2 ek E 18.0 “ : 1800 — « 18.5 “ dead non ae. 8.5“ a4 ag svoo : 20.0 a vgs # alive 2 peated with same boundary. + Repeated with same 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS IIk 46. VALERIANIC ACID. (Begun January 15, 4 P.M.; closed January 16,,3 P.M.) Concentration m. mol. per liter Length Remarks 1800 19.0™™ dead aie 16:5." “ s200 28.0 “ alive eee 28.5 sé ‘“ From table 42 it appears that the lupines survive in a solu- tion of formic acid containing 455 gm. mol. per liter, the same concentration as in the case of the strong mineral acids. Accord- ing to Ostwald’s determination, formic acid is dissociated to the extent of 35.85 per cent. when one gm. mol. is present in 1024 liters. At 6400 it would be much more highly dissociated. From the result it would appear that dissociation is nearly com- plete at this high dilution, for the critical concentration is that obtained in case of the strong mineral acids. Whether this is true or not can be better decided after the effect of sodium formate on the seedlings has been studied. Table 43 shows that the radicles can bear much more acetic acid than formic. Acetic acid is not as strongly dissociated. Propionic, butyric and val- erianic acids (tables 44 to 46) show the same critical concen- tration, 4y!,5 gm. mol. per liter. Ostwald’s measurements show that these acids at 1024 are dissociated to approximately the Same degree ; and, as they are closely allied chemically, one would expect them to have the same effect on the roots. The content of hydrogen ions of the solutions is nearly the same, and the undissociated parts together with the anions would have about the same effect. Acetic acid is a little more strongly dis- *ociated than the last named acids ; the fact that nevertheless the Seedlings will bear a greater concentration shows that it is not merely the contact of hydrogen ions that comes into considera- tion here, but that the action of the undissociated acid and the anions makes itself felt. Glycollic acid is somewhat more strongly dissociated than 112 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST lactic acid, so a greater toxic effect would be expected from the former than from, the latter considering only the concentration of the hydrogen ions. A comparison of tables 47 and 48 shows that glycollic acid does have a greater poisonous action. 47. GLYCOLLIC ACID. (Begun January 28, 5 P.M.; closed January 29, 9 A.M.) ; Geek per ber en wpe 3200 19.0%" dead seer 16.5" mn eao0 22,0 “ alive sees og Ba as ————$————— 48. Lactic ACID. (Begun January 28, 6 P.M.) Concentration Length Length gm. mol. per liter) Jan’y 29,9 a.m, | Jan’y = 4 P.M. — Bc eS Pee 00 18.0™™ flabby, dea iu 17.0 - ae salvo dt.0 * yee ae 0 te OS 2 ee alive eto0 6.5 “* suis aa.6 * i Tho 29.0 “ . : os results obtained from the three chlor-acetic acids Siven in tables 49 to 51. At the concentration in which lupines survive these acids are all practically completely # sociated. The mono- and di-chlor-acetic acids yield the concentration for hydrogen ions, namely, gzy0 gm. mol. pet h : Tri-chlor-acetic acid as well Se ious hvom-acetic aaa ae kill seedlings at this concentration. This fact shows that a ag which can of course be determined by investigati -. lum salts of the acids in question. That amido-proP i acid (table 53) has no poisonous action at the concentté 1896] TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 113 tested is easily explained by the fact that the acid forms an inner salt and so does not yield hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. 49. MoNo-CHLOR-ACETIC ACID. (Begun January 20, 8 P.M.; closed January 21, I2 M.) Concentration gm. mol. per liter Length Remarks s200 17.0 flabby, dead ee 15:0." “ “ e400 25.5 apparently normal Nanee ke 26.0 “ee “ec “ec TehOT 22.0 “ “ “ rger are he 4 24.5 Ld “ “ 50. DI-CHLOR-ACETIC ACID. (Begun January 20, 9 P.M.; closed January 21, 12 M.) Concentration gm, mol, per liter Length Remarks S200 17.0mm flabby, dead nee 16.0 ae “ “ Cray i2.0 * dead (?) aes 22.0 ™ alive! T2t00 24.0." apparently normal Oa Se 25.0 Lad “ “ 51. TRI-CHLOR-ACETIC ACID. (Begun January 20, 9 P.M.; closed January 21, 12 M.) eg rae eg rl Length Remarks sto 5 turgor gone, dead * dies 19.0 “ “cs “ee “ Tatoo te CA apparently normal oh a geass 27.5 “ “ “s 52. MONO-BROM-ACETIC ACID. (Begun January 20, 10 P.M.; closed January 21, 12:30 P.M.) Concentration gm. mol. per liter Length Remarks ETA SESS oan ion i089 20.5™ turgor gone, dead ed 24.5 “ “ es izhvo 28.5 * turgid, living ae, oo tat ey 24.0 Lad a“ “ Speci sisbceicanaii on ieee 114 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust 53- AMIDO-PROPIONIC ACID. (Begun January 24, 8 p.M.; closed January 25, 3 P.M.) Concentration gm, mol. per liter Eight dibasic acids of the fatty series were investigated. The results are given in tables 54 to 62. In the case of oxalic acid it will be noted that the concentration in which the seedlings survive is 455 gram equivalent per liter, the same, then, a . case of the strong mineral acids. Oxalic acid at this concenl® tion is practically completely dissociated. Its toxic eft this weak solution is due only to the hydrogen ions that i solution contains, for a gram-molecule of acid potassium oxalate . has the same poisonous effect as half a gram-molecule of the Length Remarks 30,07° alive 26.0: * . 33 Oo “ “ 25.0 . es acid (compare table 55). (Begun January 14, 10 P.M.) 54. OXALIC ACID. Concentration gm. equiv. per liter soy v tho 55- ACID POTASSIUM OXALATE. (Begun January 16, 5 P.M.; closed January 16, 6 P.M.) Length h Jan. 15, 10 A.M. | Jan. 15, 6 P.M. £0.90" 24.0." 25.5 we Remarks oo Concentration gm, mol, per liter Length Teo 17.9™m Ge 18.0." szo0 9 a eg a 210 * vivo 35° hd a} 26.5 or ee ee flabby, dead apparently alive (?) ea 1 apparently noe a ne 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 56. MALonic ACcID. (Begun January 15, 6: 30 P.M.; closed January 16, 3 P.M.) Concentration gm. equiv. per liter Length Remarks Téo0 i005" flabby, de s2'00 32.0 “ apparently sal er00 29.0 “ 57. SUCCINNIC ACID. (Begun January 15, 4 P.M.; closed January 16, 3 P.M.) vere mgoen: ie Length Remarks B00 1 by SE laos flabby, dead ines 16.0 6s “cc “ 1800 25.0 “ alive See 16.5 ° flabby, dead s200 27.0% alive ty KK aa 58. FuMARIC ACID. (Begun January 1 5, 5 P.M.; closed January 16, 3 P.M.) 5 A y pce gin I Length Remarks s200 | 20,50 dead - edo0 to.§ * apparently living oe 2a. apparently normal 59- MALEIC ACID. (Begun January 15, 6 p.M.; closed January 16, 3 P.M.) Concen : gm. equiv. sea omg A Length Remarks Teo 15.0%" dead roe 20.5 rf “ 200 29.0 “ living eee 23.5 ae st00 26.0 “ apparently normal aa line gone “ “ec 115 116 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust Malonic acid (table 56) is dissociated to the extent of 82.3 per cent.when one gram equivalent is dissolved in 1024 liters, so that at the concentration one gram equivalent in 3200 (the con- centration in which the lupines live) the acid is highly disso ciated though probably not completely. 3 Succinnic acid is a much weaker acid. It is dissociated only 30.82 per cent.when one gram equivalent is contained in ne : liters (Ostwald). Table 56 shows that some of the seedlings survive when one gram equivalent of the acid is contained oe 1600 liters. | Fumaric acid (table 58) allows the beans to survive when 0% gram equivalent is contained in 6400 liters, whereas maleic acid (table 59) permits them to live when one gram equivalent is present in 3200 liters. As maleic acid at the dilution 1024 is dissociated” 98.2 per cent. and fumaric only 78.5 per cent., we should expect : the latter to be less poisonous than the former, if the i a action be due to the hydrogen ions alone. That the opposite = apparently takes place seems to show that the anions of fume acid exert a toxic action at this high state of dilution. whet ' this is true or not can only be definitely settled by investigatiNg : the action of a salt of the acid the cathion of which has no® effect. We do not place much reliance on the results Sti from these two acids as it is questionable whether the substance were perfectly pure. i 60. MALIC ACID. (Begun January 28, 6 P.M.; closed January 29, 9 A.M.) =—S—= a Concentration ‘ 8M. equiv. per liter Length Remarks pine 1805 18.5" flabby, dead oe se we 17.5 oe ““ szv0 a76 alive Foe ew. 20.5 oe “ waton 25.0 “sé ‘“ Ge In a solution of malic acid (table 60) the seedlings 7 en one gram equivalent is present in 3200 liters. This® “See Ostwald, Zeitschr. . physik, Chem., 3: 380. | wh 1896] TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 117 what one would expect considering the degree of the dissocia- tion of this acid and the fact that at this concentration the hydro- gen ions alone are active. 61. ASPARTIC ACID. (Begun January 24, 9 P.M.; closed January 25, 4 P.M.) Concentration gm. mol. per liter Length Remarks sooo 13.40" dead 16 5 “ “oe epou os .b°2" alive “ ieee S10 T2s00 20.0 “ 4 ee 26.05 "% : Aspartic acid (table 61) has a strong toxic action, the seed- lings only surviving when the solution contains eaov gram-mole- cule per liter. The electrical conductivity of this acid is not given in Ostwald’s tables. It is not probable that the acid is completely dissociated at this concentration, however. Whether the anion is active toxically can be determined by investigating the action of the sodium salt of the acid. 62. TARTARIC ACID. | (Begun January 15, 5 P.M.; closed January 16, 3 P.M.) 1 Concentration gm. equiv. per liter Length Remarks svo0 19,0" dead ed 20.0 * sfo0 20.0." alive tee ar 6, * ~ Tartaric acid (table 62) gives the limit ,) 9 gram equivalent Per liter. This acid is a relatively strong acid and is practically completely dissociated at this high dilution. We get only the effect of the hydrogen ions here, for a solution of sodium tar- trate of like strength would not kill the seedlings. : Citric acid (table 63) was investigated in this connection. The critical limit, sy!55 gram equivalent per liter, found for this 118 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST acid is what one would have expected it to be from the concen tration of the hydrogen ions in this solution. 63. Cirric ACID. (Begun January 24, 9 P.M.; closed January 25, 4 P.M.) Concentration Length Remarks gm. equiv. per liter 800 17.0m™ dead fe is 3 soo Plat? ab living ee 20.0 “ is e400 27.5 “ : eink 26.0 “ % rBh00 28.5 “ ac. 26.0 “ a The poisonous action of eleven acids of the aromatic series has been determined. The acids of this series are of special interest, for the undissociated molecules as well as the anions In nearly all cases possess a distinct toxic action of their own, ev at great dilutions. 64. BENZOIC ACID. (Begun January 14, 8 P.M.) Concentration Len: ) gth Length gm. mol. per liter | January 15,9 A.M. | January 15, 6 P.M. Remarks a ae s200 20.0™™ dead Per ae 18.0 “ “cr e400 22.5 “ 24.0%" living ee yw 24.0 “ 27.0 “cc “ tabo0 26.5 “ 29.0 ‘“ 23.0 “ a0 * 33 eae 65. Hippuric ACID. (Begun January 23, 9 P.M.; closed January 24, I2 M-) Concentrati gm. mol. ee ine Length Remarks “sto 20.5mm dead + 6 6 20.0 “a “ eto 26.5 “ alive ae ee 24.5 ae +e tuber 28.5 “ “6 1896] TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS IIg Benzoic and hippuric acids (tables 64 and 65) are both rela- tively weakly dissociated, the former 21.61 per cent. and the latter 37.51 per cent. at the dilution 1024, according to Ost- wald. Both of these acids kill the lupines until the concentra- tion 4755 gm. mol. per liter is reached. It is not probable that these weak acids are completely dissociated even at this great dilution. The result shows that here the toxic effect is due ina high degree to the undissociated molecules and the anions pres- ent. Whether the undissociated acid is more poisonous than the anions can be determined by testing the action of the sodium salts. 66. CINNAMIC ACID. (Begun January 23, 9 P.M.; closed January 24, 12 M.) Concentration gm. mol, per liter Length Remarks woo 5° turgor lost, dead he aa “ ‘“ “e “ 16 v .. ee é “ “ eee 16 5 “ec “ “cc “ saya 18.0 iad “ “ “ee neta 17. “ “ ‘“ ‘“ stor ae “ ae “ee oe ee 20 5 “s “c “ “6 rat00 29:5" turgid, apparently normal eta shes ty £3 “ “ “ “ Cinnamic acid (table 65) is only dissociated to the extent i 17.34 per cent. at 1024, and yet in a solution of it the lupines will not survive until the acid is diluted so that it con- tains only ryia5 gm. mol. per liter. At this dilution we know that hy drogen ions are no longer harmful to the plants, hence om Strong toxic action of this acid is due to the anions and the undissociated molecules present in the solution. Th Another interesting group is that of the oxy-benzoic acids. 5 results obtained from the three monoxy-benzoic acids are he hoa 7 to 69. It will be seen that salicylic acid has 8reatest poisonous action, the seedling surviving ina solution 120 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST that contains 1 gm. mol. in 6400 liters; then follows meta-oxy- benzoic acid, which is only fatal after the concentration I gm. mol. in 3200 liters is overstepped; and finally para-oxy-benzoic acid of which the radicles will bear 1 gm. mol. in 1600 liters. 67. SALICYLIC ACID. (Begun January 14, 9 P.M.) Concentration Length Length gm. mol, per liter} Jan. 15, 9 A.M. an, 15, 6 P.M. Remarks 599 5 s200 16.00% dead vie ere 18.5 sid 66 3400 24.5 “ 26.00" alive ye 5 * dead 12800 26.0 “ 29.0 “ alive 68. MrTA-oxy-BENZOIC ACID. ; (Begun January 23, 8 P.M.) Concentration Length Length gm. mol, per liter) Jan. hg 12M, | Jan. mee P.M. Remarks Teo 1g.5™™ flabby, dead see S60 “ “ sv00 23.5 “ 28.0™™ living ieee 23.5 ia 28.5 ‘“ “ : ston 20.0: " apparently n’r’ml ore’ 28.0 se “ec “ce Taboo 20.5 wn! “ec “ bee 24.5 “ “ ee 69. PARA-OXY-BENZOIC ACID. (Begun January 23, 8 P.M.) Concentration ' Lengt gm. mol, perliter| Jan, 24, se M, jue an iat — Se mth os ee tos 19.0" flabby, dead eee 25.0 “ 26.0™™ =| living savy 24.5 . 26.0 “ a : tees 27.5 29.5 “ “ e400 oS | apparently n’r'ml lg? 32.0 “ “ . tabo00 25.5 “ v : tenes an. : aes 1896] TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 131 The order of the poisonous action of these acids is, then, ortho, meta and para. This is also the order of their electrolytic dis- sociation, the degrees of dissociation of the three acids at the dilu- tion 1024 being 62.80 per cent., 25.70 per cent. and 15.68 per cent. respectively, according to Ostwald. Whether the toxic action of these acids at the concentration at which they are fatal to the lupines is due in part to the anions here also calls for an investi- gation of the sodium salts. As typical examples of other oxy-benzoic acids protocatechuic and gallic acids were chosen (see tables 70 and 71). The con- centration of the former in which the beans survive is 39'y5 gm. mol. per liter. The degree of dissociation of this acid at 1024 is 16.68 per cent., somewhat higher, then, than para-oxy-benzoic acid, Considering the action of the hydrogen ions alone, we should expect protocatechuic acid to be somewhat more poison- ous than para-oxy-benzoic acid. It seems probable, however, that the action of the undissociated molecules and the anions can not be considered mJ at the concentration 3200. In the case of gallic acid, which is dissociated 18.72 per cent. at 1024, the seedlings survive only at the concentration 6400 as table 71 shows. Here clearly the anions and the undissociated molecules must have a toxic action of their own even at this high dilution, for the acid can clearly not be considered as com- pletely dissociated. 70. PROTOCATECHUIC ACID. (Begun January 24, 8 p.M.; closed January 25, 3 P.M.) Concentrati os gm. mol. es fens Length Remarks réo0 0° flabby, dead a he, 17.8 “ “ “ ss00 24:5 alive ion 13.5 dead éFo0 27.0 “ alive gh a ae 29.0 ee oe tates 29.0 ‘“ “ eae ee 28.0 “ec “ Nee Noni SNR ene 122 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucusT 71. GALLIC ACID. (Begun January 23, 10 P.M.; closed January 24, 12 M.) Concentration gm, mol. per liter Length Remarks 1e00 15.507 dead s2 24.0“ a UL oo 5 alive T2h00 28.0 “ Finally the action of the three mono-nitro-benzoic acids was investigated. Tables 72 to 74 show that the ortho compound is least poisonous, seedlings surviving in the concentration 6400, whereas in both the meta and para compounds the solutions proved fatal until the concentration 12,800 was reached. ihe degrees of dissociation of these acids at 1024 are 87.9 pet cen 44.4 per cent. and 46.4 per cent. respectively. It is cleat that in case of the meta and para acids, the toxic effect at 12,800 can no longer be due to hydrogen ions, and consequently mae be ascribed to the undissociated molecules and the anions; ' the concentration of the former is not great at this high dilution, it seems probable that the toxic action is mainly due t the anions. An investigation of the sodium salts will, of course, be necessary to decide this point definitely. Ortho-nitro-benzo¥ acid is practically completely dissociated at 6400. The anion of this acid are therefore less poisonous than hydrogen i The action of a solution of the sodium salt will very likely firm this. 72. ORTHO-NITRO-BENZOIC ACID. (Begun January 16, 5 P.M.; closed January 17, 12 M.) Concentration gm, mol, per liter Length Remarks x00 19,0™™ flabby, dead we a 18.5 “ “ ““c oS sa00 36.0 “ apparently normal, living eae 29.0 “ “ “ coe OE oS Re hs 55s oa AL elas oe Re ee rae rea a 1896 | TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED SALTS 123 73. META-NITRO-BENZOIC ACID. (Begun January 16, 3 P.M.; closed January 17, I P.M.) Concentration gm. mol. per liter Length Remarks eao0 20.55" dead eae 16,0:°:** a T2800 36.0 “ apparently normal oe es 26.67" ody = 74. PARA-NITRO-BENZOIC ACID. (Begun January 16, 6 P.M.; closed January 17, 12 M.) Concentration gm, mol. per liter Length Remarks svou 17.0™ flabby, dead ges 17.0 “ +“ “ efo0 Zt.0."" dead sae. 19.0 beg «5 raton - 50 ae apparently normal eee he 33.0 “ ““ “ That the modern theory of solutions would throw light on their physiological action was to be expected. From the fore- going detailed results it is evident that in the case of plants the toxic action of solutions of electrolytes, when dissociation is Practically complete, is due to the action of the ions present. When dissociation is not complete, the undissociated part of the electrolytes may also exert a toxic effect, as has been pointed out in several instances. We have here then, as it were, a rec- eles of the theory of electrolytic dissociation by the organic orld, Mr. F. D. Heald, Fellow in Botany at the University of Wis- fonsin, has investigated the action on other plants of a consid- crable number of the solutions which we have tested. The results that he obtained are presented in an accompanying Paper. They are perfectly analogous to those that we have found, and hence strongly confirm our conclusions. 124 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST It is clear that a knowledge of the mere presence of a metal or other element in a solution does not allow one to drawa con- clusion as to its physiological action; it must also be known 4s to whether that element exists as an ion by itself or is combined with other elements to form a complex ion. If the addition of certain substances to a solution containing a physiologically active ion forms a complex ion of much less powerful action, it follows that these additional ingredients afford a means of reducing, so to speak, the physiological action of the simple ion. Although this work has thus far been carried out only with higher plants, investigations on bacteria that are being carried on in this connection at the Bacteriological Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin have already yielded results supporting the theory. Anyone inspecting Miquel’s table of the efficiency | of antiseptics in Sternberg’s ‘‘ Manual of Bacteriology,” and at the same time bearing in mind the theory of Arrhenius, although the concentrations are given in per cent. instead of chemical equivalents, will be able to see in it, only in rough outline a to be sure, the corroboration of the views here advanced: Experiments on animals are contemplated. on : It will be seen that a wide field for research along physi” logical lines opens up by applying to the field of biology a dissociation theory that has proved so fertile in chemistry physics. Further work in this direction, using the latest é best that the new physical chemistry has to offer, it is 10 hoped will place our knowledge of the physiological actio® solutions of electrolytes on a better basis than the purely a ical one on which it has thus far rested. It does not seer ‘ much to expect that the effects of such study will soon be felt in agriculture and therapeutics, while bacteriological study Us sued from the standpoint of the new theory will yield import@ additions to our knowledge of antiseptics. ie UNIVERSITY oF WIsconsIN, MADISON, . ON THE TOXIC EFFECT OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON ‘PLANTS: Bs DD. HEALD. (WITH PLATE VII) | 1. INTRODUCTION. The desire for a deeper and clearer insight into the subject of nutrition of plants. has led many botanical investigators to endeavor to determine the poisonous or nutritive qualities of a large number of compounds. Within the last decade a considerable number of papers have appeared dealing with the toxic effect of compounds which are generally classed as non- nutritive. The majority of these older experiments have been along the same line, and so far as known the compounds have been prepared by making solutions of a certain per cent. by weight. During the last year Kahlenberg and True’ have car- ried out numerous experiments with very many inorganic and Organic acids and various salts in which a different method was employed. In these experiments the solutions were prepared according to gram equivalents, and the results obtained are extremely interesting both from the chemical and the biological Point of view. All of the experiments alluded to were carried out with a single plant, Lupinus albus. It is important to know whether these results can be con- firmed by the use of other plants, which might be expected to differ in their reactions; and to this end, at the suggestion of Dr. Kahlenberg, the present investigation has been made. ; Before taking up the results in detail it may be well to pre- sent a few general considerations in regard to plant, or rather protoplasmic, poisons. Compounds which have a toxic effect Upon animals are generally poisonous to plants, although we find different degrees of sensibility to the same compound in “Bor. Gaz. a2: 81. 1896. #96) 125, 126 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | AUGUST both plants and animals. The toxic effect of a substance is evidently due to one of two things. In plant tissue the effect upon the furgescence of the cell must play an important part,’ since when the turgor-pressure is suddenly and decidedly decreased, the growth is either retarded or inhibited. An inhi- bition or a retardation of growth must then be regarded as 4 symptom of poisoning. In comparison with turgescence the direct effect upon the protoplasm is by far the more important, since in simple turgor experiments the retardation of growth Is due to the irritation of the protoplasm as well as to the turgor change. Now, since the irritability of the protoplasm of dif ferent plants differs widely, we may reasonably expect quite ; wide range in the amount of different compounds which various plants will withstand. Why and how certain substances have a toxic effect, and certain others a nutritive value, is not known. For example, tt is at present impossible to say why it is that potassium sulfate has a nutritive value while copper sulfate produces a toxic effect. Those substances which are poisonous to plants are generally such substances as are not accessible to plants in their normal : habitats, at least to any extent, while those substances which ate generally present in the soil have no injurious effect, oF at least not in the same degree of concentration at which we find sae : in the soil. If the poisonous action of various substances ie 4 ies matter of adaptation and adjustment, as seems . Z a highly probable, then we might expect that by adding gradually : more and more copper sulfate to the soil in which a plamt ” — rowing it would come in the course of time to adapt itself oe a a large amount of this salt, which is normally extremely Porsonous to the majority of plants. So far as known nt a pcb of exactly this nature have been carried out, 4" experimental test of this would be highly interesting: ae 2. METHOD; In the experiments performed, three different pe used: Pisum sativum, Zea Mais, and Cucurbita Pepe. 7 Annals of Botany g : 385, 1895. . wert - 1896] TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 127 first the method of germination. The peas were placed in a beaker, covered with distilled water and allowed to soak for twenty-four hours; they were then placed in a Petri-dish between moistened sheets of filter paper and allowed to remain until the radicles just burst through the seed coats. In all the experiments it was important that the seedlings should have Straight roots, since it was necessary to measure the roots at intervals to determine the growth. If the peas were allowed to remain between sheets of moistened filter paper the roots grew crooked and twisted and could not be used, so it became necessary to resort to other methods of growing them. Two different methods were used, both of which were quite Satisfactory. 1. A thin sheet of cork was perforated by means of a cork- borer with a series of holes as shown in the diagram (jig. 7), the large opening being just small enough to keep the pea from slipping through. This cork was then floated ina deep Petri-dish of distilled water, and as soon as the radicle had burst through the seed coats the peas were transferred to the cork. The peaswere so placed that the radicle was directed toward the small opening of the cork, and the whole was covered with a sheet of filter Paper which hung down into the water and thus kept the peas moist (fig. 2). The peas were then allowed to grow until they were of sufficient size for use in the experiments. In cases where germination was slow it was found necessary to change the distilled water several times before the seedlings were of suf- ficient Size for use. In the majority of seedlings the roots grew quite straight. 2. Another method, quite similar to the above, was also used. Two sheets of cork were taken; one was provided with openings Somewhat larger than the pea; the other sheet of cork was pro- vided with smaller openings which would register as shown in diagram when the two corks were placed one above the other 8-3). The two sheets of cork were then wired together and the small openings were provided with glass tubes about 5% long. The whole was placed in a deep dish and the peas were 128 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust placed in the openings in such a manner that the roots grew down the glass tubes (fig. g). By this method it was impos sible for the roots to grow crooked. The seedlings of Zea Mais and Cucurbita Pepo were growl ina different way since germination took place more readily, and there was not so great a tendency to grow crooked roots The seeds were soaked in distilled water for twenty-four hours, and then placed carefully between sheets of moistened filter pape Care was taken to place the seeds in a flat position and in most cases the roots were straight, so that the extra work of a trails fer was avoided. In all cases the seedlings were allowed to grow until the roots had attained a length of about twenty millimeters. For the acids, zormal stock solutions} were used, that is, solutions of the mono-basic acids like HCl would contain one gral molecule of HCI per liter, while the di-basic acid like H, $0, would contain one-half gram-molecule of H, SO, pet liter, 8° that in each case the normal solution would contain one gram 0 H per liter. For the stock solutions of the various salts, either solutions containing a gram-molecule per liter were used or solu” tions containing a certain fraction of a gram-molecule. For the seedlings of Pisum sativum the experiments were carried out ™ the following manner: The solutions in which the seedlings wer to be grown were placed in small beakers of about 300° capac: ity. A cork of sufficient size to close the opening of the be | was provided with a glass rod which extended down into the solution. On the end of the glass rod was a smaller cork, 4 | the seedlings were supported on this cork by means of B pins. The cork was then set at such a level that the cotyledons see the seedlings were just above the surface of the solutic A ~ ape be made plain by the appended diagram i the seedlings of Zea Mais and Cucurbita Pepe * i ae 3 . = ar RGR thanks are due to Dr. Kahlenberg for the majority of the stock-solution® 0 to sits Schlundt for several salt-solutions. : 1896 | TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 129 were immersed in the solution, and the beaker covered by a cork to prevent evaporation (jig. 6). In all of the experiments performed two seedlings were used. Before placing them in the solutions they were allowed to grow until the roots had reached a length of about 20™,and then a distance of 15™™ was marked off from the tip of each root by means of a fine brush and India ink. The time was then recorded, and at twenty-four hours from that time, the seedlings were removed from the solutions and measured again and the growth recorded. The roots were also carefully exam- ined for any other symptoms of poisoning besides the retardation or inhibition of growth. They were then replaced in the solutions and allowed to stand for another twenty-four hours when measure- ments were again made. In all cases the seedlings were om in a dark chamber with nearly a uniform temperature (21°-23° C. ) ~The lengths given in the tables are the average growth per twenty- four hours. The mixture of the solutions for the growth of seedlings was made as follows: 10° of nor. sol. to 1000" =, 7. 100° of , <0 to 200°%= hh, 100° of ,N,,, to 200°=_ipy ete. 3. H-acips. Two seedlings of Pisum sativum were placed in each of the Solutions of the strengths shown in the table and the growth recorded for forty-eight hours. N sara +300 a yeu 7ys00 Hey.) 14 24 hours.) 5... 3.25™" 475°" OG 34 hoe oo ee ee 5 ae Hiscy }18t 24 hours. i) 25. %. 5° 125° * OH DOG ce hs 86 ie ees 5.25 HNO ee ee WOGIR oe ok ees ‘ 65 Te ae Oe WS eS oe eee oo HBr oe DOR be oO a ae Tah 6 4 Ware ee 6.25 “ 130 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [auveust In the ,{y and ,.\, solutions no growth whatever occurred, and at the end of the first twenty-four hours the tips of the roots were very soft and flabby and were considered as dead. In the ,)\, solution a growth occurred in the HCl and H,SO, solutions for the first twenty-four hours, but the second twenty- four hours showed no additional growth, while the roots were very soft and flabby. In the HNO, and HBr no growth what- ever took place in the siyo SOlution. In the me solution the seedlings grew for the entire forty-eight hours and at the end of that time the roots were very rigid and did not show any symp toms of poisoning. It is worthy of note here that in case of the seedlings in the stoy Solution a large number of lateral roots were formed before the root was killed. The delicate cells of the root tip were the first to be affected by the poison, and thus having its mail growing point destroyed the plant was stimulated to i a duction of lateral roots in its struggle to withstand the effects be the poison. Another point which cannot be overlooked is the fact that in the tévy Solution of HCI the roots of the seedlings | Were covered with a dense growth of fungus at the end se : experiment. The species of the fungus was not determined. >? far as known from experiments it is true that fungi generally are able to withstand stronger solutions of poison that ser Plants. Penicillium, for example, will grow in a comparatlt strong solution of CuSO 4 Asolution of ,N, acetic acid, “e standing for some time in the laboratory, was found to be ce 4 with a dense growth of fungus, the species of which Wa" determined. ae Two seedlings of Zea Mais were placed in each of the _ MS recorded in the following table, and the growth rece _ | at periods of twenty-four hours. ; of From the degree of concentration at which the seedling Pisum satioum were killed it was thought that the oa 8200 s4oo and tzs00 Ought to show the strength of $0” which these seedlings would withstand, and so at first ont tt tions of that Strength were used. In all of these, howeve™ ” tio 1896 | TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 131 growth was considerable for the first twenty-four hours, with generally an increase in the amount of growth for the next twenty-four hours. A glance at the following table will also show that the growth in the ,N, and ,,, solutions was somewhat less than in the ,,N,, solution, so that even if the growth was not inhibited in the former a very perceptible retardation of the growth occurred. Since growth was not entirely inhibited in the solutions from ,8,, upward, seedlings were placed in two stronger solutions, ,N, and ;,N,. In the ,¥, solution no growth whatever occurred, and at the end of the first twenty-four hours the roots were very soft and flabby near the tip. In the y%, solution, however, the roots showed quite an increase in length for the first twenty-four hours but for the second twenty-four hours showed no increase, so that the ,%, solution is the strength at which the roots were killed. ZEA MAIS. N as 00 1e00 3e00 eto 0 12800 eee er io Hcl J Ist 24 hours ree a5 mm $.25"% ti.s mm $1.25" d 24 NOUS os ae ae 18 25 16 “ 15.25 ts H,SO x Ist 24 hours 2.75 Og 12.5 “ LES “ 17.5 ‘“ : 24 hours 27.5 < “ec 33 HNO Ist 24 hours 4.5 66 7 “ 14 “ 16 os 3 2d 24 hours ‘.* 9 ‘ 11.5 «“ 29 “ HBr P Ist 24 hours 3 “ 4 5 6 2 a 15 “ 2d Ma OUTRO x 25 “ 13.75 “ 30.5 “ fo AS aamemanereumestgnsscee A glance at the table for Piswm sativum shows a very con- siderable difference in the amount of the acids which the seed- lings could withstand. In the case of Pisum sativum the gio Solution was of sufficient strength to inhibit the growth, while in the case of the Zea Mais seedlings it required a axya solution, °F a solution four times as concentrated. This very great differ- ence in the degree of irritability is the more worthy of note, since the one, Piswm, has its reserve food supply stored in the form of carbohydrates, while corn contains quite a large amount of fatty material. 132 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ aucust Two seedlings of Cucurbita Pepo were placed in each of the solutions of the strength shown in the following table: CUCURBITA PEPO. | ‘ N N N N Acids. B00 | BI00 6400 T2500 as ee ee CP ee 25°" rw ne! et Oe ONES IS ye |e ae es 3.25 * { HS Ree a NOG Sika Pr ease es 9. ae 80, a Me IRS) ae ieee os 4.75": 6.5 3 se ee eee 5.25% To 0.4 24 ye ee eo $.e. ee HB Per eA OUTS a 4.5250 5.7 sf SS Oe ens errr 2.35 i ai Boe lL Seedlings were set first in the veny and sout solutions and after the first twenty-four hours no growth had taken place replaced the root tips were soft and flabby; they were, however, in the solutions and allowed to stand for another twenty-four hours. Atthe end of the forty-eight hours no additional growth had occurred. In the givy and ,,45,5 solutions the growth considerable for both the first and second twenty-four how Then the strength of solution necessary to inhibit the growth — 33 Which is less than in the case of Pisum sativum seedlings : but more than in the case of Zea Mais seedlings. : The relative sensibility to the acid poisons then is a 1. Pisum sativum, seedlings killed by ,,\,y solution. 2. Zea Mais, seedlings killed by ,¥,, solution. 3- Cucurbita Pepo, seedlings killed by , 4, solution. follows: Before discussing the results of the experiments with acids, a short statement in regard to the so-called theae electrolytic dissociation will be necessary. The theory ie i lished by Arrhenius‘ in 1887 and amounts practically ee Aqueous solutions of acids, bases, or salts are, to 4 me less extent, broken up or dissociated into part-molecules, - called zons. It is not necessary to mention here the facts or confirm this theory, but it suffices to say that it now stands OP * Zeitschrift fiir Physikalische Chemie 1: 631. 1896 | TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 133 comparatively firm experimental basis. The amount of dissocia- tion depends upon the strength of the solution. The more dilute the solution, the more complete is the dissociation, until at infinite dilution the dissociation is complete. When a certain acid, for example HCl, dissociates, the result is H-ions and Cl- ions; the H-ions are charged positively with electricity, while the Cl-ions are charged negatively, there being an equal number of positive and negative ions in order to preserve equilibrium. The manner of dissociation may be expressed by H* and Cl-. In the case of a salt, as CuSO,, for example, the dissociation will take place as *Cu* ions and ~SOj; ions, and in a similar man- ner for other salts, the radicle always being the electro-negative ton and the basic element or radicle the electro-positive ion. A comparison of the results obtained with the acids, with some investigations on the plant cell, is interesting as affording some light upon the nature of the effect produced by the acids. Klemm: states that ¥% to 1 pro mille HNO, causes the stream- ing motion of the protoplasm in the hairs of Zvianea to cease and also produces a granulation and aggregation of the proto- plasm. A 1 promille solution of HNO, would contain I gram of HNO, to 1o00% of water. The strength of solution which killed the roots of Pisum sativum was Nyy, which is equivalent to I gram of HNO, to 101,587 of water. For Zea Mais roots the killing point was the soy Solution, which is equivalent to I gram of HNO, to 25,396% of water. For the Cucurbita Pepo seedlings the roots were killed by the ,3,, solution, which 's equivalent to 1 gram of HNO, to 50,793°% of water. From these figures it will be seen that the strength which was required to Produce a disorganization of the protoplasm in the 7rianea hairs was so much greater than that required to kill the roots of the Seedlings, that the toxic effect can hardly be due to a visible disorganization of the protoplasm. Klemm also states that the Same thing takes place with equally dilute solutions of H,SO, and HC], 964 reno Banisationserscheinungen der Zelle: Jahrbiicher £. wiss. Botanik 28: 658- Ae 95. 134 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST In regard to the relation of these results to the theory of dissociation, Kahlenberg and True® have demonstrated quite clearly in their work that it is the H* ion which produces the toxic effect. HCI will form H* ions and Cl- ions; H,S0, will dissociate first into H* and HSOj, but the final product will be two H* ions and ~SO; ions; HNO, splits to form H* ions and NO; ions; HBr will dissociate to form H* ions and Br* ions. As has been before stated, the more dilute the solution, the more complete the dissociation, but with the dilu- tions used for the acids, dissociation would be practically com- plete, so that we need not take into consideration anything but the H* ions and the electro-negative ions. Take for example NaCl, which will dissociate as Na+ and Cl~ ions. Now Na at the dilution at which the HCl was effective is practically without effect; the Cl- ions must then be considered as nom poisonous in the HCl, since both HCl and NaCl contain ions. Now if the Cl- ions are without any toxic effect at this dilution it is plain that the poisonous effect must be due to the H* ions, The H,SO, may be considered in the same way. If a: plant be subjected to an equally concentrated solution of K,S0y which is one of the compounds from which plants quite comm: monly obtain their potassium, it would be entirely unharmed # that dilution. The K,SO, would dissociate to form Sc os and SO; ions, and since K,SO, and H,SO, solutions ae SOZ ions in common it is evident that the SO; ions 0 the H,SO, are non-poisonous. This then leaves only the H_* ions t produce the toxic effect. The non-poisonous character of Be Ba eas a be shown by the action of other sulfates; “7 : eee: gsO, and Na,SO,. Again: sulfur is a constant se stituent of proteid substances, and is absorbed by all plants oe Daou so that plants are constantly sub) ee - H.SO. saleuan areas: The solutions were so woo fs other acids th : Diet tee ere —— pee d only Ah » that is, a normal solution of H,SO, containe ; ° Bor. Gaz. 22:8. 1896, 1896 | TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 135 gram molecule to the liter. Now the H,SO, solution which con- tains the same amount of ionic H as the other acids kills at the same point of dilution, so that this again points to the toxic effect of the H* ions. The action of HNO, may be discussed in a similar manner. Ca(NO,), is one of the common compounds by which a plant receives calcium and nitrogen and ata dilution relatively the same as that at which the acid killed the seedlings, it is without any harmful effect. It is presented to the plant in the form of *Ca* ions and NO; ions. The HNO, and Ca (NO,), contain NO, in common and since the NO~, ions are non-poisonous it leaves the H* ions again as the agent which produces the toxic effect. A large part of the nitrogen contained in a plant is sup- plied to it in the form of nitrates, so that here again the plant is constantly subjected to the action of NO~, ions. The non- poisonous character of the NO-, ions may be shown by other nitrates as well. It may seem doubtful at first whether HBr can be considered in the same way as the other acids, but Dirck’ has found that KBr in dilute solution produces no harmful effect. Now since this would dissociate as K+ ions and Br- ions, it follows that in dilute solution Br-ions are non-poisonous, and hence play no part in the toxic effect of the HBr, at least not at the dilution at which the HBr killed the roots of seedlings. It will also be seen from the tables that the HBr kills the seedlings at the same degree of concentration as the other acids; now since it has been shown that the toxic effect of HCl, H,SO, and HNO, is due to the H- ions, we should expect HBr to kill at a different degree of concentration if the Br was poisonous also, for then we should have the sum of the effect of H* ions and Br~ ions. Here again the entire toxic action is produced by the H* ions. It has been clearly shown by the above experiments that in the case of poisoning by acids, the harmful effect is produced entirely by the H* ions. By putting the results of the experi- ments in a different form we can get a better idea of the 7 Bericht d. Verhdlg. d. siichs. Ges. d. Wiss. zu Leipzig 21: 20. 1869. 3 136 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avcust extremely small amount of ionic H necessary to kill the roots of seedlings. In the case of the Pisum sativum seedlings one part of ionic H- to 6,400,000 of water was sufficient to kill the roots. The roots of Cucurbita Pepo were killed by 1 part of ionic 1 to 3,200,000 parts of water, while the roots of Zea Mais were the most resistant, requiring one part of ionic H to 1,600,000 parts of water. _ When expressed in the form of per cent. the extremely small amount of acid necessary to kill the Peswm sativum seedlings 1s even more apparent, and may be expressed as follows: HCl, 9.00056%; H,SO,, 0.00076%; HNO,, 0.00098%; HBr, 0.00126%. From this it will be seen that the per cent. according t0 weight gives a different result, showing apparently a difference in the toxic power of the acids, which would be obtained if the theory of dissociation was overlooked. Before leaving the subject of acids and their toxic effect 4 few points in connection with the relation of the plant to CO, are worthy of note. All CO, which reaches the plant, whether it be the root or the green aerial parts must be brought into solution sary to produce a toxic effect is quite large, and this may PF . urged as an objection to the ionic explanation. This cai ever be easily explained. The CO, absorbed by a leaf is eit . up with some difficulty, the resistance depending UP? a structural porosity of the leaf and upon the permeability of the : cell walls, so that it takes a very considerable external pressut or a large per cent, of CO, in the surrounding air to cause He 1896 | TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 137 accumulation of CO, to any amount in the tissue of the plant since it is constantly being removed from the scenes of activity in the photosyntactic processes. That the ionic explanation is the true one is also strengthened by the experiments of Gigliole,’ who found that various seeds when subjected to the action of CO, in their dry condition, retained their vitality as well as in ordinary air, but when the: seeds were soaked in water they were killed. This effect seems to me to be due to the H-ions present. The experiments in regard to the poisonous action of CO, are somewhat conflicting since Jentys? concluded froma series of experiments that beans, lupines, rye, and wheat were not harmed by CO,. These experiments, however, are not conclusive, since the plants were grown in earth in glass pots. The CO, was intro- duced by a tube in the floor of the pot, and since the air which Was passed in contained only about ,4, per cent. CO, the roots Were probably subjected to only a small per cent. of CO, in the form of carbonic acid. In the experiments which I have per- formed with the acids the whole plant was not killed but simply the main root, so that if the plants had been growing in the soil they would not have been killed. F ungi are also able to with- stand more CO, than green plants, which has been shown to be the case with other acids. More experiments are necessary to Prove conclusively the fact that CO, poisoning is due to the effect of the ionic H~, and as soon as possible experiments with that view will] be carried out. ACETIC ACID, CH, CoO N N N Se N eae tov B00 Tb00 F200 E4t00 ee ae . P. sativum TRA Oe Pe a Fe 5, pe 1.25" oO 2G hye) Ce fe, ete 5.25% 14.5 “ Zea Mais Ist2q4hrs| .... 16,25"" ie II “ a 2d 24hrs| .... G75 * 1. ye Sa re panera gs Se. 8 ae Z “eth chimica italiana 9: 477-478. 1879. xtrait du Bulletin de Académie des Sciences de Cracovie, July 1892. 138 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AvGuST Some experiments with acetic acid also were performed. In these, only seedlings of Pisum sativum and Zea Mais were used, and the results at the different dilutions are shown in the preceding table. From the above table it will be seen that ;Q,9 sy00 and sty Solutions were used for the seedlings of P. sativum. In the ,¥,, solution no growth whatever occurred and at the end of the first twenty-four hours the root tips were very soft and flabby. In the two remaining solutions considerable growth resulted, but it will be seen from the amount of growth that the g30y Solution produced a marked retardation. For the Zea Mais seedlings much greater concentrations were used to start with, since it had been found in the experiments with other acids that these seedlings were much more resistant In the ,}, solution no growth whatever occurred while im “ other dilutions the growth was considerable. The figures ie also show that growth was to some extent retarded in the dilutions which were not sufficient to kill the roots. Z The dissociation of acetic acid is into H* ions and C,H,% ions, so that here again we have to deal with H* ions. In this acid, however, the degree of dissociation is not complete . se dilutions which were used in the experiments. The amount 0” dissociation in a ,,, solution is only 12.66 per cent. ao to Ostwald,” and in a siz Solution 9.14 per cent. Then here have to deal with acertain amount of dissociated acetic acid . a certain amount which remains unchanged, the effect of We cannot be overlooked. Sodium acetate in equally strong ee is non-poisonous and since both sodium acetate and aceti¢ es contain C,H,O> ions in common it follows that the CyHs a ion is non-poisonous, so that the H+ ions and the undissocia'® | acid are left to produce the toxic effect. The part wil 3 played by these two will depend upon the degree of tration of the solution. ae It will be noted that in the case of both seedlings pe ie - cent. necessary to kill the roots is much greater than in - ® Zeitschrift fiir Physikalische Chemie 3: 174. 1896 | TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 139 experiments upon other acids. This fact is to be explained by the partial dissociation of the acetic acid. It is also interesting to note that after the killing point has been found for the Piswm sativum roots it can be worked out by proportion for the Zea Mais. ,N,,, the killing point in other acids for Pisum, is to ,§,,, the killing point for Zea Mais with other acids, as Yeye the killing point of acetic acid for Pisum sativum, is to N, the killing point for Zea Mats, that is, , 6400: 1600 :: 1600: 4; whence + = 400, and a glance at the table will show that the ,%, solution was sufficient to kill the roots of Zea Mais seedlings. Klemm ™ has shown that more concentrated solutions of the organic acids are necessary to produce disorganization than of the inorganic acids. This fact then falls in line with the result here obtained for the acetic acid. 4. COPPER SALTs. For the copper salts stock solutions which contained ;} gram-molecule to the liter were used. Three different copper- salts were used, copper sulfate, copper chloride, and copper acetate, and the dilutions were made as follows: 10° of +45 to 200% = yy1;5 mol. 100° of gylgq to 200° = gzyy mol. 100° of g7Zy5 to 200% = tyh55 mol. eke. PISUM SATIVUM. 1 Copper salts. sou l|rssoe| ese00 srzou | Toeso0 mol, mol. mol. mol, mol. CuSO, Ist 24 hours} .... ee o75e 2.5 ™ RS co 2d 24 hours) .... ak HN TES ge 13.75 “ CuCl Ist 24 hours| .... tes O75" 335 eg * (2d 24 hours at eae ORE gre 8.25 * EMCSHLO,),}324 8 vuws ewes O75" ae 12.75 2,24 Wee Le ee 3.5 9 See ee ki Experiments were carried out first with the seedlings of Ss“ sativum, two seedlings being placed in each of the solu- " Jabrbiicher f. wiss, Botanik 28: 658-664. 140 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AuGusT tions indicated in the preceding table. The amount of growth for periods of twenty-four hours was noted. In the solutions which contained 5; and zg}yq molecule per liter no growth whatever was observed, and at the end of the experiment the root tips were generally quite soft and flexible and in most cases showed a faint greenish coloration. In the next dilution, »;4,, molecule, a very slight growth was observed for the first twenty-four hours but for the second twenty-four hours no growth whatever, and at the end of the experiment these roots were also soft and flexible and colored greenish. In the two next dilutions ;,1,, molecule and ;y3!;9y molecule, the growth was considerable, but it was much greater in the later solution showing that the growth was retarded toa considerable extent by the ;,4,, molecule solution. In the sz$o0 molecule, CuSO, solution no growth resulted for the second twenty-four hours, but this is not strange since in the others the growth was retarded to a considerable extent. Then the ;;$00 molecule solution may be considered as the strength of the copper salts which will barely permit the roots to live. A series of experiments similar to the above were also pet formed with seedlings of Zea Mais with the following results: ZEA MAIS. n rn ie 1 ber ; a Sea sop 8400 TE800 25600 51200 ogg ce wt ° mol. mol, — c Ist 24h mm 165°" Cuso, } 4 hours} ...., hee mm 2.5 fi 2d 24 hours; .... se nk hy CuCl, Shes ed ee 2s 1.25 | Ee 2d 25 hours! ..., Ce eae on 75 Cu(C,H bs ee, eee eeees 2 a: 14 “ (C,H30,), a 24h, es a a bepumermprasammeccmimccnm see Tt [—_—_ oo . the Pie since the experiments with the acids showed that e seedlings of Zea Mais were able to withstand a greater ees was thought that they would likewise withstand a greatet ge a show" of copper. For this reason only the first three dilutions 1896 } TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 141 in the above table were used, but it was found that in all except the last no growth resulted, and in the 5,4, molecule solution only a very small increase in length was noted in the CuSO, and CuCl, and none in the Cu(C,H,0,),. The roots at the end of the experiment were soft and flexible and showed a greenish color similar to the roots of Pisum sativum in the copper solu- tions. Two higher dilutions were then used; sida gram-molecule, and +y3';yy gram-molecule. In the first of these very slight growth occurred during the first twenty-four hours but no further growth afterwards, while in the jv2'gpy SOlution the growth was consider- able during the entire period of the experiment. The > 9s\;99 gram-molecule solution is to be considered as the one which will first allow the seedlings to grow. That the seedlings of Zea Mais should be less sensitive to acids and more sensitive to copper salts seems a little strange, but the experiments plainly show that this fact is true. When CuSO, exists in dilute solution, it will dissociate to form *Cu* ions and -SOz ions, and at the degree of con- centration of the solutions used the dissociation would be practically complete. Hence only copper-ions and ~SOjJ ions need be taken into consideration. Now it has already been shown in the case of H,SO, that the SOj ion is non-poisonous, at least in dilute solutions, so the Cu-ion is left to bring about the toxic action. CuCl,, the second salt used, will dissociate to form *Cu* ions and two Cl- ions, and here also the disso- Ciation will be practically complete in the solutions used, so that at this case we have to deal simply with *Cu* ions and cr tons. In the experiments with HCl it has been shown that the Cl ions are without effect, so that here also the toxic action tienes be due to the Cu ions. The next salt, Cu(C,H,O,), will dissociate to form +*Cu+ ions and two C,H,O; ions, and here also the dissociation will be practically complete in the solutions used. Here then we have to deal simply with * Cu* ions and C,H,0, ions. That the toxic action of this salt is due entirely © to the Cu-ions can be clearly shown from the results obtained - for the other copper salts. In the CuSO, and in the CuCl, the 142 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST toxic action was due to the Cu alone, the ~SOj ions and the Cl~ ions being without effect. Now in the case of the Re acetate if the C, H, OF; was poisonous we should expeat t a : solution would kill the seedlings at a greater dilution, ee would have the combined action of H* ions and C,H eo but the experiments show the killing point for the a ae the same as for the other salts. Hence we must conelt : a the C,H,O, ion is without any poisonous effect at this di ie Nageli* has shown that copper by its mere presence ee water in which plants were growing was able * produce filled effects, and Low 3 has also shown that water which was dis pe from a copper retort resulted injuriously to plants. Ri found that it was impossible to use brass pins to — a lings to a cork while growing in various solutions. e me poisonous effect was due to the Cu and Zn of the pe a ‘A by the fact that as soon as glass pins were a é plants grew without any difficulty. We ona vee copper as being insoluble but in the cases mentioned a a very certain that enough Cu-ions were formed in the 50 to produce the toxic action. as one part of copper to 404,423 parts of water. “ — of Zea Mais were killed by the x745; gama 2 a which ig equivalent to one part of copper to 808,840 Pal™ — water. uld be Before leaving the copper salts one other fact fe: seed- mentioned. At the end of the experiments some of t would | lings were transferred to distilled water to see if the ie dling : revive, but in no case would the main root grow. Bec ee as a whole was not dead, but would continue to grow “ Pail 1 secondary roots above the part of the root which had bee # * Denkschr. d, Schweizerischen naturf. Ges. 33:1. 1893. 3 Landw, Jahrb. 20: 235. 1891. 1896 | TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 143 so that when it has been stated that the seedling was killed only the root has been referred to. 5. NicKEL AND COoBALT. A series of experiments were carried out with two nickel salts, NiSO, and Ni(NO,), and two cobalt salts, CoSO, and Co(NO,),. The same two seedlings, Pisum sativum and Zea Mais were used. First as to the results obtained with the seed- lings of Pisum sativum. Seedlings were placed in the dilutions shown in the following table and the growth recorded for periods of twenty-four hours. PISUM SATIVUM. 1 Nickel and Cobalt. 6L00 T2800 25600 Biz00 | 102400 mol, mol. mol mol, mol. NiSO 4 Ist24 hours se loa 1.5 mm r.750™ to ™m 13 6g * 2d 24 hours s a ed 65 5 Ni(NO.), J Ist24hours} 1 « Mra tas 225° 7 ea 13.25" ee ( 2d 24 hours a ah ae = 1¥.75** CoSO, $18t24hours} 1 « poe 7 eases 6,25" ne 2d ours ce rf 3.5.0 Cy Be CoNG,), 4 2abours; 1 | 3 | 45! 78 ( 2d 24 hours io. ‘75 He AED Re aa aaa to First as to the nickel salts. In the eaten reteo 20d xst00 8ram-molecule solutions a small amount of growth was observed for the first twenty-four hours but no further growth resulted. In the 57359 and + 55'y)9gram molecul lutions i | pags occurred for the entire period, except in the 5,49, nickel nitrate, in which solution the normal conditions were not fulfilled, since the plants suffered from a copious growth of bacteria. At the end of the experiment the roots which were killed were not soft — flabby as in the acid or copper poisoning, but were extremely rigid. The roots were so rigid and brittle that if the seedlings Were dropped on the table they would snap in pieces almost like “© much glass. For'the cobalt salts growth was observed in the id and +51. gram-molecule solutions for the first twenty-four Sabet but no growth afterwards, while in the two next weaker Solutions growth continued for the entire period. The roots 144 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | AUGUST which were killed by the cobalt solutions were also very brittle and rigid, the same as in the nickel solutions. : The results obtained for the seedlings of Zea Mais in the dif- ferent solutions are given in the following table: ZEA MAIS. . 1 1 pate aad Cobalt. reas | xsov | atoo | reso | re00e ia mol, mol. mol, mol. mol. ia mm NiSO, Ist 24 hours oan Bisa 2 mm 3 m 45 mm rt aa: 34 hoursi:. .. iy ae oh Re ‘ ‘ : “ “ 17. f Ni(N Ist 24 h’rs oS +. a 555 4 fe MNOo)s td 24 h'rs| .. Age o a a 16.5 CoSO Ist 24 hours 2.5 mm ] ™m 20.5 “ 27 “ : ie * (2d 24 hours} .. a 16 ee es . Co(NO)s es 2 * | 3.25" | 22.5" | to 4) oe . 2d 24 h’rs ky a 19 “ 34 ‘“c ae z9 aa ___ and the The seedlings were set first in ¢¢y9) rxh00 B5eo0 * srz00 Zram-molecule solution of NiSO,. The first three s growth for the first twenty-four hours but none afterwards, those in the last solution grew for the entire period of the ~~ ment. For the Ni (NO,), only the three solutions shown 11 ~ 3 first table were used; in the first two growth occurred during the twenty-four hours, but none afterwards, so that the killing | point for the nickel salts may be considered the a5o00 gree : : molecule solution. : n " howed while per- soluti ae, nS, rgoo and 5,1, gram-molecules. grew for the first twenty-four hours, but no resulted at the second measurement. The killing point oe cobalt salts is thus placed at the ,,',, gram-molecule solution: | One point which must be noted in connection with all of experiments with the nickel and cobalt salts is that in We every case a certain amount of growth resulted during the oo 1896 | TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 145 twenty-four hours of the experiments in which the roots were killed. The nickel and cobalt are quite poisonous, but the toxic effect is not felt by the plant as soon as in the case of acid or copper poisoning. The toxic action of nickel is seen to be greater than cobalt, by the results on both Pisum sativum and Zea Mais. . ~ In the case of the NiSO, the dissociation will be into *Ni* ions and ~SO;z ions. The CoSO, will form *Co* ions and ~SO; ions. At the dilution used for both of these salts the dissociation will be practically complete. It has already been shown that the SO; ion is non-poisonous, so the *Ni* ions and the *Co* ions are left to bring about the toxic action. The Ni(NO,), will form in dilute solution *Ni* ions and two NO; ions. The Co (NO,), will dissociate to form *Co* ions and two NO; ions. Here also the dissociation will be practically complete at the dilutions used, so that we have to deal simply with the resulting ions. The NO; ion has been shown to be Non-poisonous, so that in this case also the toxic action must be due to the *NO+ ions and to the *Co* ions. The small amount of ionic Ni and Co necessary to kill the roots is shown below: PISUM SATIVUM. Nickel—z5}59 mol.=1 part Ni to 435,374 H20. Cobalt—yz459 mol.=1 part Co to 217,687 H,0. ZEA MAIS. Nickel—y5}55 mol.=r part Ni to 435,374 H.0. Cobalt—3s!55 mol.=1 part Co to 54,421 H,O. Even in the case of the cobalt and Zea Mais, which shows the greatest concentration for poisoning, the amount of ionic Co is very small when compared with the amount of H,O. 6. SILVER SALTs. In testing the toxic action of silver two salts were used, Silver sulfate and silver nitrate. For these experiments the Same two seedlings were used. The results obtained for the Seedlings of Pisa sativum are given in the following table: at In the first two dilutions no growth whatever occurre ~ the entire period and at the end of the experiment bs 146 BOTANICAL GAZETTE _PISUM SATIVUM. Silver Salts. sito0 |tostoo| 0 as00 LOVE equiv. equiv. equiv. equiv. He } mm | ppg v Ist 24 hours a ee $25" 12.25 ) 82504 2d 24 hours; .. ae Li9s5° 8.62 14.25 N )Ist24hours} .. ay a ee fb ie 95 Ag 0 2d 24hours| .. a 45°" 75] 10,575 The solutions here are expressed in equivalents of the te ion, since in the Ag,SO, if we had the same fraction of gram-molecule as in AgNO,, the solution would contain as many silver ions. The dilutions were made as follows 25° of +4y mol. to 4oo°=y¢y5 mol. 25° of +¢yy mol. to 400°=55}95 Mol.=trFvvs equiv. 100° of z5tyy mol. to 400°=yys¢oy MOl.=srd00 equiv. 100 of tys¢ou Mol. to 200° =syysyy MOl.=ro9s's0 equiv., et The dilutions for AgNO, were made as follows: 10° of + mol. to 1000°%=y4y mol. 25° of zy mol. to 200° =+44yy mol. 25° of tgy9 mol. to 4oo°= z5hy9 mol. - 100° of x5450 mol. to 200°=;;}55 mol., ete. Were quite rigid, but not more so than in the ordinary te grown under normal conditions. In the last three dilutio! siderable growth was observed, so that the killing poin silver salts is placed at ys'ppy Equivalents. 4 ZEA MAIS. ctheana sri equiv. 1ORTOT equiv. peeling Adicts Ag.SO, te 24 hours..}) 9 ymm gram-molecule solution. The seedlings of Zea Mais were started in the xs'5y gram-molecule solution which completely inhibited the growth, while the two next dilutions allowed growth to continue, so that here the kill- ing point is shown to be the z,!55 gram-molecule solution show- ing the Zea Mais to be somewhat more resistant than the P. sativum, = POTASSIUM CYANIDE. i 1 | 1 1 KCN T600 B200 6400 T2800 25600 mol, mol. mol. mol. mol. Mie eee Cae 2 . mm , mm mm Psetiviien Ist 24 hours eee sine 1:25 3 . 2.5 i 2d 24 hours sa Hoan es 2 3 “e Z. Mais Ist 24 hours ae 25°° a . 2d 24 hours whee as 6 The KCN will dissociate to form K* ions and CN7 ions, and the dissociation is nearly complete. Since we are dealing here with a potassium salt of HCN and quite dilute solutions, the amount of undissociated KCN will not be very great. At the dilutions used the K+ ion would not produce any toxic action, - the poisonous quality of the KCN solutions must be due Principally to the CN- ion and to a slight extent to the undis- sociated KCN, the effect of which will decrease as the dilutions become greater. 9. Porasstum FERRO- AND FERRI-CYANIDES. Experiments were performed with the seedlings of P. sativum and Zea Mais and potassium ferro- and potassium ferri-cyanide. In the z's and ,1, gram-molecule solutions of K,Fe(CN), the Toots were killed, no growth whatever resulting. In zjy molecule solution growth was observed during the first twenty-four hours, but none afterward. Inthe ,1. and ;1 gram-molecule solution Stowth conti “de BE ae e ‘continued for the entire period. In the K,Fe(CN),, th Seedlings were set first in the «4, molecule solution in which no 150 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST growth occurred. The two next weaker solutions allowed the seedlings to grow. The killing point may be placed, then, at too gram-molecule. Those roots which were killed remained rigid, but were somewhat discolored. In the weaker solutions which did not entirely inhibit the growth a retardation of the growth is apparent. The results of the experiments with P’ sativum are given in the following table: PISUM SATIVUM. = 1 CYANIDES. 25 BD 100 700 Eis mol, mol, mol. | eae Ist 24h co do | 22s | 1Se F Oe e305 i , ae K, ENN} action “ee eee rete a Me | “ce K Ist 24 hours Bo 5 “ce 3Fe (CN), ia 24 hours | ‘ewe 4 - | The results of the experiments with Zea Mais are given ’ the following table: ZEA MAIS. a 1 CYANIDEs. as #y 100 aap mol, mol, mol, aFe ( een ae ee ae be K.Fe (CN Ist 24 hours ak 1.5 “ 8.25 “ pe aFe (CN), 2d 24 hours 2. ae ee | In both of the salts no growth occurred in the 25 naam solution. In the sv Mol. and ;1, mol. solutions cor noted for the first twenty-four hours but none afterwards. a zoo mol. solution showed growth for the entire period, rp i : here as in the case of the P. sativum seedlings the killing P° a is the zoy gram-molecule solution, 1m In the case of both salts the dissociation will be in the e of K* ions and Fe (CN)- ions, the only difference being fact that whereas K,Fe (CN), solutions contain four K pa K;Fe(CN), solutions contain three K ions. For the ss jutios used the dissociation is not complete. 3 1896 | TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 51 For the K,Fe(CN), at 18° C. and of ;', gram-molecule strength about $3 of the molecules will be broken up, and for a1, gram-molecule solution about 33 of the entire number of molecules will be split up. For the K,Fe(CN), at 18° C. and of gy gram-molecule strength, about }§ of the total number of mole- cules will be dissociated."* The solutions used will then contain a certain number of undissociated molecules besides the K* ions and the Fe (CN); ions. The K* ions have already been mentioned as non-poisonous at these dilutions, so the toxic action must be referred to the Fe(CN); ions and to some extent to the undissociated molecules. The much greater strength of solutions which the seedlings are able to withstand in the above experiments over that for the KCN, show that the CN has lost its toxic action to a great extent by combining with the Fe to form the Fe (CN), ion. The roots of P. sativum were killed by the ¢7)9 KCN, while it took ;4, potassium ferro- or ferri-cyanide. The molecule of the potassium ferro- or ferri-cyanides contained six times as much cyanogen, hence it required 384 times as much cyanogen in the form of the Fe(CN), ion to produce the same effect. The roots of Zea Mais were killed by the gy/59 KCN, while it took 54, gram-molecule of K,Fe(CN), or K,Fe(CN), to produce the same effect, or 192 times as much CN in the form of the Fe(CN)> ion. 10. SItveR NitraTE + 3KCN. Some experiments were also performed to test the action of AgNO, + KCN upon the growth of the same seedlings as had been used before. The results are given below: 1 gare FEES Tz800 25600 51200 102400| 204800 mol, mol. mol, mol. mol. a Rect P. sativum ot 24 fite;...§ 3:58" | ge steam oo 25°" hate, es ON ew rer 3.5 2.5 4 Z. Mais ist 24 hrs...) 1.5 3-25 6 8.25 eG 24 tire. ces 15.88 2 5.25 “Ostwald, Chemische Energie 739. 152 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST For the P. sativum seedlings growth occurred in the first two dilutions for the first twenty-four hours only. In the next dilu- tions growth. continued for the entire period. For Zea Mais growth was noted in the first dilution for the first twenty-four hours, but not afterwards, while in the following dilutions growth continued for the entire period. Those roots which were killed remained rigid. : The solutions were mixed upon Ag as a base, and the fol lowing action will show what the solutions contain: AgNO, + 3KCN = KNO, + K(AgCN,) + KCN. At the dilutions used the KNO, is without effect. The K(Ag CN,) will dissociate to form K* ions and AgCN; ions; the KCN to K* ions and CN°- ions. The above experiments show that more silver is required to produce poisoning when present in the form of AgCN7 ions, bee when present as the simple Ag ion: four times as much fot the P. sativum seedlings and eight times as much for Zea Mais seedlings: A comparison of the results obtained by myself with oe of True and Kahlenberg* is given in the following table. The dilutions given just allowed growth. ——— Name of Compound P, sativum gen ee HCl Cems ce ee Mette esse cece eel Tohop. eq. ee re a PG oe Me “ Pe a a ¥ C,H,0, vou . oe Re ad A tee Waele: sitoe CHO er a : Cu(C,H30,), Wt eee Gorm Ne ea kee oe 6 co a eo “s : J, ee ORAM ee ce os eg S srést . NENG coe Ce ODO rtou CONG soos AgNO eee — CO ee chee ee zorseu “ $2 APRN ee ede ele gg Le re: es H C] i tas ee ek Botsoo g FOO he PA go eS sueeT 2 BRON ere Trt00 RFHCN) ae a . KiFCCN . *S Bor. Gaz. 22:81, 1896. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX/. PLALE ¥i1, HEALD on EFFECT of DILUTE SOLUTIONS. 1896 | TOXIC EFFECT OF ACIDS AND SALTS UPON PLANTS 153 11. CONCLUSION. 1. In nearly all of the seedlings used quite a wide range in the sensibility to the same substance is to be noted. This is especially noticeable in the results obtained for the acids. In some of the salts, as silver salts and K,Fe(CN), and K,Fe (CN) ,, all three of the plants were killed by the same solution. 2. Throughout the whole series of acids and salts used | have shown that the toxic action was due to the ions into which the substances split up in great dilutions. In some cases dis- sociation was not complete and the effect of the undissociated substance had to be taken into consideration. 3. In all cases, except KCN, K,Fe(CN), and K,Fe(CN),, it was the electro-positive or cathion which produced the toxic action. In the three substances mentioned above it was the electro-negative or anions which produced the toxic action. 4. In the cases investigated, compound ions, which contain elements that have a very high toxic action, lose their toxic action to some extent by being combined. This may take place where a comparatively harmless ion unites with one of high toxic value to form a compound ion, or where two ions of high toxic value are associated in a compound ion. The.theory of dissociation in dilute solutions has thus thrown light upon the physiological action of different substances, and the theory has itself been strengthened by these experiments upon living subjects. The results obtained by Kahlenberg and True have been confirmed throughout all of my experiments. I wish here to thank Dr. Kahlenberg for aid and many valuable suggestions, and for the kindly interest which he has taken in my work. _ In UNIVERSITY oF WISCONSIN, MADISON. FLOWERS AND INSECTS. XVII. CHARLES ROBERTSON. For a more extended title of this series I have adopted that of Contributions to an account of the ecological relations of the entomophilous flora and the anthophilous insect fauna of the neighborhood of Carlinville, Illinois.’ The following papets should be regarded as parts of the same series: Flowers and Insects: Umbelliferee. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Science 5:449-4 1890; Asclepiadacez to Scrophulariacee, 72d. 5 2569-598. 1891; Labiate. ibid. 6: 101-131. 1892. (no. 4); Rosacea and Compost tae, eid. 6: 435-480. 1894. (no. 14); Flowers and Insects, #id. 7:151-179. 1896. (no. 6); The Philosophy of Flower Seasons, American Naturalist 29:97-117. 1895. The cases of some plants, such as those observed in Florida, which properly do not come under the title, are distinctly specified. eee The present paper discusses a number of plants, which, be although not akin, should be compared because of the ini ; ence which their greenish yellow colors have been considered (0 ‘s have in determining the character of the insect visits. a | CAULOPHYLLUM THALICTROIDES (L.) Michx. is a perennial plant, rather frequent in rich woods, and blooming a short time; Ap : 430 to May 7th. Thestems grow several decimeters high and a single small loose panicles of yellowish green flowets: — flowers expand horizontally about 10™™, and, I think, remain ys at night. a short - Each of the six sepals has, lying upon its base #*” hae petal which is somewhat kidney-shaped, being expanded ae nectar gland as wide as the sepal. The style is very shor ew 's tipped by a small stigma, which is receptive before the ers dehisce. From the shortness of the stamens, as well we later dehiscence, ] think that spontaneous self-pollination di ; not occur, According to the views usually held with i 154 1896] FLOWERS AND INSECTS 155 flowers of like color and nectar exposure, we might expect a strong predominance of flies. My observations do not show this. With the exception of no. 18, taken April 23d, the following list was observed on May Ist: HYMENOPTERA — Andrenide : (1) Halictus confusus Sm. ¢,s. & c. p.; (2) H. 4—maculatus Rob, 9, s.: (3) Augochlora viridula Sm. 9, s.; Braconide : (4) Bracon trifolii Ashm.; (5) B. veronniz Ashm.: (6) Microgaster gelechiz Riley, ab.; (7) Opius ruficeps Proy.; (8) Dacnusa flavicincta Ashm.; Chalcidide : (9) Prosacantha illinoensis Ashm. (MS)—all s. IPTERA— Mycetophilide : (10) Dynatosoma thoracica Coq.(MS); Empide: (11) Rhamphomyia piligeronis Coq. (MS); Syrphid@: (12) Chilosia capillata Lw.; (13) Melanostoma obscurum Say; (14) Rhingia nasica Say ; Anthomy- ide: (15) Hylemyia plumosa Coq. (MS); (16) Mydza flavipes Coq. (MS); Oscinide : (17) Chlorops trivialis Lw.— all s. COLEOPTERA--Mordellide : (18) Mordellistena biplagiata Hel.; Curcu/ion- ide : (19) Idiostethus subcalvus Casey, both s. PTELEA TRIFOLIATA L.— According to Hildebrand (1) and Kerner (3), the flowers are staminate and perfect. Urban (2) indicates that Prelea is dicecious, and that self-pollination is impossible. As far as I have observed, it has appeared that this Species is dicecious. | could find no perfect flowers. The greenish white blossoms expand from 10 to 15™" and are crowded in compound cymes, which are nearly level topped and form convenient resting places for insects. In both forms nectar is secreted by the gynophore and is slightly concealed by the hairy bases of the filaments. The following table shows the kinds of insects taken on Xan- thoxylum Americanum and Prelea trifoliata, the former blooming = April 12th to 28th and the latter from May 8th to June 2th: Xanthoxylum hoses Other Hymenoptera Apidz Andrenidz Diptera Lepidoptera : canum (39) 0 19 3 $ Prelea trifoliata (51) I2 I 22 14 2 The difference in Apide may be partly on account of the mer having the nectar more concealed, but is mainly, I think, on account of the blooming time. At any rate, three of the Apide taken on Xanthoxylum have finished their flight before for 156 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [Aucus1 Ptelea goes out of bloom. Of the twelve species of lower Hymen- optera taken on Plea, not one is flying during the period of Xanthoxylum. The inflorescence of Pre/ea is more favorable for their visits. ; The principal pollinators are Andrenide. May 28th, 30thand June Ist, 4th and 8th the following list was observed: HyMENOPTERA—A fide : (1) Apis mellifica L. ¥,s., freq.; Andrenide: (2) Halictus coriaceus Sm. 9, s.; (3) H. ligatus Say 9, s.; (4) H. lerouxii Lep. % s.; (5) H. cressonii Rob. 9, s. & c. p.; (6) H. pilosus Sm. 9, s.; (7) H. com fusus Sm. 2, s. & c. p.; (8) H. stultus Cr. 9, s. & c. p.; (g) H. tegularis Rob. @, 8. & c. p.; (10) Agapostemon radiatus Say, 9, s.; (11) Augochlora pur Say, 2s.; (12) Andréna roberteonii D. T., 2, s. & c¢. p., freq.; (13) A. platy paria Rob. 39, s. & c. p.; (14) A. cressonii Rob. 9, s.; (15) A. bipunctata Cr. % s.& c. p., freq.; (16) A. nuda Rob. ¢, s. & c. p.; (17) A. rugosa Rob. 2, $5 (18) A. spirzeana Rob. 49, s.; (19) A. hippotes Rob. 9, s. & ¢. p., abs; (20) A. claytonie Rob. 9, s., freq.; (21) A. crataeegi Rob. 9, s. & c. p.; (22) Sphecodes confertus Say ¢, s., freq.; (23) Prosopis modesta Say, 4, $.; Eumenide : (24) Eumenes fraternus Say, s.; (25-27) Odynerus spp., s.; (28) O. unifascia’m Sauss., s.; (29) O. tigris Sauss., s.; (30) O. foraminatus Sauss., S.; Crabronide : (31) Oxybelus illinoensis Rob. (MS), s.; Philanthid@ : (32) Cerceris cone Cr., s.; Sphecide: (33) Ammophila vulgaris Cr., s.; Scolitde: (34) Elis con fluenta Say, s.; Chalcidide : (35) Leucospis affinis Say, s. a DIPTERA—Stratiomyide : (36) Stratiomyia meigenii W4d.; Conopide (37), ; Conops brachyrhynchus Mcq,, s.; (38) Myopa vesiculosa Say, $+; ee . (39) Sphzerophoria cylindrica Say, s.; (40) Myolepta nigra Will si (44 me Volucella vesiculosa F., s.; (42) Mallota cimbiciformis Fil. f. bautias ee S.; (43) Syritta pipiens L., s.: Zachinide : (44) Trichopoda sp., 5; (45) Jum smaragdina Mcq., s.; (46) J. apicifera Wlk., s.; (47) Micropalpus fulgens 8. 8.; Muscide : (48) Lucilia cornicina F., s.; Anthomyide : (49) Phorbie fusciceps Zett. 2g eterocer™ LEPIDOPTERA—Rhopalocera : (50) Neonympyha eurytris F..S.; . (51) Alypia octomaculata Hbn. Trelease (MS notes) captured the following insects 0” " flowers: HYMENOPTERA—A fide : (1) Psithyrus (Apathus) laboriosus F., Nomada sp.; Andrenide : (3) Halictus pilosus Sm., 2; (4) Andren? Rob., %; (5) A. illinoensis Rob., ¢; (6) A. crateegi Rob., 25 (7) meee viridulus F., 9; (8) Sphecodes confertus Say, 23 (9) Prosopis we 9% Vespide: (10) Vespa germanica F.; (11) Polistes metricus Say; a 1896] FLOWERS AND INSECTS 157 ide: (12) Odynerus albophaleratus Sauss.; Crabronide: (13) Oxybelus 4-notatus Say; Philanthid@ : (14) Cerceris pedalis Cr. COLEOPTERA—Coccineliide : (15) Analia bipunctata L.; Dermestida : (16 Anthrenus scrophularie L.; Lampyride@ : (17) Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus De G.; and other insects which I have not seen, probably flies. On the literature of Ptelea see: (1) Hildebrand, Geschlechtsvertheilung bei den Pflanzen, 11:26. 1867. —(2) Urban, Zur Biologie und Morphologie der Rutaceen, Jahrb. bot. Gartens Berlin 2:397-8. 1883. (Just 11°: 497.)—(3) Kerner, Pflanzenleben 2: 295. 1891. (Just 18" :486.) Ruamnus L.—The species which have been studied are dicecious — R, cathartica (Darwin 7), saxatilis and tinctorta (Ker- ner 19)—-or with flowers perfect, as in R. Frangula and pumila (Miller 3, 11), the former being proterandrous and the latter homogamous. R. cathartica has four sub-forms (Darwin 7), and Frangula shows a tendency to produce a long and short- styled form, as in our R. lanceolata (Schulz 17). The flowers are small, greenish, with easily accessible nectar and have been considered to be adapted to flies (Delpino 5, Miiller 12, 13), but this does not seem to be supported by suf- Stient data:. Sell. more extreme is the limitation of the proper Visitors to flesh-flies (Kerner 19). My list of visitors of R. /an- ceolata resembles those of white or yellow flowers with similarly placed nectar and blooming about the same time. The results of the observation of different species in separate regions is given in the following table: Apide Andrenida Other Hymenop Diptera Coleoptera Total Rhamnus lanceolata, Illi- | ink oe 2% 2 22 Ce - Frangula, Low iser-) : many, Miiller (3, in} f : : : : - Frangula, Flanders MacLeod (20), .- R. pumila, A] it Oa. ce Sa : : . RHAMNUS _LANCEOLATA Pursh.— According to Darwin (7), this species is dimorphous, but not properly heterostyled. The small trees grow as high as three or four meters and bear 158 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust numerous greenish flowers which appear with the leaves. The stamens are exserted so that the pollen may be eaten by Syr- phide or collected by Andrenidz, but the style is short and included. The calyx tube is about 2™ deep and 17” wide. Consequently the nectar, which is secreted by a disk lining the tube, is readily accessible to small, short-tongued insects. From _ their structure and blooming time, April 23d to May toth, the flowers seem to be specially adapted to Andrenide, but they are also visited less abundantly and less efficiently by flies. Onthe Ist and 2d of May I captured the following visitors : HYMENOPTERA—A fide : (1) Apis mellifica L. %, s., one ; (2) Bombus ame ricanorum F. 9, s.; (3) Ceratina dupla Say 4, s.; (4) Nomada maculata Cr. % 8.; Andrenide : (5) Halictus foxii Rob. @, s. and c. p., freq.; (6) H. arcuatus Rob. 9, s. and c. p-; (7) H. forbesii Rob. 9, s. and c. p.; (8) H. lerouxii Lep. % s. and c. p.; (9) H. fasciatus Nyl. 9, s. and c. p., ab.; (10) H. pilosus Sear s. and c. p., freq.; (11) H. confusus Sm., 9, s. and c. p., freq.; (12) H. prume sus Rob. 9, s.; (13) H. illinoensis Rob. 9, s.; (14) H. zephyrus Sm. 2, s, and ¢ wegra Wik.; rs cimbicis Twns.; Muscide - (47-48) Lucilia spp.; (49) L- ei = cordyluride : (50) Scatophaga squalida Mg.; Amthomyide@: (51) acra WIk.; (52) P, fusciceps Zett.