TRANSACTIONS 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 


VOL: ALY 


EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF 


GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE 


BY 


JAMES HECTOR, C.M.G., M.D., ERS 


Issueb,. Max 1879 


WELLINGTON 
Na BLAIR, PRINTERS, LAMBTON Quay, 
TRUBNER 4 CO., 60, PATERNOS STE R ROW LONDON Y 


TRANSACTIONS 


AND 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE E 
K, yal Society of New Zealand, Welling 


we 


Ko 2d 
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 


P 


1518 
VOL. Al. 


EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD oF 
GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE 


E UNT * 
JAMES HECTOR, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. J 3 
^ 
uu 
te 
YA 
IssumD, Max 1879 - N 


- WELLINGTON: 
AT 


PREFACH, 
Tuer Editor acknowledges with thanks the assistance he has received from the following 
gentlemen in revising the proofs of their payon :—viz., Messrs. Carruthers, J. T. Thom- 
son, Buller, T. Kirk, Buchanan, and T. W. Kirk. : 

For the Meteorological Statisties, and the illustrations, the thanks of the Board are 
due to Messrs. Gore and Buchanan respectively, ard to Messrs. McColl and Earle of the 
lithographic department, who, by permission of the Hon. Colonial Secretary, completed 
the preparation of the plates. 


ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA. 

Page 

32, line 12, for Island read Land. 

32, line 7 from bottom, for Peter 1st read Peter's. 

32, lines 3 and 4 from bottom, for Ballemy read Balleny. 

33, lines 13 and 15, for Kemp read Kewp. 

37, line 5 from bottom, for was read is. — 

38, line 1, for They read Ships. 

39, line 18, for streets read sewers. 

51, line 14, for consume read conserve. 
134, line 20, after from insert the sum of. 
136, line 24, for the read this. 


136, lines 5 and 6 from bottom, after + insert a comma, and at end of each line add the 


minus S1 


137, line 2 from bottom, omit To compute tlie eye and object corrections. 
138, before line 1, insert To compute the eye and object corrections. 


139, line 11 from bottom, for verticle read vertical. 

229, line 13, for bases read hairs. 

229, line 16, for leaves read hairs. 

269, bottom line, for duodesma read duodenum. 

270, line 19, for species read spines. 

354, line 13, for Cueubus read Cuculus. 

354, line 12 from bottom, for marginal read margined. 

366, In title of Art. XLIX., for September read November. 
397, In title of Art. LVI., for 30th October read 9th November. 
469, line 14 from bottom, for intro read nitro. 

474, line 8 from bottom, for suitable read notable. 

536, line 10 from bottom, for mataurienis read matauriensis. 


ART. 


CONTENTES 


TRANSACTIONS Se. 


N 


I.—MiISCELLANEOUS. 


PAGES. 
I. On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. nd John 
Carruthers, M. Inst. C.E. i is 31 
II. On Antarctic Exploration. By C. W. Purnell E is ..  81—38 
III. On the Pune of Towns. By J. Turnbull Thomson, C.E., 
F.R ., F.R.S.8.A., Surveyor-General of New Zealand ..  88—70 
IV. The en cba By R. C. Barstow 71—76 
V. Contributions towards a better Knowledge of tho Maori iie. By 
. Colenso, F.L.S. 011—106 
VI. On the Ignorance of the Ass Now zuhadis of the Use of 
Projeetile Weapons. By W. Col 106—118 
VII. On Temporary and Variable Stars. ees AW. Bickerton, F.C. s. 
Associate of the Royal School of Mines, Londo . 118—124 
VIII. Partial Impact A possible Explanation of the Hes n fe Solar 
Sys Comets, and other Phenomena of the Universe. jd 
: . 125—132 


Pa fA W. Bickerton 

IX. On ~~ Wee era of Distances by means of Reciprocal Vertical 
By C. W. Adams . 182—140 

X. A Deseriptioo of maa Apparatus k measuring the pa of 

Pos and Distances of Double Stars, and the Method of 

sir it. “By James Bo 
XL im gi ae | ibe ies ud Protection of River Banks 

y Dou 


. 141—144 


ins's Floating Log Dams. By H. P. Macklin . 144—146 

XII. On Mire mme, e M: D, ME A.LC.E. . 146—149 
— How aged Zealand may continue to oe, Wheat and te £ Cereals. 

mes C. Crawford .. . 149—153 


XIV. On the um Paintings in the Weka Pass. Ex 
Cameron. Communicated by Prof. J. von Haast, PhD. "X R. S. 154—157 


XV. Barat or Barata Fossil Words. as J. Turnbull D F. RG. ae 
F.R.8S.8.A., eto. .. . 157—185 
II.—Zoo 
XVI. On some Coccide in New Zealand. goes Ww. M. Maskell .. 
XVI. On a c— n Insect — on Coccide. Br W. M. 
Maskell 


XVIII. New Zealand Crustacea, with Deseriptions x3 new Species, By 
George .. 230—248 


e M. Thoms 
XIX. Description of new Crastaccan iue ‘the Auckland Islands. pF . : 
George M. Thomso: ++ 249—2: 


XXL On the Now Zealand Duomo, By George M. Thomson - 
zan. on 15 | crie ag raat ema 


vi Contents. 


2 

ART. PAGES, 

XXIII. Notes on: -the Anatomy of SANE erimus von Haast. " 
Llewellyn Powell . 269—270 
XXIV. On the Brown Trout inicodosdd into theo. By W. Anh, C. E. 271—990 
XXV. On some new Fishes. By F. E. Clarke 291—295 
XXVI. On a new Fish found at Hokitika. By F. E. Clarke Ts T . 295—297 
XXVII. On a new Fish. By W. D. Campbell, C.E., F.G.S. : . 297—298 

XXVII. coge ss the Genus Callor BUR RS with a Description - an MS 
bed New Zealand Spe By W. Colenso, F.L.S. . 298—300 

XXIX. ub on the MSN. Co a ns of our zee Moths, Dasypodia 
selenophor W. Colen . 800—804 

XXX. Further Notes on riam in a ar ter pios Mr. T. c. 

Stur the Ho onorary Secretary, Hawke be Philosophical 
Institu 305 

XXXI. pee on — Now Ze aland Echinodermata, with Deseriptions « = 
new Species. By Professor F. W. H . 305—308 
XXXII. The Sea ees of New AA -x OUS Hutton .. 808—314 

XXXIII. Catalogue = the hitherto-described Worms of New Zealand. Br 
r Hutton š . 814—327 

XXXIV. List on e New DEAE Ci ipedia in the Otago Muwe. By 
Professor Hutto . 828—330 


XXXV. On a masai ibaa » parasitio on Patella argentea. By Proltesur 
Hutto 330 


XXXVI. ae of some new eg By Pradas Hutton a .. 881—332 
XXXVII. On Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Gmelin. By Professor Hutton .. 332—337 
XXXVIII. No x^ on a Collection from the Auckland Islands and — 


Island. By Professor Hutton 337—343 

XXXIX. Note Berara iss Specimens of the Black Rat (ats ee L), 
Ta or White. Communicated by Profess . 843—344 

XL. On a new Species of Millepora. By the Rev. J. E. a ia 
Communicated by Prof. Hutton . 845—847 

XLI. Notes on the Life History of Charagia vir ae By the Bd C. H. 
Gosset. Communicated by Prof. Hut . 847—348 


XLII. d Bite on the cusa zi the eae pre By Walter k 
t, C.M.G., Sc.D., F.L.8. 349—351 


XLIII. On as ante Value of chis banksii. D Walter E: Buller .. 951—352 


XLIV. Remarks on the M tailed cie ee sae By 
Walter L. Bull .. 353—355 


XLV. Remarks ona cipes of Lao inhabiting our Seas. By Walter L. 
Buller . 955—359 


XLVI. Note on em Howard Saunders pores of the Larine, or Gulls. By 
Walter L. B . 359—360 


XLVII. Ona tid er mies of the Australian Tree Bvailow (Hylocheti 
don nigricans) in New Zealand. By Walter L. Buller 360 


XLVIII. — one to List of Specie es, and eid of Rare Occurrences, since 
opum of ‘ The Birds of New Zealand.’ 5r a L. 
. 361—366 


XLIX. Further ‘abe to the Ornithology of Nov Zealand, By 
Walter L. Buller .. 966—376 


L. Memorandum of the Keti. By dne ba Dr. Mose. M. L. C. +» 976—377 
LI. Descriptions of three new Species of Opisthobranchiate Mollusca. By 
; T F. Chee ; £.L.8 oe ee ee ee . 


. 878—380 
LII. Our Fish Supply. By P. Thomson  .. oe "s .. 880—386 
. LIII. The District of Okarita, Westland. By A. Hamilton 1 


LIV. me on the Piem S of the ers (Latrodectus hatipo 
By C. H, Robso: . 891—392 


Contents. vi 


ART, PAGES, 

LV. On uem z = Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand. By T. 
W. Eir stant in the Colonial Museum . 392—397 

LVI. On some is up Aphrodite, with Descriptions a supposed 
new Species. By T. W. Kirk . 397—400 
LVII. Notes on some New Zealand Aa By T. W. Kirk .. 401—402 

ITI.—Bortany. 

LVIII. piede. Observations upon certain Grasses and p Plants. Br 
S. M. Curl, M.D. . 408—411 

LIX, On PHA: a new ML M Produet that deserves fps Tavestiga- 
By 8. M. . 411—415 

LX. dir. on | Clelstogamio pedes oi the don Viola. By George. M. 
Thom . 415—417 

LXI. On ie Means zt Fertilization | Mons some Sw Zealand Orchids. 
y G.M . 418—426 
LXII. dde is 8 new rede of cores By D. Petrie, M. A.  .. 426—427 
LXIII. Description of a new Species of Celmisia. By J. Buchanan .. 427—428 


LXIV. Notice of a new Species of Pomaderris (P. tainui). By Dr. Hector.. 428—429 


LXV. A a of d tu Zealand dein believed to be new to 
Science. By W.C . 429—431 


LXVI. On the pees of mo Australi otn Pordi in | New i 
land. By T. F. Che FLS: . 432—433 


LXVII. Notice of the E p hne ser wild, in Ner Dai 
By T. F. Cheeseman . 483—4834 


LXVIII. bee à e Ereren of the T Eyltinga in r Zealand. 
T.F 


434—435 

LXIX. List i Plants neue in the District of Okarita, Westland, By A 
Hamilto . 485—438 

LXX. Notes on Mr. iine 8 Collection of Okarita Plants. = TP. Kirk, 
F.L.S. . 489—444 

LXXI. Notes zi tho tees ot Waiheke , Rangitoto, i cir Islands in 
uraki Gulf. By T. Kir . 444—454 
LXXII. On x A of Fungus from >x Zealand. By T. Kirk s.. 454—450 
. Description of a new Species of Lycopodium. By T. Kirk .. 456—457 


LXXIII 
LXXIV. Description of a new Species of Hymenophyllum. By T. Kirk .. 457—458 
LXXV, zoa i Sy ra on the aca of certain neglected Hou 
and Timbers. By T. Kir PS . 46 


i. 8—463 
LXXVI. Pene of New Plants. By ^ Kirk e . 463—466 
LXXVII. Ser = i Discovery of Calceolaria ier ag Hook. f., “al keer 
in the Wellington District. By H arry Borrer Ke 
Sambu ated by Mr. T. Kirk, FLS. .. . 466—467 
IV.—ÜOnEMISTRY. 
LXXVII. et Note on the Presence of one or more Hydrocarbons of 
the Benzol Series in the erican unam, also in our 
Petrol tak . By William sd — to the ÁO 
Survey Department . . 469—470 
LXXIX. On 5 ia operty possessed by Essen tial Oils of diog ih doi 
tate produced by mixing a Solution of Métourododids with 
Sna of ua S T William Skey . 470—471 
LXXX. Preliminary Note on the Production of one or more Alkaloids from 
Fixed Oils by the Aniline Process. By William Skey , 471—473 
LXXXI. On the Cause of the Movements of Camphor = peoa upon the 
Surface of W: By William Skey s 473—485 


LXXXI. On Osomose, as the Canso ofthe persistent Suspension of Cay in 
Water. By William Skey : . 485—490 
TXXXIIL On the Nature and Cause of Tonlinor's Cohesion F 
William Skey 


vili Contents. 


V.—GroLocy. 
ART. PAGES. 
LXXXIV. On = Poen i Seas of Banks DEUM being an Address 1 
y Pro Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the 
Philocontieal “Tustieats of Canterb n . 495—512 
LXXXV. Notes on a Salt Spring near Hokianga. By J. A Bend em .. 912—514 


LXXXVI. Notes of a Traditional ees in the Coast-line at vn Heads. 
By 8. Percy Smith . 514—516 


PROCEE LED INGS, 
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 
Remarks by the President, T. Kirk, F.L.S. 3 : & 520 
On the Production of Platino-iodides of the Alkaloids. By w. Skey 523 


On some of the Causes which operate in Shingle-bearing Hivers in the Deter. 
mination of their Courses and in the Formation of Plains. = J. 


Maxwell, A.I.C.E. (abstract) . 524—525 
Some Notes on the D’Urville Island ipu Mine. By 8. H. Cos, F.C. " 
F.G.S., Assistant Geologist (abstract) . 525—527 
On the rs of Hydro-carbons in Fats and Oils. By W.s key . 527 
Some Remarks on Dr. Curl’s “Notes on Grasses and Fodder Plants, suitable 
for snc hs to New Zealand.” By Henry Blundell (abstract) . 528—529 
An Account of — on Miramar Peninsula. By J. C. Crawford, F.G. s. 
(abstract) 530 
On a Gas-lamp for KA GEN, By x Kebbel 532 
Note on a curious eee of Tusks in the common Wild Pig ( Sus sorofa , 
By A. Hamilto 535 
n the Fossil Flora of M Nin. Br Dr. Hector, PE of the Geological 
Survey (abstrac® . 536—537 
On the Fossil Brachiopoda of sae Sislend: By Dr. Mio (biu) . 987—539 
Abstract Report of Combed s » 539 
Election of Officers for 1879 ja 539 
Anniversary Address of the President, T. Kirk, B. L. 8., — on the Saladin. 
ship between ns Floras of New Zealand and Australia ; . 539—546 
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. ` 
On the Histeride of New Zealand. By Captain T. Broun .. 7 E 547 
The New Zealand Anthribide. By Captain T. Broun $ ve xs 547 
The British Arctic Expedition of 1875-76. By F. G. Ewingivü s. s 547 
Education as a Science: Part I. By C. A. Robertson s b. s 547 
The Cossonide of New Zealand. By Captain T. Broun we. ie s 547 
Education as a Science: Part II. By C. A. Robertson nye ts s 547 
Æolus Vinctus. By J. Adams, B.A. 6 v ne .. 547—548 
The New Zealand Anobiide. By Captain T. Dnie bed ae s 548 
The Establishment of a School of Design BA IA $. 549 
The Dascillide of New Zealand. By Captain T. Prom spa v (t 549 
High Schools for Girls. By J. Adams, B.A, "x oe 549 
On the Telephoridg of New Zealand. By Captain T. Broun ne es 549 
Notes on the Rising Generation. By D. C. Wilson Sensu hs ga .. 549—550 
Annual Report e . PER .. 550—552 
Eleetion of Officers for 1879 a 552 
PHILO OSOPHICAL IN STITUTE. OF CAN TERBURY. 
Remarks on Mr. Mackenzie Cameron's Tog epi » Kahui Tes 
By J. W. Stack 553 
Election of Officers for 1879 $e ee is "i wa oi 554 


Abstract of Annual Report '  .. Ke s "e (d +» 554—555 


| 
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Contents. JE 


PAGES 
OTAGO INSTITUTE. 
The Science of the Weather. By D. Petrie, M.A ‘ 556 
The Fauna of New Zealand. By Prof. Hutton vd .. 556 
A Plea for the Study of Politics. By the Hon. R. Stout, M. H. Ike. - 557 
Description of two new Crabs. By Prof. Hutton .. 557 
Notes on the New Zealand Shells in the “ Voyage au Pôle Sud. BY Prof. Hatton 557 
d HEN, and the MOI Education of Women. Be: the Rev. A. B 25 
; On Magnetic Dip. By E H: Bas (abstract) iF e .. 008—559 
The Mechanism of Voice and Speech. By Prof. Scott 3 i ket 560 
On the Scientific Form of Harbours. By W. G. Jenkins .. s, x 560 
Eleetion of Officers for 1879 ae es za 561 
Address by the President, W. N. Blair, C. E. xa .. 561—566 


HAWKE BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. 


Annual Report of the Council .. YA i a ws Ea 560 
A Memorandum of my rin Journey to A t Ruahine Mountain Men. and of 
| 
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the Flora of that Regi tI. By W. Colenso, F.L.S 2 567 
Election of Officers for ee 9 v ds i zi - 567 
Abstract of Annual Report Le Ses e 5 567 
On the Moa (Dinornis, sp.) By W. cana, F.L. S. . 568 
On Fi Lus a pits of Trees suited for Timber and Fiordi “By F. w. 

. 568—570 


—"Ü of a a in which en succ coded in crossing the R Ruahine 
Mountain Range, with Notes on the local AE and Tapoutnphy of thet 
cig Part II. By W. Colenso, F.L.S. 570 


On certain New Zealand and Australian — useful for ‘Tanning Purposes 


. 570—571 
New Specimens in Natural History, AA By w. Oin 5T 
WESTLAND INSTITUTE. 
Notice of a Tadpole found in a drain in Hokitika. By F. E. Clarke as 573 
On the Discovery of Moa Bones near Marsden. By W. D. Campbell MA 574 
Election of Officers for 1879 ya ve e «s ve 574 
| Abstract of Annual Report zA WA T G SA we 574 
| NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. 
| Tenth Annual Report of the Board of Governors ve "e 511—518 
| Museum = x € vs EM .. 518—581 
Meteorology .. z ya - YA ee os EP “582 
Time-ball Observatory . ne is x vá m ER 582 
! Laboratory Ke a a E 582 
| Aovurde ol tha New Sa kandi Insitute, 17-8... i P so Mn 
| APPENDIX. 
| Meteorological Statistics of New Zealand for 1878 x za ae xxi—xxiii | 
| Earthquakes reported in New Zealand during 1878 — .. x E xxiii 


Comparative Abstract for 1878, and previous years wA wa 
Notes on the Weather during 1878 x s ce 


x Contents. 


PAGES 
Record of Papers on New Zealand Natural History, 1878-9 ae s xxvii 
Honorary Members of the New Zealand upite T Pe on xxviii 
Ordinary Members oe E: xxviii—xxxix 
List of Publie Instituti dIndividuals to whom this ia Volnine i is oaiit xl—xlii 
Addenda et Corrigenda dm = 2 «d m gs iii 
Contents os T s s a za YAI 
List of Plates E BA AC. AC Es = 2 xX 
ard of Governors of the New Zealand Institute ve is xi 
commie of Rules and Statutes of the New Zealand Institute is xi—xiii 
List of Incorporated Societies =e sis xiv 
Officers of Incorporated Societies, Ge EPEE ML the Juill ve y. xiv—xvii 
LIST OF PLATES. 
TO FACE 
PLATE PAGE. 
I. Porr.—Apparatus for measuring Position of Double Stars Re s. 144 
Il. Macxiin.—River Protective Works .. n ya 4 "uen cct 
III. CAMPBELL.—4AÀ Method of Beach Protection  .. 1. JAS 
IV. J. T. Tuomsox.—Map showing Distribution of arcas used in iwa WAA 
V. MaskELL.—Coccide YA wa . MEC 
VI. » m a T Ws es cr ga AM 
VII. m" crm um zs ya is za ve SES 
VEL sy ms - .. 224 
CONI ERE Peste c on Coccide re x i JAN 
x. G M. Tuousoxs.—Crustacea 2 E M WA v... 248 
Entomostraca ek ue as is 2.7 AOA 
xir. Pets. —Desis robsoni ' HE e a Se <6 909 
XII. ArtHur.—Salmo fario, S. trutta a is c c nO 
XIV. CLARKE.— Lepidopus elongatus, Pe a pon 296 
C ANO Trypterigium robustum, T. dorsalis, T. decipitur, dA 
clinus taumaka ee wa ss Ae 92 
XVI. CHEESEMAN (E Opüthobranchiate Mali ve za ya (7880 
XVII. Corzxso.—Callorhynchus decem 7 . " 300 
XVIII. Bucnaxax.— Celmisia corda PET 


XIX. T. Kimx.—Hymenophyllum PE ada ii WA ... 456 


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NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. 


ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND, 
INTITULED “THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867.” 


LI 


BOARD or GOVERNORS. 
(Ex OFFICIO.) 
His Excellency the Governor. | | The Hon. the Colonial Secretary. 
(NOMINATED.) 
` The Hon. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S., The Hon. G. M. Waterhouse, 
W. T. L. Travers, F.L.8., James Hector, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., The Ven. 
Archdeacon Stock, B.A., Thomas Mason. 


(ELECTED.) 
1878.—James Coutts Crawford, F.G.S., Thomas Kirk, F.L.S., The 
Bishop of Nelson. 
1879.— Thomas Kirk, F.L.S., The Hon. Robert Stout, M.H.R., W. T 
Buller, C.M.G., Se.D., F.L.S. 
MANAGER. 
James Hector. 
Honorary TREASURER, 
“The Ven. Archdeacon Stock. 
SEcRETARY. 
R. B. Gore. 


———— 


ABSTRACTS OF RULES AND STATUTES. 
GAZETTED IN THE ' NEW ZEALAND GAZETTE,” 9 Marca, 1868. 
Section I. 


Incorporation of Societies. ——— 

1. No Society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the provisions of ** The 
New Zealand Institute Act 1867,” unless such Society shall consist of not less than 
twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than fifty pounds 
sterling annually, for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge 
for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the 
Board of Governors of the Institute by the Chairman for the time being of the Society. 

2. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the 
Institute in case the number of the members of the said Society shall at any time become 
less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall 
at any time be less than £50. 

3. The bye-laws of every Society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the 
expenditure of not less than one-third of its annual revenue in or towards the formation 
or support of some local publie Museum or Library; or otherwise shall provide for the - 
contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and 

i npud Ce GS KAWA = ee et icc ds de 


Li 


xii New Zealand Institute. 


4. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend 
the proportion of revenue affixed in manner provided by Rule 3 aforesaid, shall from 
thenceforth cease to be incorporated with the Institute. 

5. All papers read before any Society for the time being incorporated with the 
Institute, shall be deemed to be communications to the Institute, and may then be 
published as proceedings or transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regula- 
tions of the Board of the Institute regarding publications :— 

Regulations regarding Publication 

(a.) The publieations ot the Institute shall consist a. & current abstraet of the 
proceedings of the Societies for the time icis incorporated with the Institute, 
to be intituled, ** Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute," and of transactions 
comprising papers read before the Incorporated Societies (subject, however, to 
selection as hereinafter mentioned), to be intituled, “ Transactions of the New 
Zealand Institute." 

(b.) The Institute shall have power to reject any papers read before any of the 
Ineorporated Societies. 

(c.) Papers so rejected will be returned to the Society before which they were read. 

(d.) A proportional contribution may be required from each eco towards the cost 

of publishing the Proceedings and Transactions of the Instit 

(e. Each Daane Society will be entitled to receive a aE number of 

copies of the Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute, to be from time to 
time fixed by the Board of Governors. 

(f.) Extra copies will be issued to any of the members of Incorporated Societies at 

the cost price of publication. 

6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from Incorporated Societies 
and placed in the charge of the Institute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used 
and applied at the discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like 
manner with any other of the property of the Institute. 

ubject to “ The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867,” and to the foregoing rules, all 
Societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own 
form of constitution and the bye-laws for their own management, and shall conduct their 
own affairs. 

8. Upon application signed by the Chairman and countersigned by the Secretary of 
any Society, accompanied by the certificate required under Rule No. 1, a certificate of 
incorporation will be granted under the Seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as 
long as the foregoing rules of the Institute are complied with by the Society. 

Secrion Il. 
For the Management of the Property of the Institute. 

9. All donations by Societies, Public Departments, or private individuals, to the 
Museum of the Institute, shall be ‘acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and shall 
be duly entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be 
dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct 

10. Deposits of articles for the Museum may s aecepted by the Institute, subject to 
a fortnight’s notice of removal to be given either by the owner of the articles or by the 
Manager of the Institute, and such deposits shall be duly entered in a separate catalogue. 

11. Books relating to Natural Science may be deposited in the Library of the Insti- 
tute, subject to the following conditions :— 

fa.) Such books are not to be withdrawn by the owner under six months’ notice, if 

such notice shall be required by the Board of Governors. 


SESE PEP BAA 


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WA AAA aa WW aa eee 


Abstracts of Rules and Statutes. xiil 


(b.) Any funds specially expended on binding and preserving such deposited books, 
at the request of the depositor, shall be charged against the books, and must be 
refunded to the Institute before their withdrawal, always subject to special 
arrangements made with the Board of Governors at the time of deposit. 

(c.) No books deposited in the Library of the Institute shall be removed for temporary 
use except on the written authority or receipt of the owner, and then only for a 
period not exceeding seven days at any one time. 

12. All books in the Library of the Institute shall be duly entered in a catalogue 

which shall be accessible to the public. 

13. The public shall be admitted to the use of ma Museum and Library, subject to 
bye-laws to be framed by the Board. 

Secrion IJI, 
14, The Laboratory shall, for the time being, be and remain under the exclusive 
management of the Manager of the Institute. 
Section IV. 
Or DATE 23RD SEPTEMBER, 1870. 
Honorary Members. 

Whereas the rules of the Societies incorporated under the New Zealand Institute Act 
provide for the election of Honorary Members of such Societies; but inasmuch as such 
Honorary Members would not thereby become members of the New Zealand Institute, 
and whereas it is expedient to make provision for the election of Honorary Members of 
the New Zealand Institute, it is hereby declared— 

1st. Each Incorporated Society may, in the month of November next, nominate for 

election as Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute three persons, and 
in the month of November in each succeeding year one person, not residing in 
the colon 
. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with 
the grounds on which their election as Honorary Members is recommended, 
shall be forthwith forwarded to the Manager of the New Zealand Institute, and 
shall by him be submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting. 
3rd. From the persons so nominated, the Governors may select in the first year not 
more than nine, and in each succeeding year not more than three, who shall 
from thenceforth be Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, provided 
that the total number of Honorary Members shall not exceed thirty. 


5 
£g 


xiv Incorporated Societies. 


LIST OF INCORPORATED SOCIETIES. 


NAME OF SOCIETY. DATE OF INCORPORATION, 
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SocrETY : : - 10th June, 1868 
AUCKLAND Institute - - - - 10th June, 1868. 
PHILOSOPHICAL Institute or CANTERBURY - - - 22nd October, 1868. 
Oraco [INSTITUTE - d - - 18th October, 1869. 
NELSON ÁSSOCIATION FOR THE Proxorios « OF EE 
AND InpustRY : 23rd Sept., 1870. 
WESTLAND INSTITUTE - - . - 21st December, 1874. 
Hawke Bay PHILOSOPHICAL Institute - a - 81st March,- 1876. 


WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1878 :—President— Thomas Kirk, F.L.S.; Vice- 
presidents—J. Carruthers, M. Inst. C.E., A. K. Newman, M.B., M.R.C.P. ; 
Council—James Hector, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., J. C. Crawford, F.G.S., 
W. T. L Travers, F.L.S., Dr. Buller, C.M.G., F.L.8., C. Rous Marten, 
F.R.G.S., F.M.8., F. W. A. Skae, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Martin Chapman ; 
Auditor—Arthur Baker; Secretary and Treasurer—R. B. Gore. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879 :— President —A. K. Newman, M.B., M.R.C.P.; 
Vice-presidents—Dr. Hector, Martin Chapman; Council—W. L. Buller, 
C.M.G., Sc.D., etc., C. R. Marten, EF. W. Frankland, 8. H. Cox, F.C.S., 
F.G.S., Hon. G. Randall Johnson, W. T. L. Travers, F.G.S., T. Kirk, 
F.L.8.; Auditor—Arthur Baker; Secretary and Treasuref —R. B. Gore. 


Extracts from the Rules of the Wellington Philosophical Society. 
6. Every member shall eontribute annually to the funds of the Society the sum of 
one guinea. 
6. The annual contribution shall be due on the first day of January in each year. 
7. The sum of ten pounds may be paid at any time as a composition for life of the 
ordinary annual payment. 


- 14. The time and place of the General Meetings of members of the Society shall be 
. fixed by the Council and duly announced by the Secretary. 


ican AI YA SS 


ii 


x Incorporated. Societies. KV 


AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1878 :—President—T. Heale; Council—R. C. 
Barstow, Rev. J. Bates, J. L. Campbell, M.D., J. C. Firth, His Honour 
Mr. Justice Gillies, The Hon. Col. Haultain, G. M. Mitford, J. A. Pond, 
The Rev. A. G. Purchas, M.R.C.S.E., J. Stewart, M. Inst. CBE 
Whitaker ; Auditor—T. Macffarlane ; Secretary and Treasurer—T. F. 
Cheeseman, F.L.S. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879 :—President—Rev. A. G. Purchas, M.R.C.S.E.; 
Council—R. C. Barstow, Rev. J. Bates, J. L. Campbell, M.D., J. C. Firth, 
His Honour Mr. Justice Gillies, T. Heale, Hon. Col. Haultain, G. M. 
Mitford, J. Stewart, M. Inst. C.E., T. F, S. Tinne, F. Whitaker; Auditor— 
T. Macffarlane ; Secretary and Treasurer—T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. 


Extracts from the Rules of the Auckland Institute. 

l. Any person desiring to become a member of the Institute, shall be proposed 

in writing by two members, and shall be ballotted for at the next meeting of the Council. 
w members on election to pay one guinea entrance fee, in addition to the 

wi subscription of one guinea, the annual ka being payable in advance on 
the first day of April for the then current yea 

5. Members may at any time become a members by one payment of ten pardje 
ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 

10. Annual General Meeting of the Society on the Third Monday of Februaty 4 in each 
year. Ordinary Business Meetings are called by the Council from time to 


PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1878 :—President—Professor von Haast, F.R.S. ; 
Vice-presidents—Rev. J. W. Stack, Professor Cook; Council—Professor 
Bickerton, Dr. Powell, W. M. Maskell, R. W. Fereday, Dr. Coward, G. W. 
Hall; Hon. Treasurer—John Inglis ; Hon. Secretary—J. S. Guthrie. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879 :— President — Professor Bickerton; Vice- 
presidents—J. Inglis, R. W. Fereday ; Council—Rev. J. W. Stack, Professor 
Cook, Dr. Powell, Professor von Haast, F.R.S., Dr. Coward, G. W. Hall; 
Hon. Treasurer—W. M. Maskell; Hon. Secretary—J. S. Guthrie. 


Extracts from the Rules of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 

21. The Ordinary Meetings of the Institute shall be held on the first Thursday of _ 

each month during the months from March to November inclusive. | 

35. Members of the Institute shall pay one guinea annually as a subscription to the 

funds of the Institute. The subscription shall be due on the ‘first of November in every 

year. Any member whose subscription shall be twelve months in arrear, shall cease to 
be a member of the Institute, but he may be restored by the Council if it sees fit. 


37. Members may compound for all annual subscriptions of the current and foes , i 


years by paying ten guineas. 


adi 


xvi | Incorporated Societies. 


OTAGO INSTITUTE. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1878 :—President—W. N. Blair, O.E.; Vice- 
presidents— Professor Hutton, W. Arthur, C.E. ; Council—Professor Shand, 
G. Joachim, Professor Macgregor, Professor Scott, D. Petrie, E. Elliott, J. 
C. Thomson ; Hon. Secretary—G. M. Thomson; Hon. Treasurer—H. Skey ; 
Auditor—A. D. Lubecki. 


OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1879 :— President —Prof. Hutton ; Vice-presidents— 
W. N. Blair, C.E., Prof. Scott; Council —W. Arthur, C.E., Robert Gillies, 
F.L.S., Dr. Hocken, A. Montgomery, D. Petrie, J.. C. Thomson, Prof. 
Ulrich; Hon. Secretary—Geo M. Thomson; Hon. Treasurer—H. Skey; 
Auditor—J. S. Webb 


Extracts from the Constitution and Rules of the Otago Institute. 

2. Any person desiring to join the Society may be elected by ballot, on being pro- 
posed in writing at any meeting of the Council or Society by two members, on payment 
of the annual subscription of one guinea for the year then current. 

5. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds 
and ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 

8. An Annual General Meeting of the members of the Society shall be held in 
January in each year, at which meeting not less than ten members must be present, 
otherwise the meeting shall be adjourned by the members present from time to time, 
until the requisite number of members is present. 

5.) The session of the Otago Institute shall be during the winter months, from May 
to October, both inclusive. 


NELSON ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE 
AND INDUSTRY. 


OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879 :—President—The Right Rev. the Bishop of 
Nelson; Council—A. S. Atkinson, Leonard Boor, M.R.C.S., Charles 
 Hunter-Brown, F. W. Irvine, M.D., Joseph Shepherd, Geo. Williams, 
M.D.; Hon. Treasurer and Hon. Secretary—T. Mackay, C.E. 


Extracts from the Rules of the Nelson Association for the Promotion of Science 
: nd Industry. 
2. The Association shall consist of members elected by ballot, who have been pro- 
: posed at a monthly meeting of the Society, and elected at the ensuing meeting. 
3. Each member to pay a subseription of not less than one pound per annum, 
payable half-yearly in advance. 
4. Ordinary Meetings held on the first Wednesday in each month. 


Incorporated Societies. xvii 


WESTLAND INSTITUTE. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1878:— President—His Honour Judge Weston; 
Vice-president—Robert C. Reid; Council—Rev. Father Martin, Rev. George 
Morice, Rev. G. W. Russell, Rev. W. H. Elton, John Plaisted, E. T. 
Robinson, Dr. James, D. McDonald, R. W. Wade, H. L. Robinson, W. D. 
Kerr, G. A. Paterson, Robert Walker; Hon. Treasurer—W. A. Spence; 
Hon. Secretary—John Anderson. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1879:—President—His Honour Judge Weston; 
Vice-president—R. C. Reid; Committee—Dr. James, Dr. Giles, James 
Pearson, R. W. Wade, E. B. Dixon, John Nicholson, H. L. Robinson, 
D. McDonald, W. D. Campbell, Robert Walker, A. H. King, T. 0. W. 
Croft; Hon. Treasurer—W. A. Spence; Hon. Secretary—John Anderson. 

Extracts from the Rules of the Westland Institute. 

3. The Institute shall consist:—(1) Of life-members, i.e., persons ihe have at any 
one time made a donation to the Institute of ten pounds ten shillings or upwards; or 
persons who, in reward of special services rendered to the Institute, have been unani- 
mously elected as such by the Committee or at the general half yearly meeting. . (2) Of 
aaga who pay two pounds two shillings each year. (3) Of members paying smaller 

ums—not less than ten shillin 

5. The Institute shall hold a KUTA meeting on the third Monday in the months 


of December and June. 


HAWKE BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1878 :— President —The Hon. J. D. Ormond, M.H.R.; 
Vice-president—The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu ; Council—Messrs. 
Colenso, Kinross, Locke, Miller, Smith, Spencer, Sturm; Hon. Secretary 
and Treasurer—W. Colenso ; Auditor—T. K. Newton. 

OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1879 :—President—The Right Rev. the Bishop of 
Waiapu; Vice-president—W. I. Spencer; Council—E. H. Bold, W. Colenso, 


J. G. Kinross, S. Locke, M. R. Miller, J. A. Smith, F. W. C. Sturm ; | 


Hon. Secretary and Treasurer—W. Colenso; Auditor—T. K. Newton. 


Extracts from the Rules of the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute. 


3. The annual subscription for each member shall be one guinea, payable in advance, 


on the first day of January in every y 
4. Members may at any time fas life-members by one payment of ten pounds ten 


shillings in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 

(4) The session of the Hawke Bay. Philosophical Institute shall be during the winter 
months from May to October, both inclusive; and general meetings shall be held on the 
second Monday in each of those six months, at 8 p.m. ie 


» 


wW 


TRANSACTIONS 
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, 


1878, 


I.—MISCELLANEOUS. 


Art. I.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 
By Jons Carrutuers, M.Inst.C.E. 

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th July, 1878.] 
PornrmcaAn Economy has been very unfortunate in its nomenclature, which 
has been drawn from the vocabulary of the mercantile world, every word 
of which, besides its direct notation, connotes more or less distinctly some 
economie doctrine. In spite of definitions, the secondary meanings of the 
several words have influenced the thoughts and teaching of politieal 
economists. 

The object of this paper is to examine some of the principal terms in 
general use, and their definitions as given in Mill's ** Principles of Political 
Economy," whieh is almost universally accepted as the best exponent of 
modern thought on the subject. I hope to be able.to suggest others, which 
wil not be so liable as those given by Mill to confuse the thoughts by 
suggesting a secondary meaning not included in the definition itself. Even 
should I not succeed my labour will not be thrown away, as it is always 
useful to look at scientific problems from more than one point of view. 

Wealth. 

Mill defines wealth to be “all useful or agreeable things which possess 
exchangeable value.” To this definition it may fairly be objected that 
exchangeable value is a merely accidental quality of some things useful or 
agreeable, and should not, therefore, be treated as essential. Robinson 
Crusoe’s cave and garden were just as much wealth as if he had been able - 
to exchange them for other things. Exchangeable value is, it is true, a 


4 . Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


very important quality in connection with the distribution of wealth, and 
should, therefore, be accurately defined and carefully studied, but it should 
not be treated as a specific distinction of wealth itself. Mill himself says 
(Book III., chap. i.), that “The conditions and laws of production would be 
the same as they are if the arrangements of society did not depend on 
exchange, or did not admit of it." Here **production" means the pro- 
duetion of things whieh must, by the definition, possess exchangeable 
value; but if the arrangements of society did not admit of the existence 
of exchangeable value at all, how could the production of things possessing 
it becarried on? Again, he says: “ Exchange is not the fundamental law 
of the distribution of the produce, no more than roads and carriages are the 
essential laws of motion, but merely a part of the machinery for effecting 
it.” A definition, however, of motion, which made it dependent on the 
existence of roads and carriages, would be exactly parallel to a definition 
which makes wealth dependent on exchangeable value. 

It is always undesirable to use a definition which pointedly draws the 
attention to any accidental quality of the thing defined, in such a manner 
that this quality may come to be regarded as essential. More especially is 
this the case when there already exists a tendency to regard the accidental 
quality as the only necessary and essential one. There can be no doubt of 
the existence of such a tendeney as regards the exchange value of wealth. 
How many people look upon a short harvest as a not very great misfortune, 
because they think the high prices for which it is sold make up for the 
shortness of the crop? In one of President Grant's annual messages he 
congratulates his fellow-countrymen on the rise of prices in grain and pork 
which the Franco-German war had caused, and which he thought must be 
of great advantage to the United States. He evidently looked upon the rise 
in the exchange value of these commodities as equivalent to an increase of 
their utility, and that a scarcity of the necessaries of life was no real mis- 
fortune to the labouring classes of his country as long as it was accompanied 
by high prices. "Where such opinions are held, even by men of education, 
it is surely well not to carelessly use a definition which gives a sort of 
plausibility to the error. 

I propose to define wealth to be anything which is useful to man, by 
enabling him to live more comfortably or elegantly than he could with- 
out it. 

Of the total wealth existing in a community a part is usually called 
capital. Unfortunately, this word has several different meanings in com- 
mon language, and confusion and error have arisen from its being used 
in one of these instead of in its defined meaning. It sometimes denotes not 
actual wealth, but a right to a certain share of the wealth of the community. 


CannuTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 5 


Mill frequently uses it where it can have no other meaning than this 
notwithstanding that he has defined it to be “a stock previously accumu- 
lated of the product of former labour,” —a definition which scarcely differs 
from that given of wealth; for, except land and its natural productions, 
nothing possesses exchangeable value which is not the product of former 
labour. 

Fixed and Circulating Capital, 

Capital, again, is subdivided into “fixed” and “circulating.” Mill's 
explanation of these terms, given in Book I., chap. vi., is too long for 
quotation, and is very far from being clear or exact. His summation is, 
however, that the result of a single use of circulating capital must be a 
reproduction equal to the whole amount of the circulating capital used, 
and a profit besides; and that with fixed capital, such as machinery, 
this is not necessary, as it is not wholly consumed by one use. 