—all s. or f. p. : On the literature of Rhamnus see : (1) Darwin, on the two forms, or dimorphic condition, in the ee Primula, and on their remarkable sexual relations; Journ inn " neilung bed 9:95. 1862—R. lanceolata, (2) Hildebrand, Geschlechtsverthel seus Pflanzen 9: 40, 1867—R. cathartica, lanceolata. (3) Miller, Bet 1896 | FLOWERS AND INSECTS 159 der Blumen 152. 1873—A. Frangula. (4) Kerner, Die Schutzmittel des Pollens 56. 1873. (5) Delpino, Ulteriori osservazioni, pt. II, fasc. 2:20, 214, 300, 316, Att. Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., Milano 16:168. 1873; 17:——. 1874 —R. cathartica, Frangula, alterna (Just 2:895). (6) Lubbock, British wild flowers in relation to insects 79. 1875—R. cathartica, Frangula, lanceolata, (7) Darwin, Forms of flowers, 273-7. 1877—R. cathartica, lanceolata, Fran- gula, (8) Bonnier, Les Nectaires, Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. 8:39. 1878. 2&. Frangula, alpina, inconspicuous flowers abundantly visited. (9) Dodel-Port, Die Liebe der Blumen 4-5:185—240. 1880—-2. cathartica (Just 8': 183). (10) Miller, Weitere Beobachtungen, II, Verh. naturhist. Ver. preuss. Rheinl, a Westl, 212, 1879-— 2. Frangula, (11) Miiller, Alpenblumen 169-71. 1881—R. pumila. (12) Miiller, Geschichte der Erklarungsversuche in Bezug (Just 9':506). (13) Miiller, Die biologische Bedeutung der Blumenfarben, Biol. Centralblatt 3:99, Ap. 1883. (14) Miiller, Die Stellung der Honig- biene in der Blumenwelt, III, Deutsche Bienenzeit. 39:157-61. 1883—R. pumila, Apis wanting. (15) Miller, Fertilization of flowers, 163-4. 1883— R. Frangula, cathartica, lanceolata, pumila. (16) Kirchner, Flora von Stutt- gart und Umgebung, 363-4. 1888—R. Frangula, cathartica. (17) Schulz, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Bestaiubungseinrichtungen und Geschlechts- Vlaandern, Bot. Jaarbock. 6:247—9, 438, 1894—-R. Frangula, cathartica. (21) Loew, Bliitenbiologische Floristik 36: 215. 1894— 2. pumila, Frangula, cathartica, saxatilis. f Ruus L.— The species are said to be polygamous or polyg- amo-dicecious. It might be better to call them dicecious, though of a recent form, for the staminate and pistillate flow- ers have large rudiments of pistils and stamens, and there is a tendency for them to revert to the perfect condition. Miller (4, 14) and Kerner (16) mention R. Cotinus as polygamous; but oR Halle and in South Tyrol Schulz (15) found it to be dice- “ous, though it appears (Loew? 20) that in the former locality he afterwards found polygamous examples. In the manual &. Yphina is called polygamous, while Miiller calls it diaecious. 1 ee on , é thie's In the Floristik, unfortunately, Loew mentions an author without citing any of “parate papers listed under that author's name. = 160 BOTANICAL GAZETTE {AUGUST Meehan (6, 18) referring to the fact that R. copailina, venenata and /oxicodendron. are variously classed as dicecious, polygamo- _ dicecious, or polygamous, insists that they and R. cotinoides are all truly dicecious. I regard R. glabra and Canadensis as dice- cious. s 2 In regard to the staminate, perfect, and pistillate flowers of R. Cotinus, Miller observes that they decrease in size in the order mentioned, and that, consequently, most insects visit them in the most advantageous order. Schulz failed to confirm the latter observation. In R. glabra and Canadensis, 1 think insects prefer the staminate flowers, partly because they are more conspicuous and because they contain pollen as well as nectar, and that the order of their visits is advantageous. However, I do not believe that natural selection has operated im pro ducing the difference, and so hold that it would be erroneous to say that the difference exists to secure the advantage. Age rule stamens are more conspicuous than pistils, and it is quite abvious that a small flower containing five stamens will be aa evident than one containing a single pistil. The larger pet anth may be explained as existing to support, and at first £0 protect, this exterior set of organs. Two effects upon the insect visitors have been attributed the dull yellow colors of Rhus. Miiller says that &. Cotinas, like all other flowers of a dull yellow color, is almost completely avoided by Coleoptera. The general proposition is denied by Bonnier (9), and Schultz says that it is not true for R. ee in the Tyrol, where he found many beetles among the oT. - Pastinaca, on which I have taken forty species of beetle oy mentioned by Miiller as an example of the same kind. — ant - The idea that the flowers of Rhus were specially age f to flies (macromyiophilous) seems to have originated with - -~ — pino(5). The “Tipo ramnaceo,” which he regards as macromy” a e philous, includes the greenish yellow species of Rhits, ki ae 5 Luonymus, Euphorbia, etc. In a special paper on the » a ical significance of flower-colors Miiller (12) says that Br citys the yellow colors are frequent in flowers among whose visi 1896] FLOWERS AND INSECTS 161 larger Diptera predominate. Both authors distinguish these cases from the dark colored flowers, like Stapelia, Asimina, etc., which they consider to be adapted to flesh flies. The view in regard to the greenish yellow flowers does not seem. to have been supported, if not entirely refuted, by subsequent investigations. Kerner’s view (16) that these colors are specially attractive to flesh flies was never held either by Del- pino or Miiller, and so may be considered to be supported neither by authority nor recorded observations. Of the green- ish yellow flowers which bloom in my neighborhood I have found a preponderance of general Diptera on none except Sassafras. Indeed I expect Smilax herbacea and S. ecirrhata to show a preponderance of flesh flies, but they differ from the others, and from all of the cases cited by Kerner, in having a scent of carrion. ; The following table gives results of observations of insect Visitors of Rhus in cases in which the species have been identi- fied. The Andrenidae and lower Hymenoptera preponderate over the Diptera. In the Tyrol Schulz saw R. Cotinus very abundantly visited by a set of insects which in a general way must resemble my list for R. glabra (19). . ‘ Other ~ * : Other Total Apide Andrenidz Dipteria : ve Rhus Cotinus— Low Geers’ ay Germany — Miiller I 3 6 6 . ad (4,14) Rhus_typhina — Low Germany — Miiller I I ee os I 3 R (4, I 4) A : hus glabra—Illinoi (toy - 3 16 13 25 I 58 hus Canadensis — 2 Illinois (19) 21 I 9 :. 33 Ruus CANADENSIS Marsh. R.aromatica Ait. Thisisa slender shrub growing on high creek banks, the stems rising from 1 to 2" high. - The branchlets are terminated by clusters of about three small, head -like racemes, which measure 8-10" in. > and appear before the leaves. The flower buds escape fom hibernacula whose scales still clasp the bases of the stalks. 162 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust The flowers are small, greenish yellow, with short petals. They are quite shallow, the nectar being almost freely exposed. Nectar is secreted by five orange colored glands situated between the bases of the filaments. The staminate flowers have the petals a little longer and more often expanded, so that this form is the more conspicuous. The nectar glands are larger, more triangular ‘and united at base. The pistil is so strongly devel- oped that the flower appears to be perfect. In the pistillate flower the nectar glands are more bilobed. The stamens are of normal form, but greatly reduced in size, and are without pollen. Both forms are abundantly visited by insects. In the case of Xanthoxylum Americanum, which blooms from April 12th to 28th, and Ptelea trifoliata, blooming from May sth to June 12th, we have observed that the lists differ in the absence of the lower Aculeata from Xanthoxylum. This -was explained as@ result of the difference in their blooming time. If we compare &. Canadensis—April 4th to 27th—with R. glabra—June 8th to 24th —we find the same result. In the former case not one of thelowet Aculeata occurring on Ptelea flies while Xanthoxylum is in bloom. Here we have a similar condition, for Polistes metricus is the only one taken on X. glabra which is flying during the flower season of 2 K. Canadensis. The large inflorescences of Ptelea and R, glabra - form more convenient resting places for these often large strad dling insects. The differences in the inflorescences May La accounted for partly by the difference in the composition of Re late insect fauna; but the early months, when there is apt ie : frost, are not favorable for the development of large ion“ clusters. Then, too, before the leaves appear, the smaller cae ters are sufficiently conspicuous. Other differences im the are connected with the blooming time, viz., the advent ; Prosopis, substitution of two late Colletes for the early C. inaeque’ and an increase of Halictus associated with the decline of the vernal species of Andrena. : os a ees following visitors of R. Canadensis were taken OF © 4th, 1oth, 12th and roth: oe | : (2) Nowe HYMENOPTERA— A pide : (1) Ceratina tejonensis Cr., 45 1896] FLOWERS AND INSECTS 163 maculata Cr., 49, freq.; Andrenid@: (3) Halictus sp. 2; (4) H. foxii Rob., 9, freq.; (5) H. forbesii Rob., 9, freq.; (6) H. ligatus Say, ¢; (7) H. cressonii Rob., 2; (8) H. zephyrus Sm., 9, freq.; (9) H. stultus Cr., 2; (10) Agaposte- mon texanus Cr., ¢; (11) Augochlora pura Say, 9; (12) Andrena sp. 49, freq.; (13) A. vicina Sm., 9, freq.; (14) A. erythrogastra Ashm., 9; (15) A. mandibularis Rob., 9, freq.; (16) A. illinoensis Rob., 2; (17) A. cressonii Rob., ¢; (18) A. bipunctata Cr., 49, freq.; (19) A. rugosa Rob., 49, ab.; (20) A. maria Rob., 4, freq.; (21) A. claytonia Rob., 9, ab.; (22) A. forbesii Rob., %; (23) Colletes ineequalis Say, ¢, freq.; Jchneumonide: (24) Lampronota coxalis Ashm. (MS.), 2, type. IPTERA— Empide : (25) Rhamphomyia priapulus Lw.; Syrphide: (26) Syrphus americanus W4d., freq.; (27) S. ribesii L.; (28) Eristalis dimidiatus Wd.; Tachinide : (29) Gonia frontosa Say, freq.; Sarphagid@ : (30) Cynomyia mortuorum L.; Muscidae : (31) Lucilia cornicina F., freq.; Sctamyzid@: (32) Tetanocera pictipes Lw.; Loncheide : (33) Lonchza polita Say —all sucking. On the literature of Rhus see: (1) Hildebrand, Geschlechtsvertheilung bei den Pflanzen 1o. 1867 — &. Toxicodendron, (2) Axell, Om anordningarna fiir de fanerogama vaxternas befruktning 47. 1869—R. Toxicodendron. (3) Delpino, Altri apparecchi dicogamici recentemente osservati, Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital. 2:52. 1870. (4) Miiller, Befruchtung der Blumen 157-8. 1873. (5) Delpino, Ulteriori osservazioni, Part II, fasc. 2 :20, 214, 300. 1875, Atti. Soc. Ital. Sci., Milano 16 : 168. 1873; 17. 1874 (Just. 2 : 882,895). (6) Meehan, On hermaphroditism in Rhur cotinus and in Rhus glabra, Proc. A. A. A. S., 1873; B. 73-5. (7) Meehan, On self-fertilization and cross-fertilization in flowers, The Penn Monthly, N.1876 (Just. 4:939). (8) Miller, Das Variiren der Grosse gefarbter Blithenhiillen und sein Einfluss anf die Naturziichtung der Blumen, USMOS 2: 132-3. .1887 — R, Corinus, typhina (Just. 5: 740-1). (9) Bonnier, Les Nectaires, Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VI, 8:71. 1878 — R. Cotinus. (10) Patton, Observations on the genus Macropis, Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts III, 18:211, 212. 1879 — R, &labra typhine (Just 7*:145). (11) Bontroux, Sur Vhabitat et la conservation des lévures spontanées, Bull. Soc. Linn. Normandie, IIT, 6. 1881 — RZ, Cotinus (Just 13':745). (12) Miiller, Die biologische Bedeutung — 161. 1883 — R, “yphina (Just 11: 476). (14) Miiller, Fertilization of Flowers, (15) Schulz, Beitrige Zur Kenntniss der Bestiubungseinrich- Kerner & Oliver 2:173, 197, 297. 1895 (Just 17°:531, 2; 18): er, Anacardiacee, Engler u. Prantl, Die nat. Pflanzenfam- 3°142. 1892 [Th. III, Abth. S}-R. Cotinus (Just 20°: 481). (18). Clearly preponderate. In most of the species the n 164 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [auGuUST Meehan, Contributions to the life histories of plants, VIII, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1892, 369-71 (Just 20°: 494). (19) Robertson, Flowers and insects, XII, Bot. Gaz. 19: 111, 112. 1894. (20) Loew, Bliitenbiologische Floristik, 215 als Cotinus. SASSAFRAS OFFICINALE Nees. S. Sassafras (L.) Karst. Hil debrand (1) observes that the pistillate and staminate flowers each have rudiments of the other set of organs, being what Kerner (2) calls pseudo-hermaphrodite. According to Bentham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum, and Gray’s Manual this species is dioecious; and that is what I have always regarded it, though I paid attention to little except the insect visitors. Chap- man, in the Flora of the Southern States, calls it diceciously poly- gamous, while Kerner calls it polygamous. My observations were made upon trees which I supposed bore only staminate flowers. The flowers are greenish yellow, expand about 8 or 9™, and are arranged in corymbose clusters, which appear with the leaves. There are ‘nine stamens. The three inner ones have at base of each a pair of stalked glands which secrete nectar. The nectal is therefore fully exposed on a convex surface. There are a number of early flowers with convenient neclat, some of which on account of their greenish yellow color have been supposed to be principally visited by flies. In all — Caulophyllum and Sassafras the less specialized bees, Andrenid® outnumber the flies. Sassafras is the only one on which the flies f nag tends to collect in shallow cups, which make it very convenient for te Andrenidae, while in Caulophyllum and Sassafras it is see < on convex surfaces, which make it more convenient for fies ® less convenient for the little bees. However, the expost the nectar does not explain why Sassafras shows a preponde oo of Diptera, but only why it shows more flies than te . = greenish yellow flowers blooming about the same time. During : the blooming season, April 19th—May 7th, the flowers are expose? . to none of the lower aculeate Hymenoptera, except eight SP only of Vespa and Polistes and Priocnemis conicus. The last is 6 oa one of these taken on the flowers. It happens to pe pes one of the Pompilide flying during the blooming ig 1896] FLOWERS AND INSECTS 165 pose that Sassafras bloomed in the last of July, what would there be to keep it from being visited by several of the nineteen species of Pompilide flying at that time, or by many other short-tongued Aculeata which are then very abundant? In the south the lower Aculeata begin to fly earlier, and I should expect Sassafras, and many other early flowers with exposed or slightly concealed nectar, to show an increase in the proportion of these insects as we move in that direction. The following insects were taken on the flowers on April 27th and 2oth: HYMENOPTERA — Andrenide : (1) Halictus cressonii Rob., ¢; (2) H. con- fusus Sm., 2, s. & c. p.; (3) H. stultus Cr., ¢; (4) Andrena sp. ¢; (5) A. ity noensis Rob., 3; (6) A. hippotes Rob., 3; Pompilide ; (7) P riocnemis Conte Say ; Chalcidide : (8) Eurytoma sp.; /chneumonide : (9) Pimpla annulipes Br.; (10) Idiolespa anilis Grav.: (11) Ophion bifoveolatum Br.; Zenthredinide : (12) Hylotoma mcleayi Leach; (13) Monophadnus medius Norton. orea aldrichii Twns.; (29) Gonia frontosa Say ; (30) Micropalpus fulgens Mg.; (31) Phorocera edwardsii Will.; Sarcophagide : (32) Cynomyia mortu- orum L., freq.; (33) Sarcophaga sp.; (34) S. cimbicis Twns.; Muscidae ‘ (35) P-; (36) L. caesar L.; (37) L. cornicina F.; (38) Morellia micans ab.; (42) P. fusciceps Zett., ab.; : (43) Scatophaga squalida Mg.; Oscinide : (44) Chlorops trivialis “3 Agromyzide@ : (45) Agromyza latipes Mg.; (46) A. eneiventris Fil. COLEOPTERA ~—Lampyride : (47) Telephorus bilineatus Say, freq.; Zdem- erid@ : (48) Asclera puncticollis Say. ; "EMIPTERA — Corimelenida : (49) Corimelena pulicaria Ger.—all only Sucking, except No. 2. On the literature of Sassafras see: ; ¢ (1) Hildebrand, Geschlechtsverteilung bei den Pflanzen 9. 1867. eager “Mssafras : (2) Kerner, Pflanzenleben 2: 297. 1891. Oliver, translation, 28 1895 — 7. Sassafras. CaRunvitie, ILLINo!s. BRIEPFER. ARTICLES, A NEW VIBURNUM FROM MISSOURI. (WITH PLATE VIII.) Among some herbarium exchanges sent last autumn by Mr. ©. H. Demetrio, of Emma, Saline Co., Missouri, to Mr. Deane, was 4 noteworthy Viburnum, not satisfactorily referable to any described species. The plant had been discovered by Mr. Demetrio near Cole Camp, Benton Co., Missouri, in July, 1894, and appeared most closely related on the one hand to V. dentatum L., and on the . other to V. pubescens Pursh. However, the single fruiting specimen, <4 first received, scarcely warranted description, and Mr. Dem very kindly undertook, in May of this year, to secure further 2 material, making for this purpose a considerable and somewhat arduous journey. On arriving at the locality above mentioned, he again found the desired species. Yet, although it was then more than specimen, leaves no doubt in the minds of the writers that this distinct species. It is distinguished from V. dentatum L. (which pee’ resembles in foliage) and from V. molle Michx., by its longer and gis more compressed fruitand seed. The fruit is, in fact, very like V. pubescens Pursh. From the last named species, however, the P plant differs very decidedly in foliage, having, as may be seen ® ye accompanying plate, much more orbicular, deeply cordate, and ey longer-petioled leaves, which are also of larger size than in any i related species. The toothing of the leaves is somewhat diffe from any of the species mentioned, the teeth here spreading ie more radial manner than in V. dentatum. M Few states have received more botanical attention of late thay souri, many portions of it having been carefully explored by 3 ush, Eggert, Letterman, Blankinship, and others. This argues that the present plant, which has not, to our knowle 166 BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX1/1/. PLATE V1/1, DEANE and ROBINSON on a new VIBURNUM. eas 1896] BRIEFER ARTICLES 167 secured before, must be a very rare and local shrub. Certainly the exact limits of its distribution will be a matter for interesting investiga- tion. The species, so far as now known from fruiting specimens, may be characterized as follows: Viburnum Demetrionis, n. sp.—A bushy shrub, about 12 feet high: stems 5 fo 20, erect, terete, glabrous, becoming % to 1% inches in diameter, at first bright green, soon ashy gray, and at length brownish or grayish black, and in age much roughened with lenticels ; bark, on stems two years old, exfoliating in brownish sheets: bud-scales ovate, acutish, ciliolate, sub-carinate : leaves suborbicular, or broadly ovate, cordate with narrow sinus and broad rounded basal lobes, short acuminate, radially and sub-acutely dentate, bright green quite glabrous and sulcate-nerved above, somewhat paler green and soft-pubescent beneath; the larger ones 3% to 5% inches long, 3 to 334 inches broad: petioles furrowed above, glabrate, 34 to 114 inches long: stipules filiform, 2 to 3 lines in length: umbelliform corymbs terminal on the branches, peduncu- late, 2 to 3% inches in diameter, glandular-puberulent ; the primary Fays mostly about 7, rarely as few as 4: calyx (persisting on young fruit) with 5 lance-oblong obtusish hispid-ciliate teeth: fruit not very fleshy, oblong in outline, rounded at both ends, 5 lines long, half as. broad, much compressed, and in dried state concavo-convex, the convex surface having deep intramarginal grooves: putamen of essentially the” same shape.—Collected July, 1894, and May 29, 1896, by C. H. Deme- trio, near “Big Cave,” bluffs of Cole Camp creek, Benton county, Mo. Mr. Demetrio reports that on his second visit to the above locality he found no less than 20 shrubs of this species growing within a radius . @ quarter of amile. He also found, a little to the north of the “ Big Cave,” a second species of Viburnum, which was growing so near the edge of the creek that some of the branches were immersed. This. Species proved to be V. pubescens Pursh in all essential regards, but it differs from any specimens, accessible to the writers, in having petioles 4 to6 or in some cases even ro lines long, approaching in this respect V. Demetrionis. Xt is, however, very different from that species in the ae, contour, and dentation of the leaves, and its unusually long Petioles may well have been due to its exceptional habitat. Types of V. Demetrionis will be deposited in the Gray Herbarium, or of the Kew Gardens, Arnold Arboretum and asi bu. arden, as well as the private collection of Mr. Deane.—W.- NE and B. L. Roninson Cambridge, Mass. > ‘ : 168 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST A NEW GENUS OF STERCULIACEA, AND SOME OTHER NOTEWORTHY PLANTS. Nephropetalum, n. gen. of Sterculiacee.— Calyx deeply 5-parted; segments ovate. Petals 5, unguiculate, slightly adnate at base to the stamineal cup, free at the apex; blade small, reniform with a deep sinus at the attachment of the claw, concave, neither appendaged nor glandular. Stamens 5, united into a short cup; anthers 3-locular, sessile or nearly so, extrorse; cells parallel and longitudinally dehis- cent. Staminodes 5, alternate with the stamens and opposite the sepals, rounded and cucullate at the summit. Ovary sessile, globose, 5-celled; cells 2-ovuled; ovules superposed on axial placente ; style short, terete ; stigma capitate. Young fruit globose, covered with very numerous pubescent processes ; seeds by abortion solitary in the cells. —Stellate-tomentulose unarmed shrub with simple alternate ovate dentate petiolate leaves and small flowers in short axillary cymes. Most nearly related to Ayenia and Buettneria, and differing from - former in its free reniform petals and sessile ovary ; from the latter m the entire absence of the appendage of the petals as well as in a vey different habit. The origin and application of the generic name's rather Chowchilla creek, Mariposa county, California, August 9, ! ( AN INTRODUCED OROBANCHE, NEw TO AMERICA.— In ssi that Mr. J. A. Morton of Wingham, Ontario, collected on 4 lawn 1896 | BRIEFER ARTICLES 169 place an orobanchaceous parasite, not referable to any species char- acterized in American floras. He accordingly forwarded specimens of the plant to the Gray Herbarium for identification, and it has proved to be Orobanche purpurea Jacq. Enum. Stirp. Vindob. 108: 252 (0. cerulea Vill. Hist. Pl. Dauph. 2: 406; Phelipea cerulea C. A. Mey. Enum. Cauc. 104), a species of wide distribution in Europe and Asia. There is no doubt that it was introduced in its Canadian occurrence, and probably with grass seed. Mr. Morton notes the fact that it was found growing “among Achillea Millefolium.” This fact, of course, adds further proof of the identity of the American and European plants, since also in the Old World this species is regularly parasitic upon Achillea Millefolium. A hasty search through recent American botanical literature has failed to show any reference to the presence of Orobanche purpurea Jacq. Reports of other localities may be awaited with interest. A very curious parasite, which attacks chiefly, if not exclusively, a common and noxious weed, is far from being the most undesirable sort of immi- grant. ‘The genus Orodanche is, of course, most nearly related to our American genus Aphylion, so closely in fact that the two are united by some European authorities. The former, however, is in general readily distinguished by its 4-lobed calyx, the calyx of Aphyl/on being © 5-cleft. Orobanche purpurea Jacq. has the habit of Aphyllon Ludovicta- num Gray. The only other Orobanche that has been introduced into the American flora is O. minor L., a variable species, which, however, has flowers ebracteolate, while in O. purpurea the flowers are subtended not only by conspicuous single bracts but also in each case by a pair of lance-linear attenuate bractlets. The whole plant is very glandular _ pubescent. Although a number of individuals were found, Mr. Mor- ton regards the Species as of very recent introduction in his locality. ELYTRARIA VIRGATA Michx., var. angustifolia Fernald, n. var.— penis linear or narrowly oblanceolate, 3 to 4 inches long, barely % inch wide: Scape more slender and bracts of the scape shorter and more appressed than in the type, from which it does not otherwise Dae extreme form, hardly worthy of specific rank, collected in — calcareous soil near Biscayne Bay, Fla., by A. H. Curtiss, July 23, "895 (no. 5494). hak nia Congdonii, n. sp.— Low annual or perhaps biennial, eae ranched from the base, covered especially below with a ol ee S€ lanate pubescence : root slender-fusiform, somewhat branched : 170 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucustT woolly stems white striate-angulate, lucid, leafy: lower leaves pinniatfid, 2 inches or more in length, not rigid nor pungent tipped, 1-nerved, with about 6 pairs of unequal dentate segments, these obtusish or acute, diminishing in size toward the winged clasping petiole; middle and upper leaves inch or less in length, rigidulous, pinnately 3 to 7- toothed with spinulose-tipped pungent teeth, soft-pubescent on both sides and somewhat revolute on the margins: heads terminal or sub- terminal on the branches, only moderately aggregated, including the spreading bracts 6 to 8 lines long; the bracts green except at the pungent tip, entire or rarely 3-toothed, with midrib prominent beneath and considerably thickened toward the base: ray-flowers including the achenes only 2% lines long, ligules 15 to 18, yellow, 3-toothed at the apex; the tube very glandular-pubescent ; the pappus of the disk-flowers 3 €rect narrow awns, nearly equaling the yellow corolla: chaff 2 lines long, scarious-margined and with thickened somewhat recurved tips.— Collected by Mr. J. W. Congdon, at Salinos, Monterey county, Cal- ifornia, May 26, 1886 (no. 151). Most nearly related to H. Parryt Greene, but of lower stature, and with very different woolly pubescence, more divided foliage, and shorter ray-flowers.—B. L. RoBINSON and J. M. GREENMAN, Harvard University. nn ee eae aa Po EDITORIAL, DURING THE PRESENT MONTH there are meeting in Buffalo three botanical organizations of national scope: the Botanical Club of the A. A. A. S., the Botanical Section of the A. A. A. S., and the Botanical Society of America. Each organization has its own peculiar field, and has been a natural outgrowth from the remarkable botanical activity of the last few years. The question has been raised frequently whether this may not be an unnecessary multiplication of botanical organiza- tions, and whether they may not overlap and interfere with each other. An examination of the original purpose of each makes it evident that no interference is contemplated. THe Boranicat Cius of the A. A. A. S. was organized when the botany of the Association was but a part of the Biological Section, and its double purpose was to bring the botanists together in a meeting of their own, and to provide a means for the informal presentation of botanical matters of interest and importance, but not adapted to for- mal presentation. There was no qualification excepting membership in the American Association, even those merely interested in botany being invited to enroll as members. It thus became and continues to bea very general botanical conference, with just organization enough to keep it in existence, and no publication. It is the best organization for the cultivation of a general botanical acquaintance, and the only botanical organization not strictly professional. It was not intended 4S an overflow from the Biological Section of the Association, except So far as the section was burdened by botanical material not properly belonging to ik : THE Boranicay SECTION of the A. A. A. S. was next established, mnen the botanical papers of the Biological Section justified a separate ‘ection. The papers of this organization are intended to be formal =~ Professional, and are published by abstract in the widely circulated rg of the Association, but the only limit to paige? ‘f mistak or the general Association. That botanists have repeatedly aken the purpose of this organization and have presented loose ate talks rather than formal and compact papers is not due 172 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ auGUST to any fault in the design of the organization. However, while the papers are intended to be professional, the audience is miscellaneous, and the subjects selected or their treatment takes cognizance of this fact. It is the place where investigators seek to present their results to the general scientific public, and a semi-popular style is demanded. THE BoranicaL Society or AMERICA, the most recent of these organizations, is purely professional, both as to membership and audi- ence, and the papers which naturally belong to it are not adapted to either of the other organizations, for they are technical in subject matter and style, and are all prepared for publication in full. IT WOULD SEEM, from the above presentation, that there is abundant reason for the continued existence of all these organizations, and that they furnish the natural channels of communication for every grade of botanical work, from the briefly stated observations of the amateur to the most elaborate researches of the professional. ‘The first organization has in view the gathering up of miscellaneous observations ; the secon regards the interest of the public in the results of investigations; the third is concerned solely with the progress of botanical science. WE HAVE aLreapy alluded to the neglect of foreign literature by some German botanists, as illustrated by the paper of Dr. Correns on the physiology of tendrils.!. Professor MacDougal called attention w Correns’ culpable oversight in a recent note in the Botanisches Central- lait.” Correns’ reply in the same journal? makes the rather curious plea in extenuation, “dass die Boranicat, Gazette in der jene get : ben publicirt wurden, in Tiibingen nicht existirt.” What would be thought of an American student who excused himself for not knowing of Correns’ work by saying that the Botanische Zeitung was not " : . found in his college library? While the two cases are not precise’y before the publication of MacDougal’s paper? It would have beet much better for Dr. Correns not to plead “extenuating circumstance’ : but to content himself with a frank acknowledgment of his sie of We hope the incident will awaken our German friends to the need 2 consulting at least the index to American botanical literature. "Bor, Gaz. ar: 248, 398, 304. 1896. “66: 145. 1896, 366: 290. 1896. CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. Warming’s plant geography. THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION of plants has received much attention for many years, but the earlier observers could do little more than accumu- late facts and outline general zones. With the development of plant physi- ology it became possible to organize these facts upon a scientific basis, and this organization introduces us into the great modern field of ecology, of which 8eographical distribution is a conspicuous part. Many recent contributions to this region of ecology are scattered through botanical literature, and the time has come for the summing up of results in some general work. Such a work has been prepared by Dr. Warming, and the German translation by Dr. Knoblauch? is now before us. It is impossible to give a compact review of such a work, as it is a compendium of important information; and little more can be attempted than to present a brief outline. It is to be hoped that the promised English translation will put the book promptly into the hands of English Students. In the introduction the prominent terms are defined. Floristic plant-geography deals with lists, districts, limits, and causes ; ecologic plant-geography, the subject of the book, considers adaptations, sociology, and physiognomy, « Life-forms” (epharmony) and “ plant-societies” (Pflan- zenvereine) are defined, the latter referring to those plant associations which take possession of certain conditions. The second section discusses the ecological factors and their effects under the followi Soil, the depth of t 1 . . . = te physical Properties of the soil (the author regards the physical prop- €S as most im Ortant, as they control the water supply, which is the most : P im is Portant factor), effects of inanimate coverings on vegetation (snow and OE Aaa Dr. EuGen.—Lehrbuch der dkologischen Pflanzengeographie ; eine igte 8h im die Kenntniss der Pflanzenvereine. Deutsche vom Verfasser genehm- in : oo und vermehrte Ausgabe von Dr. Emil Knoblauch. 8vo. : Tiider Borntraeger, 1896. J. 1896] 9 7 173 174 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ AUGUST fallen leaves), effects of living plant coverings on the soil, activity of animals and plants in the soil, orographic factors (height, steepness, etc.). The third section considers life-relations and plant-societies under the fol- lowing subjects: life-relationship of living beings, encroachment of man, life-relationship with animals, life-relationship of plants with each other (parasitism, helotism, mutualism, epiphytes, saprophytes, and lianas), com- mensalism (plant-societies), classes of societies (amplified in the succeeding chapters). aC In section four the hydrophyte societies are considered, the ecological factor being air, light, heat, food-stuffs, specific weight, color, and movements; — the structural adaptations noted being in roots, water-conducting vessels, mechanical tissues, air-cavities, epidermis, slime, etc. The different classes — of hydrophilous societies are grouped as follows: free-floating or swimming; fixed to the soil, with submerged or floating leaves; and swamp forms. Under the first heading there are four categories, the plankton, glacial plant unions (ice and snow), saprophilous flagellate unions, and hydrocharité — unions (littoral fresh-water free plants). Under the second heading (fixed ; to soil, with submerged or floating leaves) are plants fixed to stones (nereid- : unions), and those fixed to loose soil (sea-grass vegetation, fresh-water vee : tation, and schizophyte unions. Under the third heading (swamp plant-socieé ties) the subdivision is into salt water (mangrove vegetation) and fresh wit = (reed-swamps, swampy moors, sphagnum moors, sphagnum tundras, swampy a thickets and woods). Each of these fourteen categories is fully discussed, all the known factors in each situation being considered. a Section five is devoted to xerophyte societies, which involves & hac cussion of the adaptations for regulating transpiration and for collecting and preserving water. Under the regulation of transpiration the titles are p® surface reduction, movements for regulating light, constant profile po ( 1896 | CURRENT LITERATURE 175 herbaceous plants (mostly Scirpus-like), rock societies, herb and shrub vege- tation in salty sand and gravel, tropical sand-beach woods, leafless halophyte woods in sand, herb and shrub vegetation in clay soil (lagoon thickets, salt steppes), salt deserts, and beach meadows. The mesophyte societies form the subject of section seven. The general condition is freedom from extremes. The vegetation is rich and dense, and there is great richriess in leaf forms. This is the common vegetation of temperate regions and includes the numberless new societies of weeds and culture plants introduced by man. The grouping of mesophyte societies is into grass and herb societies and societies of woody plants. Under the former are included arctic or alpine grass or herb carpets, meadows, pastures on cultivated lands; under ‘the latter, thickets, deciduous woods in temperate zones, and evergreen foliage woods (subtropical, antarctic, tropical rain woods, palm woods, bamboo woods, fern woods). The last section discusses the struggle between plant societies. After general introductory remarks concerning the nature of the struggle, the facts of overproduction, the easy derangement of the organic equilibrium, etc., the main topics discussed are the production of new soils and their occupation, changes in vegetation induced by slow changes in soil, changes in vegetation without changes in climate or soil, the weapons for the strug- gle, rare species, the origin of species. We have space for fuller statement of but two of these topics. The general characteristics of vegetation occupy- 'Ng new soil are given as follows: The first vegetation is sparse and open; the number of species is small at first, then larger when the physiognomy is diverse, then comes an equilibrium and fewer species; annuals and biennals are common at first, but afterwards subordinated to perennials; the first Species are those whose seeds are carried by winds and birds ; light-trees appear before shade-trees; there isa gradual] transition to former conditions, and thus there may be primal, transitional and final plant societies. In refer- fnce to the origin of species, the author believes that plants possess an inate power of ada Others are acquired variability, depending upon descent and not vironment; natural selection ; crossing of species; and correlation Th plan a moment's notice. Very few references are made to American J ena chiefly because they have not been investigated sufficiently.— 176 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST Text-book of general botany. ANOTHER work on general botany, of moderate size, and of a grade for use in colleges, has been provided for English students by the translation of Westermaier’s recent volume. The translation has been made by Dr, Albert Schneider,? and with the exception of occasional aberrations in the use of shall and wil/, and some remnants of Teutonic phrases, it is acceptably done. There are two reasons why this work is likely to meet with favor from a number of teachers. In the first place it intimately combines physi ology with morphology and at every step inquires what use the particular cell, tissue, or organ serves. And then it comes from a new source, being dominated by the views of Schwendener and Nageli, while our text-books heretofore for the most part have represented the views of Sachs and his followers. The work is of a suitable size for text-book use, but is not to be put into the hands of novices in botany. For students who have passed the rudi- ments of the science, and who know something of chemistry and physics, and of the current theories of descent, it will prove serviceable, and, more over, will be more than ordinarily suggestive and inspiring. The work is not large, but inclines to be compendious, and this has necessarily led to condensing weighty matters into such brief compass = many statements will prove barely intelligible to the ordinary student pee expounded by a teacher. tures of it . author has failed many times to present the latest and most appt upon disputed or recently settled topics, especially when such vi Opposition to those of the school to which the author belongs. A . theories, and no attempt to outline them or name the investigators: of course, afford to be a little charitable when the author insists sie " own imperfect views regarding the rise of sap iu plants, and gd curiosity to know just to whom or what he refers when he says that “1 to this question many authors hold erroneous opinions ;" but 2€ enlighten us. ; The trouble which the author takes to show his opposition to the P views in evolution seem strange in such a work, and does not heighten appreciation of it. There are many out of date points of view and 2 WESTERMAIER, MAx.—A compendium of general botany: Albert Schneider. 8yo, pp. 299. figs. 171. New York: John Wiley and _ 00, : 1896 ] CURRENT LITERATURE 177 spondingly antiquated terminology maintained in the work, ¢. g., as to the process of photosyntax in the chlorophyll grain, which is called assimilation, although genuine assimilation is also mentioned. Thus we get this highly ambiguous sentence: ‘The cotyledons begin the function of assimilation as soon as the reserve food is assimilated.” Another instance of a similar nature is in regard to reproduction. Although the author states that “the entire phanerogamic plant with its flowers represents the asexual generation,” he constantly speaks of male and female flowers, and of the gyneecium and andreecium as male and female organs. 5 There are good things in the book, and we are grateful to the translator for making available for class use a work in which the theories of Schwendener, Nageli, Haberlandt and their followers are prominent; but it will not do to accept it unthinkingly, even with the translator's footnote corrections. The order of the subjects is as follows: the cell, tissues and simple organs ; organs and systems of organs, reproduction, general chemistry and physics of plant life, taxonomy.—J. C. A. The hardy bamboos. Mr. A. B, Mirrorp, author of “Tales of Old Japan,” has just given another result of his former residence in Japan ina book entitled “The Bam- Garden.”3 The book does not profess to be technically scientific, but it 's none the less interesting to botanists, containing much information concern- * large and important group of plants. It deals with the hardy bamboos in Cultivation in England, thirty-eight of them being from China and Japan, one Arundinaria mac rosperma) from the United States, five from the Himalayas, _ three whose nativity is uncertain. The Himalaya region is looked upon as likely to be the most productive of new forms, those of China and Japan no | tescehce: are pointed out, especially the fact that it occurs at long < *rvals of time, and then in a wonderfully simultaneous way over large “aS, and results in the death of the plants. The older travelers, observing the orj : a of Eastern Asia. While this wholesale destruction at long inter- Spr sy actually occur, new growths spring very rapidly from the wide- aes “8 Tootstocks. The interval between times of inflorescence was for- a eaaRely as thirty years; but, though infrequent, it varies widely, SuAN-MiTForD, A.B.—The bamboo garden. 8vo. pp. xii + 224, illustrated ‘ 3 FRE Alf ¥ Alfred Parsons. London and New York: The Macmillan Co., 1896. $3.00. , 178 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust dependent upon climatic causes. What has been called the “suicidal mys tery of the flower” is graphically stated as follows: “When the given moment has come round, every plant of the same species, whether old or young, over avast region will put forth its flowers at one and the saine moment, and, having seeded, for a time the plant disappears.” A curious instance is given of this phenomenon observed under cultivation. In 1867 or 1868 Arundinaria Japonica began to bloom in Paris; ‘at the same moment” blos- soms were noted on the plants at Marseilles ; and even those in the gové ment gardens at Algiers ‘flowered in concert with their European brethren and not only did the whole of the canes, old as well as young, bear flowers — together, but the very shoots (three to four inches high) as they showed above the soil, were transformed into flowering stems.” In this case, however, the plants were not killed, but very much weakened; for a long time “remain B paralyzed.” Mr. Mitford has observed that only those species are hardy in England whose leaves show “tessellated” venation, that is, “in chequers, crossing one another like the threads of a spider’s web or the meshes of anet. The tender species observed all have leaves with the ordinary “striat venation. Mr. Mitford has also observed this same tessellation in the lea | of the only hardy palm of England (Chamarops excelsa), and its absence the tender palms. Mr. Thiselton-Dyer is quoted as remarking that * o must be something important behind a character like this.” The book is handsomely gotten up in white buckram and gilt, om @™ paper with deckel edges. The full-page illustrations by Alfred Parsons charming.—J. M. C. - The Bonn text-book. WHEN four of the botanical staff of the University of Bonn com write the text-book which, fifteen months after the first, appeared im edition,‘ they owed it to their readgrs to choose a more distinctive Lehrbuch der Botanik.. One cannot cite it now in any decently briet must perforce reel off the list of author’s names like 4 catalogue is i and that ofte text-book at all comparable-with it has been produced in unless we much mistake, it is destined to be of somewhat t the present generation as Sachs’ classical Lehrbuch was to te rs excellence carried it through four German and two English editions others in other languages, while it directly inspired and formed the for various texts by different authors. Much of the excellence of : ‘STRASBURGER, Nott, SCHENCK, and ScHIMPER :—Lehrbuch der! Hochschullen. Zweite umgearbeitete Auflage. 8vo. pp- vi+556. figs 5 . colored. Jena: Gustav Fischer. 1895. J/. 7.50 unbound; 47. 8.50 bound: tle he same 1896 | CURRENT LITERATURE 17 text-book is due to the division of labor made possible by having four col- laborators, each a specialist in the section he treats. Was it pure accident that exactly one-fourth of the pages are by Stras- burger, on morphology, one-fourth by Noll, on physiology, while in the remaining half, the cryptogams, by Schenck, yield a little to the phanerogams, y Schimper? There seems something too much of exactness here for pure accident, particularly as one would hardly expect such a division of space from the nature of the subjects. It is difficult, where all is so good, to point out the best; yet every reader will concede the palm to the first half of the book. External morphology is cut rather short by Professor Strasburger, and we are so charmed by his treatment of the internal morphology that we are less ready to forgive him the abbreviation. The presentation of the physiology is particularly clear and effective. But the enumeration of the characters of each order, and even of each family among the phanerogams, seems to us barren and unfruitful. Why can we not have a treatment of special morphology which shall be more thoroughly comparative? There is need to organize the facts known so that they shall form for the student a body of symmetric truth, rather than remain disconnected members, related indeed, but scattered as it were ina valley of dry bones. Some attempt at this indeed is made by both Schenck and Schimper, and with much greater success by the former. Schimper Seems less able to free himself from the overpowering precedents mn the treatment of phanerogams, so that one finds less that is fresh or sug- Sestive here than in any other part of the book. Yet it is all good after its kind ; well put, well printed, excellently illus- trated. The colored figures are rather for show than of value, though they are quite truthful in color. We hope soon to welcome an English translation of this excellent book.—C. R. B. MINOR NOTICES. fa gest GaLLoway has prepared a brief paper upon “ Frosts and of si vf _ cting cultivated plants,” in which he has brought together some « more important facts relating to frosts and freezes as affecting the the De ener, and fruit grower. The paper appears in the Yearbook of of eee of Agriculture for 1895, or may be obtained as a separate. Sa8 weeds, introduc. customary bare with €asy artific 180 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST tification; and the distribution by counties of almost all the species is shown upon 172 reduced maps.—J. M. C THE FIRST REPORT on the flora of Wyoming by the botanist of the Experiment station, Mr. Aven Nelson, has just appeared (May) as Bulletin no. 28. The list of species, with full notes, contains 1118 spermatophytes, all of which are represented in the herbarium of:the station. A very convenient feature of the report is that it also contains lists of plants reported for the state but hot represented in the herbarium. Fourteen new forms are described, eleven of them as varieties, and three as species (Aguilegia Laramiensis, Potentilla pinnatisecta, and Hymenopappus liguleflorus).—]. M. C. AccorDING TO Mr. Herbert J. Webber, who has studied the pineapple industry in the United States, this tropical fruit, indigenous to South America, rthy of con cultivation in Florida and the possibility of large extension, for the fruit may be met by home supply. Mr. Webber presents @ full r oy of his studies in the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1895 — 1M. ; THE TUMBLING MUSTARD (Stsymbrium altissimum) has begun bs — the attention of those interested in agriculture. Apparently a native of Mediterranean region, it has spread throughout Europe, northern Africa, western Asia, as a troublesome weed in cultivated fiel During the past five years it has made extensive inroads in the C northwest provinces, and now it is reported from nine differe the United States, ranging across the continent, and as far sout ae Its method of seed dispersion is indicated by its popular name. —— ment of Agriculture has sounded a note of warning, and has given all a) sary information, in Circular no. 7, issued from the Division of BO prepared by Mr. Lyster H. Dewey.—J. M. C. . IT MUST BE that such books have a distinct place to fill, tun to third editions as has Mathews’ Familiar Flowers.’ striking merit in its illustrations, most of which are accurate ae admirable, though the author, who is likewise the artist, sometin® catch thetexture of his leaves. But the illustrations allow ready ! of the commoner attractive plants of the northeastern states: 5‘ MATHEws, F. SCHUYLER :— Familiar flowers of field and garden, and illustrated, with over 200 drawings by the author, and a systematics floral calendar. Third edition, 12 mo. pp. viii +308. New York: & Co. 1896. 1896 | CURRENT LITERATURE 181 notes which accompany each figure are interesting, but unfortunately some- times “ popularize” facts at the expense of accuracy. It needs to be insisted upon that simplicity of statement need not involve any inaccuracy, Why, for example, should the author mislead his readers by comparing the chicory head with a single flower in this wise : ‘Not only these straps, but the center of the flower (the stamens and styles) looks very much like the dandelion.” And of the everlasting (Gnaphalium) he writes: “ . . . the little white flowers are so much like miniature pond lilies under the microscope that the resemblance is amusing,” For the readers, however, these slips will not be disquieting, and are only worth mention because they mar an otherwise good R. B. ONE OF THE most interesting contributions from the National Herbarium is that by Mr. P. A. Rydberg upon the flora of the Black Hills of South Dakota. The region is often called an intermediate one, because the floras both east and west of it have received more attention. The report, therefore, deals with one of the regions most in need of investigation. In his prefatory discussion Mr, Rydberg deals with such topics as geography, geology, alti- tudes, precipitation and temperature, and floral districts. Under the last topic he considers five districts differing in topographical and climatic con- ditions, and hence in vegetation. They are the foothills, Minnekahta plains, amnéy mountain range, limestone district, and northern hills. It is inter- €sting to note that the characteristic plants of the foothill region are grouped as follows: very hairy plants ; plants with a glaucous foliage having a hard epidermis; plants with white, often shreddy, stems; plants in which the surface is reduced toa minimum; and plants with a deep-seated, enlarged root, The catalogue of species, which is full of valuable notes as to range and habit, contains about 700 spermatophytes and pteridophytes. One of the most interesting discoveries was that of true Aguilegia brevistyla in the United States, the plant from the Rocky mountains heretofore bearing that hame having been proved to be quite a distinct species, which Mr. Rydberg has called 4, Saximontana, The plates consist of a good map of the region heey Aquilegias referred to, and Poa pseudopratensis, a new grass.— imu. C€ NOTES FOR STUDENTS. ound’ that in herbaceous perennials differences in the content exist in the course of the winter similar to those well known _ ROSENBERG has f Starch M trees through the very exhaustive researches of Fischer.—C. R. B. ba Deg P. A.— Flora of the Black Hills of South Dakota. Contributions the U. S. National Herbarium 3+ 463-536. 1896. [No. 8.] ’ Bot. Centralb, 66 : 337. 1896 182 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ auust DANGEARD has described the life-history of a parasite of the nucleus of Ameba, and named it Nucleophaga Amebe. It is probably one of the low- est Chytridiacee, related to Spherita, which is a recently discovered parasite on Euglena®—C, R. B. IN REVIEWING the species of Aszmina, Mr. Geo. F. Nash recognizes (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23:234. 1896) seven species, one of which (A. sfeciosa) is described for the first time, having been confused heretofore with A. grandi- flora Dunal, which becomes A. obovata (Willd.)—J. M. C. Dr. F. W. Kiar has just described (Bud?. Herb. Boiss. 4:456-475 and 479, 480. 1896) the following new genera of Composit, all African except the last, which is Cuban: Symphipappus (Inuloidez), Distegia (Helianthoidee), Dolosanthus (Mutisiacee), Monactinocephalus (Mutisiacex), and Lepidesmi (Eupatoriacez ?), Each genus is illustrated with a plate.—J. M. C. WInoGRADSKY has communicated to the Paris Academy of Sciences? the results of M. V. Fribes’ researches in his laboratory at St. Petersburgh upo! the maceration of flax for the isolation of the fibers. The rotting is due t0 an obligate anaerobic bacillus, which acts not as a cellulose ferment but as @ pectin ferment. It dissolves the middle lamella of the cortical parenchyma which consists of calcium pectinate, and thus isolates the fibers.—C. R. B. Mr. P. A. RYDBERG has begun a series of notes on Potentilla (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23:244. 1896), in which his views as to the limitation of species dif fer widely from those of Dr. Watson (Proc. Amer. Acad. 8: 549-573): and 2 agree closely with those of Dr. Christian Lehmann, of Hamburg, whose “ Revisio Potentillarum ” (1856) serves as a basis for the present work. 4 the genus is one of the most perplexing of our flora it is to be hoped tat * Rydberg will be successful in this attempt to disentangle the species} M. C. : M. J. Briquet announces (Bud/, Herb. Boiss. 4:354. 1896) the discorey of a hybrid between Bupleurum ranunculoides and B. Jongifolium, 00 ee very distinct morphologically and topographically. The discovery oor esting, not merely on account of the distinctness of the parent species: | also because of the extreme rarity of reported hybrids among the Us ee re. The hybrid, named BZ. Guineti, seems well established, bad ne 7 intermediate in its characters, and exhibits a wide range of varia = Mf oo AMONG THE NEW Verbenacexe recently described by J. Briquet (/ , Herb. Boiss. 4:336. 1896), Xeroplana is a new genus from South Africas * Pia Pringlei is a new species from Guadalajura, Mexico (Pringle 1733) e% ® Cf. Bot. Centralb. 66: 256. 1896. ° Compt. Rend. raz: 742.18 N 1895. 1896 | CURRENT LITERATURE 183 trib. of 1888); Callicarpa Pringle? is a new species from San Luis Potosi (Pringle 3094); Vitex Hemsley? is a new species from near Oaxaca (/urgen- sen 68), referred to by Hemsley in Biol. Centr.-Am. Bot. 2 1540; Citharexylum Jurgenseni is a new species from near Oaxaca (Jurgensen 259); and the remaining nine species are mostly from northwestern South America.— J. M. C. ABOUT A YEAR and a half ago Askenasy suggested that the vexed question of the ascent of water in plants was explicable by the force of imbibition of the cell-walls of the leaves and the cohesion of the water columns in the ducts.° He has devised an ingenious apparatus to illustrate the physical principles involved, which imitates fairly well the conditions in the plant. The fault common to the apparatus used by Jamin, Naegeli, and Strasburger is that the conducting portion consisted of porous material and was not essentially different from the evaporating and lifting portion, Askenasy’s @pparatus consists of a glass tube 90™ long and 2.2—3.5°" in diameter, ending in a small funnel which is plugged with gypsum or even has the Sypsum spread over its whole inner surface. The ypsum corresponds to the membranes ‘of the leaf, the tube to the wood vessels in which the water ascends, With certain precautions the tube is filled with water, its open end 'mmersed in mercury, and fastened upright. In one experiment in 33 hours the mercury rose to $2, and in another in 26 hours to 89%, z. é., into con- tact with the gypsum. In the first its complete ascent was hindered by the formation of an air bubble. (Cf Bot. Centralb. 66: 379. 1896)—C. R. B. Dr. MAXWELL T. MASTERS has published from time to time the results * his researches among the Coniferze. His most recent contribution deals with the genus Cupressus," which he has reexamined with fuller material and “sistance. The genus he regards as well-defined among its allies by the pel- tate expansion at the free end of the cone-scales, but the species are very dif- ficult of limitation on account of the great inconstancy of the characters used, = ope as the long cultivation of many of them. They are remarkably poly- re ai 4 certain well-known “stage of growth” in some species having dig ris to the old genus Retinospora. The author regards Chamacyparts Nea “as generic rank, and is inclined to believe that the closely allied tion of ay oo “us might well be merged under Cupressus. His presenta- to pas alliances represents two divergent lines from Cupressus ; one leading . vus; the other, through the Chamecyparis forms, leading to Thuya, iol “ala and /itzroya. The varieties of foliage are discussed, but no phys- Bis ad Phylogenetic significance suggested as explanatory of their PNR. Hat Rist ic: F ‘ Cent. Giiay. ie ist.-med. Ver. zu Heidelberg N. S. 5 : (1-23). 1895. ( Bot. Cen tM ie A ASTERS, MAXWELL T.— A general view of the genus Cupressus. Jour. Linn. Pee Bot. 31 * 312-363. 1895. 184 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST extreme anatomical diversity. The cone-scale, that fruitful organ for mor- phological discussion, shows distinctly its double nature in containing two dis- tinct vascular systems, which are given off separately from the axis, the system of the seminiferous-scale portion having an inverse orientation of its elements. Fourteen species are recognized, five of which belong to the subgenus Chame- cyparis. The North American species are as follows: C. Benthami, of Central America, Mexico, and adjacent United States, and under which Greene’s C. Arizonica appears as a variety; C. macrocarpa, of California, under which Watson’s C. Guadalupensis appears as a variety ; C. Goveniana, of California; C. Macnabiana, of California; C. thurifera, of Mexico; © thyoides (Chamecyparis spheroidea, Thuya spheroidea), of the Atlantic coast; C. Nootkatensis (Cham. Nutkensis, Thuya excelsa), of the Paci region from Oregon to Alaska; and C. Lawsoniana (Cham. Lawsoniana), of California and Oregon.—- J. M. C. Mr. F. W. KEEBLE, during a brief stay in Ceylon in 1894, made a very considerable number of interesting observations, some of which he presents in a paper published in the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, and more of which he promises to give in subsequent papers. In the present paper he sets down some of his observations on the Loranthacee native in Ceylon. These green, semi-parasitic phanerogams have been attracting — more than usual attention of late, as is shown by Van Tieghem’s numerous publications concerning them, as well as others by less well known authors. MG. : Keeble’s paper concerns itself first with the pollination of the flowers, which : are large and conspicuous in many species, and deviate more or less from regular type. To the observations of Wallace and others, that the & ison around it, apparently derive a double advantage. The birds which fi these flowers, being larger and less accurate in their moveme nating insects, are likely torupture the delicate parts more or less, 40°” — even when the corolla is already split and the stamens are arranged ini \ though of course to a smaller and less damaging extent in such oe Furthermore, their beaks, when these come into contact with the anthers pushing’ into the flower, become dusted with pollen only upon the pangs and deposit some of their pollen upon the protruding style of the next! visited before pushing against its anthers. In those species whi wise tubular corolla is cleft, the stealing of nectar by birds which bite in corolla-tube without cross-pollinating is materially less than in other oi A very considerable number of species have flowers which ope? oN 12 . * * 1 _ 1896+ Transactions Linnean Society of London, 2d Series, Botany 5° [May J 1896] CURRENT LITERATURE 185 struck. The blows which are needed to open such mature flowers are ordinarily given by thebirds which frequent them. Mr. Keeble suggests that this is an adaptation which is mutually advantageous : “ The bird knows it is worth its while to ‘tap a new barrel’ as it were,” for obviously there will be most nectar in such still unopened, and_ ence unvisited, flowers; and the pollen is protected from rain. This, since the majority of the species with exploding flowers either blossom during the rainy season or else grow where there is almost daily rain the year through, is a matter of considerable importance. Blossoming during the rains, even when not a matter of neces- sity, may be an advantage, since the seeds germinate most successfully, if not exclusively, in moist air. As to the dissemination of seeds, Mr. Keeble disagrees somewhat with the generalizations of some authors on the subject,’ to the effect that the seeds pass through the alimentary canal of birds and are dropped in their excre- ment unharmed upon the branches of trees. He finds that, of the large seeds at least, such few as are swallowed are decomposed, if not profitably digested, but that most of them are carefully expelled from the fleshy pulp before it is eaten, and if they adhere to the bird’s beak are rubbed off upon any conven- rent object, a branch or even a telegraph wire. “On the single telegraph wire,” at the Hill-Garden of Hak ala, “there are every year hundreds of seedlings of Loranthus loniceroides, all in early stages of germination.” Fur- thermore, the large amount of tannin found in the coats of the seeds would make them unpalatable, and prove a useful protection against the seeds being swallowed, Carrying a drop of resin, During its subsequent growth, the hypocotyl curves ever and finally, if it has attained sufficient length so to do, applies its head, new enlarged somewhat into a disc-shaped “sucker,” vertically upon the crime: io the host. After such an attachment has been effected, the bain, Straightens, thus detaching the seed from the branch and carrying as nto the air. Much of the food has been transferred from the endosperm to ee may perhaps be temporarily stored, for the nourishment of 1366 The Natural History of Plants,” Kerner, trans. Oliver, 2: 205. 186 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | AUGUST the haustorium, in the enlarged sucker. Then the cotyledons and the remainder of the endosperm are cast off and the plumule appears. This small structure develops minute leaves in pairs upon successive nodes separated by very short internodes, the leaves falling soon after formation. Only after the haustorium has penetrated the host does any development of branches take place; then, however, growth becomes very rapid and large leaves form. Mr. Keeble interprets the growth of a lateral aerial root from the sucker, a phenomenon which not infrequently occurs before the penetration of the haustorium intothe host, especially on small or poorly nourished branches, as throwing light on : : the manner in which these plants became parasitic. ‘The seeds, originally sticky, often lodged on trees, and, as in many species of Ficus, these seeds, germinating, threw out roots which rapidly reached the ground, or the earth ae which collects in the forks of trees. To enable the plant to exist in this : : early non-parasitic stage, the base (free end) of the sucker came to functionas@ reserve food store. From this stage the natural semi-parasitism was reached by the ability of certain cells of the distal end of the hypocotyl to penetrate the host.”’ ; The curvature of the hypocotyl, above referred to, has long been known — to be independent of gravitation (it is ageotropic) and has been attributed - he influence of light (it is negatively I pic, and hence bendstowate the central shaded portion of the tree to reach the branch upon which the seed has fallen and stuck); but Keeble demonstrates, by germinating the seeds the dark, that the hypocotyls of some species imitate tendrils, and hence aes often do, succeed in applying their enlarged heads to the surface of branches! this way. Owing to the resinous matter which covers them, the heads stick. In these species, the nutation may cause the head or sucker end of the hype cotyl to point temporarily directly towards the light, but it obviously supple ments the negatively heliotropic curvature at other times and hence is rea tageous to the seedling. Though the general surface of the hypocotyl is arGet hfe Ch oa TE e@nlalart VIC LY Srowth as is produced by contact with a suitable host. On the other to be induced by contact with any solid body. Keeble describes an exper" ment in which he applied a small cover-glass to the head of the hyper ee L. loniceroides, with the result that there was only slight enlargement ae head, which had not developed an effective sucker, though it remain¢ Bu by reason of the adhesive resin, whereas the haustorium had grows ee distance of 2™™ beyond the margin of the disc, being deflected from - ae by impenetrable glass. The cells which form the central part of the 1896] CURRENT LITERATURE 187 of a sucker which is in contact with a host become papillate, and, by pressure and solvent action combined, penetrate the superficial cells of the host. When these have succeeded in penetrating, the sucker enlarges still more, and thus furnishes a strong brace for the haustorium, which must neces- sarily develop considerable pressure to penetrate into the deeper tissues of the host, although at the same time it may perhaps supplement this mechanical penetration by the softening or solvent action of any enzymes which it may be able to secrete. In these ways the behavior of the haustorium and the sucking-disc of the Loranthacee is not unlike that of the completely parasitic phanerogams. In an appendix, Mr. Keeble describes the forms of the fruits and seeds of some of the Cingalese Loranthacee. This interesting and suggestive paper is illustrated by several woodcuts and two large well-executed lithographic plates.—GEORGE J. PEIRCE. ? Orin CETTERS. CAN RESEARCH WORK BE ACCOMPLISHED IN AMERICAN LABORATORIES ? a To the kditors of the Botanical Gazette :—t has long been the custom of American botanists to make comparisons of the facilities for research afforded by our own laboratories and those of Europe, to the great disparagement of the former. In view of our rapid development in methods of elementary teaching, and the yearly establishment of a number of new chairs of bot any, it may be well to inquire at this time into the particulars upon which our alleged inferiority is based, that we may remove the chief faults if inherent our system of organization, or grow out of them as rapidly as possible. _ The essential factors for original work are a group of living ce pared plants, a laboratory, the literature of the subject to which attention 1S directed, and a moderate amount of cerebral matter in possession of por _ Perhaps the greatest difficulty which confronts the American the lack of reference literature. There are, however, several : 188 1896] OPEN LETTERS 189 some patience the investigator may possess himself of the information con- cerning work previously accomplished upon his subject, in ample time for the publication of his results. In many instances he may own the literature at a very slight cost. 3 Most serious of all, however, are the subjective difficulties of the director of the laboratory, who to the above category, adds that of lack of time, etc., and constantly calls attention to the fact that our European colleagues do so little actual teaching and executive work that they are able to accomplish a large amount of investigation ; a statement by no means confirmed by the personal experience of the writer in the more important laboratories of Ger- many and England. A dozen pages of this journal might be filled with titles of work accomplished with as limited facilities and under as great a stress of other duties as those which confront the American worker, and the writer confidently asserts that any American botanist may accomplish a certain amount of research if he is fully determined upon it, and that, too, without recourse to the “holidays and Sundays” in which a German zoologist com- pleted a recently published work. It appears, therefore, that the greatest hindrances to research work lie, not in our material facilities or organization, but rather in the mental attitude of our would-be (?) investigators. In order to dispel any doubts remaining it might be well for the GAZETTE to publish a Second laboratory number, which would also show our progress in that partic- ular during the last decade. 4 conclusion it is proper to state that by original work is not meant the Collection of a number of random observations, but the acquisition of new facts, which added to those already known will suffice for the formulation of new laws, or the extension, or critical delimitation of existing generalizations D. T. MacDouGat, University of Minnesota. NEWS. Mr. J. C. WILxIs has been appointed director of the Royal Botanic dens of Ceylon. < AT THE MEETING of the Linnean Society of London on May 7th, D. H. Campbell was elected a foreign member. ; PROFESSOR D, T. MACDOouGAL returned from Europe August oe short period of study in Professor Véchting’s laboratory at Tiibingen. Dr. J. C. Artruur left Bonn about August 15th, intending to few days in England, and to reach his work at Purdue University, tember Ist. | Mr. W. L. Bray, who has recently had charge of the botanical Lake Forest in the absence of Dr. Harper, has gone to Germany to §| year in study, . THE OBSERVER (Portland, Conn.) has been greatly enlarg! improved. It is now one of the best periodicals for amateur naturalists comes to our table. o PROFESSOR R, A. HARPER, of Lake Forest University, returne Europe a short time since. He was the recipient of the doctora University of Bonn during the last semester. MR. W. J. V, OSTERHOUT has accepted the position of i botany in the University of California. He recently returned from Study in Professor Strasburger’s laboratory at Bonn. DURING A RECENT visit of the king of Siam to the Botanic ei Buitenzorg the dignity of Commander of the Order of the ‘White was conferred upon Dr. M. Treub, director of the gardens. DURING THE SEMESTER just closed the workers in Professor: research laboratory at the Botanic Institute, Bonn, included five two Germans, one Swede, one Pole, one Russian and one E ng Ne Me DOG FAIRCHILD, after more than two years’ stud, laboratories, has gone to Buitenzorg, Java, to carry on further He has severed his connection with the United States Departmen culture, 1896 | NEWS IgI Dr. H. ScHENCK of Bonn, who was recently made professor extraordinary, has accepted the position of professor ordinary at the Polytechnicum at Darm- stadt and director of the botanic garden, to succeed Professor Dippel, who retires from active work. CouLTER’s Flora of Western Texas, published among the contributions from the United States National Herbarium, and issued in three parts, has been republished and bound into a single volume. The original edition of the first part had been entirely exhausted. Dr. E. Korune, of Friedenau bei Berlin, the well-known dendrologist and editor of the Botanisches Jahresbericht, has begun the issue of a ‘herba- rium dendrologicum adumbrationibus illustratum,”’ by the distribution of the first century. The generally poor representation of woody plants in herbaria ought to make this set of exsiccate particularly acceptable. PROFESSOR Dr. ComEs, who has been for some years engaged in a study of tobacco, offers seeds of a very large number of garden varieties, forms and their hybrids in exchange. He especially requests those who have any uncertain species or varieties of Vicotiana in their herbarium to send him Specimens for examination, which he will promptly return. He recognizes, in a tentative classification, six varieties of Nicotiana Tabacum and seven of N. rustica. PROFESSOR C, R. BARNES and Mr. F. D. Heald have recently sent to Press a second and very greatly enlarged edition of Barnes’ Keys fo the Mosses of North America, which is to be published about Oct. ist, as a Bulletin in the Science Series of the University of Wisconsin. It will make a work of from 175-200 pages, including not only a key to the published species, so far 48 possible, but also collected descriptions of species not described by Les- quereux and James in the Manual, : ONE OF THE FEATURES of the Innsbruck botanical garden is the plant- us together of plants illustrating certain ecological relations. Professor Dr. Heinricher has arranged thirteen groups among which may be noted com- -plants, climbers, humus plants, parasites, plants with weapons, etc. A, the best representatives of each group, together with some culture S given in the Botanisches Centralblatt 66: 273. 1896. Other gardens ch §rouping are Berlin, Munich, and Ziirich. : notes, j with su ; MR. GEORGE W, VANDERBILT has imported from Europe what is con: Sidered to be the most valuable library on forestry in the world, for his Bilt- a estate. Mr. Vanderbilt has started forest culture on a large scale at Biltmore, under the management of Mr. Gifford Pinchot, and has built a umber of Cottages on his estate for the special use of students of forestry. 192 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avcusr As these will have access to the library mentioned, it will be, for all prac- : tical purposes, a free library— Book Reviews, August. AT THE LAST meeting of the Linnean Society, just before the summer vacation, a paper was presented by Professor D. T. MacDougal on the réla- joint presentation before the society of the subject of the origin of species by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace. The gathering in consequence took on something of the character of an ovation to Mr. Wallace. THE DEATH of William Hamilton Gibson in the latter part of removes an acute observer and an artist of great excellence as an illustralon His first work was done for the American A griculturist, while his later work in Harper's Magazine and in popular books is familiar to all. His receat studies were chiefly upon the relations of flowers and insects, upon which had prepared a series of lectures, illustrated by most ingenious me charts, showing the insects and flower parts in action. He had already ¢ much to popularize (in its best sense) the study of plants in the field, a gre needed work cut short by his untimely death in middle life. Part of the elaborate gateway designed by Inigo Jones, including t of Charles I and Charles II, was added later. It is a curious f The lease is still in force without alteration, the last renewal in ue 1880, being for sixty years. There is no danger, as reported 1 journals, that the lease will ever be closed or changed, unless It IS of the University, “ RB i AR a Ra RS a a A aS CAMBRIDGE BOTANICAL SUPPLY COMPANY 1286 Massachusetts Avenue, CAMBRIDGE, MASS, National Herbarium All Articles for Mounting Paper. Seng Classes in Botany. , BOXES New Dev IN PRESSES, COLLECTING evices AND HERBARIUM CASES. SEND FOR NEW PRICE LIST, Everything Useful to Botanists, WAST ED Twenty bulbs of every American species of Arisaema except A. triphyllum. D. T. MacDOUGALL, University of Minnesota, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. SPECIALLY PREPARED HERBARIUM PAPER for BOTANISTS This paper is offered at the moderate price of $5.50 per ream. We also furnish: r eh = No. 1. Genus Cover. 16% X 24 inches, at $4.00 per 100. 2, “ec “6 “< ‘“ “c “ gees 1.50 baie i Rie 2.00 Species Sheets 16% x 23% “ 50 Orders wil] receive prompt attention. Write for samples. “LV. ., WW. a: * 1009 PENNSYLVANIA AVE., N. *. Morrison Pap er Co., WASHINGTON, D.C. A New Series of ... Dissecting Microscopes - is described in our 1896 Catalogue, sent re Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. ROCHESTER, N. Y. NEW YORK HENRY HEIL CHEMICAE ST. LOUIS, MO. Chemicals, Glasswa | AND OTHER APPARATUS FOR Chemical, Botanical, and Bacteriolog! Laboratories | IMPORTERS OF SPECIAL APPARATUS FOR VEGETABLE PHYSIC - GIVE US A TRIAL, YOU WILL FIND US PROMPT AND sii CATALOGUE ON APPLICATION, Sie Se Hotanical Gazette Beginning with Volume XXII (the current volume), the - BoranicaL GazeTrTe will be issued in two annual volumes, its largely increased size demanding this change for convenience | in binding. Volume XXI closes with the June number, which — contains the usual volume index. } Volume XXII, beginning with the July number, is issued from — The University of Chicago Press, with some changes in form and © typography. Each number will contain at least eighty pages, Which will be increased if necessary to meet the demands of contributions. The illustrations will be of the best grade of lithographs and photo-engravings. The character will depend upon the subject, and will be determined by the editors in consultation with the author. That the Boranicar GazETTE may be more fully repre- sentative of botanical activity, a staff of associate editors has been organized. Those for America are: GErorGE F. ATKIN- SON, Professor of Botany, Cornell University; Vowxey. M. SPALDING, Professor of Botany, University of Michigan; ROLAND Tuaxrer, Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, ‘Har- vard University; Wiiitam Trevease, Director of the Méssourt Botanical Garden. European associates will be announced later. Subscriptions, Advertisements, and all Business Correspondence — “ould now be addressed to THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, | University Press Division, Chicago, Ill. Manuscripts and Rooks for Review should be sent as hereto- ee ‘o any one of the editors, except that all manuscripts a ast ng illustration should be addressed to DR. J. CG ARTHUR, a Lafayette, Ind, | : SUBSCRIPTION PRICE FOR 1896, $3.00 BOTANICAL GAZETTE CONTENES. ON ite TOXIC ACTION OF DISSOLVED “SALTS. AND. eet: oe R _ SALTS UPON PLANTS (with Plate vil). é D. Heald ENS AND INSECTS. XVII. Charles Robertson BRIEFER ARTICLES - - A NEw VipuRNUM FROM ‘Missouri ‘eh Plate vin, Ww. D os ‘obinson. “New GENUS OF _STERCULIACE®, AND SOME OTHER PLANTS. B: Z. Robinson = J. M. Greenman. “LABORATORIES. — Vol. XXII ~ SEPTEMBER 1896 No. 3 THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE EDITORS JOHN M. COULTER, Zie University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. CHARLES R. BARNES, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. ASSOCIATE EDITORS GEORGE F. ATKINSON ROLAND THAXTER Cornell Oniversity Harvard University SOE M. SPALDING WILLIAM TRELEASE os University of Michigan Missourt Botanical Garden — ISSUED SEPTEMBER 23 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS | Budlished by The Bniversity of Chicago be Bnibversity of Chicage Press Botanical Gazette A Monthly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science Subscription for 1896, $3.00 - Single Numbers, 30 Cents THE SUBSCRIPTION PRICE MUST BE PAID IN ADVANCE. NO NUMBERS ARE SENT AFTER THE EXPIRATION OF THE TIME PAID FOR. NO REDUCTION IS MADE TO DEALERS OR AGENTS. In Great Britain, {4 Shillings. Agents, WM. WESLEY & SON, 28 Essex Sty Strand, LONDON. In Germany, 14 Marks. Agents, R. FRIEDLAENDER & SOHN, Carlstrasse ii, BERLIN, N. W. 6. BEGINNING WITH 1897 THE ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION WILL BE $4,00 (Two VOLUMES); SINGLE NUMBERS, 40 cents; IN GREAT BRITAIN, $8 shillings; IN GERMANY, 14 mar’ THE PRICES NAMED INCLUDE POSTAGE. ill be Separate Copies.— After this date no separate copies W at the furnished contributors free. Separate copies will be supplied following rates: For each four pages or less, per 100, $1.59; for each plate, per 100, $1.00.. A less number at the same rate. Covels like Gazette, with title, $1.50 per 100 additional. The number desired must be marked at the head of the MS., as none will be printed unless ordered. Manuscripts and Book Reviews.