If capital means wealth of any kind, this sentence is absolutely without 
meaning. How can, for instance, the result of a single use of a sack of 
coals in a locomotive engine be a reproduction equal to a sack of coals and 
a profit besides? If, however, capital has the meaning above given, of a 
right to a share of the wealth of the community, the sentence becomes 
intelligible. The use of the coals must reproduce to the owner a right to 
some other wealth which he values more highly ; and if the coals and the 
other wealth be both compared with a common standard of value, like 
money, the use of the coals must reproduce to the owner their price and a 
profit besides. Capital, with this meaning, can have nothing to do with 
the production of wealth except indirectly, and its subdivision into fixed 
and circulating does not seem to serve any good purpose in political 
economy. s 

There is, however, a natural division which cannot be disregarded. 
Some things, such as bread, wine, dwelling-houses, clothes, ete., etc., are 
useful for their own sakes ; the production of these is the end and aim of all 
labour and sacrifice, or at least of all that falls within the province of political 
economy ; they may be called direct wealth. Others are of no use for their 
own sakes; they are useful only by co-operating with human labour in the 
Production of direct wealth; they are land, steam-engines, ploughs, coal 
when used to drive an engine, warehouses, ete., etc. ; these may be called 
implements. Of course, neither direct wealth nor implements, if the pro- 
duct of human labour, are made complete at one operation ; they first pass 
through the stage of materials, such as corn, wool, iron, wood, ete. ; but 
it is not necessary to place materials in a separate class, as they may be 
classed with the final products of which they eventually form a part. 


6 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


Whenever labour is devoted to the production of an implement, there is 
a sacrifice of present for future advantage. The sacrifice may be slight and 
the advantage great and almost immediate, but there is always some 
sacrifice. For instance, olive oil is direct wealth, useful for its own sake; 
if, instead of consuming it as food, the owner uses it as an implement to 
lubricate a steam-engine, he gets, as a reward for his slight sacrifice of 
present good, a vast return in labour saved. This is an extreme case at 
one end of the scale; at the other end, are improvements in land, where a 
sacrifice of the product of a year’s labour of, say, thirty men, may be given 
in exchange for a future increase of the yearly harvest, equal to the product 
of one man’s labour. A wealthy landowner in England would probably - 
undertake such a work, as he would make 33 per cent. interest on his out- 
lay; but it would not follow as a matter beyond dispute, that the employment 
of the labour in this manner was to the advantage of the community at 
large, or that, if both the sacrifice and the reward were evenly distributed, 
it would be worth while to incur the one for the sake of the other. 

Bearing in mind the division of wealth I have proposed, we may readily 
test the accuracy of the several statements made by Mill and other writers as 
to the effect of employing labour in the production of fixed and circulating 
capital (or wealth) respectively. It is stated that the increase of fixed, 
when it takes place at the expense of circulating capital, must be tempo- 
rarily prejudicial to the interests of the labourers. This is not quite 
accurate: labourers’ cottages would, under his definition, be fixed capital ; 
but it would not be prejudicial to the interests of the labourers themselves 
to employ labour in building them ; provided, of course, such employment 
were judicious—that is, that the cottages were required, and the still more 
urgent requirements of the labourers, food and clothing for instance, were 
already provided. The same may be said of workmen's club-houses, tea- 
gardens, theatres, taverns, and other places of use or amusement which 
workmen frequent. 

It is also stated that “there is a great difference between the effects of 
circulating and fixed capital on the gross produce of the country," the 
context showing that the former is supposed to be the more productive. 
A steam-engine, for instance, is fixed capital, the coal which is consumed 
in it is circulating ; the coal is, therefore, more productive than the steam- 
engine. Surely this is equivalent to saying that one shear of a pair of 
scissors does more work than the other. Although the steam-engine is 
fixed eapital the iron of which it is made is circulating; and it is, therefore, . 
a more productive employment of labour to manufacture unwrought iron 
than to make that same iron useful by putting it into an engine. The 


CARRUTHERS.—Ûn some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 7 


absurdity goes even one step further; the steam-engine is circulating 
capital when it is still in the hands of the maker—at least I think Mill’s 
definition would so classify it. When it is in the hands of the user and in 
“full work it is clearly fixed capital, and therefore less productive than before 
it came into use. 

These illustrations show how needless, or even mischievous, is the usual 
subdivision of wealth into fixed and circulating capital. The division I 
have indicated of direct wealth and implements is, however, natural and 
essential to an intelligent study of the laws which govern the production of 
wealth, 

The sacrifice which is always made when labour, which would otherwise 
have been applied to the production of direct wealth, is applied to the pro- 
duction of implements, is made by the labouring classes. The whole wealth 
of the community belongs to part only of the individuals composing it. 
They apply a portion of their wealth to their own use, the rest they give to 
labourers to induce them to work for them. The reasons which induce 
them to employ part of their wealth in this manner, are not influenced by 
a resolve on the part of one of their number to produce new implements. 
When, therefore, new implements are made, capitalists do not take men 
away from the production of those commodities which they intend to use 
themselves ; in other words, they do not lessen their own personal expendi- 
ture. They take men who would otherwise be engaged in producing com- 
modities for the labourers, and, of course, less of those commodities are 
produced, This less quantity becomes the total fund to be divided between 
the labourers as wages. The owners of wealth as a body, without any 
personal sacrifice, become the owners of the implement; the sacrifice is 
made by the labourers alone and at once. 

Generally, and perhaps always, except in the case of countries, which 
invest much wealth abroad, like England and Holland, the labourers suffer 
a further and still greater loss than the first cost of the new implements. 
The wealth-owners do not act as a body, but each individual acts indepen- 
dently of the others. Each man gives, of his own share of the general wealth, 
a certain portion annually to the labouring classes. When the implement 
was completed, no one would give more than before, while the man for whom 
it was made would give less; his gross share of the whole would be less than 
before by the whole cost of the implement, and he would give less by 
exactly that amount, as he would not reduce his own personal expenditure. 
There would thus be a general rise of profits, and a general fall of wages 
equal to the total cost of the implement, and this would continue for some 
years until the causes which had before fixed the relative proportions of 


8 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


wages and profits had time to bring them back to what they were before the 
disturbance. 

New and improved implements always increase the guantity of wealth 
which can be produced by the labour of the community, and the labourers 
share more or less in this advantage. Their interest is thus seldom opposed 
to the construction of new implements, although they bear the whole of the 
necessary preliminary sacrifice, and even in most cases a great deal more. 
In new countries, however, like New Zealand, the interests of the labourers 
and employers of labour are more often in conflict. If, for instance, aman can 
manufacture cloth for a little less than he can import it from England, it is 
his interest to employ his wealth in erecting buildings and machinery for 
the purpose. He gets thereby a small increase of his income. The labour- 
ing classes suffer for several years an annual loss equal to the entire cost 
of these implements, and derive only a small final benefit, as, by the 
hypothesis, the cost of manufacturing the cloth is only slightly less than 
that of importing it. 

The ery for “protection to native industry,” and consequently for 
increased expenditure on machinery and buildings, is perfectly rational 
on the part of colonial employers of labour. They gain, directly, the higher 
profits, for the sake of which they agitate for protection; and for every 
pound that is spent on implements, which would otherwise have been spent 
in producing direct wealth, they, as a body, get a pound a year out of the 
labourers, unless indeed they curtail their own expenditure, and thus pay 
for their machinery out of savings from their incomes. This they seldom 
do; machinery and buildings are generally made with money borrowed or 
taken out of some other business for the purpose. 

Unfortunately, the labourers are generally so unskilled in political 
economy that they are as eager for protection as the employers. They 
see the employment that is given by a manufacturer, and do not see the 
much greater employment which would have been given by the same wealth 
had it been turned to other uses. | 

If they knew their own interests, instead of wishing to have nothing 
imported which can be manufactured in the colony, they would be loath to 
see any manufactory started which required expensive implements, if the 
article to be made could be imported at a cost not much exceeding that of 
manufacturing it in the colony. We, in New Zealand, are in so happy a 
position that we need not undergo the privation necessary to procure 
expensive machinery. The English are ready to do that for us, and are 
content with a recompense which we, in our more favoured circumstances, 
would consider inadequate. 


CaRRUTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 9 


Productive Labour and Capital. 

The words productive and unproductive play a great role in the works 
of political economists. Nominally, they mean productive or unproductive 
of wealth—that is, of things useful or agreeable which possess exchangeable 
value—but when closely examined they will often be found to refer, not to 
wealth, but to a right to a share of the wealth produced by others; or, in 
other words, labour is sometimes said to be productively employed when it 
produces wealth, and sometimes when it only produces profits to the 
employer of labour. To distinguish between these two meanings I propose 
to use the words “ productive" and “profitable,” to mark the production of 
wealth and of profits respectively ; and, unless otherwise stated, I shall use 
“ capital” to denote, not wealth itself, but a right to a certain share of 
the wealth of the community. 

A productive labourer is said (Book I., chap. iü., sec. 4) to be one “who 
produees more than he consumes." Let us take for example a navvy, who 
excavates ten cubic yards of earth and consumes in the same time a certain 
quantity of beef and beer. Has he produced more or less than he has con- 
sumed? Is he to be classed as a productive or an unproductive labourer ? 
and if, instead of ten yards, he had only excavated one yard, would it have 
any influence on the classification? A shoemaker, again, makes a dozen 
pairs of shoes, and, while doing so, consumes a certain quantity of food and 
other things. He has produced the shoes, and must, therefore, be a pro- 
ductive labourer; but it is impossible to compare them with the things he 
has eonsumed, so as to say that his consumption has been greater or less 
than his production. There is no difficulty in finding out whether he is a 
* profitable" labourer or not. If he consumes less commodities than his 
employer can get in exchange for the shoes he makes, he is profitably, and, 
if more, then he is unprofitably employed. 

Mill’s illustration (Book I., chap. iii., sec. 4) of the results of productive 
and unproductive labour shows clearly that he really means profitable and 
unprofitable. He says:—“ When a tailor makes a coat and sells it, there 
is a transfer of the price from the customer to the tailor, and a coat besides 
which did not previously exist; but what is gained by an actor is a mere 
transfer from the spectator's funds to his, leaving no article of wealth for 
the spectator's indemnification. Thus the community collectively gains 
nothing by the actor's labour." 

Here the price of the coat is not wealth, nor anything which benefits the 
community or any member of it. The customer acquires the coat, giving 
to the tailor a piece of metal, useless of itself, but which gives him a right 
to a certain share of other people's wealth. This right he exercises, 


10 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


perhaps, in buying food for himself. The community is not benefited 
by the transaction more than in the case of the actor. In that case the 
customer acquires a seat at the theatre, giving to the actor a similar piece 
of metal, with which he, like the tailor, buys food. Here, also, the com- 
munity is not benefited; in both cases the customer alone gets the benefit; 
he acquires and applies to his own use the product of other people’s labour. 

A coat is not worn out by one use, and will last some months or years ; 
but if the customer had, instead of a coat, taken a beef-steak and a bottle of 
wine, there would have been “no article of wealth left for his indemnifica- 
tion," precisely as would be the case if he went to the theatre. 

It is stated in Book I., chap. iii., sec. 8, that ‘it is essential to the idea 
of wealth to be susceptible of accumulation; things which cannot, after 
being produced, be kept for some time before being used, are never, I think, 
regarded as wealth, since, however much of them be produced and enjoyed, 
the person benefited by them is no richer, is nowise improved in circum- 
stances.” This limitation of the meaning of wealth would exclude most of 
the articles used as food. Grain, vegetables, live stock, are not focd; they 
are only the materials of which food is made. As soon as they are cooked 
and served for use they become food, but are no longer susceptible of 
accumulation. 

To test the value of this definition we may take some examples: A 
painter is a producer of wealth, as he, with the help of the canvas-maker, 
produces commodities susceptible of accumulation. A poet, unless his 
works are printed, is an unproductive labourer; so is a musician. It 
will, I think, be readily conceded, that any classification is faulty which 
separates works so allied in generai character as the productions of poets, 
painters, aud musicians. An actor is emphatically an unproductive work- 
man, and is always quoted as the example of the class; the dramatic author 
is also a non-producer ; the theatre-builder is, however, a producer, because 
his work “can be kept for some time before being used.” These three are, 
however, fellow-labourers, the finished product of their combined labour 
being an acted play: why should they be differently classed? If the actor 
does not produce wealth, the mason and carpenter who build the workshop 
in which his work is carried on must be also employed in producing some- 
thing which is not wealth. The physician is a non-producer; but his 
fellow-labourers, the druggist, instrument maker, hospital builders, etc., 
are all producers; the labour of all is necessary to the work which they 
perform in common, and, in any classification, they should all go together. 
The public singer is at present a non-productive labourer, but if, as seems 
likely, the phonograph is ever so perfected that sounds may be stored up 


REDEEM cec -— 


CannUTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 11 


and thus made articles of trade, he will become a productive labourer. 
Such an improvement in the phonograph would be, of course, a great 
addition to the wealth of the world. The labour of the singer, instead of 
adding to the pleasure of hundreds as at present, would give pleasure of a 
very high order to tens of thousands. The average happiness of man would 
be inereased, but I do not see how the improvement would so change the 
charaeter of the singer's labour as to convert it from unproductive to 
productive. 

Throughout the whole of his chapter on ** Unproductive Labour," Mill 
appears to have in mind, production of profits rather than production of 
wealth. The so-called unproductive labourers— authors, actors, publie 
singers, lawyers, physicians, soldiers, sailors in the navy, civil servants, 
etc.—are men whose labour is as necessary to the well-being of society as 
that of any other class, but for the most part they work on their own 
account and are not dependent on capitalists. The product of their labour 
cannot be passed from hand to hand, and cannot, therefore, be made the 
instrument for acquiring a right to a share of the wealth of the community ; 
it is, in short, not productive of profits or of capital. 

Of all the products of labour, food is the most necessary, and may, 
therefore, most justly be called wealth. The community at large is not, 
however, enriched by the labour of the farmer more than by that of the 
actor or public singer. Without the farmer's labour the community could 
not exist at all, but without the actor’s labour it could not maintain that 
average state of enjoyment in which it lives and to which the labour of 
both is equally necessary. The product of the labour of both can only be 
enjoyed once, and when once used is gone for ever. 

Far too much stress is laid on the aceumulation of wealth in most works 
on political economy, especially when discussing productive labour, and too 
little on the kind of wealth which can be, or at least should be, accumulated. 
We are unfortunately obliged to store sufficient grain for one year's con- 
sumption, but there would be no use in accumulating a stock sufficient for 
several years, unless, like Pharaoh, we anticipated a drought. So with 
clothing and all other forms of direct wealth; there is no advantage in 
having a large stock of them on hand. The makers and sellers of all kinds 
of direct wealth always strive to keep the stock in existence, and not in 
actual use, as small as possible, while the consumers take care that the 
stock in use shall not be needlessly large. No one has any interest or wish 
to acquire or keep a stock of commodities which will not be shortly 
consumed, or put into the consumers’ hands for use. 

Under the social system prevailing in all civilized countries, everyone 


12 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


should in his youth accumulate capital, that is, a right to wealth which he 
himself has not produced, so that in his old age he may live in comfort 
without working; this is not, however, accumulating wealth, but only pro- 
viding that the distribution of future wealth shall be made in a particular 
manner. The community never grows old; and it would be unreasonable, 
even if it were possible, that one generation should scrimp and spare so 
that the next should live without labour. Each generation provides for the 
future by rearing children. It does not lay aside wealth for future use, but 
stores it, by using it to feed the young, who in their turn support their 
fathers when no longer able to work. Unhappily, the machinery by which 
this is effected is very faulty, and age and want too often go together ; 
but it is still true that all who are too old or too young to work are 
supported by those in the prime of life. 

Direct wealth is never saved, but is consumed as fast as it is made, or 
is stored up so far only as may be necessary to make the stock in hand ` 
last until more can be produced. This can not be called saving at 
all; it is no more than the exercise of sound judgment in the rate of 
consumption. There is no sacrifice involved, but the reverse. 

Saving on the part of the whole community can only be made by making 
implements ; there is in this case a clear sacrifice, for the labour which is de- 
voted to the work might have been employed in producing direct wealth, which 
would at once have been useful, while the implement only makes it possible 
that a larger stock of wealth shallin future be produced with the same labour. 

The number of implements which can be judiciously made is, of course, 
limited by the number of men who are at hand to use them; it is also 
limited by the advantages which would be gained by having them; if a 
large expenditure would be incurred in making a new machine, and only a 
small increase obtained in the production of future wealth, the community 
would be richer by not making it at all. In a community where education 
and knowledge of the laws of nature are stationary this latter limit is soon 
reached, and no further increase of wealth is then possible. 

There would have been for instance no use, just before the invention of 
railways, in making more macadamized roads in England, as those already 
made were sufficient, and any increase in their number, however large, 
would have been followed by only a small increase of utility. Increased 
knowledge of the laws of nature, by suggesting that invention, opened out 
a new way of employing labour in making new implements which would 
repay their eost. The result was a large increase of the wealth of the 
world, measured, not by the cost of the railways, but by their efficiency“as 
compared with the roads they superseded. 


CannurTHERS.—Ó some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 13 


From the language generally used by writers, it would almost appear 
as if they thought the usefulness of the “accumulated stock of the 
product of former labour” depended on the labour which was spent in 
producing it, and not on the facility it gives for producing future wealth, 
and hence too much importance is generally given to the durability of 
implements. If, in a community, a given number of machines is required 
to carry on its manufactures, say ten, each of which requires a year’s 
labour of a hundred men to produce, and will just last ten years: at the 
end of every year one machine will be thrown aside as used up, and a new 
one brought into use ; there will always be ten in use, each representing the 
labour of 100 men, so that the stored-up wealth of the community will be 
represented by the labour of 1,000 men for one year, and there will always 
be 100 men employed in making new machines. If, now, a new kind of 
machine be used, which is equally efficient, but will last only one year, and 


- requires only ten men to construct: At the end of every year the whole ten 


machines are thrown aside and ten new ones put in their place. The total 
number of men employed in machine-making is, as before, a hundred. The 
community is no better off than before, and no worse off; the same number 
of its members are removed from the business of producing direct wealth. 
The amount of labour stored up is, however, represented by one year's 
labour of a hundred men instead of, as before, of a thousand. The 
* accumulated stock of the produce of former labour” has been reduced 
to one-tenth of its former amount without lessening the well-being of the 
community. 

There are hundreds of steam-engines now being thrown aside which 
would last for twenty or thirty years longer, but it is better to make new 
ones of better design. The old engines cost as much labour to produce 
as the new ones, so that if the wealth of a community is to be measured 
by the amount of stored-up labour it possesses, there is no advantage 
in replacing old-fashioned machinery by new. 

The exaggerated importance generally given to saving and accumulation 
in common estimation, and even by political economists, is due to the use of. 
the word capital in a sense not covered by its definition. A capitalist is one 
who, without labouring himself, has a right to a share of the wealth pro- 
duced by others. If he exercises his right in acquiring costly food and 
clothing for himself, and coarser food and clothing to give to servants to 
induce them to wait on him, his right is satisfied and thereafter ceases. He 
is said to have lived on his capital. If, instead of doing so, he uses only a 
part himself and gives the rest to labourers to induce them to work, some 
to produce articles which he himself will consume, and the rest to produce 


14 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


food to maintain both themselves and the other labourers, he is said 
to invest his capital and to live on the interest. The more he gives to 
the labourers and the less he uses for himself, the more he is said to 
save. Of course there can be no limit to the saving of this kind which 
it is desirable that he shall make, short of his not keeping enough to 
maintain himself in average comfort. All that he saves is consumed by 
the workmen, so that the community as a whole stores up nothing. 
Both capitalist and workmen cannot save at the same time, except, as 
before said, by making new implements. If they both persist in refusing 
to consume the wealth produced, their barns would be filled with grain 
for the benefit of the rats, and their warehouses with cloth and iron 
for the moth and rust to corrupt; but they could not go on for ever 
in that way, and would have eventually to cease work. Any indivi- 
dual workman may save, that is, he may refrain from consuming his share 
and invest it, by giving it to his fellow-workmen who would consume it; 
but the whole body of workmen can only become capitalists by making new 
implements, unless other capitalists live beyond their incomes. 

It must not be forgotten that implements are made for the purpose of 
being at once useful and not for the sake of storing wealth. If one genera- 
tion gets any advantage from the labour of its predecessor, it is due to the 
accident that most implements, and some articles of direct wealth, are made 
of durable materials, and not to any saving made intentionally with the view 
of benefiting posterity. One generation, however, owes very little to its 
foregoers of the material wealth it enjoys. The greater part of the wealth 
of the community was made within the last year, and very little is ten 
years old. The accumulations we have received from our fathers, and 
owe to our sons, are knowledge of the laws of nature, good laws, and habits 
of labour. If these are increased, the means of producing material wealth 
are also increased; with the same labour our sons will be able to live better 
than we, unless their numbers increase so much that they cannot produce 
sufficient food without increasing the proportion of those employed in 
producing it as compared with the whole community. 