—— Contributors are requested to write scientific and proper names with particular care, and im citations to follow the form shown in the pages of the GAZETTE. Manuscnip’s Should be sent to one of the Editors, Articles requiring illustrations, and correspondence about illustrations, should be addressed to J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette Missing Numbers — Will be replaced free only when claim 8 made within thirty days after receipt of the number following: Subscriptions, advertisements, and all business corr should be addressed to The University of Chicago, University Press Division, Money Orders and drafts should be made payable to | The University of Cice™ [Entered at the Post Office at Chicago, Ill, as second-class postal matter] anita | —sCVOLUME XXII | NUMBER 3 BOTANICAL (;sAZETIE 2 SEPTEMBER 1896 4a BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY." WILLIAM TRELEASE. In selecting a subject for the first presidential address before the Botanical Society of America, which you have done me the honor of requiring of me, I have deviated somewhat from the Customary lines of such addresses, inasmuch as I have not attempted to present an abstract of recent general progress in botany, nor any results of my own investigation. Such topics, indeed, are more likely than the one I have chosen to interest an assemblage of specialists like this society ; but as the society is Supposed to haveas a principal object the promotion of research, the present has seemed a fitting occasion to address, through the Society, the large and growing number of young botanists who may be expected to look to this society for a certain amount of help and inspiration in the upbuilding of their own scientific ss: hence it comes that I have selected as my subject : Opportunity.” Let us for a moment compare the conditions under which Scientific work is done today with those prevalent in the past. Tom a purely utilitarian, and, for a time, perhaps almost instinc- : knowledge of plants and their properties, beginning, it may be, before our race can be said to have had a history, through 1 Address of the retiring president, delivered before the Botanical Society of 6. : I : America, at Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 21, 189 194 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER the pedantry of the Middle Ages with their ponderous tomes, botany, almost within our own memory, stands as the scientific diversion or pastime of men whose serious business in life was of avery different nature. Such training as the earlier botanists had was obtained as being primarily useful in other pursuits than pure research, though there is abundant evidence that the master often enjoined upon the pupil the possibilities of botanical study, and no doubt he stretched the limits of botanical instruc tion deemed necessary, just as is done today in technical schools, in the hope that the surplus might be so used as to increase the general store of knowledge ; but, at best, training was limited, and research was recreation and relaxation. But our predecessors, even the generation immediately before us, lived under conditions which made it possible for a mam to hold high place in the business or professional world, to accl- mulate wealth in commerce, and at the same time to devote much time to the study of nature. Today the man who is not entirely a business man is better out of business, and, with a few exe?” tions, the man who is not entirely a student is little better than 4 dilettante in science. Concentration is the order of the day, specialization is the lot of most men. But specialization, the keynote of progressive evolution, is always intimately assou®™ with a division of labor. Fortunately, the men who enter ® zh win in the great game of commerce and manufacture sea oat more or less clear way that nearly every great manufacturing o commercial advance has grown out of a succession of 0 ey discoveries made by the devotee to pure science, often | ered by him, indeed, only as so many more words deciphe je the great and mysterious unread book of nature, but oo later adapted and applied for the benefit of all men by pe mind of a master in the art of money-making. To ee successful in business, we owe it that today not only ee = men able to devote their entire time to scientific researel 4 propagation of knowledge, but that their work is do favorable conditions, and with a wealth of aids and adjuncts” would hardly have been thought of a generation ago. . 1896 ] BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 195 Instead ofa smattering of systematic botany and organography, given as an adjunct in chemistry, medicine, or engineering, the student who wishes may today equip himself fora life of research in botany, by a considerable amount of preparatory work in the lower schools, beginning, perhaps, even in the kindergarten, and by devoting the larger part of his undergraduate time in college to the elements of the subject in the broadest and, if he wish, technical scope, having the benefit of marvelously detailed appli- ances and a broad knowledge of general facts. If he can and will work for a higher university degree, thus equipped, he may delve into the depths of the most limited specialty, guided for a time by those who have already broken soil there, and left at last with a rich and unexplored vein for his own elaboration. With this training, if he be fortunate in securing a position offering oppor- tunity for research, or if he enjoy independent means, he may hope for a lifetime of more or less uninterrupted opportunity for unearthing the wealth of discovery that lies just within his reach, Considering the prevalent conditions, my subject naturally divides itself into two quite distinct parts: the opportunity of institutions and of individuals. We stand today, apparently, at a transition point. Most of the active workers of the present time are college professors who have done the research work that has made their names known, during the leisure that could be found in the year’s routine of instruction or during their long vacations, and with facilities nominally secured for class use, or, ‘Nn many instances, like those of a generation ago, the private Property of the investigator. Even when appreciated at some- thing like its true value, their original work, for the most part, has been closely watched to prevent it from encroaching upon the first duty, class work; and in most cases the facilities that they have been able to bring together are in direct proportion to the number of students attracted to their departments, and there- spit oe ratio to their own leisure for research. But, as losin g ready stated, the feeling is growing among men able to ch enterprises, that research is a thing worthy of being 196 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER promoted, and we have before our eyes the spectacle of a gradu- ally unfolding class of institutions in which investigation is not only tolerated but expected, either as an adjunct to instruction, as in the greater number of colleges, as a concomitant of educa tional displays, as in botanical museums and gardens, or, at least nominally, as a basis for technical or economic research, as in several of the larger drug houses, and, notably, in various agti- cultural experiment stations and the national Department of Agriculture. Perhaps the time has not yet come when labore tories of botanical research can stand out quite alone and justify their existence without reference to other ends, the utility of which is more generally understood and conceded, but it seems safe to predict that the next decade will see their complete evolu- tion. Opportunity for institutions lies primarily in equipment, and secondarily in its use. The problem of equipment io research is a complicated and difficult one. So long as ier were no laboratories especially designed for this purpose, wit . natural that the instructional laboratory should be furnished with ag appliances for demonstration, and that these should be ampli . as far as possible, for the repetition of experiments, in the fist place, and afterwards for their extension ; and it is no doubt tre : that a number of the smaller educational laboratories ate send : : Over-equipped when account istaken of the possible use to oe they can be put. With a specialization such as we NOW son 2 progress, it may be questioned whether the ordinary college equipment cannot be reduced in scope in many instances, is benefit to the institution, by releasing money often badly 2 Se in other directions, either in the same or different er dq On the other hand, it is certain that the equipment of the te research laboratories, whether connected with univers independent, must be made much more comprehensive than which today exists in this country. : Under the stimulus of the last two decades, botan to the front in most colleges as a study well calculated to% the powers of observation and the reasoning faculties. ities we y has come it 1896 | BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 197 it still occupies the place of a fixed study of a few terms’ dura- tion in a prescribed undergraduate course, it is evident that the necessary equipment of a department is expressible in the simplest terms: for each course, that which is needed to exemplify by the most direct object lessons the subject selected, and enough general and collateral material and literature to complement the work. But the case is somewhat different when, as is now frequent, a considerable option is allowed the student in the courses taken for the baccalaureate degree. Here the temptation exists to secure equipment for the broadest pos- sible series of electives, and it is too often yielded to for the best interests of the institution. However liberal one may be in the matter of electives, it is evident, in most instances, that the student cannot afford to devote more than about one-half of his undergraduate time to a single study like botany, and in this time he can cover only a definite amount of ground. While there isa certain seductiveness in the perusal of long lists of electives ina college catalogue, the serious contemplation of them shows that few, if any, students can hope to take all of the courses of sucha list, and as, for the most part, they are garnished out in an attractive form, there is likely to be embarrassment in the wealth of subjects, so that, if left to himself, the student is very likely to select a series of disconnected but pleasing fragments, rather than the proper links in an educational chain. Experience shows the wisdom of limiting the list of electives to those that there is reasonable probability that the student can take, and of making the list a consistent whole, fairly opening up the entire field of botany in such manner as to pave the way for a piece of advanced thesis work at the end, and for specialization after Staduation. So far as undergraduate instruction is concerned, where, as is usually the case, funds are limited, it is here desira- ble, as in the other instance, to limit the scope of the depart- oe equipment quite closely to the requirements of the courses Offered. As the senior thesis work is almost certain to be a further study of some one of the subjects already elected, the Provision for it, in nearly every instance, is easily and quickly 198 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER effected by a comparatively inexpensive addition, in each case, to the standard library and laboratory equipment. Such research work as the head of the department and _his assistants find time for, as well assuch post-graduate work as may be under- taken, can then be provided for in the same manner, piece by piece, with the exception of the final touches, demanding the use of the largest reference libraries or collections, the provision for which is not likely to be far to seek in the stronger research centers within a very few years. Great herbaria, broad reference libraries, and large stores of; apparatus and living or preserved material are possible only to few universities and to the still fewer institutions specially endowed for research, to which alone, indeed, they seem strictly appropriate. For the latter every shade of breadth of founda- tion is possible, from the laboratory and library limited to the narrowest specialty, to the institution founded and equipped for research in any branch of pure or applied botany. Fairly perfect equipment of the former class it is possible to find here and there, today, but though the seed is sown in several places, the broadest institutions, in their entirety, are still to be devel- oped, a No doubt the first requisite in any such institution 15 4 library of scope comparable with its own. Whatever may be said against the prevalent nomenclature discussions, co admitted that they are having the effect of bringing to the bon : the half-forgotten work of many of our predecessors, ees G sl which, at least, is well worthy of resurrection, and incidentally o this is stocking our larger libraries with a class of bo have confessedly been too much neglected of late. W a moment losing sight of the fact that botany is a study +5 branch of nature, an object-study, we must recognize that . i prosecution beyond the merest elements is not only greatly ae moted by but almost dependent upon a knowledge of what : o already been done. i tific : Where an institution is located in a literary °F eae” d center, closely associated with large general libraries, | ss it must be oks which a ithout for of one 1896 | BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 199 bodies, and the like, it is usually relieved of the necessity for purchasing and keeping up the long files of such serial publica- tions as the journals, proceedings of societies, etc., of mixed contents, which prove expensive alike in cost, binding, and space, which for a given subject are used but seldom, and which, nevertheless, are the most valuable part of a large reference library, since they are the hardest to duplicate. But where a botanical institution stands in absolute or comparative isolation, it must carry this burden in addition to that of maintaining a library of treatises on botany alone. And, moreover, no sooner is research begun in any direction, than the necessity of follow- ing up divergent threads running in many directions becomes evident; for so close and complex are the interrelations between things in organic nature, that no single subject can be pursued far without drawing in others at first sight having no possible bearing on it. After the serials, which from their expensiveness can be possessed by only the larger libraries, stand undoubtedly the general classics in the several subdivisions of botany, followed by the more restricted memoirs, and among these, for con- venience of use, should be found, whenever possible, separates and reprints from the journals and series of proceedings, even when the latter are complete on the shelves. Next to books, material preserving records, or available for Study, forms the great foundation in any research institution. A generation ago, or even less, this expression would have been taken as synonymous with an herbarium, perhaps associated with 4 garden of greater or less extent; but today the most com- prehensive of museum possibilities must be added, so greatly has the subject broadened and increased the needs. For,a broadly planned institution, with ample means, no doubt the scope of the herbarium should be as great as that of the library, comprising every group of plants, representing a wide range of geographical distribution, the effects of cultivation, etc., and, however limited ‘hey may be at first, such museum accessories as alcoholic material, large wood and_ fruit specimens, and sections for Microscopic study are sure to accumulate quite as rapidly as 200 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER they can be cared for suitably, and to prove in time a very important part of the equipment. Though some of the best botanical work has been performed entirely in the herbarium, there has long been a growing conviction that for certain groups of plants, even for purposes of description and _ classification, field observation is absolutely necessary, while it is self-evident that for all studies of biology living material is essential. Side by side with the herbarium, then, and virtually as a part of the same general collection, stands the experimental garden, with the greenhouses and other appliances. While many of the most useful studies are made with but few aids beyond the library and collections referred to, there IS a large class of subjects now being closely followed by some of the keenest investigators which demand a special instrumental equipment. However it may be with library and collections, there seems little doubt that as a rule apparatus should, be obtained only as it is needed for direct use. Except for the © rotting of the bindings observed in the libraries of manufactul- ing cities, and where illuminating gas is used, books, when on classified and indexed, are easily and cheaply kept in a usable condition. If a few simple rules are followed, herbarium re a4 rial is also preserved safely for generations at a very small cost; 4 and even sections and specimens in fluid, if properly preserved - in the first place, may be kept for many years without ge deterioration. Instruments designed for research, as a gen" thing, represent a considerable sum of money, since, exceptils microscopes, microtomes, and balances, they are rarely a numbers allowing a great economy in the labor of manufac : ture. Each of them is also, unfortunately, with few except eal 4 calculated for a restricted class of experiments and likely to be greatly modified. Apparatus, moreover, is usually delicacy of adjustment calling for the greatest care in bee ge it and the most perfect protection possible against rusting; ST so that as a general thing a case of instruments te merely a historical curiosity, in part entirely out of ©é the rest so badly out of order as to be nearly oF quite of a 2 1896 | BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 201 Except for a few standard instruments, I think it is not gener- ally recognized that this part of the facilities, however costly it may be, should be regarded as transient, perishable material, rather than a permanent equipment. The history of the most successful physiological laboratories in which delicate appara- tus is chiefly used furthermore shows that the most important results, as a rule, are not obtained by the use of commercial instruments, but by simple apparatus designed by the investi- gator to meet the precise needs of the problem with which he is busied, and usually constructed by him or his laboratory mechanic at very little cost. Although it seems comparatively easy to decide on the proper limits of library, herbarium, and instrumental equipment for a given institution, knowing its scope, situation, and resources, it is very difficult to arrive at as satisfactory a conclusion concerning the extent of the research garden. As a general thing such gardens are also intended to be useful in college work, or to afford pleasure and instruction to the public, so that they are likely to be heterogeneous almost of necessity, and usu- ally they are made far too comprehensive. More than any other class of facilities, garden plants require constant and €xpensive attention if they are to be kept in useful condition ; and with all of the care that can be given them they are forever performing the most inexplicable and unexpected gyrations with their labels, so that the collections grown in botanical gar- dens (because of their variety) are notoriously ill-named, though it would naturally be supposed that they, of all collec- tions, would be above suspicion in that respect. My object being to speak of facilities for research rather than education or entertainment, I ought to pass by this part of the Subject with a mere mention, but I can hardly dismiss it without comment. Where the only object is to supplement the facilities for undergraduate work, the scope of a garden can be very small or moderately large, according to the courses it is to help elucidate. It may be confined to what may be called a Propagating bed for plants needed in quantity, either in season 202 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER or out of season, for class use, to an exemplification of the nat- ural affinities of plants, or to various other instructive synopses representing medicinal plants, fiber plants, forage plants, fruits, vegetables, timber trees, nut trees, shade trees, carnivorous plants, climbing plants, the sleep of plants, pollination, dis- semination, etc., or it may be devoted to several of these com- bined. If it is to be a pleasure-ground as well, not only should the art of the landscape architect be invoked in the arrangement of the plants, but it is necessary to add collections of decorative shrubbery and a large variety of purely orna- mental florists’ forms of herbaceous plants. If research 1s added to its aims the collection must be further augmented by specially selected groups cultivated from time to time as needed for study. Unfortunately, few if any gardens are so richly endowed that they can cover, in a satisfactory manner, the entire field indicated, or even any large part of it. From what has beet said of the peculiar difficulties pertaining to the maintenance of botanical gardens, it is evident that in no other line of facil ities, whether for pure research or not, is a wise restriction so necessary as here. Once properly prepared, a species ® represented in the herbarium on one or more sheets of pap ’ safely and economically stowed away in a pigeon-hole; bit : in the garden it is a constant source of care and expense # | long as it lasts. Hence it is possible for one of the pati ‘ herbaria to contain representatives of -more than half of a 200,000 species, more or less, of phanerogams, and a ne : . siderable, if smaller, proportion of cryptogams, while oe absolutely impossible for anything like this number to be ae . sented in a living state in the best garden. No er 2 local requirements of every institution will do more use we a ence the exact scope of its living collections than any — ia a ical considerations, but it is certain that in .most ee 2 greatest usefulness combined with the minimum expenditt - will be reached by adapting the synopses chosen t0 ih” y aims of the institution, as closely as possible, and Very = 1896 | BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 203 restricting the species cultivated to the smallest number capable of adequately expressing the facts to be shown. Perhaps it is safe to say that an institution able to maintain an herbarium of half a million specimens, representing one-fifth as many species, is doing exceedingly well if it has in cultivation at any one time 10,000 species of the higher plants, and there are very few gardens which actually grow half of this number, while no inconsiderable percentage of the plants cultivated are so deformed, distorted, dwarfed, and imperfect, as a general thing, that they can scarcely be said to represent the species whose name they bear, either in appearance or technical char- acters. This leads to the conclusion that not only class gardens but research gardens should be kept within reasonably narrow bounds, so far as permanent planting is concerned, while allow- ing sufficient elasticity for rapid and ample temporary expan- sion in certain directions along which work is planned. This does not necessarily mean that any considerable amount of land not used in the permanent plantation need be reserved for Special expansion. Asa rule the more important gardens are Situated in or near large cities, and the high price of land alone would prevent such reservation in most instances; but the impure atmosphere of many of the larger cities is a further and even stronger reason for selecting for any large experimental undertakings a suitably located and oriented tract of farming land easily rented for one or several years at a relatively low gure. Granting the wisdom of such temporary adjuncts to a research garden, a step further leads to a recognition of the Possibility of securing the most varied climatic conditions by €stablishing branch gardens located where particular kinds of Study can best be carried on. In no other way can gardens be made to contribute to the fullest extent to the study of marine °F seaside plants, alpines, or the great class of succulents. etc., characteristic of the arid regions of our southwestern states and territories, and in no other way, except in the field, can these 204 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER groups be studied satisfactorily, even from the standpoint of the classificatory botanist. Undoubtedly, too, the research institution of the future will count as a part of its legitimate equipment the provision, as needed, of very liberal opportunities for the staff to visit even distant regions for the study in their native homes of plants which cannot be cultivated even in special gardens in such a manner as to be fully representative. If the entire equipment here sketched in outline is not only appropriate, but essential, to the great centers of botanical investi: gation that are making their appearance as results of the special- ization and division of labor that are now manifesting themselves in the endowment of research, it by no means follows that evely institution, even of this class, should try to develop from the start on all of the lines which, intertwined, compose the complex tissue of botany. With ample means, the ideal development 5 that which, from the beginning, recognizes all branches a of value, and classifies and develops them alike in proportion to their relative importance. But to secure the greatest retum a | the money expended, it is desirable to equip fairly well before — increasing the force of salaried men much beyond what is needed for the care and arrangement of the material accumulating. Ths : principle, if followed out, almost forces an over-development : 2 the branches of special interest to the earlier employés—* : departure from the ideal symmetry, which is sure to be ja th by the performance of more work in these hypertrophied apr ties, with reference to the sum invested, than in other dine From this may also be drawn the seemingly just inference = where the means are limited, it is far better to concentrate entire equipment on the specialties of the persons who can a 2 it, than to allow them to work at a disadvantage through @ effort, however commendable it may at first appeal, to me a symmetrical equipment. es With the evolution of centers of pure research will Be new problems. Just as the attendance of a large number ee dents in the botanical department of a college has here ae 1896 | BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 205 been found to justify the acquisition of facilities beyond the power of their immediate use, it will be found that where research institutions exist in close connection with a university of recog- nized standing, their equipment will be utilized more or less fully in postgraduate work done toward the acquisition of the doctor’s degree, so that, like the undergraduate equipment, it will be more or less satisfactorily accounted for by the number of candidates for such degree; but with broadly grounded and well endowed research institutions not so situated, it is inevitable that as they take permanent form on the lines caculated to make them avail- able for advanced research in any line of botany, they will sooner or later come to represent a very large sum of invested money, of which only a part is usefully employed at any given time, the remainder being held as a necessary but temporarily unproduc- tive reserve. The same thing is seen, to a certain extent, in all large libraries and museums; but, unlike the general library, of interest to the entire reading public, or the collection of histori- cal or political works, referred to by many people of ordinary intellectual attainments, the advanced equipment in botany, for the most part, is useful and interesting only to botanists, so that, while it may possess a passing interest for the general student, its Serious use is limited toa very restricted class. How to increase this use to the maximum may well demand our best thought. No doubt, just as many colleges now offer scholarships, making their advantages available to men who otherwise could not enjoy them, and some of our universities offer fellowships, pening their own postgraduate courses or those of foreign _WMiversities to deserving students, the evolution of research institutions will witness some such provision for enabling students Who have partially completed pieces of research work to visit _ utilize these centers without encroaching too far on the limited Savings from the small salaries which, as a rule, are drawn by the botanists of the country. After all, however, the great °pportunity of attainment, for such institutions, whether or not onnected with colleges or universities, lies in the performance of research work by their own employés; and while, except in 206 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER the few instances already referred to, and notably in the national Department of Agriculture, today there is some hesitancy in rec- ognizing the employment of a staff of investigators as a legitimate part of the maintenance expense of an establishment which does _ not use a large part of their time in instruction or necessary : curator’s routine, it is quite certain that within a very few years : opinion will have so changed that a considerable number of salaried positions for research work or applied botany will exist) _ and as these positions will compete with the professorships ia A the best universities, it seems probable that the salaries pertaining : to them will be approximately those paid at the larger colleges. In addition to bringing together facilities for research and rendering them easily accessible to competent investigators, and : maintaining their own corps of workers, engaged in such studies, institutions of research have no small field of usefulness openeé up as publishers of the results of the work they have promot I shall have occasion later to speak of the means of publication i from the standpoint of the student who is seeking to bring - his work in the best form; but it also demands consideration u from the point of view of the institution. Much difficulty 8 experienced in looking up the literature of a subject because of the large number of journals, etc., in which references must sought, and it is probable that at some time or other most won have’ impatiently wished that publication could be confined 1 one ora few channels. Simple as this would render the bibliog: raphy of botany, it is obviously impossible; and the amet work deserving or demanding publication is so great, a? rapidly increasing, as to leave no doubt that means of effecting the latter must be considerably augmented. To publish : results of good work well is no less commendable oF - than to facilitate or perform such work. Nor is it less @Pr priate to an institution such as I have in mind. The object a publication being the adequate preservation and diffusion record of the results of research, however, it is easily see? 1896 } BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 207 almost anywhere as to accomplish its purpose, a serial publica- tion ought to be started only when there is reasonable probability that it will persist for a considerable length of time. Granting this probability, a research institution with adequate funds forms one of the most satisfactory and effective agencies of publica- tion, since it can place its proceedings or reports in all of the principal libraries of the world, a thing which the journals do not always accomplish; and not only can it thus amplify its field legitimately, but almost of necessity it must assume the duty of publication if it is to accomplish the greatest results possible from its direct investigation. One has only to pass a short time in the library of one of the larger scientific institutions to be convinced that a great deal of activity is manifested in the botanical world. Each month and each week bring many additions to the literature of the science, and so numerous, varied, and widely scattered are these contributions, that one feels the greatest hesitancy in publishing on even the most restricted subject, lest others should have antedated his discoveries. Yet notwithstanding the variety and number of botanical publications, and the great progress which is undeniably made every year, it is a matter of frequent comment that the progress made is by no means so much greater than that of our predecessors as might be expected, con- sidering the greater advantages under which work is prosecuted today. While it must be borne in mind that the seizing of the general features of a landscape is far easier than the working out of its detailed topography, that the outlining of the field of botany or of its principal divisions could not fail to proceed more rapidly, even under unfavorable conditions, than the elab- Oration of the details of the many specialties into which it is now broken up, so that less prompt and voluminous results are naturally to be expected now than a generation ago, there is reason to question whether the present returns cannot be increased. How to secure the greatest possible results from the large number of trained men holding or soon to hold salaried _ Positions, and from the large equipment in laboratories, libra- 208 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER ries, herbaria and gardens, is a subject deserving of the most careful study, whether viewed from the standpoint of the endower or administrator of an institution of education or research, or from that of the botanist whose reputation is built up in the performance of the duties assigned to him in such an institution. While there is every reason to expect large returns from the endowment of such independent departments of research, free- dom from the duties of the class room, while leaving more time available for investigation, will not prove an unmixed blessing. I believe it to be the experience of the best investigators in this country that research is promoted by the necessity of imparting some or all of its results in the class room. In no other way, after specializing in the small field to which it seems necessary for most of us to confine ourselves, can one make sure of pre- serving the breadth of view needed for the investigation of sie a limited specialty in the most successful manner. It must be admitted further that the power of application and concentra- tion varies with different men, so that up to a certain point the interruptions introduced by limited teaching or looking ae collections in many cases may give fresh zest to the pursuit of knowledge in the time remaining for research. And it may be that at this very point lies the greatest difficulty to be — | surmounted in the development and management of reseae’ — institutions. While there is no doubt that some supervision and p ie are conducive to the performance of the greatest aie amount of investigation, as of other work, since they 1m sistent planning and close application, it cannot be overlooxe' : that this is the extent to which scientific work can profitably PF crowded. To require more of an investigator than that he si be reasonably busy with thoughtfully planned study always been antagonistic to the performance of his emanate from each department at stated intervals, 7, expe insures quantity in publication, generally does so at the — ressute sure con : is and “s . best worki etin shall and the requirement of some institutions that a bull Co while " i a POSNER ey eae he 1896 } BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 209 of quality of attainment. As a rule, genius, which, left to itself, now and then leaps to the most unexpected accomplishments, is most effectively repressed by close supervision. It is tolerant of guidance but not of the goad; and yet, on the whole, perhaps, both guided and driven, if this is done wisely, it accomplishes most, for in harness it becomes plodding research, which is dull, to be sure, but, if persevering, productive of cumulative results which become of incalculable importance. In fact, whether fortunately or unfortunately I shall not attempt to say, the world has come to recognize the slow but sure progress of research as in the main more desirable than the irregular and intermittent leaps of genius, though the two are closely akin, patient labor over endless facts, on the one hand, and broad observation and untrammeled thought, on the other. If, everything considered, it is slow and persistent investiga- tion, rather than sudden inspiration, to which we must look for the accomplishment of the greatest collective results in botany, itis equally true that the individual student is more likely to build his reputation on the summation of the small accomplish- ments of many days of close application than to arrive at some great discovery by a leap; and this quite aside from the fact that the latter result is entirely impossible to many a man who in the other way may still hope to be of great usefulness. It has been said that there is a tide in the affairs of men, which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune, and no doubt what is true in the military, literary, and commercial world is equally true in the smaller realm of science. In fact, I fancy that each member of my audience has in mind some one preeminent occa- sion which may have looked small or large at the moment, but the Seizing or neglect of which he now sees marked a turning in his scientific career. But, it will be seen, it is not of the one great ©pportunity that I would now speak. Improving it always has marked and always will mark the turning point of life, but unfortunately the bridge cannot be crossed before it is reached, vi 8reat as the value of a true and wise friend’s counsel then 'S, it cannot be replaced by any generalities in advance; there- 210 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER fore it is to the countless lesser opportunities, repeated with almost every day that dawns for us, that I turn, in the hope that something helpful may be said of them, and in the firm belief that in them lies the making of any intelligent and indefatigable young man. To the investigator breadth of foundation is even more necessary than to the institution founded for his use, for while the latter should endure for centuries, and may be remodeled and improved at any time, he is limited to a single lifetime and can rarely in mid life or later repair the deficiencies of ill advised or defective training. Not only should his powers of observa- tion be well developed, but he should be given: more discipline in reasoning than is now customary, though the botanists of a generation ago counted among their number several men who are even more widely known as philosophers. ee Equipped for the work, and enabled to use the material facil- ities that have been brought together against the day of his need, much depends on the early and wise formulation of the invest gator’s plans. Except for the tasks set by a teacher and really long contemplated by him and carried out by his intelligence through the eyes and hands of pupils, few pieces of valuable research are taken up on the spur of the moment, without te vious thought on the part of the investigator. They ee: i a the outgrowth of another, and turning and returning until ge mately shapes into a definite plan. Simple as it may ns : : theory, few things are more difficult in practice than the seas tion and inception in early life, inexperienced, and often W"” certainty of the power of continuance for any great iS ‘ . - time, of a plan for a single piece of research work worthy pe . devotion of a lifetime ; and few and fortunate are the Meh” among those who have outlined and entered upon such on who are not forced from the path by side issues, are not unduly short. More commonly one must b choose several smaller subjects, for their own sakes seks oo closely related to one another, if possible, and to follow : a, in succession. It is surprising how blind even the sharpe* 1896 ] BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 211 among us are to all that does not directly interest us, and it is an equal surprise to see how quickly one’s eyes open to things which he has once begun to think of and look for. If for no other reason than this, I would again urge breadth of early train- ing, as giving the first impulse to many a series of special observations to be followed up in later life. Once a subject is chosen, observations accumulate with sur- prising rapidity, and next to the selection of a subject nothing is so important as system in pursuing it. If we do not see it in ourselves, each one of us can see in others, a great waste of energy, resulting from shiftless and ill-considered methods of procedure, by which the mind is so distracted and the memory so overloaded with unessentials and dissociated fragments that those which belong together are not matched, nor the missing bits, in plain view, gathered. How often do we have to return time after time and review partial work that we have had to dis- miss temporarily from the mind, in which, meantime, has been lost the connection between the completed portion and the con- tinuation awaiting our leisure. A phenomenal memory may enable one to work in this disjointed fashion without the pro- duction of scrappy results or the review of all that has been done each time that the task is resumed; but for those not so gifted, order and method are absolutely necessary, and next to the clear idea of the end aimed at I should place the immediate making a full and exact notes as their most essential part. Some years Since I was privileged to assist Dr. Gray in collecting and repub- lishing the botanical writings of Dr. Engelmann, and it was a Matter of Surprise to us both, as it has been to others, to see how voluminous these were. Had Dr. Engelmann devoted his entire life to botany they would have been as creditable in quantity as in quality, but for the leisure hour productions of a busy pro- fessional man they were truly marvelous. Some years later, theron and library having found a dined ge at i. garden in the development of which he had felt an or many years, it fell to my lot to arrange in form for Permanent preservation Dr. Engelmann’s manuscript notes, 212 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER sketches, etc., 1 was far more surprised at the extent of these than I had been on collecting his printed works, for when mounted and bound they form sixty large volumes. In addition to their intrinsic value, these are of more than usual interest as showing the methodical manner in which Dr. Engelmann worked. On his table seems to have been always a bundle of plants awaiting study. As each specimen was examined its salient features were noted and sketched on the back of the ever ready prescription blank. When interrupted, he laid his unfinished sketch away with the specimen, to resume his observation and complete his study at the first opportunity, without any doubt as to what had been seen in the first instance. And so from individual to variety, from variety to species, from species t0 genus, and from genus to family, his observations were preserved in memoranda that facilitated the resumption of interrupted work at any time and after any lapse of time. In no other way could the odd moments between the daily calls and occupations of a busy physician have contributed so much to botanical knowledge; in no other way could his seemingly small a tunity for investigation have been converted into a great Almost as important as the early selection of a worthy su oo ject for study and the adoption of a method insuring a 2 ervation and use of even the most trivial information bearing °° it is the adoption of suitable library methods. Thee whose specialty is small and little explored has mainly the as of observing and reasoning from the facts before him; the departments that have long been the subject of study we a part of the work is already done to his hand, and the pie the ground, # is that he can go much further than on entirely new < have decessors ly the literature ‘but done is often a difficult one. Not infrequent : a subject is so scattered as to make it next to imposs!)" s : he frag ee one calling for a special faculty.. One o been made to form general bureaus of scienti which one need only turn if he would be possesse! fic infor ati : 1896 | BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 213 to the principal literature of any subject in which he chanced to be interested. Perhaps as library facilities accumulate at the great centers of research, some method may be found of sup- plementing them with the skill of expert librarians who shall be able and willing to carry the contents of the library, at least in skeleton form, to those who cannot come to it; but the time has hardly yet come when any American library is complete enough in all branches to offer this aid with a reasonable chance of doing what it promises, or so manned as to make such assist- ance possible except at the sacrifice of more valuable direct research. For the present, then, the investigator must be content to do his own delving into the literature of his predecessors. Fortu- nately, much of the earlier literature has been sought out by some of the writers on any branch that has been the subject of earlier study, so that, starting with a memoir of recent date, one is guided to others, each of which may bring further references, until, if he have access to the works, almost the entire earlier literature is unearthed. On the other hand, the most recent literature of a subject is always the most difficult to find and use. After a study has been gotten well under way, so that the Student is keenly alert to every observation or published item in any way bearing on it, if he have access to a library receiving the principal current journals he is not likely to overlook any 'Mportant publication on his specialty which then appears. As a tule, all of the larger papers, at least, are noticed in Just’s Jahresbericht, generally not more than a year later than that for which the volume purports to be compiled ; but as the /ahres- bericht is always some three years in arrears it is difficult to pre- vent notes extending over a period of this duration from being defective, at least for the earlier part of the time, and there is at present no means of removing this difficulty, though the plan Proposed to zoologists a year ago, and, I suppose, tested during 8 present season, if successful would be equally applicable to any, So far as the final result is concerned, perhaps the manner in 214 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER which one’s work is published is almost as important as the subject selected or the method adopted for its investigation. Alphonse de Candolle, in one of the most helpful treatises ever published in the hope of rendering botanical work methodical and productive,” lays a great deal of stress on the early selection of a form of publication for the results of each important study. This done, the work continually shapes itself to this end. Fre- quently there is much difficulty in securing the publication of a monograph or memoir in precisely the form and place desired by the author, but there is seldom an insuperable obstacle in the way of publishing any really meritorious work in about the man- ner wished, provided it is suitably prepared. . In general, it is desirable that works of a given class should be so published that in seeking one a reader 1s likely to learn of another. This appears less important for books that for shorter papers, since the arrangement of independently issued volumes in a library, and the fact that they are catalogued by authors, render it relatively easy to learn of and have access t0 them; but even here one finds no little convenience . the recognition that a book by a given author on a given subject 5 quite likely to be listed in the catalogue of a certain publishing ] house. Smaller papers, which are usually published in geen | ceedings of some society, or in a scientific journal, may almost ao said to be made or ruined by the place selected for their et . | tion. Probably as library facilities increase and are muah eo oughly classified and subject-indexed, this will become bi > than it now is, though the underlying reason for it will i a Usually a reader turns to the popular journals only wie mee : for popularized science, and is not likely to seek the orig inal ‘ fet of research there, so that such papers are nearly oF ee ‘ue ' long time if published in these journals. Except where ey 2 | . chiefly devoted to digests and abstracts, few nominally a : journals now exist which do not lean so strongly = a specialty that one unconsciously classes them with it, n° ae *La Phytographie, ou l’art décrire les végétaux considérés sous atents POP de vue. Paris, 1880. 1896] BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 215 standing the extraneous matter that they contain. While noth- ing once published is ever absolutely lost, all of this extraneous matter is likely to be overlooked by the persons most interested in the subjects considered. No small part of the present con- fusion and strife in botanical nomenclature arises from the com- paratively recent unearthing of descriptions and names of plants published in such improbable or inaccessible places as to have escaped the attention of those whom they might have helped most, to be brought to light at a later date as great mischief makers. From now on, then, it may be concluded that a decreas- ing number of special papers are likely to be published in gen- eral journals, which will become more and more popular or bibliographic in their nature, with the exception that the neces- sarily slow differentiation of learned societies into special sec- tions will for a long time cause the. proceedings of many of the older to continue of the most miscellaneous character. Where papers are lengthy, though not adapted to publication in book form, such proceedings virtually offer the only means of print- ing them, and, except by the comparatively few botanists who paiet é the privilege of membership in purely botanical societies with publishing facilities, they must be accepted for the present, notwithstanding the attendant disadvantages. Shorter papers, however, can usually find room in the journals, and except in cases where they possess a temporary and exceptional value for the columns of a popular or general journal, or one devoted to another subject to which in some manner they are relevant, they are best published in a periodical exclusively devoted to botany, and, in most cases, in one devoted as closely as may be to their particular branch of botany, provided it have a fair general cir- culation and, especially, provided it reach the principal botanical libraries, Especially in the earlier years of their work, writers are sometimes given to distributing their papers among a number of ea Except for the purpose of specialization just referred » this is usually a mistake. Knowledge that a certain student has published on a given subject is often first obtained through EE 216 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER incidental reference, lacking every element of precision. The probability that all of his writings are to be found in one ora few journals, or series of proceedings, greatly simplifies the com- pletion and use of such references, since the Royal Society's Catalogue, though perhaps more complete as to titles, is neces- sarily even farther behind than the Jahresbericht, Where the subject of an earlier paper is again passed in review by the author, only the gravest necessity should lead to the selection of a new medium for the publication of the later paper. Whether the medium of publication selected or accepted be a journal or the proceedings of a society, the possibility of hav- ing separates struck off for the mere cost of press work, paper, and stitching, makes it possible for almost any paper to appeal as an independent pamphlet, accredited, to be sure, to the journal from which it is an excerpt, but,a book, necessitating author s | citation in catalogues, and admitting of more ready arrangement in its proper place where the works of a library are disposed of the shelves according to subject. The time was when a pafl- phlet was considered of little value and quite certain not to be preserved, but one of the characteristics of the modern wer : is a great and growing appreciation of the value of this class te : works, leading to their careful preservation. | No small part of the volume of M. de Candolle, already a referred to, is devoted to very explicit and well considered a tions for preparing the record of one’s observations ass ‘al press; and the general conclusion is reached, after a ae analysis of the subject, that the maximum value’ of any script exists at the exact moment of its completion, in this as the most suitable time for its publication. Th probable that the publishing of any important work _ the | be unnecessarily delayed after it has been pushed to Whe & 2 inary statement considerably in advance of the co the work. Neglecting the publication of an early often unfinished work as a means of securing priority, os 1896 | BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY 217 purely personal matter, I may say that such abstracts, coupled with a request for material or data, not infrequently bring to the advanced student the means of greatly increasing the complete- ness and value of his work. Time does not permit me to go into a detailed analysis of the many ways in which an investigator may use his time so as to make it productive of important results for himself and others. Having passed in somewhat comprehensive though hasty review the main factors in the question, I desire in closing to repeat that for most of us, opportunity of life does not lie in a great and abrupt change of condition, but that it is composed of count- less minor chances which are great only when viewed collectively. To see and use them calls for alert senses, a knowledge and use of the means of ascertaining what has already been done, and, by exclusion, something of what remains to be done, facilities adequate to the task in each case, and indomitable perseverance and ceaseless activity. Great as the value of facilities is, they are merely means to an end. They accomplish nothing them- selves. Hence though it is certain that the most voluminous and, perhaps, the most comprehensive results, and those result- ing from the performance of coherent experiments extending through a long series of years, will come from the great centers of research, there is no reason why qualitative results equal to the best may not continue to come, as they have in the past, from isolated workers, to the rounding out and completion of whose studies the facilities of the larger institutions will be more and more applicable as the problems of equipment are worked out, Missouri BOTANICAL GARDEN. BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO? BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. Conway MacMitian: On the distribution of plants in a fresh- water insular region— The locality studied was Lake of the Woods, with its thousands of islands, varying in size from mere rocks to areas hundreds of square miles in extent. A general survey of the geological conditions shows that drift is sparingly distributed. According to vegetation the following types ° islands were noted: (1) floating bog islands, (2) Scirpus and Phragmites islands, (3) sand dune_ islands, (4) irregular creviced-rock islands, (5) dome-shaped rock islands, with of without drift sheets. The strand flora was discussed as (1) beach formation and (2) shore formation. In the beach three areas or zones of dis- tribution were defined: (a) front strand, (4) mid strand, (4) back strand. Strand pools with concentric zones of dase were described as a feature of mid strand. Three tyP® = strand vegetation in general were defined: (a) Cornus strand 4 (4) Salix strand, (c) Prunus strand. A discussion of pee ditions under which beach formations arose was given, with — erence to drift distribution and wave action. Beat The shore formations were discussed briefly, attention — ; given to surf plants, such as Scirpus, Phragmites, and pa salicifolia. Gullies crossing a strand or shore, and the em in the distribution of shore plants consequent upo? asc ae ence, were described in outline. It was shown that the islands with rock cones could ie sified either as irregular or as dome shaped. The we : a remarkable zonal distribution of plants due to gradual wards mation and the silting off of the soil ina regular yee *In almost every case the abstracts given have been prepared by ee orssBet 218 e be clas- : | 1896 | BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 219 the periphery of the islands. The following zones were described from periphery to center: (1) shore zone, (2) outer shrub, (3) tree zone, (4) inner shrub, (5) central meadow or central shrub In islands in which the soil formation was recent the zonal dis- tribution was shown to be distinct, but in older soiled islands, where the soil had become thick, it was shown that the central meadow at first becomes a central shrub and, finally, with the addition of further soil layers, a central tree formation is devel- oped. Zonal distribution is still evident in islands with thick soil sheets, for the peripheral tree formation is made up of older individuals than occur at the center of the island. If, however, the rock surface is very irregular, this zonal distribution cannot appear, and the island in such a case is commonly clothed with a pretty uniform coniferous formation. It was shown that after burning off an island zonal distribu- tion will reappear in the new plants established only when the soil is thin; when it is thick the whole island is uniformly ten- anted by light seeded species such as willows, poplars, and epi- lobiums. The two basal forms of islands, the irregular and the dome- shaped, may be considered as combining and forming the var- lously shaped larger islands of the region. All islands can be explained in terms of these. Slope, contour, strike, and bedding of country rock, disposition of talus masses, direction and width of crevices, and formation of gullies, were discussed as influenc- ing the general distribution of the plants, and attention was directed to the influence upon vegetation by proximate islands which modulated the wave action upon a given shore. Zonal distribution on land is quite as evident in these areas as is the zonal distribution in lakes described by Mangin and others. The paper was illustrated by numerous lantern slides. N. L. Brirron: An Eleocharis new to North America.—1n the Alaskan collections of Thomas Howell an Eleocharis was found which proves to be a species hitherto known from Japan. It is remarkable for its very large tubercle, which exceeds the 220 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER achene itself in length and breadth. In this regard it resembles the one or two large tubercled North American species already known, but it belongs to a different section of the genus, and its other American associates show no such character. It was sug- gested that the function of such tubercles (enlarged style bases) may be to give buoyancy to the achene in water. GrorGE F. Atkinson: Some problems in sporophyll transforma- tion among dimorphic ferns—I\n Onoclea sensibilis, the sensitive fern, abnormal spore-bearing leaves are sometimes found. This form is intermediate in character between the fertile and sterile leaves of the normal form of the species, and has been regarded at different periods as a distinct species, a variety, or an abnormal state caused by the contraction of the vegetative leaf. Experimental evidence shows that the form is produced by an unfolding and extension of the young sporophyll before its characters as such are fully determined, and is caused by a com plete or partial loss of the vegetative leaves through injury. Cutting off the vegetative leaves in May and again in June resulted in a large number of these abnormal forms, together with examples of apospory. These results were briefly reported at the Brooklyn meeting of the A. A. A. S. in 1894. The experiments were continued in 1895 on another species of the genus, Onoclea Struthiopteris, with identical results in the transformation of the sporophyll, though no cases of apospory were observed. During the same year experiments were ah oe on Osmunda cinnamomea, but as the fertile leaf has the sporang!@ formed in the autumn, and since they appear along a sterile leaves in early spring, no results were obtained that meenOe. Famine 166 there were a few cases of partial spor” ae ll transformation, but the results were not marked since the injury to the vegetative leaves was introduced while they — very young and long before the incipient development of ess sporophyll of the Succeeding year. In 1896 the vegetal’ caves were cut in July and again in August, and marked rea will be looked for the coming year. 1896 | BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 221 A peculiar transformation sometimes occurs in this same species, which gives rise to the form Osmunda cinnamomea fron- dosa. My attention was first called to this by Mr. C. D, McLouth of Muskegon, Mich., who has furnished me with considerable material. The transformation is peculiar, in that it appears to be an increase in the leaf surface along the mid-vein of the spo- rophyll, and also along the mid-vein of the pinnz, so that the sporangia are borne on wing-like expansions. The locality where these forms were collected gave evidence of a fire, either in the late autumn or early spring, and the forms were very marked and abundant near dead stumps where the fire was the hottest. Since at this season of the year the sporangia are nearly all formed, the nature of the transformation would be different from what it would be if the vegetative leaves were destroyed during midsummer, when the sporophyll was in the incipient stages of development. It is also possible that the heat pene- trated far into the stem of the plant and may have introduced disturbing factors of quite a different nature from that of the loss of the carbon assimilating members, which results when the leaves only are cut away. Experiments at different seasons will be conducted in the hope of arriving at the fundamental laws operating in these ) nates, A large number of lantern slides made from photographs illustrated the paper. yt: Bauer : The philosophy of species making. — This paper will be published in full in an early number of the BoTANICAL Gazerrr. SECTION G OF THE A. A. A. S. CO ee MacDoveat : The relation of the growth of leaves to the 2 of the ar— The leaves of seedlings accomplish a large pro- “apa their development but not always their entire develop- develo oe expense of food derived from the seed. Rapidly food Ping but small leaves furnished with large stores of reserve 8 lags carry out a complete development, but are 222 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER unable to endure continued existence in an atmosphere free from CO,. The slowly developing leaves of many woody perennials develop normally and endure long continued existence under the above circumstances. This varying reaction of leaves is dependent upon a series of conditions which may be included under the title of ‘availability of the food supply.” The death of a leaf in an atmosphere free from CO, is due to insufficient nutrition, and not to the pathological effects of disintegrated chlorophyll. R. N. Day: The forces determining the positions of leaves.— Epinasty and hyponasty are inherent properties of leaves, whose reactions may be suppressed but not altered by external condi- tions. Dorsiventral leaves are diaheliotropic, diageotropic, of apogeotropic, epinastic or hyponastic. The predominating force in every instance is the heliotropic tendency, which sup- pressed other reactions. The position of the leaf isa physiolog- ical, not a mechanical, resultant, and cannot be expressed by the parallelogram of forces as proposed by Krabbe in 1889. N. L. Britron: On Crategus coccinea and its segregates.— The necessity of observing living forms in various stages of growth was pointed out. Typical C. coccinea is known by - cordate leaves, moderately glandular inflorescence, etc. Occur- _ ting with it, and lost sight of, has been C. rotundifolia, with smaller oval or oblong leaves narrowed at base, larger flowers, a densely glandular inflorescence, and a different time of bloom- ing. Other segregates are C. flabellata, a northeastern species, with leaves narrowed at base and more incised; C. macracantha, the species with smallest fruit; and C. mollis. i M. UnpvERwWoop and F. S. EarLeE: The distribution of the Species of Gymnosporangium in the south—This paper appeat> in full in this number of the BoranicaL GAZETTE. L. H. Bairey: Morphology of the Canna flower— The author called attention to the prevailing asymmetry in the Scitamine®, 1896 | BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 223 and remarked that groups of plants which show marked irregu- larities in form are nearly always fertile subjects for plant-breed- ing. The most nearly symmetrical flowers of this order are found in the banana tribe, in which five stamens are present and the sixth is represented by a sterile filament. He exhibited a banana fruit to show its five-angled form, and remarked that it is probable that somewhere in its phylogeny this fruit had lost its symmetry. He also called attention to the three seedless loculi of the fruit,and remarked that although the plant is seedless, it still varies or it is the subject of evolution, thus discrediting Weismann’s hypothesis that all progressive or permanent varia- tion arises through sexual union. In the ginger tribe the stamen is reduced to one normal mem- ber. In the canna tribe the stamen is represented by what is apparently but a single loculus of the anther, the other loculus being apparently developed into a foliaceous organ. The remain- ing stamens are represented by petal-like staminodia and these members make up the showy part of the flower. The speaker exhibited specimens of canna flowers, and also charts, to show the very marked evolution in the form and size of the flower, and more especially of the staminodia, and the gradual increase in the size of the petal-like appendage of the one fertile stamen. There seems to be a considerable decrease in seed production in the modern cannas as compared with the types of a generation and more ago, and this decrease is probably associated with less ae less efficient pollen, in the modern flowers. This tend- vies ‘ae seedlessness is seen in many cultivated plants, of mostly tiga is a good example. Since new varieties come breeding on ites Na ae ae ae Saga : eventually cease in these plants ; but ths ss < “ane at the constant choice of seeds for sowing is 1tse agent in conserving the seed-producing power of the lant a % long as we select seeds, so long may we expect the ee elect i eds i t of the individ selection to give seeds in at least a par uals of every generation. 224 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER E. L. Mosety: A comparison of the flora of Erie county, Ohio, with that of Erie county, N. Y.—Both districts are adjacent to Lake Erie, but the Ohio district (including Erie county and the peninsula and islands of Ottawa county) contains 265 native species of phanerogams not known to occur within fifty miles of Buffalo. The cause is mainly climatic. The average date of the last killing frost in spring at Sandusky is April 30, at Buffalo it is May 20; the first killing frost in autumn at Buffalo is Sep- tember 15; at Sandusky it is October 24; and the summer is decidedly cooler at Buffalo. Reasons for the difference in cli- mate were given, including the blowing of the ice to the east end of the lake in spring and other considerations. Cuartes E. Bessey: The significance of the compound ovary.— In the study of the gyncecium of angiosperms we are forced to conclude that its primitive condition was apocarpous ; in other words, that whether monocarpic or polycarpic there was at least no union of ovary with ovary. The original ovary was doubtless simple. Bya comparative study of the ovaries of existing plants we are led to the conclusion that the syncarpous gynoecium was derived from the apocarpous gyncecium. This is so plain that tt is needless to dwell upon it. Both phylogenesis and ontogene- sis furnish us with numerous illustrations of the truth of this statement. It is to be observed that the compound ovary is a compata- tively stable structure, and that it changes slowly within any natural group, or in passing from group to group. No part ob plant is more stable, yet with all its stability it undergoes changes in certain directions. It is a common occurrence to find ee tacarpellary ovary reduced to four, three, or two carpels, and o may proceed until, as in some of the Caryophyllacee, we seem to have but one carpel remaining. In rare cases there appeats sg be a reversion from Syncarpy towards apocarpy, as in the Apo- cynacee and Asclepiadacez, but as a rule it may be said that syncarpy once attained by a group is persistently maintained, however much of simplification it may otherwise have undergone. 1896 | BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 225 The ultimate development of the compound ovary is in the direction of a simplification of structure. Thus the many carpels of most Thalamiflore and Heteromere are gradually reduced to the two carpels of the Bicarpellate. In the Calyciflore the Rosales and Myrtales have generally several to many carpels, while in the Umbellales there are but two. Likewise in Infere the ovary in the lower group, Rubiales, has more carpels than we findin the highest group, Asterales. A similar simplifica- tion occurs in the monocotyledons, as we pass from the Coro- nariee to the sedges and grasses. This simplification of struc- ture results in increased paternal care of the offspring. Thus while many embryos are to be nourished in the earlier cases, there are but one or two in the later. The biological signifi- cance of this result is so well known as to need no discussion ere, When we come to an application of what we know of the compound ovary to systematic botany, it appears to me that the following conclusions are warranted : (az) the apocarpous plants are to be regarded as lower than those which are syncarpous, and ina natural arrangement the former must precede the lat- cae. (2) we must carefully distinguish between ovaries which are primitively simple, and those which have become simplified from a more complex structure, in which cases the first indicate a lower, and the second a higher position in the natural system ; (¢) grasses, sedges, etc., in which the ovaries are simplified ite oo type, are not the lowest of the seme 7 Supls “) willows, oaks, walnuts, etc., with their aise cad ower structure, are not to be regarded as among the of the dicotyledons. pa HL. Russet: On the bacterial flora of cheddar cheese.— The c ae Presented a quantitative delimitation of the bacteria in oo from the time it is first made until it has been three - ly brokendown. The botanical changes are divided into (2) “8es, as follows: (1) period of initial bacterial decliss “/ Petiod of bacterial increase, (3) period of final decline. As 226 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ SEPTEMBER to changes in different species it is found that the lactic acid bacteria develop to an overwhelming degree while the gas bac- teria and the peptonizing germs are gradually destroyed. CuarLes R. Barnes: Terminology of reproduction and reproduc- tive organs.—Two points were discussed, which are not directly related : , (1) The distinction between vegetative and non-sexual repro- duction. The reproduction of the earliest plants was undoubtedly vegetative reproduction. Non-sexual reproduction is not fairly differentiated from it until the Bryophyta are reached, and with them a clear alternation of generations. In Bryophyta, Pterido- phyta, and Spermatophyta, the forms of vegetative reproduction, viz., by brood buds or gemme, by detached shoots, and by pro- liferation (with detachment late when it occurs at all) are clearly distinguishable from the non-sexual form, viz., by spores pro- duced ina compound sporangium. The fundamental distinction lies in this, that vegetative reproduction repeats the same phase, while non-sexual reproductiongzves rise to thé alternate phase. (2) The classification of sporangia and gametangia into si™m- ple and compound was suggested. The simple gametangium of Sporangium is one consisting of a single cell whose contents become respectively the gametes or the spores. The compound gametangium or Sporangium is an aggregate of several or many (rarely reduced to one) simple gametangia or sporangia Sut rounded by one or more layers of sterile protective cells. Oogonia and carpogonia are simple gametangia, archegonia are compound gametangia. Simple sporangia occur below Bryo- phyta ; compound in Bryophyta and above. BertHa Stoneman: A comparative study of the development of some anthracnoses in artificial cultures. — Different species of Glao- sporium and Colletotrichum, and the allied genera Vermiculari@ and Volutella, present in artificial cultures distinct characters varying to a certain extent with varying conditions of light temperature, and nutrient media. Under uniform conditions of 1896] BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 227 growth the characters have been found sufficiently constant to be of value in distinguishing or uniting species whose similarity in morphological structure or variations resulting from the character of the host would render their systematic position uncertain. Of about thirty species studied, five Colletotrichums and two Glceo- sporiums have been definitely connected with an ascigerous form, the transition from one stage to the other occurring without the intervention of a pycnidial stage. The ascigerous stages of each, two of which have been found as saprophytes in nature, bear a close resemblance to each other and would fall ina genus near Gnomoniella. W. W. RowtEE: The development of the vascular elements in the primary root of Indian corn.—In many text-books the large cells in the central portion of the root-tip are described as the rows of cells from which the vessels are developed. Investigations prove that these larger cells pass over into parenchyma and that the protoxylem is differentiated from cells radially Opposite and nearer the surface than these. Joun M. Courter: Some remarks on chalazogamy.—The use of chalazogamy as a basis of classification was first discussed, rea- oe against such use being the unnatural associations and sep- “rations, the use of a single character for important groupings, the fact that chalazogamy has to do not with a differentiated °rgan but with a process. The use of chalazogamy as an indica- aes phy: logeny, as suggested by Nawaschin, was also dis- “ussed, the view that it is an intermediate stage in the adaptation ‘ , . . . * 8ymnosperm-trained pollen-tube to the traversing of angio- a... being objected to. It was shown that the neces- 1 y of « se adaptation to cavities” was by no means so great a ing a 4 “upposed, and that chalazogamy is more suggestive © Oho °ccasional modification of porogamy than an enemas Speaker a a regard to the significance of chalazogamy t : intelec. aimed that it is purely physiological, and does no Hy Such change in structure as will define a natural group 228 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER or indicate a line of descent. The route of the pollen-tube is dependent upon mechanical obstruction, nutritive material, pos- sibly chemiotaxis, and this route may or may not include the micropyle, quite independent of plant affinities. Illustrations were given showing that chalazogamy is favored by a closed micropyle region, and by unfavorable position of the micropyle associated with favorable structure of the ovule, such as well- developed sterile macrospores. L.M. UnpERwoop: The habitats of the rarer ferns of Alabama.— The state of Alabama is especially interesting to the students of the pteridophytes (1) from the fact that it represents the south- ern limit of a number of species of the Appalachian district which follow the spurs of the mountains well into the interior of the state, and on the other hand the northern limit of several of our subtropical species; (2) because of the remarkable Zricho- manes Petersii found only within its borders; and (3) because it contains the only station where the rare Asplenium ebenoides has been found in any quantity. The state has a comparatively large pteridophyte flora, including some forty species of ferns besides at least five species of Ophioglossacez, having been well explored by Judge Peters, Professor E. A. Smith, and Dr. Charles Mohr. We have been able to add one species (Dryopteris Flon- dana) to the list, and to rehabilitate one of the early species of Botrychium, B. dipinnata (Lam.), which is clearly distinct from B. ternatum, with which it has been confused for many yeal® largely because of the deficiency of collectors through the southern country, A visit to the original station of Zrichomanes Peterstt has gi _ Some new points in regard to its habit and habitat. Likewise ® visit to the out-of-the-way ravine in Hale county has enabled “ to show the absurdity of regarding the rare Asplenium eb : = 8 hybrid. This species, far from possessing the habit of either of its supposed parents, is entirely distinct, and is more closely allied in its habit to its congeners, A. pinnatifidum and A. oe Atle evidently a very old species, of which the pre ven 1896 | BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 229 ent station doubtless contains the largest remnant of its former wide distribution. FRANCIS RAMALEY: On the stem anatomy of certain Onagrace@.— Seven genera of the disintegrated genus CEnothera, represented by thirteen species, were examined, with the following conclu- sions. There seem to be no marked anatomical characters of the stem which can be set down as belonging to one species and tono other. Plants of the same species growing under different conditions may present as great differences as are to be noted between species of comparatively remote genera. Slight differ- ences in the thickness of the various zones of tissue are evident, as are also variations in the size of the constituent elements in some of the tissues. The following generalizations may be drawn : (1) there is a striking similarity in stem structures throughout all the genera examined, and stem anatomy will not Serve to distinguish one genus from another; (2) the cortex . absent from old stems, being replaced by cork of characteris- he structure; (3) the normal phloem is in all cases poorly developed ; (4) bicollateral vascular bundles occur in all the species examined ; (5) intra-xylar phloem islands are found in the stems of all the robust species; (6) raphides of calcium Oxalate are Present in all cases, generally occurring in both cor- tex and pith, often in the pericycle and phloem. Cuartes E. Bessey: Zhe point of divergence of monocotyledons Bi dicotyledons.— In discussing this question I assume that it is ey to bring forward proofs as to the common origin of = = subclasses, Monocotyledone and Dicotyledone. It is Ca Ae in my opinion improbable, that some plants are ®W included in them which have had an independent origin, ” a will agree that after making the most liberal subtractions es Ee awe subclasses must still remain as two very closely them ie with essentially the characters now —— to that s € must bear in mind the well-known biological ie oe esneral, the relationship of allied groups is most mar e fen their lower members, that is, between those members 230 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER which represent the primitive types, and that it is less marked between the higher members of the groups. In other words, we recognize the fact that groups diverge as they are evolved. If we represent the phylogenesis of plants by lines, we are com- pelled to arrange these lines so that they show repeated series of divergencies. Another law which must be kept in mind, also, is that evolu- tion for the most part has proceeded from the simple to the complex. The simpler plants of today represent to a large extent the types of the primitive plants of former periods, from which the complex plants of today were derived. In this con- nection, however, we must not overlook the fact, as pointed out elsewhere,’ that in the evolution of the successive members of groups of plants there has often been a simplification of structure. Thus we often find apetalous derivatives from polypetalous types; bicarpellary ovaries from polycarpellary types ; one-celled, one- seeded compound ovaries from several-celled, many-seeded ovaries. But there is a great difference between these simplified structures which have been derived from more complex struc: tures, and those which are primitively simple. The former are nearer the end of a lengthened genetic line, the latter are nearet its beginning. When we apply these principles to the system of Bentham and Hooker we find no contact points whatever between mon ocotyledons and dicotyledons. The lower monocotyledons are very unlike any of the Apetale. What similarity, for example is there between the grasses and sedges, on the one hand, an the oaks, walnuts, and plane trees, on the other. It is only whee aa pass up to the Apocarpe in the monocotyledons and to the Micrembrye, and possibly Piperaceee of the latter, that there are many similarities of structure. To this I must refer later and need only Say here that evidently the authors made n° attempt to indicate by their arrangement of families any contact point between the monocotyledons and dicotyledons. * Evolution and Classification. Proc. A. A. A. S. 42:237. 