Capital. 

This word has not been as closely defined as its importance requires, 
nor is it uniformly used in its defined meaning. Mill says it is “a requisite 
without which no productive operations beyond the rude and scanty 
beginnings of primitive industry are possible.” His first definition already 
quoted, makes it equivalent to all exchangeable wealth, except land and its 
spontaneous productions. With this meaning it is clearly an unnecessary 
word. Landis simply an implement, and does not require to be classed 


WA WA 


— et Se AA AA 


CaRRUTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 15 


separately from other implements ; nor do trees and grass, which have grown 
without the help of man's labour, differ from those which man has planted or 
sown. 

In Book I., chap. iv., sec. 1, it is thus further defined :—“ What, then, 
is his (the capitalist's) capital?  Precisely that part of his possessions, 
whatever it be, which is to constitute his fund for carrying on fresh 
production. It is of no consequence that a part, or even the whole of it, is 
in a form in which it cannot directly supply the wants oflabourers." And 
again :—'* The distinction between capital and Not-capital does not lie in 
the kind of commodities but in the mind of the capitalist—in his will to 
employ them for one purpose rather than another; and all property, 
however ill-adapted in itself for the use of labourers, is a part of capital, 
so soon as it, or the value to be received from it, is set apart for productive 
re-investment. The sum of all the values so destined by their respective 
possessors, compose the capital of the country.” 

The first objection to these definitions which presents itself, is that they 
would be unmeaning if there were not two classes in the community, one 
to whom the whole of its wealth belongs, and who may or may not, as they 
like, give any of it to the other class, who own no wealth and can only 
procure any by labouring for the wealthy class. The existing social 
arrangements under which this state of things almost necessarily exists, 
are not, however, essential to the production of wealth. The total produce 
of the labour of the community might be equally the property of all; there 
would then be no part set aside for productive re-investment. The whole 
direct wealth would be consumed as it was made, or at least given to the con- 
sumer to put into use. While it was being consumed, the community would 
be at work producing new wealth, which in its turn would be consumed. 
Can any part of this wealth be marked out and said to be the capital of the 
community ? the part on which the production of future wealth depends ? 
Food is, of course, necessary, and if an insufficient quantity were produced 
the community would starve and produce no more wealth; but if by 
capital be meant the necessaries of existence, why use so confusing a 
word when others, about the meaning of which no doubt can arise, 
are at hand? Except implements none of the other articles which 
were consumed or used were more necessary than another to production, 
and all must, therefore, be in the same class, either capital or not- 
capital. 

Implements are essential to production, but no politieal economist has 
defined capital to be the stock of them in the country; land, the most 
important of all, is indeed pointedly excluded, obviously because the land- 


16 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


lord’s share of the common stock of wealth depends on different conditions 
than that of other capitalists. 

It thus appears that in a communistic society there is no such thing as 
capital in the sense of a fund for carrying on fresh production, or of a fund 
set aside for productive re-investment. The material requisites of produc- 
tion are labourers and implements only. The necessaries of life are 
required, as are also health, strength and intelligence, to enable labourers 
to work—but they are connoted by the word labourer, and need not be 
taken into consideration. There is one immaterial requisite which must, 
however, be considered, namely, the effective wish that wealth be produced, 
that is, a wish strong enough to overcome man’s natural repugnance to 
work. 

In a rude stage of society this wish is so weak that man will only labour 
under the immediate spur of hunger; his repugnance to making other people 
work is not so strong, and he makes his wife and slaves work even where 
the return from their labour is somewhat distant; the rude beginnings of 
agriculture are always the result of woman’s labour. It is doubtful whether 
there is, even now, a society so advanced in civilization that the production 
of wealth could be safely left to the average forethought of its members 
without the help derived from the pressure of immediate want. As society 
is at present organized, the great majority of the people, the labouring 
classes, are kept to their work by a pressure almost as strong as in the 
rudest societies; if they do not work to-day they will get no dinner 
to-morrow. In a commune, the punishment of idleness would be quite 
as certain but more distant. As long as the past year’s harvest lasted they 
would be equally well fed whether they worked or not; the results of their 
idleness or industry would not show themselves until after the following 
harvest, when it would be too late to make good any past errors. The wish 
that wealth be produced need not be so strong as in a commune; for wealth 
will be produced if the capitalists wish it, and they need not themselves 
labour to carry their wish into effect; it is sufficient that they induce other 
people to labour. 

The requisites of production are the same under present social arrange- 
ments as they would be in a commune; they are labourers, implements, and 
the wish to produce. If capital is, as it is stated to be, a requisite of pro- 
duction, it must be one or more of these, and is a worse than useless word, 
for it is never, in ordinary conversation, used with a meaning allied to that 
which would have to be given to it by definition. 

It is impossible, by reading Mill’s definitions as given | in Book L, 
chap. iv., to get any clear understanding of what he really means by 


PET D 
RA AA AA S AAA a RON E 


CannvTHERS.— n some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 17 


capital; we will therefore examine his four fundamental propositions as 
given in chap. v., to see whether he means any or all of the three requisites 
of production above given. 

His first proposition is, that “Industry is limited by capital,” and con- 
versely, ‘‘ every increase of capital gives, or is capable of giving, additional 
employment to industry, and this without assignable limit.” 

The whole wealth produced by the community belongs to the capitalists. 
The labourers have no share in its ownership. Theoretically, the capitalists 
could store it in their warehouses and keep it for their own exclusive use, 
leaving the workmen to starve; practically, they do not, nor would they 
be allowed to do so. It is their interest to keep only a certain share for them- 
selves, and to give the balance to the workmen to induce them to work for 
them and produce new wealth. If they acted together as a class, or if no 
individual capitalist wanted to get more than the share he was already 
entitled to of the total product, they need never give the labourers more 
than the bare necessaries of life. All that could be produced beyond that, 
they might themselves consume. The labourers would then be divided into 
two classes; one engaged in producing the necessaries of life for themselves 
and for the other class ; the other engaged in producing luxuries for the 
rich, and new and improved implements, which would still further increase 
those luxuries. It is obvious that if the wealthy then reduced the share 
of wealth which they gave to the producers of necessaries, some of the 
labourers would starve, and industry would thus be lessened as the number 
of labourers was lessened. The theorem is correct only when the conditions 
are such as are here indicated, when the labourers get only the bare 
necessaries of life, and when capital means these necessaries. Industry is 
then limited by capital, but not otherwise. 

Fortunately, capitalists do not act together as a class; each individual 
tries to get more than his allotted share of the wealth of the community, 
and all try to entice workmen from the others by giving higher rewards, 
that is, they **employ more of their capital in reproductive investment.” 
The result is not, however, an increase of industry as stated in the theorem, 
but higher wages for the labourers. 

The second theorem is, that “Capital is the result of saving.” The 
meaning of saving in this sentence is not that which it usually bears. It 
means the saving made by the capitalist, that is, giving to the working 
classes some of the wealth which the capitalist might, had he so chosen, 
have consumed himself. He says, by way of illustration of the theorem,— 
“ If all persons were to expend in personal indulgences all that they pro- 
duce, and all the income they receive from what is produced by others, 

; B 


18 Transactions,— Miscellaneous. 


capital could not increase.” The community as a whole does, however, 
practically consume all that it produces. If population is stationary, 
nothing more is required to increase the average wealth than to replace all 
worn-out implements with new ones of a more scientific kind. If population 
is increasing, the number of implements must be increased as well as their 
quality improved, in order that the larger population may labour more 
advantageously than the smaller had done. This would not in the ordinary 
meaning of the word be called saving; if the community increases, it is 
part of its current expenditure to provide the new members with facilities 
of producing wealth for their own support. 

-~ The meaning of “capital” in this case appears to be the wealth which 
the capitalists give to the labouring classes in exchange for their labour; 
and the theorem is little more than an identical proposition. 

The third theorem is, that ‘‘ Capital, although saved and the result of 
saving, is nevertheless consumed.’’ This follows from what has been 
already said; everything which is saved by the capitalist is consumed by 
the labourers, except new implements, the production of which may be 
called saving by the whole community, as it implies a sacrifice of present 
for future advantage. All that Mill deduces from it does not, however, 
follow. He says: “ Saving, in short, enriches, and spending impoverishes, 
the community along with the individual; which is but saying, in other 
words, that society at large is richer by what it expends in maintain- 
ing and aiding productive labour, but poorer by what it expends on its 
enjoyments.” Saving by the capitalist, as has been so often said above, 
enriches the workman, but saving by the community would enrich no one. 
The object of labour is the bettering the conditions of life, and the com- 
munity, therefore, is the richer by what it expends on its enjoyments, and 
not the poorer ; it is the richer by what the capitalist saves, simply because 
this kind of saving is only another name for more equal distribution. 

The community does not require to save; it requires only that its labour 
shall be wisely directed, so that the produce shall give the greatest possible 
comfort and enjoyment. If the necessaries of life are not produced in 
sufficient quantity it will suffer privation, although every man had been 
engaged in what is generally called productive labour; no amount of cloth 
or iron would make good the want of food. The necessaries having been 
first provided for, the common labour should be devoted to producing those 
luxuries which all can share. This is the “productive labour" which it 
is the interest of society to “maintain and aid." An actor or publie 
Singer may more properly be called a productive labourer than a velvet- 
maker or diamond-digger, because the enjoyment which his labour pro- 


Li 


CanRUTHERS.—O some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 19 


duces is shared by a larger number. As nothing can be done without 
implements, the stock of these must be kept up, and whenever increasing 
population or increasing knowledge makes it possible to do so with 
advantage, it should be increased. Care must, however, be taken that the 
future advantage shall not be purchased at the cost of an undue present 
sacrifice. 

The fourth theorem is, that “ What supports and employs productive 
labour is the capital expended in setting it to work, and not the demand of 
purchasers for the produce of the labour when completed. Demand for 
commodities is not demand for labour. * * * * The maintenance or 
payment of labour depends on the amount of capital or other funds directly 
devoted to the sustenance and remuneration of labour.” The main deduc- 
tion from this theorem is, that a capitalist, by buying velvet or other 
commodity for his own use, does not improve the circumstances of the 
working classes, but that by employing gardeners, grooms, and other 
retainers, or by giving alms, he does so. The error contained in this 
deduetion unfortunately pervades Mill's work, and makes that part of it 
which treats of the production of wealth far less valuable than that which 
treats of its distribution. 

If two capitalists, A and B, are entitled to equal shares of the wealth 
of the community, and both invest their shares from year to year, the 
working classes will receive the whole product of their own labour; A and 
B will receive none of it. If they retain for their own use a certain pro- 
portion which we may call interest, and invest the balance, the labourers 
will receive, not the whole, but a part only, the part received from A being 
equal to that received from B. Let us now assume that both resolve to 
consume the whole themselves; A deciding to take his share in the form 
of attendance on himself, while B decides to procure velvet; the wealth 
which had been produced by the labourers they had previously employed 
must in both cases be again given to the working classes; in A’s case it 
goes to grooms and footmen ; in B's case it goes to velvet weavers. When 
the wealth is all consumed, the labourers get no more from either A or B; 
A has received the share of wealth he was entitled to in the form of the 
services of his attendants, and having done nothing to entitle him to any 
share of future wealth his right lapses. B gets a certain quantity of velvet 
which he uses for his own pleasure, the labouring classes get no benefit from 
it, and, as in the case of A, his right to a share of future wealth also lapses. 
It is obvious that in both cases the labourers receive precisely the same 
advantage ; A has done no more good than. B. 

If A had not come to the selfish resolve to apply his wealth to his own 


20 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


use, until a year after B had done so, he would have invested it, and the 
working classes would have enjoyed the use of it once more, receiving 
thereby a further benefit He would then enjoy the services of his 
attendants at the same time that B was wearing his velvet, and not, as 
before, at the time B was manufacturing it.  Mill's error consists in 
thinking that, in this latter case, the actions of A and B are parallel, 
and that both were using contemporaneously their right to the product 
of the labour of others. A definition of the word “invest” would have 
prevented this mistake. 

The capitalists, as a class, have absolute power over future production ; 
whatever they wish to be produced will be produced; but they have no 
power over the past; the stock of wealth in existence is the result of their 
past wishes and actipns, and cannot be altered. If any capitalist resolves 
to ‘‘invest his wealth," he means to give it to the working classes, and to 
continue to give them the result of their labour, keeping for himself only a 
part, which he calls his interest. He will so dispose the labour over which 
he has control, that it shall produce for himself the particular commodities 
which he wishes to use, and for his labourers the particular commodities 
which they will require. It may be more convenient that he shall arrange 
to produce for some other capitalist a different commodity, while the other 
capitalist produces what he requires, and that they shall exchange their 
respective productions. This would have no influence on the total wealth 
produced, which will be the sum of all the different kinds of wealth which 
all the capitalists require. Of course, in a large community there is no 
previous bargain made as to what each capitalist shall produce. They all 

anxiously forecast what their fellows will require, and direct the labour 
under their command accordingly ; the result is, that taking one year with 
another, everyone gets exactly what he wishes. If any particular capitalist, 
after he has influenced the disposition of the year’s labour of the com- 
munity, changes his mind, and wishes to consume, himself, the share of 
wealth which he had previously determined to give to his labourers, he will 
be unable to do so, He may, by outbidding a fellow-capitalist, procure for 
himself what had been manufactured for his colleague, who will thus be 
deprived of it, but the labourers will be uninfluenced. The capitalist who 
was outbid will have on his hands, instead of the particular commodity 
which had been produced to gratify his wishes, a stock of goods suitable for 
the labourers, which he can only turn to account by giving it to them in 
exchange for the product of their future labour. If the first capitalist is not 
prepared to outbid his fellow, he must wait for a year before his new wish 
can be gratified, and in the mean time his labourers will get the benefit of 


CannuTHERS.—O some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 21 


his former determination to invest his wealth. The result of a sudden 
resolve, on the part of one capitalist, to squander, thus appears to be, to 
induce another capitalist to save; on the other hand, a sudden resolve to 
save would in the same way induce an equal expenditure on the part of 
some one else; in either case the working classes are not affected. 

A resolve, to have influence on the community at large, must have been 
made a year beforehand, when it could influence the future supply of 
commodities. 

The word year here means, not a solar, but what may be called a 
manufacturing year; that is, the time which must elapse before the resolve 
on the part of a capitalist to produce any commodity can bear fruit. In 
the case of grain, wool, cotton, and other important agricultural products 
which form the main wealth of the world, it is equal to a solar year; 
however much capitalists may wish to increase the total stock of these, 
they cannot do so before next harvest. For most other things the year is 
shorter ; if more iron or coal is wanted than has been produced, more men 
can be employed in producing it, and the stock thus increased pretty 
quickly. There are, however, many practical difficulties in the way of any 
great and sudden increase of the production of any particular commodity, 
and the manufacturing year is, perhaps, on the average not less than the 
solar. 

To return to our former illustration: When A resolves to employ 
retainers he can do so at once, because his past resolve, which influenced 
production, gave him the food and other necessaries which he could give to 
the labourers to induce them to wait upon him. B could not at once wear 
velvet, because his past resolve was not that velvet should be produced, but 
that commodities suitable for workmen should be. These were produced in 
obedience to his wish, and he can only turn them into velvet by giving them 
to weavers to induce them to produce the velvet for him. If he does pro- 
cure velvet at once, as Mill supposes, he can only do so by taking from 
some one else the share of it, which he had willed to be produced, and by 
giving him in exchange the commodities suitable for workmen, and these 
the workmen would in the end receive. 

In short, a capitalist expends his wealth whenever he gives it to workmen 
to produce any commodity which he will himself consume; it does not 
matter whether the commodity be capable of accumulation, like velvet, or 
incapable, like a song or the services of a footman. The expenditure begins 
when the workman begins to labour. 

He invests his wealth in wages when he gives it to workmen to support 
them while producing commodities which he neither intends to consume 


99 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


nor to exchange for others which he will consume. He intends that the 
work produced shall be consumed by the workmen themselves, and it 
must therefore be of such description as workmen generally use. The 
wealth so given to the labourers may be called the ** invested fund.” 

He ** invests his wealth in implements" when he induces labourers to make 
them. It is absolutely necessary that implements shall be made, and it 
would therefore be absurd to say that it is any special hardship for the 
workmen to be obliged to produce them; but there is a good deal of analogy 
between wealth expended, and wealth invested in implements. In both 
cases the capitalist becomes the owner of the product of the labour, and 
the workman does not, as in the case of invested wealth, get any direct 
benefit from it. 

He exchanges his wealth when he gives a commodity, or a valid certificate 
of a right to a share of the common wealth, such as eash, mortgage, book 
debt, or bank credit, in exchange for another. This form of transaction is 
generally looked upon as most important, but to the community at large 
it matters very little whether A owns a ship and B a farm, or B the ship 
and A the farm. 

Mill (Book I., chap. v., sec. 9) speaks of a capitalist ‘‘ expending his 
income in buying velvet or lace,” as if this were the same as expending his 
income in producing it. The confusion between the two expressions has 
grievously misled him. The mere exchange of gold for velvet is of not the 
slightest importance to the community. A owned gold and B velvet; they 
make an exchange, and B then owns gold and A velvet. No one is in the 
least influenced except themselves. If A produces gold, or B velvet, for his 
own use, he applies the labour of the community to his personal advantage ; 
if he is a mere agent, and C or D is the real user, then C or D gets the 
benefit, and expends his wealth in producing the velvet. 

The foregoing examination shows that Mill does not use the word 
capital in any one fixed sense, but glides almost imperceptibly from one 
meaning to another. It is not, when used with any meaning he gives to it, 
a requisite of the production of wealth; these are labourers and implements 
only. 

Its common meaning is that in which I have used it—the share of the 
direct wealth produced by the labour of the community, to which any 
capitalist can make a valid claim. The owner of implements, cash, mort- 
gages, or any other form of acknowledgment of indebtedness, is called a 
capitalist, because by means of these he can make good a claim on the 
common stock of direct wealth, and not because he owns the things them- 
selves which are not directly useful to him or to anyone else. 


CarruTuEers.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 23 


Capital in this meaning is of so much importance that some further 
examination of it is required. 

The capitalists, who are the owners of the whole of the wealth of the 
community, must give some of it to the workmen to induce in them an 
effective wish to produce a further supply; the wealth so given forms what 
may be called the wages fund. As it is greater or less compared to the 
numbers of the workmen, wages will be high or low. 

The wages fund embraces all wealth which is being “ expended” (as 
before defined), that is, which is being given to labourers, who are employed 
in producing something which the capitalist will himself consume; as 
well as that which is being “invested.” The present prosperity of the 
labourer depends on it alone; but that prosperity will only last the year, 
unless the “invested fund” forms a large proportion of the total wages 
fund. Next year's prosperity depends on the “invested fund," which will 
produce the wages fund of next year, since the capitalists have placed all 
that itis instrumental in producing beyond their own reach, in so far as 
they have willed that it shall be in the form of those commodities which 
workmen generally use. Future prosperity will depend on the fature actions 
of the capitalists; if they resolve to expend their wealth for their own 
gratifieation, the labouring classes will not suffer during the following 
year, as they will then be as fully paid for producing commodities for the 
capitalists' use as they had been before. Their privations will not begin 
until the second year, when the capitalists will keep for themselves all the 
wealth produced by last year's labour. . 

If an individual capitalist is content not to consume a larger proportion 
of his share of the common wealth than the average of his fellows, he will 
be able to enjoy that proportion every year, and still keep good his claim to 
the proportion of the whole year's produce to which he was originally 
entitled. The part he consumes is often called the interest on his 
capital, and the part he invests, capital. By a false analogy, it is generally 
supposed that the wealth of the whole community is also divided into 
capital and interest, and that if the community consumes more than its 
interest it encroaches on its capital, and is on the downward road to 
ruin. An article lately appeared in the London Times, which argued from 
some manipulation of that bugbear of political economists, the returns of 
exports and imports, that England was “ expending its capital," and, like a 
spendthrift squire, would soon be ruined unless she retrenched. Ruin to 
the squire would mean that in future the poor fellow would have to work 
for his living, and it would be hard to say when England was not in that 
unhappy state. 