1894, and The signif- cance of the compound Ovary, presented at this meeting. 1896 | BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 231 In the system of Engler and Prantl one might look for such a disposition of the families of the two subclasses as to indicate a common point of origin, but in this we are disappointed When we compare the structure of the families placed at the beginning of the monocotyledons, Typhacez, Pandanacee, Spar- ganiacee, Potamogetonacee, Naiadacee, Aponogetonacee, Alismacee, etc., with those occupying a similar place in the dicotyledons, Saururacee, Piperacez, Chloranthacee, Lacistem- acex, Juglandacee, Myricacee, Leitneriacez, Salicacee, etc., it is at once evident that here there is a great gulf between the two subclasses. It is becoming more and more evident that this system which promised so much is little better as an expression of genetic relationship than the system of Bentham and Hooker, which it is now displacing. Its so-called lower families are for = most part composed of plants not with a simple, that is, a primitive structure, but a simplified structure. As a rational ot designed to express our ideas of genetic relationship, it Is sadly disappointing. It is evident that we must cease to confuse the simplified eee Primitively simple structures, and that in the latter alone can we find the point of divergence of the plants of the ‘wo subclasses under consideration. It is only when we do this ome be ee able to construct a system which shall suggest to ae sim j — of the problem. Our system must begin with Se ele not compound pistils; with really simple and not es oe It matters little whether the flowers are per- even ee ; Whether they have many or few flower-leaves or and that ee all. We have learned that these are minor mIBEEES Ys uae Change very eeauny even within narrow limits. the apocar ce with these principles we may readily sas upon carpe) as us monocotyledons (Bentham and Hooker’s ee Subclass. i. of the primitive members of this the thielainifieis 5 Mucture will readily suggest the Ranales among Temarkable ae) dons, and a closer examination shows a but also in se mrity. oF structure, in not only the reproductive € vegetative organs of the plants of these two 232 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER groups. After some years of study given to a comparison oF ) these groups I am more firmly convinced than ever of their” genetic relationship. They show their relationship in their gross anatomy, the histology of their tissues, and their embryology. Allied to the Ranales are the Rosales, beginning with the Ranunculus-like Potentillee, and passing by easy steps to the simpler Leguminose (Czsalpiniacee and Mimosacez), on the one hand, and the Saxifragaceze on the other, and through the latter to Celastrales and Myrtales. Here, then, in my opinion, is the point of divergence of the monocotyledons and dicotyledons, represented by the Apocarpe of the former, and the Ranales and Rosales of the latter. The similarities in struc- ture between some Microsperme and the Naiadacee in Bentham and Hooker’s system, noticed above, as between some of the families (Naiadacee, Alismacez, Chloranthacez, etc.) placed by Engler and Prantl at the beginning of the two subclasses, are hints as to a natural arrangement which it is strange that these eminent systematists overlooked. L. M. Unperwoop and F. S. Earte: Notes on the pine inhab- iting species of Peridermium.—The paper gave an enumeration of the species known to inhabit the various species of Pinus in the United States, with their distribution by hosts, and their geo- graphical distribution. All the species are foliicolous except ?. cerebrum Pk., which forms large distortions on the stems, trunks, and branches of its hosts. Remarks were made in reference the various forms of these distortions, especially those produced in the south on Pinus Teda and P. echinata. The species being perennial, the necessity of an alternate stage for the parasite | obviated. D. T. MacDouca.: Reaction of leaves to continuous rainfall.— The first recognition of the influence of rainfall upon leaf forms ves that given by Ridley in his Flora of Pajang, and an extel- Sive exploitation of the subject was made by Stahl in 1893- Since the publication of Stahl’s work, Jungner has carried on @ 1896] BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 233 great amount of observational work of doubtful value, and has made some attempts to produce rainfall characters in leaves experimentally. The hitherto recognized rainfall characters are as follows: attenuated apices, entire margins, a glossy appear- ance of the upper surface, ready adhesion of water to the upper surface, deepened furrows above the ribs, pendent positions of the lamin, and enlargement of the pulvini. It is to be noted, of course, that in no one species do all of the above characters appear, and Jungner has been able to induce only the glossy appearance, adhesion of the upper surface to water, and the pen- dent position of the lamina in a few of the many species tested. During the past year I have carried out such a series of experiments with Arisema triphyllum, Trillium erectum, and 7. recurvatum. In the trilliums the pendent positions of the lamine, the glossy appearance of the upper surface, and a reduction of the marginal teeth were obtained. In Arisema, the glossy appearance, adhesion to water of the upper surface, a marked reduction of the truncate marginal teeth, and a deepening of the pasos above the ribs were obtained, and, in addition, the lamin of ‘this species assumed an upwardly convex form after €xposure to rainfall continuously for twelve days. This must be considered as a new rainfall character, and is not to be iden- wes with the rolling and twisting of leaves grown in a spray of cold water. In an attempt to distinguish the characters to which the glossy surface was due, it was found that in the normal leaf the external ends presented an outwardly papillose extension, . velvety appearance. In the rainfall leaves the outer wall upper aii wees distinctly flattened. The smoothness of the Water, th a8 = doubtless the principal factor in its adhesion to the eat it is entirely possible that chemical alterations in follows : c pave eeraee. The results may be summarized as the upward Les determination of a new rainfall Eee Margins - eel of the lamina; (2) alterations in eA may be in Sou ey. that the rainfall characters whic the individual: oe mentally are not identical, but rest upon ity of the species. 234 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ SEPTEMBER Mary A. NicHois: Studies in the development of the ascospores in certain Pyrenomycetes.—The paper contained an account of the early stages in the development of the ascigerous fruit in certain spheriaceous Pyrenomycetes. The observations relate specially to the question of sexuality, and point to the conclusion that a sexual process may be present in some member of the family and absent or very degenerate in others. Thus, in Ceratostoma brevirostre the origin of the ascospore is distinctly traceable toa _ fusion of differentiated gametes, while in Teichospora only pos- sible rudiments of antheridia are present. The successive stages from the formation of the oosphere to the maturation of the ascospore reveal a process of development somewhat different from any heretofore suggested, but analogous to the development in Sphzrotheca, as observed by Harper, and also somewhat sim- ilar to that in the Floridez. W. W. RowLeE: The stigma and pollen of Arisema—The paper described the andrcecium and gyncecium of Ansama triphyllum and A. Dracontium. The peculiarities noted were the consolidation of the stamens, the open style with the stigmatic papilla not only on the surface of the stigma but also on the inner surface of the tube and forming a stigma-like tuft on the inner surface of the ovary. The pollen in one case was found to have already germinated within the anthers, and the tubes had folded back and forth upon themselves. Other cases examined did not show the same growth. N. L. Brirron: Mores on the genus Amelanchier.— Among the eastern forms, 4. Canadensis can be distinguished easily from the rest, and is Appalachian and Canadian in distribution A. Canadensis obovalis belongs to the coast and Great Lakes) A. spicata is a very low mountain species; and A. rotund extends from Maine to the Saskatchewan. Among the eheaha : forms, A, alnifolia is reported from northern Michigan, but 1s occurrence so far east is doubtful, its eastern limit being pee from Nebraska to Manitoba; A. Utahensis ranges from Utah to 1896 | BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 235 Arizona; A. florida occurs in Oregon and Washington; and 4. Pringlet in Mexico. Arex. P. ANDERSON: On the formation and distribution of abnormal resin ducts in conifers ——By some extended work on the occurrence of normal and abnormal resin ducts in conifers the author found: (1) annual rings of Pinus silvestris and Picea excelsa containing frost rings have in cross sections fewer vertical resin ducts per square millimeter than the normal rings; (2) regulatory tissue in hyponastic branches of Pinus silvestris has in cross sections fewer resin ducts per square millimeter than the opposite side of the branch; (3) in Adies pectinata affected with £cidium elatinum, (a) the resin ducts in the diseased bud-scales are more irregular in their form and contain fewer epithelium cells than the normal, (4) the fungus mycelium is never found in the resin duct canals, nor in the epithelium layer of cells surrounding the canals, (c) abnormal resin ducts are always found in the wood of the thickened portion of the diseased branch ; (4) in Pinus Strobus diseased at the roots with Agaricus melleus Vahl, an increase in the number of resin ducts of the wood takes place in the whole plant above the diseased part ; (5) in the wood of branches of Abies pectinata diseased with Phoma abietina Hartig abnormal resin ducts are found only above the constricted portion of the branch; (6) the same phenomenon ie mentioned occurs when young seedlings of Adzes pectinata © diseased with Pestalozzia Hartigii Tub. a Pag A. SmitH : The development of the cystocarp of Griffith- B ornetiana.— Published in full in the July number of the OTANICAL GazeTre, ee UNDERWoop : Notes on the allies of the sessile Ti rillium.— this fain i Trillium have been confused apparently under as specie nun Linneus included under this name at least b 8 which had been well figured before his day, the one Y Plukenet and the other by Mark Catesby. One of these 236 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER species, which is very distinct from the ordinary 7. sessile in the states bordering the Ohio river, has been collected and studied in central Alabama during the past spring. It is a robust species with highly variegated leaves of at least three striking and dis- tinct shades, and is well worthy of cultivation for its rich, velvety foliage, to say nothing of its large and rather handsome red flower. The species seems to have remained since Catesby’s time without a name other than the polynomial he gave it. Other southern and southwestern species, as well as an equally remark- able series of species from the Pacific coast, have been uncere- moniously and unnaturally combined under this name by Ameti- can botanists, or barely separated as varieties or “forms.” A revision of the group is badly needed. Attention was also called to a series of forms representing the earlier stages of the plant, and the study of post-embryonic stages was urged asa means of determining relationships. te Porann:. On an apparently undescribed Cassia from Mississippi. — A remarkable Cassia, allied to C. Chameecrista, but distinguishable by its virgate habit and strict pods, collected northern Mississippi by Professor S. M. Tracy, proved, upon cul: tivation, to warrant its separation as a distinct species, to which the author proposes to give the name of the discoverer. B.M. Duccar: A bacterial disease of the squash-bug (Anasa tristis) — Some squash-bugs kept for experimental purposes vey found to be dying in considerable numbers, in an apparently healthful environment. The disease was readily passed 0” es other bugs. The distressed insects became sluggish, and ver weak, and finally died, the body becoming a mass of gruel-like fluid. Cultures were made from dead insects upon , various nutrient media, agar-agar, bouillon, gelatin, milk, etc., side. colonies of a bacillus. Inoculation of this bacillus produced the disease in healthy bugs. Infusions of different cultures sees found to have characteristic toxic properties. Bugs placed e these infusions died with every symptom of distress. Prepare 1896] BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 237 tions of the blood of diseased insects showed a short bacillus, single or in pairs. The tissues of the insects break down under the growth of these organisms, which probably enter insects through the spiracles. C.R. Barnes: What is bark ?— The varying use of this term suggests a consideration of how it should be used by American botanists. Borke and Rinde have been used by German botanists to denote respectively the external tissues of the root or stem which dry up, and the entire mass of tissues outside the cambium. In this usage, which has been tolerably consistent, they have been followed by the English. American popular usage, and scientific usage except as modified by foreign influence, assigns the name dark to the Rinde of the Germans. But Borke has been translated dark, while Rinde is translated cortex in the English -€ditions of various German text-books. The author advocates the use of dark to designate the whole mass of tissue outside the cambium, while cortex, with suitable qualification, is used to designate certain parts of the bark. In this usage Americans are sustained by French botanists. Joun M. Courter: Structures of the embryo-sac. — Attention was called to recent observations which showed a certain amount * tity in these apparently constant structures. These observations were supplemented by studies in Salix and the Com- ea The results were summed up in the form of definitions of a regions as follows: (1) the egg-apparatus one or tw ee ae three usually naked cells, the oosphere an Peis, oT together representing a single archegonium, By bd e synergids may represent canal cells ; (2) the pri- (the ny fe cell “a formed by the fusion of two vegetative cells usion . Is), which process holds no relation to a sexual continue th a suarulated normally by the act of fertilization to the adjace fo Needs development of the gametophyte, Just as Seed and nt sporophyte structures are stimulated xe develop fruit ; (3) the antipodal cells are variable in number 238 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER (two to seventeen observed), evanescent or persistent, repre- senting the vegetative region of the gametophyte not dependent upon fertilization for its development. Embryos have been observed to develop both from synergids and in the antipodal region, and such may be regarded as aris- ing through apogamy. N. L. Britton: Some Cyperacee new to North America, with remarks on other species—Cyperus cylindrostachyus, of the Old World tropics, has been introduced into the southern states, and is C. cylindraceus Chapman; C. ¢thyrsiflorus, a Mexican type, extends into southern California ; the Asiatic C. pumilus has been found introduced into Florida and Alabama. As waifs may be mentioned the Asiatic C. congestus, found at Painesville, Ohio; C. glaber, of southern Europe, found in Massachusetts; and G. comosus, of Greece and the Levant, found on ore heaps at South Bethlehem, Penn. The Cuban Scirpus camptotrichus has been found by Dr. Mohr as a native plant near Mobile. The author has also satisfied himself that the African C. aristatus is not the American plant so often bearing that name, and that the latter should retain its old name C. in CXUS. | L. H. PaMMEL: Grasses of lowa.—The paper contained & description of the topography of the state, and presented a ai of the grasses. The grass flora is not diversified, containing fewer species than are to be found in any adjacent state. Among the species are noted twenty-nine species as from the north, forty-six from the south, eleven from the west, thirteen extt® continental, and fifty-five introduced. W. A. KELLERMAN: Ceres-pulver: Jensen’s new fungicide uss oa treatment of smut.—In 1890 Kellerman and Swingle per: lished an account of successful experiments with potassium de fid (liver of sulfur) as a preventive of smut of wheat and oats: This, according to J. L. Jensen, was the starting-point ( Aus- Sangspunkt) for his Ceres-pulver. The exact composition of the 1896 | BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 239 fungicide is not given but it consists mainly of potassium sulfid. Other important ingredients are, according to Jensen, also added. He manufactures the ingredients and they are doubtless of purity superior to those usually kept in drug stores, and probably not too expensive, considering the quality. The method of application is wholly different from that employed by myself and Mr. Swingle. 1 can, after trial, highly recommend it. A solution is made by dissolving 2 ibs. in 125 liters of water. This is intended for 1000 tbs. of seed. It is poured on the seed grain by means of an ordinary watering can, the mass at the same time being shoveled over and over ona tight floor, so that the solution may come in contact with every grain. The stirring of the heap of grain is repeated twice daily, the sowing to be done four or five days after the treatment. The heating will not be detrimental if the mass of grain is not more than six or eight inches deep. The initial stages of germination, which will be entered upon, are claimed to be of decided advantage. My own experiments with this fungicide, though not yet completed, show that it is remarkably efficient and that it justifies the claims made for it by the originator. y L. Brirron: Ox the cardamines of the C. hirsuta group.— pte wes distinguished from related species and regarded as Probably a native of eastern North America, and not necessarily ay, ne C.P ennsylvanica Muhl., the most common form, rower th ay species, with elongated leaf segments, pods nar- = in the type, and is a bog and marsh plant. C. parvi- age 2 eros Bpecies of the mountains, and extending west to and 3j oo It is a slender form with narrow leaf segments, leafy hy uci C. flexuosa, a mountain species, 1S broadly a leaf segments, and pedicels shorter than in C. em and pods two to three times as broad. = C. arenicola mi a = oe sand plains, from southern New England to rigid] bia, and from the Gulf states to Texas. It Is ¥ ¢rect, with narrow leaf segments and strictly erect pods. , 240 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER Joun K. Smati: The relation between the genera Thysanella and Polygonella as shown by a hitherto unobserved character— Thysanella fimbriata, the only representative of the genus, has persistently and apparently without reason been referred to the genus Polygonum. Its habit and morphology does not suggest Polygonum at all but strongly resembles that of Polygonella. The floral structure in Thysanella approaches more closely the con- ditions we find in Polygonella than anything known to exist in the genus Polygonum. Another character possessed by both the genera in question, and one never mentioned in this connection, is the internodal branching. In all other members of Polygonacee the branches arise from the nodes; in Thysanella and Polygonella the branch or branchlet, as the case may be, is united to its primary axl often to beyond the middle of the internode. Joun K Smart: An apparently undescribed species of Prunus from Connecticut—This species is related to Prunus maritima and occurs in the immediate neighborhood and under precisely the same conditions. It is lower than the beach plum, more slender and delicate in habit, maturing its fruit earlier and losing its leaves earlier in the fall. The following difference from P. maritima may be noted: (1) the leaf is orbicular instead of elliptic or oblong; (2) the flowers are smaller with shorter and broader calyx-segments; (3) the drupe is smaller, always globose, ‘and short pediceled; (4) the stone is smaller and more turgid (nearly as thick as broad) and pointed only at the base, while that of the common beach plum is flattenet. more elongated, and pointed at both ends. Joun K. Smart: The flora of the summits of King’s and Crowder’s mountain, N. C—The following phenom be noted: (1) the rare fern Asplenium Bradleyi is very on the slopes and extends to the higher points ; (2) n° te large forest trees appear as small shrubs although the altitet | not great, and in this extremely stunted state produce abunda ena may common normally mountain —— : | | . | : 1896] BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 241 fruit ; (3) the vegetation is shrubby with the exception of two perennial herbs, a fern and a sedge; (4) the occurrence of Quercus nana in the summits extends the geographic range of that species several hundred miles in an unexpected direction ; (5) almost one-half of the shrubby plants on King’s mountain are ericaceous, and the range of one, Rhododendron Catawhiense, is extended far to the east and in addition the station is at a much lower altitude than any at which the species has hitherto been known to occur ; (6) although the summit of King’s mountain is much smaller and some feet higher than that of Crowder’s mountain it harbors six more species, chiefly shrubby. Davip F, Day: Parthenogenesis in Thalictrum Fendleri.—In 1883 a seedling of 7. Fendleri was sent home from Colorado for cultivation. In late May it flowered and:proved to be pistillate. About the last of August it presented abundant and good seed, although no staminate plants of any species of Thalictrum were in the neighborhood. The seeds were planted and yielded abundantly staminate and pistillate plants. Staminate plants have been artificially prevented from maturing flowers almost “very year since, At least eight times in the thirteen years the pistillate plants have produced good seed in abundance. Plants were sent to Meehan, Missouri Botanical Garden, and Orpet of S. Lancaster, Mass., and all report in 1896 perfect seed from pistillate plants. This seems to be a clear case of parthen- genesis. 7. dioicum does not show a similar habit. Etias J. Durann: A discussion of the order Pesizinee of Schr vter.—A brief historical sketch giving the views of the prin- “Ipal systematists in regard to the classification of these plants, “specially that of Schrater in his Kryptogamen Flora von Schlesten. eas visgmed of the paper deals with the most recent views and summary of investigations on the subject by the writer. . M. Tracy: What should constitute a type specimen?—The pee called attention to the confusion existing in the use of 242 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER such terms as “‘duplicate of type,” ‘‘co-type,” ‘type locality,” etc., and suggested that some action be taken looking towards an agreement as to what should constitute a type specimen. F.C. NewcomsBe: Kheotropism and the relation of response to stimulus.—It has been shown by Strasburger and Stahl that plasmodia of Myxomycetes grow against a gentle stream of water. Jonsson found three fungi and the roots of three phanerogams that also grew either against or with a stream of water. For this phenomenon Jonsson proposed the term rheotropism. As the work was left by Jonsson there was no indi- cation of the extent of rheotropism among phanerogams, nor was it determined whether there were any negatively rheotropic, nor whether there were any indifferent roots, since the three species cited by this author were positively rheotropic. The work which is reported in this paper has shown that among seventeen species of monocotyledons and dicotyledons studied eight are positively rheotropic and nine are indifferent or neutral. None have been found to be negatively rheotropl Only seedlings were used. The phenomena of rheotropism in roots are these. When seedlings are suspended with their roots dipping into water flowing with a favorable velocity, the roots, if positively he tropic, will bend their tips, in the course of a few to seve hours, directly or obliquely against the stream. Since the rool grow against the mechanical pressure of the stream and display a latent period and an after-effect, rheotropism is assumed to be a response to irritability. The stimulus for this respoms® . can do no better at present than to call the flowing wate There may be some unwillingness to regard this as the a“ stimulus, seeing that the response to such a stimulus is difficu’ to interpret as being to the advantage of the plant. brings up the general question of the relation of respo” stimulus. It is quite certain that there is a chain of causal mecha between stimulus and the response which the stimulus set se to nism™ s in 1896 | BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 243 motion. This mechanism has been developed by the reaction of the plant organ toward its environment. But it is almost certain that the mechanism may be started by other stimuli than those to which it has developed a special correspondence. If this be true we may look for responses in plants and animals that are not to their particular advantage. However this may be, the investigator is interested in all irritable responses, use- ful to the plant or not useful, for it is only by studying all phe- homena that we may go a step farther toward solving the intri- cate problems of irritability. HERMANN VON SCHRENK: Some adaptations of shore plants to respiration — The paper treats about equally the following topics: (2) the different shore plants, classified according to proxim- ty to water (aquatic plants are not considered); (2) the neces- sity of modified structure to meet new conditions; (¢) the modifications thus caused in the form of water lenticels and the peculiar tissue, aerenchyma; (d@) inconstant occurrences of the latter on many plants and reasons therefor; (¢) discussions as to what the meaning of this power of adaptation in certain plants may be. D.T. MacDoucar: The mechanism of curvature in tendrils— The curvatures of tendrils in response to contact stimuli are due : nots of the concave side. The coiling of free por- ons of tendrils is due to excessive growth of the convex side ee cc processes are entirely independent, and the second Y be influenced to a minor extent only by the first. — B. Copetanp: A contribution to our knowledge of the of the thee growth and turgor.—The paper gives an account hia. of turgor of seedlings of Vicia Faba, grown at very ent — presented by means ofatable. High turgor 1s pres- Stowth is slow and vice versa. The turgor of Lupinus Hormal, etiolated, and deprived of CO,g, is discussed. Pre- Venti ‘ ; ‘on of growth is accompanied in this plant also by high 244 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER turgor and vice versa. The conclusion drawn is that the rapidity of growth regulated the amount of turgor, instead of growth being regulated by amount of turgor. BOTANICAL CLUB. W. A. KELLERMAN: Distribution of certain Ohio plants.— With the aid of a map, attention was called to the distribution of Phoradendron flavescens through the southern counties, the northern limit broadly coinciding with the southern limit of ‘the drift; of Bignonia crucigera, occurring only in Lawrence county, the southernmost county of the state; and of Polypodium polyp diotdes, occurring in two Ohio river counties, Adams and Ham- ilton. L. R. Jones: A method of atstributing fungi in pure cultures. — When leaves contain numerous fungi the distribution of dried material frequently leads to confusion. Cultures of the desired fungus are made in agar and sent in blocks with the dried material. Mrs. E. G. Britton: An interesting moss from the White mountains—In a recent collection of mosses made by Mr. Faxon in the White mountains there occurred specimens of Letraplodon mnioides. The moss is known in small tufts on other mountains, but occurs abundantly in the new station. Its abut dance seems to be explained by the presence of the mountal? stables, from which the dripping urine of the horses has fur- nished peculiarly favorable nutrition. Davin F. Day: The branching rhizomes of Iris.— Nee native species of Iris in cultivation had been observed, and i every case the rhizomes branched terminally into three a sions, the central one alone giving rise to the flowering ne This habit is believed to be true of all American species of Iris, and of all species excepting the so-called bulbous forms: are pre 3 es formal papers are read before the Club, but the topics reported sented informally and discussed. 1896 | BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 245 C. E. Bessey: Distribution of Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi in Nebraska—The state was described as an almost treeless slop- ing plain, rising from the Missouri river at an elevation of 1000 feet to 5000 feet at the western boundary. Near the center of the state the bearberry was found a few years ago ina small cafion, and recently at a second station in a gorge of the bluffs of the Republican river at the southern boundary of the state These two isolated patches are widely separated from the pres- ent mass distribution of the species to the north and west. They are also noteworthy from the fact that ericaceous plants are notoriously absent from the whole region. F. C. Newcompe: An improvement in a paraffin bath— Shrinkage of protoplasm when imbedding plant tissues often occurs when they are transferred from the cold saturated par- affin solution to pure warm paraffin. To enable one to make this increase in temperature gradual some device must ke adopted to allow the imbedding dish to be lowered gradually into the bath. A brass spring bearing against the side of the pocket which receives the dish was suggested. _ W.W. RowLeE: Notes on oaks.—Specimens of oaks grow- ing in the vicinity of Ithaca, N. Y., were displayed, showing (1) the habit of branching at the end of each annual growth, giving the characteristic appearance of rigidity; (2) a case of second shoot development during the present season, the winter bud having formed in June, and subsequently having developed its Shoot ; and (3) a remarkable case of leaf variation upona single Fanch, giving the tree the appearance of bearing a branch of some other species. es Bessey: Distribution of Pinus ponderosa in Nebree © “stribution of this pine in Nebraska has been given usually oe in see regions: along the northern border of = west wn the Niobrara and up its cafions; and at the south- “mn Corner of the state along the Platte. It is now found 246 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER that the pine occurs in patches in cafions of the Loup in the center of the state, and also elsewhere, representing remnants of forests. A former extension eastward along the valleys was inferred, and their present bare condition was attributed to the destructive presence of man during the years of migration “across the plains.” L. H. Jones: Notes on potato-leaf fungi.—Cultures of Macro- sporium Solani and inoculations with it indicate that it is not the cause of “early blight” or ‘“leaf-spot disease,” but is a true parasite. The cultures also proved it to be an Alternaria, and hence should be called A. Solani. What is known as ‘tip burn” was found to be associated with a fungus which proved not to be M. Solani, although usually confused with it. It produces alternaria chains, but the spores are smaller and more numerous in the chains than M@. Solani. It is a saprophyte common to many plants and seems to be identical with M. Tomato Cke. which is certainly an Alternaria. H. L. Russert: A method of hindering condensation of wate in culture plates—Water is apt to condense upon the under sur face of covers of culture plates, and dropping upon the surface of the culture plate causes more or less trouble. This can be remedied by placing the culture plate with its cover within a bowl covered by another bowl a little smaller. C. E. Bessey: Notes on the flora of Colorado Springs.—Ater tion was called to five distinct plant societies which occur in the Tegion of Colorado Springs, and which abut closely upo? sh other with sudden transitions. The habitats of these socielie are: (1) the plains; (2) open dry mountain ridges and sume (3) deep cafions, in the lower stretches of the mois ¢levation ; (4) mountain meadows, at a greater elevation Bi the cafions ; and (5) mountain swamps, usually lying bet meadows above and the cafions below. Rapid changes < ing place in the flora of the region, in explanation of which thre® a : 1896] BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 247 causes were suggested as follows: (1) removal of forests by fires, etc., thus denuding the slopes ; (2) the consequent opening of cafions to light, changing dark and damp conditions to those which are open and dry; and (3) vandalism of tourists, in the cafions especially, which have been ravaged, notably of ferns. E. J. Duranp: On a species of Epipactis—Upon a lawn in the village of Canandaigua, N. Y., Epipactis viridiflore suddenly made its appearance, although careful search of the whole region has failed as yet to discover it as a plant of the local flora. In the same connection Mrs. E. G. Britton called attention to a similar sudden appearance of Avisema Dracontium in a garden upon Staten island, although not known to occur wild anywhere upon the island. eS 1 Poirarp: Report of the National Herbarium—tThe new organization of the herbarium consequent upon its removal to the National Museum was explained. The customary appropria- tion of $25,000 to the Division of Botany had been reduced by the last legislature to $15,000. The necessary relief was then obtained by an additional appropriation of $10,000 upon the condition that the herbarium be placed in the care of the Smith- Soman Institution. Mr. Coville is appointed honorary curator, While the staff directly connected with the work at the National useum consists of J. N. Rose, in charge of the determination : the higher plants and the work upon the Mexican flora; O. F. : — in charge of the cryptogamic work ; and C. L. Pollard, in arge of the mounting and distribution of material. oe Note on Schize@a pusilla —In 1879 Mrs. tare fern j aly first announcement of the discovery of this received ne ds Scotia, During the present season she has itional specimens of it from Mr. Waghorne. K. : : mater; M. Wircanp: Notes on Boschniakia.—Studies of Tacoma ‘al of B. strobilacea revealed characters not provided for in 248 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER the generic description as it appears in the Synoptical Flora. The linear subulate bracts, and the two lateral calyx teeth are the notable discrepancies. Examination of B. glabra, the original species, showed that the generic description. was con- structed for it, and had not been modified so as to include B. strobilacea. Discrepancies were also pointed out in the section characters of the genus. C. R. Barnes: Photosyntax vs. photosynthesis— It was stated that the word photosyntax, proposed in 1893 by the speaker, but objected to by Professor MacMillan as etymologically bad, had been resubmitted to three competent Greek scholars and pronounced by all to be linguistically unobjectionable and accurately expressive of the process of carbohydrate formation as now understood. J. F. CowEt.: Notes on some hybridized sunflowers.— Ordi- nary flowers of H. petiolaris had been pollinated from some “doubled” 1. decapetalus. Seedlings were shown which presented complete intermediate characters. E. G. Britron: Mnium Roellii Broth.—The synonyms of Bryum lucidum E. G. Britton were explained, of which the lasts B. Sandbergii Holzinger, C. E. Bessey: The canon flora of the plains of Nebraska— The cafions Occurring in the general plain surface _ described. Up to the very brink of these cafions sand-loving plants are found, but within the cafions they are suddenly replaced by moisture-loving plants, representing a totally differ: ent flora. The strong invasion of plants from the Rocky mountain region has, therefore, resulted in two types of — sion, that across the sandy plains, and that within the cafe” The invasion of eastern plants is observed to have a similar a fold expression. The cafion plants are not necessarily nab plants at the west or east, but are simply moisture-loving: 1896] BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 249 E. B. CopELAND: Zurgor variation in mosses—The turgor variation in relation to temperature was specially noted, being in general greater in mosses than in other groups. Plasmolysis was used as the test of turgor. It was shown that in Mnium cuspidatum the accommodation to changed temperature was dependent upon the products of assimilation; while in Funana hygrometrica it was proved that this was not the case. A. P. ANDERSON: A simple piece of apparatus for infecting and Spraying plants — A syringe of peculiar structure, such as artists use in ‘‘finishing off” paintings, was suggested, as being a better distributor than the ordinary apparatus. E. J. Duranp: Structure of pseudo-parenchyma.— The method of the transformation of ordinary hyphz into pseudo-parenchyma is easily observed in its simplest form in Tubercularia. In Peziza it is not so evident, but gradual transition can be traced clearly, In general there is a rounding off of the cells of much pr ptake hyphe, and sometimes a coalescence of the cells of con- tiguous hyphe. HERMANN von ScHRENK: Notes on the hosts of Comandra umbellata.— This plant is by no means always a parasite, but when it is such it is assumed to be an ericaceous parasite. While most commonly attached to species of Viburnum, the Speaker had found it upon Potentilla Norvegica, Solidago Cana- >a and Phleum pratense. Attention was called to the vet wes attachment does not always mean absorption, and this is Notably true in the case of a grass host. laa MacMitian: Function of the submerged leaves of on. po tO halts upon the submerged leaves have been con- | 0 “emed as not organs of absorption. The speaker had ete., the sh = when exposed in water containing small crustacea, avoided LS Seige hairs, standing out in every direction, are * 4t was sugyested that the hairs, therefore, may be 250 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER largely protective organs against predatory insects. They may serve also as a sort of counterpoise in high winds, offering resist- ance. Conway MacMiian: Nuclear budding in Cypripedium.—The speaker had noted a peculiar fragmentation in the nuclei of the basal cells of the hairs. The process can be indicated best by the term “budding,” as it seems to be a gradual outgrowth from the surface of the nucleus with final separation. Conway MacMitian: Adaptation of Conifere to wind-swept stations.—In his studies of the flora of the Lake of the Woods the attention of the speaker had been called to a group of white pines which were not growing in the usual manner in rock crevices. In addition to the high branches a circle of branches flat upon the rocks had been developed, forming a dense circular mass, after the manner of a juniper. This was interpreted as all adaptation to a high wind-swept position, and shows that “ forest plant may assume the juniper habit. FLORENCE Beckwitu: Plants new to the flora of Monroe county, N. Y.—Since the recent publication of the Catalogue of the Rochester Academy of Science several plants new to the flora have been discovered. Epna M. Porter: Note on the pollination of Epipacts vinidi- \ fore —It was shown that the plant is pollinated by the bie Vespa diabolica. In Europe, according to Darwin, V. silvesins® the pollinator. Plants covered with a netting set no seed. The observations were illustrated by an ingenious mechanical chart, @ la Gibson. E. B. Copetanp: 7; urgor and unused residues.—In all normal roots, stems and leaves there is a large residue of osmotically active matter which the plant cannot use to postpone starv ar In these organs the nutrient matter is relatively unimp? - In the storing places of dissolved food, however, this element 1896] BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO 251 in the turgor sometimes dominates; but here, too, a considerable unused residue is usually encountered. A. P. AnpEerson: Supposed pathological condition of a pine board—The speaker displayed a board whose appearance was supposed to indicate a fungus attack, but explained that the appearance was due to the remains of the “short shoots.” Emity Grecory: An interview with Schwendener.— The speaker described an interview with Schwendener concerning the views of Reinke upon the nature of lichens, in which Schwendener is reported as saying that Reinke’s views differ in No essential respect from his own. Joun M. Courter: Cvoss-lertilization and heterospory— Atten- tion was called to the danger of confusion in applying the terms close-fertilization and cross-fertilization to heterosporous plants. Close-fertilization, strictly defined as the fusion of gametes pro- duced upon the same individual, cannot occur in heterosporous plants. Heterospory necessitates cross-fertilization, and the closest possible affinity is that of two gametophytes borne upon the same sporophyte. In seed-plants, therefore, we find close- pollination and cross-pollination, but only cross-fertilization. The significance of the flower, therefore, is not to bring about Cross-fertilization, but to render more distant the relationship between the two gametophytes concerned. E. G. Britton: Zhe mosses of R. S. Williams.— The speaker announced that collections of the mosses of the Columbia region of northern Montana were being made by R. S. Williams, and “Sealy his work to the favorable attention of botanists or sale will be ready soon. ne A. KELLERMAN: An index card for local herbaria — A Ox: was exhibited upon which was printed an outline map of 10, which could be variously marked to indicate the range. BeIErER ARTICLES. NOTES ON TWO SPECIES OF BRASSICA. Brassica SiNAPISTRUM Boiss. In the Synoptical Flora, i. pt. 1, 134, it was stated that only the smooth-fruited form of this species had been introduced into North America, such being the inference derived from the specimens examined in the preparation of that work. During the present summer, however, the writer has found a number of specimens of this species, growing on rail: way ballast near West Cambridge, Mass., which have hispid fruit. This form occurred in company with the more typical plant, and appeared on close comparison to differ from it in no regard other than the one mentioned. F urthermore, the pubescence of the fruit, although more or less striking when well developed, passed in other specimens into minute sparse hairs, so that transitions to the smooth-fruited forms were by no means lacking. Indeed, in some cases, the pubescence of the different siliques on the same individual differed considerably, being somewhat more conspicuous upon the lower, earlier-formed fruit. In both the smooth-fruited and hispid-fruited forms the pedi- cels are often hirsutulous. Both forms of fruit have long been recog” nized in the Old World, but the differences have been rightly regarded as formal rather than varietal. B. yuNcEa Coss.—In May 1895, Professor Britton (Bud/. Torr. as Club 22: 225) called attention to the frequent occurrence of this Asiatic species in waste places of southern New York, Pennsylvania to Mich- - 'gan and Virginia. It had previously been found in several parts - New England, and has since proved locally abundant in on Massachusetts and in New Hampshire. After giving a good o tion of B. juncea, in the place cited, Professor Britton states that lt : “readily distinguished from Z. Sinapistrum Boiss. by the total absence of the hispid pubescence of that species and by its erect longer ee beaked pods.” Having had this summer excellent opportunitl : comparing many dozen specimens of each of these species ier a side by side, the writer would suggest that the distinctive char [SEPTEMBER ulate- es of 252 1896} BRIEFER ARTICLES 253 here brought forward are by no means the most reliable. For the hispid pubescence is not always absent upon B. juncea, although always much less conspicuous than in B. Sinapistrum ; the trichomes, when present, being confined to the lower leaves and lower part of the stem. Furthermore, the siliques of B. Scnapistrum vary greatly in position, being sometimes subappressed and sometimes widely spreading, so that they are accordingly either erect or very oblique. As to the length of the fruit there is no great difference between the two species, but if a distinction can be made on this feature it would seem that the fruit of B. Sinapistrum rather than of B. juncea was in general the longer. On the other hand, several characters furnish very definite and con- stant differences. In the first place, B. juncea is a taller and much paler plant, having a distinctly glaucous stem and more or less glaucescent leaves, while B. Sinapistrum, at least as it occurs about Bos- ton, is never glaucous at all. Then in B. Sinapistrum the upper leaves are broadest near the rather abruptly contracted base, while in B. juncea ey are gradually cuneate at the base. But perhaps the most striking difference is in the fruiting pedicels, which in B. Sinapistrum are short and thick, being only about 4 or rarely 6" long, while in B. suncea they are much more slender and 6 to ro™ in length. The beak of the fruit in B. juncea is slender, subulate, and apparently always empty. In B. Stnapistrum, on the other hand, it is rather stout, decidedly ancipital, and commonly contains one seed. eae characters the plants in question - be readily dis- : , and when once recognized are not likely again to be oes B. juncea seems already to be the commoner species the “apt Boston. Its rapid distribution and establishment ° ca nb recalls that of Larhuca Scariola, on the more — fesive is . : Stsymbrium altissimum. The best illustration of 4. 4 ok. 3 Duthie and Fuller in their Field and Garden Crops of ee roi ern Provinces and Oudh (plate 41).—B. L. ROBINSON, uiversity. A NEW MAMILLARIA. Sim : ia Brownii," n. sp. Glaucous, globose, 5 to g™ high, haa tubercles 20 to 28™ long, at first terete but later becom- more or less quadrangular at base, very broad and large, the 1Thi s 's plant will be Cactus Brownii to those who prefer the generic name Cactus 254 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER groove absent in young plants, but extending to the axil of the floriferous tubercle: radial spines 8 to 11, teretish, bulbous at base, spreading, 15 to 20™” long, white or more or less tinted with purple, straight or slightly curved, lower spine and 1 to 3 slender upper ones a little farther back on tubercle than the remaining 7, which are very robust and form an almost perfect circle around the stout central ; central somewhat longer than radials and sometimes slightly flattened on upper side, always solitary and curved or hooked downward ; all with horny tips: flowers 5 to 6™ long and spreading to nearly same diameter, opening in bright sunshine and enduring for only a few hours, salmon-yellow: ovary tubular, 20 to a ee with from 4 to 7 minute, caducous scales - fruit and seeds unknow?” Type growing in cactus garden, University of Arizona. Description drawn from plant collected three years ago by H Brown, in the Baboquabari Mountains, in Southern Arizona, and now flowers for the first time, I have named this species for Mr. Herbert Brown, from whom o specreen was obtained. There has been some hesitation as tO ae this plant in the genus Mamillaria or Echinocactus. Mamiliaria macromeris and Echinocactus Simpsoni this plant a erbert which 1896] BRIEFER ARTICLES 255 not completely, breaks down all generic differences between these two genera. The prominent tubercles in no definite arrangement and the deep groove extending almost if not quite to the axil would denote it to be a Mamillaria ; on the other hand, the exceedingly robust spines and the scales on the ovary are characteristic of the genus Echinocac- tus. It seems, however, to agree more closely with the genus Mamil- laria as at present understood.—J. W. Toumey, University of Arizona. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPECIES OF GYMNO- SPORANGIUM IN THE SOUTH. Ir is a somewhat remarkable fact that no less than six very distinct species of Gymnosporangium are parasitic on Juniperus Virginiana. These species are all found in the states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and so far as present data indicate, two of them are peculiar to this region. The other species are of much wider distribution, but we still lack reliable information regarding the extent of range of any of the species of the genus. The species may be arranged in groups as follows : | Producing somewhat globose galls. Perennial species. Gymnosporangium globosum Farlow. Gymnosporangium Bermudianum (Farlow) Earle. Annual species. Gymnosporangium macropus Link. Gymnosporangium sp? Producing slight enlargement of stems or fasciation of branchlets. Perennial species. Gymnosporangium clavipes Cooke & Peck. Gymnosporangium nidus-avis Thaxter. . tins Gymnosporangiun macropus a the most so crab and si nae distributed, its roestelia occurring * the wi i € cultivated apple. We have also found it during the past Sila ee a growing on Crategus spathulata. Its general distri- since its ao tless coextensive with the wide distribution of its host, st common alternate host is as widely cultivated. In the 1 * oe sama “ . seo! and description to this species has been left : a *erifications of Shalem are indebted for numerous comparisons of materia ng the past year. 256 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER south it is usually very common. It is found in South. Carolina (Ravenel, Fungi Carol. no. 85), Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and is also reported from Florida (Wedéer) and Texas (/ennings). An inter- esting feature of its development occurred during the present season in Alabama, showing the effect of the season on habit of growth. An early rain caused the germination of some of the teleutospores, so that there was an early crop of rcestelias produced on the apples. At the time of the next rain, and after an interval of about six weeks, the remainder of the teleutospores were brought to germination, and at the same time the effects of the earlier sowing had already produced the characteristic spots and yellow thickenings of the rcestelias and the spermagonial stage was reached. Toward the end of July the new galls for the next season had already developed and had attained con- siderable size. With all our knowledge of this common species, we are still uncertain as to what may be the ordinary time and method of the formation of this gall on Juniperus. Gymnosporangium clavipes, next to G. macropus, is the most col mon species in central Alabama. Since it produces no enlarged gall, its presence is often overlooked until after the germination of its tele tospores, when its semi-dried gelatinous spore masses render it quil€ conspicuous. Its Roestelia is found on the cultivated quince and 0m various species of Crategus. Its range appears to be confined to the Appalachian region. In the south it occurs in South Carolina (Rave- vel, Fungi Amer. nos. 272, 502), Georgia, Alabama, and Mississipp! An undescribed species of Gymnosporangium is the next most common in Alabama, and appears also to be frequent in Mississippi Starkville (Tracy) and Ocean Springs (Zar/e). It is apparently ¢ annual species producing galls similar to those of G. macropus, but © a peculiar red brown color and luster, reminding one of G. Bae num. In shape they approximate those of G. globosum, and are often very small, with single spore masses, but frequently have a peculiat tirely devoid of the characteristic bark colored flakes of G. globosum. Spore masses are darker, shorter, broader and more conical than © of G. macropus, and are wholly unlike the dark wedge shaped mass of G. globosum. The spore characters are also different from either . the two allied species. The rcestelia of this interesting species ne 1896] BRIEFER ARTICLES 257 pected to be a peculiar undescribed form first discovered by Professor G. F. Atkinson in Alabama, and since by one of the writers on Crate- gus spathulata, Cultures of the Roestelia were attempted in the green- house on young plants of Crategus transplanted from the woods (which afterwards proved to be C. parvifolia), but with negative results. Preparations are in progress to make more extended cultures another year on C. spathulata, which is oné of the common species of haw in the vicinity of Auburn. Gymnosporangium globosum is rare at Auburn, Alabama, occasional at Starkville, Mississippi (Zacy), and found once at Ocean Springs, Mississippi (Earle). A second form of this species, whose characters have not yet been fully studied, also occurs in Mississippi. Gymnosporangium nidus-avis appears to be quite rare in central Alabama, only three specimens having been found the present season, all of them the branch form, and none of them producing the peculiar fasciation of the branchlets so common in eastern Massachusetts. They appear very early in the south, the teleutospores germinating during the rains of the latter half of February. A marked feature of the branch form of this species, readily distinguishing it from G. ¢la- vpes, is the peculiar orange colored stain left on the somewhat hard- ened inner bark of the host ; this is perceptible even in specimens long collected. The species seems to have a wide distribution, in the south commencing with South Carolina (Ravenel, Fungi Car. no. 87, dis- tributed as G. Juniper’), and extending through Georgia (Ravenel, ee, Amer. nO. 791, distributed as G. conicum), Alabama, ae Mis- “ane A aan form appears in the collection of the Division of kindly = ‘athology and Physiology, which Professor Galloway has way a i us to examine, under the name of G. Juniperinum, oF redericksburg, Texas, by F. Grasso in 1893 and again in ele It resembles closely certain foliicolous forms of G. clavipes, but oO men : es na ossible from the entire Gulf region in order to determine ully the limits of th : : ? he is i . eographic dis tribution, se species as well as their geograp Th : the ‘e ecies of the list, Gymnosporangium Bermudianum, has in its oh aly distribution in the Gulf region, and is as remarkable Islands : ey as in its distribution. It is known from the Bermuda » Where it was first collected by Professor Farlow and described 258 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER by him as Aicidium,? and from Ocean Springs, Mississippi, where one of the present writers discovered its true gymnosporangial character, and also its peculiar reestelia, in 1892. The Mississippi material was first collected in January 1887 and sent to Professor Farlow, so that Mississippi is one of the type localities of the original description. Later in the spring of 1892 the teleutospores were discovered, and in October of the same year the reestelia with its distinct, long exserted, lacerate peridia was found on the same galls, the old broken bases of which must have formed the peridia of the supposed A.cidium as orig- inally described. The species, therefore, unlike all its congeners, produces its ecidial and teleutosporic stages on the same host, from the same gall, and in all probability from the same mycelium. The species can scarcely be said to be common, though when found it usually infests considerable portions of the tree in which it occuts. Several stations are now known for the parasite at distances of a few miles from the original tree where it was found in 1887. The conditions of growth manifested by the last species introduce a new and interesting problem into the question of the evolution of the various species of the genus. At one extreme of the series We have G. macropus and its new ally, annual species, producing their reestelias on various Pomaceze and consequently dependent for their perpetuity upon the success of their annual sowing and interchange of host. Then we have the various species that are perennial and thus capable of continuing from year to year without the intervention of the reestelia stage, but with which they continue to propagate them selves more widely. Then, finally, we have G. Bermudianum produc: ing both stages on the same host and therefore independent of the Pomacee for its continuance. The details of this evolution will co® stitute a further problem.— Lucien M. Unperwoop and F. S. Baki Auburn, Alabama. BOTANICAL APPLIANCES. (WITH PLATES IX AND X.) ; BOTANICAL appliances serve for investigation and demonstratio® and while some of the following appliances were devised for ae . work they have also been used in demonstration in a practical — of vegetable physiology in our laboratory, * “icidium Bermudianum Farlow, Bot. Gaz. 12:206. 1887. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX//. PEATE IA STONE on a CLINOSTAT. BOTANICAL:GAZETTE, XX1/. PIATS. Xx. ho ~S vp \ a STONE on BOTANICAL APPLIANCES. 1896] BRIEFER ARTICLES 259 Clinostat (#7. 7X ).—The phenomena of heliotropism and geotropism are of such fundamental importance that I believe it would not be out of place to offer demonstrations of them in secondary schools, espe- cially since our elementary text-books lay some stress on plant physiology. It was partially with this idea that this instrument was devised, and in its construction we have endeavored to obtain a cheap and compact piece of apparatus, and one at the same time which will illustrate all of the principles. Undoubtedly the best clinostat which has been devised for general purposes is that of Pfeffer, made by Albrecht of Tiibingen at a cost of $80. It can be adjusted to different rates of speed and is furnished with a powerful spring which enables it to run twenty-four hours without rewinding. An excellent clinostat is that of Wortmann, made at Strassburg, and costing about $60. So far as compactness is concerned this is the best, but a great drawback is that it has to be wound every twelve hours. Every laboratory where plant physiology is taught should endeavor to have one of the above, but when it is necessary to have more than one, or in case an instru- ment for illustrative purposes only is needed, a simpler and cheaper one will frequently answer as well. Such an instrument I have used in modified forms for three years. Briefly stated, it consists of an eight- day spring Waterbury clock (figs. s and 2) with a disk attached to the hour hand spindle which moves a shaft provided with a small friction — to which the plants are attached. The disk (c) is of aluminum 2” thick and 47" in diameter, fastened to the hour hand spindle by pees OF & set screw. The hour. hand spindle is lengthened to extend be a be Thi the the co : the disk there is a steel rod shaft (/) which runs ona Vided oak « wa ane in an elongated bearing at the top and is pro- and at right Swivel joint to prevent lateral friction. On this ~— a. des the disk there is a small brass wheel (4) 2 in Outact with — with a solid rubber ring, a tire, which is in direct Fevolves whe : € disk. This wheel constitutes a friction wheel and nin contact with the aluminum disk. It can be moved 260 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | SEPTEMBER by means of a set screw to any position on the rod required, thus enabling one to modify the speed. i If, for example, the friction wheel be placed upon the shaft near the center of the disk, the speed is retarded; if, on the contrary, it is placed near the circumference, then the speed is accelerated. When the friction wheel is 23"" from the center of the disk, the small shalt revolves once every half hour, at a distance of 46™" from the centerit revolves every fifteen minutes, and when at 69™™" it revolves im seven and one-half minutes. In fact any degree of speed can be obtained between seven and one-half and thirty minutes. Should it be neces sary to obtain a higher speed a smaller friction wheel can be used, of the hair spring can be shortened still further. /%g. 2 shows a side view of the clinostat when set up for the purpose of eliminating the effects of light, the plants being placed upon the horizontal disk (d). In figs. 7, 3, 4, and 5 the instrument is shown when in use for gravity experiments. In the latter instance the steel rod is placed horizontally. The apparatus is so arranged that any angle can be obtained. ‘This 's accomplished by means of three set screws (e) which are attached to the clock and fit into depressions in the metal rim (7) which is movable. This mechanism is shown more in detail in the enlarged cross-section of fig. 5, the metal rim being represented by the shaded portion. By loosening the three set screws (e) the rim can be revolved, and as the shaft attachments are connected with the rim they move with it. In fig-1# holder is attached to the end of the shaft for the purpose of carrying the plant. The pot used is 2" in diameter, and is centered and held in place by means of three screws. A simpler method of holding the plant is shown in fig. 6, where the end of the shaft is made t ar is only necessary to remove the friction wheel from the disk at allows the shaft to revolve freely, then adjust the compensating pee (4), bringing the center of gravity of the pot within that of tHe wei Instead of using a growing plant in the pot, grass nodes, OT get stalks, can be readily substituted. For eliminating the effect of ee in roots the apparatus is set up as shown in fg. 2, in wi roots are kept from drying up by revolving in a dish of wae For Phycomyces or Mucor it can be conveniently arranged ene fig. 4, in which case the shaft is elongated. The clinostat is moun 1896 ] BRIEFER ARTICLES : 261 on a wooden base provided with three leveling screws and will run four days without winding. It is made especially for light objects although I have carried fourteen pounds on it in a horizontal position fora number of hours. The apparatus could be constructed, I sup- pose, for about $15. Spring dynamometer (f/. X, jigs. 7 and 2).—This apparatus was devised for the purpose of measuring the power of growth induced by geotropism in grass nodes. It consists of a watch spring (a) having attached to its end a straw (4) which amplifies the movement on the graduated scale of the arc (c). The straw is held securely by means of a spiral wire (¢) soldered to the underside of the spring, allowing the straw to be removed at leisure. Directly above this straw is a wire loop for attaching a thread, the other end of which is fastened to the Stass culm at a distance from the node of 4%. The grass culm has its lower end inserted in a bottle containing water provided with a perforated cork through which is placed a glass tube tightly fitting the culm, thus holding it securely. The bottle is supported by an Arthur clamp and is mounted on a vertical rod which can be adjusted to any desired angle by a unique joint (7) made by the O. C. White Com- 26 Worcester, Mass. By lengthening or shortening the spring the a can be readily varied. In the illustration the whole watch ‘pring is shown, but of course only a short piece is necessary. " scuaneaaeg for measuring and recording root-growth (//. x, fi: Do of pa, i ae in my experiments to record the hourly increments Sself- cc ae . e length of a large number of roots I was obliged to devise self-re is ung alae for this purpose. So far as I am aware no he ona appliance has been employed in the growth of roots. icscinie a general use consists in direct readings with a horizontal hie se one who has employed this method must be aware account of ay tedious, and, moreover, that it is not cme ” lable to civ si os peat the root, which under high magnification 1s tutes ee ay to serious errors in the readings. he root consti- fore that c.. most delicate organs of a pliant, and it is clear ong kind, It ee os apparatus we use must be of the most. sensitive amount of % . able to keep the root straight, yet allowing a eee injure the and it must be constructed out of material which will no Possess the lea: . a8 the appar _ which multiplies the growth must i des i resistance possible. cribing this apparatus it will not be necessary to go into the 262 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER details of the experiments which I have made with various contrivances. It is sufficient to say that I have never detected the slightest influence of any description detrimental to the normal growth of the root on account of its use. The apparatus consists of a simple hand balance with a light straw attached to one arm and a metal rod to the other.’ The lower end of this rod has a metal disk attached to it and is sus- pended ina beaker of water. The root is fastened securely by pin- ning the seed to a cork (a) held by aclamp. Surrounding the lower end of the root is a harness which eliminates all curvatures and keeps the root straight. The lower end of the harness is in direct contact with the disk, and every increment of growth of the root in length causes a corresponding depression of the balance arm, which move- ment is multiplied and registered by means of the straw on a recording cylinder. The details of the harness are shown in cuts /, 2, andj. It consists of six long nickel plated wires, such as are used for insect pins. These are passed at equal distances from each other through a piece of cork (f) 5™™ in diameter. They are not passed vertically through the cork, but spread at the top as shown in /. Another smaller piece (%) has a circular hole provided with grooves for the pins, and enables them to be adjusted to the root. By sliding the cork up the wires are brought into close contact with the root and by sliding down the root is released. It is necessary that the harness should va clasp the root too tightly, but just fit easily. The harness figured 18 made for Vicia Faba, and it would not be advisable to use it for ai species. A delicate mechanism, however, could be constructed entirely out of metal which could be adjusted to any root. With the ham balance as a multiplying agent I have never used a weight for the root to overcome which exceeded 5o™. As the straw does not pass through a vertical line in its movements, there is a slight error in registerInos but it is so minute that it need not be considered, as for every oi meter’s growth of the root in length the error in our apparatus woul equal but 445". The same multiplying apparatus can be used re for measuring the growth of the cotyledons in grasses, in which wee a paper cylinder is placed around the cotyledon to eliminate the mee of light. By applying the harness to the cotyledon, the power growth can also be obtained. ee Nutating apparatus (/. X, fig. ¢).—This instrument is simil that recommended by Wiesner, who has justly criticised the me 2 Of. Bot. Gaz, 17:105. 1892. ar '0 1896] BRIEFER ARTICLES 263 used by Darwin. It consists of a diopter made out of a short metal tube 2.5" high and 1 in diameter, having a section cut out of its lower half for the purpose of inserting a pen. In the inside of the tube is a coverslip (represented by the horizontal dotted line) with two cross hairs, and at the top another coverslip with a round dot upon it. Both the hairs and the dot are centered in the tube. When the dot at the top coincides with the cross hairs below, the line of vision extends directly through the center of the tube which rests upon the horizontal glass plate m. When the dot and cross hairs are made to coincide with the black wax point on the glass capillary attached to the plant (which is for the purpose of amplifying the nutation movements) a direct line of vision is obtained and recorded by means of a pen on the glass plate (m). The glass capillary is secured to the plant in the usual manner by means of wax, and the multiplication of the nutation movements can be increased or diminished by lengthening or short- ening it. Professor Wiesner used two horizontal glass plates instead of one, but since the lower part of the diopter is cut out for the pur- pose of inserting a pen, only one plate is necessary. -G E. STONE, Massachusetts A gricultural College. EDITORIAL. THE BOTANICAL MEETINGS in Buffalo in connection with the Amer- can Association were remarkably successful. American botanists were present in large numbers, and the attendance Botanical Meetings was well sustained throughout the almost continuous : session i ; i ays preceding the in Buffalo. ions of six days. During two days p g meeting of the Association the Botanical Society was represented by eleven of its twenty-three members, and the papers presented were of a type that justified the existence of the organiza tion. With the opening of the Association, however, it became evr dent that the Section of Botany and the Botanical Club were have the most largely attended sessions of their existence. . In Sec- tion G more than forty papers were upon the programme. These papers, moreover, were notably strong, representing well the great increase of botanical activity in this country. The most notable feature of the meeting was the presence of a large representation of our younger botanists, who have been trained in the newer methods, and whose crisp and clear presentations of important work augured well for the future of American botany. The Botanical Club, also, was full of papers which would rank better than most of the papers in the Section a few years ago. To one in familiar contact with American botany for a number of years there could be ne a evidence of wonderful development than the Buffalo meeting. © seems to the GazeTTE a serious mistake on the part of the ee as an individual, and as the representative of an institution peel - seeks botanical students and influence, to neglect such meeting Such neglect must reflect upon the individual and the mae and weaken any hold upon a botanical constituency. we especially commend such meetings to the younger race of paar? The older botanists, who have cultivated a habit of neglect, “<— be : will continue to do so, but it is at the expense of declining gil - oF great service in personally stimulating the progress of botan! science. gpTEMBER 264 [s 1896] EDITORIAL 265 THE MATTER of the director of the scientific work in the Depart- ment of Agriculture came before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at the Buffalo meeting. The proposition to create such an office received the warm endorsement of the Association, as it has of almost every body of men to whitch it has been presented. It is worthy of note that the action was vigorously advocated by the only chief of division in the department who was present at Buffalo, indicating that other divisions, if not the botanical ones, favor the plan. The open letter opposing the creation of this office is its own best answer. The writer acknowledges that the botanical divisions have, like Topsy, “jes’ growed.” Unfortunately the conditions did not— perhaps could not—conduce to symmetrical development and the gardener’s hand is needed to prevent lopsided, ragged, and unsightly forms. This does not mean that the vigorous plant is to be clipped into a geometrical figure, but that it is to be brought to the highest degree of natural symmetry. When it is so that one division cannot have opportunity to grow the plants it needs, though other divisions have abundant greenhouse facilities, it is quite evident that someone, with the same functions as" a college president, is required to coordinate—not to subordinate — the divisional work. How proper coordination could interfere with, instead of promoting, research and “practical” work, is difficult for us to understand. Scientific Chief DPeN LETTERS. BOTANICAL WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To the Editors of the Botanical Gazette :—In the editorial pages of a recent number of the GAZETTE, attention is called to the botanical investi- gations of the Department of Agriculture, the statement being made that under the present arrangement there is a dissipation of energy and a dupli- cation of work, which would be overcome by combining the divisions of botany, forestry, agrostology, and vegetable physiology and pathology. I feel sure the writer of the article in question is not fully conversant with all the facts in the case, else he would see that such a plan as proposed would be a most decided step backward. Strictly speaking, the work of the divisions mentioned is for the most patt botanical. They all deal with plants, and botany is the science of plants, both wild and cultivated. If we accept this definition we might include the branches of the department engaged in horticultural work, for horticulture has for its very foundation botany pure and simple. These branches, how: ever, may be omitted from the discussion, and on the ground that bo jentiic case as in the other. The men engaged in the forestry work, for exam, are authorities in their line and are recognized everywhere as such by ee scientific and practical men. They are not supposed to know any MY” about vegetable pathology than they do about entomology, chemistry, sed a of the kindred sciences. Vegetable pathology, on the other hand, as ent has nothing more in common with forestry than it has with agriculture * horticulture, using these terms in their broadest sense. very botanist in the country is aware that the division of boa does not cover the whole field of botany, and doubtless, as the editor should be rechristened, to indicate more definitely the scope of its WOT the past this has largely been a systematic study of our flora, and jopPrEoeh 266 prope says, It In 1896] OPEN LETTERS 267 one of the largest and most valuable collections of plants in the world has been built up. The Smithsonian Institution has recently assumed charge of this collection, for which it has always been responsible, and thus relieved of this part of the work, the division of botany, of the Department of Agricul- ture, can continue its important economic investigations on weeds, pure seed, the geographic distribution of plants and their relation to environment, etc., all of which are distinct from those being pursued by other branches of the department. Omitting further argument, the chief reasons for maintaining the present autonomy of the divisions may be summarized as follows: (1) The work of each division is distinct and well defined, having been the result of gradual growth and in accordance with the natural development of the department as a whole. (2) There is no duplication of work, not even in office or routine matters. The division of vegetable physiology and pathology may receive and answer 5,000 letters a year, all of which relate wholly to its work and involve a cer- tain amount of labor, which could in no wise be saved by a concentration of effort. The same is true of its bibliographical work and such necessary labor that must be given to the collection of fungi, representing the economic phase of the division’s investigations. (3) The chief incentive which keeps good men in the department is that they have freedom in their investigation. The men in charge know the details of their own lines of work perhaps better than any one that could be put overthem. They are in direct touch with the people for whose benefit the investigations are made, and it is only since this has been brought about that the work of the department in the main has come to be looked upon as a credit to the country. The moment the autonomy of the divisions is destroyed, which would certainly be the case if the plan proposed were fatried out, the principal incentive for good work will be at an end. : B. T. Gattoway, Washington, D. C. LOCAL FLORAS. sa - jae sailor 8 of the Botanical Gazette :—1 am interested in what you a = aed 'n regard to the scope of local floras. I agree very heartily should © proposition that a local flora should be more than a mere list and bien. . be confined by artificial bounds. Everyone who has worked in our * 2h — flora has felt this trouble. Much more could be printed ever for ey oe for expense of publication. I see no excuse what- and th € publication of lists that say nothing about the plants themselves * Problems of their distribution, and yet devote hundreds of dollars to 268 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ SEPTEMBER printing long lists of synonyms, dates, and references to prior publication. Some time we shall all do better in this kind of work, but there is an immense amount of work to be done before the ground can be cleared for more valuable investigation. When much of the work now going on is put together as a whole, I think it will appear more valuable than it does at present. EDWARD L. RAnp, Boston, Mass, THE AUTHORSHIP OF CERTAIN NAMES. To the Editors of the Botanical Gazette :—Contribution U. §, Nat. Herb. 3: no. 9, just to hand, suggests a query as to the authorship of two new names proposed therein. On page 572 we have “ Sa/ix barrattiana tweedyi Bebb, var. nov.;”’ but it is explained by Mr. Rose in a footnote that the late Mr. Bebb gave the variety another name, which was preoccupied, and that he (Mr. Rose) substituted tweedyi. It appears to me that we cannot possibly cite as Bebb's a name he never wrote, or even thought of, and the status of the matter is the same as if Bebb had published his description with the preoccupied name, and Rose had offered a substitute in a later publication. Consequently it must be S. barrattiana tweedy Rose. A more difficult question arises in regard to “ Crepis barbigera Leiberg, Sp. nov,” page 565. From the appearance of the description, and the absence of quotation marks or any statement to the contrary, we are led to suppose that it was written wholly by Mr. Coville. Now if Mr. Leiberg merely tick eted specimens of a new Crepis with the name éaréigera, this name would be nothing but a nomen nudum, and the author of the species would be he who first gave or cited a description in connection with the name. Nevertheless we may, I think, stil] regard Crepis barbigera as Leiberg’s species, even allow- diagnosis, to which the former gaveaname. The status of the matter ag is the same as if Coville had published a nameless description, and Leiberg had in a later paper proposed a name. T. D. A. CockEeRrELL, Mesilla, N. M- CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. An American illustrated flora. StupENts of American plants have been wont to regard their transatlan- tic associates with envy on account of their numerous helps in determining plants. It seems as though no European should go astray in the recognition of the plants about him. In America, however, we have, of necessity, accus- tomed ourselves to bare texts, expressive as they could be, but not half expres- Sive enough. The Gray Manual region is certainly our best known region, butto the average student of wild plants there remain in it more plants that he is uncertain about than those that he absolutely knows. He probably names almost all of them, but the mental question mark is appended to more of them than he would like to acknowledge. Most of this has arisen from the lack of that clearest of all kinds of presentation, accurate illustration. Illustrated works upon American plants have been projected, and have advanced to various stages of completion, but even had they all reached a happy conclusion they have either been too elaborate for common use r too popular to be of scientific value. The work we were waiting for was one that should be complete in illustration, scientifically accurate, and Still of moderate cost. That such a work has appeared * will be a surprise to Many and a great boon to all. The field of this work is entirely unoccupied, and its publication marks a new impulse in the study of the so-called “manual plants.” The order of Presentation, beginning with the lowest forms, is but an expression of modern a “mae can, the best we know concerning natural sequence. The ct policy of multiplying families and genera is followed, these groups Brirron, NarHanrer Lorp and Brown, Hon. AppIsoN.