24 Transaclions.—Miscellaneous. 


It is also commonly supposed that a spendthrift who expends his capital 
in one year, does more direct harm to the working classes than a wealthier 
man who expends as large a sum out of his interest; there is a feeling that 
in the one case capital has been destroyed, and that on capital the well- 
being of the workmen depends, while in the other case the capital which 
produced the interest is still intact. There is, however, no difference, 
except indirectly, in the two cases. Both consume certain wealth, which, 
had they not consumed it, would have gone to the working classes. It 
makes no difference to the latter whether what they want and would have 
had, if it had not been taken by some one else, is taken by A or by B; nor is 
their future stock of wealth at all influenced, for the men who were employed 
in producing the commodities consumed by prudent B were just as much 
taken away from the production of goods to be used by workmen, as were 
those employed in producing for spendthrift A. 

When a spendthrift squanders his wealth he ceases to be a capitalist, 
but the others acquire the share which he has lost. The whole class owns 
between them all the wealth produced. If one of their number falls out of 
the ranks it is so much the better for the rest; on the other hand, a capitalist 
who increases his share by saving and investing a larger proportion of his 
gross share than the average, acquires his right at the expense of the 
others. He benefits the working classes, not only directly by increasing 
their wages, but also indirectly, by compelling other capitalists to be more 
frugal so as to maintain their proportionate share of the future stock ; 
the spendthrift injures the working classes directly by consuming the wealth 
which they have produced, and also indirectly, by making it easier for the 
average man to keep his position as a capitalist, and thus keeping up the 
rate of interest. 

It is the interest of the capitalists to give as little as they can to the 
labourers, and to receive as much from them as possible, consistently with 
their attaining other objects they have in view. As a rule, while they wish 
to live comfortably or luxuriously themselves, they also wish to leave 
to their heirs a right to a share of the common wealth, not less than 
that which they themselves enjoy. If they live too abstemiously, they 
increase the share to which they are entitled, but exercise a self-restraint 
which, under the circumstances, they consider unnecessary ; if they live too 
well, other more abstemious men will push them from their stools, and 
acquire, to their loss, a right to the wealth produced by the community. In 
order to hold their own they must conform their personal expenditure to 
that of the average of their fellow-capitalists. 

Capitalists are not necessarily men of more than common intelligence, 


CannuTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 25 


nor more likely than others to take a wide view of their own interests. 
They do not try to get more profit out of their steam-engines by stinting 
the supply of coal, or out of their horses or cattle by stinting their food, 
but they will, if they can, reduce wages to a point at which the labourer ean 
barely live and work. They forget that a real and active desire that wealth 
shall be produced is one of the requisites of production, and that this 
cannot be entertained by a spiritless, hopeless drudge, who by hard and 
continuous labour can scarcely live better than the paupers in the work- 
house, into whose ranks he must fallas soon as, broken down with rheu- 
matism and other ailings brought on by insufficient food and shelter, the 
few best years of his wretched youth are passed. 

The total wages fund does not depend on the supply of labour, but on 
the competition between capitalists, and will be the same whether wages 
are high or low. The rate of wages depends on the numbers of the work- 
men who share the wages fund. Where the community is divided into 
capitalists and labourers, the latter have scarcely any inducement to keep 
down their numbers, or rather, it is not so apparent as in the case of the 
capitalists, and they are not fitted by education or habits of thought to 
exercise self-restraint when the reward is distant and not very obvious. 
They, therefore, tend to multiply until the wages fund is not more than 
sufficient to give them the bare necessaries of life. If the capitalists avail 
themselves of the competition of the labourers against one another, they 
may pay their workmen no more than is just sufficient to keep body and 
soul together. It is not their real interest to do so; by doubling wages 
they would induce the men to work so much better, that the produce would 
be increased in a still higher ratio. They should, even in their own interest, 
refuse to pay less than a certain liberal rate; the wages fund would then 
maintain only a comparatively small number of labourers, and an efficient 
check would be at once placed on undue increase of population. 

We have a right to expect more from capitalists in return for the 
immense privileges we grant them, than a simple acquiescence in the course 
which events are taking. If they cannot prevent a country from falling 
into the state into which Ireland fell, or even into that in which the south- 
west of England now is, they are of no use, and the sooner they are 
abolished the better. 

No other servants of the State, which capitalists simply are, would be 
tolerated who were so highly paid, and who performed their work so badly. 
We leave in their hands the absolute disposal of the labour of the com- 
munity, and the distribution of the wealth produced by that labour; we 


26 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


allow them, within wide limits, to fix their own wages, only requiring them 
in return to conduct their operations so as to give themselves the largest 
profit they can make. The only argument which can be used to justify 
such a trust is, that in striving for the interests of themselves, they, if they 
use thought and self-restraint, are likely to do better for us than we could 
without their help. The failures they have made would fairly justify the 
community in trying to do without them ; it is scarcely likely that worse 
disasters would follow than the Irish famine, or the long years of hopeless 
misery which preceded it. The subjects of King Tawhiao or Sitting Bull 
are far better off than the poorest classes of Ireland, or even of England. 

It is a very important social problem to ascertain what is the rate of 
wages which would give, in any geographical area, and under existing con- 
ditions, the largest return to the capitalists (excluding landlords) as a class. 
If this were known, public opinion among them would probably prevent any- 
one from offering a lower rate, and it is almost certain that the labourers of 
all the older ‘countries of the world would be bettered in circumstances by 
getting this minimum instead of their present wages. Notwithstanding the 
falling off in the population of Ireland since the famine, and the higher rate 
of wages now paid, there is no doubt whatever that the capitalist class gets 
a larger return; than they used to when the rate of wages was only from 
fourpence to sixpence a-day. 

EThe number of hours which a man must work during the day in 
order that the produce shall be a maximum is also unknown. Capitalists 
would seem, from their actions, to think that it is not less than four- 
ieen or even more. Some information may be gained from the public 
works carried out;in New Zealand; during the last few years. The 

average rate of wages for unskilled workmen has not been less than a 
shilling an hour, the men working "eight hours. In England the rate is, or 
atleast was, a few;years ago, about threepence an hour, the men working 
twelve hours; the cost of earthwork should be, if the work done were 
proportional to the number of hours in a day's work, four times as high in 
New Zealand as'in' England, but it has averaged considerably less than 
twice. This is a very rough test, but it tends to strengthen the opinion 
held by many intelligent employers of labour, that a man will do more when 
working eight than he will when working twelve hours a-day. 

Interest. 

As before'said, that part of the national direct wealth which capitalists 
keep for {their own use is; called interest; it is the reward they receive for 
investing their wealth, instead of expending it. 

As new men are continually, by frugality, making good a footing in, 


ooo REN 


CannUTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 27 


and others, the spendthrifts and prodigals, are dropping out of the list 
of capitalists, the average rate of interest tends, even when the population 
is stationary, to become lower, to approximate more closely to what will 
satisfy the more frugal part of the class. 

As population inereases, and it becomes necessary to cultivate inferior 
land in order to produce a sufficiency of food, the average effectiveness of 
labour tends to decrease, and the rents of the landlords to increase, the 
labourers can then, besides making new implements, produce little more than 
is sufficient to maintain themselves and to pay the landlords. The tempta- 
tion to expend wealth instead of to invest it becomes greater, and in the 
struggle for a position the smaller eapitalists are gradually pushed out of 
the ranks by the larger, who can, with less sacrifice, afford to invest a 
larger proportion of their capital. 

There is thus a tendency of wealth to fall into the hands of a few, and 
the extremes both of riches and poverty are generally found in the same 
community. 

In an extreme case, the number of capitalists may become so small that 
2 practical combination may occur amongst them to reduce the wages fund; 
and something like this appears to have taken place in the later years of 
Rome. 

Those who share the interest fund are the owners of money and land, 
the fund-holders, and those whose wealth, invested either in implements or 
wages, had been instrumental in its production. 

The owners of that large stock of wealth which is in the hands of the 
consumer, dwelling houses, furniture, clothes, ete., do? not share in it, nor 
do the owners of goods manufaetured for the use of capitalists. The velvet 
manufacturer, for instance, gets no interest on his velvet; it is the product 
of ** expended " wealth. As a rule, he would not himself be the consumer 
of his own manufactures; he has only manufactured them so as to 
procure other goods which he requires ; the velvet was made because other 
capitalists had so willed it, he knowing from former experience that they 
had done so, and that, in the same way, whatever he willed to be produced 
would be duly provided. If he intended to invest his wealth, others would 
provide the commodities which he requires to give to his workmen, and 
he will be able to get these in exchange for his velvet. He has, it is 
true, “ expended " his wealth in making a commodity for the use of 
capitalists, but by so doing has induced those capitalists to ** invest " theirs 
in making goods for the future use of his labourers ; by exchange each gets 
exactly what he wants, more conveniently than he could otherwise have 
done. If there had not been a prospect amounting to a certainty that this 


-28 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


exchange would take place, the velvet consumer would have manufactured 
the velvet he required, and the velvet manufacturer would have made the 
commodities for workmen which he required. The essential part of invest- 
ment does not consist in what is actually manufactured by any capitalist, 
but in what he wills shall be manufactured for him, his will being equivalent 
to an order given to the makers. As long, however, as the velvet remains 
in the hands of the maker, he cannot invest it; he must exchange it for 
other goods, and, when exchanged, it comes into the user’s hands, when it 
is of just as little use to the working classes as the past services of the same 
user’s footman. 

It would be impossible to adjust the claims of the various capitalists 
without the help of a common measure of value, and throughout the world 
gold and silver have been adopted for the purpose. 

The capitalist measures his wealth in money; it is the quantity of gold 
he has, or which at current rates he could get, for the particular thing on 
which his claim to a share of future wealth is founded. The only capitalists 
who help, directly, in producing wealth are those who invest either in wages 
or implements, and the capital of each individual is measured by the 
current price of his implements or of the food and other things which he 
possesses. The money owner, indirectly, facilitates production, and his 
capital is measured by the gold he owns. The landlord and fund-holder do 
nothing towards production, but as they share in the product, their pos- 
sessions have, on that account, exchangeable value and therefore a market 
price. If the money value of the possessions of these five classes of 
capitalists were added together, it would form what might be called the 
capital of the country, if the term were not so likely to suggest other and 
different meanings. The share of the interest fund which any capitalist 
could apply to his own uses without lessening his future share bears the 
same proportion to the whole that his capital bears to the total capital of 
the country. 

The expression “ capital of the country " is often used to represent that 
part of the wealth of the community on which its prosperity and well being 
are supposed peculiarly to depend, but as in all other cases in which the 
word capital is used, there is great vagueness as to the meaning which is 
intended to be conveyed. 

In estimating its value, the price of land and of the national debt is 
often included, but the interest of these is simply a tax on the community 
at large, and cannot in any sense be said to further the general prosperity. 

Money also should not be included. It consists largely, and might 
consist entirely of paper, which costs nothing. Our just distrust of the 


£n AA AA M— A 


EPOR 


-— €t e E 


ee WA AA 


CarrutHErs.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 29 


honesty of governments is the only reason why gold should not be given up 
as the medium of exchange and bank notes substituted, the number issued 
to be limited in accordance with a fixed and unvarying rule. The whole of 
the enormous expense of gold-mining would be saved to the world and the 
existing stock of gold made available for use in the arts. In any case, 
whether it consists of metal or paper, money has no intrinsic worth, being 
a mere implement to assist in the distribution of wealth. 

Implements should also be deducted; their costliness is not an element 
of prosperity but only an indication of past privations. Their efficiency 
does influence production, but cannot be valued in money, as it is the result 
of thought and knowledge, as well as of labour. The engines of one of the 
Cunard steamers of the present day cost no more labour to produce than 
did those of five-and-twenty years ago; they will, however, develope the 
same horse-power with one-third of the cost of coal and repairs. As far as 
they are concerned the “capital of the country’’ has trebled, but no indica- 
tion of the increase would appear in a return of the machines in use and 
their cost. 

In short, there is no means of comparing the prosperity of two different 
countries or the same country at different times. Present prosperity 
depends on the stock of direct wealth in actual use or stored ready for 
use, and on the number of men, such as actors and singers, employed in 
producing for the immediate gratification of the community enjoyments not 
capable of being stored. Future prosperity depends on the number of men 
who are employed in producing a further stock, and in the efficiency of their 
labour. The only further requisites are, that the choice of things to be 
produced shall be judicious and their distribution moderately equal. 

A large part of capital consists of what is generally called floating 
capital. Its ownership is attested by bank accounts, promissory notes, and 
other acknowledgments of indebtedness. At first sight it would appear that 
this was not included in any of the forms above enumerated, but the 
owners of floating capital really own a share of the wealth nominally owned 
by those who are indebted to them ; they do not, as is generally supposed, 
own money of which the supply in existence is comparatively small. 

It has been assumed throughout that the owner of capital applies it with 
average skill and energy, in such way as shall give him a right to share in 
the future wealth ; the implement-owner must take care that his machines 
are kept fully employed; the employer of labour must keep his men to their 
work, and must direct their labour judiciously ; the landlord must find 
tenants or farm the land himself; the fund-holder has nothing to do but 
to draw his dividends when they become due—his claim is the reward of 


we 


30 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


past services done to the community. The money owner has a very 
peculiar duty, as he has only to see that he keeps no more of it on hand 
than is required. Ifa banker keeps a larger reserve than he needs, he will 
not get the average banker’s interest. He gets no interest, directly, on his 
gold reserve, but the profit on his other transactions is larger on account 
of it. If it is unnecessarily large, he, of course, loses the interest on all the 
money he needlessly keeps. This is also true of the merchant and manu- 
facturer. The consumer who keeps money in hand to meet current 
expenditure gets no interest for it. 

A capitalist who uses his capital unskilfully benefits all other capitalists 
and injures the community at large, except in the case of a money owner, 


who injures no one, except himself, by mismanagement. If he keeps more - 


on hand than the nature of his business requires, the stock in the hands of 

others becomes more valuable, by the exact amount of his excess, and the 

smaller amount in circulation is quite as efficient as the larger would be. 
Cost of Production. 

The cost of production of any commodity is simply the labour required 
to produce it; it does not matter whether the labourer be a Millais or a 
coal-heaver. Wealth being required, there is only one way of getting it, 
and that is by labour, and the labour of all is equally necessary to the 
production of the common stock. The problem to assess the utility 
of each man’s production would be quite insoluble. There would even be 
a difficulty in deciding whether a day’s labour of Turner or West, or 
of Browning or Tupper, were worth most. It would be easier to assess the 
relative value of two nayvies’ work, one of whom could dig ten and the 
other only five yards of earth in a day. Even in this latter case the labour 
of both men would be equally requisite to the production of the total stock, 
if it were necessary to dig fifteen yards a day. A capitalist must take into 
account not only the labour which was required to produce his wares, but 
also the rate of wages he was obliged to pay his workmen, and the interest 
he would be obliged to pay to other capitalists; from his point of view, 
therefore, both interest and wages form part of the cost of production. 

It would be well to keep distinet what is essential under all cir- 
cumstances from what is due to the accidental conditions under which 
society may happen to regulate its labour; and as a medium of exchange, 
like money, is necessary in 2 community divided into capitalists and 
labourers, I think the capitalists' costs of production should be called the 
** price of production." 

The exchange value of wealth tends to be in proportion to its price of 
production and not to its cost. 


————À À 


PuRNELL.—On Antarctic Exploration, 31 


[Norz.—Mill makes a note that the reviewer in the Edinburgh Review, 
(October, 1844), suggested a definition of implements very similar to that 
which I have proposed, but I have not been able to procure a copy of the 
review. See Book I., chap. ii., sec. 4.) 


Art. IL.—0On Antarctic Exploration. By C. W. Puryett. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 14th May, 1878.] 

In a presidential address delivered to the members of this Institute, in 
February, 1875, Mr. J. T. Thomson eursorily alluded to the subject of 
antarctic exploration. This subject had been under my own notice for 
some time previously, and I should probably have asked permission to 
read a paper upon it but for Mr. Thomson's remarks, which seemed to 
render it needless for me to do so just then. Other persons, I dare say, 
have had their attention directed to so fascinating a topie, although, after 
searching such official records of the proceedings of the different Philoso- 
phieal Societies in the Australian colonies as are available, I have been 
unable to discover any paper dealing with it, or any allusion whatever 
to the matter, save that contained in Mr. Thomson’s address. Yet it 
- seems to me that there is no subject better fitted for the consideration of 
& scientific society in these colonies, and more partieularly of the Otago 
Institute, than the best means of exploring the South Polar Seas. They 
form a weird and strange region almost unknown to man. They have been 
unvisited by any exploring expedition since 1843; and no discoveries appear 
to have been made by whaling vessels, or at all events none have been 
recorded, to supplement those of Sir James Ross; so that, while during 
the last five-and-thirty years our knowledge of the North Polar region has 
been immensely augmented ; while Africa has been crossed and re-crossed ; 
while the telegraph line has been carried over the then unknown interior 
of Australia, absolutely nothing has been done towards clearing up the 
mystery which enshrouds the regions lying within the antarctic circle. It 
has been estimated that a portion of the globe, three times the area of 
Europe, here lies unexplored. The entrance to this field of enterprise, too, 
is within a few days' steam of Otago. 

It is of the highest geographieal importance to know whether an 
antarctic continent exists or not. Cook's researches in the latter part of 
the eighteenth century dispelled the old belief in a Terra Australis, but 


82 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


subsequent discoveries revived the idea in a modified form, and it is so 
long since anything was done towards exploring the antarctic regions, that 
a hazy notion that a mass of land surrounds the South Pole seems again to 
be diffusing itself, and we frequently find “the antarctic continent" spoken 
of as though it were an ascertained fact, whereas its existence is a mere 
hypothesis, although not a groundless one. What has really been dis- 
covered are three large tracts of land, many islands, and two or three 
pieces of land which may either be islands or the outlying points of a 
continent. The longest and best known of the three large tracts just 
mentioned is that lying to the south of Cape Horn, its various parts being 
named respectively Louis Philippe Land, Palmer Land, Graham Land, 
and Alexander Island. It is fringed with islands, of which the South 
Shetlands and the New Orkneys are the principal groups. In the same 
hemisphere, but due south of port Dunedin, lies Victoria Land, discovered 
by Sir James Ross in 1841, the coast line of which was further explored by 
him in the following year. This land is remarkable for being the site of an 
active volcano, 12,367 feet high, named by Ross Mount Erebus. It is 
situated in the high latitude of 76° 6’ S., and is in the vicinity of an 
extinct volcano, called by Ross Mount Terror. Ross traced Victoria Land 
from the 70th degree of latitude to nearly the 79th, the precise latitude 
attained by his ships being 78° 10’ S., or nearly four degrees higher than 
any navigator had reached before. It would appear that Victoria Land, to 
the south of New Zealand, forms a sort of bight; but what checked Ross's 
progress, and prevented him ascertaining the precise contour of the land at 
this latitude, was a solid barrier of ice, without flaw or fissure in its face, from 
100 to 300 feet high, trending to the north and east. He sailed along this 
barrier for 450 miles, without being able to find an entrance or to see any 
land rising behind it during a great part of the distance, so that, although 
Ross himself seems to have been of opinion that the barrier sereened a body 
of land, it cannot be positively asserted that such is the case. Victoria 
Land, may either at the point where Ross met the barrier, trend to the 
South Pole, or it may, covered by the ice barrier, stretch away to the east- 
ward to meet Alexander Land, between which and Victoria Land the only 
known Land is Peter 1st Island, on the 91st meridian of west longitude, 
discovered by the Russian navigator, Bellingshausen, in 1821. 

Turning now to the westward and south of Australia, we come to the 
important discoveries of our countryman Ballemy, the Frenchman D'Urville, 
and the American Wilkes. These consist of the Ballemy Isles, Sabrina 
Land, and Adélie Land. The two latter form a coast line, if we are to 
credit Wilkes, extending from 154? 27' E., to 97? 80' E. long.; but Wilkes's 


Purneti.On Antarctic Exploration, 83 


authority is not of the best, since he seems to have seen a great deal 
more than sailors of other nationalities could do. Indeed, Ross actually 
sailed over one spot where Wilkes affirmed that he had discovered a chain 
of mountains, Without, however, placing too much reliance upon Wilkes's 
alleged discoveries to the westward, we have the concurrent testimony of 
himself, Balleny, and D’Urville, that an extensive tract of land does exist 
in this direction; Balleny Isles, lying considerably to the eastward (lat. 
66° 44’ §., and long, 163° 11’ E.), and so forming a connecting link between 
these and Ross’s discoveries. It is noticeable that Cook, on his second 
voyage, was unable to get so far south as this body of land by four or 
five degrees, being stopped by the ice, although he was on the right track 
for its discovery. 

Still proceeding westward, we next meet with Kemp Land on the 60th, 
and then with Enderby Land on the 50th meridian. These were discovered 
by our countryman Biscoe, in 1831-3. Whether Kemp and Enderby Lands 
are islands, or the outlying parts of a large mass of land, we do not know; 
but it is noticeable with respect both to them and the discoveries just men- 
tioned that they all lie adjacent to the antarctic circle. 

I have now summarised all that is actually known of the so-called 
** antarctic continent," from which you will see that, while there are indica- 
tions which might lead us to infer a connection between the principal dis- 
coveries that have been made, it may well be that the most extensive of 
these lands are only the chief members of an archipelago. Hach hemi- 
sphere offers its special attractions to the explorer. In the western, the vast 
space between Ross’s discoveries and Alexander Land, extending over about 
60° of longitude, remains to be examined. Cook tried to penetrate its re- 
cesses, but could get no farther than 71° 10’ S., which he did on the 107th 
meridian, when he was beaten back by the ice. Ross made a similar 
attempt on his second voyage, and actually crossed the antarctic circle in 
longitude 156° 28’ W., or fourteen hundred miles to the eastward of the 
place where he crossed it on his first voyage ; but he was afterwards driven 
to the west by the pack, and reached his lowest latitude in 161° 27’ W. 
There is next the gap between Louis Philippe Land and Enderby Land. 
This has been tried by various navigators. The most successful was 
Weddell, who, in 1823, got as low down as 74° 15’ 8. on the 35th 
meridian (W.), and found there a sea clear of ice. Weddell accom- 
plished this great feat in a brig of 160 tons burthen, accompanied by a 
cutter of 65 tons. He would have sailed still further south but for 
the lateness of the season, which rendered it prudent to turn back. - 
D'Urville, however, following on his track, could not attain to even 

Cc 


84  Transactitons,—Miscellaneous, 


66°; and Ross, on the same meridian, was stopped by an impenetrable 
pack at 65° 18’ S. Ross afterwards sailed eastward, and reached the 
latitude of 71° 80’ S. in 14° 51’ W. Still further eastward, on the 
second meridian west longitude, Bellingshausen reached 69° 45’ S. None 
of these navigators met with land at the extreme limits of their voyages, 
Finally, it is necessary to ascertain whether a connection exists between 
Victoria Land and Terre Adélie. 

The practical object which I have in view is to urge that, as soon as 
circumstances permit, an expedition should be fitted out at the joint expense 
of the Australian and New Zealand governments for the purpose of follow- 
ing up Ross’s discoveries, and ascertaining whether land does or does not 
exist between Victoria and Alexander Land. Such an enterprise would 
doubtless be outside the routine work of these governments; but is never- 
theless one to which they might properly devote their attention, unless, 
indeed, we accept the theory that Englishmen who happen to reside in a 
colony thereby become emancipated from national duties, and are entitled 
to consecrate their lives to money-making. The cost would be considerable, 
but when we reflect how many expeditions, which have made important 
discoveries in the Arctic Seas, have been despatched from England, the 
United States, and Germany, at the expense of private persons, it seems 
absurd to contend that it would be beyond the means of these rich Colonial 
Governments. What is wanted are two auxiliary steamers, of from 800 
to 400 tons burthen, officered and manned from the Royal Navy, and pro- 
visioned for three years, so that if a harbour could be found the ships might 
be able to winter in the Antarctic Seas. The natural starting point of such 
an expedition would be Port Chalmers. The expedition would sail about 
the middle of November, and would be able to continue its explorations 
until the end of February, when it must either look for winter quarters or 
return home. 

It is possible that the vessels might not be able to winter in the ice, 
for one of the peculiar difficulties connected with antarctic explorations 
is that no harbour has yet been found where vessels can go into winter 
quarters as they are accustomed to do in the arctic regions. Hence Ross, 
on each of his three voyages, was only able to remain in the Antarctic Seas 
during the summer season, and could not therefore utilise the winter for 
land expeditions. He was also compelled to navigate in sailing ships, and 
without any of the appliances for securing the health of the crews and the 
safety of the vessels, which have since almost raised Polar exploration to 
the rank of an exact science. Nevertheless, his discoveries were of a 
remarkable character, and in reading his narrative one can easily perceive 


Purnaui,—0n Antaretic Eaploratión, 85 


how much more he would probably have done had he been aided by steam, 
On his second voyage, when he attained the highest latitude ever reached, he 
was 56 days in the pack, which was 1000 miles through, and by the time he 
had got out of it and reached the ice barrier it was time to return. With 
steamers he would probably have pierced the pack in two or three weeks, 
In the event of the expedition being unable to winter in the ice, I should 
propose that the explorations be renewed in the next and following years, 
thus making three attempts to accomplish the objects in view. 

It cannot, however, be denied that the antarctic explorer has a harder 
task to encounter than his northern comrade. The cold is more intense; 
storms more frequent; while a constant heavy swell of the sea adds to the 
dangers of the navigator. Describing the state of the ice barrier on Feb- 
ruary 9, 1841, Ross says, “ gigantic icicles depended from every projecting 
point of its perpendicular cliffs, proving that it sometimes thaws, which 
otherwise we could not have believed, for at a season of the year equivalent 
to August in England we have the thermometer at 12°, and at noon not 
rising above 14°; this severity of temperature is remarkable, also, when 
compared with our former experience in the Northern Seas, where, from 
every iceberg you meet with, streams of water are constantly pouring off 
during the summer.” There is not the smallest trace of vegetation visible 
in these inhospitable regions, even in the middle of summer. The most 
southerly spot where vegetation has been seen is Cockburn Island, one of 
the South Shetland Group, situated in latitude 64° 12’ S. ; but it only con- 
sists of a few mosses, alge and lichens. No land animals have been 
observed. Whales, seals, penguins, petrels, and skua gulls are the only 
visible living creatures in the highest latitudes that have been reached. 
The winter is rather longer and the summer shorter than in the Arctic Seas. 
These peculiarities would of course prove great hindrances to land explora- 
tions, which would, even if they could be undertaken at all, have to be made 
under different and more arduous conditions than those attaching to land 
journeys in the North Polar regions. 

The determination of the existence, or non-existence, of an Antarctic 
Continent is the principal problem to be solved by a South Polar expedi- 
tion. It must, however, be also borne in mind that the geographical 
discoveries which have already been made are of the baldest nature. 
Certain lands are known to exist and that is all. They have never been 
explored. Louis Philippe Land and the other land to the south of Cape 
Horn are the only Antarctic Lands of whose geography and productions 
we have any real knowledge, and that is very limited, But the explorer's 
foot has never trodden Victoria Land, Terre Adélie, Sabrina, or Enderby 


86 Transactions, —Miscellaneous, 


Land, Outlying islands alone have been visited, and then for the brief- 
est period. The main land has been seen from a distance bursting 
through the antarctic ice-cap and that is all. It is of the utmost interest 
to know whether all or any of these lands are inhabited by human beings. 
Their entire separation from the great continents of Asia and America, 
and the want of even the limited means of subsistence afforded by the 
North Polar regions for mankind, seem to forbid the supposition but 
are not conclusive, and nothing but actual research can settle the ques- 


on. 
A knowledge of the geology of those regions would be of deep interest, 
but it is noticeable that, according to such observations as could be made, 
the lands visited by Ross’s expedition were wholly volcanic in character. 
There was an entire absence of sedimentary formations, whose examination 
in the North Polar regions has yielded such useful fruits to science. Even 
in zoology a new expedition could hardly be barren of results, for Ross’s 
enriched the naturalist's catalogue considerably. Ice action, too, is playing 
such an important part in modern geological speculations, that it is a little 
surprising that such a novel field of study as the Antarctic regions has not 
been taken up before, inasmuch as ice here assumes highly characteristic 
forms, quite different from those it presents in the north. Meteorological 
and magnetic phenomena can also be studied under peculiar advantages. 
The precise object of Ross’s expedition was to take magnetic observations, 
and to reach the south magnetic pole. Ross determined the position of 
the latter, but did not get within 160 miles of it. I could, however, traverse 
a large part of the domain of physical research, pointing out how it would 
be enriched by an antarctic expedition, but I have said enough to prove 
that such an expedition would be likely to produce scientific fruits of the 
utmost value. Its probable commercial results must also not be overlooked. 
Ross discovered plentifully-stocked whaling grounds, and a rich bed of guano 
on Possession Island, situated in lat. 71° 56’ S., and long. 171? 7’ E. Upon 
this island there were scaly penguins in myriads, and the same bird was 
seen in immense numbers in other places. This species of penguin attains 
a large size, the birds often weighing as much as 601bs. or 701lbs. a-piece, 
and, as they yield a valuable medicinal oil in considerable quantity, their 
capture ought to be commercially profitable. Seals, too, swarm in the 
lower latitudes, where they have bred undisturbed during countless ages. 
Indeed, when we begin to contemplate the vast impetus which might be 
given to the commerce of New Zealand and the neighbouring colonies 
by a thorough exploration of the Antarctic Seas, the imagination is apt to 
wander into boundless regions of potential wealth, only awaiting the enter- 


PunxELL.—On Antarctic Eaploration. 97 


prise of man to become available for his use. I shall not, however, be 
tempted into this attractive ground, but shall content myself with pointing : 
to its allurements. 

I have not entered upon the details of the proposed expedition, because 
they can be better diseussed in a separate paper. My present aim is to 
direct your attention to an important but neglected subject in which New 
Zealand is specially concerned. This colony has contributed nothing to 
the cause of geographical discovery. Australia has done much, and the 
adventurous feats of travel which have been performed by Eyre, Sturt, 
Stuart, Leichardt, Burke, and other explorers, are such as to justify the 
belief that their names will be perpetually preserved, not only in local but in 
the national memory. It is deeds like these which redeem the colonies from 
the reproach of being engrossed in the selfish-pursuit of wealth; and it is 
by these means alone that we shall become entitled to rank in the eye of 
the future historian with our fellow-countrymen in the older parts of the 
empire. We pride ourselves much upon our industrial successes; upon 
the vastness of our flocks and herds ; upon the immense crops of grain we 
raise ; upon our budding manufactures; the roads, railways, and bridges 
we have built; and all the other manifestations of our material progress ; 
but these things are for ourselves alone, and can claim no higher praise 
than appertains to a man who devotes his life solely and successfully to the 
acquisition of a private fortune. We have as yet done nothing for mankind, 
nothing for the intellectual advancement of our race; we have laid upon 
our baeks none of those mighty but glorious burdens which fall to the lot 
of those who occupy the lofty station of citizens of an ancient and illustrious 
State. 

The physical characteristics of New Zealand have virtually shut its set- 
tlers out from the field of geographical exploration, so far as the country 
itself is concerned ; but, on the other hand, it is the most convenient base 
for operations in the noble arena of research which lies open for our enter- 
prise in the South Polar Seas. No real obstacle stands in the way. 
Experienced officers and men could be got in plenty from the Royal Navy. 
The Home Government would no-doubt willingly lend their services, and - 
the arctic service is so popular in the navy that we should only have to 
pick and choose from amongst the volunteers. I propose that the vessels 
should be manned from the Royal Navy, because it was admitted by all 
competent authorities on the subject that naval discipline tends materially 
to the success of polar exploring expeditions, and is a sure safeguard 
against such misfortunes as those which befel Captain Hall’s expedition in 
the ‘Polaris,’ The scientific staff, however, should consist —. of : 


38 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


colonists. They would, of course, be easily obtainable. The question of 
money is the real one, but the difficulty there lies not in our want of funds, 
but in the unwillingness of the Assembly to vote money for any purpose 
which is not likely to prove of immediate practical utility. The cost, how- 
ever, when divided between several colonies would fall lightly enough upon 
each, and I cannot bring myself to believe that either the colonists of New 
Zealand as a body, or their representatives in the General Assembly, would 
begrudge the expenditure of £15,000 or £20,000 (for our share would 
probably not exceed that sum) upon a scientific work which would shed 
lasting honour upon the colony. 


Art. III.—On the Cleansing of Towns. By J. Turnsutn Tnuowsow, C.E., 
F.R.G.8., F.R.8.8.A., Surveyor-General of New Zealand. 
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 30th November, 1878.] 

Aw efficient and economical system of town cleansing is 2 responsibility 
that soon forces itself on colonial communities; hence its discussion cannot 
but be fraught with interest. Even in mere camps the subject is of the 
first importance to the health of armies, to travellers, or to moving tribes 
and peoples; an early appreciation of which we have in the laws of Moses.” 

That it is not otherwise in New Zealand is evidenced by the various 
enquiries that have been instituted from time to time, by the measures of 
the various town councils, and by the reports and papers of engineers. The 
earliest Sanitary Commission in New Zealand, that I am aware of, was that 
of Dunedin, in which city it is stated that the death-rate, in the year 1868-4, 
was 35:3 per thousand. More recent statistics show great variation in 
different towns and years, as follows :— . 


Auckland .. in1875 .. 86°77 in 1877 .. 16:68 per 1,000 
Wellington .. » +x 26°01 2 to, 05D iv 
Nelson “a 27°39 js 16:96 ^ 
Christchurch j .. 80°44 » .. 35:60 ue 
Dunedin .. 5 . 22°94 A c bor 5 


Impressed with the weight of the above considerations, during my recent 
visit to England I took the opportunity of examining the actual state of the 
sanitary works in several towns either wholly or partially, besides which I 
obtained personal interviews with the officers of several of the Boards, thus 
directly obtaining the views that had been arrived at by a full knowledge of 


* Dout, xxiii., 12, 18. 


T'Homson,—On the Cleansing of Towns. 39 


their local circumstances and wants. These I found, as will be seen in the 
sequel, to be very various and often discordant. 

First of importance was the drainage of London, and to this I had free 
access given me by the officers of the Metropolitan Board of Works, whereby 
I was enabled to inspect the arterial, side, and house-drains, as well as the 
outfalls some miles below the city. I had also several papers given me 
describing the same, and to these I shall now refer, quoting first in order 
from a paper by their engineer.” Here we are informed that the “ subject 
of sewerage received the attention of the Legislature at an early date ;" 
and that ‘amongst others, a proposal by Sir Christopher Wren for improved 
drainage, nearly two hundred years ago, is preserved in MS. in the records 
of the ancient Westminster Commission.” 

Again: “Up to about the year 1815 it was penal to discharge sewage 
or other offensive matters into the sewers. Cesspools were regarded as the 
proper receptacles for house drainage, and sewers as the legitimate channels 
for carrying off surface waters only ; afterwards it became permissive, and 
in the year 1847 the first Act was obtained making it compulsory to drain 
houses into the streets." 

Again: “ Prior to the year 1847 sewers were under the management 
of eight distinet Commissions," who “carried out (each) its drainage 
works, frequently regardless of the effect thereby produced upon the 
neighbouring districts through which the sewage flowed." 

Again: “In the year 1847 these eight Commissions of Sewers were 
superseded by one Commission termed “the Metropolitan Commission of 
Sewers,” who made “the adoption of the new system of drainage com- 
pulsory, so that, within a period of six years, thirty thousand cesspools 
were abolished, and all the house and street refuse was turned into the 
river." 

Again: “ Similar systems were, about this period, to a large extent 
adopted in the provincial towns, by which means their drainage has been 
vastly improved, but the rivers and streams of the country have become 
very generally and seriously polluted.” 

Again: ““In 1852 the fifth Commission was issued, (when) fresh plans 
for intercepting the sewage of the metropolis still continued to be heard 
before the Commission, and were from time to time examined and reported 
on without any practical result. In 1854 the author (Sir J. W. Bazalgette) 
was directed to prepare a scheme of intercepting sewers intended to effect 
the improved drainage of London.” 

ain: “ The sixth Commission, formed in 1855, continued to discuss 
the subject, but without coming to a practical result.” “ But it was not 
alone the anomalies of the old Commissions, &c., which compelled the 


* * Main Drainage of London," by Sir J. W, Bazalgette, M. Inst, C.E, 


40 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


adoption of a general system of main drainage. The metropolis had 
suffered severely in the cholera visitation of 1831-2, again in 1848-9, and 
lastly in 1858-4." “The places formerly most favourable to the spread of 
the disease became quite free from it when afterwards properly drained." 

Again: “In designing a system of main drainage these points had to be 
kept in view—to provide ample means for the discharge of the large and 
inereasing water supply consequent on the universal adoption of water- 
closets, and of the ordinary rainfall and surface drainage at all times, 
except during extraordinary storms, and to afford to the low-lying dis- 
tricts a sufficiently deep outfall to allow of every house being effectually 
relieved of its fluid refuse.” 

Again: “ For centuries there had existed Sewers Commissions appointed 
by the Government, and irresponsible to the ratepayers, upon whom they 
levied rates." “The author (Sir J. W. Bazalgette) having been appointed 
engineer to the Metropolitan Board was again instructed to prepare a plan 
for the drainage of the metropolis ;’’ “and it was through the influence of 
Lord John Manners that the Board was left free to carry out their system 
of main drainage.” 

Again: “The objects sought to be attained in the execution of the main 
drainage works were—-the interception of the sewage (as far as practicable by 
gravitation), together with so much of the rainfall mixed with it as could be 
reasonably dealt with, so as to divert it from the river at London; the 
substitution of a constant, instead of an intermittent flow in the sewers; 
the abolition of stagnant and tide-locked sewers, with their consequent 
accumulations of deposit; and the provision of deep and improved outfalls 
for the extension of the sewage into districts previously, for want of such 
outfalls, imperfectly drained." 

Again: “ According to the system it was sought to improve; the London 
main sewers fell into the Thames, and, most of them passing under the low 
grounds in the margin of the river before they reached it, discharged their 
contents into that river at or about the level, and at the time of low water 
only. As the tide rose it closed the outlets and ponded back the sewage 
flowing from the high ground." 

“ The volume of pure water in the river (Thames) being at that time at 
its minimum rendered it quite incapable of diluting and disinfecting such 
vast masses of sewage." 

Again: ‘‘In the system now adopted it has been sought to remove those 
evils by the construction of new lines of sewers laid at right angles to 
those existing, and a little below their levels, so as to intercept their 
contents and convey them to an outfall fourteen miles below London 
Bridge n 


Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 41 


“By this arrangement the sewage is not only at once diluted by the 
large volume of water in the Thames at high-water, but is also carried by 
the ebb tide to a point in the river twenty-six miles below London Bridge, 
and its return by the following flood tide within the metropolitan area is 
effectually prevented.” 

Again: “At the threshold of my (Sir J. W. Bazalgette’s) enquiry into 
this subject the following important points required to be solved :— 

“1st. At what point and state of the tide ean the sewage be discharged 
into the river, so as not to return within the more densely inhabited por- 
tions of the metropolis ? 

* 2nd. What is the minimum fall which should be given to the inter- 
cepting sewers ? 

“Ərd. What is the quantity of sewage to be intercepted, and does it 
pass off in a uniform flow at all hours of the day and night, and in what 
manner ? 

“4th. Is the rainfall to be mixed with the sewage? In what manner 
and quantities does it flow into the sewers; and, also, is it to be carried 
off in the intercepting sewers, and how is it to be provided for ? 

' 6th. Having referred to all these points, how are the sizes of the 
intercepting and main drainage sewers to be determined ? 

' 6th. What description of pumping engines and of pumps are best 
adapted for lifting the sewage of London at the pumping stations? So 
comprehensive a subject, involving not only the above but many other 
important topics, cannot be fully considered within the limits of an 
ordinary paper, in which these questions can only be briefly touched 
upon." 

Experiments by floats were now made on the river Thames, by 
whieh it was found that *the excess of the ebbs over the floods was 
only five miles in four days," and “that a substance in suspension, works 
up the river about one mile a day at each high water, as the springs 
strengthen, and down the river two miles a day as they fall off." Again: 
that “the delivery of the sewage at high water into the river at any 
point, is equivalent to its discharge at low water at a point twelve miles 
lower down the river; therefore the construction of twelve miles of sewer 
is saved by discharging the sewage at high instead of at low water." 

The flow of sewage in the drains was then determined by reference to 
the data afforded by the works of well-known authorities, and it was con- 
cluded by the engineer to regard that “a mean velocity of one-and-a-half 
miles per hour in a properly protected main sewer, when running half 
full, is sufficient, more especially when the contents have passed through 
8 pumping station,” 


42 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


In estimating the quantity of sewage to be carried off ** provision has 
been made for an increase of the population up to 80,000 people to the 
square mile, except over the outlying districts, where provision has been 
made for a population giving 20,000 to the square mile." “An improved 
water supply, equal to five cubic feet, or 814 gallons per head for such 
contemplated increased population has moreover been anticipated." 