—An illustrated flora ern United States, Canada and the British Possessions, from Newfoundlan lel of the southern boundary of Virginia, and from the Altantic ocean west- New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1896. . $3.00 a volume. a 270 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ SEPTEMBER raised, however, whether this recognition of all easily separable groups may not suppress too much the fact of larger groupings which any natural scheme must involve. Perhaps it is not possible to carry out one purpose well without distorting something else, and it becomes a question of judgment as to what must be sacrificed. Every species is illustrated, and when one is reminded that about 4,000 species of pteridophytes and spermatophytes are found within the region — covered, the undertaking seems enormous. The illustrations are set in the text, opposite the description, and in most cases three species fill a page. The figures are excellent and clearly printed, showing just the features needed for discrimination, and eliminating all the unnecessary “picture” element. In the first volume the figures number 1,425, and more than three-fourths of them are of species that have never been figured before. In such a work the question of nomenclature is a mere incident. It need only be remarked that the nomenclature is a consistent carrying out of the principles enunciated in what is known as the Rochester code and exemplified in the “Check-List,” and that its embodiment in a work of this character will go far towards establishing it. The prominence given to synonymy easily offsets the inconvenience of new names. To this first volume Professor Underwood has contributed the text on the Pteridophyta, Mr. F. V. Coville that of the Juncacez, Dr. John K. Small that of the Polygonacee and Euphorbiacee. Mr. Arthur Hollick has had super vision of the drawings in general, and Professor F. Lamson-Scribner of those of Graminez. The work of the late Dr. Morong is also seen in the groups t0 which he paid chief attention, many of which are included in the present volume, When all the assistance has been accounted for, however, the fact remains that it represents an enormous amount of hard and patient work on the past of the authors. It is to be hoped that the gratitude which is their due will find its expression in the immediate exhaustion of the first edition. Certain! : no American botanist, who has any occasion to determine plants, can to be without this greatest help since the original publication % seem to make this well-nigh impossible.—J. M.C. NEWs. Dr. DoucLas H. CAMPBELL has spent the past summer in Japan. THE OFFICERS of Section G of the A. A. A-S. for the next year are G. F. Atkinson, Vice President, F. C. Newcombe, Secretary. IN THE ABSENCE of Mr. Coville, President of the Botanical Club at its Buffalo meeting, Professor W. A. Kellerman was appointed. THE OFFICERS of the Botanical Club for the next year are S. M. Tracy President; L. R. Jones, Vice President; E.S. Burgess, Secretary. Mr. C. H. Peck and Mr. B. T. Galloway were elected members of the Botanical Society of America at its Buffalo meeting, bringing the number of members to twenty-five. Epwin B. CopELAND, of the University of Wisconsin, has returned from a year’s study in the botanical institutes of Tiibingen and Halle, from the latter of which he received the doctor’s degree summa cum laude. THE BoranicaL Soctery at its Buffalo meeting was represented by the following members : Atkinson, Bailey, Barnes, Bessey, Britton (E. G.), Britton (N. L.), Coulter, Hollick, MacMillan, Trelease, and Underwood. Mr. A. P, ANDERSON, assistant in botany at the University of Minnesota, who has been studying abroad for two years, received the doctor's degree from the University of Munich in August, and has since returned to this country. : Mr. 0. F. Cook has been appointed curator of the cryptogamic collec- tions of the National Herbarium, under the Division of Botany. He has the Privilege of leave of absence to visit Africa whenever his duties there demand It. THE OFFICERS of the Botanical Society of America for the next year are John M, Coulter, President; C. S. Sargent, Vice President, C. R. Barnes, Secretary > Arthur Hollick, Zreasurer; B. L. Robinson and F. V. Coville, ouncillors. PRorEssor A. N, PRENTISS, formerly Professor of Botany at Cornell University, died at his home in Ithaca, Aug. 14th. A biographical sketch of nag Prentiss, prepared by his successor, Professor Atkinson, was pub- shed in Bor. Gaz. 21:283. 1896. 9 RESPONSE to a suggestion by Professor S. M. Tracy, Section G of ~ jos Ss at the Buffalo meeting, appointed Professors N. Le eee me : ao aS a Committee to take under consideration the subj 1896} Should be the usage of the phrase “type specimen. 271 272 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER Tar MEXICAN BOTANICAL CLUB is an organization which can be made very useful to botanists who desire to cultivate Mexican plants for study. Those who wish for a fuller knowledge of its purpose and of its ability to serve botanists should communicate with William Brockway, Tuxpan, Michoacan, Mexico. ATTENTION IS CALLED to the circular issued by the Pasteur Monument Committee and distributed with this number of the BoTANICAL GAZETTE. The opportunity to honor the memory of Pasteur in a most effective way is one that botanists will not pass by. The senior editor of the GAZETTE has been asked to collect and forward subscriptions. IN ALL PROBABILITY the next meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science will be held in Toronto in connection with the meeting of the British Association. As it is understood that British bot- anists will be well represented at that meeting large numbers of American botanists will doubtless take advantage of the opportunity to welcome their transatlantic friends. THE AppRESs of Dr. N. L. Britton as Vice President of Section G of sei A. A. A. S. at its Buffalo meeting was an admirable presentation of the his- tory and status of botanical gardens, made still more attractive by nuiney lantern slides. The GAZETTE would have been glad to publish the address in full, according to its usual custom, but Dr. Britton’s connection with the New York Botanic Garden made other publication seem desirable. A BEQUEST has been made to the Swedish Academy of Sciences to pre mote the study of the Brazilian flora. Every eight years it yields aod $5,500, which is applied in sending two Swedish botanists to Brazil for 4 period of two years. One payment has already become available, and Dr. C. A. M. Lindman and Dr. G. 0. A. Malme undertook the first expedition (1892-4), exploring especially the Rio Grande, Paraguay and Matto nee The donor and originator of the enterprise was Dr. A. Regnell, a Swed! t collections | physician, who lived for fifty years in Brazil, and made importan and studies of the phanerogamic flora. THE BUFFALO Boranic GARDEN was established in 1894) TP sg what was known as South Park. It contains 160 acres of finely situated an very diversified surface, and although planting began only last yea y already in cultivation nearly two thousand plants. It is the a arrange the plants in families, so far as conditions will permit. * Cowell is the very competent director, and Judge David F. Day! park commissioners, facts which augur well for the future of the 8? scientific establishment. It is due to Mr. Day’s influence t was established, and it is a fitting monument to this long time lover dent of plauts, =. s one 0 CAMBRIDGE BOTANICAL SUPPLY COMPANY 1286 Massachusetts Avenue, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. National Herbarium All Articles for Mounting Paper. Spring Classes in Botany. * mee es ESSES. COLLECTING * BOXES NV Cw es 5 IN PRESSES, COL D EVLCE AND HERBARIUM CASES. SEND FOR NEW PRICE LIST. Everything Useful to Botanists. ... bevbarium Cases fees Four 6 in. tin pigeon holes sliding like drawers in a wooden case; covers with rubber rim. List price of the tin pigeon holes, each $1.06; wooden boxes to hold four, $3.13 each. Large tin cases, capacity 2000 specimens, for herbarium use ot Carbon bi-sulphide poison- ing, each $20.00 list. Lt. — Pat : iy ry , > | a ro as oo - Cambridge ‘Botanical Saami t os Cambridge, bass. SPECIALLY PREPARED HERBARIUM PAPER for BOTANISTS r : ik his Paper is offered at the moderate price of $5.50 per ream. We also furnish: No. 1. Genus Cover. 16% x - eS oo 1 ipa 1.50 Dryers, 7+. wis 2.00 6 Species Sheets 16 % bod 2 23% s Tde Pay 2 wi Ts will receive prompt attention. Write for samples. i PENNSYLVANIA AVE., N.W: Mor ris on P aper '® G5) WASHINGTON, PD. ©. A New Series of ... Dissecting Microscopes » .. is described in our 1896 Catalogue, sent free q Bausch & Womb Optical Co. ROCHESTER, N. Y. NEW YORK ar q HENRY HEIL CHEMICAL CO. ST. LOUIS, MO. Chemicals, Glassware. AND OTHER APPARATUS FOR Chemical, Botanical, and Bacteriological Laboratories IMPORTERS OF Oo” SPECIAL APPARATUS FOR VEGETABLE PHYSIOL sFORE GIVE US A TRIAL, YOU WILL FIND US PROMPT AND CHEAP. - ge ORDERING ELSEWHERE, GET OUR QUOTATIONS . . - LARGE es: CATALOGUE ON APPLICATION. Y $ j ISSUED AUGUST 15TH AN JLLUSTRATED [7LORA OF THE NORTHERN STATES AND CANADA, WESTWARD TO THE 102d MERIDIAN, INCLUDING KANSAS AND NEBRASKA. By Pror. N. L. BRITTON ano Hon. ADDISON BROWN WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF SPECIALISTS IN VARIOUS GROUPS, Every known species, from the Ferns upward, separately described anew, and figured. Over 4ooo cuts. With Keys to Species and Genera, the Synonymy, the English Names, the Revised Nomenclature, and revised Systematic Sequence of Families. The First complete Mlustrated a ij , Manual of Botany published in this country ‘or d lovers of plants. VOLUME | Royal 8vo, pp. xii + 612; figured species, 1425, uncol- PRICE, NO ored; FERNS to CARPET-WEED. Vols. 11 and III, com- $3.00 PER READY pleting the work, will appear during 1897. Subscriptions may be sent to the publishers, CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS, NEw YORK. Or to PROF. BRITTON, Cotumeia University, WN. Y. Botanical Gazette Volume XXII, beginning with the July number, is issued from The University of Chicago Press, with some changes in form and typography. Each number will contain at least eighty pages, Which will be increased if necessary to meet the demands of Contributions. The illustrations will be of the best grade of lithographs and photo-engravings. The character will depend upon the subject, and will be determined by the editors in Consultation with the author. ; That the Boranicat GazettE may be more fully repre- sentative of botanical activity, a staff of associate editors has Been organized. Those for America are: GrorGE F. ATKIN- ‘0X, Professor of Botany, Cornell University; VoiNey M. SPALDING, Professor of Botany, University of Michigan; ROLAND THaxrer, Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, 4147 vard University; Wiitiam T RELEASE, Director of the Missouri — Botanical Garden. European associates will be announced later. VOLUME NEATLY BOUND IN CLOTH dais ene ead bceam rn inertness BOTANICAL GAZETTE CONTENTS. BOTANICAL OPPORTUNITY. Wiliam Trelease : - -. BOTANICAL PAPERS AT BUFFALO. Botanical SocieTY OF AMERICA - - = - : SECTION G or THE A. A. A. S.— - < - - = BOTANICAL CLUB = a ‘ = Z ‘ a BRIEFER ARTICLES. Norges on Two Species or Brassica. 2B. L. Robinson — - ae A NEw -MAMILLARIA. J. W. Toumey - - : = _ THE Bisrup tion OF THE SPECIES OF GYMNOSPORANGIUM IN rae So . M. Underwood and F. S. Earle BOTANICAL APPLIANCES (with Plates IX and X). G. &. es. - | £DIToRraL : : : : : E BOTANICAL MEETINGS IN BUFFALO. —- CHIEF OF eee OF AGRICULTURE. OPEN LETTERS : “ : : : : —— Worx OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2. T, Gal = Locat Rion Edward Lotond : = AvTHORSHIY « OF CERTAIN Names. 7. D. A. Cockerell, : ay € URRENT Lr TERA TORE. BOOK REVIEWS fetes : 2 ae a AN AMERICAN ILLUSTRATED Fora. /. MZ. C. VOL. XXIT. No.3 mxxl «(7 OCTOBER 1896 No. 4 EDITORS JOHN M. COULTER, Zhe University of Chicago, Chicago, Il. CHARLES R. BARNES, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. ASSOCIATE EDITORS EORGE F. ATKINSON ROLAND THAXTER les Cornell University Harvard eo VoLNEY M. SPALDING WILLIAM TRELEASE University of Michigan Missouri Botanical Caer ISSUED OCTOBER 20 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS oo by The Bniversity of Chicago bel ee “Whe BM mihoreitn of Chicace pres? for 1896, — SUBSCRIPTIO} MUST BE PAID IN ADVANCE. “SENT. “arTER THE. marmarion a THE TIME PAID FOR. Ss MADE TO DEALERS OR AGEN ws, Sun x ow. 6 BEGINNING wh H 1807 THE ANNUAL SS witL BE $4,00 VOLUMES); SINGLE N a RITAIN, ob: sh VOLUME XXII NUMBER 4 BOTANICAL GAZETTE OCTOBER 1896 THE PHALLOIDEA OF THE UNITED STATES. DEVELOPMENT OF THE RECEPTACULUM OF CLATHRUS OLUMNATUS Bosc. EDWARD A. BURT. 6 ; (WITH PLATES XI AND XII) Ix working out in Anthurus borealis the structural details of ‘ imperfectly known genus, quite unexpected results were obtained with regard to the development of the receptaculum, hich made it desirable to include in the investigation other tepresentative genera of the Phalloidex. A suitable range of : tonal forms was presented by Mutinus caninus (Huds.), ephora duplicata (Bosc), and Clathrus columnatus Bosc, the ormer of these belonging to the subfamily Phallez, and the and the Anthurus to the Clathree. The papers on thurus* and Mutinus? have been published already. With present paper on Clathrus it becomes possible to present clearly the important developmental differences between {Wo subfamilies. ‘During the winter of 1894-5, a supply of alcoholic material S columnatus, provided by Dr. Farlow, was studied of oo Anthurus, its structure and development. Memoirs Boston ae - 33487. 1894. ‘s development of Mutinus caninus (Huds.) Fr. Annals of Botany 10+343 273 ” 274 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER — under his direction in the Cryptogamic Laboratory of Harvard University. While fully substantiating the conclusion reached in the case of Anthurus borealis with regard to the origin of the chamber- and pseudoparenchymatous tissues of the receptaculum from different systems of primary tissues, nevertheless the range of stages was not great enough for a complete account of the development of the receptaculum. During the summer of 1895, a more abundant supply of young stages of C. columnatus was collected for me through the kindness of Professor P. H. Rolfs, of the Agricultural College, Lake City, Fla. With this the investigation has since been completed. The methods of staining, etc., are given in detail in my former papers. MATURE STAGE, INTRODUCING THE TERMS TO BE EMPLOYED. The fructification of Clathrus columnatus has a receptaculum consisting of from two to five vertically ascending columns, which are quite separate where they arise from the volva, but join together at their apices, Usually there are only four such columns. These are joined together in pairs, the two opposite pairs being then connected together by a short and broad af of the same nature as the columns. In the earlier stages the receptaculum is compressed into a small space in the interior of the fructification and enclosed by a fleshy bag called the V sae In such early stages the fructifications of this, and other members of the Phalloidex, are called ‘‘eggs’”’ on account of their general : appearance. . By the time the spores mature, the egg attains a dia from 3 to 5™. The receptaculum then elongates and ie out through the apex of the volva, thus raising the spore? " height of from 5 to 8™ above the surface of the ground for ge favorable dispersal. After elongation of the receptaculum, 1 Spore-mass, or gleba, as it is called, may be seen as 4 5P"™ mass in the upper part of the main central cavity of the dag taculum, hanging from the under side of the arch and : : proximate portions of the columns. . meter of © bursts | 1896 | THE PHALLOIDEA OF THE UNITED STATES 275 Of the three layers of the volva, the middle, or gelatinous layer, is not one continuous sheet as in the Phallez, but consists of as many meridionally arranged masses as the receptaculum hascolumns. These gelatinous masses alternate in position with the columns and are completely separated from each other by the cortical plates (C’, figs. 4, 5, and 6). The cortical plates extend from the base to the apex of the egg and connect each column of the receptaculum throughout its entire length with the outermost, or cortical layer (C). The peculiar arrangement of alternating cortical plates and gelatinous masses arises in the early differentiation of the egg, as will be shown further on. COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT. The eggs are borne at the ends of short branches of the subterranean mycelial strands. In cases where the egg has arisen as an outgrowth on the side of a mycelial strand, the Portion of the strand beyond the egg seems to have ceased its further growth so that the egg becomes practically seated at the end of the strand running into it. The mycelial strands consist of two systems of tissues: a central or medullary bundle of fine hyphae running in a longitudinal direction, and an outer or cor- tical layer of coarser hyphz forming a loose but very interwoven Structure, The cortical layer of the strand is continued upward in the — its outer covering (C, fig. 1). This figure is from a median longitudinal section of an egg 1.5™™ long by about Pin diameter. The more compact medullary bundle is marked J. % the strand, so here, its hypha run in a prevailingly longi- udinal direction lying close together. By the double stain used iy two layers of the egg are sharply separated from each Gack in color as well as by the more open structure of the cor- ions hes Although so well marked, still they are in intimate . in their region of contact by means of hyphe which inter] ay laterally from the medullary layer and branch and ba ace with the cortical hyphae and become indistinguishable them. In fig. 2 a cross-section of an egg in the same stage 276 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | ocroweR of development as that of fig. 7 is given under the same magni- fication. The medullary bundle J/ is nearly circular in cross- section. A developmental change now sets in through which the out- line of the medullary portion becomes lobed. These lobes alternate in position with the later formed columns of the recep taculum and extend longitudinally from near the base of the egg almost to the apex of its medullary bundle. The four such lobes usually formed in C. colunnatus are shown in the cross-sec- tion of an egg in this stage (G, G, fig. 4). Fig. 4 is drawn with the same magnification as figs. r and 2, the diameter of the egg having become only slightly greater. Many eggs of about the same diameter as these were sectioned and examined in order to find intermediate stages between those of figs. 7 and 2 and jig. 4, which would show the mode of differentiation of the med- ullary lobes G, G. It seems probable that their differentiation occupies only a short interval of time, for only one egg in Oe intermediate stage was found. It is shown in cross-section in Jig. 3, and under the same magnification used in the other cases- In this stage ( fig. 3) the medullary and cortical layeis are less sharply distinct from each other than in the earlier or later stages. At three points, perhaps four, hyphae seem to be invad- ing the cortical region of fig. 2 and forming masses (G). These masses are the rudiments of the gelatinous layer of the volva of later stages. Only three such lobes can be made out with cer tainty in this stage, while four are present in the more advanced stage of fig. 4. The absence of the fourth may indicate that the differentiation of all four lobes does not begin at exactly the same time; but it seems more probable, however, that this is a early stage of a Clathrus having three columns for its receP oe lum. In such a plant oniy three gelatinous masses are acd in the gelatinous layer of the volva. Specimens having ae three columns did occasionally occur in this material. The rudiments (G, G, G, fig. 3) of the gelatinou volva are most intimately connected with the central me mass and must undoubtedly be regarded as belonging ns s layer of the | 4 dullary — the 1896 | THE PHALLOIDEAE OF THE UNITED STATES 277 medullary system, as they have been heretofore.3 As shown in this stage the manner of formation of these lobes seems to be that of a general growth of medullary hyphe along three or four longitudinal lines outward among the cortical hyphe of the layer C of the youngest stage. That this is the actual mode of formation of the lobes is shown by the fact that their margi- nal portions are less sharply set off from the cortical layer than is the case in later, and even earlier stages. In this stage many cortical hyphz can be followed into the marginal portions of the lobes, and the color reactions by the double stain used are less sharp in those portions than they are between the cortical and medullary systems in other stages. It is to be observed that in this stage the surface of the egg does not conform to the surface of the medullary portion, but has in cross-section the nearly circular outline of the youngest stage (fig. 2). In later stages a gelatinous accumulation in the lobes (G, G) causes them to swell outward and laterally towards each other so as to give to the egg a surface with a broad rounded longitudinal ridge, extending outside of each lobe from the base of the egg nearly to its apex. These lobes are separa- ted by shallow furrows, each of which marks the position of a column of the receptaculum, and is of great help in orienting the eggs for sectioning. Were such longitudinal ridges and fur- FOWs present on the surface of the egg in the stage of fig. 2, they would have favored the view which I formerly held that the medullary lobes originate by outward protrusion of medullary tissue along four longitudinal lines, such protrusion being due to “§0rous growth within the medullary portion merely pushing the cortical layer further outward in those regions. The columns of the receptaculum arise in the angles (C0) between the medullary lobes (G, figs. 3 and g). Ed. Fischer+ in his Study of Clathrus cancellatus has called the tissue C’ of these angles Zwischengeflecht, and has referred it to the medullary sys- 3G q MOR On Sn ee ee ee in - Ed. Fischer, Untersuchungen z. vergleich. Entwicklungsgeschichte u Sys- B ae Phalloideen, Denkschr. d. Schweiz. naturf. Gesellsch. 32:4. 1890; also mt on Anthurus, /. ¢, 494. ‘ Ibid. 4, 278 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ OCTOBER tem of tissues, although pointing out that its hyphz are coarser, more highly refractive, more loosely arranged, and more irregu- larly intertwined than is the case in the rest of the medullary system. In all of these points of difference which have been enumerated, the tissue in question agrees with that forming the surface of the egg. As it is also more intimately connected with such cortical tissue than with the medullary tissue, stains the same as the former, and in the youngest stages (figs. 7 and 2) is the direct continuation upward in the egg of the cortical tissue of the mycelial strand, it should be regarded as belonging to the cortical system. It will be referred to in this article as the tissue of the cortical plates, as in my earlier paper on Anthurus. In the earliest stages the cortical layer is clusely adnate to the medullary layer. In the stage of fig. ¢ separation of these two layers begins along the inner edge of each cortical plate, the two tissues seeming to be pulled slightly apart, although very numerous hyphal connections still exist between the two surfaces. In the older stage of jig. 5 this sepate tion has become more complete and a decided fissure has ‘ been produced between the two systems along the inner edge # the cortical plate (C’). While it is possible that the rapid growth of the medullary lobes (G) and their distention with the gelatinous accumulation may have carried the cortical system outward bodily and, to some extent, may have loosened the cortical plates from their connections along their inner edges, it seems more probable that the separation has been callst chiefly by changes in the medullary structure facing against the cortical plates, as shown in fig. 5. Medullary hyphe reaching to the edge of a cortical plate become swollen at the outer end and become arranged side by side in a palisade-layer. i of a similar nature crowd their way in between the members © this palisade-layer and so increase its surface that the layet becomes thrown into folds (¢, fig. 5) and torn away shine : cf nections with th ): 10 e edges of the plates (C’) s kind sections of this stage occasional hyphal connections of thi still persisted, 1896] 1H PHALLOIDELZE OF THE UNITED STATES 279 Examination of the surface of contact of medullary lobes (G) of the volva with the cortical layer (C) and the cortical plates (C’) shows that the hyphz in this surface now lie in the plane of the surface, indicating that, in the great increase in the volume of these lobes since the stage of fig. 4, their distention (partly due to gelatinous accumulation no doubt) has been pushing their surface bodily against the cortical layer. The same distention of these lobes has also brought them closer together, laterally compressing the masses C’ of fig. 4 into the narrower plates of fig. 5, and into still narrower plates in the more advanced stage of fig. 6. With the further growth of the egg, the medullary surface (4, fig. 5) becomes thrown into a very complicated series of | folds, causing passages to extend in a labyrinthine manner into the main central medullary mass. The cells of the palisade- layer facing the deeper lying passages differentiate into basidia and bear spores. This portion constitutes the gleba (G/) of older stages. Hyphez from the cortical plates penetrate into the passages situated in front of the edges of the cortical plates, become adnate to the surfaces of the medullary masses (7) form- ing the walls of those passages, differentiate into pseudopar- enchyma, and prevent the differentiation of basidia and spores on the surfaces covered. The pseudoparenchyma so formed constitutes the walls of the receptaculum of later stages; the medullary tissue (2) enclosed by these walls is the tissue of the chambers of the receptaculum, and it gelatinizes and becomes torn up in. the elongation of the receptaculum, leaving the chambers empty for the most part. The relation of these Ussues to each other are represented in fig. 6. At the right the ty tissue (z) is shown with its hymenial layer of basidia “ vio the cavities or passages of the gleba. Just to the right of my veal plate (C’) a column of the receptaculum is develop- sa cortical hyphe from C’ have grown into the passages ay the medullary masses (¢) and, in contact with those ads developing into pseudoparenchyma. The depth to € cortical hyphe have invaded these passages is shown 280 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBEer by the position of the continuous line g in the figure. ~Beyond that line basidia line the passages. At 7, 7, 7, medullary masses may be seen crossed by the line; these masses lie par- tially in the gleba and partially in the column. In their glebal portion they. bear a layer of basidia; on the ends in the column they are covered with the cortical tissue. It is by such connect ing medullary masses that the gleba hangs suspended within the cavity of the receptaculum after elongation of the latter. In the same figure (fg. 6) many medullary masses (¢) may be seen in the column not connected with the other masses to the right. These unconnected masses are in general smaller toward the edge of the cortical plate (C’) and, in some stages, they are more closely surrounded by the adhering cortical tissue than are the masses ata greater distance from the edge of the plate. Ed. Fischer has described the occurrence of such isolated masses,> which he calls hyphal knots (Hyphenknduel) in Clathrus cancellatus, and has concluded that they arise from the differ- entiation of the tissue of the cortical plates.° In this opinion I cannot concur. As already stated, my preparations show that a continuous cavity is first formed between the edges of the cortical plates and the medullary tissue. Hyphe from the one side of this cavity grow into it. Along the opposite side of the cavity branching masses of medullary tissue extend into the cavity, partially filling it and causing its irregularity in form. Such medullary masses are represented by the dark areas in figs 70-13. They are highly gelatinous, having the same microscople structure as that of the gelatinous layer of the volva and the main central mass of medullary tissue, and they take the samé orange-red stain in my preparations. Figs. 1o-z3, in the order of their numbering, represent serial cross-sections, of which fig: ro is of the section at the lower end of the series, oF nearest the base of the egg. They are from below the level of the gleba. The examination of such a series of cross-sections affords reasoP sLbid. 5, figs. 3 and 4. 6 hy A . Fischer calls this tissue LZwischengeflecht. Ut is, however, tissue from that to which he applies the same name in the Phallex. a wholly different 1896 | THE PHALLOIDEA OF THE UNITED STATES 281 for believing that these gelatinous masses are all connected with each other and with the main central mass of medullary tissue. In fig. ro an irregular mass occurs consisting of five main parts each of which is marked z. Upon following this mass weread through the series, it is found that its five parts finally become separate from each other, and that the outermost part of the original mass does not reach up into the plane of the highest diate (ig. 73). The small mass marked 2 also fails to reach = ete. that pection: The attempt to follow in serial sections € apparently isolated masses (Fischer’s “hyphal knots’) of eas a section leads to the conclusion that such masses are oats highly sagas structure arising from the inner outward aaa and that the ramification of this mass is the medullar = y upward. : Such a branched structure along en. cael side of the cavity has arisen, without doubt, partly Cohae He aaa by the formation of the palisade-layer, in part ol ae ed; but there is evidence that it may be due the medullary ms irregular splitting downward and inward into connections - ie o shown by the changes that occur in the masses, joined o SaVitY 9 ( figs. 10-13); and by the fact that Separate in oth opether Ente one! in some sections, become is afforded b ie ia join again into one. Other evidence hyphe ag e distribution among the medullary masses of tissue is found . cortical plates. In this stage such cortical the i es ei abundance in the marginal portions of the spaces “ay ge wholly absent from some, but not all, of cae on. the more centrally situated masses. ao occupy spaces at Satie: which we have hacia considering ‘aculum in later ee chamber- BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XNII. oo a Eee: ; | ae PLATE XU. XTi. PLATE WICAL GAZETTE, XXJ//. BURT on CLATHRUS. THE MECHANISM OF MOVEMENT AND TRANSMIS- SION OF IMPULSES IN MIMOSA AND OTHER “SENSITIVE” PLANTS: A REVIEW WITH SOME ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS. D. T. MACDOUGAL. (WITH PLATE XIII) THE history of investigation of the transmission of impulses in “ sensitive” plants begins with the work of Lindsay on Mimosa in Jamaica in 1790, which for some reason was not published until 1827.7 During the century following the subject received ~ attention except that given it in the north temperate zone, in warm houses, and for the greater part under highly artificial conditions. In such manner it has been the object of numerous series of experiments, and of many highly ingenious specula- tions, Briefly summarized, the aggregate results of both methods embrace nothing beyond a delineation of the anatomical details, the chemical properties of some of the tissue systems, an mmense number of the features of reaction under artificial con- ditions, “working theories” of the mechanism of the motor °rgans and metaphysical explanations of the transmission of mpulses, and general relation of such highly specialized forms of sensitiveness to the developmental history of the plant. 3 € work upon the subject under conditions necessarily arti- ficial has been so futile in real results that it has come to be admitted on all hands that asatisfactory solution of the problems Presented may be accomplished only by researches prosecuted = the tropics, in the habitat of plants which have acquired a high degree of sensitiveness. 1 “eo Jour. Sci, Lit. and Art 24:79. 1827, and 25: 434. 1828. 293 294 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ OCTOBER As an account of such an attempt the recent work of Cun- ningham deserves attention.’ As a basis for the theory upon which this author seeks an explanation of the mechanism of pulvini he devotes a large pro- portion of his work to the demonstration of the novel idea “that the great majority, if not all, of the transient spontane- ous movements of higher vegetable organisms, whether of a nyctitropic character or arising in connection with other condi- tions than the incidence or removal of sunlight, are not depend- ent upon the presence of any specially irritable and contractile protoplasts within the motor organs, but on purely physical processes connected either with fluctuations in the osmotic capacities of the tissue-elements, or with alterations in the rela- tions existing between local and general supply and loss of water.” {n support of this remarkable statement, but very little evidence obtained by an examination of the cell is advanced, but depend- ence is placed upon the external consistency and color of organs subjected to various reagents. Thus flowers of Hibiscus with the peduncle in water were exposed to ammonia gas in a moist chamber, and as they did not lose their form, while flowers similarly exposed to chloroform wilted, the conclusion was drawn that the osmotic activity of the dead cells was increased by the ammonia in the first instance. A final conclusion derived from similar experiments was that “ there is no direct relation between turgidity and the presence of living protoplasm in the bis elements,” but in some instances turgidity may be indirectly dependent on the protoplasm because of the necessity for the manufacture of osmotically active substances; 4 ce sion certainly at variance with almost all of the know? sti concerning the physiology of the cell. Not only does ' author deny the possibility of changes in the filtratave ie erties of protoplasm, but he disregards the simple POE Properties of this colloidal substance. He proposes # desig? *CUNNINGHAM, D. D.: The causes in the fluctuations in the motor organs n aviige Annals of the Bot. Gard., Calcutta 6: 1-145. 1895. 4t0. 7 yith. coh 1896] MOVEMENT AND TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES IN PLANTS 295 for the construction of a machine which shall react similarly to Mimosa. All pulvinar movements are supposed to be due to a loss of water from the portion of the pulvinus in which contraction ensues, either directly by transpiration, or by withdrawal by the action of neighboring tissue so affected. : Scant attention is paid to the results of Pfeffer and his students, but the author gives the records of a very large number of experiments which, as he rightly points out, show reactions quite different from those obtained in northern latitudes. The thermometric records are meager in certain series, but it is possible that the temperature variations do not exert such an important influence in the tropical habitat of the plant. » According to Haberlandt3 and others, the transmission of impulses and reaction in Mimosa bears a direct relation to the con- ditions securing an excessive root supply of water and hindered transpiration, Cunningham, however, finds the relation an inverse one, that plants in a saturated atmosphere react least readily. Ina comparison of the three most important forms of stimuli he Says: “In cases of ‘contact stimulation’ we induce mere local distributions of liquid within the tissues ; in cases of incision we Sive rise to temporary exudations from the general supply of liquid ; in cases of heating we secure not only this, but in addi- tion we establish temporary increase of transpiratory loss and a Site of persistent abnormal drain.” In what manner a contact stimulus may cause alterations in the transpiration of acell with- Out the interposition of protoplasmic action is not explained. It must be said, however, that Dr. Cunningham's observational results are of great value, and are very suggestive as to methods useful in a continuance of the work. ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS. at During the summer of 1895 I was enabled to make a number “xperiments with a view of-determining the chief factors 3 H * Reizleitende Gewebesystem der Sinnpflanze. 1890. 296 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER in the transmission of impulses by Mimosa and other plants, in the Botanical Institute at Leipsic by the courtesy of Geh. Professor Pfeffer, to whom I am also indebted for his untiring attention and advice. A number of the tests were repeated in the Botanic Insti- tute at Tubingen in the present year, and I am indebted to the director, Professor Véchting, for the opportunity. Some of the tests have also been repeated in the plant houses of the University of Minnesota. Haberlandt’s conclusions as to the transmission of impulses by means of hydrostatic disturbances ina series of elongated cells (the “Schlauchzelle”) lying externally to the xylem have been received with general favor, and accounts for such a large number of the phenomena of transmission that certain of the experiments were arranged in such manner as to test the capacity of this theory for final explanation. In the first place, repetitions were made of the well known experiments in which impulses were transmitted through por- tions of stems and petioles which had been killed by steam or dry heat in such manner as to allow the dead portions to remain mechanically intact. In my own work this was accoml- plished by winding soft cloth around the portion to be killed and saturation with water at 90-100° C. for five minutes. In some instances the dead portions were allowed to desiccate and in others a Wrapping of tinfoil or a sheath of oiled plaster of Paris prevented undue loss of moisture. | I was able to transmit impulses from an incision or flam through dead portions of stems 3™ in length ; in some instances in which desiccation had proceeded to such an extent that the cell lumina of the dead portion were quite devoid of liquid contents, and in one instance through a portion bent at right angles by the weight of the leaf. I was able to obtain similar transmissions in the midrib of the multipinnate leaf of Oxalis sensitiva, which offers many % the features of Mimosa. In a few instances a reaction was obtained when incisions a a | : 1896] MOVEMENT AND TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES IN PLANTS 297 were made in the dead portion of a stem or petiole of Mimosa, but no great reliance is placed in such results. Dr. Cunningham has repeated the tests of transmission through dead portions of stems, and was able to send an impulse through stems consisting of alternating living and dead sections. The above experiments, giving similar results in the hands ofa great number of workers, demonstrate conclusively that transmission may be accomplished in portions of the plant in which no turgid cells occur, and consequently in which no hydrostatic disturbance is possible. With such facts in evidence the next step was naturally the determination of the question as to whether or not a hydrostatic disturbance constituted an impulse. Three methods were used. A number of young, healthy plants 4o™ in height were brought into the experiment room, and after being cut off near the sur- face of the soil, the bases of the excised stems were set in beak- ers of distilled water. The immersed portion (10™ long) of the stem was split and stripped in such manner that a large surface composed of active cells was exposed. When the leaves had regained their normal position half an hour later, with the air temperature at 28-30° C., the water in the beaker was withdrawn and quickly replaced by a saturated solution of potassium nitrate without mechanical disturbance to the shoot. Although the endosmotic action of the potassium must have resulted in the almost instantaneous withdrawal of a large quantity of water from the “Schlauchzelle” and other exposed tissues of the base a the stem, no reaction followed. The leaves were found to be in their usual sensitive condition after the experiment, when Contact or incision stimuli were applied. The bases of the stems of small plants were sealed securely into'a glass tube roo long, 1° internal diameter, filled with “ater, which connected at the other end with a leaden tube 3o™ long leading into a receiver of a capacity of 4 liters, with a vacuum ot 70™. of mercury. When the leaves had regained — hormal Position, with the temperature at 28-32" C., the °pcock leading into the vacuum was turned, allowing the full 298 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER force of the vacuum to act on the base of the stem. Inno instance was a reaction obtained. The usual tests showed a normal degree of sensitiveness in the plant. The two experiments above described must lead one to con- clude that diminished hydrostatic pressure does not constitute an impulse. It is, of course, open to belief that greater varia- tions in pressure or a more sudden application of the same might be followed by a reaction. To avoid a misconception of the effects of such diminution of pressure on the cell contents, attention is called to the fact that the ““Schlauchzelle” form a series of continuous tubes, the contents of which freely communicate by openings in the cell walls, and that variations in pressure on any part of the system are quickly distributed through the entire system, as is demon- strated by the following experiment. In order to test the effect of increased pressure on the plant, shoots were securely sealed into a short section of glass tubing, as above, by means of a rubber stopper bound in place by wires. The tube was filled with water and the other end connected ina similar manner with a leaden tube, with an internal diameter of 3-4™" and 1.5™ in length, leading to the chamber of a com- pression air-pump (see plate ). When the leaves had regained a normal position in an air temperature of 26-32° C., by a sud- den stroke of the handle of the pump a pressure of 3-8 atmos pheres was suddenly exerted on the base of the stem, but 10 reaction followed. That the increased pressure was exerted throughout the plant was proven by the manner in which wate poured from the clipped end of a distant leaflet, and that it passed through the “Schlauchzelle”’ was shown by stripping away the tissues external to these cells. The pressure was thus communicated to distant parts of the plant within a second from the time of its application. As another test, with its object similar to the above, 4 com- 3 pressive pressure was quickly applied to various parts of : plant by the fingers, forceps, or other appliances. In som instances reactions were obtained. It is extremely difficult 1896] MOVEMENT AND TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES IN PLANTS 299 compress the stem quickly without communicating a mechanical disturbance to the plant. It is also difficult to give the com- pression without crushing the tissues of the plant. It seemed, however, that in the instances where the above faults were avoided no reaction followed the compression, though no conclusions are based on this result. In conclusion it may be said that the following points are somewhat firmly established: (1) Impulses may be transmitted by Mimosa and Oxalis through dead portions of stems and petioles in which the conditions are such that a transmission by the cell-wall or the water in the wall only is possible. (2) Great variations in the pressure exerted on portions of the plant in such manner as to set up hydrostatic disturbances extending throughout the entire plant are not followed by reactions; hydrostatic disturbance therefore does not constitute an impulse. It is to be noted, however, that while it is proven that an im- pulse may be transmitted by a wall of a dead cell, it does not follow that the entire transmission from the point of reception to the motor organ is accomplished by such means alone. It seems quite possible that protoplasmic action plays apart at both ends of the chain connecting the two points, and that while a hydrostatic disturbance does not constitute an impulse, it may play a minor part in its transmission. _ The entire problem, together with that of the developmental history of such highly specialized forms of ‘“sensitiveness” as those exhibited by Mimosa, must be followed to their solution in the tropical habitats of the plants. Tue Stare University oF MINNESOTA. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII. Fi 300 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER plant is fixed connects with the cylinder at 5 in fg.2. Drawn froma photo- graph. One-sixteenth natural size. Fig. 2. Section of compression pump. 1. Fitting around piston rod. The piston rod is driven by the lever handle to which it is connected above. 2. Stopcock leading into the open air; not closed when the pump is used for compression. 3. Piston head moving “air tight” in a metal cylinder. 4. falve. 5. Outflow pipe through which compressed air is forced. This pipe is extended horizontally in the opposite direction and upward to a point near the base of the crooked lead tube leading to the plant, in the apparatus shown in fig.z. Ata point near the juncture with the lead tube it is furnished with a stopcock leading into the open air, which is to be closed during the com- pression stroke and opened when the stroke is reversed. In Jig. 1 the cylinder is surrounded by a safety casing not shown in fig. 2._ One-eighth natural size. The plate for fig. 2 was copied from the original drawing of the apparatus, and was kindly furnished me by the designer, Mr. Eugene Albrecht, Uni- versitats- mechaniker, Tiibingen, and I am indebted to him for permission to reproduce it here. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXTJI, PLATE Xill MacDOUGAL on a COMPRESSION PUMP. THE MORPHOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN PYRENOMYCETOUS FUNGI. Mary A. NICHOLS. (WITH PLATES XIV-XVI) Tue study of the morphology and development of the ascomycetous fungi comprises four essential questions : (1) sexuality; (2) structure of sporocarp; (3) origin and develop- ment of spore; (4) presence, structure, and behavior of nuclei. The literature includes the results of many valuable investiga- tions dealing with one or more of these questions throughout the great class Fungi. The thoroughness and accuracy of this work has advanced steadily with the improvement of methods, and much of the earlier work has been disproved later. In the meantime two opposed schools have arisen, one maintaining the sexuality of the higher fungi and their relation to the Floridex, the other denying the presence of sexual organs and tracing the development of the compound sporocarp through an asexual line of ancestry. Throughout the Phycomycetes there remains little doubt of the existence of a distinct sexual process. Representative forms n the different families have been described by De Bary (1) and many others. The structure of the sporocarp, and origin and development of the spore in this group are comparatively simple Processes, and have been more or less thoroughly demonstrated. Nuclear phenomena here have also received some attention. Among the later and more complete articles may be cited that ’ Istvanffy (2) treating of numerous different species. he Mesomycetes (Brefeld) seem to lend themselves to cither line of development. Those leading toward the Ascomy- “etes furnish some instances of undoubted cytoplasmic fusion ge while in the Ustilaginee and Uredinee Dangeard (3) and 301 302 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | OCTOBER Sappin-Trouffy (4) describe certain nuclear fusions which they explain as sexual processes. No details of nuclear structure and division in these forms have as yet been described. In the Basidiomycetes the only process analogous to conjugation is the fusion of nuclei in the basidium before the formation of spores. Nuclear studies in this group have been more numerous and complete than elsewhere among the fungi. De Bary (1) in three species has observed the presence of nuclei in the basidium. Rosenvinge (6) has demonstrated the same in thirty-five species. Strasburger (7) has observed the nuclei in Agaricus and found that they divide. Wager (8) in 1893 published the results of extensive nuclear studies upon Agaricus and Amanita, According to his statements, the nuclei of the basidia fuse in pairs before spore formation, and after this fusion Successive bipartitions of this fused nucleus occur to furnish nuclei for each of the four sterigmata. During division the nuclear membrane is gradually dissolved and the nucleolus and chromatin masses left free in the cytoplasm. The latter have previously arranged themselves in an equatorial plate. A spindle is now formed, at the poles of which are dark rounded bodies, probably centrosomes, but he fails to find any radiating strie. During the division the nucleolus disappears. After division of the chromosomes the spindle disappears and the daughter chromosomes at either pole fuse together and, he states; “apparently form the daughter nucleole.’? At the same time the linin network becomes more strongly differentiated, new membranes are formed, the daughter nuclei assume the size and appearance of the parent nucleus and are again ready to divide. In the Ascomycetes minute study becomes much ee difficult, the investigations are more meager and less reliable and the conclusions are more at variance. Of the generalizations made by De Bary (1) and others it is only necessary to call ae attention here to those on the sphzeriaceous Pyrenomycetes- Bary cites only Xylaria and Sordaria as having unmistal@® * sexual organs, and in these conjugation has not been wae In Xylaria the archicarp, he says, seems to disappeat before Hs 1896] CERTAIN PYRENOMYCETOUS FUNGI 303 formation of the asci, and hence no relation can be traced between fertilization and the origin of the spore. In Sordaria also, according to Woronin (g), the origin of the ascus cannot be traced certainly to the archicarp. ‘In Claviceps, Epichloe, Pleospora, and perhaps also Nectria, no cooperation of the above named organs (archicarp and antheridium) has been observed, and no distinct ascogonium.” . . . ‘The young perithecium, as at present known, is a body consisting of similar hyphe or parenchymatous cells, and its elements are gradually fashioned and differentiated into the parts of the perithecium.” “ Hartig’s (10) conjecture with regard to Nectria, that special ascogenous initial organs are really present on the very young stoma, but up to the present time have been overlooked, may certainly hold good of Claviceps and Epichloe.” (De Bary, /.¢. 200.) Hartig (10) finds sexual organs in Rosellinia, Woronin (9) claims sexuality for Spharia and Sordaria, and Harper (5), ina recent article on Spharotheca, shows conjugation and traces the origin and development of the ascus from the fertilized archicarp. Thus far we have shown strong support for the theory of the presence of sexuality in the Pyrenomycetes. But Brefeld (11), with a school of well known workers, opposes this view, tracing the development of the compound sporocarp through an asexual line and denying the significance which the De Bary school attach to certain characteristi¢s of these plants. Concerning the nuclei of the Ascomycetes we learn from De Bary that the young asci in both Discomycetes and Pyreno- mycetes, so far as studied, contain each a primary nucleus, and later one smaller nucleus is present in each of the eight spores. Sadebeck (12), in 1883, published certain details of nuclear behav- ‘erin the Exoascacez. He indicates that karyokinetic divisions take place in the ascus, increasing the number of nuclei from eae \ the primary nucleus) to one for each of the spores. His ree kinetic structures are, however, very rudimentary, ie a poles ap ed " his figure by two rounded granular Bees o, of ka = Spindle consisting merely of three lines. o del yokinesis are given. 304 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroser Fischer in 1885 goes somewhat more deeply into detail regard- ing the structure of the nucleus in Exoascus. According to his observations the nucleus is a round granular mass in which smaller and darker rounded bodies appear just before division. Next a spindle is formed, consisting of four threads converging slightly toward the poles. In the equatorial plane of the spindle four chromosomes now appear, which divide and pass to the poles of the spindle, where they form themselves into daughter nuclei. This description is of course crude, as were the methods of observation upon which it was based. Gjurasin (13) in 1893 published the first detailed account of karyokinesis in the Ascomycetes. It is based upon a study of Peziza vesiulosa. He describes the nucleus as consisting of a distinct round gran- ular nucleolus surrounded by a layer of hyaloplasm in which an indistinct network is present. At the time of division the nucleus elongates, the nucleolus becomes eccentric, the chro- matin aggregates into small masses, and two centrosomes with radiating stria appear. Between these are drawn the nearly parallel threads of the spindle. The chromatin masses collect in the equatorial plane of the spindle and divide, and the daughter chromosomes very quickly seek the poles and soon i surrounded by new nuclear membranes, the membrane of the parent nucleus having meantime disappeared. In these daughter nuclei the nucleoli appear after the formation of the membrane, and with their appearance the mother nucleus, which up t ss time has persisted lying free in the cytoplasm, disappeats- Second and third divisions occur in like manner. Gjurasin seit that he spent two years in the search for these karyokineti¢ structures, obtaining his final results by means of the Herman? and Flemming methods of fixing and staining. Harper (5) in 1895, by methods similar to those Gjurasin, observed karyokinesis in Peziza Stevensoniana . and Ascobolus furfuraceus Pers. From studies of these an yer : ous allied Discomycetes he concludes that the members of - = group are especially favorable for the study of nuclei 1? oe ascus. The results of his work may be summarized as follow?" adopted by 1896 | CERTAIN PYRENOMYCETOUS FUNGI 305 there exists in the young ascus four nuclei which fuse in pairs to form a single primary nucleus. This nucleus divides in a true karyokinetic manner to furnish a nucleus for each spore. In the process of division (1) the chromatin collects in masses on the network; (2) the nucleolus becomes eccentric; (3) cen- trosomes with radiating strie appear; (4) the chromosomes arrange themselves in the equatorial plane, divide in halves and seek the poles; (5) the nuclear membrane is ruptured and the threads from pole to pole become very much elongated and parallel. The nucleolus meantime has gradually diminished and by the time the daughter nucleoli are formed it entirely disappears. The daughter nuclei attain normal size and struc- ture and undergo two further successive divisions, providing one nucleus for each spore. The foregoing summarizes briefly the work so far done along the lines of morphology and development in the higher fungi. As may be seen, the first two divisions of the subject (sexuality and structure of sporocarp) have received a comparatively large share of attention, but the conclusions even here are contradic- tory and unsatisfactory. Spore development and nuclear phe- nomena have been worked out to some extent in the Basidiomy- cetes and Discomycetes, Harper’s work on one genus stands alone for the Perisporiacez, while nothing at all has yet appeared for the sphariaceous Pyrenomycetes. Hence certain members of the last named group have been made the basis for the vestigations of which the results are here presented. METHODS. Growing —The material used for study was grown in artificial cultures and examined either in sections or by growing it upon glass slips immersed in nutrient media and transferring these — directly to the stage of the microscope. The latter method Served as a check on the former, since in sections the numerous a of the mycelium are likely to lead to erroneous con- ee el SOO, #5: pure cultures of the desired species were y ordinary dilution methods, the spores were sown I” 306 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroser infusions of bean stems or mushrooms in Petri dishes. In these dishes had been placed carefully sterilized glass slips and cover- slips. The spores germinated sometimes upon the slips, some- times floating free in the liquid, in which case the colonies rested upon the surface. Where they germinated on the slips, the mycelium adhered closely to the glass and made the process of fixing and staining much less difficult. On the other hand, the colonies which floated on the surface of the liquid seemed to take on more natural characteristics and they could be lifted out ona slide and prepared for the microscope. Many of the. colonies thus grown developed mycelium in such abundance as to make observation very difficult. This was especially true of colonies grown in mushroom infusion, which seemed a most favorable medium, but it was also true that in these dense colonies the fruit was most abundant. The material for section- ing was grown in potato agar slightly acidulated to suppres bacteria. Fixing and staining.—Slides bearing colonies were lifted cate fully from the Petri dishes at different stages in their develop- ment and washed in water. Various methods of fixing and staining were tried. The most satisfactory was to fix with a cold I per cent. acetic saturate solution of mercuric chloride, stain with alum-eosin and mount in glycerine. The mercuric chloride fixes this material almost instantly and when washed off well with water leaves it in condition to take a clear decisive stain in the alum-eosin. This stain does not bring out nucleat structures with great distinctness, but cell walls come out sharp and clear. It stains the young mycelium and perithecia almost instantly, the latter taking a slightly deeper stain than the for mer. Good results were also obtained by staining with cari alum the material fixed in this way. Ehrlich-Biondi, haematy : lin and fuchsin were also found fairly good. The efficiency ° any stain was found to depend largely upon the age of ise fungus. Young mycelial threads stain very readily, while t° very mature ones refused the stain altogether. os Sectioning —Small blocks of potato agar con taining colo- 1896 ] CERTAIN PYRENOMYCETOUS FUNGI 307 nies were cut out from the Petri dishes, dropped for a few min- utes into the mercuric chloride and then allowed to wash in running water over night or at least for six to eight hours. In this process much of the agar was washed away, but the colonies were sufficiently compact to hold themselves together. They were then passed through successive alcohols, infiltrated and embedded in collodion, and cut with a microtome in sections from 64 to 124 thick. No other fixative tried seemed to leave the material so susceptible to stains as the mercuric chloride. Among others used may be mentioned chromic acid, Flemming’s stronger solution, Hermann’s solution, and Fish’s picro-aceto- sublimate. The solutions of Flemming and Hermann were per- haps equally good when cleared with hydrogen peroxide, but without this additional trouble the sections so fixed were use- less because of the discoloration of the protoplasm. With Fish’s mixture some very good sections were prepared, but they were in no way superior to those fixed in the more simple cor- rosive sublimate. In all the earlier part of the work the sections were stained with Mayer’s carmalum. This produced no differentiation of nuclear structures, and much time was spent in experimenting with various stains and combinations of stains in the hope of get- ting a color differentiation. This was not accomplished, but in the later work upon nuclei Hermann’s safranin-gentian-violet method as given by Zimmerman (17) was employed with very satisfactory results. Gjuarsin’s methods as given in his article on Dis- comycetes were also found valuable. The greater part of the observations were made with a Bausch and Lomb microscope, one-twelfth inch objective and one inch ocular, but for nuclear study this was found insufficient, and a Zeiss instrument with a one-twelfth inch objective and no. 8— Ocular was employed. | TEICHOSPORA. This fungus was found growing upon dead branches of oak m the vicinity of Ithaca, N. Y., late in November 1895. The 308 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | OCTOBER perithecia were then past maturity and many had discharged their spores. Closely associated with the perithecia were numer- ous pycnidia, appearing as much smaller rounded black bodies. A dilution culture was made in potato agar from the ascospores which were supposed to be free from the pycnospores. The ascospores soon germinated and camera lucida drawings of the: germinating spores were made (fig. 7). Numerous colonies now appeared in the plates. They were circular, showing radiations from the center, and in concentric rings, a little later, the begin- nings of perithecium like bodies appeared. These colonies were then transferred to infusions of bean stems in tubes where they continued to develop. Contrary to expectation, however, when the round black perithecia like bodies matured they contained not asci, but pycnospores. The pycnidia were rounded or oval in form, opening usually by two apertures (sometimes by more, sometimes by only one), and extruding their spores in the typical worm like manner. The spores are fusoid-elliptical, hyaline, continuous, about half the diameter of the mycelium. In the colonies the pycnidia appear first near the center and may be found in all stages of development along a radius of the colony, the youngest stages nearest the circumference. The beginnings of these structures are shown in figs. g and 5. No pycnospores had been observed in the agar plates in which the sowing ih made, and since the ascospores were known to have germinated, the natural conclusion was that ascospores had produced pycnidia, but this conclusion was found to be doubtworthy later. Meantime, there had appeared in the bean tubes, et ciated with these pycnidia, a grayish white m ycelium with erec branching hyphe upon which were borne multiseptate a brown. Although these were normally hyphe, as true conidia, they sometimes appeared as 1 growths in the mycelium. When these conidia wert ies mature a sowing of them was made in potato agat- - ce er 1896 | CERTAIN PYRENOMYCETOUS FUNGI 309 soon began to form around the spores, but whether the growth began from the germination of the spores or from attached frag- ments of mycelium was not determined. As only pycnidia and conidia were produced from these sowings, the cultures were abandoned. Sowings of py cnospores were next tried, but inseveral successive generations only pycnidia and gonidia appeared and there seemed no hope of reproducing the ascigerous fruit. This failure of the ascospores to reproduce themselves even in alter- nate generations seemed unnatural and another culture was attempted from the original material. This had meantime been kept in the laboratory and ‘had become old and dry and resisted all efforts to make it germinate. On January 25, 1896, some fresh material was collected by Professor Atkinson and from this ascospores were obtained which germinated readily in potato agar. Certain spores in the plates were marked and watched carefully until February 1, when they had attained distinctive characters and the numerous other colonies in the plates could be safely and certainly identified as the same. They appeared to the naked eye as dark spots with a light radiating fringe. With a carefully sterilized scalpel transfers of these colonies Were made to bean stems in tubes. Ten such tubes were pre- pared. The transfers were made in a close culture-room and _with the utmost precaution to avoid contamination. There was ‘no doubt that these colonies grew from the ascospores, but prob- ably none of these colonies developed. For a long time no growth appeared. Finally, in two tubes, a few pycnidia were found, and in one or two other tubes non-related forms appeared. In the plates from which the ten transfers had been made there oe found (Feb. 3) a few colonies much in advance of those Which had been traced from the ascospores, but very strongly ‘ssembling the pycnidia bearing colonies of previous cultures. hese, however, contained the beginnings of perithecia in some . Which asci had already developed. These colonies had ay grown from fragments of mycelium or of the ake €cla. They were removed piecemeal at short intervals of time (about three hours) and fixed and embedded for sectioning. It 310 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER was hoped by this means to get all the successive stages of development (see account of sections below). Transfers of these larger colonies were also made to the bean stems in tubes, where they continued to develop perithecia and March 5 a culture was made from the ascospores contained in these perithecia. These spores, although full grown, were still hyaline in color, but they possessed unusual vigor. The colonies grew very rapidly and developed to maturity. Perithecia only were produced and the Same was true in a third generation of this series. Another cul- ture was now made from the pycnidia and conidia but again they produced only their own kind. This failure to connect the asco- spores with the other forms led to the conclusion that they are probably distinct forms. The ascospores obtained from the oak in the fall germinated but failed to produce thrifty colonies, prob- ably because they had lost vitality or because they were not readily adaptable to artificial conditions. Those sown in the first cultures very probably germinated and then died, as did those transferred to the ten tubes. The pycnidia found in these first cultures no doubt originated from pycnospores which were ae ciated with the asci but overlooked in making the culture. This might easily have been the case, since the pycnospores are very small and scarcely distinguishable in potato agar. The study of the pycnidia and conidia has been included here because of interesting points of resemblance in the development of the pyc nidium and the perithecium, and also because in nature the tw? forms are found so intimately associated. Indeed their connec- tion is not disproved, although it has been impossible to estab- lish artificially a life cycle including the three forms. The ascigerous colonies which were finally obtained started, as has been said, from fragments of the mycelium of peritheci®, and the ascospores thus obtained, being fresh and vigorous ee perhaps also somewhat inured to conditions, germinated readily and reproduced themselves. This is further evidenced by ihe fact that during the winter two or three attempts were made - get cultures of the following species from herbarium spe T’. trimorpha, T. Susispora, T. aspera, and T. nitida. The first anal | | , | 1896 | CERTAIN PYRENOMYCE10US FUNGI gil species had been in the laboratory but a few months and its spores germinated but developed no further. The others were older and refused even to germinate. Attention was now confined to the ascigerous colonies of the species in hand, and with methods previously described the fol- lowing observations were made. The mycelium is composed of septate threads, each cell of which contains several nuclei. With alum-eosin and carmalum stains, the nuclei are distinguishable merely as round points stained more deeply than the cytoplasm and lying at or near the center of a circular clear space. In the mycelium nothing more minute than this could be determined in regard to the structure of the nucleus. None of various stains tried succeeded in differentiating any elements. Any stain which affected the nucleus also attacked the protoplasm of the cell. The nuclear membrane was usually sharply defined as a dividing wall between the clear circle and surrounding cytoplasm. At various intervals in the mycelium certain cells were found which were more or less swollen (fig. 7). The protoplasm in these was more dense than in the adjoining cells as shown by the deeper staining. This over-staining made observations upon nuclei in these cells very uncertain, but the cells proved to be the beginnings of perithecia. The first dividing wall is thrown across parallel to the septa which delimit the original cell (fig. 8). Each of the two daughter cells then divides by a wall per pendicular to this, forming a four-celled spherical body. As this Srows, further divisions occur somewhat irregularly (jigs. 9 t© 77) until we have a body consisting of a solid mass of irregular cells as yet without any differentiation. Sometimes at this stage the young perithecium is surrounded by a single layer of mycel- lal threads which have arisen in the neighborhood of the origi- mab cell and interwoven themselves, forming a sort of wall for the perithecium. The wall proper in this species is not more than a Single layer of cells thick and in many cases it seems to be formed by the thickening of the cell walls of the outer layer of the spherical mass, without the assistance of any surrounding filaments. It does not become dark and hard until the perithe- 312 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER cium is nearly or quite full grown. When the growing perithe- cium has attained a little more than half the normal diameter of the mature fruit there may be seen at its center an oval sac con- taining a single nucleus and filled with densely granular proto- plasm which stains very deeply. This sac is simply a swollen cell of the interior of the sphere. Simultaneously with its appearance a part of the loose parenchymatous tissue surround- ing it breaks down so that the young ascus lies in a more or less disorganized, gelatinous mass. Very soon the other asci appear one by one. In many cases the sections showed two large ovoid sacs lying side by side and almost filling the interior of the per- ithecium. The later asci developed as the growth of the sphere made room for them. Earlier investigators have attempted to find the connection between the origin of the asci and a supposed fertilized archi- carp (see Woronin, De Bary, and Hartig, Z. c.). In this case there exists no probability of a process of fertilization. In many cases the entire Sporocarp may be traced from a single cell around which no other filaments are present even to take part in the construction of the wall, and in cases where extraneous filaments are applied to the archicarp it happens after several divisions of the original cell have taken place. If we consider the single swollen cell in the mycelium as the mother cell of the _— perithecium it is a question of some interest what determine which of the daughter cells become asci and which are disorgat- ized. . Harper ( 5) finds in Sphzrotheca a structure consisting of from five to seven cells, arising directly from the fertilized sei Carp, anda certain one of these containing two nuclei and giving origin to the ascus. We might consider the entire cellular stu ture of the fruit of Teichospora homologous with this five , seven-celled growth in Spherotheca, in which case we shou expect to find in the former certain binucleated cells functio™ ing as mother cells of the asci. This may indeed be true e the observations so far made do not warrant such a statement. It is only in exceptional cases that the nuclei in these cells be distinguished at all, on account of the density of the proto- Pe rah SE AE by rear dT RS te OR a ede BAL YN a 5 ane Oe fe a ee aoe sah t 4:96. 1886; 7. STRASBURGER: Periodic reduction of chromosomes. Ann. Bot. 8 : 281. 1894. Zellbildung und Zelltheilung. Bot. Zeit. —:272. 1879. 8. WAGER: Nuclear division in Hymenomycetes. Ann. Bot. 7. 489. 1893. Nuclei in bacteria. Ann. Bot. 2513. 1691. St se : . ‘ . Bot. 127. 1889 ee of nuclei in Peronospora during formation of oospore Ann 3 is ee i Sphaeria lemanez; Sordaria fimisida; sande eh nent so n Woronin, ay ligospora. Beitrége zur Morph. u. Physiol. der Pi hie: - Hartic: Der oo niacbarisaeaeeg. Rosellinia Quercina. Untersuch. aus a. doncdicks Institut su Miin 188o. Der ‘orate Nectria cucurbitula. did. 88. p/. 5. ‘1. BRFFELD: Untersuchungen aus dem Gesammtgebiete der Mykologie. a iiber die Pilzgattung Exoascus. Jahrbiicher d. 884: 1,2 2. SADEBECK wis, ai su Ham mer, 13. GJURASIN : Ueber ie Kerntheilung in den seg ree von Peziza vesiculosa. ed, nc. Pokaan Gesellschaft 11 2113-117. 109 As TRow: Karyology of Saprolegnia. Ann. Bot. 9: 609. 1895- seyicets 5. VON TaFEL: Contributions to the history of the ee of, Byreno- €s. yal Mycol. —:53,113, 181. 188 328 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER 16. De Bary: Enurotium, Erysiphe, Cicinnobolus. Settrage zu Morph. una Physiol, d. Pilze, von De Bary und Woronin, 361. 17. ZIMMERMANN: Microtechnique. 18 LEE: Vade Mecum. 19. NICHOLS: Abnormal fruiting of Vaucheria. ot. Gaz. 20: 269. 1895. 20. HUMPHREY: Comparative morphology of the fungi. Am. Mat. 25: 1055- 1891. EXPLANATION OF PLATES XIV-XVI. Figs. 1, 2, 3, germinating spores of Teichospora. Figs. 4 and 5, young stages of pycnidia. Fig. 6, conidia. Figs. 7 to 12, successive stages in early development of perithecium of Teichospora; 7a, 104, IIa, early stages of perithecia in Teichosporella. ig. 13, later stage of perithecium of Teichospora in which certain cells have begun to differentiate into asci and contain primary nuclei. ig. 14, perithecium showing young asci. Fig. 15, part of a perithecium with several asci each containing primary nucleus. ‘ Fig. 16, fragment of a perithecium in which all the nuclear divisions 10 the spores seem to have occurred without the formation of dividing walls. Figs. 17 to 21, successive stages in development of the ascusin Teicho- spora, showing nuclear phenomena. Figs. 22 to 26, stages in development of ascus in Teichosporella. Mag- nification not sufficient to show nuclei. Figs. 27 to 31, successive stages in nuclear division in Teichospor Fig. 32, germinating ascospores of Ceratostoma brevirostre. Figs. 33 and 34, archicarps or beginnings of perithecia without attendant antheridia. Figs. 35 and 36, archicarps with antheridia attached, showing fusion. Fig. 37, unfertilized archicarp produced into vegetative filament. Fig. 38, archicarp and functionless antheridium. Fig. 39, young perithecium in which the archicar optical section. Fig. 40, fragment from the base of perithecium in whic : begun to appear; w. p., wall-parenchyma; ¢, tabular layer oF pete Asci are numbered to indicate successive stages in nuclear division. Fig. 41, further development of asci. Fig. 42, germinating spores of Hypocopra. Figs. 43 and 44, archicarps of Hypocopra with antheridia pre Figs. 45 to 47, young perithecia in optical section showing enci™ archicarp. p is still visible it h asci bavé BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX/I. PLATE. XIV. ye aes Sa Ces S y LB NICHOLS on PYRENOMYCETES. , . PLATE XI ALL. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, X NICHOLS on PYRENOMYCETES. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXT/1. PLATE XVI NICHOLS on PYRENOMYCETES. pat Oe SE ati hE Poe Ray Va eee a i BS gi eke 5 ies caaiie ody file cro ass BRIEFER AR PIC UES. THE ORGANS OF ATTACHMENT IN BOTRYTIS VULGARIS. (WITH PLATE XVII) WuiLE engaged during the present year with a series of cultures of the common greenhouse fungus familiarly known as Botrytis vulgaris, the attention of the writer was attracted by the facility with which conidiophores and organs of attachment mutually replace each other as the result of changes of external conditions. The interest of such facts from a theoretical standpoint makes it seem worth while to record the following observations which were conducted under the direction of Professor V. M. Spalding. Preliminary artificial cultures were prepared, each in a drop of malt solution on a glass slide. The first two, although as nearly alike as possible, showed very different results. One in the course of three days was completely covered with conidiophores (fg. 7), while in the other these were almost entirely absent, a development of peculiar cellular masses, the so-called organs of attachment, having taken place instead (fig. 6). The phenomenon suggested at once a relation of Some kind between the organs of attachment and the conidiophores. Other cultures were then prepared on slides, both plane and with concave centers, in test tubes, flasks, Petri dishes, etc., with the result that whenever the hyphe came in contact with the hard surface of the culture dishes, these peculiar bodies appeared, and whenever the yphe grew upward without contact, conidiophores developed. In order to determine with certainty whether or not the formation of conidiophores and organs of attachment could be controlled at will, the following cultures were prepared: Ina drop of malt solution, Placed on each of several slides with concave centers, were sown one or mere conidia, and over the drop was suspended, by means of strips of ra blotting paper, a coverslip (2x1). These cultures were then transferred to moist chambers until wanted. The slips were placed at taneus heights, if close to the drop (1-2 above) in twoor three days the cheat. overhanging surface was covered by organs of attachment, while 329 330 BOTANICAL GAZETTE —— Tocrower conidiophores were formed only where hyphz escaped at the sides and grew freely upward. When the slips were placed at greater heights (3-7™"), a greater development of conidiophores followed with a cor- responding decrease of organs of attachment. Next slips of mica were perforated with the point of a fine needle and placed at various heights as in the above cultures, with the result that organs of attachment were formed where hyphez came in contact with the overhanging surface, and conidiophores where they grew opposite or through the perforations. The fungus seemed to be entirely indifferent to light and gravity, and the formation of organs of attachment to be conditioned solely by the contact of hyphe with a hard surface. é The development of the conidiophores and organs of attachment throws still farther light on their relation to each other. For the study of the developing conidiophores rather old perianths of Lilium candidum were inoculated with conidia from a clean culture and placed in moist chambers. In the course of three or four days the entire substratum was covered by the fleecy mycelium. From time to time this was examined until all the stages of development were obtained. Briefly stated they are as follows: Strong erect hyphe, rich in prot plasm, branch two or three times, and from these branches repeated secondary divisions are sent out (fig. 2). Ultimately the apices of the branches swell, and peg like protuberances ( fig. 2 @) appear wh mane idly increase in size and number so that in a comparatively short wa mature ovoid conidia (jig. 2 4) are developed from them. Bs . formation of conidia was in progress at 3 o'clock P.M. April i Thus, with respect to the time of spore formation, this fungus differs from the one described by Klein." For the study of the successive stages of development * i" organs of attachment, the following agar-agar cultures were prepy : malt solution, 2 per cent.; malt solution, 3 per cent; Solow: i decoction, 2 per cent. ; potato decoction, 2 per cent.; gTape ee per cent. In all of these media the fungus grew luxuriantly, as ing organs of attachment when contact was possible, and con! he phores when this was impossible. The actual development of t organs of attachment was traced from a single conidium sown 1n ? r cent. potato agar medium, as follows: “Ueber die Ursachen der ausschliesslich-nachtlichen Sporenbildun cinerea. Bor. Zeit, 43:6. 