Again: “How to dispose of the rainfall is a question of considerable 
difficulty, and has given rise to much diversity of opinion. This arises 
from the fact that, whilst it is in itself harmless, and even advantageous to 
the river, it sometimes falls suddenly in large quantities. These considera- 
tions have induced theorists to advocate that the rainfall should not be 
allowed to flow off with the sewage, but should be dealt with by a separate 
system of sewers. This theory however is most impracticable." 

Referring to experiments on this subject the result ‘‘ distinctly establishes 
the fact, that the quantity of rain which flowed off by the sewers was, in all 
cases, much less than the quantity which fell on the ground,” also “that 
1 of an inch of rainfall will not contribute } of an inch to the sewers; 
nor a fall of 4$; of an inch more than } of an inch." 

Again: “ As it would not have been wise or practicable to have increased 
the sizes of the intercepting sewers much beyond their present dimensions 
in order to carry off the rare and excessive thunderstorms, overflow sewers, 
io act as safety valves in times of storms, have been constructed at the 
junctions of the intercepting sewers with the main valley lines.” 

Again: “ Having determined the quantities of sewage and rainfall to be 
carried off, and the rate of declivity of the sewer required for the necessary 
velocity of flow, the sizes of the intercepting sewers were readily determined 
by the formule of Prony, Eytelwein, and Du Buat.” 

Again: “A primary object sought to be attained in this scheme was 
the removing as much of the sewage as praetieable by gravitation, so as to 
reduce the amount of pumping to a minimum." Under this view, on the 
north side of the Thames, the high level sewer commences at the foot of 
Hampstead Hill, passing through certain distriets of London, draining about 
ten square miles (shown in the plan), the form of which **is mostly circular, 
and it varies in size from 4 feet in diameter to 9 feet 6 inches by 12 feet; 
its fall is rapid, ranging at the upper end from 1 in 71 to 1 in 876, and from 
4 feet to 5 feet per mile at the lower end.” 

The middle level sewer is as near the Thames as the contour of the 
ground will allow, the area intercepted being 17} square miles. 

The low level sewer intercepts the sewage from the low level area, which 
contains 11 square miles? ‘It is also the main outlet for a district of about 


THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 48 


14i square miles, forming the western suburb of London, which is so low 
that its sewage has to be lifted at Chelsea a height of 174 feet into the 
upper end of the low level sewer. It is tunnelled under the river Lea, on 
its route to Abbey Mills, where its contents are raised 86 feet by steam 
power. 

Again: “The northern outfall sewer is a work of peculiar construction; 
as, unlike ordinary sewers, it is raised above the level of the surrounding 
neighbourhood in an embankment, which has the appearance of a railway 
embankment, and it is carried by aqueducts over rivers, railways, streets 
and roads.” 

Again: “The Barking reservoir is 163 feet in average depth, and is 
divided by partition walls into four compartments, covering altogether an 
effective area of 412,384 superficial feet, or about 9434 acres. The external 
and partition walls are of brickwork, and the centre area is covered by 
brick arches supported upon brick piers, the floor being paved throughout 
with York stone. The reservoir, being almost entirely above the general 
surface of the ground, is covered by an embankment of earth, rising about 
2 feet above the crown of the arches. The ground over which it is built 
being unfit to sustain the structure, the foundations of the piers, and of the 
walls, were carried down in concrete to a depth of nearly 20 feet.” 

Again: ** The Abbey Mills Pumping Station will be the largest establish- 
ment of the kind in the main drainage works, providing, as it does, engine- 
power to the extent of 1140 h.p. for the purpose of lifting a minimum 
quantity of sewage and rainfall of 15,000 cubic feet per minute a height 
of 36 feet." 

The Engineer adds that “It is fortunate that these works were not 
projected in the year 1806 when coal was first introduced into London, 
and was regarded as such a nuisance that the resident nobility obtained a 
royal proclamation to prohibit its use under severe penalties; for this 
pumping station alone will consume about 9700 tons of coal per annum. 
The cost of pumping is not, however, actually in excess of the former 
expenditure upon drainage, for the cost of removing deposit from the tide- 
locked and stagnated sewers in London, formerly amounted to a sum of 
about £30,000 per annum, and the substitution of a constant flow through 
sewers by means of pumping must necessarily reduce the deposit, and 
consequently the annual cost of cleaning." 

Again: ‘On the south side of the Thames the high-level sewer and its 
southern braneh correspond with the high and middle-level sewers on the 
north side of the Thames." ‘‘ Both lines are constructed of sufficient 
capacity to carry off the flood waters, so that they may be entirely inter- 


44 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


cepted from the low and thickly inhabited district, which is tide-locked and 
subject to floods. The storm-waters will be discharged into Deptford Creek, 
whilst the sewage and a limited quantity of rain will flow by four iron 
pipes laid under its bed, each 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, into the outfall 
sewer." * 

Again: “The main line varies in size from 4 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 
at the upper end to 10 feet 6 inches, of the same form as the branch by the 
side of which it is constructed.” 

Again: “The falls of the main line are at the upper end 53 feet, 26 
feet, and 9 feet per mile to the Effra sewer at the Brixton Road, and 
_ thence to the outlet, 23 feet per mile. The sewer is erected in brickwork, 
varying in thickness from 9 inches to 221 inches, that forming the invert 
being in Portland cement, and the remainder in blue lias mortar.” 

Again: “ The low-level sewer does not follow the course of the river as 
on the north side; but commencing at Putney it takes a more direct line 
through the low ground once forming the bed of the second channel of the 
Thames, and drains Putney, Battersea, Nine Elms, Lambeth, Newington, 
Southwark, Bermondsey, Rotherhithe, and Deptford.” The Engineer 
adds that this district being mostly level was formerly much subject to 
be overflown, and to stagnation of waters, causing malaria, so much so that 
“the late Mr. R. Stephenson and Sir W. Cubitt forcibly described the 
effect of artificial draining by pumping as equivalent to raising the surface 
to the height of 20 feet. The low-level sewer has in fact rendered this 
district as dry and as healthy as any portion of the metropolis." 

Again: “ The Deptford pumping station is situated by the side of the 
Deptford Creek, and close to the Greenwich railway station. The sewage 
here is lifted from the low-level sewer to a height of 18 feet into the outfall 
sewer. Four expansive condensing rotative beam engines, each of 125 h.p., 
and capable together of lifting 10,000 cubic feet of sewage per minute to 
a height of 18 feet, are here constructed.” 

Relating to the southern outfall sewer: ‘‘The large volume of water 
met with in the marshes rendered the construction of that portion of the 
work very costly. These marshes originally formed part of the Thames, 
and were first enclosed, in the reign of Edward I., by the monks of Lesnes 
Abbey. Two thousand acres were afterwards flooded by the bursting of 
the river banks in the reign of Henry VIIL, and were not again reclaimed 
until the reign of James I." 

Again: “ The outfall of the sewage at the south side of the Thames is 
at Crossness reservoir and pumping station. The sewage is discharged into 
the river at the time of high water only; but the sewer is at such a level 


* Written in 1865, 


kinini 
wi aina 


Txomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns, 45 


that it can discharge its full volume by gravitation about the time of low 
water.” 

Again; “ The maximum quantity of sewage to be lifted by the engines 
(at Crossness), will ordinarily be 10,000 cubic feet per minute, but during 
the night that quantity will be considerably reduced—while, on the other 
hand, it will be nearly doubled on oceasions of heavy rainfall. The lift will 
also vary from 10 to 80 feet, according to the level of the water in the 
sewer and in the reservoir into which it is lifted." “ The reservoir, which 
is 64 acres in extent, is covered by brick arches, supported on brick piers, 
and is furnished with weirs for overflows with a flushing culvert.” 

Again: ‘‘ The specifications provide that the whole of the cement shall 
be Portland cement of the very best quality, ground extremely fine, weigh- 
ing not less than 100lbs. to the bushel, capable of maintaining a breaking 
weight of 500lbs. to the bushel on 14 square inch, seven days after being 
made in an iron mould, and immersed in water during the intervening 
seven days.” 

Again: “ The total cost of the main drainage works when completed 
wil have been about £4,100,000." “The sum for defraying the cost of 
these works is raised by loan, and paid off by a 3d. rate levied in the 
metropolis, which produces £180,262 per annum, the rateable value being 
£14,421,011, and the principal and interest of the loan will be paid off in 
forty years.” 

* There are about 1,300 miles of sewers in London, and 82 miles of 
main intercepting sewers. 380,000,000 of bricks and 880,000 cubic yards 
of concrete have been consumed, and 8} million cubic yards of earth have 
been excavated in the execution of the main drainage works. The total 
pumping power employed is 2,880 nominal h.p. ; and if at full work night 
and day 44,000 tons of coals per annum would be consumed, but the 
average consumption is estimated at 20,000 tons.”’ 

* The sewage of the north side of the Thames at present amounts to 
10 million eubie feet per day, and on the south side to 4 million cubie feet 
per day; but provision is made for an anticipated increase up to 114 
millions on the north side, and 53 millions on the south side, in addition to 
281 million eubie feet of rainfall per diem on the north side, and 173 mil- 
lion cubic feet per diem on,the south side; or a total of 68 million cubic 
feet per diem, which is equal to a lake of 482 acres 8 feet deep, or fifteen 
times as large as the Serpentine in Hyde Park." 

Turning now to the labours of a deputation appointed by the Town 
Council and Board of Police of the city of Glasgow, to enquire into 
the methods of disposing of sewage adopted in various towns in England*, 

* Report dated October, 1877. 


. 


46 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, 


we find it stated in the appendix of their Report that— 

Lzzps has a population of 291,580, covering an area of 21,572 acres. 
But the town at present sewered covers only about 4,900 acres, with a 
population of 245,600, thus showing a population of 50 to the acre, while 
Glasgow has 88:6. The average mortality for the five years—1871 to 1875 
inclusive—is 27:4 per 1,000. The number of water-closets in Leeds is 
8,500, and of ash-pits and privies 13,000, and about 3,000 of the latter are 
provided with pails or boxes. Many of the privies have been recently 
altered into trough water-closets, which are highly approved by Dr. Goldie, 
the Medical Officer of Health. Originally experimental works were erected 
to test the efficacy of the A, B, C process, which was in the hands of a 
Native Guano Company. These works cost about £10,000, and were con- 
structed to treat 2 million gallons of sewage daily. The success of the 
experiment, so far as producing an apparently good effluent, induced the 
Corporation to erect works for the chemical treatment of the entire sewage 
of the town, amounting to nearly 14 million gallons daily, which cost 
£50,000; but since the works have been in operation practically, it has 
been found impossible to dispose of the produce in any quantity. As 
regards undried sludge the farmers in the vicinity refuse to accept it as a 
gift. 

Braprorp has a population of 173,000 and covers an area of 7,221 acres, 
giving a density of population equal to 24 per acre. The average death- 
rate is 26:1 per 1,000. The number of water-closets is about 2,000, and 
of dry-closets 3,000. The works for the purification of the sewage are at 
Manningham, about 1} miles from the town. The sewage amounts on an 
average to 9 million gallons per day, and the precipitant used is lime. The 
quantity employed is about 18 cwt. per million gallons of sewage. The 
works cost £65,000, and cost of working £5,000 per annum. 

Harrrax, a town of 68,500 inhabitants, occupies an area of 3,768 acres, 
giving a density of population equal to 18 per acre. ‘The average mortality 
is 26:6 per 1,000. The town contains 2,000 water-closets and about 
8,300 dry-closets. The sewage amounts to 24 millions of gallons (per 
diem), and is carried in a culvert to a small beck or burn, which runs through 
the valley in which the town is situated. Formerly lime was used to : 
defecate the sewage, but this attempt at purification has ceased. The Goux 
system is here adopted for the dry-closets. Once worked by a company, 
but at a heavy loss, the Corporation now carry on the works. 

Croypon has a population of 63,000, and occupies a space of 10,000 
acres, giving a density of population equal to 6:8 per acre—the average 
annual mortality being 19 per 1,000, The sewage in dry weather amounts 


Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns, 47 


to 23 millions of gallons per diem, and the number of water-closets is about 
15,000. The whole sewage is disposed of by irrigation, for which the place 
is eminently adapted by nature. Crops of rye grass are thus obtained in 
value £40 per acre. Financially the farm to which the sewage is applied 
is not a success, the loss per annum varying from £1,012 to £1,700. The 
Deputation say it is, however, probably the most successful sewage farm in 
England. 

Of London the Deputation remark that the population is 8,500,000; the 
density per acre being 45-7, and mortality 22-9 (per 1,000). Here also the. 
sewage farms have been unsuccessful, and I need not go over the ground 
already traversed in the preceding part of this paper. 

BigurxGmaw has a population of 875,000, occupying an area of 8,490 > 
acres; density, 44:5 persons to the acre; death-rate, 25:2 per 1,000. The 
number of water-closets in 1872 was 7,065, but though the population has 


largely increased since that time, the number of water-elosets is now only 


7,514. In fact, the use of these is discouraged by the municipal authorities, 
although not absolutely forbidden. The number of houses in 1871 was 
75,000, and since that time 8,420 have been erected, bringing up the present 
number to 88,490. The number of pan-closets in use in 1876 was 17,000, 
all the new houses of the smaller class being fitted with these—one closet 
serving for not more than two houses. Of ordinary privies, at the same 
date, there were 27,436, and of ash-pits 19,154. The quantity of sewage 
is from 12 million to 16 million gallons per day, and before being passed 
into the River Tame it is treated with lime to cause precipitation. The sludge 
is also treated by a patented process, the annual expense of which, after 
deducting income from revenue, is £12,000. 

The Rochdale system of pails for night-soil, and tubs for ashes is carried 
out at Birmingham ; about 17,000 pans being now in use. 

Coventry has a population of 40,000; an average annual mortality of 
23:4 per 1,000, and 10 persons to the acre. The water supply is from 
artesian wells. The present number of water-closets is about 5,000; and 
privies, 800. The sewage works are about a mile from the town, and the 
effluent goes into a small stream called the Sherbourne. The sewage is 
passed through gravel filters before it is let out in the stream. But the 
system becoming inefficient, works for purification and utilisation were 
erected at a cost of £14,000. But the company to whom the sewage was 
conceded had to succumb. The Corporation now carries on the works at a 
yearly expenditure of about £2700. 

Manchester has a population of 356,000; the average death-rate being 
80 per 1000. The number of persons to the acre is 83, The river Irwell 


48 Transactions,—Miscellaneous, 


separates it from Salford, which has a population of 136,000, and whose 
death-rate is 29:3 per 1,000, and density per acre, 26:3. There are compara- 
tively few water-closets in Manchester, and they are discouraged as much as 
possible, and practically forbidden in houses of a smaller kind. There are 
42,000 privies, and these are gradually being altered into pan-closets. 
Already 24,000 have been thus converted; and Dr. Leigh, the medical 
officer of health, expects that in three years the whole will have been 
altered. Dr. Leigh calculates that, when all the privies are converted, 
6 million gallons of urine annually will be kept out of the sewers, and 
consequently out of the Irwell, that were formerly allowed to flow into it. 
Next, the system of removing is entered into, but we pass over this, and 
only note that about 3,000 tons of material are dealt with weekly, and” 
these consist of—paper, 1 ton; rags, 3 tons; dead animals, 2 tons; stable 
manure, 2 tons; old iron and tin plate, 33 tons; refuse from slaughter- 
houses and fish shops, 60 tons; broken pottery, earthenware and glass, 80 
tons; vegetable refuse, door-mats, table-covers, floor-cloths, old straw mat- 
trasses and 100 tons fine ashes, 1,250 tons; cinders, 1,400 tons. These 
are separated, and specially dealt with; and, I may note here that, 
amongst these, 400 tons of manure is made weekly, and sold at 12s. 6d. 
per ton. 

OxpHam was the last place visited by the Deputation. It is a purely 
manufacturing town, having a population of 88,000, and an annual mor- 
tality of 28:2 per 1,000; the density, per acre, being 18:7. The pail 
system is in general use, and the contents are taken by the Carbon Fertili- 
zing Company, who have purchased the patent for absorbing excrementi- 
tious matter by charcoal. The Deputation add that, unfortunately, this 
patent does not appear to have had a fair trial, the works being in 
inextricable confusion. 

Guascow.—A few statistics of their own city is added, of which the 
following, as well as the preceding, are extracts. The estimated population 
in 1875 was 534,564, and the average mortality 29:9. The area of ground 
occupied is 6,084 acres; giving an average density of 88:6 persons per acre. 
The number of dwelling-houses in 1874 was 101,368; and of shops, ware- 
houses, and factories, 16,218. The water-closets nnmbered 81,927 ; sinks, 
71,291; fixed basins, 9,865; and urinals, 211. There are, also, at the pre- 
sent date (1878), 6,751 dry ashpits; 1,995 middins or wet ashpits; 8,816 
pan-closets; 94 trough-closets (chiefly in public works); and 18 publie con- 
veniences, 7 of which are fitted with pans, and 6 with Macfarlane’s patent 
troughs. One hundred and nine manufactories discharge refuse of various 
kinds into the sewers, And there are 2,304 stables, with 7,024 horses; 


THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns, 49 


and 811 cow-houses, with 1,350 cows. In addition to the factories, the 
refuse is conveyed into the drains. Twenty discharge direct into the 
river. The length of the sewers is about 100 miles, Within the city 
boundary there are at present 1314 miles of paved streets, 204 miles of 
statute labour roads, and 10 miles of turnpike roads; in all 162 miles, 

The estimated volume of discharge into the river daily is 40 millions of 
gallons, exclusive of rainfall, but including the water of the Molindinar and 
other burns. The total quantity of sewage in wet weather would be about 
74 million gallons per day. The water sent into the city and suburban 
villages (from the waterworks) averages 83 millions of gallons per day. It is 
distributed to a population of 710,000, so that the volume of water per head 
was 463 gallons a day. 

From the conclusions arrived at, as set forth in the report of the 
Deputation, we make the following extracts: The question of conservancy 
of rivers was constantly pressed on their attention, many of the inland towns 
being compelled, under heavy penalties, to render their sewage clear, in- 
odorous, and perfectly colourless, and sometimes under manifest injustice. 
The necessity of a Conservancy Board to watch over the whole drainage area 
of the various river-basins was constantly dwelt upon by the various authori- 
ties, as the only means of solving the important questions which were so 
intimately connected—the disposal of sewage, and the restoration of rivers 
to a state of purity. The Deputation state as a fact that the sewage question, 
in London even, is only partially solved; and in reference to the immediate 
subject of their attention, viz., Glasgow, the Deputation are of opinion that 
no sewage works can safely be undertaken till a Conservancy Board has 
been constituted for the Clyde. They point out at the same time that this 
city, in respect to area for discharge, is fortunately placed, being into a tidal 
river, as contra-distinguished from many of the inland cities of England, 
whose outfalls are into sluggish rivers of small capacity. 

They point out that it has never yet been shown that the foul condition 
of the Clyde is directly injurious to health; and of the mode of dealing with 
sewage in particular, there are two ways, viz., the dry system, and carriage 
by water; the first being the most rational as well as consistent with public 
health and with national prosperity, which, however, has weak points, that 
while it disposes of excreta, it leaves untouched all other sewage which would 
still require to be removed by water-carriage, and be purified of course 
before passing into a river in the same way as if it had contained the whole 
excreta. While, therefore, they hold that upon economical and sanitary 
grounds, water-closets in houses—especially in houses of the smaller sort.— 
and in public works, gaols, railway stations, &c., should, as far as possible, be 

D 


50 Transactions,— Miscellaneous, 


replaced by an efficient dry system, they do not think that the adoption of 
this course will very much lessen the amount of sewage to be dealt with, or 
render its purification less imperative. 

When water-carriage is used, the following methods may be employed :— 

1st. Running into the sea or into a tidal river, under conditions that will 
prevent its return. 

2nd, Irrigation, 

8rd. Intermittent filtration. 

4th. Purification by precipitation— 

(a) by lime. 
(b) by sulphate of alumina. 
(c) by the A, B, C system. 
The dry method includes-— 
1st. Pan closets, 
2nd. Earth closets. 
9rd. Goux system. 
4th. Stanford's system (Carbon Fertilizing Company). 
oth. Lienur's pneumatie system. 

In regard to Glasgow, the report notices Messrs. Bateman and Bazal- 
gette's scheme to pump the sewage to a high level and then carry it down 
to the Ayrshire coast. The plan adopted in London of running the unpuri- 
fied sewage into the river could not be supported owing to the small current 
of the Clyde tidal waters. 