1885. g von Botrytis : ‘ 1896] BRIEFER ARTICLES 331 After germination of the conidium, the fungus grew rapidly, branching in every direction, and whenever an upright hypha came in contact with the cover of the shallow Petri dish (5.5™" inside depth) repeated branching took place as in case of the conidiophores. As the organs increased in size the branches became shorter so that ultimately they were of no larger size than ordinary conidia of this species. The successive stages in the development are represented in figs. 3-6. ig. 3 shows the condition of things at 3:15 P.M.; fig. ¢ at 4:15 P.M.; fig. 5 at 5:07; and fig. 6 at 6 p.m. of the same day. After this the branching became so rapid and the organ so complex that accurate drawings were out of the question. When we compare the successive stages in the development of the conidiophores and organs of attachment, we find them essentialiy alike in origin and mode of branching, but ultimately in the case of the developing conidiophore the tips swell and peg like projections are sent out which grow and become mature conidia, while in case of the organ of attachment the branching continues irregularly and indefinitely. Farther, when conidia are sown in nutrient solutions germ tubes are sent out, and when a nutrient solution is supplied to one of the organs of attachment each ultimate division sends out a tube resembling a germ tube. In both cases these hyphe branch and develop into a complex mycelial mass. The resemblance therefore is a physiological as well as a morphological one. The connection between conidiophores and organs of attachment is farther emphasized by the intermediate forms found in almost every culture. Fig. 7, drawn accurately, as the others are, with the camera lucida, represents a prostrate branch with a young organ of attachment at 4, and short, erect branches bearing conidia at a. It was a com- mon occurrence for a hypha to bear conidia in successive clusters until it came in contact with the cover of the Petri dish, when it produced an organ of attachment. _YP to this time the organs of attachment were studied under arti- ficial conditions, but later attention was directed toward their formation and significance in nature. Leaves in connection with vigorously growing plants were tied in such a manner as to be from 2-4"" above €ach other, conidia having been sown previously, either in a small drop of water or malt solution, on the under leaf. The plants were then Placed in an atmosphere saturated with moisture, under a large bell ar. In no case was penetration observed where conidia were sown in 332 OTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER a drop of water simply, but where they were started in nutritive media, whether malt solution or a very small dead insect, in two or three days the fungus had penetrated both leaves, the one on which the conidia were sown as well as the one from 2—4™™ above it. Organs of attach- ment formed freely on the overhanging surface here as in the artificial cultures already described, while on the lower surface they were rarely met with. Whenever organs of attachment had thus formed tubes were sent out from them into the host in the manner described by former writers. But that the fungus is not confined to this means of entering the host was seen in sections of a leaf on which conidia had been sown in a drop of malt solution four days previous to sectioning. Here contact with other leaves was impossible, so that the erect hyphe bore conidia, while the prostrate ones ran over the surface of the leaf until a stoma was found for entrance (fg. 8). Again, some of the conidia produced by this mycelium had germinated and sent germ- tubes directly into the leaf between the lamelle of two adjacent cells (fig. 9). In the latter case the tissue of the leaf was probably weak- ened by the presence of the fungus in some other part, since after entrance the tissue is rapidly consumed. __ From the foregoing experiments, and others not recorded, the writer concludes that with this fungus the formation of organs of attachment is determined by external conditions which may be artificially produced by placing in proximity to the hyphe a hard surface for contact, or they may be met with in nature where plants are crowded together so that the leaves of different plants lap over each other; that when this condition is not present conidiophores will be developed instead of organs of attachment ; that in general conidiophores and organs of attachment are both physiologically and morphologically equivalents that biologically the fungus makes use of the organs of attachment ba penetrate a neighboring leaf, or it has the alternative, after starting saprophytically, of entering the host either through the stomata or by : sending germ tubes directly into the tissue. ae The literature of Botrytis vulgaris and allied forms is considerablt e yet comparatively little has been said concerning the morphology ° the organs of attachment. Brefeld? classes them, on account ee manner of attaching themselves to a substratum, with other “Hi organen,” while De Bary throws more light on their biological i * Schimmelpilze 4: 112. 5 Bot. Zeit, 44: 382, 412. 1886. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXII. HORN on BOTRYTIS. 1896] BRIEFER ARTICLES 333 tion to the host, saying that they are first formed as the result of a mechanical stimulus, and that by means of a poisonous secretion they injure the tissue, draw nourishment from it, and as soon as this is obtained send out branches which for the most part do not pene- trate the host directly, but spread over the surface surrounding the organ. Later Marshall Ward * described their development, and speaks of them as being “of the same morphological nature as those figured by Brefeld in Peziza sclerotiorum, and explained by De Bary subse- quently as organs of attachment,” while J. E. Humphrey‘ describes them as compact cellular masses which cling closely to the surface with which they are in contact, but that their real significance is not yet understood. —Marcaretua E. C. Horn, University of Michigan. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII. Fig. 1. A branch of an upright hypha bearing conidia. Fig. 2. Young developing conidiophore with small projections at a, and mature conidia at 6. Figs. 3-6. Successive stages of a developing organ of attachment. Fig. 7. A prostrate branch bearing mature conidia at @ and a young organ of attachment at 4. Fig. 8. Hypha entering a leaf of geranium through the stoma. ig. 9. Germ tubes penetrating the host between the lamelle of two adjacent cells. NEW WEST VIRGINIA LICHENS. Lecidea Virginiensis Calk. & Nyl., sp. nov.—Thallus glaucescens tenuis laevigatus rimulosus citrino-flavus; apothecia fusca aut nigra fonvexiuscula immarginata latit. circ. 0.5", intus medio sordida ; eft oblonga incoloris, long. 0.009-90.012, Crass. 0.004-6""5 epithecium et pars media hypothecii dilute fuscescens. In toto gela- tina hymenialis coerulescens, dein theca vinose rubescens. hy Stirpe videtur Lecidea sanguineo-atra, prope Lecideam delineatam On sandstone rock under the drip of a wet cliff. West Virginia, hear Nuttallburg, L. W. Nuttall coll. no. 1779. Flora of West Virginia, Millsp. & Nutt., 181. *Ann. Bot. 2: 327. 18 7. 1888. ie SNj 77 Ninth Ann. Rept. 1891 and Tenth Ann. Rept. 1892. Mass. Agr. Exp. Station. 334 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ; [OCTOBER Lecidea Nuttallii Calk. & Nyl., sp. nov.—-Apothecia nigra parva; epithecium impressum ; spora fusca oviformis I-septata, long. 0.014-16, crass. 0.005—6™"; hypothecium fuscum. In toto gelatina hymenialis vinose rubescens. Super thallum Ricasolia sublevis Nyl. West Virginia, near Nut- tallburg, L. W. Nuttall coll. no 1781. Flora of West Virginia, Millsp. & Nutt., 181. Arthonia aleuromela Nyl., sp. nov.—Thallus albus subfarinaceus chrysogonidicus tenuissimus ; apothecia subrotundata vel oblonga, prominula, latit. o.4—0.5""; spora oblongo-oviformis parte. inferiore attenuata, I-septata, long. o.o10-11, crass. 0.003". In toto gelatina hymenialis ccerulescens, dein obscurata. Thallus detritus subaureus, CaCl vix reagens. Gonidia chroole- poidea fulvescentia. On bark of Quercus sp. West Virginia, near Nuttallburg, alt 2000 feet, L. W. Nuttall coll. no 1182. Fora of West Virginia, Millsp. and Nutt., 182. Lecanora deplanans N yl., sp. nov.—Thallus glauco-cinerascens tenuis areolato-rimosus determinatus; apothecia badio-rufescens ~ (satis diluta) innata subconcaviuscula, latit. o. 5—o.7™; spora ellipsoidea, long. o.015—16, crass. 0.009-I.010™"; epithecium inspersum. In toto gelatina hymenialis fulvo-rubescens. } Videtur species e stirpe Lecanora cervina, spermatiis ellipsoideis. On rocks in bed of creek. West Virginia, Short Creek, alt. 130° feet, L. W. Nuttall coll. no. 1126. Flora of West Virginia, Millsp. & Nutt. 178—C, F, Mituspaucu, Field Columbian Museum, Chicagr, and L. W. Nurratt. E q a EDITORIALS. THE suBjectT of botanic gardens is happily coming into promi- nence in the United States. The recent address of Dr. Britton at uffalo has put into our hands a succinct account of what has been done abroad and what has been begun in this country. The showing for America is better than was expected, and the promise of the immediate future seems to be very large. The two essential features of a botanic garden, popular education and botanical research, have been lost sight of for the most part in the humerous so-called gardens of many cities. Unless under scientific control they become merely places of cheap display, pleasant enough but not specially instructive, and certainly offering no facilities for research. Probably the only possible condition in which a botanic garden can be made to fulfill its real mission is to develop it in con- nection with a university, but if left to the university alone it will seldom command sufficient income to become largely effective. Ifa combination can be made between a university and a city, as in the case of the New York Botanical Garden, the largest results are possible. The growing demands of botanical science have brought every uni- versity face to face with the problem of a botanic garden, and it seems likely that the solution of this problem in America lies in the com- bination of university and municipality. Botanic Gardens l'HIs COMBINATION may not be so difficult as some suppose. Almost every municipality has one or more parks in various stages of cultivation. In most cases, if under high cultivation, the same monot- thas succession of a few common plants in beds of conventional orm appears. It is astonishing to note the limited range of plants s of forms ordinarily selected for parks, to the exclusion of the host Awaiting ‘cultivation and of far more interest even to the park fre- quenting public. In such a case an arrangement might be made between the park commissioners and the university by which a ee eeruow of the park area should be under the control of the university ind the plants to be cultivated. The advantage to the commissioners 336 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ; Loctosz would be the securing of expert advice in reference to the plants adapted to interest and instruct the public; the advantage to the uni- versity would be the securing of abundant illustrative material without the cost of its maintenance. Certainly the parks need to command a certain amount of botanical knowledge, and the universities are equally in need of a larger contact with plants in their various relations. ASIDE FROM the ordinary uses by the university of what is styled illustrative material, any large control of planting would secure the possibility of experimental work in various biological lines without interfering with the legitimate uses of a park. Problems connected with heredity would be perfectly feasible, such as otherwise would demand the large outlay connected with the equipment of a special experiment station. In case of too great distance between the park and university a small ‘field laboratory”? would make possible such work as would suffer by transportation. It is often said that most of our universities have about them wild areas that are a sufficient botanic garden. This is true in case botanical instruction and research is to go no farther than it has in this country, but it certainly is not true if it is to advance in bg directions indicated by the signs of the times. Botanical laboratories, to properly maintain themselves as centers of current instruction and research, are compelled to provide for plants in masses, grouped with a purpose, and subject to control. : i ny sid Duplication o and an evil one. When a subject is a ma y Publication with relations to several branches of scieé is a most suggestive one, not only in chemistry, but also in <7 bacteriology, and physiology. The editors felt that its eo ee briel abstract of it had already been printed. 5 he growth : was tobe But WE WERE not aware that Mr. Maxwell’s paper upo? A of banana leaves, which was printed in our June number, republished in the Botanisches Centralblatt about July 1, and 1896] EDITORIALS 337 very much whether the editor of that journal knew that it had already been published. Its importance did not justify republication. The paper was received by the GazETTe through Dr. Goodale, whom the author requested to have it published in an American journal, with no intimation that he was sending another copy elsewhere. This is not the first time that the GazeTre has been imposed upon in this way, which speaks better for the faith of the editors in botanists than for the good faith of the authors. Certainly common honesty requires that authors give editors an opportunity to refuse papers which they expect to duplicate thus. IF WE ARE not mistaken, the publication of one paper stating fully the nature and results of a research ought to end publication until further research has been made and new results reached. Some eminent botanists have in late years followed a different course, and have worked over the same studies into three or four different papers * different journals. But if results are of real value one adequate pub- lication is all they need to receive recognition and all that ought to be unloaded upon already burdened bibliographers. We go so far as to Say that the “ preliminary paper” with its half prepared diagnoses or ill-digested generalizations is an unmixed evil and ought to be sup- pivered by botanical opinion. We are glad to join Matural Science in its vigorous Opposition to such makeshift methods. OPEN LETTERS. SOME RECENT PAPERS ON NOMENCLATURE. To the Editors of the Botanical Gazette :— Although the Rochester rules 4 have given American botanists some tangible guide in nomenclature, and tle recommendations of the Harvard Memorandum have provided the believers — in letting bad enough alone with some means of mitigating the chaotic con- i ditions to which they have become accustomed, it does not seem advisable cease all agitation upon the subject of nomenclature. It may be true that the time so spent would be better spent in other lines. But if the enormous waste of time which will eventually be entailed by the establishment of four or five distinct nomenclatures in as many botanical centers may be obviated bys slight expenditure of time now, surely such use of it will not be entirely vail. My only purpose in this note is to call attention to some recent publica: tions of that indefatigable and zealous reformer, Dr. Otto Kuntze, who § a endeavoring to secure a competent international congress and through such a congress an international nomenclature. The botanical world, as oe : : Kuntze points out, now has at least four more or less distinct systems of 7 nomenclature. Each is gaining currency in the regions under its pear a influence, and each, he asserts, is obstinately maintained by its pres who in consequence are unwilling to take any active interest in securing 2 international code. The world has the basis of such a code in the Parisian laws which are to a greater or less extent at the foundation of each of ra se systems. But the interpretation and application of the Paris code Is i of generaldis agreement, and its insufficiency in its present formis unquest “eu In 1895 Dr. Kuntze published an article entitled “Les Besoms @ ~ Nomenclature botanigue”’ in which, after pointing out the danger bee clature arising from the existence of local codes or systems at Berlin, at : and in America, he puts forward nine propositions for a congress a = at Paris in 1900. Dr. Kuntze’s idea of what such a congress SHOW . i ‘ i ina deserves more attention than it has received. He does not be at once Pe a si :, 1890] OPEN LETTERS 339 urbing elements in our present nomenclature so that the settlement may reach all of them. Dr. Kuntze believes that this work can hardly be done in a thorough manner between now and Igoo. In a circular to the Société Botanique de France, published in March of the present year, Dr. Kuntze reiterates the importance of preparation for the projected congress. He says: ‘It (the congress) cannot honestly inscribe in international preparation lasting three years at least.” When it is remem- bered that Dr. Kuntze’s scheme of such a congress involves the putting out of a ““Nomenclator Plantarum omnium,” it will be seen that the importance of preparation is not exaggerated. Dr. Kuntze possesses qualifications both of experience and otherwise that point him out for the compiler of such anomenclator. It would be a great pity to throw away the opportunity of securing his services in constructing one upon the lines of an international code. He will doubtless go on with his work of preparing it in any case. In the Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift for May of this year, in the Journal de Botanigue of May 16, in the Bulletin de [ Herbier Boisster for July, and the Journal of Botany of the same month, are articles by Dr. Kuntze, in each of which he urges the necessity of a congress and points out the dan- ger of the present state of things. It seems proper to call attention to these articles if only because of the sincerity and admirable zeal of their author. The repeated protests of Dr. Kuntze against the establishment of four or five distinct nomenclatures in as many places are not to be treated lightly. One great object of nomenclature is to secure international currency for plant names. If we are not to have this, we may as well throw Latin nomenclature ee and use the vernacular. The condition of things in which “sage brush” sets into European works as “ Salvia” is not greatly bettered by one in which four or five nomenclators will have to be used and cross references made in order to be sure what a given binomial refers to, I have followed and shall Continue to follow the Rochester rules because I see no other rules available «(© be content with legislation for their own needs and are to remain indif- seek even to hinder international action, will Dr. Kuntze’s taunt that We are anarchists be wholly unwarranted? oy » Mr. Erwin F. Smith's “ Protest” against the check-list, he says: Thllog fe speedy convening of a representative international eh ape which shall amend the Paris code vine and on l — ave been oe disputed interpretations of this code. Those re) eit should oo “aes abide in anarchy till such a congress = se ei More conse ¢ less active in urging competent international action Tvative brothers.— Roscoe PounpD, Lincoln, Nebraska: CURRENT LITERATURE MINOR NOTICES. THE PLANTS of various regions in the state of New York have formed the basis for good catalogues. The latest of these is that issued by the Rochester Academy of Science." It is the region studied from 1836 to 1867 y Dr. Chester Dewey, and occupied ever since by an aggressive race of botanists. It is more than a catalogue, as all the features of the area which - have any relation to plant distribution are discussed, and interesting com- parisons are made with the Cayuga and Buffalo floras. The native species of phanerogams enumerated are 948 in number, the introduced species 259 7 but including well marked varieties the phanerogamic flora as now constituted : : is made up of 1,314 distinct forms.—J. M. C THE LAST contribution from the National Herbarium ? contains a variety c of material. A. S. Hitchcock reports upon a collection of plants of se Wyoming. John M. Coulter and J. N. Rose describe and figure 2 De umbelliferous genus, Leibergia, from Idaho and Washington. Cogniaux describes and figures Roseanthus, a new cucurbitaceous 8 from Mexico, dedicated to Mr. J. N. Rose. As this number completes volume a very full index is given.— J. M. C. A Form of plant association which he calls protrophy has been 7 at length by Dr. Arthur Minks in a recent volume from the press 0! ©" lander.3 In 1892 a new Lebensgemeinschaft, with the name sya described by the same author, which, however, does not seem oe B. Falle * BECKWITH, FLORENCE, and MAcauLEy, Mary E,, assisted by Joseph B. _ —Plants of Monroe county, New York, and adjacent territory. Large 8v0- PP Published by the Rochester Academy of Science, June 1896. $1.00. * Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 3: 537-012. 1896. . ms : M NKs, ARTHUR :—Die Protrophie, eine neue Lebensgemeinschil ot auffalligsten Erscheinungen. 8vo. pp. viii+247. Berlin: R. Friedlander . 1896. 340 | ’ : 1896 | CURRENT LITERATURE 341 impressed morphologists as sufficiently important to be included in modern texts. The reader will find the present work a mine, from which we doubt whether he can take out any ore of value. Certain it is that what he does get he will have to dig for amid the intricacies of involved sentences and the obscurity of a technical terminology that will daunt him from the very beginning. As nearly as we can understand Dr. Minks’ protrophy is an association between two species of lichens; one, the protroph, being unable at the beginning of its existence to nourish itself and needing therefore to fasten upon the body of the other independent species which precedes it, and to utilize this so far as necessary as a protection and support until it also can become independent. Protrophy is thus a special case of syntrophy, in which this dependent relation of the syntroph upon the other species is lifelong. : Readers who wish a fuller summary of the work will find a preliminary paper under the same title as the work in the Oesterreichische botanische Zeitschriftfor February and March of this year.—C. R. B. AN account of the history, types of variation and cultivation of the chrysanthemum has been published as an independent pamphlet by Henry L. de Vilmorin,‘ the well known horticulturist. The paper contains nothing hew, but is an interesting description of the flower which has achieved a popularity never equaled.—C. R. B cc: The paper closes with a section showin, paid “gas is the outcome of the geological history « m ia Vitmorin, Henry L.:--Le chrysanthéme; histoire, physiologie, n France et a l’étranger. Imp. 8vo. pp. 28. figs. 10. Paris: the author. s Sea BoTanicaL GAZETTE 22 : 62. 1896. Engl —* L.:—Vegetations-Biologie von Neu Seeland. Sler's Bot. Jahrb. 22: 202-300. PI. 3, figs. 7. 1896 et culture 896. Separat-Abdruck aus 342 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER FAMILIAR TREES AND THEIR LEAVES’ is the name of a popular book by F. Schuyler Mathews, in which are described over 200 trees of the eastern half of the United States, including not only native but commonly planted species. These descriptions are not at all technical, yet give the character istics of the tree, its general habit and distribution, and point out the features by which itis separated from similar ones. The illustrations of leaves and generally also of fruits, which accompany the descriptions, will enable one to identify most of the common trees. The difficult task of rendering éexturein the black and white sketch has not been accomplished by the author-artist, but the outlines are accurate. Less than one-third have been drawn from living specimens and others from herbarium material. The razson d’étre of the brief introduction by Professor Bailey, except for the value of his name on the title page, does not appear. The book is cer tainly to be warmly commended to those, to use Professor Bailey's words, who desire to know the tree as an entirety and to have some knowledge of its kinship and names, and who sim ply want an introduction to the trees which they meet.—C. R. B. | IN THE REPORT of the botanical department of the State Agricultural college of Michigan for 1895, Dr. W. J. Beal describes the botanic garden designed and planted by him upon the college grounds. A list of thespecis growing therein and a map of the garden on a scale of about 50 feet to ne inch are given.—C. R. B and is reprinted from the Transactions of the Ka 1893-4, pp. 152-199.—C. R. B -REcENtT BULLETINS from the Department of Agriculture are ie sed Chief of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, Mr, ee writes, in the Experiment Station Record? a suggestive though brief agai 8 : Oe Reprinted as a Separate, and issued by the office of experiment stations bulletin, Zo 1896] CURRENT LITERATURE 343 the “lines of investigation that might be undertaken by experiment stations.” These words need emphasis: “One of the serious drawbacks to advanced research work is this very matter of continued duplication of work already being done by other stations and the running along in the same old grooves year after year. We cannot hope to have this difficulty remedied, however, until there is some attempt at unification of purpose or specialization on the part of stations.” r. Walter H. Evans writes of ‘Copper sulfate and germination,”® that fungicide being commonly used to prevent smut by soaking the seed. Many contradictory observations are recorded regarding the effect upon germina- tion of soaked seed. He finds that o. 5 and 1 percent, solutions do no serious injury in 1-2 hours, which is adequate to kill smut spores, and that much Stronger solutions can be used if seed are planted at once. Some of his Statements need revision in the light of Kahlenberg and True’s work on the “Toxic action of dissolved salts.” ® Mr. Jared G. Smith has brought together™ brief untechnical descriptions of the “Fodder and forage plants exclusive of the grasses,” including 200 species, both native and exotic, illustrated by fifty-six figures. It forms a very convenient reference list.—C. R. B A SECOND EDITION of the catalogue of the plants of Los Angeles county, California,” is said on the cover to be a reprint from the Proceedings of the Southern California Academy of Sciences but gives no other indication of being anything but an independent pamphlet. Dr. A. Davidson, who pre- pared the first list in October 1892, is also the author of this. In this coun- 'Y embracing 4,000 square miles, 100 miles of seacoast, the San Gabriel mountains reaching 6,000 feet, a part of the Mojave desert and the islands San Clemente and Catalina, 934 species and varieties of spermatophytes and 27 of pteridophytes are known. A second part, listing the remaining “ryptogams is promised, some day.— C. R. B. 1 & Panes ex of eighteen pages with the curious title Labrador, pub lished at Munich under date of July 1896, Dr. F. Arnold has given a list of the Jj chens collected in late years on the east coast of Labrador by Mr. 3 W. Eckfeldt and Rev. Arthur Waghorne. One hundred and twenty-seven Species are enumerated.—_ C, R. B * Bulletin no. 10, Division Veg. Phys. and Path. 1896. * Bor. Gaz. 22:81. 1896, z — no. 2, Division of Agrostology. 1896. | co Part wine ANSTRUTHER : Catalogue of the plants of Los pe Se ET - emy of Scie = nogamia. Reprint from the Proceedings of the Southern California ces, 8vo, pp. iv-+ 36, p/. 7. 35 cents. 344 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroner NOTES FOR STUDENTS: CARDOT has described * five new species of Fontinalis from North Amer ica: F. patula (§ TRoPIDOPHYLL#&), from Vancouver near Victoria, collected by Macoun; /. Missourica (§ HETEROPHYLL#), from Benton county, Mis souri, collected by Demetrio; #. Da/ecarlica Macounii (§ LEPIDOPHYLLE), from Athabasca Lake, collected by Macoun; F. Waghornei, from Trinity Bay, New Harbor, and Witter’s Bay, Newfoundland, collected by Waghome; fF. MacMillani (§ MALACOPHYLL#), from northern Minnesota, collected by MacMillan.—C. R. B. STUDENTS of forest distribution will be interested in Professor 7. H. MacBnde's discussion of forest distribution in lowa.? He shows that all the students of the forest problems in his state have been right, but only par — tially so. His own conclusions, which combine views which seemed to be in conflict, are as follows: (1) the immediate agent in the limitation and dis- tribution of Iowa forests was fire ; (2) the sweep of fire was determined by 4 modicum of moisture and by the presence of fuel upon the ground ; (3) od drift being especially adapted to gramineous vegetation furnished fuel in such amount as to prevent the development of tree seedlings, while the loess using the term in a broad sense, less suited to gramineous species, furnished less fuel, hence gave to tree seedlings on loess regions opportunity to cig (4) special localities, as swamps, alluvial flood-plains, etc., present spe cases and require special explanations. THE FOLLOWING items are of taxonomic interest: Dr. John K. ca : prepared a synopsis of the North American species of Ilysanthes, recog — six species, one of which is new. Mr. Eugene P. Bicknell recognizes ay species in the well known Scrophularia of the eastern states, the a one being called S. /eforel/a. Mr. H. N. Ridley’ has described a new pen® of Commelinacez from the Malay Peninsula, under the name see M. A. Franchet has described eight new species of Saxifraga® and ae 2 species of Sedum? from China, and proposes a new section® (XyP ed of Parnassia, in which the very acuminate connective is produced i . the loculi, giving to the anther the appearance of a dagger. bart Eastwood® has des¢ribed ten new species from southeastern Utah. oe - Baker has published an illustrated synopsis of the genus ssi a. * Revue Bryologique — :67. 1896. | * Reprint from Proc. lowa Acad. Sci. 3: 96-101. 1895. 61. 189% 3Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23 : 296. 1896. 6 Jour. de Botanique 10: 201 * bid. 23: 314. 1896. 7 Lbid. 10: 284. 1899. 5 Jour. Bot. 34: 329. 1896. 8 /bid. 10: 267. 189% * Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. I]. 6:270. 1896. Gard. Chron. 20: 213 and 238. 1896. about 9g per cent. of similar adhesions, and the seventh with 64 per cent. AE NG UR eee COE SS ee en Tt = aa ee 1896] CURRENT LITERATURE 345 defined in Bentham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum. American plants recently figured, and with full descriptive text, are Clematis Addisonii," Lonicera hirsuta? L. hirsuta < Sullivantii,? Aquilegia Jonesti,® Rhododen- dron Vaseyi."4 Dr. B. L. RoBINSON, in a recent discussion of the fruit of Tropidocar- pum, calls attention to its great variability, and its consequent uselessness for taxonomic purposes, a fact which militates strongly against certain propos species. Aside from the taxonomic features of the discussion the fact of greatest general interest is the occurrence of the internal capsule which fre- quently appears in what is known as the capparideum type of capsule. This internal capsule is variable in size, ‘from the merest obscure rudiment to a capsule half the length of the outer one.” The outer capsule is always 3 OF 4-valved, and the inner one always 2-valved, and when well developed con- tains two seeds, “which mature in just the same way as those in the surround- ing capsule.” The embryo also is apparently perfect, and the capsule regu- larly dehisces. As Dr. Robinson suggests, the fertilization of these inner- most ovules is a very interesting problem. If they are reached by pollen tubes, these tubes must penetrate two styles. The inner capsules are usually axial in position, but sometimes arise near the base of the outer capsule. The author suggests that these inner capsules “represent a second whorl of car- pellary leaves.’ Similar internal capsules have been noted by Peyritsch in Draba alpina.—J. M. C. HuGo DE VRIES" has convinced himself by a long series of cultures that : large part of the teratological anomalies in plants are in their nature hered- "tary. His already known observations on the hereditary nature of fasciation and torsion are now followed by a discussion of adhesions and cohesions, or Symphyses. Having transplanted from a wheat field to his garden som ‘ypocheris glabra showing adhesions, he found the second gener e individuals of ation with A similar selection of Helianthus annuus with united cotyledons produced 46 the third generation plants showing 76, 81, and 89 per cent. of syncotylous vos. To these De Vries adds a host of similar facts from cultures and many observations of the repetition of teratological variations upon shrubs and trees. All, he thinks, point to the hereditary nature of the phenomena. This heredity, he adds, sometimes appears “ lateral,” #. ¢» “Gard. and For. 9: 324. 1896. 14 Gard. Chron. 20: 71- 1896. ™ Gard. and For. 9: 344. 1896. 5 Erythea 4: 109. 1896. "SGard. and For. 9: 365. 1896. 16 Botanisch Jaarboek 7 : 129-197: it shows itself 1895- 346 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER in lateral branches of the genealogical tree, as in clover. It is hard, too, to get rid of it. The adhesions may skip an entire generation in annuals and reappear in the next, just as in perennials they may skip a year. The mani- festation of the property depends to a high degree upon external conditions. All the facts show that the heredity of adhesions is ordinarily latent, man- ifesting itself only occasionally. The fact of heredity obliges us to suppose for the symphyses material carriers (pangens) in the protoplasts. But neither the number nor the influence of these appear to be ordinarily great enough to assure more than an occa- sional appearance of the anomalies. A concurrence of very favorable condi- tions seems always to be necessary to their manifestation, at least unless they have been fixed and accumulated by selection. C. R. B Mr. GEORGE MASSEE has made an exhaustive study of the genus Cop- rinus,”” recognizing 165 species, 34 of which are credited to the United States and 20 of them peculiar to it. The evolution of form in the Agaricinee is represented as proceeding from such primitive types as Marasmius, etc, in which “the pileus is sessile or stemless and fixed by its back to the substra- tum, the gills being uppermost and consequently entirely unprotected from the earliest stage of development.” From this primitive type of structure there are three leading lines of departure: (1) turning the hymenium ome a wards ; (2) the acquisition of a central stem ; (3) the freedom of the gills from : the stem. The Agaricinez do not form a single group showing the page sequence, but are broken up into four series, each running through the in ie of development indicated. These four series are characterized by the ee ¥ of the spores (black, brown, pink or salmon, white), the Melanospor® being the oldest and the Leucospore being the youngest. The chief biological feature of Coprinus is the deliquescence of the gills at maturity ino liquid which drips to the ground, carrying the mature spores along with it. 2 primitive and relatively imperfect mode of spore-dissemination, as Comp" ” with the minute, dry, wind borne spores of the other Agaricinee, indicates that in Coprinus we have the remnant of a primitive group of fungi from which have descended the entire modern group of Agaricinee with . be ; borne spores ; and which can be traced back to the still more pi terranean fungi which are the common ancestors of the entire group we Basidiomycetes. Evidences of the antiquity of Coprinus are seen wy mite world wide distribution of the genus, and the limited area occupied by SP" Of the modern agarics the Melanosporz are most closely allied oe Co being directly derived from it, and, in fact, the gills of many aoe Melanospore show a tendency to deliquesce. Attention is also called t0 ie fact that while liquefaction of the elements of the hymenium was 4 e Ann. Bot. ro: 123-184. 1896. 1896] : CURRENT LITERATURE 347 at a very early stage in the evolution of the agarics, it persisted throughout the entire sequence of development in the parallel group of Gastromycetes. Among the Phalloidez the semi-liquid product has a decided smell and sweet taste, attractive to insects ; “thus the feature which proved a failure in the Agaricinez has been an important factor in raising the Phalloidee to their present position as head of the fungal subkingdom.’’—J. M. C. ; PROFEssOR T. KrrK has long been a student of the New Zealand flora. Aside from the great interest which attaches to the flora itself, the influence of the presence of man is exceptionally open to study. is phase of the subject was presented recently by Mr. Kirk in a presidential address before the Wellington Philosophical Society, entitled ‘ The displacement of species in New Zealand.”** Many interesting ecological features of this displace- ment are presented, some of which deserve mention here. The destruction of the great “kauri” forests has resulted in the absolute desolation of the areas, It seems that the bushmen fired the dead branches after the logs Plants, by European grasses and clovers. In other cases certain native 8rasses have succeeded in maintaining themselves associated with the for- figners, “to the great benefit of the stock-grower.” Special attention 18 called to the invasion of three species of Epacris, all natives of New South — Wales, which have been observed within the Jast thirty or forty your to €nter New Zealand and rapidly take possession of large areas. So rapidly Were they extending their area in the direction of the prevailing on me sh Kirk is convinced that they ‘would be able practically to replace ih indigenous Vegetation over the entire area if not interfered with by man. 3 Jour. Bot. 34: 338. 1896. 348 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocTobER In this case there is clear evidence of the transportation of seeds by atmos- pheric currents over a distance of from 1200 to 1400 miles, and of their establishment in a new country. The number of naturalized species has now reached more than five hundred, and if the rate of increase of the last few lines as that of the indigenous flora, the number rapidly decreasing south- 4 the Auckland district. Not more than two, most likely but one, of these will become naturalized on the stiff Wellington clay, while it is certain that fully one-third of them would have become established on the light scoria soil of the Auckland isthmus. Mr. Kirk draws a good distinction between displace- ment and replacement, and does not anticipate the absolute extermination of any large number of indigenous plants.—J. M. C. TWO RECENT paleobotanical reports of interest are those upon the fons = the Potomac formation, by Professor L. F. Ward, and upon the Tertiary” floras of the Yellowstone National Park, by Mr. F. H. Knowlton. Professor Ward discusses ® the Potomac formation in general, and then takes up detail the several floras into which it has been divided. These lower big’ } ceous floras present some striking features, aside from the ordinary jee paleobotanical material, Certain specimens are thought to be the remains : a species of Casuarina, which has been called C. Coviliei. The plate i aud senting a single specimen of this plant also contains the figures of two pte: species of Casuarina, and the resemblance certainly is striking; but W™ Ephedra and other jointed and fluted fossil genera in the background, rs Say nothing of Equisetum and its associates, the certainty of this oo a. not convincing. As the author remarks, “ it would certainly be an os a ing fact if it were proved that this anomalous type of vegetation sh 6% America during lower cretaceous time.” Even if the genus did nn however, it is not so clear that its association with Ephedra is . al Sgn cant of an intermediate position between gymnosperms and anging j that angiosperms have been derived from gymnosperms. The — ingl ing of the ferns are the species of Thyrsopteris, a living genus of bet ‘9 Fifteenth annual report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, 307. 1895. 1896 | CURRENT LITERATURE 349 species and confined to the island of Juan Fernandez. The conifers are abundantly represented, and among them the new genus Nageiopsis, so closely resembling a cycad. Naturally, Sequoia occurs in the formation, as it seems to in cretaceous and tertiary deposits over nearly the whole globe. The dicotyledons are abundant enough, but the monocotyledons are very rare, to the important part played by the genus Populus in the geological history of plants. It is one of the most widespread genera of fossil plants, and seems to have developed along several distinct lines, and, “historically con- sidered, is the most interesting of all dicotyledonous genera.” r. Knowlton’s paper” is a brief preliminary statement concerning a full report which will appear later. It seems that the most remarkable fossil forest known occurs in the Yellowstone National Park, and it has yielded abundant material in excellent condition for study. The author contrasts the flora of the park today with this tertiary flora. “The dominant elements of the living flora are the abundant coniferous forests, but these involve a very meager display of species; the tertiary forests, however, were characterized by the dicotyledonous trees, such as walnuts, hickories, oaks, beeches, chest- nuts, elms, magnolias, sycamores, sumacs, lindens, azalias, persimmons, and ashes. There seems to be little relation between the two floras, and they are certainly not related by descent. The tertiary flora has its affinities at the south, while the present flora is evidently of northern origin.”—J. M. C. » Amer. Jour. Sci. IV. 2:51. 1896. NEWS. Dr. N. Buscu, of Dorpat, is about to make a botanical investigation of certain unexplored regions in northern Caucasus. Dr. F. Kout, assistant professor of botany in the University of Marburg, has been advanced to the professorship. Dr. K. MULLER, privat-docent in the technical high school in Berlin, has been appointed assistant professor of botany. Dr. M. WESTERMAIER, professor of botany in Freising, has been appointed to the same chair in the University of Freiburg, Switzerland. Mr. J. H. MAIDEN has been appointed Government Botanist and Direct, of the Botanic Gardens at Sydney, to succeed Mr. Charles Moore. IN THE RECENTLY organized department of biology in the graduate school . m of Georgetown University Mr. M. B. Waite has been appointed professor of botany. Dee Mr. W. ALPHONSO MuRRILL has recently discovered the rare Asunes ebenoides at Blacksburg, Va. His field notes are published in the Linnean Fern Bulletin for October. a DR. A. ZIMMERMANN, privat-docent in the University of Berlin, b Bt to the Botanic Garden of Buitenzorg, Java, where he began October first his duties as botanist to the new department of coffee culture. a THE RICHEST COLLECTION of palms in the world is said* to bem © Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg, Java. It contains three hundred specie are determined, one hundred probably new and still undescribed, and hundred varieties of known species. | THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, at its recent meeting im took the following action in reference to the death of Mr. M. S. Bebb: “The Botanical Society of America desires to place upon record an ue oe esteem for its deceased member, Michael Schuck Bebb, who died Decem he ae at San Bernardino, California, His published studies upon the diffi Pe have brought him‘to high rank as a professional botanist, and American to him a debt of gratitude as one of its most distinguished representatives. * Garden and Forest 9:360. 1896. 1896 | NEWS 351 A NEW QUARTERLY devoted to the art of brewing made its appearance in July. It is the Journal of the Milwaukee Brewing Academy, edited by Alfred Lasché. It is likely to contain matter of interest to bacteriologists and stu- dents of yeasts and other simple fungi. Considerable improvement in typo- graphic style ought to be made, and in particular the authorship of the articles ought to be indicated. The first number of the Journa/ consists of 48 pages. Its price is $5.00 per year. THE Rust (Puccinia Asparag?) which affects the asparagus plant has become so abundant in parts of New Jersey as to cause much alarm among growers of this vegetable. The State Experiment Station has just issued a circular advising the burning of affected plants. It will be interesting to learn how widespread and abundant the rust is at the present time in the United States. Botanists who have observed it will do a favor by reporting to Dr. B, D. Halsted, New Brunswick, N. J., or to the BOTANICAL GAZETTE. TWELVE STATES have laws of some sort for the prevention of the spread of plant diseases. They are as follows: California, a general law; Con- hecticut, peach yellows; Delaware, peach yellows ; Kentucky, black knot of plum and cherry ; Maryland, peach yellows; Michigan, peach yellows and black knot of plum and cherry ; New Jersey, for a cranberry disease, and of general application under special conditions; New York, peach yellows and black knot ; Oregon, a general law; Pennsylvania, peach yellows ; Virginia, peach yellows ; Washington, a general law. These yarious laws are gwen in full in a compilation prepared by Erwin F. Smith and printed as Bulletin i of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, Department of Agri- culture. RECENT ANNOUNCEMENTS of new books of botanical interest to be pub- lished by The Macmillan Co. in the course of the winter include An elemen- lary botany for high schools, by L. H. Bailey, professor of horticulture in Cornell University, with numerous illustratons by Holdsworth ; THe survival of the unlike, by the same author; Physiology of plants, by J. C, Arthur, of Purdue University ; Grasses, by W. H. Brewer, of Yale University; Bush Fruits, by FW. Card, of the University of Nebraska; P/ant diseases, by B.. 1 Galloway, E. F, Smith and A. F. Woods, of the U. S. Department of Agr Culture; Seeds and seed growing, by G. H. Hicks, of U- 5. Department of Agriculture; Leguminous plants, by E. H. Hilgard, University of California. All but the first two are to be issued in the Rural Science Series. € class will assemble each day in the lecture room of the Bussey Institu- 352 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octoper tion, where a review will be given of certain groups of trees and shrubs, It will then adjourn to the Arboretum for an informal outdoor study of the plants. The instruction given in these meetings is not to be technical, but the intention is to indicate by comparison the easiest means of distinguishing the common native trees and shrubs as they appear in eastern Massachusetts, and of recognizing the foreign species which have been introduced into our gardens. An hour and a half to two hours will be devoted to each meeting. During the season the class will meet once or twice outside of the Arboretum at some favorable place for the study of trees. THE FOLLOWING report was presented at Buffalo to the Botanical Club by the committee on nomenclature, and adopted: The committee on nomenclature, which was requested at the Springfield meeting to preparea report, would respectfully submit the following preamble _ and resolutions : HEREAS, A large number of requests for a list of all North American Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta has been received, and publication of such a list, when prepared, has been informally offered by the Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Resolved, That the committee be and hereby is authorized to prepare for publication a list of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta occurring in the Uning? States and the British Possessions of North America. Resolved, That the committee be and hereby is authorized to prepare and publish a supplement to the “List of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta of northeastern North America,” such supplement to contain additions and pub- lished corrections to the list. Such publication has been promised Ke Editor of the Torrey Botanical Club. pore Resolved, That the committee be and hereby is authorized to prepare ‘ . fuller'statement of the rules adopted at the Rochester and Madison meetings : with examples illustrating their operation, and submit it to the club at ag : sequent meeting, for publication in the proposed List of North Amer! Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta. CAMBRIDGE BOTANICAL SUPPLY COMPANY 1286 Massachusetts Avenue, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. National Herbarium All Articles for Mounting Paper. Spring Classes in Botany. ; New Devices ' PRESSES, COLLECTING BOXES AND HERBARIUM CASES. SEND FOR NEW PRICE LIST. Everything Useful to Botanists. ... Derbarium Cases tre Four 6 in. tin pigeon holes sliding like drawers in a wooden case; covers with rubber rim. List price of the tin pigeon holes, each $1.06; wooden boxes to hold four, $3.13 each. Large tin cases, capacity 2000 specimens, for herbarium use or Carbon bi-sulphide poison- ing, each $20.00 list. Cambridge Botanical Supply Co, cambridge, mass a SPECIALLY PREPARED HERBARIUM PAPER for BOTANISTS Paper is offered at the moderate price of $5.50 per ream. We also furnish: No. 1. Genus Cover. 1614 X 24 inches, at $4.00 per 100. 2, “ 6 “ “e “ 2.50 6 This “ 3. se ec “ec ca “ 1.50 “38 * 500° Species Sheets 16% X 23% “ se 0 ; ders will receive prompt attention. Write for samples. ee PENNSYLVANIA AVE., N.W. E. Morrison Paper Co. oi WASHINGTON, D. ©. MICROSCOPES . AND VARIETY OF LABORATORY APPARATU SEND FOR CATALOGUE. Bausch & beh Optical | Con, Rochester, N.Y. ST. LOUIS, MO, Chemicals, Glasswat Chemical, Botanical, and Bacteriolo Laboratories IMPORTERS OF SPECIAL APPARATUS FOR VEGETABLE PHY sb GIVE US A TRIAL, YOU WILL. FIND US PROMPT AND CHEAP - ORDERING ELSEWHERE, GET OUR QUOTATIONS. . . LARGE CATALOGUE ON APPL ICATION, Botanical Gazette Z Volume XXII, beginning with the July number, is issued from The University of Chicago Press, with some changes i in form and ; typography, Each number will contain at least eighty pages, oe which will be pe ses if eae to meet mie demands of _ contributions, yrad S eee oa and siete The character wi upon the subject, and will be determined y the ‘ peutstion with the shore “Sox, Seiser of Botany, Comell Oni nit - Staxoixe, ese of Sees a i io eEAShe Wiue TRELEASE, Dire : - Botanical Garden. Ses associates | BOTANICAL GAZETTE Sei ee THE PHALLOIDEA OF THE UNITED STATES. I. DEVELOP! f OF THE RECEPTACULUM OF CLATHRUS COLUMN. BOSC, (with Plates XI and XII). “dward A. Burt THE MECHANISN OF MOVEMENT AND TRANSMISSIO ES IN MIMOSA AND OTHER “SENSITIVE A REVIEW WITH SOME Sees EXPERT Buen Plate XIII), D. 7. Mac Douga THE MORPHOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN PI NOMYCETOUS FUNGI (with Plates XIV-XVI). Mary Z Nic BRIEFER ARTICLES. Tae ORGANS oF pao IN BOTRYTiS VULGARIS idee Plate: V. Margaretha E. C. Hi New West VIRGINIA eos C. F. Millspaugh and L. W. EDITORIALS a -Boranic. GarRDENs, ee : Pes iox OF PUBLICATION. fo ees 4 Lerress Some Recenr Papers ¢ ON Se a Roscoe Pound coRRENT = LITERA TURE. ace R NOTICES Vol. XXII * NOVEMBER 1896 No. 5 THE BOTANICAL (AZETTE EDITORS JOHN M. COULTER, Zhe University of Chicago, Chicago, Mil. CHARLES R. BARNES, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. ASSOCIATE EDITORS GEORGE F. ATKINSON ROLAND THAXTER Cornell University Harvard University VOLNEY M. SPALDING WILLIAM TRELEASE Oniversity of Michigan Missouri Botanical Garden ISSUED NOVEMBER 23 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Pudlishey oy Ahe iniversity of Chicago ee eer Che Bniversityp of Chicage Bress XPIRATION OF ne TIME PAID FOR. mE MADE TO eine ENTS. In Germany, 14 Marks. Agents, R. FRIEDLAENDER & SOHN, , uy, BERLIN, N. W. 6 ee WITH 1897 THE ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION WILL BE $4.00 (7 sel cacte SINGLE A Lae SINGLE NUMBERS, IN GREAT BRITAIN, hi 438 marks, THE PRICES NAMED INCLUDE POSTAGE, ty tow the orm shown in the pages of the Gazerte, sh ‘be sent to of the Editors. | _ YOLUME XX1 NUMBER 5 ih PBOTANICAL GAZETTE NOVEMBER 1896 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP IN THE GENUS PTILOTA. BRADLEY MooRE Davis. (WITH PLATES XVIII AND XIX) forms. Later the points then worked out were verified in an Atlantic Coast species, P. serrata, and this form, for reasons of Convenience, was chosen as the type for the detailed description of the anatomy and development of the cystocarpic fruit. he count of P. plumosa and P. plumosa filicina is of the nature of Comparison with P. serrata. Most of the work was carried " cryptogamic laboratory of Harvard University under ection of Dr. Farlow. Pricora sERRATA Kiitz. | ___ This species is very abundant on the Atlantic coast north cee Cape Cod, and fruiting specimens, either cystocarpic or tetra- “€, May be obtained readily in the proper season. The €r’s material has all come from Nahant, Mass., and cystocarpic plants have been found there as early as March ce as late as May. Although cystocarpic fronds are abundant S f sue Eases 354 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER and covered with fruit in all stages of development, the writer has never succeeded in finding any antheridial plants, although he has carefully searched all sorts of specimens, nor have any such ever been found on this coast to his knowledge. For convenience the subject-matter of this description will be grouped under the following heads: (a) structure and mode of growth of the frond; (4) morphology and development of the procarpic branches; (c) development of the group of procarps; — (@) minute structure of the procarps; (e) development of the cystocarp. The subjects included in the first two divisions will be treated in the briefest possible manner. At the end of the descriptions will be found a section which treats of the relation of the type of cystocarp found in Ptilota to that of allied genera, and also some remarks upon the physiological character of this method of carposporic reproduction. STRUCTURE AND MODE OF GROWTH OF THE FROND. The writer can add nothing to the thorough description of the structure of the frond of this genus first presented by Nagels (47), and later more exhaustively considered by Cramer (63). However, a short account seems necessary to make clear the morphology of the parts of the fruit. The branches of the frond, styled pinnz, consist of a central axial siphon of large oblong cells or segments covered by # thick cortex of small cells. A large apical cell (fig. 4 x) ter minates the axial siphon of the pinna, and by its repeated trans verse division new segments are added to the axial siphon. On the pinne, attached to alternate segments of the siphon, one on each side, are borne pairs of lanceolate s called pinnules. In this species the pinnules are usually uneq in size, one being quite small, and their distribution is such t ; when a certain segment bears its large pinnule on the right han side of the pinna, the next large pinnule above 0 tructures — t below ae “a eee eas Se) gia attached to the left side of a segment. As the small pinnules : are borne opposite the large pinnules, upon the same segue their arrangement is of course exactly the same as th e latter. : 1896] PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILO1A 355 The segments of the axial siphon which bear the pinnules are called nodes and the segments between them internodes. The larger pinnule of the pair begins to develop from the node almost immediately after the latter has been cut off from the apical cell. The nodal segment first grows out to one side, the side that is opposite to that of the young pinnule on the node just below it, and a cell is cut off. This cell is the earliest stage of a pinnule. It assumes the réle of an apical cell, and by successive transverse divisions gives rise to a row of cells which becomes the axial siphon of the pinnule. When the larger pin- nule is well under way in its development, the node gives rise to another cell on the opposite side of the pinna, and from this cell is developed the second pinnule, which rarely becomes as large as the first and sometimes remains quite abortive. Stages illus- trating the above description may be seen in fig. I. _ Cells are cut off laterally from both sides of the axial siphon of the pinnule, and these by successive transverse divisions develop a system of lateral branches. The young pinnule then has the structure of a membranous tissue the thickness of a single cell, but it really consists of an aggregation of fila- ments, all in the same plane, each of which grows in precisely the Same manner as the axial siphons of pinne and pinnules, viz., from apical cells. . The three systems of filaments, (1) the axial siphons of the pinne, (2) the axial siphons of the pinnules, and (3) the lateral ranches from the axial siphon of the pinnules, are the frame- work which determines the shape of the frond. All other cells are part of the cortex proper. There is no cortex on the young Pinnules and at the tips of the pinne, but on older portions of the frond its gradual development may be easily traced. Short branches grow up over the axial siphons in older parts, covering them With several layers of cells. This collection of cells con- stitutes the cortex. The entire frond then consists of an elaborate system of fila- ments, and the growth of all parts is strictly from the terminal cells (apical cells) of the branches. A segment cut off from 356 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER the apical cell of a filament never divides except to give rise by lateral outgrowths to a new branch of the filament. MORPHOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROCARPIC BRANCHES. The procarps of the genus Ptilota are found in certain spe- cialized portions of the frond. called procarpic branches. In P. serrata the procarpic branches for the most part take the place of the smaller pinnules usually found on sterile plants. They are therefore attached to the nodes of the pinne and situated opposite well developed pinnules. Procarpic branches are some- times to be found on the edge of the pinnules, but they are not common in this species. The structure of the procarpic branches clearly shows their homology with the smaller pinnules, and their development is so similar that it is impossible to distinguish the younger stages from one another. Each adult procarpic branch contains an axial siphon which consists of from nine to twelve (typically ten) segments. Pairs of short lateral filaments arise from the segments in the same manner as in ordinary pinnules, and as the branch grows older a rather insignificant system of corticating filaments is developed. Several early stages of pro- carpic branches are shown in jig. f,. the ces being shaded. Those attached to the 1, 111, and 1v nodes consist of but a single cell. Later stages are shown attached to nodes V, VI, and Vil. A typical adult procarpic branch is illustrated by fig: 3: ne specimen from which the figure was drawn being situated on the twelfth node of a pinna. When procarpic branches are found on the pinnules they ct seen to take the place of the teeth that usually occur along : “i edge of these structures, and to be continuations of the late branches from the axial siphon of the pinnules. The extremity of the adult procarpic branch has t structure whether the latter is situated on a pinna or There is always a terminal cell, the former apical ae ue oa 3, cell 11), and it is from this that the group of por ae ms derived. The apical cell and all structures derived from it ar | he same pinnule. 1896] PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA 357 numbered eleven in the figures because it is usually the eleventh cell of the axial siphon of the procarpic branch. DEVELOPMENT OF THE GROUP OF PROCARPS. The group of procarps is always situated at the tip of a procarpic branch. The number is somewhat variable, but typically five. In order that the reader may follow more readily the account of the development of this structure it will be best to describe first the appearance of mature specimens. It is sug- gested that he glance at fig. ro where an adult group of procarps is shown. There appear in this figure five trichogynes (numbered 11, 10’, 10°", 10'’ and 10’’’), each of which terminates a short branch consisting of three or four cells. Three of these branches are figured; the other two could not appear in this view. Each branch with its trichogyne is a procarp. Three of the procarps, those numbered 11,10’’, and 10'’’, are solitary. The other two procarps are peculiar in that they form a pair united together at the basal cells. The three lower cells of the solitary procarps and one of the basal cells of the pair are all united to the terminal segment of the procarpic branch (fig. 10, no. 10). The Procarps may then be said to form a group around this terminal segment. The union between the basal cells of the procarps and the terminal segment of the procarpic branch is effected by the Strands of protoplasm so generally found between the cells of lorideze, Bearing in mind the structure of the tip of an adult procarpic branch we may now consider the development of the group of Procarps. A transverse division of the terminal cell of the pro-” carpic branch (jig. 2, cell 10) initiates the development of the 8toup of procarps. The division is somewhat oblique, so that the new terminal cell (fig. 3, cell 11) is pushed over towards the 4Xis of the pinna, and the curvature of the procarpic branch is thus made more pronounced. This division is really simply a Continuation of the apical growth of the procarpic branch, but 358 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [| NOVEMBER we are justified in laying emphasis upon it for the new terminal cell (fig. 3, cell 11) now developed immediately into a procarp. Therefore the segment 10 (fig. 2) may be said to termi- nate the procarpic branch, although really its axis continues through this procarp and only ends with its trichogyne. This procarp is the inner one of the group of procarps, the one nearest the pinna, and in all figures it has been numbered 11. The development of this individual procarp may be taken as the type for all. The cell that gives rise to it (fig. 3, cell II) divides transversely. The upper cell then elongates and also divides, and the terminal division becomes specialized into the trichogyne. The different stages in the development of this procarp are illustrated as follows. A two-celled stage is shown in fig. 6, no. 11, and the same condition appears again in figs. 7 and 8, except that in both cases the upper cell is much elongated Preparatory to the development of the trichogyne. A half grown trichogyne appears in fig. g (numbered 11!) and the — mature procarp is shown in fig. zo. It must be apparent that the position of this procarp, whether to the right or left of the center of the group, depends upon the side from which the procartple branch is viewed. Its situation is always on the inside of the group, that is the side nearest the axis of the pinna. Itis evident that the procarp follows the same type of growth as other parts of the frond. That is, the growth is from the terminal cell, and the structure is ashort branch of three cells, one of which becomes specialized into the trichogyne. The number of cells in the different procarps varies, but the method of development is the same in all. € may now consider the peculiar pair of procatps . the outside of the group. Beginning with the stage -_ Jig. 3, we see that a cell (no. 10’) has been cut off from 7 terminal segment of the procarpic branch. This cell quie : develops into a short branch, usually of four cells, which curve inwards somewhat as is shown in the later stage (fig: 4): cells of this branch are short and thick and lie closely P , against one another. The terminal cell eventually becom : ressed 1896 PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA 359 trichogyne. However, before this takes place the basal cell of the branch, that which is attached directly to the terminal seg- ment of the procarpic branch (fig. 4,c) gives rise to a cell laterally. This condition is shown in fig. 5, cell 10’*. From this last is developed another branch of three or four cells. The two-celled stage is shown in fig. 7, and the three-celled con- dition in fig. 8, in both cases numbered 10’*. By the elongation of the terminal cell of this second branch the structure becomes a procarp. We have now two procarps of three or four cells each, lying side by side, united to the cell that was first cut off from the tenth segment. By examining the later stages of this pair of procarps (figs. 7, 8, and g) it will be seen that the trichogyne of the first procarp (procarp 10’) develops before the second. In fact it is usually the first of all the trichogynes in the group of procarps to mature. It is well to call attention now to the fact, which will receive more detailed treatment later in the paper, that the cystocarp of P. serrata, in all cases that the writer has examined (some 112 in number), has always developed from the cell at the base of the pair of procarps. This carpogenous cell (¢ in jigs. 3-9) is the first to be derived from the terminal segment of the procarpic branch, and therefore next to the basal cell of procarp no. 11 is the oldest cell of the group. There remain to be considered the two procarps that lie between the inner procarp and the pair on the outside. As is shown in jig. To, these two procarps are attached laterally to the terminal segment of the procarpic branch in such a manner that when viewed from the side one appears in front and the other behind this cell. Their development is precisely like that of the Procarp on the inside of the group. A cell is cut off first on one Side of the terminal segment and then on the other side (figs. 5 and 6, cell 10"). Each of these two cells then develops into a Procarp of three cells in exactly the same manner as the other Procarps develop. This is well shown in the figures of later Stages ( figs. 7,8,and g). These two procarps are the last of © group to mature. 360 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER Contemporaneous with the development of the group of pro- carps is the luxuriant growth of the whorl of short filaments from the segment of the procarpic branch just below the terminal segment. Some of these filaments become the large bracts that surround the mature cystocarp. They develop, as do all the structures of the frond, by growth from the terminal cells of fila- ments, and jigs. 5, 6, and zo illustrate the appearance of the chief stages. The typical number of procarps in the group is five, but instances of over or under production are not infrequent. In cases where the number is less than usual the second procarp of the pair is most likely to be absent, and occasionally one or both of the lateral procarps may be suppressed. Examples of over production are more frequent, and perhaps the most common instance is that in which a pair of procarps is found in place of the inner procarp of the group. Sometimes an’ additional pro- carp may be attached to the basal cell of the pair. None of these irregularities transgress the law of development that we have advanced, for in all cases the procarps are short branches, the terminal cells of which have become specialized into tricho- gynes. ‘\ MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE PROCARPS. Now that we understand something of the development and arrangement of the procarps in the group, we are in a position to consider the minute structure of the cells. The material had been well fixed in chromic acid, and proved excellent for the . @€Xamination, In the first place, we may refer to the peculiar str the cell-wall often found around the young procarps, which is different from anything that the writer has ever seen described. Unlike the cell-walls on other portions of the frond, which are perfectly homogeneous in structure, the wall is differentiated into an inner and an outer zone. if: 4 may » taken as an excellent illustration of this peculiarity. This spe men had been stained with Bohmer’s hematoxylin, ucture of 1896 | PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA 361 inner zone was much more strongly tinted than the outer. Even in fresh material and unstained specimens, the inner zone appears of a denser consistence. A most interesting peculiarity of this cell-wall is a series of radiating strands which arise from the edge of the inner zone and pass through the outer zone to the outer edge of the cell-wall (figs. 4, 5, 6, etc.). These radiating strands stain about as deeply as the inner zone, and appear to be of the same substance. This complex cell-wall is very common around the developing procarps, and is sometimes found, but not insuch a characteristic form, at the apical cell of the pinnae. The peculiar swollen appearance of the outer zone suggests the phenomena of gelatination, and to test this point the writer treated specimens with a hot solution of potassic hydrate. The consistence of the outer zone was quite unaffected by this treat- ment, instead of swelling or dissolving as substances of a gelat- inous nature would have done. The writer was quite unable to obtain a cellulose test (using iodine and sulphuric acid), either with this curious cell-wall or with the ordinary cell-walls of this plant. But there are reasons from its general appearance and reaction towards stains for believing it to be at least closely related to cellulose, if it be not that substance. Adopting the terminology of Bornet and Thuret we divide the procarps into three portions: (1) the trichogyne, (2) the carpogenous cell, and (3) the portion of the procarp lying between these two, consisting of one or two cells, which we may call the trichophoric apparatus (/appareil trichophorique ). e know certainly of but one carpogenous cell in the group of procarps, and this is the basal cell of the first procarp of the pair on the outside of the group. However, it is probable that the basal cell of each procarp is morphologically a carpoge- Nous cell. At all events the following remarks on the structure of the cell that does give rise to the cystocarp are equally 1 oe the basal cells of all procarps. The carpogenous cell at the time when the trichogyne is mature is the largest one in the pro- carp. It is slightly tinted with the red color of the Floridee, but a well defined chromatophore cannot be made out dis- may 362 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER tinctly. The central portion of the cell is a cavity containing cell sap, and the protoplasm with the irregular chromatophore forms a layer next the cell-wall. There is a distinct nucleus imbedded in the protoplasm, and as a rule a well defined nucleolus is apparent in specimens stained with haematoxylin (figs. zz and 12, c). The carpogenous cell is connected below with the terminal segment of the procarpic branch, and above with the cell of the trichophoric apparatus, by a strand of protoplasm at each end. The trichophoric apparatus consists of one or two cells according as the total number of cells in the procarp is three or four. There is a distinct nucleus in each cell, and the gen- eral appearance of the cell contents is very similar to that of the carpogenous cell, 2. ¢., the protoplasm containing more oF less of the red pigment lies next the cell-wall and encloses 4 vacuole. In figs. rz, 12 and 13 the cell of the trichophoric apparatus is lettered ¢2. The position of the nuclei in the cells of the procarps has been shown in many of the figures. In some of the specimens (figs. 5—zo) the stain was eosin, in others (figs. rr-16) the stain was hematoxylin. The structure and development of the trichogyne now remain to be considered. This organ is very small and delicate, in this species of Ptilota measuring from 40-70, long and 4m wide 1m the thinner upper portions. The base of the trichogyne (“‘ car- pogonium,” as Schmitz applied the term) is about as wide - the cell of the trichophoric apparatus directly under it, but it grows narrow very rapidly and runs into the very delicate and attenuated upper portion. The base of the trichogyne is not at all swollen, nor is there any constriction between it and the uppef portion. The cell contents are hyaline in living specimens, and quite homogeneous. Stains do not bring out any differentiation of the protoplasm aside from a granular structure in the lower portion, and the writer has never seen anything that could be interpreted as a definite nucleus. Such peculiar cytological structure of the trichogy merits a farther examination, and the gradual developmen withering of the organ will now be described. Starting ne cell t and with 1896] PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA 363 the earliest stage, we find a cell at the end of a procarp closely attached to the cell of the trichophoric apparatus (jig. 77, ¢). Such a cell contains no distinct nucleus, but the cell contents often show a certain degree of differentiation into vacuoles and aggregations of granular matter. This cell begins to elongate, and as it does so carries up with it the substance of the inner zone of the cell-wall. Finally it pushes through the outer zone of the cell-wall (fig. 72), and then simply elongates until the full size is reached. The cell-wall of the upper portion of the trichogyne is composed entirely of the substance of the inner zone, the outer zone remaining around the base of the trichogyne as a sort of collar (fig. 73). As the trichogyne elongates the cells-contents become more homogeneous, until aside from some granular matter in the base of the structure there is no differen- tiation of the protoplasm. The trichogyne is united to the cell of the trichophoric apparatus by a narrow strand of protoplasm. The first indication that the trichogyne is about to wither appears in the formation of a cap like layer of cellulose, staining deeply with hematoxylin, over the cell of the trichophoric apparatus, severing the protoplasmic connection between these two Structures. An early stage in the differentiation of this cap is shown in fig. rg, and a later stage in fig. 75. Contemporane- ously with the formation of this cap begins the disintegration of the trichogyne, and this latter process is always associated with the development of a zooglcea of rod-shaped bacteria ( figs. 14 and 7 5), with sometimes Leptothrix and Beggiatoa filaments around the ends of the trichogynes. The end of the trichogyne §radually collapses, and the cellulose wall appears to gelatinize, for the outline becomes vague and at last we cannot distinguish the end in the mass of slime. The contents of the trichogyne either disappear entirely, or there are left only small masses of ®rganic matter in the basal portion of the structure. While the trichogyne is withering the cell of the trichoph @pparatus usually begins to push out at one side of the bas the trichogyne, and assuming the functions of an apical cell it Converts the procarp into a filament of several cells that forms oric e of 364 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER one of a whorl of small bracts around the cystocarp. These fila- ments with the remains of the trichogynes at one side are fre- quently met with, and appear in some of the figures illustrating the development of the cystocarp. We may say at this point that we have never seen any bodies attached to the trichogynes that could be identified as anthero- zoids. Such observations must be made before the trichogynes begin to wither, as then the bacteria and slime put a stop to all examination of this point. Sometimes the group of procarps contains much foreign matter around the trichogynes, but much of the writer’s material was quite clean, and it seemed impossible that the presence of antherozoids should escape notice, yet such material was covered with developed fruit. DEVELOPMENT OF CYSTOCARP. We have already stated that the cell at the base of the pair of procarps is the carpogenous cell (figs. ¢-7z, ¢). It is very curious that the cystocarp should be developed so uniformly from a particular cell, and yet this proved true of every spect men that the writer examined. This cell is one of the first of the cells composing the group of procarps to be formed, and consequently is one of the oldest at the time when the cyst0- carp begins its development. It is likewise associated with the procarp that as a rule is the first of the group to mature. Si development of the cystocarp was studied almost exclusively from serial sections cut from paraffin, the specimens being stained tm toto with Mayer’s acid hamalum, and on the slide with eosin. The earliest stage of the cystocarp is frequently met It consists of a large cell rich in protoplasm, and containing 4 prominent nucleus, situated in the midst of the group of a carps and united to the carpogenous cell of the outer pal : glance at fig. 76 will make plain what is meant. The large numbered Io is the terminal segment of the procarpic bane On the left side of the figure drawn in detail is one of the pro carps of the outside pair, and from its carpogenous cell (¢) has met with 1896] PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA 365 arisen the first cell of the cystocarp (7). On the right side of the figure drawn in outline, only the position of the nuclei being indicated by shading, are the remains of some of the other pro- carps of the group with the basal portions of their withered trichogynes. Whenever dotted lines appear in the figures, they mean that the structures indicated were present in the section of the series next the one from which the drawing was made. The carpogenous cell does not give rise to this first cell of the cystocarp until the trichogyne has begun to wither, and is therefore entirely separated from the cell of the trichophoric apparatus. The first cell of the cystocarp increases in size until it quite fills up the space between the procarps, and then by a transverse division it cuts off a small cell at its base. (fig. 78). The lower cell takes no further part in the devel- opment of the cystocarp; the upper cell gives rise to the lobes of the favella. At this point it may be well to consider the possibility of there being cross-fusion between any of the cells of the procarps and those of the young cystocarp. The cells of the young Cystocarp are separated from all the cells of the procarps by walls which stain heavily, as has been indicated in fig. 77- aa hone of the many specimens examined was there any indication of the presence of ooblastema filaments or of fusion processes budded out from any cell of the procarps. As the sections were serial the relation of all the cells of the procarps and cystocarps to one another might be studied, and it seems to the writer quite impossible that there could be any connections formed between any of the cells that would not appear on the slides. The favella consists of a variable number of lobes, from — to five, which asa rule are in widely different stages of maturity. They are quite separated from one another, but are all attached to the second cell (cell x? in figs. 79 and 20) of the cystocarp. A lobe develops in the following manner. The second cell of the cystocarp pushes out in the form of a pear shaped process that becomes cut off as acell. This cell by forward growth and a few irregular divisions gives rise to a short filament of thick 366 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER segments (fig. 79). Branches arise from these segments in profusion and secondary branches from the first, so that ulti- mately there results an oval body consisting of roundish cells, closely packed together, and yet really constituting a system of filaments. As the lobe matures the connections between the cells are severed and finally they separate as carpospores, quite distinct from one another. /%g. 20 shows a section through a maturing cystocarp. Here there are three lobes shown in section and the attachment of two of them to the second cell of the cystocarp (1?) is evident. The largest lobe was made up of ripe spores which were about ready to escape from the cystocarp; the other lobes were much younger. The remains of the procarp (2) with the base of the trichogyne may be seen on the right of the figure. As the cystocarp develops it frequently happens that the strands of protoplasm between the terminal cell of the procarpic branch and the carpogenous cell and between this last and the first cell of the cystocarp become much wider than they were originally. There is evidently an absorption of the cell-wall between these cells. In fig. 20 the cell-wall between the ter- minal segment of the procarpic branch (no. 10) and the car- pogenous cell (c) has been so far absorbed that were it not for the fact of a nucleus being present in the carpogenous cell, and its position in reference to the procarp and cya carp, one would be likely to consider it a part of the terminal segment. PTILOTA PLUMOSA C, AG. AND P. PLUMOSA FILICINA FARL. The material upon which this examination is based aod collected by the author in the month of July 1892 at Pacific Grove, California. In the following account of the structure and development of the procarps and cystocarps of this species and its variety we take it for granted that the reader is familiar with the main points of the account of Prilota serrata. Accord- ingly the subject is considered under the same divisions and 1M the same order as those of the preceding description, and the 1896 ] PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA 367 remarks will be in the nature of a comparison of these two Pacific coast forms with P. serrata. STRUCTURE AND MODE OF GROWTH OF THE FROND. The structure of the frond of P. plumosa and its variety filicina isin all essentials identical with that of P. serrata. The differences that exist are purely minor peculiarities of size and shape of pinnules and pinne, color, habit, etc. The structure of the framework upon which the corticating filaments are laid is quite the same in both species, and the method of growth of all parts of the frond is absolutely identical in the two forms. MORPHOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROCARPIC BRANCHES. There is a more luxuriant production of fruit in the Califor- nian species than on P. serrata. While procarpic branches. are hot rare on the pinnules of P. serrata, they are very commonly so situated in P. plumosa and P. plumosa filicina, and the Steater part of the fruit is to be found on those portions of the frond. The procarpic branches on the pinnules, from one to five in number, are usually situated along the inner edge of that Structure, where they take the place of the teeth found along the edge of sterile pinnules. The procarpic branches of the Pacific Coast forms are shorter than those of P. serrata, in P. plumosa Consisting of only five or six segments, and in P. plumosa licina of eight or nine segments, the number of course being Somewhat variable. The procarpic branches of the variety filicena are not only longer, but also stouter than in the typical form p lumosa, in keeping with the coarser texture of the frond. Occa- sionally a procarpic branch will itself bear procarpic branches, that is, a lateral branch from the axial siphon, instead of devel- ping into a vegetative filament, will give rise to a short branch "pon the end of which a group of procarps will be developed. DEVELOPMENT OF THE GROUP OF PROCARPS. The gr oup of procarps in its development follows exactly the same steps in P. plumosa and its variety as in P. serrata. A com- 368 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER parison of fig. 22 with fg. 7 will show that the two groups of procarps are identical in all the essentials of structure. There was no tendency towards an increase of the typical number of procarps in the Californian plants, but frequently the full num- ber was not present. The appearance of the pair of procarps on the outside of the group requires a word of notice. The second procarp of the pair is sometimes very small, and its position such that the ques- tion might arise as to whether it really is a filament or a number of cells cut off from the basal cell by radial divisions (fig. 27). In several such cases, specimens were treated with lactic acid and ammonia, when by carefully crushing the specimen and manipulating the cover glass, the two procarps were separated at all points excepting where the second joined the first at the basal cell. After such treatment it was apparent that the two procarps were distinct branches. A very exceptional case was observed in the presence ofa single procarp on the frond near the base of a pinnule, and in no way connected with a procarpic branch. It was attached to one of the lateral branches of a pinnule of P. plwmosa, and consisted of three cells, the trichogyne projecting beyond the edge of the pinnule. This was the only exception noted to the rule that in the genus Pulota the procarps are borne at the ends of procarpie branches. MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE PROCARPS. With the general agreement in structure that we have found to exist between the different portions of the frond of the Cali- fornia plants and P. serrata, we should hardly expect to find great differences in the minute structure of the procarps. There are no essential differences in the structure of the carpogeno’ cells and the trichophoric apparatus. The trichogynes of fe plumosa and P. plumosa filicina are somewhat longer than 1 P. serrata, measuring about 62 p long and 3 wide above the — trichophore. In most cases it was quite impossible, fully staining, to make out any differentiation of the protoplasm - after care 1896] PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA 369 in this organ beyond a slight granular structure. However, the writer did find occasionally a body in the narrower portion of the trichogyne that had something of the appearance of a very small nucleus. There was a tendency toward a differentiation of the cell-wall around the procarps, manifest in the manner in which the upper portions of the trichogyne arose from a sort of collar, but the writer observed nothing that could be compared with the complex cell-wall of P. serrata. No antherozoids were found attached to the trichogynes, and as yet no antheridial plants of this Pacific coast species have been found. However, the writer did not make the same deter- mined search for male plants in this species as he did in the case of P. serrata. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CYSTOCARP. There is a perfect agreement in the structure of the cysto- carp of P. serrata and the two torms we are considering. Not only do the lobes of the favella arise in the same manner, but they are developed from the same cell in both cases, this cell being the second cell of the cystocarp. There does not appear to be the same uniformity as to the Position of the carpogenous cell in P. plwmosa and its var. filicina as in P. serrata. Out of thirty-five specimens of cystocarps examined, twenty-nine were developed from the basal cell of the Pair of Procarps on the outside of'the group, the homologue of the Carpogenous cell of P. serrata; four cystocarps came from the basal cell of the procarp on the inside of the group, and in two instances they had arisen from the terminal segment of the Procarpic branch. _ three figures of different stages of the cystocarps have been wmtoduced, which make clear certain points about their develop- ment that are not shown in the illustrations of P. serrata. In Fg. 23 we have an instance where the carpogenous cell (¢) of ~ Procarp on the inside of a group has pushed out towards the “enter and contains two nuclei. This the writer considers to = the earliest stage in the development of a cystocarp. The dis- 370 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER tinct nuclei of the cells of the trichophoric apparatus (ta) are shown, and above them the trichogyne, which has just begun to wither, may be seen. In fig. 2¢ we have the one-celled condi- tion of a cystocarp, and the specimen is of particular interest because the chromatin of the nucleus is very well defined, hav- ing apparently gathered together into the chromosomes prepara- tory to nuclear division. Fig. 25 illustrates beautifully the man- ner in which a new lobe (*) arises from the second cell (’) of the cystocarp when an older lobe may be well along in its devel- opment. COMPARISON OF THE TYPE OF PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTI- LOTA WITH THOSE OF ALLIED GENERA. We have fortunately very good descriptions of the types of procarps and cystocarps of the genera most closely allied to Ptilota. The following have been carefully studied: Callitham- nion,* Pterothamnion,? Griffithsia,3 Ceramium,‘ Lejolisia,’ Spet- mothamnion,° Ptilothamnion,” and Spondylothamnion.° There are many differences in the precise cell arrangements of the procarps in the genera just mentioned, each having its peculiarities, and in none of them are the conditions vety much like those of Ptilota. However, in the following two cases certain resemblances are worth noting. In Callithamnion elegans Schousb., according to Bornet and Thuret (76), one of the segments of a branch gives rise to a cell from which is developed a three-celled procarp, the ba *Callithamnion corymbosum Lyngb. Bornet and Thuret (67) 1453 ger - C. tetricum Ag. Janczewski (77) 117. C. elegans Schousb. and Thuret (76) fasc. 1: 32. 7. zo. * Plerothamnion plumula Nag. Schmitz (83) 23, 24. 3 Griffithsia corallina Ag. Janczewski (77) 122. G. Bornetiana Farl, Smith (96) 35: ‘Ceramium decurrens Hary. Janezewski (77) 120. * Lejolisia Mediterranea Born. Bornet and Thuret (67) 148. © Spermothamnion ftabellatum Born. Bornet and Thuret (76) fase. 1: hs hemaphroditum Nig. Janczewski (77) 115. 2 ? Ptilothamnion pluma Thuret. Bornet and Thuret (76) fasc. 2: 179 pi. - . 8 Spondylothamnion multifidum Nig. Bornet and Thuret (76) fasc. 2: 18%" pig. + 1896 J PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA 371 cell of which is the carpogenous cell. Often this segment from which the procarp is developed gives rise to one or two cells that are ordinarily vegetative, but that sometimes become changed into procarps. When this is the case a group of pro- carps results somewhat resembling the group in Ptilota. The cystocarp consists of several lobes, but unlike Ptilota they all arise directly from the carpogenous cell. In the genus Ceramium, according to Janczewski, there are found two procarps connected with one carpogenous cell. In Ptilota the pair of procarps situated at the outside of the group appears to have but one carpogenous cell. However, the man- ner in which the procarps of Ceramium develop is quite different from that of Ptilota, and a morphological relationship seems very unlikely. . REMARKS ON THE CHARACTER OF THIS TYPE OF CARPOSPORIC REPRODUCTION. Physiologically considered there is a great resemblance between the type of carposporic reproduction of Ptilota and of the several genera previously mentioned. They all agree in that the Carpogenous cell is separated from the trichogyne by a trichophoric apparatus consisting of one or more cells. This characteristic of the type is very important from a physiological standpoint, and so considered it matters little what is the precise number and arrangement of the cells of the trichophoric appa- ratus. Furthermore, if the writer is not mistaken in his inter- pretation of what has been published by the different writers on the subject, in the genera above named and also in the case of the Species of Ptilota studied by him, no actual fusion of the base of the trichogyne with the carpogenous cell has been observed. In most of these genera and also in Ptilota the trichogyne 15 S° far removed from the carpogenous cell that fusion would hardly be possible, except through the agency of an ooblastema fila- ment. However, in spite of very careful search on my part no ao filament could be found in Ptilota, nor have I seen in the literature any figure showing an ooblastema filament or any 372 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER explicit statement on the part of botanists that they have ever observed one in any of the genera just mentioned. An exception to the above statement may perhaps be found in some remarks in a recent paper by Professor Fr. Schmitz? in which he expresses the belief that the hitherto accepted accounts of the fertilization in Callithamnion are incorrect. It may be gathered from this statement of his opinion that he was inclined to believe that ooblastema filaments or their equiy- alent exist in Callithamnion, but the brevity of the account there given and the absence of figures prevents my comparing the complicated condition of things there described with what I have observed in Ptilota. To bring clearly before the reader the conditions that make a satisfactory explanation of the fertilization of the carpogenous cell in Ptilota so difficult let us examine some of the figures. In the specimen shown in fig. 24 the trichogyne had clearly begun to wither; and the carpogenous cell was in process of division. Figs. 75, 77, and 2¢ illustrate the one-celled stage of the cystocarp, the trichogyne in all instances having withered to a certain degree. Figs. 18 and ro show later stages of the cystocarp with the withered trichogynes at one side of the pro- carps, and in fig. 20 we have a section of an adult cystocafp that illustrates very well the relation between the cell of the trichophoric apparatus (ta) and the cell of the cystocarp when the latter is mature. A glance at these figures must make it apparent that the trichogyne is so far distant from the carpogenous cell that fusion with it would hardly be possible except by means of a? ooblastema filament. The writer has never seen anything indicate the presence of such a filament, and it does not seem him possible that such a structure could be present and escape notice in serial sections such as he had to study. There Wa ° La Nuova Notarisia, W1.—: 114.1892. The first view of Professor Schmitz of Untersuchungen iiber die Befruchtung der Florideen 23, 24) was that in the majority ; the Ceramiez there is direct fusion between the base of the trichogyne and the oe pogenous cell, brought about by the bending of the trichophoric apparatus S0 that trichogyne is brought into close proximity to the carpogenous cell. ; : | | 1896] PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA 373 likewise no evidence of fusion between the cells of the develop- ing cystocarps and the cells of any of the trichophoric appa- ratuses or the trichogynes. As is shown in all the figures, the cells of the cystocarp are separated from the trichophoric appa- ratuses by walls of considerable thickness, and cross-fusion of any sort certainly ought to have appeared in the sections. The fact that the sections were serial enabled the writer to examine all sides of the specimens, and would seem to have prevented the possibility of an ooblastema filament or fusion process escaping notice because it lay in such a plane that it could not appear in the median section. However, to guard against error of method the writer crushed out many of the young cystocarps in lactic acid, thus separating the procarps from the central developing cystocarp, and in such specimens saw no indication of an ooblas- tema filament. A satisfactory explanation of a sexual process in the case of Ptilota must then be one which answers the following question: viz., How can a sexual impulse be transmitted from a trichogyne to a carpogenous cell when the two structures are separated by a trichophoric apparatus of at least one cell (often more) through which the impulse must pass? From the literature it certainly seems as if the conditions above mentioned were essentially the same in the genera Callithamnion, Griffithsia, Ceramium, Sper- mothamnion, Spondylothamnion, and Lejolisia, but the writer Cannot in most cases speak from a personal study of the forms. Accepting the dictum that biology now lays down as to the fequirements of a sexual act, there must be a transmission of nuclear substance from the antherozoid through the trichogyne to the cells of the trichophoric apparatus, and thence on to the arpogenous cell. Any explanation of sexuality which satisfies the above condition must base its argument upon the fact of there being a continuous mass of protoplasmic matter from the trichogy he to the carpogenous cell, because of strands of protoplasm connecting the cells one with another. The difficulties that a satisfactory hypothesis must come, even though it rest on the above mentioned fact of an over- 374 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER unbroken passage from trichogyne to carpogenous cell, are very great. It must postulate a process, the complexity of which, if the writer is not mistaken, is not to be found in the sexual reproduction of any organism. So far as the writer is able to judge, the union of sexual elements in both the animal and plant world is facilitated as much as possible by simplicity of condi- tions, z. ¢., the two elements are given every opportunity to unite directly, and the direct union of the protoplasmic masses of two cells is the characteristic phenomenon of a sexual act. In this case it is necessary to assume the transmission of nuclear sub- stance through cells which are themselves nucleated, and appar- ently are not specialized for this purpose, at least they are not materially different in structure from ordinary vegetative cells. The evidence upon this last point, it will be remembered, was that the cells of the trichophoric apparatus after the withering of the trichogynes increase in size and frequently give rise toa small filament or bract, thus showing that they have not lost the potentialities of vegetative cells. The passage of nuclear sub- stance from one cell to another by way of one or more cells would be a fact quite contrary, the writer believes, to the usual conception ot the individuality of the cell. Botanical science as yet furnishes no instance of such a phenomenon. The writer carefully studied the cells of the trichophone apparatus, endeavoring to find indications of a change in appear” ance before and after the development of the cystocarp, but oe the many specimens he examined there was nothing to indicate a change of structure of the cells themselves, and nothing ie . ever seen that could be interpreted as nuclear substance ¢” route to the carpogenous cell. th It must be apparent to the reader that we have to deal oe a very difficult problem. From the observations here recor! e | an explanation of sexuality in this genus must overcome ase a serious obstacles. Investigators in this field of study ee - always considered that the sexuality of the Floridee yer established fact. Yet in this genus the cytological conditio : of the procarps are such that it is difficult to conceive the™ 1896 | _PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA 375 anism by which the nuclear substance of the antherozoid could be carried to the female cell. But to make the problem still more complex there is the fact that the antherozoids are appar- ently rare, if not wanting, and yet cystocarpic fruit is very abun- dant. From the present examination, somewhat unsatisfactory as including only two species, the writer cannot but think it very probable that the cystocarp in this genus develops non- sexually. The evidence in favor of a theory of apogamy may be briefly summarized as follows: 1. The entire absence of bodies attached to the tricho- Synes that could be identified as antherozoids impressed the writer as being very significant. 2. Cystocarpic plants of P. serrata and P. plumosa with its variety filicina are common and bear immense quantities of fruit, there being as a rule a cystocarp at the end of every abor- tive pinnule (procarpic branch), and sometimes borne along the edge of the pinnules. Immense quantities of antherozoids, par- ticularly as they are non-motile in the Floridee, would be required to insure the development of such a profusion of cysto- * carps arranged in such a regular manner upon the frond, yet no antheridial plants of P. serrata or P. plumosa have been reported. It is natural to expect that antheridial plants will be found, as has been the case with Prilota elegans Bonnem, but they ought to exist in great quantity to produce such a profusion of fruit if the fystocarp is to develop as the result of a sexual act. 3. The uniformity with which the cystocarp is developed from one carpogenous cell in the case of P. serrata and one of two cells in the case of P. plumosa can be explained in two Ways. Either the cell has been specialized as the female cell, of which there is no evidence in its structure or position, or it is the cell which by virtue of its age and situation is best fitted to 8ive rise to the fruit apogamously. “As has been pointed out, the carpogenous cell is one of the oldest in the group of pro- sas Ss, and perhaps for that reason it may be the cell strongest mM Potentialities, best prepared to develop the fruit. At all 376 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER events the uniformity of the position of the carpogenous cell adds another difficulty to be explained by a theory of sexuality, while it is but reasonable to suppose that when a plant adoptsa method of apogamous development of its fruit certain cells, because of position or age affording perhaps greater nourish- ment, would be best fitted to undertake reproductive functions. 4. The absence of facts pointing to a fertilization of the carpogenous cell through the trichophoric apparatus, and the difficulty of understanding such a process, while affording 4 simply negative evidence on the subject, nevertheless deserves attention, and appears to the writer as a point in favor of the hypothesis of apogamy. THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. LITERATURE CITED. Bornev and Tuuret (67): Recherches sur la fecundation des Floridées. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. V. 7:—. 1867 : Borner and THURET (76): Notes Algologiques. 1876-80. CRAMER (63): Physiologisch-systematische Untersuchungen ber die Ceramia- ceen. 1863 JANCZEWSKI (77): Notes sur le slenelons cas: du cystocarp dans les Fl Mem. Soc. Sci. Nat. Cherbourg 20 1877. NAEGELI (47): Die neuern ils niohisiek Begriindung eines eigenen Syst 1847. oridées. ems der Algen und Florideen Sitz. Kon. Akad. aa Berlin. SMITH (96): The development of the cystocarp of Griffithsia Bornetiana. Bot. GAZ. 22:35. 1896. THUuRET (78): Etudes phycologiques. 1878. SCHMITZ (83): i ence iiber die Befruchtung der Florideen. 3. EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVIII AND XIX. All figures sketched with the Abbé camera: fig. 7, X 300; ie - 31 X 800; figs. ¢-15, X 1100; figs. 16-22, X 800 ; figs. 23-25» % 1100 Piilota serrata Kiitz. - Fic. 1. End of a pinna; x, apical cell; 1-vu, nodes; early stages procarpic binbchies shaded, Fig. 2. An adult procarpic branch from the weléth node; eosin, stained with er PLATE XVIII Sao Wins i= Dos AL GAZETTE, X del, iy BOTANIC a eg oo Dav 4s BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XXII. aan = oot : | t 1896] PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP OF PTILOTA ny A hie Fic. 3. End of procarpic branch showing first stage in the formation of the group of procarps; cell 11 gives rise to the inner procarp; cell ¢ is the carpogenous cell; stained with eosin. Fig. 4. End of procarpic branch showing structure of the cell-wall ; branch 10’ becomes first procarp of the pair; stained with Béhmer’s hema- toxylin. Figs. 5-10 from specimens stained with eosin. Fig. 5. End of procarpic branch: cell 10’* gives rise to the second pro- carp of the pair; cell to’’ develops into a lateral procarp. Fic. 6. Stage very similar to fg. 5, inner procarp (no. 11) consists of two cells. Fig. 7. Stage somewhat older in development than. fig. 6; a trichogyne (10’) has developed from the terminal cell of the first procarp of the pair. Fig. 8. A stage very similar to fg. 7, but viewed from the opposite side ; lateral procarp 10’’ consists of three cells. FiG. 9. Group of procarps illustrating development of the trichogynes. Fie, 10. Anadult group of procarps; shows the appearance and arrange- ment of the bracts below the group. Figs. 11-16 from specimens stained with Béhmer’s hematoxylin. Fic. 11. A single immature procarp; terminal cell () becomes the ot: ta, the cell of the trichophoric apparatus; ¢, the carpogenous Fig. 12. Trichogyne pushing through the outer zone of the cell-wall. Fig. 13. A mature trichogyne. Fic. 14. The protoplasmic connection between the trichogyne and the cell of the trichophoric apparatus has been severed, and a wall of cellulose has been formed between the two structures. Fig. 15. Withered trichogyne with zoogloea of bacteria at the tip. lag 16-22 from specimens stained with Mayer's acid hemalum and n. Fig. 16. First stage in development of cystocarp ; +, first cell of cysto- Carp; c, Carpogenous cell; ¢a, trichophoric apparatus; on the right side drawn in outline are other procarps. Fig. 17. First stage of cystocarp with old trichogyne attached to the Procarp, FIG. 18. Two-celled stage of cystocarp with old trichogyne attached to the Procarp, - the 10 1% Four-celled stage of cystocarp with old trichogyn¢ attached to the Procarp, 378 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ NOVEMBER Fig. 20. A cystocarp with one mature lobe and two similar structures sactially acd, ta, trichophoric apparatus; c, carpogenous cell. Ptilota plumosa C. Ag. Fic. 21. Early stage in development of group of procarps; about the same stage as is shown in fg. 6 of P. serrata: cell 6 homologous with cell 11; 5’ with 10’; §'’ with 10’’. Fig. 22. Somewhat later stage than fig. 27, very similar to fig.7 of p serrata ; numbered to correspond with fg. 27. Ptilota plumosa filicina Farl. Figs, 23-26 stained with Béhmer’s hematoxylin. Fic. 23. Carpogenous cell of procarp (c) with two nuclei ; 4a, trichophoric apparatus ; probably a stage preliminary to the formation of the first cell of the cystocarp. Fic. 24. One-celled stage of cystocarp; nucleus with a network of chromosomes. Fig. 25. Cystocarp with early stages of two lobes of the favella, the younger (/’) still a single cell having just been formed from the second cell the cystocarp (x'') THE PHALLOIDE OF THE UNITED STATES. Il. SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT." EDWARD A. BURT. PHALLOIDEA, Fries. Syst. Myc. 22281. 1823. Terrestrial fungi with mycelium forming ropelike strands and bearing spherical or ovoid fructifications—the ‘eggs — which consist of a receptaculum and gleba enclosed by the volva; volva with thin outer and inner layers separated from each other by a broad gelatinous layer; receptaculum of various forms, with a pseudoparenchymatous wall of chambered struc- ture, bursting through the apex of the volva at maturity and carrying aloft the spores; gleba deliquescing into a syrupy mass containing the very minute (3-8 a X 1-2.5 p) ellipsoidal spores. KEY TO THE GENERA. I. Gleba borne on the outer surface of the receptaculum PHALLE# rtion of Mutin 1. Receptaculum consisting of a stipe along the upper Po which the gleba is borne - . : 2. Receptaculum consisting of a stipe and pileus joined together at their apices; gleba on the upper guitace ty 4 e : : : i i Ithyphallus 3. Receptaculum consisting of a stipe, pileus, and veil; gleba on the upper surface of the pileus 2 : II. Gleba borne on the inner surface of the receptaculum - CLATHRE# 4. Receptaculum lacking a stipe, consisting of obliquely anasto- mosing bars or of vertical columns joined together bove : : fs 3 : Clathrus 5. Receptaculum clathrate above, stipitate - Sinbien 6. Receptaculum consisting of a stipe divided at its upper end ~~ free arms whose inner surfaces and flanks between neighboring * arms are covered by the gleba “ Aa “Contribution No. XXXVII from the Cryptogamic Laboratory of Harvard Uni- ‘tosy prepared under the direction of Dr. W. G. Farlow. 379 380 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER Subfamily PHaLLEe# (Fries). MUTINUS Fries Summa Veg. Scand. 2: 434. 1849. Receptaculum consisting of a hollow stipe and lacking pileus and veil. Gleba borne on the outer surface of the upper por- tion of the stipe. Mutinus Curtisi (Berk.) Ed. Fischer. Corynites Curtisti Berkeley, Grevillea 2:34. 1873. Compare James in Bull. Tor- rey Bot. Club 15:314. p/. 86. 1888 Mutinus hota (Berk.) Ed. Fischer, Saccardo’s Syll. Fung. 7 $13. 1888, Mut bovinus Morgan, Sane Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 112147. fh 3. 1889. Ed. Hosa. Veen: Phall. 1890 (?) Caromyces elegans oa oe fies b. 1850. (?) Corynites elegans Montagne Sylloge Cryptogamarum 281. 1856. ?) Mutinus as ae Ed. Fischer, Saccardo’s Syll. Fung. 7 +13: 1888. Neue Untersuch. Phall. 39. 1893. Stipe horn Sd. tapering gradually from the base to the apex, sometimes subtriangular in cross-section, hollow, white or pinkish below and bright red above, perforate at the apex, spore bearing part with the same structure as the rest of the stipe. Plant 4 to 7 in height with a stipe 34" thick (10 to Ya by 2™). Growing in cultivated grounds and in woods. aa Morgan; Connecticut, Wright, Eaton, Thaxter; Long Islan Peck; Massachusetts, James. : This plant is very distinct from the following specie being es larger, with a stipe having its greatest diameter where it issu from the volva, and then tapering very gradually u ae Owing to an error in the dimensions of the plant as publishe arded as by Berkeley in Grevillea, this species has been reg probably identical with C. Ravenelii. The authentic spe upon which Berkeley’s description was based is in the Cu Herb. in a good state of preservation. It bears the mae? label and description which does not differ materially from tha published : (5635) Corynites Curtisii, Berk. / . Hymenophorum stipitiform, tubular, thin, subtriangular, jmen red, pitted above 1896] THE PHALLOIDEA: OF THE UNITED STATES 381 the middle, tapering to an obtuse point. Apex covered with a semifluid brown substance of a fetid smell. Conn. C. Wright (222).” This dried specimen measures 4" in length and has a stipe #" in diameter at its widest part where it leaves the volva (10™ by 14™™). In the published description Berkeley adds that the spore-bearing part is confluent in structure with the portion below. This specimen agrees well with Morgan’s description and figure of MZ. dovinus. An alcoholic specimen, collected by Thaxter in Connecticut, and a dried specimen col- lected by Peck on Long Island, agree well with the Berkeley specimen and with Morgan’s figure. Corynites Curtisti and Mutinus bovinus are undoubtedly the same. Ihave not seen specimens or figures of Caromyces elegans Montagne. The description, although rather imperfect, seems to indicate its identity with C. Curtisii and M. bovinus. Ed. Fischer? states that he has seen a figure of Montagne’s plant in Herb. British Museum which agrees well with Morgan’s figure of M. bovinus. If this identity is established Montagne’s spe- cific name should be used for the plant. Murinus caninus (Huds.) Fries. Phallus caninus Huds. Angl. 2 :630. Phallus inodorus Sowerby, Fung. A/. 330. Phallus (Cynophallus) caninus Fries, Syst. Myc. 2: 284. 1823. “scam caninus (Huds.) Fries, Summa Veg. Scand. 2. 1849. Chal »€. syst. Uebers. 55. 1886. Sacc. Syll. Fung. 7:12. 1888. Untersuch. - 99. 1890. Morgan in Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 112147. 1889. Corynites Ravenelii B. & C. Trans. Linn. Soc. 21 1149. Al. 79. 1855: Corynites brevis B. & C. Curtis in Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. N. C. Pt. 3. Bot- “my: 110. Cf. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 7: 30. 1880. Mutinus brevis B. & C. Morgan, Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 11: 147: 1889. Mutinus Ravenelii (B. & C.). Ed. Fischer, Saccardo’s Syll. Fung. 7° 13. 1888. Stipe hollow, cylindrical-fusiform, 2% to 6" long by ya" ee less thick (6 to 15 by 1); spore bearing part one-third to ne-sixth the total length of the stipe, oblong-ovoid or Mees * ‘ Cf. Ed. Fischer, | * Neue Untersuch. Phall. 39. 1893. 382 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER flesh-colored, perforate or imperforate at the apex; portion below spore bearing part tapering downward, white or reddish, mostly one layer of chambers thick. The chambers of the spore bear- ing part of the stipe have very massive walls—perhaps twenty layers of cells thick —and open as pits or winding tubes into the central cavity of the stipe; below this part they are thin walled, opening, if at all, through the outer wall. Growing about buildings and in gardens and thickets. New England, New York, Pennsylvania and South Carolina, various collectors; Ohio, Morgan ; Indiana, Underwood ; Wisconsin, Pammel. This fungus is quite variable with us. 1 have examined sev- eral collections made at points about Cambridge and Somerville, Mass., at Newport, R. I., and at East Galway, N.Y. Mr.C.H. Peck has kindly shown me the specimens in the New York State Herbarium of Corynites Ravenelii B. & C., collected by himself in New York, and of Cynophallus caninus ( Huds.) collected by Warne in the same state. Authentic specimens of Corynites Ravenelii B. & C. and of Corynites brevis B. & C. in the Curtis Herbarium were examined. My thanks are also due to Professor Ed. Fischer of Bern and Professor Chodat of Geneva for alcoholic specimens of European types of Mutinus caninus (Huds.) col- lected by Professor Chodat in Biel, Switzerland, in 1894, and procured for me by Professor Fischer. The careful examination and comparison of all of this material shows that there is no well marked character of group — of characters by which IM. Ravenelii (B. & C.) may be Sh 1 view the part to be ) from the lower part of the stipe than is generally th specimens. But upon splitting the plants longit show the same massive wall for the spore-bearing ; -or tubes opening into the central cavity of the stipe region and with the same chambered structure lowet dow does this reason, ‘‘spore-bearing part determinate” for J. TS not seem to be of value for separating it from a Foe j - 1 1896] THE PHALLOIDEA OF THE UNITED STATES 383 One of the dried specimens of C. Ravenel in the Curtis Herbarium discloses a portion of the surface of the spore-bearing part next to the central cavity of the stipe. The pits may still be seen. The specimens collected at Somerville, Mass., the structure of which has been shown in my account of the devel- opment of M. caninus, are undoubtedly the same as those of Corynites Ravenelii B. & C., and they show that, while the stipe is usually distinctly perforate at the apex, it may, nevertheless, be so minutely perforate and with the lips of the orifice so closely drawn together as to be fairly described as imperforate. The variations observed in the abundant supply of material at Somerville show very clearly that our forms, called sometimes Mutinus (Corynites) Ravenelii and sometimes Mutinus caninus, are really the same species and cannot well be separated from M. caninus of Europe. The spore-bearing part may be quite as short in proportion to the total length of the stipe as it is in the European types, or it may vary to one-third the total length of the stipe in the same lot of material. The shorter the spore bearing part, the more acute it is likely to be in our specimens Which Ihaveseen. As the plant is much more frequent with us than it is in Europe, more variation would be expected in our form. It has therefore seemed best to slightly modify the old description so that it may comprehend as well the relative pro- portions in size of parts shown by our plant. The specimen of Corynites brevis B. & C. in the Curtis Herbarium is identical with those of C. Ravenelii B. & C. and thus confirms Ravenel’s statement; that C. drevis was merely an herbarium name for C. Ravenelii and was probably printed by an oversight of the author in Dr. Curtis’s catalogue in the Geological and Natural History Survey of North Carolina. ITHYPHALLUS Fries Syst. Myc. 2. 1823 (subgenus). Receptaculum consisting of a hollow stipe and of a pileus bearing the gleba upon its outer (upper) surface. Veil Wanting, *See Gerard, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 7:30. 1880. 384 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER ITHYPHALLUS ImMPUDICUS (L.) Fries. Phallus impudicus Linn. Suec. 2. 7267. Phallus vulgaris Micheli, Nova plantarum genera 201. 1729. Phallus fetidus Sowerby Engl. Fungi, A/. 329. HHymenophallus Hadriani Nees, System der Pilze und Schwaimme, 1817. Phallus Ithyphallus) impudicus Fries, Syst. Myc. 2: 283. 1823. Morgan, Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 11: 146. 1889. Ithyphallus impudicus (L.) Fr. Ed. Fischer, Saccardo’s Syll. Fung. 7:8. 1888. Untersuch, Phall. 84. 9 Stipe hollow, tapering at each end, with a wall several layers of chambers thick, joined at its upper end with the pileus bya recurved border; pileus conic-campanulate, showing its outer surface sculptured with reticulated ridges and crests after deli- quescence of the gleba; veil wanting; volva white or pinkish. Total height of plant 6 to 12! (15 to 30%): stipe 14" (3%) thick; pileus 2" (5°™) high. Growing on the ground in woods. New England, Farlow, Frost; New York, Peck, Gerard; South Carolina, Schweinitz; Ohio, Lea, D. L. James; Missouri, Trelease; Nebraska, H. J. Webber; California, Harknéss. The size and form of Dictyophora duplicata and the surface of its pileus are so similar to Z. impudicus that there is danger of mistaking that plant for 7. zmpudicus in young stages if the veil of the former plant has not yet lost its connections with the under face of the pileus so as to hang freely below the pile about the stipe. ITHYPHALLUS RUBICUNDUS (Bosc) Ed. Fischer. Satyrus rubicundus Bosc, in Magaz. des Gesellsch. naturf. Freunde zu Berlin ey Pl. 6, f. 8. 1811. = Phallus (Letophallus) rubicundus Fries, Syst. Myc. 2: 285. 1823: wae Phallus (Ithy phallus) rubicundus Bosc. Morgan, Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Mee Ir: 146. 1889. : “ Ithyphallus rubicundus (Bosc) Ed. Fischer, Saccardo’s Syll. Fung. 7# 1% er Cf. Untersuch. Phall. 90, 18 Stipe fusiform, red, 6 to 7 long by 34 thick in the — (15 to 18™ by 2), perforate at the apex; pileus conic-camp “ : late, with surface even; volva small, gray. : 1896] THE PHALLOIDEZ OF THE UNITED STATES 385 Growing on the ground in dry fields. Massachusetts, Frost; New York, Schweinitz; North Carolina, Curtis; South Carolina, Ravenel; Alabama, Peters. Bosc’s illustration and description of this plant suggest, except in coloration of the stipe, a form of Phallus Ravenel B. & C., if the latter species ever occurs without its veil-like appendage under the pileus, or with this veil so reduced as to be overlooked. The outer surface of the gleba in Bosc’s figure is quite even, showing, as in P. Ravenelit, no such reticulation of lines as exist in D. duplicata on the surface of its gleba, and which there mark the position of the reticulate crests and ridges of the surface of its pileus. The dried specimens in the Curtis Herb., marked Phallus rubicundus, show a striking resemblance to those of P. Ravenelit, even in their size. One of the specimens is so old that its pileus has become bared through deliquescence of the gleba. It shows the granulate or minutely wrinkled sur- face characteristic of the pileus of P. Ravenelit. It is greatly to be hoped that whoever may have the good fortune to find J. rubicundus will preserve in alcohol specimens of the mature plant and of its eggs for a study of its structural relationships. DICTYOPHORA Desvaux, Jour. de Bot. (Paris) 2:88. 1809. Receptaculum consisting of a stipe, a pileus and a veil, the latter being formed from the same tissue that gives rise to the Stipe and hanging from the upper part of the stipe asa spice campanulate, or cylindrical net or membrane. DicryopHora RaveNneLi (B. & C.) Burt. Boletus phalloides John Ray, Herb. Vaillant (Herb. du Musée d’hist. nat. in Paris), according to Ed. Fischer, Untersuch. Phall. 87. Phallus Ravenelii B. & C., Grevillea 2: er 1873. se rea aaa. Bussey oe 2247. 1878. Peck, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 9: 123. pl. 25+ alg same AP memepeatint Ravenelii B. fs C. Morgan, ‘Yet Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. ry; 1889. Motel. Ravenelii (B. & C.) Ed. Fischer, Saccardo’s Syll. Fung. 7: it, 10% . also Ed. Fischer j in hams Phalloideen 30 and 86, and in Neue Untersuch, halloideen 1 5 and 34. f, N lthyphallus cucullatus Hiei. Jour. de Bot. 198. 1890. Cf. Ed. Fischer = fue Untersuch. Phalloideen 34. 386 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | NOVEMBER Stipe slender, tapering at each end, hollow; pileus conic- campanulate, with its surface granulate or minutely wrinkled after disappearance of the gleba; veil membranaceous, usually less than one-half of the length of the pileus, loosely attached to the stipe in the angle between the stipe and pileus; stipe closed at the apex by a thin membrane or finally perforate; volya pinkish. Plant 4 to 7™ long (10 to 17™); stipe 3/™ thick (15 to 20"); pileus 1%™ high (2.5 to 3.5°™). Growing in woods and fields about rotting wood. New England, various collectors ; New York, Peck; South Carolina, Ravenel; Ohio, Morgan, This species has been placed in the genus Dictyophora on account of its having a persistent membrane hanging about the stipe from the angle between the pileus and the stipe. This membrane is composed of the same tissue, the intermediate tissue A of my figures, which gives rise to the veil in D. dupl- cata. Differentiation of this tissue does not advance in D. _ Ravenelii to the final stage of making this membrane pseudo: parenchyma, or is this final stage reached in the case of hyphe composing the pileus in /. zmpudicus and in D. duplicata, yet ets one would hesitate on that ground to use the term pileus 0 connection with those species. It seems best to apply the term veil to this membrane in D. Ravenelii, which looks like a veth has the position of a veil, is composed of the tissue forming th veil in other species, and is likely to be regarded as a veil with out question by every botanist meeting this fungus for the fist time and attempting its determination. aS I have as yet had no opportunity of studying this struct” except in an advanced egg-stage, very kindly placed at my dis posal by Professor Thaxter, but that a differentiation tow" the stage of pseudoparenchymatous hyphz exists in the se seemed to be indicated by some laterally inflated hyph® we were observed in the section, as well as by the persistence the structure ina membrane which becomes torn away from : under surface of the pileus on the one side and from the wall the stipe on the other, during elongation. a ey eek iy ee ee 1896] THE PHALLOIDEAZ OF THE UNITED STATES 387 DicTYOPHORA DUPLICATA (Bosc) Ed. Fischer. Phallus duplicatus Bosc, Magaz. des Gesellsch. naturf. Freunde zu Berlin 5 : 86. 7. O97 ASI. Hymenophallus duplicatus Nees, System der Pilze u. Schwaimme. 1817. Hymenophallus togatus Kalchbrenner, Gasteromycetes novi v. minus cogniti 6. £7, 1, 1884. Cf Rau, A new Phallus, Bor. Gaz. 8:223. f/. g. 183. Farlow, Bor. Gaz. 8: 258. 1883. Phallus (Hymenophallus) demonum Rumph. Morgan, Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 11: 145. 1889. Cf Tight, Bull. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ. 8?: 7. f/. Dictyophora duplicata (Bosc) Ed. Fischer, Saccardo’s Syll. Fung. 7:6. 1888 Dictyophora phalloidea Desvaux, var. Dictyophora duplicata (Bosc) Ed. Fischer, Untersuch, Phalloideen 83. 1890. Stipe cylindrical, tapering at each end, hollow, white, wall thick, with several layers of chambers; pileus campanulate, with surface sculptured with strong reticulating ridges and crests, Which pass into the recurved border or collar formed by the union of the apex of the stipe with the pileus ; veil reticulate, vari- able in length, but reaching down, usually, about half way from the apex of the stipe to its base. Meshes of the veil become smaller towards the lower border and the bars wider, so that the border is almost membranaceous. Apex of the plant with a large collar (truncate) and perforate, or more acute. Gleba dark green, with an extremely fetid odor. Growing on the ground about buildings and about stumps in fields and thickets. Plant 6 to 9™ high (15 to 24™); stipe I to rye thick (2% to ae) pileus gin high (so), This is a fre- quent species in the eastern United States and is reported from Ohio by Morgan, and specimens from Iowa have been contrib- = by Professor Fink. It has sometimes been confused by _ become /’. rene Nees. P. cil/iosa, n. Sp., ie a ai ia hematin n. sp., is from the West, P. hastafa, n. sp., is ee aie, 7 ae The genus Quinruia Raf. is recognized, and fncludes ters Hock ae eucophysadis is a new genus constructed upon Physalis was a plexus, fro r seems that Chamesaracha Coronopus, as recognized .. So, fs fo ee author has separated C. crena/a, ni. Sp., an . SOF La ici : genus.—J. M. C. ida Gray). Orcytes Wats. still remains a monotypic — NOTES FOR STUDENTS. IRS Be rca . ae of Pringle's Mexican Fungi has recently been ten numbers, as foll ares Supply Company. It consists of P. ester, B. & = s: 1. Puccinia heterospora B. & C. on Anoda ; 2. DeToni on Rhus “Me is on a malvaceous plant; 3. Uromyces effusus (Pk.) spores; 5, Bein ie 4. U. Sophore Pk. on Sophora sericea, uredo- vum ; 7. cid, ee a 6. Acidium Solani Mont. on Solanum tor- perisporivides (B. & C len Pk. on Anisacanthus virgularis; 8. Parodiella on letramerium aure ) eahe on Indigofera ; 9. Puccinia Tetramerit Seym. The specimens are ae - 10, Leptostroma vestita S. & P. on Agave vestita. edited by Mr. A. B ie put up and bear printed labels. The publication is tions accompany ica : i. Nos. 9 and ro are new species; the descrip- Notices3 of same date ee They are also described in the Botanical wide circulatio ne ope Heithet of these publications are likely to have a n, the descriptions are reproduced here. n Fungi, No. 9, September 1, ute to 5™™ in diameter, very dark, with broad and blunt projection at side colored at junc- Puccinia 1896).— Spots ch eiramerit Seymour (Pringle’s Mexica dark ; spores ah sori amphigenous, varying from min apiculus Sisco. ier covered with coarse blunt warts, of ee ie ot ighter and occasionally a similar less prominent Hon with spore eee StS X 33-42 m4; pedicels about 784 long, Oe leaves, i? oe hyaline, rough below. November 30, 18 etramerium aureum Rose. Ptosiroma sp Seen C. G. Pringle. tember 1, 1896) caietes Seymour & Patterson (Pringle’s Mexican Fungi, No. 10, Sep- slightly Hepbeised ees mostly epigenous, stromata numerous, imbedded and , orbicular to oblong, .5-1™™ (rarely to 2.5™™), covering most of the w black margin; con- guttule often elon- Tomellin Cafion, Oaxaca, Mexico, ceptacles 2to 5 in §ated and sie . pindahas ae spores hyaline, linear, multiguttulate, Oe lease a like vacuoles; size of spores 30-85 X 44 of 4gave vestita Watson. Barranca near Gu adalajara, Mexico, May 18 91. Collector, C. G. Pringle.—J. C. A 3A trade icati a gah publication in the form of a card catalogue issued monthly by the Cam- Otanical Supply Co 424 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER MANY BULLETINS of the agricultural experiment stations contain matter that borders more or less directly upon botany, or have botanical matter interspersed among other subjects, thus rendering them of some interest to botanists. Of recent issues of this character are the following: A. D. Selby has mapped out the distribution of peach yellows in Ohio (Bull. 72), showing it to occur along the shores of Lake Erie in the north and in one county in the south part of the state. Considerable information is given regarding this disease, and also that of black knot of plum, with remarks upon ‘some other diseases of fruit trees. L.H. Bailey (Cornell Bull. 117) figures and describes root galls upon apple trees, and also discusses some causes of winter injuries to fruit trees. The relation of loss of moisture through the bark to hardiness is examined with some original data on the loss of moisture from twigs of apple. F. C. Stewart (N. Y. Bull. 101) gives results of spraying potato plants, describes the internal browning of the tubers, which was found experimentally not to be due to bacteria or fungi, and not tobe transmissible ~ to the succeeding crop, and also describes two new stem blights of which the cause was not ascertained for one, and for the other a new species of Fusa- rium (/. acuminatum E. & E.) was detected. Thomas A. Williams reports (S. D. Bull. 48) tests with corrosive sublimate, eau celeste, and Bordeaux mixture for prevention of potato scab, the first being found most effective. Luther Foster gives results (Mont. Bull. 9) of trials in growing potatoes, including treatment for scab. L. F. Kinney (R. I. Bull. 38) treats of the use of Bordeaux mixture in preventing the phytophthora disease of potatoes. i M. Webster (Ohio Bull. 69) examines the claim that Sporotrichum globulif- erum and similar fungi can be used to hold the spread of the chinch bug ™ check, and comes to the conclusion that “these fungous diseases, in order to work sufficiently rapidly and effectually to benefit the farmer, require peculiar meteorological conditions and a superabundance of insects at the same time.” In a bulletin by H. H. Nicholson and T. L. Lyon (Neb. Bull. 44) some good data are recorded on the use of large and small beet seed, and also on heavy and light seed. In a bulletin on apple culture by L.F. Kinney (R, I. Bull. 37) record is made of the number of flower buds 00 limbs fully exposed to the light and those in shade on the same tree the average of ten examinations, including several varieties, giving ke a : upon limbs in full light to 136 buds upon limbs in partial shade. be relation of the Burrill cornstalk (bacterial) disease and of corn smut t 0 cornstalk disease of cattle is quite fully treated in a bulletin by N, S. May (Kans, Bull. 58), with the conclusion that both these plant diseases cause no derangement or disease in animals. R. J. Davidson (Va. Bull. 50) th illus- tion and sture to 1896] CURRENT LITERATURE 425 vegetation is touched upon in a bulletin by L. A. Clinton (Cornell Bull. 120), and in one by F. W. Rane (N.H. Bull. 34), the latter treating of irrigation. —J.C. A. THE BOTANICAL SEMINAR of the University of Nebraska has published, asaspecial brochure, an address recently delivered under its auspices by Professor Conway MacMillan, entitled ‘Some considerations on the alterna- tion of generations in plants.” The discussion is interesting and suggestive, and the “ main contention” is summarized by the author as follows : “The definition of rudimentary alternation should be widened so as to include rejuvenescence of the syngamete.” By “rudimentary alternation” is meant that form of it in which the indi- rect development of the sexually formed cell (syngamete) does not result in a distinctly organized body. In this category the author would include not _ merely the cases in which the syngamete produces directly several zoospores, as in Spheroplea, but also those in which there is merely rejuvenescence, as in the zygospore of Spirogyra. “Indirect development of a cell resulting from a sexual process is most funda- mentally a sensitization and serves to compensate for that general sexual immobility which arises from the preponderant constructive chemism of plants.” Alternation of generation is generally spoken of as a device by which the product of the sexually formed cell is multiplied, and hence the more highly developed the sporophyte the greater the advantage. Our author, however, sees in it something deeper, which he calls “sensitization,” by which he means the bringing of a syngamete cell “into more intimate reciprocal relations with the environment,” as seen ina primitive way in rejuvenescence. is, he thinks, is an offset to the general stability of plants, a stability which follows: from their essentially constructive character, as opposed to the destructive character of animals, nomena in h and is the . ea sora is as distinctly a structural response to the plant t f che ca : i$ a structural response to the animal type of chemism. Sporophytization, there- ore, In the € wi é tion j plant phylum, is a phenomenon of coordinate importance wit! p nae vn the animal, and homologies between the vegetative tracts of the higher pian higher animals lie below the plane of the cell unit.” ity € author also presents a “classification of alternation of gene i ‘ ch may be of interest to some as a new setting for old facts. rations,” A. Recapitular alternation. B. Heteroblastic development. C. Sprout alternation. Lb. Homologous alternation. Alteration types. 426 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER A. Rudimentary alternation. - Rejuvenescence alone. II. Rejuvenescence with segmentation. Pisce i sata III. Segmentation alone. ypes. | B. Discrete alternation. C. Concrete alternation. Lp. Symbiotic alternation. “Recapitular alternation” refers to “the passage from the vegetative mul- ticellular to the reproductive unicellular condition ;’’ “heteroblastic develop- ment” refers to such an alternation as that of Chantransia and mature Batrachospermum forms; ‘sprout alternation” defines itself ; “homologous alternation” occurs where a potential gametophyte alternates with an actual gametophyte. These are styled “alteration types.” The true alternation types are defined as follows: “Rudimentary alternation,” defined above;” “ dis- crete alternation,” as in archegoniate plants (exclusive of gymnosperms); “concrete alternation,” as among the Floridez ; and “symbiotic alternation,” as in spermatophytes.—J. M. C. protoplasm which has collected there. Meanwhile the antheridial tube bs being formed, and after nuclear division a daughter nucleus passes to peas of the tube. When the tube reaches the dense mass containing the fe es can hardly be regarded as a reduction process, for 20 to 24 meee are found in the oosphere nuclei, and only 12 to 16 in the nucle! o oogonium.—W, D, M. 4 Annals of Botany 10: 295, 1896. 5 Annals of Botany ro: 107, 1896. 1896] CURRENT LITERATURE 427 their place to form the nuclear plate. In the resting stage the primary nucleus of the embryo-sac has the vegetative characters, but as division approaches the chromatin thread contracts to one side of the nuclear cavity, the nucleolus partially dissolves, and there is also a partial disappearance of the nuclear membrane. The nucleoli and membrane reappear in the spirem stage. The spirem of the embryo-sac nucleus differs decidedly from the vegetative type. The ribbon of the vegetative spirem stains like chromatin, but in this spirem there is an erythrophilous ribbon bordered by chromatin. Longitudinal fission of the entire ribbon takes place before segmentation into the lengths which become the chromosomes. The nuclei resulting from the second and third embryo-sac divisions resemble the primary nucleus in the staining of the ribbon, but otherwise they follow the vegetative type. After the second division the lower antipodal nucleus divides by the direct method. The number of chromosomes in vegetative nuclei is generally about twenty-four; in the primary nucleus of the embryo-sac, twelve; but after its first division the micropylar nucleus has twelve, while the antipodal may have from twenty to thirty-two. Throughout the oogenesis twelve chromo- of the sac, but in the antipodal end the number varies from twenty to thirty-four. The transverse division of chromosomes, which Dr. Haecker suggested might precede the formation of the sexual nucleus, does not occur.—C. J. ©. coca data, and in part upon critical deduction Additional papers on the same subjects are in course Pees already upon the table are of sufficient importance attention, _ His initial study, the mechanism and procedure of tendrils by which coiling is effected, has given, perhaps, the most important results.® Begun in the physiological laboratory of Purdue University in 1891, and continued as Sccasion permitted since, it has illuminated a number of obscure points, an done much toward making the whole matter of tendril movement under- e to merit present dri ; ; til, a function of maturity, and the sensitive resp dec ee Senetalization is especially helpful that ® ¢ €pendent upon rapidity for effectiveness are only indire t lass of plant movements ctly associated with . * —I 30. *For the earlier papers see this journal 17: 205~212- pl. 14. 18923 ais ae “ 93; and Bot. Centralblatt 66:145, 140. The recent Gow) ee k Windungs f 3 ture 0 bot. Gesellschaft 14 :151-154. 1896, and Loe re did, te 1 ” narils,” Annals of Botany 10: 373-402. Al. 79: 1896. 428 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER growth and are brought about by the contraction of the concave side, while a class of movements where position is secured slowly, as heliotropic and geo- tropic curvature, are directly associated with growth and are brought about by elongation of the convex side. In Vassifloree the region of maximum growth never coincides with the region of maximum irritability. The morphological nature of tendrils is various, and the assumption that they may have various methods of producing movement is well made. chief study has been given to tendrils of Passifloreze and Cucurbitacez, which have similar structure. It is found that the pull of a stimulated tendril amounts to less than one-half gram, while that of a free coiling tendril is twenty to sixty times as great. In the first case rapidity of movement is the essential feature, and in the second the production of strains. By a variety of studies, includ- ing plasmolysis, it was ascertained that tendril movement in the two families named is always due to shortening of the concave side, a point which has been much in controversy, : The author brings support from various sources, including anatomical, for his conclusion that the cause of coiling resides in the irritability of protoplasm of the concave side, by which the protoplasts are render more permeable, water passing into the intercellular spaces, thus allowing the previously stretched cell walls to contract. Space does not permit men- tioning other parts of the investigations, A summary of present knowledge on the physiology of color in plants’ shows that non-green colors convert the sun’s rays into useful heat and in some parts of the plant promote transpiration, or are occasionally waste products of metabolism. Colors in some cases, as is well known, also hold relation to insect pollination and to protection from injury. Chlorophyll is also to be included as a very useful color. The influence of carbon dioxide on the living protoplasm * appeafs sae be characteristic. Its effects do not résult from the simple exclusion of Das gen, but its action is upon the nutritive processes. Its stimulating action, ! any, appears to be small.—J. C. A > oD ITEMS OF TAXONOMIC INTEREST are as follows: Five new North pea can species of Saxifraga have been described by Dr. John K. Small. Ve good figure of the very rare Berberis Nevinit, from the sandy plains neat Linden. Professor E. L. Greene has issued another fascicle of noteworthy species, describing two new species of Ranunculus, ga ’ Pop. Sci. Monthly 49:71. 1896 ; Science 4:350. 1896. * Science 3:689. 1896. Jour. Bot. 343411. 1896 * Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23: 362. 1896. Pittonia 3 :91-98. 189% *° Garden and Forest 9:415, 18096. 1896] CURRENT LITERATURE. 429 Delphinium, three of Roripa, and one of Berberis. He also takes up Sophia for Sisymbrium incisum and its allies, as an older generic name than Descu- rainea, adopted by Engler and Prantl, and proposes a new genus, Neobeckia, to include the watercress and horse-radish types of Nasturtium (Roripa), N. lacustre of the Synoptical Flora becoming Neobeckia aquatica. Miss Alice Eastwood *3 has described seven new Californian species belonging to the genera Sedum, Anemone, Hosackia, Lupinus, Heuchera, Brodizea, and Cynoglossum. Mr. Robert Ridgway has suggested™ the possibility of two native species of Tecoma, describing the forms as they have come under his observation, but applying no names. Mr. J. G. Baker’s has concluded his synopsis of the genus Brodiza, the last part touching upon several North American species. Mr. J. W. Toumey has described * a new Opuntia from Arizona, one of the shrubby cylindropuntias. M. A. Franchet has concluded his account of new Chinese plants.” The last part contains descriptions of twelve new species of Lonicera, Dr. C. Hart Merriam has described ® a new Abies from Arizona. It is from the San Francisco Mountain region, and is remarkable for the color and character of its bark, being one of the most conspicuous trees on the mountain between the altitudes of 8950 and 500 ft. The substance of the technical description is as follows : ABIES ARIZONICA. About 15™ high: bark a highly elastic fine grained cork, whitish or grayish (usually creamy white), with irregularly sinuous grayish ridges: leaves of cone bearing branches thick, subtriangular in section, sharp-pointed at apex, about 2™ long ; leaves of lower branches much longer, flatter, blunt and notched at apex, 2.5 to 3° long: cones dark purple, slender, medium or rather small; scales much broader than long, strongly convex laterally, purple on both sides; bract (with- out awn) reaching to or past middle of scale, its body much broader than long. A full account of Aspidium cristatum X marginale Davenport, published in this journal, has just been given” by the author in connection with a Faxon illustration. A revision of the North. American species of Cephalozia has been published by Professor L. M. Underwood.* In the fourth part™ of Mr. ie Rydberg’s Notes on Potentilla four new species are described. Studies in the botany of the southeastern United States Dr. John K. Small scribes a new Rumex from Louisiana, revises the genera Polygonella and Warea, and substitutes Yeatesia for the previously used Gatesia of Gray. “Proc. Calif. Acad. II. 6 : 422-430, pl. 53-59- 1896. “Garden and Forest 9: 453. 1896. x6 Garden and Forest 9 +432 1896. SGardener’s Chronicle III, 20:459. 1896. *7 Jour. de Botanique 10 : 309- 1896. 8 : Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 10:115-118. 1896. * Bot. Gazette 19: 494. 1896. : 2 Bull, Torr. Bot. Club, 4 ¢ 394 * Garden and Forest 9:444. 1896. 23 Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, . €. 405+ 2 Bull. Torr, Bot. Club 23 : 381. 1896. NEWS. Mr. JoHN S. WriGuT has been appointed lecturer in botany at the Indiana Medical College, a department of the Indianapolis University. THE PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT of an international botanical station at Palermo, Italy, under the direction of Professor Borzi, is announced by ature. AN ADDRESS upon “Grasses” by Professor F. Lamson-Scribner, deliv- ered before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, has been published by the society for distribution. Dr. A. P. ANDERSON is spending the present year at the Missouri Botan- ical Garden, where he finds suitable facilities for the further prosecution of his researches in connection with the resin ducts of conifers. Mr. M. A. Lawson, botanist and director of cinchona plantations to the Madras government, died at Madras F ebruary 14th last. From 1868 to 1882 he was Sherardian Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Mr. WALTER T. SWINGLE returned in October to resume his duties the United States Department of Agriculture after a year spent abroad. He studied chiefly in the laboratories of Bonn and the Biological Station aples. ATTENTION is called by the biographer to an inaccuracy in the sketch of the late Professor Frentiss which appeared in this journal for May last. He was born May 22, 1836, in Cazenovia, Madison county, N. ¥, ne in Oneida county, as stated in the sketch. Dr. HERBERT M. RICHARDS, who has been studying in Professor Pfeffer s laboratory at Leipzig during the last year, having held a traveling or from Harvard University, returned to this country in August, and 1s nO installed as lecturer in botany at Barnard College, New York city. an Fungi’ NUMBERS II AND 12 of Lloyd’s Photogravures of Americ ani have recently been distributed. They represent respectively Lefiola se Peck and Sfarassis fferbstit Peck, two interesting species. ee Photographed as it grew in the field, and makes an unusually attrac characteristic picture, tive and ain DURING A CYCLONE in the early part of October the roof of ees building of the Agricultural College at Lake City, Florida, was P es — - 330, 5565 and *For notices of previous issues of this series see this journal 20: 33% 550% oh de . [NOVEMBER 1696) NEWS a4 oa % ae deluged with water. The valuable private library of suffered i el ae naar rich in works on fungi and citrous fruits rely. e herbari i ee sak : but little damaged. arium in an adjoining part of the building was Mr. G : es aes re Bo RcH, of Oxford, England, has been experimenting casei saloons ie photography. He finds that flower-buds an ee coal a especially favorable objects. He believes that if the photo- be seen Sa mP sage magnified scale the outline of every cell would : sule i : duced in the acc aes of hyacinth and the flower-buds of fuchsia are repro- A : oe i ia GARDEN has been established at the University of indigenous to the Gaca to bring together eventually all the Cactacee Pi potesented sci States, and already more than a hundred species bisk and for oe : Lag could not be more favorable for such a pur- group in its Spee be late ee eisai eis M1 cad acaba SMITH, a graduate from Mt. Holyoke in 1891 (A.B.), College for Girls j one of Natural Science for three years in the American University last .. onstantinople, was engaged in botanical study at Cornell ibbs, a Pints jet received the degree of M.S. in June. Miss Gertrude the past year at Co - oe ianiviens of Minnesite also a student in botany Principal of the J aos University, received the degree of M.S., and is now amestown High School, Jamestown, North Dakota. Island of Ceylon, October 16th, cal department of the ditor of the Journal Dr, . HENRY TRIMEN died at Peradeniya, Flora ment ele wate parts of which have appeared. already in i official position, on account of ill health, has been noted is journal. histle (Cwzcus altissimus y a short time ago from s broad at the top and ly flattened stem was d evenly with normal AN es. . large fasciated stem of meadow t Rorthern Indiana ng ee museum of Purdue Universit three inches at ek hen dry it measured twelve inche normal, that is, le e base. The thickness of this great leaves, and ae ss than one-fourth inch. It was covere upper edge. It a score or more of immature flower heads sessile along the Perfect wedge fo sages three feet high. The interest in it lies in the size and rm, as fasciated stems are usually irregularly developed. 2G. : ardeners’ Chronicle III. 20: 491. 1896. 432 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [Novenper THE DAILY PRESS has brought the news of the death of Auguste Trécul, the venerable French botanist. He was born in 1818, and died October 16 in a hospital in Paris, and is reported to have been in a very destitute condition. His name as an anatomist was a more familiar one to botanists of a generation ago than to those of today, his principal papers dealing with the vascular sys- tem. During 1848 and 1849 he explored various regions of North Ameri and many of the cactus species of European gardens were first obtained by him during his travels in Texas and Mexico, as well as the beautiful Yucca which bears his name. BARON FERDINAND VON MUELLER died at Melbourne, Australia, Octo- ber oth, in his 72d year. His is the most distinguished name in Australian greatest service to science. He left Europe in 1847, and never returned to it, but his enormous correspondence and his great collections always kept him in close touch with his foreign associates. His publications are very numerous, and many of them are noteworthy in presenting the most com- plete accounts of certain notable Australian groups, as Eucalyptus, Acacia, etc. An interesting biographical sketch will be found in Gardeners Chronicle of October 17. . oe laws. Doubtless in the distant future a less cumbrous and changeable lected but once, Many are still known only from descriptions ane published in the last century, and are unrepresented in herbaria. ead. cult, however, to believe that they are really extinct. The fact probably accounted for by the extremely local limitation of-species 7 Africa, which is hardly paralleled in this respect by any other flora world.—W. T. T. Dyer, in Kew Bulletin. oe: Hotanical Gazette Volume XXII, beginning with the July number, is issued from The University of Chicago Press, with some changes in form and typography. Each number will contain at least eighty pages, which will be increased if necessary to meet the demands of contributions. The illustrations will be of the best grade of lithographs and photo-engravings. The character will depend upon the subject, and will be determined by the editors in consultation with the author. That the Boranicat GazeTTE may be more fully repre- sentative of botanical activity, a staff of associate editors has been organized. Those for America are: GrorGe F, ATKIN- SON, Professor of Botany, Cornell University; NOLNEY M. SPALDING, Professor of Botany, University of Michigan; ROLAND Tuaxrer, Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, Har- vard University; Witu1aM TRELEASE, Director of the Missouri Botanical Garden. European associates will be announced later. Special Offer Beginning with January 1897, the annual subscription pric ical Gazette will be $4.00, or $2.00 2 volume, as announ upon the second page of the cover. In order that there may be an fasier adjustment to this necessary increase of price, The BOTANICAL GAZETTE for 1897 : will be sent for $3.00 to all who send cash subscriptions ore January J, 1897. e of the For method of sending subscriptions and money, see second Pabe Of cover. ee BOTANICAL GAZETTE CONTENTS. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROCARP AND CYSTOCARP IN THE GENUS PTILOTA Sopet Plates XVIII and oe Baebes Moore THE PHALLOIDEA: OF THE UNITED STATES. Il. Bae ACCOUNT. Edward A. Burt = SALIX CORDATA X SERICEA. W. Glatfelter - . a BRIEFER ARTICLES. Brassica juncea, ZL. H. Batley - é NorTH AMERICAN Species of EupHrasia. Richard von 7; ABORTIVE FLOWER Bups oF TRILLIUM. Arma A, Smith : ; A STUDY OF SOME ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS OF NORTH AMERICAN & GRAMINE®. VII (with Pints XX). Theo. Holm THE HABITATS OF THE RARER FERNS OF ALABAMA (with Plate e XD. Lucien M. Underwood - - - : A New Smur. 7. J Davis - EDITORIALS . AN AMERICAN TROPICAL LABORATORY. OPEN LETTERS SCIENTIFIC CHIEF FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. B. 7 Galloway - ee ‘THE Se AND = New I1niustraTep Fiora oF No AMERICA. Theo, Hy rede ees THE NATIONAL ie AND THE Drviston oF BOTANY. P oe rick V. Co ville THE FLorA or ALABAMA. P. A. Meil - - : : CURRENT If wey TURE, MINOR NOTICE : : ; oe NOTES FOR ee : : : NEWS - ‘R 1896 VOL. XXIT. NO. 5 NOVEMBE. : Yo XXIL_ =) DECEMBER 1896 No. 6 tl THE BOTANICAL ({AZETTE EDITORS JOHN M. COULTER, Zhe University of Chicago, Chicago, Ii CHARLES R. BARNES, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University, Lafayette, ind. ASSOCIATE EDITORS _ GEORGE F. ATKINSON ROLAND THAXTER Cornell University Harvard University _YOLNEY M. SPALDING WILLIAM TRELEASE University of Michigan Missouri Botanical Garden eel ISSUED DECEMBER 24 — nl CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Publisher by The Snidersity of € Zhe Aniversitp of Chicas? press hicage Botanical Gazette FH Monthly Fournal Wmbracing all Departments of Botanical Science Subscription for 1896, $3,00 Single Numbers, 30 Cents THE SUBSCRIPTION PRICE MUST BE PAID IN ADVANCE. NO NUMBERS ARE SENT AFTER THE EXPIRATION OF THE TIME PAID FOR. NO REDUCTION IS MADE TO DEALERS OR AGENTS, In Great Britain, {4 Shillings. Agents, WM. WESLEY & SON, 28 Essex Sty Strand, LONDON, In Germany, 14 Marks, Agents, R. FRIEDLAENDER & SOHN, Carlstrasse 33, BERLIN, N. W. 6. BEGINNING WITH 1897 THE ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION WILL BE $4.00 (TWO shillings; VOLUMES); SINGLE NUMBERS, 40 cents; IN GREAT BRITAIN, IN GERMANY, THE PRICES NAMED INCLUDE POSTAGE, Separate Copies.— After this date no separate copies will be furnished contributors free. 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Subscriptions, advertisements, and all business correspondence should b e nidressed: (0 The University of Chicago, : University Press Division, Chicago, Ill Money Orders and drafts should be made payable to The University of Chicas {Entered at the Post Office at Chicago, Ill, as second-class postal matter. inaalilhhuglicenih 2 ens one j UME XXII NUMBER 6 BTANICAL: GAZETTE DECEMBER 1896 A RUST AND LEAF CASTING OF PINE LEAVES. BEVERLY T: GALLOWAY: (WITH PLATES XXII AND XXIII) INTRODUCTION. SOMETHING over five years ago the writer briefly described a leosporium,? or rust, occurring on the leaves of Pinus Virgint- the scrub or Jersey pine? The rust was found in consid- bits and its effects on the host, it was made the subject of 2 or less extended studies during the spring, summer, and nof 1891. In 1892 some additional investigations were this work being mainly a comparative study of the anat- and physiology of healthy and diseased trees. In 1893 and some of the previous work was repeated and additional ts in regard to the life history of the fungus and its effects the host were brought out. Last year (1895) further studies made. In these studies special attention was given to the ding or casting of the leaves, a phenomenon which is known follow the attacks of a number of fungi, and which it was ought of interest, in this case at least, to explain if possible. mine Ystematic position of this fungus may be questioned, but as this is — hor importance in the present paper it may be allowed to stand provisionally Coleosporiums. a pine leaf rust, Jour. Mycology 7: 44. 1891. | 433 434 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER I am indebted to Mr. Albert F. Woods for much assistance in the later stages of the work, and to Mr. Theo. Holm for a number of the anatomical drawings, and aid in finishing my own figures. DISTRIBUTION OF THE HOST AND PARASITE. Pinus Virginiana is a native of the eastern United States, being found in considerable abundance from central Pennsylvania ‘southward to middle Georgia and westward to western Kentucky and Tennessee. Under favorable conditions the tree attains a height of 20 to 30™, with a trunk 25 to 75™ in diameter. In the District of Columbia and country immediately adjacent this is the most common species of pine, many of the old fields and waste grounds being overgrown with trees ranging in height from 3 to 5™. It is on these that the Coleosporium is usually found, the parasite as a rule being especially prevalent on trees 2 to 4™ high. The fungus has been found in mote or less abundance in the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia, and has also been collected by the writer on Lookout Mountain, in Tennessee, and at Asheville, N.C. No attempt has been made to collect it elsewhere, but there is no reason to doubt its occurrence wher- ever the host is found. Although careful examinations have been made the Coleosporium has never been seen upon any other host but the one under consideration. APPEARANCE OF AFFECTED TREES. During the winter the leaves of Pinus, in common with other eee a evergreen plants, change color, the dark green fading out to : : 6 reddish yellow as the season advances. As spring approache the foliage again resumes its normal color, growing brighter . the conditions for growth become more favorable. In the ear é i a part of May, when the trees have fully recovered their norm : ing of 3For an account of the physiological changes involved in the winter coloring evergreen leaves, together with a review of the literature on the subject, S€ ERLANDT: Untersuchungen iiber die Winterfarbung ausdauernder Blatter, ber. d. Acad. d. Wiss. zu Wien 92: —. Ap. 1876 e G. HaB Sitzungs -_ ' 1896 | A RUST AND LEAF CASTING OF PINE LEAVES 435 color, those affected by the Coleosporium may be readily detected for perhaps 100™ or more by the pale yellowish hue of the leaves and the general thinness of growth. An examination of the affected trees shows that the yellowish color is due to the effects of the fungus, which is confined almost entirely to or near the tips of the needles formed the previous season. The thin appearance is owing largely to lack of leaves, those on the tree being mainly of the previous year’s growth, all the others having prematurely fallen. The changes in the host and parasite which precede the effects aoted will now be discussed, attention being called first to some of the anatomical and physiological questions connected with the normal leaves, in order that what is said in regard to the effects produced by the fungus may be better understood. ANATOMY OF THE NORMAL MATURE LEAF. The leaves of Pinus Virgintana are asa rule borne in pairs. They are of a bottle-green color,‘ vary in length from 2.5 to7.5™) et nearly semicircular in outline, the dorsal side being “urved and the ventral nearly flat. Cross sections of numerous Haves from trees grown under varying conditions show that the poles are nearly the same size throughout, namely, from 0.60 > 0.62™" in diameter. Transverse sections of the leaf show that tis divided into three well-defined regions, namely, cortical, mSophyll, and fibro-vascular (fig. x5 the cortical region aha ve periphery, and varies in thickness and structure bins to the part of the leaf under observation ; the part of tree, with respect to sun and shade, from which the leaf is aken; and the condition of the soil, as regards moisture, where the tree is grown, | a cortical region is separable into three parts : (1) the “Pidermis, consisting of thick-walled cells quite regular in size x Ripceway, Nomenclature of colors, 1886. ae Barnes, and COULTER: Handbook of oge = a, te: alae of the North American pines based up » 250. 1886, gsection, 1886; also leaf anatomy, Bot. 436 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | DECEMBER and shape, the outer walls being strongly cuticularized (fig. 2, ep); (2) thin-walled stereomatic cells (jig. 2, st); and (3) thick-walled stereomatic cells (fig. 2, st). Both the thin-walled and the thick-walled stereomatic cells give the characteristic reaction for lignin with thallin sulfate, phloroglucin, and anilin sulfate.® Neither the thick-walled nor the thin-walled stereomatic cells occur with any great degree of regularity in the cortical region. Frequently only the thin-walled cells are present, and then again there may be a definite layer of thin-walled cells next to the epidermis proper, with scattering thick-walled cells beneath. The more common arrangement is that in which both thick- walled and thin-walled cells are indiscriminately mixed, the whole forming a ring of tissue, which gives strength and rigidity to the needles. At various points the stereomatic tissue is interrupted by the stomata (fig. 2). These occur on both sides of the leaf and are generally considerably depressed, as is the case with the other pines and plants having thick epidermal parts. The stomatic furrows are filled with a waxy substance, which probably plays an important part in preventing the entrance of fungi, and also, as Wilhelm? has pointed out, serves as a check to transpira- tion. | The mesophyll region occupies the median portion of the leaf, occurring in a zone which varies in thickness from 200 to 300 w. The cells composing it are large and thin-walled, and contain, among other things, chlorophyll, starch, and the usual contents of assimilative tissue. In cross-sections the cells are seen to be nearly polygonal in shape and joined more of ai closely in rows arranged at right angles to the cortical region. The number of rows vary according to the conditions srt which the leaf is grown, those in intense light having, as Stahl ; °BEHRENS: Tabellen zum Gebrauch bei mikroskopischen Arbeiten, 1892. 7 Ueber eine Eigenthiimlichkeit der Spaltéffnungen bei Coniferen, Ber. d. dew Bot. Ges. r: 325. 1883. ; ® Ueber den Einfluss der Lichtintensitat auf Structur und Anordnung des Assim- ilationsparenchyms, Bot. Zeit. 38: 868. 1880. tsch. : : a ; q 1896] A RUST AND LEAF CASTING OF PINE LEAVES 437 has shown, a greater proportion of assimilative tissue than those grown in the shade. The cells of the tissue under considera- tion are, in almost every case, provided with peculiar infoldings (fig. 3), hence the name Avmpallisadenzellen, adopted by Haber- landt, Strasburger, and others. In longitudinal sections the rows of mesophyll cells are seen to be separated by more or less space, which often extends with- out interruption from the cortical to the’ fibro-vascular region (fig. 4). The infoldings are not easily distinguishable in sec- tions of this kind, but are usually seen as apparent partitions, and in some cases do not appear at all. Within the mesophyll region and completely surrounded by the cells composing it occur the two resin ducts. The ducts are nearly opposite each other, being placed about equidistant from the radius of the leaf. They are cylindrical, completely inclosed bya sheath of thick-walled stereomatic cells arranged in a single tow, and are lined with thin-walled epithelium (jg. 5). The central portion of the leaf is occupied by the fibro-vascular region. Separating this from the mesophyll is a closed sheath, the endodermis of Oudemans.? This consists of a single row of more or less suberized, elongated, thin-walled cells, closely joined at the horizontal or oblique ends (fig: % end). The walls also contain lignin, as shown by staining with indol. Within the endodermis occur the mestome bundles (two in tumber), tracheids, and fundamental tissue, the latter consisting of thin-walled parenchymatous cells. The orientation of the bundles is normal, 7. ¢., the hadrome is directed toward the cen- er and the leptome toward the periphery (/igs- 7 and 7). LIFE OF NORMAL LEAVES. The length of time the leaves live varies according to a num ber of conditions, the most important being the age and size of ae tree and cold and drouth. On trees 15 to 20° high, grow- ng in good soil, leaves may remain on three, four, and even five rdam, e *Ueber den Sitz der Luftwurzeln der Orchideen, Abhandl. d. Acad. Saat Math, Phys, Klass. gion, 1861. 438 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER years. On comparatively young trees, I to 5™ high, the leaves may fall the second year. Asa rule the average length of life may be placed at two years, that is, the leaves fall the summer or autumn of the second year. The time of falling, however, is not constant, as in some cases it may occur in the spring. Numerous physiological changes take place during the period of from three to four weeks preceding the actual fall of the needles. First, the contents of the mesophyll cells gradually disappear, this being accompanied by a change in the color of the needle from green to reddish yellow. With the disappear- ance of the chlorophyll bodies, large oil globules appear in the mesophyll cells, and at the same time the walls of the latter become considerably thickened. Not until a week or ten days before the pair of needles fall is it possible to make out clearly the separative layer, the formation of which does not materially differ from that which takes place in most of the ordinary deciduous plants. In case of high wind or rain the leaves are frequently blown or knocked off before the separative layer is fully developed. Usually they remain on, however, until the process is fully completed, after which they dry up and fall from their own weight. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUNGUS AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE TREE. An examination of an affected tree early in April shows on the needles of the previous year’s growth pale yellowish bands, which vary in width from 2 to 4™". The discolorations seldom if ever extend to the extreme tip of the needle, this point as 4 rule remaining normal in color up to a certain time, despite ne action of the fungus on the tissues below. Close examination of the diseased areas at this time reveals numerous brown and yellow pustules, which are only slightly elevated above the nae face of the leaf (figs. § and 9). The pustules are the sor of the fungus, and mark the point where the spores will eventually break through. The sori vary in width from 0.2 to 0.5"; and are from 0.2 to 1™™ long. As the season advances the sori increase in size, many of them coalescing and forming long 1896] A RUST AND LEAF CASTING OF PINE LEAVES 439 bands parallel to and including, of course, the rows of stomata. The color of the diseased part of the leaf and the sori also becomes brighter yellow. By the middle of May, if the season isa normal one, the sori reach their full development, the color at this time being bright orange. As long as the weather is dry there is little change in the sori, but at the first rain or fog they rupture the cortical tissue, forming long, bright orange red, Waxy, or granular elevations, 0.5 to 1™™ high. If the weather continues wet the sori retain their bright color, but upon close examination they are seen to be overrun with minute cobweb- like threads. Lack of rain causes these threads to disappear, but for a time at Jeast the sori lose none of their characteristic color, size, or shape. Rain or fog will again cause the sori to swell, to become granular and waxy, and to show the growth of colorless threads, as already described. This alternate drying > and breaking out of the sori may continue two and some- times three weeks, or it may continue but a few days, the length of time varying with climatic conditions and different trees. In case of a spell of a week or more of rainy weather the sorus will often complete its development and collapse completely as soon a the sun comes out for a few hours. Occasional rains, fol- lowed by several days of fair weather, prolong the life of the Sorus in all cases. Under ordinary conditions of humidity the s Part complete their development by the middle of June, ene month after they first break through. The diseased of the leaf at this time assumes a brownish hue and becomes More or less shrunken. The sori also turn brown, collapse, = te dry up entirely. The tissues below and immediately adjoining the diseased areas now begin to turn yellow, this dis- ‘oloration gradually extending downward until the whole leaf 1s volved. If both needles are affected by the fungus both SS ‘multaneously from the normal green to yellow. If, however, only one of the needles is affected the change extends from the up downward on the affected one and from the base upward ade ori for the most or about portion 440 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER the other. From yellow there is a gradual change to brownish red, the tissues in the meantime becoming considerably shrunken, Finally the pair of needles fall, this often being hastened by rain, wind, or any sudden jarring or shaking of the tree. In from three to six weeks after the fungus breaks through the tissues most of the leaves have fallen. Trees badly affected are the first to shed their leaves, defoliation being very rapid and often completed before the last-formed needles have attained full size. MICROSCOPIC STUDIES OF THE FUNGUS. Turning our attention to the fungus itself and the mannerin which it produces the changes described, a microscopic study of transverse and longitudinal sections through the pale yellow spots found early in April shows, growing between the cells composing the mesophyll region, a coarse,’ colorless, septate mycelium, containing numerous granules and vacuoles (jigs. 10 and zz). The mycelium is confined wholly to the intercellular spaces of the mesophyll region. It never penetrates the walls of the mesophyll cells, but in many cases adheres very closely to the latter, producing changes in the cell contents which will be described as we proceed. Wherever it comes in contact with the cells composing the endodermis or the resin ducts it is effectually turned aside (fig. 78). A comparison of the dis- eased and healthy tissues at this time will show no essential difference so far as thickness and size of cells are concerned. In unstained sections the entire cortical and fibro-vascular regions, as well as the resin ducts, appear intact. The contents of the mesophyll cells of the diseased leaf, however, are seen to be disorganized. The chlorophyll bodies have disappeared and in their place many large oil globules are seen. In the healthy cells the chlorophyll bodies are numerous and distinct, while there are few or no oil globules, In the cells around some of the stomata of the diseased leaf the contents are not only dis organized, but are yellow and partially opaque. The v-shaped cell below the stoma is usually not involved, but those around, and especially below, show the change in a marked manner. 1896] A RUST AND LEAF CASTING OF PINE LEAVES 441 At certain points, which do not seem limited to any partic- ular region, the mycelium pushes its way toward the cortical region, and between the latter and the mesophyll cells it begins to form a sorus or spore bed (figs. zo and rr). This is effected by a continued interweaving of the mycelium, which at the same time becomes more septate and brown or orange yellow. As the spore beds increase in size the cortical region is pushed upward, thus giving rise to the pustules already described. With increasing age the spore beds become more compact, so that by May 10 to 15, or just before they break the tissue, they show, beneath the cortical tissue, compact rows of rounded septate bodies (jig. rr), the sporophores. The sporophores are formed in the following manner: The hyphe, which push toward the surface, begin to enlarge at their tips (fig. 3 2). Soon:a septum forms just below the swollen portion, the result being the formation of a more or less rounded cell. By successive abjunction other cells are formed, until the sporophores appear in compact rows, as already described. When mature and the proper conditions of moisture are present the "upper cell of each sporophore gives rise to a mass of gelatinous Substance, which has no very definite structure, so far as can be ‘Scertained from a study of transverse sections (fig: 23). It is the sudden development of these gelatinous masses that ruptures the cortical tissue, thus bringing the sorus into direct contact With air, moisture, and more intense light. In from three to four hours after the cortical tissues are ruptured, cylindrical bodies, which later develop into teleutospores, begin to shape themselves out of the mass of gelatinous material (fig. 14). These bodies soon begin to turn yellow and in a short time their Walls may be definitely made out. The outer walls of each teleutospore consist of an enormously thickened, colorless, 8elatinous membrane, and it is the massing of these membranes that Sives to the young sori the characteristics already i t this time it is very difficult to make out the transverse wa s ‘eparating the teleutospores. Treatment with potash solution and with nitric acid, however, brings these out distinctly. 442 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER In from four to ten hours after the sorus breaks the cortical tissues the teleutospores attain full size. By this time the gelat- inous membrane has mostly disappeared, and consequently the contents and septum separating each teleutospore is plainly apparent. The teleutospores are arranged in rows of from two to four, one above the other. They do not separate, however, from each other, and it is with some difficulty that they are removed from their attachment in the sorus. When fully mature the compound teleutospores vary in length from 75 to 150m and in diameter from 18 to 30p. The spores begin to germinate as soon as mature, the process taking place only in water or saturated air. The first evidence of germination is a small protuberance, which may appear at the apex or at any of the septa. Usually the topmost cell germinates first and the others follow in the order of their arrangement (fig. 14). The protuberance rapidly elongates into a tube, which may grow to a length several times that of the compound spore, or may remain quite short. The length, however, depends largely on the amount of moisture present, the tube attaining its greatest length if the spore is in water and its shortest if in moist air. The contents of the spore flow out into the tube, the greater portion being near the tip and the rest more or less In groups throughout its entire length. The vacuoles in the cell flow out with the contents and may usually be found at the uppet extremity of the tube. When the tube attains its full length, this, as already indi- cated, depending in large part on the amount of moisture pres ent, it begins to swell at the tip (fig. 75). The swelling rap- idly increases in size and at the same time the walls directly below it become more or less constricted. At this point a sep tum is formed, this process usually lasting not more than twenty- five or thirty minutes, The body thus cut off by the septum 6 the sporidium, which now begins to increase in size and assumes various shapes. Occasionally the sporidium will send out 4 germ tube while still attached to the supporting promycelium. 1896] A RUST AND LEAF CASTING OF PINE LEAVES 443 Usually, however, the sporidium separates from the promycelium in about thirty or forty minutes after the partition forms, and then almost immediately begins to germinate by sending out ashort, thick germ tube. All or nearly all the contents of the sporidium flow into the germ tube. Occasionally this tube grows out to a considerable length, cutting off a secondary sporidium (fig. 76) upon its free end in much the same way that the orig- inal was formed. After the spore germinates the walls remain turgescent for a short time, and then collapse and dry up, the spore in the mean- time becoming perfectly colorless. The entire contents of the cell seem to be used up in the formation of the promycelium ° and the sporidium, and if this is not the case the formation of secondary sporidia goes on until there is no protoplasm left. Germination as here described takes place in nature only When the leaves are wet, the spores themselves seldom if ever escaping from the sorus. The sporidia, however, when cut off from the promycelia either fall or are washed down to the leaves below or to the ground, where they may be found in great abundance after a damp or foggy night. In all infection exper- iments, which will be referred to later, the sporidia were obtained in abundance by placing sterilized Petri dishes under the diseased branches confined in a moist chamber. After sev- eral hours an abundance of sporidia may be obtained from the dishes, INFECTION OF THE HOST. On Closely examining the diseased trees the spori¢ Hund on the young leaves, which at this time are just begin- hing to show their tips. The usual place for lodgment is between the tips of the two young needles, which at _ “a Spores are forming project about 0.33™ above the shea Which incloses them. The needles are slightly sp = uae an peowing a small drop of water to be seta ree Dy Collects in this way drips from the old leaves ae teh the Spores and sporidia are being formed. in PP ‘ down it Carries the sporidia with it, depositing the lane if dia may be 444 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER position where they may, under the very best conditions, ger- minate and infect the young needles. For several years the time of the appearance of the spores and young leaves has been watched, and in every case a most remarkable similarity in dates has been observed. If the leaves are late or early in coming out the spores will be correspond- ingly late or early. This is exceedingly important in the econ- omy of the fungus, for it has been proved by successive infections that a difference of but two days in the age of the leaf will enable it to resist the fungus. Infection, in other words, must take place when the parts of the needles are from 0.33 to 0.66% long (fig. 19 a, too old; 4, proper age), otherwise the cortical region will be developed to such an extent that the germ tubes from the sporidia cannot force their way through.” The needles are infected wholly by means of the germ tubes boring through the cortical tissue before the stereomatic, thick- walled cells have formed. These tubes make their way to the mesophyll region, where they immediately begin to lengthen, in eight or ten days assuming all the characteristics of the mycelium already described. The orifice, however, through which the germ tube enters the leaf, soon disappears, leaving no trace of the manner in which the fungus reaches the mesophyll region. In about three months, or by the middle of August, the fungus has developed to such an extent that its presence may be deter- mined by the condition of the tips of the needles. Pale yellow- ish spots may be seen at these parts, and microscopic examina- tion of the tissue reveals the mycelium growing in all directions between the cells of the mesophyll region. As the season advances the spots or bands become more prominent, and by the middle of November, or even earlier, pustules, indicating the formation of sori, begin to appear. By the first of April, or ten *° For the sake of brevity the details of the experiments are omitted. Briefly ‘ z this case one hundred pine branches were bagged with paper bags, the work being carried on for two successive years. From time to time a bag was removed and the young leaves received a small drop of water containing germinating sporidia, after which the leaves were marked and the bag replaced. About 75 per cent. of the moc ulations made when the leaves were the proper age were successful. 1896] A RUST AND LEAF CASTING OF PINE LEAVES 445 months after infection, the fungus is found in the condition already described. A month or six weeks later it again pro- duces spores, thus completing its cycle of development in one year. CASTING OF THE LEAVES AND ITS CAUSE. As already pointed out, we have in the case of the Coleospor- ium a fungus producing first purely local injuries, which later tesult in the death and casting of the leaves. The phenomena involved in this process may now be considered. An examina- tion of the diseased leaves soon after the sori collapse shows that the conductive tissue has not been injured at all, the endo- dermis being intact and the fibro-vascular bundles abundantly able to conduct water. That they do this is evident from the fact that, even though the mesophyll invaded by the fungus ss brown and shriveled, the tip of the leaf above this part remains green for a considerable time. In the tissue where the fungus has been at work there are large rifts which extend unbrokenly tothe endodermis. The cell contents of the mesophyll region immediately below the part attacked by the Coleosporium, and Where there is no mycelium at-all, are broken up, showing that changes are taking place which are not directly attributable to the fungus. These changes are manifested externally by the Yellowing, already described,: which gradually extends lated ward until both needles are involved. Even before this the “eparative layer begins to form and in a week or ten aye ee the Pair of needles fall. Of course, the fungus itself is the pri- mary cause of the leaf fall, but that it acts only as 4 Powe! - et other causes at work was early shown by cutting see - affected portions of the leaves. In every instance this treat- Ment caused the leaves to remain on the tree and perform their functions in a normal manner until death came from old age- In all Cases, however, it was found necessary to make the i through normal green tissues, @. ¢., below the poin yellowing showed. If only one needle was we Partly yellow and the cut was made through the discolored po 446 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [| DECEMBER tion the changes eventually leading to the fall of the leaf were not checked at all. It was thought that possibly the fungus by its action might have produced chemical changes in the cell contents and that these changes alone were sufficient to produce the effects described. It was reasoned, however, that if there was anything in the nature of a ferment present it should be capable of propagating itself when brought in contact with the cells of healthy pine leaves. To obtain a definite answer to this question a series of experi- ments were made, which need not be entered upon in detail here. Suffice it to say that after more than two hundred trials with juices from diseased leaves rubbed on broken and unbroken tis- sues of healthy foliage and brought into contact with the healthy cells in other ways, not a single case of leaf casting or leaf yel- lowing occurred. It is unnecessary to go over the ground which led to the belief that the changes, as already described, were due to exces- sive loss of water. The large rifts in the cortical and mesophyll regions, the uninjured conductive tissue, and the fact that no cork layer, cutting off the injured portion of the leaf, was formed, all pointed to a derangement of the water supply. To obtain information upon this matter a number of experi- ments were made, some of which will now be described. The first experiments were with cobalt paper** to determine the rela- ' tive evaporation of water from the parts affected by the fungus and the uninjured portions. The tests were made before and after the fungus had broken through, the usual method being 1° fasten strips of dry paper to the leaves by means of glass slides. It was found that before the fungus broke through the diseased areas lost less water than the healthy portion of the leaf. Ths was due to the permanent closing of the stomata over the dis- eased areas, owing to the action of the fungus on the adjacent tissue. The fact that the diseased spots lost less water than healthy portions of the leaf explains why such spots remain ™ For a discussion of the cobalt method, see STAHL, Bot. Zeit 52: 117-145+ Bott reviewed in Bor. Gaz, a1 : 26-33. 1895. 1896] A RUST AND LEAF CASTING OF PINE LEAVES 447 green longer than other parts when a branch is cut from the tree and allowed to die through lack of water. As soon as the Coleosporium has ruptured the cortical tissues evaporation rapidly increases, until it exceeds that from a cor- responding area of healthy tissue. This was proved by the ts} ial | Bi Li LS AEROS eww SER RO ee ih we hs ah ik A a PL Fic. 1. Diagram showing evaporation from diseased and healthy branches. ents: Two cobalt Paper test and also by the following experim and cut off branches, as nearly alike as possible, were secured inder water and the cut ends sealed into a flask of nor- mal culture solution, so that no water could escape except ° through the leaves. Each branch had 206 leaves. The leaves v6 one branch were healthy and on the other the & "tum had just broken through the diseased areas. saeneben a2 ©. June 22, the curves in the accompanying es soe show the loss in grams in periods of six hours for ten days, as *etermined by a recording balance. The water supply Hig ®S good as the dry air surrounding the leaves demanded. : lack of water was due to the accumulation of resin on the o nds of the branches and the development in the same are ws Pacterial slimes. The unbroken line represents the loss ag “seased branch and the broken line the loss from the healthy 448 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER branch. It will be observed that the loss during the first forty- eight hours was rapid in both cases, namely, 258" from the healthy branch and 30 from the diseased. At the end of this time both the healthy and the diseased leaves showed an evident lack of water. This lack, however, was more marked in the dis- eased leaves, the tips of many of which were shrunken above the diseased area. This lack of water had caused the stomata of both the healthy and the diseased leaves to close as far as possi- ble, thus cutting down the loss through them to a minimum. During the next forty-eight hours the healthy branch lost 4.5 while the diseased lost 88". It was evident that from this time the leaves were able to obtain very little if any water from the stem. During the next three periods of forty-eight hours each the healthy branch lost 5, 4.5, and 2.58 respectively, while during the same periods the diseased:branch lost only 3.25, 3, and 08", The leaves of the diseased branch were completely dry at the end of 186 hours, while the healthy plant was not yet dry at the end of 240 hours, but was still losing at the rate of 1.58" per day. The more rapid drying out and death of the dis- eased leaves than of the healthy is therefore evident. Asa fur- ther evidence of this the following experiment may be cited: Six pairs of leaves, three of which were diseased and three healthy, were removed from the same branch and immediately cemented into a piece of cork to keep them from tipping oV¢™ Weighings were then made at given periods, with results as shown in the accompanying diagram, the broken lines representing the diseased and the unbroken the healthy leaves. It will be seen that the average loss for the healthy leaves for the first twenty-four hours was about 5™, while from the diseased leaves it was 16. This rate of loss continued nearly constant for the healthy leaves for 174 hours, while the loss from the diseased leaves kept gradually diminishing. At the end of 120 hours the healthy had lost about 24™. and the diseased 32™8. The latter were now becoming quite dry, so that during the next twenty-four hours they lost an et age of only 3™8, while the healthy lost about II mg At the oe of this period (174 hours) the diseased leaves were air-dry, a0 1896] A RUST AND LEAF CASTING OF PINE LEAVES 449 being hygroscopic their weight increased and diminished with the ordinary changes in atmospheric humidity. The healthy leaves continued to lose at a diminished rate and at the end of 288 hours were not yet dry. S zz sy s QS N 2 a # +e ia te So Ik omen : a8 a Cota . i X = Bans aeEae BESR ESS Sa oas _< Hoe te BS PCE 4 aa (Sy ae were ae +—_4-—+ eS SS ee | Sh hs Pep sonae BRBRRRESSER SuSE RE 7 3 BY ppp tt Ck ee aS a Se ee a een ims an Ge On a a ee “une NI Ss er i a ae rae SAN ms 69 ie He Gk ak Gk WO a Ha SE > RAGE i IN Pe rh ep RL LLL eh Oe iste Ts A See nee H Ras ; N as a Sa ee eh ae BE POEMS BED, TN a St tit & w NN | genes 2 og ee oe Pe oe A Bet a x TW Bu Beaeaes= cco = ee ee ts aie Ppt jp jt — ry Res J X ptt tt 4 a = \ Tes pb 6 an | oa oe a a 1 eet et Renommw Set P+ tt ace = hee Ee acute GUL N PTT ih Rta : ane 7 s 3 : +—-} = yt Es Fig. 2. Diagram showing evaporation from diseased and healthy leaves. — One additional experiment in this connection may be of inter- It was carried on during the casting of the leaves for eS ssive years and each time with practically the same rest < Nenty-five small branches, containing about ay ee s “aves each, were cut during the night from a diseased tree, and amediately the cut end of each branch was pushed through a Pa hole in a cork and into a bottle containing water. ae being fastened into the neck of the bottle, the cork and nee mre sealed with paraffin, so that no water could escape excep est, Succe ] 450 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER through the leaves. Twenty-five healthy branches, taken from the same tree which furnished the diseased ones, were prepared ina similar manner. All the bottles were then brought into the laboratory and weighed twice daily for ten days. At the endof this time the branches and leaves were weighed and the amount of water evaporated per gram of dry weight was calculated. It was found that the diseased leaves evaporated approximately one-fifth more than the healthy, these results holding good through all the experiments, as will be seen by a study of the preceding diagrams. The fact that cutting off the diseased parts of the leaves prevented them from falling has already been pointed out. It was assumed that the removal of the injured portions stopped the excessive evaporation and enabled the leaf to heal the wound made by the cut, which it could not do in case of the fungus. To prove this a number of experiments were made, of which the following is an example : Twelve pairs of fresh leaves were selected, six pairs being diseased and six healthy. These were divided into four sets of three pairs each. Set no. 1 (healthy) had one-half inch cut from each leaf and the tips charred with red hot glass to prevent an excessive loss of water and turpentine. After charring, the tips were coated with a varnish, which prevented the entrance of fungi and slightly reduced the evaporation of water from the cut ends. Set no. 2 (diseased) was treated in the same way, the diseased ends being removed. Set no. 3 were healthy uncut leaves and set no. 4 diseased uncut leaves. All these sets were weighed at given periods and the loss in weight determined. The results are shown in the accompanying diagram. During the first twenty-four hours the healthy cut leaves lost 9™, the diseased cut and the healthy uncut exactly 7m each, and the diseased uncut 11™8. The same relative loss held good through the next forty-eight hours. oa The ends of the healthy cut leaves lost water more rapidly than the ends of the diseased cut leaves, making the loss appt” imate more closely to that of the diseased uncut leaves. *"° q a ; | : 4 . 1896] A RUST AND LEAF CASTING OF PINE LEAVES 451 ends of the diseased cut leaves were more securely closed, so that they dried out only a little more rapidly than the healthy ones, This experiment shows that cutting off the diseased parts reduces evaporation to the normal amount. It appears there- x #7; aa pt Hee |_| a ssteait = AD jt H+ SeGGSnaS558 Beene SUURSSENRRSEEE Nt a PE Poo EEC eee che EEE aN seetensesesezasoes PS PERE ae ® < aa ECE SEES RECHAN PCE iccnnee . ECE Cee Ho NESS See eee annem PCCPECEeee es BEER Pee eR PEER BEECH seee ea teaiesateaafiaidt Poo PLL cameo tS ppp tt aeeu gaze Peer saue= ECE eee fetter a ok = +4 Prete RoSaneeRe PET TL eee ee seeeseeset ’ EEE EEE EEE Et SHH EEE EF aa ae | | S Hee Sean Pldichbae Tt CoE a FEET seenncaanneee EEE which has since been used in the Purdue laboratory and modified into the form Fic. 3. Awn hygrometer. shown in IE. J iy coe: sists of a small thin glass vessel with a metal bar across the mouth bearing a part of a Stipa (S. spartea Trin.) awn. To the free end of the awn is attached an index of fine brass wire. When the air becomes moist, the awn untwists and the index is carried around. To use it two are selected with awns that untwist at the same rate, and fastened to oppo- site sides of a leaf by means of a mix- ture composed of wax, oil, and tallow. The leaf may be attached to the plant, or separated from it and kept from wilting by placing the end in water (fig.4). The position of the index on each side of the leaf is marked at the Start, and again when one of them has made acomplete revolution. The ratio between the number of degrees of the circle traversed by the two indices dur- ing the interval is approximately the ratio of transpiration from the two sides Fic. 4. Hygrometer in ¥5 of the leaf. : , ical *Since described and its use fully explained; see Darwin and Acton’s Practica Physiology of Plants 1896] LABORATORY APPARATUS IN VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY 471 The apparatus is not accurate, but makes an interesting demonstration of the general difference in transpiration between the two sides of different kind of leaves. Slide with binding posts.— The difficulty in attaching wires to tin foil, when wishing to use an electric current under the microscope, has led to the device Fic. 5. Slide with binding posts. shown in fig. 5. An ordinary. microscope slide is provided with a pair of small brass binding posts, each bearing a clip. When in use two wedge shaped pieces of tin foil are placed under the clips with their points near together. The object to be examined is mounted ina drop of water between the points, and covered with a cover slip in the usual manner. It is then placed on the stage of the microcope and the wires from the battery passed into the binding posts. Mercury reservoir.— Mercury is often serviceable and occasion- ally indispensable in physiological work. Sometimes, as in eudio- metric experiments, it must be dry and perfectly clean. The several ways of cleaning mercury are mostly tedious and unsatisfactory, and repeated trials led finally to the adoption of a reservoir that keeps the mercury always dry, clean, and ready for use. The reservoir consists of a thick walled glass separatory funnel, about 15™ in diameter (fig. 6). In this the mercury with some mercurous sulfate is placed, together with enough concentrated sul- furic acid to make a quarter-inch layer over the surface. To begin with it is Me. 6, Mercury reservoir. shaken up several times, and in twenty- four hours is ready for use. Mercury drawn from the bottom is pure and dry. After use it is returned to ass voir where it again becomes usable, without further attention. 472 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER The reservoir should be about half full in order to have as much surface of mercury exposed to the action of the acid as possible, and should be kept always stoppered. If mercurous sulfate is not at hand, it can be made by gently heating mercury with concentrated sulfuric acid (1° mercury to 10° acid), being careful that there is always an excess of acid. This should be done in a hood. The reservoir may be placed against the wall by using a ring supported by staples, as shown in the cut. PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX1/1. PLALE AXIV. AT ; al it a P| SCS Wet | 5 ome | Tmt, ARTHUR on PHYSIOLOGICAL APPARATUS. GOLDEN AUXANOMETER, BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XX11/. PLATE XXV. : In 7S ARTHUR on PHYSIOLOGICAL APPARATUS. CENTIFRUGE with MOTOR. POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES. IV. FANNIE D. BERGEN. [Reprinted by request from plates kindly furnished by the editor of the Journal of American Folk-lore.— EDS. , RANUNCULACE. Aconitum Napellus, L., Adam-and-Eve-in-the-bower, Deering, Me. Act@a alba, Bigelow, white cohosh, blue cohosh, Paris, Me. _ Actea spicata, L.., var. rubra, Ait., black cohosh, Paris, Me. _ Act@a, sp., necklace-weed, Me. (W). Anemone Caroliniana, Walt., mayflower, Burnside, S. Dak. Anemone Myosurus, var. minimus (?), mouse-tail, Cal. Anemone nemorosa, L., snow-drops, Lynn, Mass. Anemone patens, var. Nuttalliana, Gray, wind-flower, rock-lily, wild crocus, Madison, Wis. rock-lilies, Brodhead, Wis. badger, general in Wis. Anemone Pennsylvanica, L., crowfoot, Burnside, S. Dak. Anemone Pulsatilla (2), prairie crocus, Mont., Colo., and N, Dak. Anemone trifolium, spring beauty, Oxford County, Me. Anemonella thalictroides, Spach., anemone,” Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Aquilegia Canadensis, L., honeysuckle, Madison, Wis. bells, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. : Jack-in-trousers,? Lynn, Mass. q jacket-and-breeches. j Aquilegia truncata, Fisch. & Mey., wild columbine, Cal. _ Aquilegia vulgaris, L., blue bells, No. Ohio. _ ‘ame, white variety, fairies,t Norridgewock, Me. Caltha palustris, L., coltsfoot, Me. coltsroot, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. crowfoot, South Berwick, Me. capers, Berwick, Me. oe Clematis ligusticifolia, Nutt., var. Californica, Wats., virgins bower, ___Wind-flower, Cal. . Clematis Virginiana, L., woodbine, wild hops, |. ~ounty, Me. * 4S trifolia, Salisb., canker-root, Oxford County, Me. lphinium cardinale, Hook., scarlet larkspur, Santa Barbara, Cal. : Pepin decorum, Fisch. & Mey., blue larkspur, 3 al, Hartford, Oxford Santa Barbara, 1 Vai Names marked thus (W) are taken from Williamson's Hés“ory of Maine. 2 S 4 a eas also, rue-anemone. 4 5 iiiren’s name. Tessed by schoolgirls and carried for a time. a 473 474 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Helleborus viridis, L., Christmas rose, Chris root,! Sulphur Grove, io. Hepatica acutiloba, DC., pass blummies,? Alcove, N. Y. spring beauty, Brodhead, Wis. Hepatica triloba, Chaix., noble liverwort, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Nigella Damascena, L., Jack-in-the-bush, Worcester, Mass. ragged sailor, Jack-in-the-pulpit, Rutland, Mass. maid-in-the-mist, Acton, Mass. Ranunculus acris, L., kingcup, Me. (W). Ranunculus acris, L., var. plena, queens-button, Sulphur Grove, hio. bachelors’ buttons, Bethlehem, Pa, Thalictrum polygamum, Muhl., silver weed, musquash weed, celan- dine, Oxford County, Me. CALYCANTHACE#. Calycanthus floridus, L., spice-bush, Middleborough, Mass. shrub, sweet-scented shrub, Sulphur Grove, 10. sweet Betsies (plantation negroes). Ala. MAGNOLIACEX. Magnolia glauca, L., sweet bay, Mo. MENISPERMACES. Menispermum Canadense, L., sarsaparilla, Parke County, Ind., Sulphur Grove, Ohio. BERBERIDACE2. Achlys triphylla, DC., May apple, Cal. and Wash. erberis aquifolium, Pursh, Oregon grape, Oregon and Wash. grape-root, No. Utah. Berberis pinnata, Lag., barberry, Cal. and Oregon. Oregon grape, Cal. lefia amarilla,? Cal. Berberis vulgaris, L., pipperidge-bush,* So. N. H. Podophyllum peltatum, L., hog-apple,> Iowa. ? Evidently for Christmas root. * Probably corrupted from Pasque Blumen. * Name used by Mexicans and Americans. * A name now almost obsolete. sti * “Fruit mawkish, eaten by pigs and boys,” Gray’s Manuai, earlier editions 1896] POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES 475 NYMPHACE&. Nelumbo lutea, Pers., wonkapin,' So. Ind. Nuphar advena, Ait., kelp, South Berwick, Me. horse-lily, Hartford, Me. yellow pond-lily, Millersburg, Ind. SARRACENIACEE. Sarracenia purpurea, L., foxgloves, Woodstock, Me. whippoorwill’s shoes, meadow-cup, fore: father’s pitcher, Me. (W). whippoorwill’s boots, Philadelphia, Pa. skunk-cabbage, St. Paul, Minn. PAPAVERACE. Argemone hispida, chialote (Span.). thistle-poppy, Santa Barbara, Cal. Eschscholtsia Californica, Cham.,? torosa (Span.): cups of flame, cups of gold, Cal. Sanguinaria Canadensis, L., puccoon, Vt. red puccoon, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. red root, Me. (W). sweet slumber, Delaware County, Pa. FUMARIACE. Adlumia cirrhosa, Raf., mountain fringe, wood fringe, Paris, Me. canary vine, Madison, Wis. Corydalis glauca, Pursh, Roman wormwood, Paris, Me. Loridales plant, Me. (W). Dicentra cucullaria, DC., kitten breeches, meee Paces ie ndian boys and irls, Madison, . Dicentra spectabilis, Ag a ae bleeding hearts, No. hio. ear-drops, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. CRUCIFER. ele bursa-pastoris, Moench, wind-flower, Fairhaven, Mass. ‘ntarta laciniata, Muhl., crow-toes, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. : “rysimum asperum, DC., orange mustard, Cal. : sai officinale, hedge-mustard, Cal. a aie matronalis, L., sweet rocket, Paris, Me. = Wik. tum intermedium, Gray, wild tongue-grass, »- | 1 Supposed to be an Indian name. 2 The California state flower- 476 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Lunaria biennis, L., matrimony vine, Paris, Me. Raphanus raphanistrum, cadlock (corruption of charlock), Nova cotia. Raphanus sativus, L., black mustard, Cal. Sisymbrium officinale, Scop., California mustard, Rumford, Me. Thysanocarpus curvipes, Hook., lace-pod, Cal. Thysanocarpus laciniatus, Nutt., var. crenatus, Brewer, fringe-pod, Cal : CISTACEA:, fTudsonia tomentosa, Nutt., poverty-grass, heath, dog’s dinner, Well- fleet, Mass. VIOLACE. Viola palmata, L., chicken-fighters, Newton, N. C., children. Viola palmata, var. cucullata, Gray, fighting-cocks, New Brunswick. Johnny jump-up,? Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Viola pedata, L. (and related species), Johnny jump-up,? Sulphur Grove, Ohio, Viola tricolor, L.., none-so-pretty, Abington, Mass. POLYGALACE#. Polygala paucifolia, Willd., bird-on-the-wing, Me. ladies’ slipper, Gardiner, Me. purple May wing, Me. LACEKHE Dianthus Armeria, L., grass-pink, Paris, Me. Gypsophila paniculata, L. (and other species), mist, babies’ breath, . Mass. Saponaria officinalis, monthly pink, Greene County, Mo. sweet Betty, Parke County, Ind. world’s wonder, E. Mass. lady-by-the-gate, N. C. Saponaria vaccaria, L., cockle, Blue Earth County, Minn. Silene acaulis, L., moss pink, Paris, Me. Silene Armeria, L., mice pink, Hennepin, III. Silene Californica, Durand., Indian pink, Cal. Silene Cucubalus, Wibel., devil’s rattle-box, Stockbridge, Mass. _ maiden’s tears, Orono, Me. Silene regia, Sims., wild pink, Greene County, Mo. Spergula arvensis, 1.., devil's guts, Paris, Me. Spergularia, bedsandwort, West. 1 From a custom with children of locking their spurs to see which head pulls off. ® This name is applied to all our native violets Sat ik ee eee ~ 1896 | POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES 477 PORTULACACES. Portulaca grandiflora, Lindl., rose-moss, Kentucky moss, Sulphur Grove, io. Portulaca oleracea,' L., purslane, Cal. pursley,? Sulphur Grove, Ohio. pusley,? Minn. pursley or pusley, Parke County, Ind. Talinum calycinum, Engelm., rock pink, Greene County, Mo. HYPERICACE. | Hypericum prolificum, L., paint-brush,® near Oakdam, Ind. MALVACEZ. Abutilon Avicenne, Geertn., butter-print,* Iowa, Central IIl. pie-print,> S. W. Mo. pie marker, Indian hemp, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Abutilon, sp., mountain lily, Maine. Hibiscus Trionum, L., modesty, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Lavatera assurgentiflora, Kellogg, tree-mallow, Santa Barbara, and Santa Barbara Islands, Cal. Malva moschata, L., musk (or mush), Me. Malva rotundifolia, L., cheeses, Cumberland County, Me. cheesetts, Oxford County, Me. Malvastrum coccineum, Gray, moss rose, Burnside, S, D Spheralcea Emoryi, Torr., cimarona (Span.), cheese-weed, Cal. TILIACEZ. Tilia Americana, L.., lin tree, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. white wood, West. GERANIACE. Erodium cicutarium, L’Her., alfillarilla or filaree,° Berkeley, Cal. in clover, Cal. Erodium moschatnm, Willd., alfillarilla or filaree, Berkeley, Cal. musky filaria, pin clover, Cal. Geranium incisum, Nutt., crane’s bill, Sierra Nevada Mountains, Cal. 1 Used as food by the Indians. 2 Evidently corruptions of purslane. 8 From resemblance of flowers to a small paint- 4 Alluding to the form of the seed-pods. 5 Used to stamp pie-crust. ® A name used by the Spanish Californians. brush. 478 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER Geranium maculatum, L., old maids’ night-caps, Madison, Wis. alum root, alum bloom, crow foot.! Geranium Robertianum, L., mountain geranium, Hancock, N. H. Impatiens fulva, Nutt., celandine, kicking horses,? Paris, Me. cowslip, wild touch-me-not, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Oxalis corniculata, L., yellow sorrel, Cal. Oxalis corniculata, var. stricta, Sav., toad sorrel, Kennebec County, Maine. sheep’s clover, Waverley, Mass. poison sheep sorrel, Greene County, Mo. sheep’s sorrel, Sulphur Grove, i0. sour grass, Ind. lady-sour-grass. Oxalis acetosella, var. Oregana, Trelease, redwood sorrel, Cal. SIMARUBACE2. Atlanthus glandulosus, Dest., devil's walking stick, Sulphur Grove, Ohio, ILICINEA. flex verticillata, Gray, white alder, Oxford County, Me. RHAMNACE. Ceanothus Americanus, L., wild pepper, Greene County, Mo. Ceanothus divaricatus, Nutt., lilac, Santa Barbara County, Cal. Ceanothus prostratus, Benth., mahala-mats, Cal. Ceanothus thyrsiflorus, Esch., California lilac, wild lilac, Cal. Rhamnus alnifolia, 1) Her., dwarf alder, West. Zizyphus Parryi, Torr., lotophagi, lotus tree, San Diego County, Cal. VITACE. Ampelopsis quinguefolia, Michx., five-finger. Vitis cordifolia, Michx., winter grape, Greene County, Mo. SAPINDACE®. Acer dasycarpum, Ehrh., soft maple, Minn. white maple, Southwestern Mo. Acer Pennsylvanicum, L., moosewood, whistlewood, Paris, Me. Acer rubrum, L., soft maple, Minn. white maple, Paris, Me. ' From shape of root. ? From the manner in which the ripe seed-vessel bursts open when touched. 1896] POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT: “NAMES 479 Acer rubrum, L., red maple, hard maple, Southwestern Mo. Acer saccharinum, \Wangenh., sugar tree, Ohio, Ind., and Ill. Acer spicatum, Lam., swamp maple, Paris, Me. Cardiospermum Halicacabum, L., puffball, balloon-vine, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. ANACARDIACE#. Rhus copallina, L., black shumack, Southwestern Mo. Rhus diversiloba, T. and G., poison oak, yeara, Cal. Rhus glabra, L., white shumack, Southwestern Mo. Rhus integrifolia, Benth. and Hook. ; and rhus ovata, Watson, lem- onade and sugar tree, lentisco, San Die Rhus toxicodendron, L., poison vine, Ind. poison ivy or pois Ohio. " mercury (marc'ry); S venenata, DC., poison ash, Vt. Schinus molle, L., pepper tree, Cal. picry, Hartford, Me. LEGUMINOS#. ical Greggit, Gray, cat's claws, Cal. re glandulosa, mesquit, N. Mex. and Ariz. ae canescens, Nutt., shoe-strings,! Minn. ; Burnside, S. Dak. eee fruticosa. L., river locust, Minn. es microphylla, Pursh, shoe-string, ipios tuberosa, Moench, pig-potato, West. de Dakota-potato, Minn. ragalus caryocarpus, Ker., Buffalo-apple, N. Dak. Buffalo-bean, N. Dak. ; Burnside, S. Burnside, S. Dak. 2 Southwestern Mo. ak. Astragalus Mexicanus, DC., prairie-apple, d, loco-weed,? Cal. Stragalus mollissimus, Torr., rattle-box wee Canavali ee ae loco-weed,? Neb. aS rotal _ ees ifolia, DC., wild hop or “ OP: Florida Keys. GL ushys sagittalis, L., loco-weed, Neb. te lepidota, Nutt., licorice root,* Ca 2 ymnocladus Canadensis, Lam., Kentucky coffee bean, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Lathyrus palustris, L., wild pea. Lathyrus splendens, Kellogg, pride of California, Cal. l : ' rom the long, tough roots. Tuit eaten by children. 8 * i known as = ds poisonous to horses; pro le and sheep duce a disease in catt et 00 . . . ts used by the Indians as medicin>. 480 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER Legumitnosa formosus, sand lupine, Cal. Lupinus arboreus, Sims., sun dial, tree lupine, Cal. Lupinus perennis, L., wild pea, Burlington, Vt. old maids’ bonnets, Southampton, Mass., South- oid, 1... 1. sun dial, Eastern N. Y. Lupinus, sp., sun dial, monkey faces, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Medicago denticulata, Willd., bur-clover, Cal. Medicago sativa, L., Lucerne, alfalfa, Cal. ~ : Meltlotus alba, Lam., honey clover, Greene County, Mo. Oxytropis Lamberti, Pursh, loco,! loco-weed. Neb., Iowa, and Mo. Parkinsonia Torreyana, Watson, green wood, Ariz. Petalostemon violaceus, Michx., thimble-weed, St. Joseph, Mo. Petalostemon violaceus and P. candidus, Michx., red and white tassel- flowers, Southwestern Mo. Prosopis julifiora, DC., honey-mesquit,? algarola (Span.), Ariz. Prosopis pubescens, Benth., curly mesquit, N. Mex. screw-bean, N. Mex., Ariz., and Cal. screw-pod mesquit, fornillo,? Ariz. Psoralea esculenta, Pursh, tipsin, Dakota tipsinna,? Burnside, S. Dak. akota turnip, Minn. Schrankia uncinata, Willd., sensitive rose, Burnside, S. Dak. sensitive brier, shame-faced brier, South- western Mo. Tephrosia Virginiana, Pers., wild pea, Southwestern Mo. Trifolium arvense, 1.., pussies, pussy-cats, bottle-grass, Mass. pussies, pussy-cats, calf-clover, Southold, L. I. Trifolium incarnatum, L., crimson clover, Cal. Trifolium megacephalum, Nutt., large-headed clover, Cal. Trifolium repens, L., honeysuckle, honeysuckle-clover, Oxford County, e Victa Americana, Muhl., buffalo pea, Burnside, S. Dak. Vicia cracca, L., Canada pea, Paris, Me. ROSACEA, Amelanchier Canadensis, T. and G., sugar-pear, Oxford County, Me. dogwood, boxwood, wild peal, June plum, West. Amygdalus pumila, flowering almond (flowery ammon), No. Ohio. Cercocarpus ledifolins, Nutt., mountain mahogany, Cal. Chamebatia foliolosa, Benth., tar bush, tar weed, Cal. ' 1 From poisonous effects upon grazing animals. See article II. of this serles- ? Pods used by Arizona Indians as food. ® An Indian name, 1896 ] POPULAK AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES 481 Crategus tomentosa, L., red haw, Sulphur Grove, Ohio, Central Ill. Dalibarda repens, L., robin-run-away, Franklin plant, Oxford County, Me Fragarta vesca, L., sow-tit, sheep-nose, Central Vermont. Geum rivale, L., chocolate, Paris, Me. maidenhair, Brodhead, Wis. Geum trifforum, Pursh, prairie smoke, Me. Nuttallia cerasiformis, T. and G., oso berry, California and Oregon. Potentilla Canadensis, L., running buttercup, Oxford County, Me. Potentilla fruticosa, 1.., hardhack, Stockbridge, Mass. Potentilla Norvegica, L., barren strawberry, Hartford, Me.; Med- ford, Mass. Potentilla, sp., star-flower, Waverly, Mass. Prunus tlictfolia, oak-leaved cherry, California. Prunus hortulana, Bailey, hog plum, S. W. Mo. Prunus nigra, pomegranate, Orono, Me., West. Prunus Pennsylvanica, L., fire cherry,! Franklin County, Me. Prunus pumila, L., beach plum, Aroostook and Somerset counties, Me. Pyrus arbutifolia, L.., choke-berry, Oxford County, Me. Rosa cinnamomea, L., primrose, Paris, Me. Rosa humilis, Marsh (and other species), wild rose, S. W. Mo. Rosa minutifolia, Parry’s Mexican rose, San Diego County, Cal. Rosa setigera, Michx., rose blush, S. W. Mo. Rubus cuneifolius, Pursh, sand blackberry, Mo. Rubus odoratus, L., mulberry, Paris, Me. Rubus spectabilis, Pursh, salmon-berry, Cal., Oregon, and Wash. Rubus triflorus, Richards, running raspberry, Oxford County, Me. pigeon berry, West. Spirea tomentosa, L., purple hardhack, West. . SAXIFRAGACE. | Ribes gracile, Michx., Ulinois gooseberry, Ky. Ribes prostratum, 1. Her., skunk currant, Oxford and Washington counties, Me. Saxifr aga sarmentosa, L., Otaheite, Paris, Me. Saxifraga Virginiensis, Michx., everlasting,? Lynn, Mass. ; sweet Wilson,’ Abington, Mass. Saxifraga, sp., Mayflower, Auburndale, Mass. : Always appears on newly burned land. Children’s name. Named by Mrs. Ward fifty years ago, to please Wilson Ward, who com- Plained that there was a sweet William but no sweet Wilson. Name still extant. 482 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER CRASSULACE. Sedum acre, L., treasure of love, Boston, Mass. Sedum pulchellum, Michx., rock moss, S. W. Mo. Sedum telephium, L., Aaron’s rod, Paris, Me. life-of-man, live-forever, Oxford County, Me. MELASTOMACE. Rhexia Virginica, L., handsome Harry, Eastern Mass. ONAGRACE. Epilobium angustifolium, L., wickup, Paris, Me. purple rocket, Sally-bloom, York Siberian flax, Westmoreland County, N. B pig weed, Canada. Gaura, sp., wild honeysuckle, Tex. Ludwigia palustris, Ell., water purslane, West. Gnothera biennis, L., scabish, South Berwick, Me. Zauschneria Californica, Presl., wild fuchsia, Santa Barbara County, Cal LOASACEX. Mentzelia ornata, T. and G., Gunebo lily,! No. Dak. PASSIFLORACE. Passifiora Waret, Nutt., devil’s pumpkin, Florida Keys. CUCURBITACE. Echinocystis lobata, T. and G., creeper, creeping Jenny, Oxford ounty, M ; Sicyos angulatus, L., wild cucumber, Sulphur Grove, Ohio ; Centra: Illinois CACTACE®. Cereus giganteus, Engelm., giant cactus, Ariz. Cereus Greggi, Engelm., three-cornered cactus, Ariz. Cereus pectinatus, Engelm., rainbow cactus, Ariz. Echinocactus Wislizeni, Engelm., niggerhead cactus, barrel cactt* fish-hawk cactus, Ariz, Mamillaria Goodridgii, Scheer., strawberry cactus, So. Cal. Mamillaria Grahami, Engelm., pin-cushion cactus, Ariz. Opuntia arborescens, Engelm., tree cactus, Ariz. 1 Grown in Gunebo Hills. GE be Se Cae ye ee eS ee Daa Re a. 1896] POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES 483 Opuntia Engelmanni, Salm., prickly-pear cactus, Ariz. Opuntia frutescens, rat-tail cactus, Ariz. Opuntia fulgida, Engelm., straw cactus, Ariz. FICOIDE®. Mollugo verticillata, L., devil’s grip, No. Berwick, Me. UMBELLIFERZ. Cicuta maculata, L., snake weed. Daucus carota, L., bird’s nest, Penobscot County, Me. Daucus pusillus, Michx., rattlesnake-bite cure, yerba del vibora (Span.), Cal. Erigenia bulbosa, Nutt., turkey pea, pepper and salt, Ind.? Eryngium Leavenworthii, T. and G., briery thistle, Waco, Tex. Hydrocotyle Americana, L., penny post, West. Osmorhiza longistylis, DC., sweet anise,® Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Osmorhiza brevistylis and O. longistylis, DC., sweet jarvil, Hartford, M e. Peucedanum ambiguum, Nutt., kouse root, bread and biscuit,* Cal. ARALIACE. Aralia hispida, Vent., pigeon berry, Oxford County, Me. Aralia nudicaulis, L., sasapril or sasafril, Me. saxapril and sasafafarilla, Bath, Me. Aralia racemosa, L., old man’s root, spikenard, Oxford County, Me. Araha trifolia, Decsne. and Planch., ground nut, Oxford County, Me. CORNACE. Cornus alternifolia, L. f., green osier, Paris, Me. Cornus sericea, L., red willow, Mo. red brush, Morgan County, Mo. squaw bush, West. CAPRIFOLIACE. Diervilla trifida, Moench, life-of-man, Oak Bay, N. B. Lonicera ciliata, Muhl., medaddybush, Weld, Me. Sambucus Canadensis, L., sweet elder, West. Sambucus pubens, poison elder, Oxford County, Me. ‘ Name given by section-hands along the railroad, because the plant is so hard to eradicate, ; | 2 Eaten by children and fowls. Called “ pepper and salt ” from the white peta Ss ~ dark stamens : Odor and taste like true sweet anise. Made into bread by the Indians. 484 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Symphoricarpos vulgaris, Michx., buck bush, S. W. Mo. lriosteum perfoliatum, L., wild ipecac, West. Viburnum acerifolium, L., squash-berry, Newfoundland. Viburnum dentatum, L., withe-wood, So. Berwick, Me. Viburnum lanlanoides, Michx., moose bush, moose berry, Paris, Me. dogwood, Bath, Me. Viburnum lentago, L., tea plant, Madison, Wis. Viburnum nudum, L., possum berry, Ocean Springs, Miss. RUBIACE. Galium (various species), beggar lice, S. W. Mo. Galium, sp., robin-run-ahead, cleavers, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Hfoustonia, sp., Venus’ pride, wild forget-me-not, star violet, Waco, x. Houstonia cerulea, ga forget- menot, Oxford County, Me. little washerwomen, Bethlehem, Pa. blue-eyed grass, Brodhead, Wis. Mitchella repens, L., two-eyed plum, snake plum, Oxford County, Me. pigeon berry, Mass. fox berry, Lynn, Mass. chicken berry, West. one berry, Central N. Y. Morinda Roioc, L., red root, Florida Keys. Randia clusiafolia (? Gardenia clusiefolia, Jacq.), seven-year apple, Florida Keys. VALERIANACE®. Valeriana edulis, Nutt., tobacco root, kooyah, Cal. Valeriana officinalis, oo hardy heliotrope, summer heliotrope, Sul- phur Grove, Ohio. garden heliotrope, Middleborough, Mass., Northern Ohio. DIPSACE®. Scabtosa atropurpurea, L., mourning bride, mourning widow, Sulphur Grove, Ohi Scabiosa peers: pin cushions, Sulphur Grace. Ohio. COMPOSIT. Achillea Millefolium, L., gordolobo, Cal. Ambrosia Artemisiefolia, L., hogweed, West. blackweed, Long Island. bitter-weed,! Sulphur Grove, Ohio, Eastern Pa. 1 From its effect on the milk when eaten by cows. 1896] POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES 485 Ambrosia trifida, L., horseweed, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Anaphalis margaritacea, Benth. and Hook., ladies’ tobacco, Hart- ford, Me. : Antennaria plantaginifolia, Hook., love’s test,! Ind. - dogs’ toes (staminate flowers), Au- burndale, Mass. pussies’ toes (pistillate flowers), Auburndale, Mass. mouse’s ear, Oxford County, Me. poverty weed, Paris, Me. four toes, mouse-ear, pearly ever- lasting, Salem, Mass. Anthemis Cotula, DC., chigger weed, Ind. balders, (from Hardinge’s ‘With the Wild Flowers ”’). : : Arctium Lappa, L., buzzies, Southold, L. I. . Aster cordifolius, L., tongue, So. Berwick, Me. Aster Nove-Anglig, L., Michaelmas daisy, hardy aster, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Aster (all forms), frost weed, Paris, Me. frost flowers, N. H. Aster (native species), daisies, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Aster (cultivated varieties), fall roses, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Bidens Beckii, Torr., water marigold, St. Louis County, Mo. Bidens frondosa, L.., old ladies’ clothes-pins, Mass. Bidens frondosa, L., cernua, L., and connata, Muhl., beggars’ ticks, Paris, Me. : pitchforks, Rumford, Me. Bigelovia venata, Gray, rheumatic plant,? damiana (Span.); Cal. Centaurea Cyanus, L., French pink, Sulphur Grove, Ohio, Ala. ragged robin, Ohio, Baltimore, Md. barbeau,! Louisiana. Centaurea Melitensis, L., pasture weed, tocolote, Cal. Chrysopsis villosa, Nutt., rosinwood, No. Dak. Cichorium Intybus, L., wild bachelors’ buttons, Worcester, Mass. ragged sailors, blue daisies, Southold, L. I. 2 The test is in this wise: A leaf is taken by the ends, a person 0 ae thought of, and the ends are pulled apart. =a long, the affection is supposed to be propo sere the st y naming both ends, when the relative length of the 2 ‘Tonger love. a called because supposed to harbor the “ chigger. 3 ys under the skin. ; oucinal, cure for rheumatism. Barb, name common along the Mississip a au, who brought it from France. rtionate. Sometimes this is a troublesome mite which pia generation and more ago, from a M. 486 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Coreopsis Drummondii, T. and G., lady’s breast-pin, Sulphur Grove, hio. Coneopsis tinctoria, Nutt., wild flax, Burnside, So. Dak. Cotula vulgaris, manyanilla,! Cal. Dysodia chrysanthemoides, Lag., prairie-dog weed, Burnside, So. Dak. Echinacea angustifolia, DC., and Lepachys columnaris, T. and as respectively comb and brush, Burnside, So. Dak, Erigeron annuus, Pers., white-top weed, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Evigeron Canadensis, L., horse weed, yerba el pasmore (Span), Cal. Erigeron Philadelphicus, L., daisy, Sulphur Grove, Ohio; Burnside, No. Dak. Erigeron pumilus, Nutt., daisy, Burnside, So. Dak. Eupatorium ageratoides, L., stevia, Madison, Wis. Eupatorium perfoliatum, L.., throughgrow,? Eastern Pa. Eupatorium purpureum, L., queen of the meadow, Oxford County, Me. king of the meadow, N. H. Guaphalium, sp., ladies’ tobacco, Madison, Wis. Guaphalium polycephalum, Michx., Indian posy, Southold, L. I. overty weed, Paris, Me. Gnaphalium uliginosum, L., mouse-ear, Paris, Me. Grindelia robusta, Nutt., gum plant,? Cal. Gutierrezia Euthamie, T. and G., broom weed, Waco, Tex. Helenium puberulum, DC., rosilla, Cal. Helianthus multiflorus, dahlia sunflower, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Hemizonia ramosissima, tar weed, balsamio, Cal. Flieracium aurantiacum, L.., missionary weed, E. Sangerville, Me. Inula Helenium, 1.., starwort, West. Lactuca Canadensis, L.., butter weed, wild lettuce, Sulphur Grove, io. Lactuca leucophea, Gray, milk weed, Paris, Me. Layia platyglossa, Gray, tidy tips, Cal. j Matricaria Parthenium, fever-few or feath er-few, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Othonna crassifolia, cabbage worm,? noodle moss, Sulphur Grove, io. Pectis papposa, Gray, manzanilla coyote,® Cal. Desert. Parophyllum gracile, Benth., sweet-scented herb, yerba del vernada, Cat 1 Medicinal and sweet-scented. * Evidently from the perfoliate leaves. * Cures poison from ivy. * A recent introduction. ° Leaves shaped like a cabbege worm. ® So called by the Mexicans. 1896 ] POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT-NAMES Prenanthes (any species), gall of the earth, Southern Me. Rudbeckia hirta, L., yellow daisies, Southold, L. I. black-eyed Susan, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. brown-eyed Susan, Brockton, Mass. bull’s eyes, ox-eyed daisies, Paris, Me. English bullseye, York County, Me. Solidago bicolor, .., silver rod, belly-ache weed, Paris, Me. Solidago Canadensis, L., yellow weed,! Sulphur Grove, Ohio. Solidago (any species), flower of gold, yellow tops, Cal. Souchus oleraceus, L., milk thistle, Cal. Troximon cuspidatum, Pursh, dandelion, Burnside, So. Dak. Zinnia elegans, Jacq., old maid’s pink, Sulphur Grove, Ohio. CAMBRIDGE, Mass. ? Never called cockle-bur. Zanthium Canadense, Mill., cuckle-bur,? Sulphur Grove, Ohio. 487 Fanny D. Bergen. ‘The species of solidago are rarely called goldenrod by the common people. BRIEFER ARTICLES. NEW AND NOTEWORTHY WASHINGTON PLANTS. Cardamine callosicrenata, n. sp. Perfectly glabrous throughout : stems erect, 60 to 70™ high, purplish below, shining above, coarsely striate ; leaves all similar and pinnately trifoliate, or some of the radi- cal rarely simple ; terminal leaflets orbicular, 3 to 5™ long and nearly as broad, closely crenate or the uppermost lobed, the crenations tipped with a short blunt callous point ; lateral leaflets ovate, entire, mostly obtuse, ro to 15™" long: raceme ample: flowers white : pods 25 to 30™ long, erect on widely spreading pedicels ro™ long : style stout: seeds light brown, about twenty in each pod. In springy places, Spokane, July 2 and September 27, 1896. This species has much the aspect of C. Lyadlii Wats., but is more nearly related to C. Brewert. DRABA AUREOLA Wats., described from Lassen’s Peak, California, is found sparingly in volcanic scoria on Mt. Rainier at 10,000 feet alti- tude. Only two other plants, Smelowskia calycina Meyer and Poa Let- termani Vasey, occur at higher altitudes on this peak. ERYSIMUM ARENICOLA Wats. has yellow flowers like others in the same group. It is not rare in its type locality, Mt. Steele, Olympi¢ mountains, and grows either in loose sand or in rock crevices. ARENARIA PALUDICOLA Rob. (A. palustris Wats.). This interesting species, first found in swamps near San Francisco, California, and later at San Bernardino by Parish, has been detected by Mr. Flett growing in sphagnum swamps near Tacoma. The Washington plants agree well with the specimens distributed by Parish, save that the stems are sparingly branched and the leaves are not at all flaccid. Some of the specimens are peculiar in that the leaves on the uppermost branches are decidedly reduced, but more of the specimens do not exhibit this character. Dr. Behr’s note in Erythea (Nov. 1896), predicting that this plant will some day be found in Alaska, seems likely to be fulfilled now that it is known to occur in Washington. STELLARIA OBTUSA Engelm. is not a rare plant in the Blue moun- 488 [DECEMBER 1896] BRIEFER ARTICLES 489 tains, at the head of Touchet river. Single specimens of this species form dense cespitose mats often a foot in diameter. SIDALCEA HENDERSONI Wats. This species was described from a single plant, supposed by its discoverer to be a waif, collected in 1886 at Clatsop beach, Oregon. As long ago as 1887 I collected a single specimen of it on the sea beach near Seattle, and last year found it in abundance in the brackish marshes at the mouth of the Snohomish river near Everett. It is a beautiful species with deep rose flowers nearly an inch in diameter. Apparently it is confined to the imme- diate proximity of the sea. Astragalus Palousensis, n. sp. Perennial from a stout woody cau- dex : stems several, 40 to 60™ high, simple or branched above, striate, sparingly pubescent with short appressed hairs, these white below and blackish above: leaves 8 to 12™ long; leaflets 25 to 31, elliptical or lanceolate, obtuse or even truncate, appressed pubescent beneath, glabrous above, 5 to 20" (usually about 1 5™) long, nearly sessile ; petioles sparsely hirsute; stipules deltoid-acuminate : racemes elon- gate, 5 to 12™ long; flowers 20 to 25, erect on short pedicels, 12” long ; bracts lanceolate, shorter than the calyx: calyx obliquely cam- panulate, the slender teeth nearly as long as the tube, pubescent with short appressed black hairs: corolla pale yellowish, with or without a black spot on the wings: pod 2™ long, crustaceous, narrowly oblong, tipped with a slender short beak, its surface transversely reticulated and sparsely pubescent with short white hairs ; stipe as long as the calyx tube or shorter. Common on rich loess hillsides about Pullman. Very closely related to A. reventus Gray, and A. arrectus Gray. From the latter it differs in the much shorter stipe and beak of oe pod ; from the former in its more elongate raceme, in the leaves being glabrous above, and in the much shorter and sparser pubescence of the Owers This species has not hitherto been Teported from west of the Rocky mountains. It has been collected by Whited at the head of Twisp river, Cascade mountains, and by - writer near the source of the Duckaboose river, Olympic mountains. The specimens from the latter place are very well developed, some of the leaves being three inches in diameter. Valeriana Columbiana, n. sp. Stems erect from dex, 20™ high, minutely puberulent especially. below: Ripes prosrratum L’Her. a rather slender cau- radical leaves 49° | BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ DECEMBER ovate, entire, obtuse at apex, 2™ long, glabrous, their petioles 2 to 3 times as long, narrowly margined, puberulent; cauline two pairs, 3-divided ; the basal segments ovate-lanceolate, obtuse, entire ; the ter- minal segment 3-cleft into ovate acutish lobes; petioles as long as the blade or shorter, nearly glabrous : inflorescence loosely cymose, the whitish flowers sessile in the cymuies; peduncles puberulent : corolla 15” long, the tube twice the length of the limb, hairy at base within : bracts linear-subulate, as long as the glabrous fruit: stigma minutely 3-lobed : stamens glabrous. Wenatchee, June 9, 1896. Californian 429 Cynophallus caninus 382 Cyperacez, new to North America 238 C o n = n [oo] 38 ; thyrsiflorus 2, Cypripedium, — budding 250 opment in Griffthsia 35, Cystopus candidus ; Ga pel, F. gree oe, work of 65, 508 D Dangeard, work of 182 Davenport, G. E. 497; work of 4 ea eek “Catalogue of sh a Los Angeles Co., California” 343 Davis, B. M. 353 Davis, J. J. 413 : Day, D. F., a of 241, 244; persona 516 BOTANICAL GAZETTE Day, R. N., work of 2 Nog Walter 166; *« Flora of Boston Par’ De egres advane ed 205 Delphini m, Greene on 429 of wey’s “ “Tumbling mustard’”’ 180 gen intone and monocotyledons, di- ergence of 229 Dietyophora 379, 385; duplicata 273, 283, 384, 38 >» ate 3875 eeiaanes var. 387; Ravene ii 385, 38 irae go on fuscescens Eatoni 9; subfulvum 49; trachyphyllum 48 Die’s bbs pte ons Biologie von Neu Seeland ” 341 Dippel, = personal I91 Discomycetes Diseases: ee aca cultures of 226; bacteria poe of spk 4 4; rust of asparagus an ~ pad ta smut, fungicide 238; 413; of turnips 503 eola 488 Dryo ters, acrostichoides 409; tibaasy 228, oy ; marginalis 410; Novebo S$ 409; pen ns 409; spinulosa in- eris 409 Duggar, B. dh work of 236 ork of 241, 247, 249 Deane » spring 261 Earle, F.S. 255; personal 76; work of 75, 22, 222. 502 Eastwood, Alice, work of 344, 429 Eaton and hig a ’s “Sphagna Bor.-Am. 02 soni 254 Ecology, of African woody plants 506; in garden 191; place in cr pa s 81 h Autoren 219 Imore’s “ Classification of Diatoms ” 502 a virgata an olia 169 Embryo-sac structures 237 [DECEMBER Empetrum nigrum 491 37 & 5 a i) seg cS} =| > ron eiteat ilie nzymes, pro ei hon by roots 508 Epidermal tissues of fungi 510 Epipactis viridiflora 247, 250 Epitro id 68 Equipme eu Mec 196 cola 488 Euphrasia, ‘Nine na BORE hirtella sib ati ne 401; nemorosa 401; Oakes 401; officinalis Evans’ mobipe pest re and germination” 343 Exotrophy 68 aa euksiegy met Agricultural, bulle- of 4 Fairchild, D. G., personal 190 Lan iller, I., work of 68 arlow, W. c. ayia 75 wart large 431 Ferns, of ‘Ala a ma 407 228; fronds of 497; sporophylls 2 . a in Griffithsia 41; in Ptilota Fissi eee decipiens ie 50 Fixing methods 37, 306 Flax, maceration of 182 Floras, local 26 Flowers, reduction of 70; and insects 79, 5 71, Fontinalis, new species s of 344 Forest sah co urse in 351; library at Bilt iveanc distribution 344: set 349 Franchet M. A., work of 3 ri e oo parasi tic, pg pean 510; ys 24 Heseiciae. Jensen’s 238 Fusarium acuminatum 424 Galloway, B. T., 266, 417, 433; - $89 sonal 271; “Frosts and — 1793 2 “Lines of investigation ’’ 342 PPE Se ee ee Eee MRR ee 1896 | omen — 26 ong, » perso an 76 dens, botanical 2 » 335; address on 272; 0 272; Buieasons 350, 496; cc were Innsbruck 191; Oxford Gastrodia ba Gatest Ga e's . ‘Great World’s Farm” Geographical distribution: 215, 222,224, 228, 236, 238, 240, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 250, 251, 252, 255, 341, 344, 347; 401, nile 434, 48 Geotrophy 68 Germination, effect of alkali on 424; of oe 185; spores of Coleo- sporiu aie Gertrude, were 431 if Gibso h of 192 2 Glatiele, N. Mi, Ae Glyceria anche 413 Gnomoniella ioe eC. B. k of rg oe , person al 78, 512 mical characters of 403; sae work of 251 of 35, 235) 379) asain a pe for r pee causes of un 67; effect of alkali on 424; of ae nd CO, 221; of roots in di- lute salts 87, 125; and turgor 243 distribution of in 256, 257, 258; clavipes 255, conicum 257; globosum 255, 256, 2573 Juniperi 257; juniperinum 257; ma- or 255, 256, 258; nidus-avis 255, ae stomum calcareum Winonense 48 Gynezcium, reduced 70 H aia 9 A. arden 512 arper R.A. onal 190 Harshberger, aa PY. Caenk of 75 Hart, J. H., work of 505 Haustoria of orale eas 186 onal Dit Heat ced in flowers 503 Boigctncs annuus 3453 hybrids 248 Helle tr, A. A., personal 75 INDEX TO VOLUME XXII 5'7 pe Congdonii 169; Parryi 170 msley, W. B., work of 504 Herbariam, 198; dendrologicum 191; dex cards for Dict National ie gett from sige 340 Heredity of abnormalities 345 Heterophylly 67 Heterosphondylium 35 Heterospory 251 setae ophy 67 euchera, a new Californian 429 Grasses” 501; Horn, So Hosackia, a new Californian 429 Hull Biological sea 78 Hyacinthus orientalis $ 509 Hybrid, Bupleurum 182; fern 429; Loni- cera Saks roses 7} Salix 75, 3 ale sun- flower 24 Hydrastis Canadensis 498 Hydrotrophy ve no Acinic Hymenogaste Hymnal phage aos Hadriant 384; ae Hyphie, va 510 Hypnum, sar be 533 sh a brevifolium 52; ressiform e 52; eugyrium 52; hamulosum sai 5% orbiculari- pet aa So: ; subeugyrium 52 Hypocharis Sabre 345 Hypoc sa 325 Hypotrophy 68 Hysterangium clathroides 290 I Ilysanthes 344 Imbedding 245 3 _ -— flowers, see Flowers and in- esis botanical garden I Bulletin ag Labor of 4; forest aan Irritability 242, 243, 293, nes 504, 505 Isoetes malinvernania i hie of fresh water 218 Ist , G., work of 510 ; Ithyphallus 379, 3833 cucullatus 385; 1m- pudicus 384; Ravenelii. 385; rubicun- dus 384, 385 518 | J Jack, J. Ke personal 351 ages L. R., personal 271; work of 244, Hes botanical society of Mai Journal Milwaukee Brewing resraeely 351 Juncus, confusus 504; ; tenuis Spey berg, L. 81 ork of 349 eam s Heshariuts dendrologicum ”’ Ko nL ¥, personal 350 Kraus 1% work of 503 Labiat Laboratory, an erican tropical 415, 494, 496; sebnies 258, 463; equip- rmo espa Angolensis 388; — 388; ] Za 388; pissehe a 388 73 of pine 437; position of 22; relation to “05g li 232 a nans 3 Lecidea, rat lii ion Vicgitionsts 333 4 Lejolisia, alee and cystocarps of 370 Lepidesmia 182 — Mor ani 430 Lept seis vestita 423 pasts 183 i ‘ 3; of forestry at Biltmore 191 Light effect on mesophyll 4363 effect on n form of u leaves 67; relation of buds ve O 424 Lilium, candidum 330; Martagon 426 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Lindauea 428 Lindman, C. A. M., personal 272 Linnean Society, _ meeting 192 odia 69 Linum, stamin Li ippia Pringlei 182 Littledalea 50 Lloyd’s ‘ ‘ Photogravures of American . 75, 430 Lodem “Spraying of Plants Lon nicera, hrs uta 345; byhrid ¢ ae new Ira Sama of Ceylon noe Loranthus loniceroides 185 Lupin, albus 87, 125, 243; new Califor- Lina Texensis 391 M Macbride, T. H., work of 344 MacDougal, D. T. 188, 293, 496, 498; personal 190; work of 75, 221, 232, 243, 427, 505 in C., work of 218, 249, 250, Wa eepsian. Solant 246; Tomato 246 Macrozamia Mackenzi 50 Maiden, J. H., personal 350 Maine, botanical society of 77 Malevre, w vole of 65 Malm , personal 272 nner phon eh 253; macromeris 254 183 alana 80s he ‘amili “Familiar Trees . Meehania 76 Me ll, P. H. 420; “ Flora of Alabama” 80, Mentzelia, new species of 504 71 rr ’ Mesomyce 0) os xican ia sbanical club 272 croscope, horizontal 55 Milissangti Cor, ae Mimosa, mechanism of movement 293 Minks’s “ Protrophie ” 340 Mississippi, a new Cassia from 236; par- asitic fungi of 502 — botanical garden, damage to 79; caer from 166 Mitchell, W.R. 50 Mitford’s “ Bambo oo Garden” 177 Molisch, H., cw of 65, 6 1896 | Monactinocephalus 182 Monocotyledons, classification of 507; and cielo divergence of 229 > Noneare sses ie Mor ““Myxom of Ohio” 422 Se ablory, place oft in anginal schools new orth American, 443 ie in 7 of Williams 2 Mueller, F. von, death of LEON Muscari comosum Mutinus 329: 380; dovinus 380, 381; sone ninus, 273, 283, 381, 382, Curtisii 380; elegans 380; pias 381, 382, Naccaria 45 Nasturtium lacustre 429 Nebras vst afion flora 248; plants of 245; Univ baity si potanieal seminar 512 Betson's “ Flor: a ming ” 180 Neobeckia eiaatic Nephropetalum Pringlei 168 “sont ihe f 503 New “ec ‘,C., personal 271; _ work of ey “iy York botanic garden 77; a Erie ae 224; flora 250 5 New Zealand flora 341, 347 “caeeee Mary A. 301; work of 234 Nico a, Comes 0 I eer cletare 338, 352, 417, 432 North lg rid of mountains 240 Nucleo 182 Nieeus, budding 2505 of Cystopus 426; site divi es ungi ie paras of Wars haart in tatu Nutation, sours r 262 Nuttall, L. W. pocins O Oaks, notes on 245 (nothera, ake n79 auras “aygdapee of plants of 244; flora e Co. Oil reservoir sige ungi 510 Onagracez, anatomy of stem of 229 -Onoclea sensibilis 409 INDEX TO VOLUME XXII of . of Monroe Co. pba aed crotalophoroides 409 Opuntia, Oretachi oe 169; purpurea 169 Osmunda, dz¢ernata 407, 408; cinnamomea 409; regalis 409 Osterhout, W. J. V., personal 190 Ovary, FRY of compound 224 Ovules, re fC) Oxford tenoees garden 192 Palzobotany 348 Palm scape see Ai Pa pone Loans of 238 tostvaoee bath, eae in 245 Sopsloge a 344 ompenpenade in Thalictrum 241 272 PES 2p p wun aos a8 as | By — O t=) ft 5 Peach yellows 424 Peck, G. HL, celal 271 Pectase 65 Pectin, action of pectase on 65; ferment 182 Peirce, G. J. 18 Pella atropurpurea 411 haere on Whitedii 490 : 71,.4305 pec 190; Adinnse 27%: Bar n or child 190; Farlow 75; Galloway 271, Ganong 76; Gibbs 431; Gibson 192; Goodale 78, 512; Hamsgirg, 512; arper 190; Hel 75; Hollick 271; Jack 351; Jones, 271; Lawson 430; Lindman 272; Kellerman 271; Kohl 350; MacDougal 190; Maiden 4B e753 Treub 190; Trimen 4315 Vries — Waite 350; Westermaier 350; eee .7 5 Willis 190; Wright 4303 Zim n 350 fociteacta : Hartige 235 Petrocelis 45 : Peziza, symbiosis s of 75; Stevensoniana 304; vesiculosa 304; Willkommi 76 520 BOTANICAL GAZETTE Pezizineze ae Phallez 379, Phallogaster “aie Phalloidez of United Sistas 273, 299 Phallus caninus 381; demonum 387; duplicatus 387; fatidus 384; tmpudicus 3 modorus 381; avenelit 385; rubicundus 384, 385; cpa 384 Phegopteris ited Haaed Pheli — _ inp Phleum pra Philonots tenella Coloradensis 51 Phoma abietin ho seas hese thes : Phorade a flavescens 244 Photosyntax vs. iptonvibesis 248 Phototrophy 68 r Physiological apparats 258, 463 Phytophthora on pota Picea excelsa 23 Pinchot and Graves’s “ White Pine” 64 _— pr lecaposten on On 433; ee aaa 232; suppo ro pa of 2 anal. vulgaris Pinus, ponderosa 245; be doeacy 235; syl- vestris 235; Virginiana 433 Piper, C..V. 4 a 49 Pisum sativum 1 Pohl, Julius, on ae 497 Pollard, C. L., work of 76. 236, 247 Pollen of Arisema 2 Pollination of ee 184 ollini asetum Pol whiten revision of 429; and Thy- sanella 240 Polypoim, polypodioides 244, 409; vul- gar Polysiphoni, nigrescens 44; fastigiata 44; violac Potato, Pheri Of. sy pit fungi of 246 ions: 182; new species 429; N a 9 Pager M. C., work of 503 Pound, Roscoe 8 Prentiss, A. N., death of 271; biography 430 ee s Mexican Fungi 4 ocarp, of Griffithsia 35; tf Pil lota 353 Prothal lum of Isoetes and Selaginella PBictraben: = eta pl Tunus, maritima 240; oe species of 240 Pse 249 udo- alae. Ptelea trifoliata 1 55, 162 [DECEMBER Pteris, aquilina 409; esculenta 347 Pterothamnion, procarps and cystocarps ot 370 Ptilota, plumosa 353, 366; plumosa filicina 353, 366; serrata 35 Basra mnion, procarps and cystocarps be lus 461; Soulard. ne 462 Quercus nana 241 R Ramaley, F., work of 229 5 207 and, E. Ranunculus, Greene on 428 Reed’s “ Kansas Meaies 342 Regnell, A., personal 272 Renauld Re eproduction, vegetative and non-sexual Research, in ipo apie er phiAig 188; equipm 196; notes o Resin ae, aa 235; - pine leaf Respiration, adaptation for 243; heat pro- plingataighe 183 Rev Ws : oad ae Charac ceze 8 oe ica’ rnold’s “ Labrad capt Bailey's t Survival of the Unlike “ cals ene i * ora Ca gene iad 417; a am ae mal Ex- reezes” I70: mgs De saa of Investigation ” 342; Gaye rea World’s Farm” 60; Hit schocck! $s sa ene i 5 1896 | * Kansas ‘ “ Photogra- i “Kansas Grasses” 501 i Weeds” 179 9; Lloyd’s S vures of A iteoan’s. 342: Mell’s “ Flora 420; Minks’s ‘“ Prebiophie” 340; Mit- ford’s “Bamboo Gaaves' cao e “Kansas Mosses”’ 342; “ Flora of the Sey Sl 181; Babe eres“ Nor rears can Species of Physalis” a Scribner’s “Grasses 43 a, = Fodder and Forage P ” 3433 Strasburger- Nolk- a ete ‘Schimper ae e ie si ch der. Bot 178; on’s . “Ligaate ‘Wolfias af United States” ase ‘s “ Juglandacez Tia oe i BOs a siphee of Riley Co., Kan 501 We ene S “ Pineapple sniotsy” & 580, Compendium of Gen- i as “ Pflan- zenverbreitung Sehiches Halbinsel s 6: Rhamnus 157, 160: cathartica 157; Fran gula 157; lanceolata 157; pumila 157; axatilis ae tinctoria 157 Siectropinin Rhizomes, alae ing of Iris area ndron, Catcebienes - At Vaseyi Pisdome la subfusca 44 Rhus, aromatica 161; Canadensis hd copallina 160; Cotinus dron 160; typhina 159; venenata 160 Ribes, ae Pe arenes 503; prostratum Ridgway, irom work of 429 oneal H. N., work of 344 -, 166, 252; personal 271; — rays and Lage 430 Rolfs, , perso peated excretions of 6 s, ye galls of wee 424; gro appar: werveep si _ growth in “ite pe 87, 1 Oripa, Gree Rosa, cbservations oh a he enus in North Am rica 1; acicularis 2, 7, 13, 16, 17, hors INDEX TO VOLUME XXII 521 28, 29, 32; acicularis — 25, 26, 27, 2 hones 26; Alberti 31 No aos) “hy 7, 18, 19, 21,25, 26, 9, 33 blanda Sep bate 14; as veauiana 27: rede 26; psensg sh 10, - 15, 20 22, a4 25, 2 6, 33: Caltoaen elas: 22; California ultramontana 24; canin ; Carolina I n i4;, gratissima: 16, 20, 21, 32, 343 symnocarpa 3, 7, 14, 30, 31, 32, 333 A bimheaa! ap pubescens 30; humilis 2, 3,7, 10: iucwa 2.3, 9+ Sees. ee c 8; sos ximiliana 19; megacarpa Mex na 2; minutifolia 3, 32; pe ae 223: nitida. 3;. 2 ne 7s fai kana 7 8, 8, 10, 11 12 15, 16, 34: Seyi Bo Sy pay 2-17; 26, 27, i Bourgeauiana 27; setigera nadine 25, 26; spithamzea 21, 24525, 26; 333 ged Fi 35,7 16, 17, 18, 19, 2 Resenbery, 0 werk of 181 Rowlee, W. W., work of 75, 227, 234, 245 Ru vate a new 429 Russell, H. L., work of 225, 246 Rust, of asparagus, 351; of pine leaves 433 Rydberg, P. A 2, 429; “Flora of the Bla acs Hills Vise: NAM Species of Physalis” 422 Saccoglottis Amazonica 512 Salix, Pacey hylla 398; Barrattiana Tweedyi 268; candida 398; candida ybrids 75; cordata X sericea 392; discolor 398; incana 398; A@tssourtensis 392) 394; petiolaris 398; sericea (cor- da Salts, toads scapes of dilute 81, 125 crt natans U.S. berscual ye 271 Sacbent Ethel, work o Sa ay 61; icing: ere Sassafras Sat ayn rubicundus 384 aa ae new species ~ Small on 428 Schenck, H., personal Schinwea ‘pusilla 2 47 Schrenk, H. von, work of 243, 249 522 Schwendener, interview ie 251 cirpus camptotrichus 2 scribn x enecio, ecalen cuttin edum, new species of 344, gers dissem nation me oe 348: effect and wei Sensitive oun 82 a TN TN IN TR IRITAS ex organs, of ete a 424; reduced or metamorphos Sexuality, of rang so; p Ptilota 373 Shattuck, S. G.,: 77 Shrubs, ecolog gy oF ‘fica 506 Sidalcea pcg Simblum ges, pee 300; rz- bescen a sphzrocephalu Sisymbrium, altissim um 253; tzcanum 429 Slide with binding posts 471 all, J. K., work of 79, 240, 344, 428, Shea ecirrhata 161; herbacea Smith, Anna A. 35, 402; ae 431; wor of 2 Smith, Donaldson, work o 428 Smith, J. G, , “Fodder hy prac plants” 343 Smut, fungicide for 238; an 413 Solidago, Canadensis 249; new ees of 504 Sophia Sparas on * Herbstii 430 Spatholirion Species- making, philosophy of 221, 454 Be thamnion, procarps and cystocarps ce) Spee viothamnion, procarps and cysto- carps of 370 6 afar of fungi 1301; production of, in Osporium 441 ; bg Rhodophyceze 35. of fungi Sporophyll remiernation n 22 Sporotrichum globuliferum vs. he bugs 424 Spraying of — 249 Staining 37, 3 Staminodia Pegs tap 6 tem anatomy of Ouse 229 Sterculiacee, new genus of 168 tigma of Ariseema a 234 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | DECEMBER Stomata of Eine leaf 436 Stone, G. E. 258 Stoneman, Hatke eee es EK ley ‘Schimper s ehr der Botanik”’ 178 id 248 apt! 430 Symphipappus 182 - Taxonomy of monocotyledons 507 Le acne botany for secondary schools Technique 37, 65, 66, 245, 306 a, two forms of 429 Teleutospores of ‘Colebeeatans 441 Tendrils, mechanism of curvature 243, 427, 505 Teratology and heredity 345 Tetraplodon, mnioides 244; symbiosis 75 Thalictrum, dioicu ungi 510 Tobacco, psc cakai of 424; ex- change Sq umey, LW 263 * Nias of 429 his action of salts 81, 125 Tracy, S. ee ,» personal 271; ; work of 75, 241, Trécul, Ausvite, death of 432 é Trelease, ls 193; personal 75; ° Jug- we of ree United States ’’ 59 Treub RTE personal 190 Transpirat ion ey excessive 446 Trianea, hairs o aoeress of Griffithsia 36 ; of Ptilota Trichomanes Signe 228, 410, 412; ns bathe ores ot Griffithsia 35 Tchostonmn um indi Reus phusties buds of gosta um 493; rum 403; ae atum 233; ae 235 a ‘Henry, “death of 431 Trophy, definition 68 Tropido eee t 345 True, R. H Turgor 24 49, one ai growth 243 urnips, disease of 5 Type specimen, ores isa? 24! _ 1896 | INDEX TO U Ulota LS ae dolosa 51 Und M.:-255,. 407: work of te 232, 235, 429. caine S lagines. at 413 Valeriana Columbiana 489 anode Ee ied fe on 3 teeny Ig! —psbad ais: Dedeeiiaia 167; denta- wad 2 bess 166; Opulus 69; Pek Vicia Tbe. noace 43 Vilmorin, e, personal 76; “Le I Vries, Hugo de, personal 512; work of 345 W Wa a H., work of 426 War Plant Geography” 173 tensa, plants of 488 Water, ascent of 183; excretion by leaves VOLUME XXII as 503; loss of oe: leaf fall ee movements of 503; tion to hardi- ness 424; relation to Seetation 424 —— 5 kecdelal g of Riley Co., Kan- Web “Pine Trig industry ” 180 Weise, F (Ope Ost of onal s pendium of eles botany ” 176 rk os. A. — 75 Willis, J. foe personal 190 Willkomm 'g " Pflanzenverbreitung iber- : » 63 Wright, J. S., nal 430 Wyethia casino 491 Xx eeathe aaa pLaemmtty of 66 Xanthox anum 155, 162 Xeropla ee re posandies 344 Yeatesia 429 Zea Mais 126; deren a 227 Zimmermann, A. personal 350 FOR BRUISES, CATARRE, SPRAINS, HOARSENESS, BURNS, SOBE THROAT, SORE FEET, sienisicx , TOOTHACHE, CHAFING, DIARRHEA, SORE EYES, Bie, Bio, lown in the state, and our land scape. trade mark on surrounding buff wrapper Take no other preparation. Caution.-~POND’S EX TRACT has been imitated. The genuine has the words “POND’S EATRACT” Leitz’s New Microscope II C. Two Objectives, 3 and 7 (34" and 1%") Two Eye Pieces and Double Nose Piece— $50.00 Complete line of Dissecting Microscopes Send for new catalogue, 1896. Duty Free Prices to Colleges and Schools. W. Krafft, Sole Agent for U.S. 4ur W. 59th St., NEW YORK. 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Beverly a Galloway - He THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPECIES-MAKING. LH. Batty: _ 2 = LABORATORY APPARATUS IN VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY (with Plates XXIV and XXV). /. C. Arthur POPULAR AMERICAN PLANT NAMES. We Fannie = Bers BRIEFER ARTICLES. New AND NOTEWORTHY WASHINGTON PLANTS. 6 ve Pr ANOTHER “ CoMPAss ” PLANT. C. Vv. Piper Ane LES: EDITORIALS - Se = & Sen — BOTANY FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS, : THE AMERICAN TROPICAL LABORATORY. OPEN LETTERS : oe is cK TROPICAL ess oY 7 ee ae E> tte THe Burtenzorc Garvens. B. 7. Galloway - - - ON THE USE OF THE TERM “ FROND ” AS APPLIED TO — _ George a “ Davenpori 3 : | — s ‘Duprication OF Conrrsvrions. Dp. rn MacDowgal ee ae ‘CURRENT LITERATURE. | : a BOOK REVIEWS = : 5 = 600 THE SURVIVAL OF THE Ustine, ee MINOR NOTICES Gee as 2 of ee NOTES FOR STUDENTS : as ogee ae | VOL een WO CRAKE rid ||