If the sewage of Glasgow were taken to Farland Point, or to the lands 
between Irvine or Saltcoats, the scheme would resemble that carried out by 
Bir J. Hawkshaw for Brighton, whose outfall sewer is about eight miles 
long; but efficient ventilation would require to be applied to carry off the 
noxious gases generated. 

Of dealing with sewage by irrigation, great hopes were entertained a few 
years ago that the grand solution had been attained. All this is now 
changed, owing to general failure. Probably the Beddington Manor Estate 
at Croydon is the most successful of sewage farms, and the report states 
that it is no small matter to say that it disposes of the sewage of a popula- 
tion of 60,000 persons at an outlay which is now reduced to a little over 
£1,000 per annum. But the situation of Croydon adapts it in a peculiar 
degree to the utilization of its sewage by filtration through land. When 
the Deputation visited this and other sewage farms the weather was 
cold, so that no odours of a truly offensive nature were observed; but this is 
not always so; on the contrary, evidence is adduced to the effect that warm 
weather makes these exceedingly unhealthy, giving off a most odious stench. 


WA Aa E E i iA spes 


TxHomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns, 51 


It is right to add, the report continues, that at Edinburgh, Croydon and 
other places, no evil effects to health have been traced to the influence of 
the farms irrigated by their sewage; but as to the land itself, sometimes 
enormous quantities of sewage are applied in season and out of season, till 
the surfeited land is sick, and even then it has to take more. If the land 
were obtainable at an ordinary agricultural value, suitable for the reception 
and distribution of sewage without pumping, a sewage farm might be made 
to yield a profit. 

Regarding chemical treatment, the report states that purification of 
Sewage is possible, and is carried out successfully at Bradford, Leeds, 
Coventry, Birmingham and other towns, but, so far as the Deputation had 
been able to ascertain, the sale of the so-called manure appears to have 
failed of accomplishment, and this is not to be wondered at, as the processes 
fail to consume the ammonia and potash salts, whieh are the most valuable 
part. € 

As a precipitant, lime appears to be most capable of universal application, 
especially if supplemented by some form of charcoal. The A, B, C process 
was examined, but with unfavourable results, and the manure obtained by 
this process has a very low market value; the manipulations are also 
attended with a most nauseous odour. 

Intermittent filtration has been carried out quite successfully at Merthyr 
Tydvil, but the conditions there are so exceptional that there are very few 
places where the process could be pursued with equally satisfactory results. 
It appears to be in operation also at Kendal. 

Referring to the defects of the water-carriage system, the report points 
out the decomposition and evolution of sewer-gases, calling for careful 
ventilation in all cases. 

Water-closets should be discouraged in small houses owing to the greater 
likelihood of their getting out of order. Drainage from stables and byres 
should be absolutely prohibited, and chemical factories should be under 
close regulation, as, where the disinfectant is cheap, there can be no hard- 
ship to the proprietors. 

Coming to the dry system as affecting Glasgow, it is stated that the 
number of houses is 100,000, water-closets numbering only 32,000, showing 
that half the population is provided with these, the other half being supplied 
with other conveniences in one form or another of the dry-closet. This 
branch has therefore occupied much of the attention of the Deputation. In 
Leeds the old-fashioned privies are being replaced by trough water-closets ; 


in Manchester and Birmingham, on the other hand, water-closets are being 


systematically repressed, and elaborate attention is being paid to the develop- 


52 Transactions,—Miscellaneous, 


ment of dry collection and daily removal. The Deputation strongly com- 
mend, on sanitary grounds, the tub and pail system, which opinion has 
already had wide effects in the City of Glasgow, where the gain in health 
and decency is great and unquestionable. 

The Goux system was in operation at Halifax, but is not recommended 
on account of its want of simplicity. 

The earth-closet is supported as being admirably suited for country 
houses of the better class, but otherwise it is too costly to work. 

Lienur’s pneumatic system in operation in Holland, was not inspected 
by the Deputation, as it had not been adopted in England. However, they 
advance an opinion that, theoretically, it is perfect, since the whole of the 
excreta are converted into a highly portable and valuable manure, while all 
risk of sewer-gases being formed is entirely obviated, and all operations 
being conducted in vacuo are entirely free from offence. They then quote 
from a report to the Local Government Board, to wit :—“ As, however, the 
pneumatic only deals with a small fraction of the refuse to be removed 
from houses, leaving all other forms to be dealt with in the ordinary way, 
so Dutch town sewage must flow into the rivers and canals, as now, to 
pollute the water supply, or else some complicated mode of intercepting it 
must be provided at an additional cost to the local authorities. The 
pneumatic system is ingenious, but is complicated in its construction and 
working arrangements, and is liable to derangements which are sometimes 
difficult to mend. We do not know one English town in which the appara- 
tus, if adopted, would be other than a costly toy.”’ 
== The report of the Glasgow Deputation concludes with the following 
recommendations, viz. :— 

1. That the system of having water-closets for public works, factories, 
gaols, workhouses, infirmaries, and railway stations, should be forbidden, so 
as to reduce the quantity of water-closet sewage now turned into the river 
(Clyde); water-closets in small houses should also be discouraged. 

2. That ordinary privies and ashpits be altered to the tub and pail 
system, to be cleansed daily, as it has been carried out in Manchester and 
other important English cities and towns, and that special accommodation 
be provided for children. 

3. That all drains, soil and waste-pipes, and all apparatus connected 
with water-closets, sinks and baths, and their connections, be constructed 
under public supervision. 

4. That a complete system of ventilation of the common sewers 
throughout their entire length be immediately adopted. 

5. That a system of ventilation of the house-drains and soil-pipes, inde- 


THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 58 


pendent of the common sewers, be immediately adopted and enforced 
throughout the city. 

6. That the use for domestic purposes of water from cisterns supplying 
water-closets be absolutely forbidden. 

In the event of it being found necessary to purify the river— 

7. That the whole drainage of the city be taken into main intercepting 
sewers, and conducted to a suitable point; and, after having been rendered 
clear by precipitation and filtration, passed into the Clyde. 

8. That the sludge obtained in the precipitation process be got rid of 
in the cheapest possible manner. A part of it might be utilized in making 
up waste land, and a certain quantity might be taken away by farmers, but 
the greater part would probably require to be disposed of in the same man- 
ner as the dredgings of the rivers. 

The report entirely discards the idea of utilization of the sewage itself, 
or the precipitate obtained by the action of lime or other chemical agents. 
The sludge obtained by many of the patented processes is dried at such 
cost, and its value when dry so trifling, that all hopes of disposing of it for 
manurial purposes—at a price that would be remunerative—is entirely 
illusory. 

The report concludes that, while they consider the purification of the 
Clyde important, yet for the health of the city, the sewage works are of 
greater consequence, which they hope will be carried out without un- 
necessary delay. 

Attached to the Glasgow report are appendices, containing the opinions 
of the Local Government Board, and the Health and Sewage of Towns Con- 
ference Committees, which closely coincide with the above in their recom- 
mendations, and they pointedly insist “that no one system for disposing of 
sewage could be adopted for universal use; that different localities require 
different methods to suit their special peculiarities ; and also that, as a rule, 
no profit can be derived at present from sewage utilization, but for health’s 
sake, without consideration of commercial profit, sewage and excreta must 
be got rid of at any cost.” 

* That the pail system, under proper regulations for early and frequent 
removal, is greatly superior to all privies, cesspools, ashpits, and middens 
and possesses manifold advantages in regard to health and cleanliness ; 
whilst its results in economy and facility of utilization often compare 
favorably with those of water-carried sewage." : 

* That for use within the house no system has been found in practice to 
take the place of the water-closet.” 

vd And that all middens, privies, and cesspools in towns should be 


54 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


abolished by law, due regard in point of time being had to the condition of 
each locality." 

By referring to appendix I.,* the cost of the several systems of town- 
cleansing will be seen at a glance, which will be found to vary from 1d. to 
114d. per pound on the rateable value of house property, local peculiarities 
evidently having influence in this matter. For instance, at Rochdale, 
scavengering is put down at 83d., Birmingham at 53d., and Leamington at 
1d.; while sewage for Rochdale is put down at 0d., Birmingham at 41d., 
and Leamington at 54d.; the totals being 83d., 10d., and 61d. respectively. 
The highest rated is Blackburn, viz., at 114d. in the pound. 

Coming to my own observations, I shall first notice Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
as I had an opportunity of watching the construction of the waterworks 
and drainage of that town 23 years ago, so I inspected their state lately 
with more than ordinary interest. This is a town of 20,000 inhabitants, 
situated on rising ground near the mouth of the Tweed, and where its waters 
are fully affected by the tide. I ascertained that the drainage on the whole 
had worked well, excepting when the water-supply ran short, which occurs 
periodically in the summer. The sewers, constructed about 23 years ago, 
were well executed; but the engineer had under-estimated the water- 
supply, which had rendered the working somewhat experimental. The first 
trouble that was experienced was in the high-pressure mains being con- 
nected directly with the water-closets ; this, when the supply of water was 
intermittent, sent the excreta back into the closets, creating great nuisances ; 
this difficulty has now been obviated by each closet being provided with a 
small cistern filled by the mains, from which the closets are supplied. 
Before this was done, people, finding the water not on in leaving, tied up 
the valve, so that it might run when it came on, thus much of the supply 
was wasted by the water running continuously, 

The poor classes especially are difficult to manage or to deal with, owing 
to the practice they are given to of abusing the conveniences, hence this 
class always demand sharp looking after by the inspector. 

Ashpits are allowed in this town to a limited extent, but for small houses 
boxes or pails are used for the removal of rubbish, ashes, &c. 

The sewage falls into the river Tweed, but to this the Tweed Salmon 
Commissioners object as it is tending to pollute the stream and destroy fish. 

When the high-pressure water-supply is good and sufficient, the water- 
closet and sewage system of the town has worked well, but the entire 
problem of the removal of house-refuse has not yet been fully solved. 

It is quite clear that here, as elsewhere, the subject is one for continuous 
effort, not possible to be settled by spasmodic exertion, and then to be 
done with. 


Ls 


* End of Glasgow Report copied, 


Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 55 


At the inland town of Dunse, coutaining about 4,000 inhabitants, and 
where the water-closet system has been introduced during these last 40 
years, I found that, as this was perfected and in operation, new and unan- 
ticipated difficulties presented themselves. Thus, as the town became 
satisfactory in its sanitary condition, the rural districts near and under its 
level became deteriorated by the nuisances flowing on them. Which cir- 
cumstance brought about long and expensive law-suits with the proprietors, 
and especially with the owner of Wedderburn House and Demesne. 

In the town of Kelso, situated on the banks of the Tweed, and about 
25 miles inland, it was observed here, also, that the increase of sewage, by 
the introduction of improved water supply and conveniences, was drawing 
opposition from the owners of the valuable salmon fishing stations. In view 
of this, the Corporation is now about to try and remedy the evil by carrying 
their outfall to an extensive shingle bank, where they hope to absorb the 
objectionable matters. 

At Edinburgh it was observed that the sewage that used to flow solely 
over the fields near Holyrood House uninterruptedly, and at least, without 
active objections, are now not only increased in their area, but the same 
system of irrigation is being applied to the west suburbs of the city. 
Hence, no certain action by the population can be anticipated on this 
subject. 

At Glasgow, from the report of whose Deputation I have so largely 
quoted, I found that still no general scheme had been decided on; in fact, 
that different principles had been found applicable to different parts, and 
broadly, the water-gravitation system to first and second-class houses, and 
the pail system to those inferior. The sewage yet falls into the Clyde, and 
Bazalgette’s recommendations were considered, if not impracticable, and 
beyond the means of the ratepayers, at least inadvisable. As a better 
scheme for conveying the offal away, steam barges, proceeding from Glasgow 
to the sea, were contemplated; as any attempt to utilize sewage is now 
abandoned. 

As my time and other engagements enabled me to ascertain, such is 
the state of town and city cleansing at home; and it will be noted that 
whilst much difference of opinion in detail exists amongst engineers, yet, 
to those who are able to bring an unprejudiced judgment to bear on the 
question, the principles to be adapted to the several and varied circum- 
stances are not difficult to be laid hold of. Comprehensively speaking, the 
interest is a n growing one, and in this respect it is not an exception from 

her great ts and expansions of modern civilization and requirements, 


If its necessities cause it to unduly infringe on other interests, then conflict 


56 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


takes place, the conflict not anticipated in the early years of its application, 
but in the course of years becoming palpable. It is no other than the ord- 
nance versus iron-plate warfare; if the one increases in force and magnitude, 
so the other must be fortified in ratio. Thus, if ships have to be protected 
from their assailants, so must the rivers, estates, parks, seats, and castles be 
protected from the other. Hence Corporations, in initiating sanitary im- 
provements for themselves, are not justified, as hitherto, in neglecting the 
interests outside of their precincts; and, as justly observed by the Glasgow 
Deputation, those cities having a natural outlet apart from all other 
interests, are fortunate. 

This latter condition is oftener the case with seabound towns than 
with inland ones. Certain it is that the idea so often prevailing amongst 
sanitary engineers that their works are for ever, and all time to come, must 
be abandoned, and their judgment must be exercised, not as now to create 
works of magnitude far beyond present wants, but to institute systems to 
which least objections can be taken ultimately, or for the time being. The 
wants of the present population must not only be estimated, and of the 
future, but their capacity to bear the burden of taxation, hence, though 
working to an end, and on just principles, the consideration should be as to- 
what was actually necessary, and no more, leaving their successors to 
continue the same. Without being attentive to these facts, the city 
populations may pay too dearly for the luxury of improvements or quasi 
improvements, and property may be overburdened by works which could 
perfectly well be held over. 

As an example of the conflict between interests, that takes place conse- 
quent on the modern introduction of town cleansing by water-gravitation, 
we turn to the greatest city in the world, where it has perforce had largest 
development. The outfall of the sewage, till recent years, was into the 
Thames, within the precincts of the city. This created nuisances which it 
was found desirable to remove; hence those measures were taken which 
have already been described in the preceding part of this paper. But, 
besides the Metropolitan Board of Works, there exists a Board of Conser- 
vators of the River Thames, having other interests than the population of 
London to take care of, and on which the operations of the former Board 
were felt to act detrimentally. In consequence of this, Captain Calver, 
R.N., F.R.S,, was, by the secretary, directed to investigate and report on 
the subject”. That gentleman acknowledged the receipt of the instructions, 
to wit; that he should direct his attention to some recent surveys which had 
been made by the officers of the Board, of that section of the River Thames 
extending from Woolwich to Erith, as well as to analytical examinations by 


* Thames Commission, 6th June, 1877. 


Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 57 


Drs. Letheby and Williamson of the soil of its bed, both in Woolwich Reach 
and near to the sewage outfalls; and to give his consideration to the changes 
thus shown to have taken place in the channel of the river, and in the 
character of its bottom, for the purpose of reporting thereon. Captain 
Calver adds, that from the time of receiving the foregoing instructions, 
he had been engaged upon the various details of investigation, including, 
amongst other things, repeated observations upon the movements of the 
streams in the central section of the Thames, with the collection of such 
other physical facts as were likely to aid him in arriving at a clear under- 
standing of this important and interesting case*. 

From his report we shall make extracts, noticing the salient points 
of interest. He states “that the general features of Mid-Thames, its 
sectional capacity, and the various details of increase and decrease, are 
all brought out very clearly in the surveys made by the order of the Board. 
This series—the work of the same observers, and all referable to a common 
standard —has been made between 1861 and 1876.” 

Again: * It having been reported in 1867 that a vessel had unexpectedly 
touched the ground while passing the southern outfall, a new survey was 
ordered to be made for the locality." 

Again: “1832 to 1861, a considerable increase in the general capacity 
of the channel occurred in the foregoing period—the result of dredging, for 
the most part." 

Again: “1863 and 1864, sewage began to be discharged from the out- 
falls." 

Again: ** Since the Metropolitan outfalls came into operation, the former 
deep and free frontage of the southernmost one has lost a quarter part of its 
low water contents." Again: “that the upper part of the river has been 
troubled with accumulations, which, as will be shown, must necessarily have 
been conveyed upwards by the flood-stream.” 

In the analyses made, * the mud in each case was black and fetid in a 
state of active putrefactive decomposition, and, when examimed under the 
microscope, it was found to consist of broken-up sewage matter.” Of the 
water, when near Woolwich, Greenwich and London Bridge, “ all the 
samples were black and offensive, and they were found, on examination 
under the microscope, to consist of amorphous matter of the disintegrated 
tissue of vegetables, especially of wheat, and swarms of diatomaceous re- 
mains,” Again: in the last test of 1875, “ most of the samples demonstrated 
the presence of sewage.matter in a state of decomposition." Those from “the 
Gallion Reach, within the influence of the northern outfall, exhibited 
organic and other similar matter to those of street-mud, while others in the 


* Report, 15th October, 1877. 


58 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


central track of the river-streams, and acted upon by their scourage, had 
very little organic matter.” 

Again: “The reporters of 1858 estimated that 92,000 tons of solid 
matter of every description were contained in the sewage passing into the 
Thames at that time;" but it is now estimated, from data supplied by 
Glasgow, that ‘ 465,000 tons — represent the annual solid matter 
contained in Metropolitan sewage.” 

gain: “ The excreta of each person per day having been found by 
experiment to weigh 2ilbs., this, with the population of 8,500,000, in 
connection with the outfalls, gives 3,900 tons per day, or 1,425,000 tons per 
annum as the amount of excreta sent into the river from the outfalls.”’ 

Again: It was found by experiment “that matter committed to the 
water of Mid-Thames would move down seaward about five miles in a 
fortnight.” 

Again: “The daily discharge from the outfalls has been stated as 
120 million gallons or 19,246,000 cubic feet, so that 423,412,000 cubic 
feet or 22 days' discharge, represents the aggregate amount of sewage 
in the oscillating section, being about one-fifth part of the whole contents 
of the river within the same limits below the level of ordinary low-water. 
This vast mass of polluted water—eight miles long, 750 yards wide, and 
44 feet deep, charged with offensive matter, both fluid and solid, moves up 
and down the channel four times daily, between Gravesend and near to 
` Blackwall, dropping its solid burden wherever a reduction of the rate of 
current or still water may favour deposit. The purifying change which the 
putrescent matter may be supposed to undergo, after discharging from 
the outfalls, is reserved for future consideration." 

Again: In regard to accretion of the sewage in Woolwich Reach, it is 
stated that there is **a complete identity between accreted matter and that 
in the sewage discharged from the outfalls. There can be little doubt that 
it has been brought from their neighbourhood by the flood-stream. Most 
observers of rivers are aware of the disturbing action of the first portion 
of the flood-set, for, owing to its greater specific gravity, it works its way 
upwards under the last of the ebb-set, and probably obtaining thereby 
a strong rotatory or grinding motion, the surface of the bottom is sufti- 
ciently disturbed to charge the water with its particles." 

Again: “ Another point which has bearing upon this section of the case 
is, the superior carrying-power of the flood-stream over the ebb; a fact very 
distinctly brought out in the Analytical Returns.” 

Again: “ The amount of solid matter in the flowing- tide at Greenwich 
and London Bridge is nearly 21 grains per gallon, while that in the ebb-tide 
is only 8'2 grains," 


THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 69 


In reference to the deleterious effect of sewage discharged into a tidal 
river, from various experiments, Captain Calver concludes that “it will be 
seen that it matters not whether the sewage be sent into the river at low- 
water at London, or at high-water at Barking Creek and Crossness, for the 
result is one and the same. The matter from the sewers will work its way 
upwards, and form accumulations above the outfalls both in the bed and 
along the sides of the channel." 

Again: As to the theory which erroneously assigns docu to the 
credit of sewage discharge. This is said to be due “to two very different 
causes—viz., to the dredging carried on in the district, and to the scour 
resulting from the removal of impediments out of the channel in higher 
portions of the river."  Dredging, also, is stated to have removed 
* enormous hills of gravel which now disfigure and encumber the banks 
of the Tyne and Wear." Another cause stated as tending to increase 
the depth of Mid-Thames resides in the removal of the old bridge at 
London, and the dredging that has taken place as high up as Isleworth. 

Again: “As matters now stand, the Metropolitan sewage discharge has 
reproduced in Mid-Thames, in an aggravated form, a nuisance which was 
felt to be unbearable in the upper portion of the river. Formerly, the 
sewers at London discharged their contents into the river at low water, and 
this, Sir Joseph Bazalgette has pointed out, “ was most injurious, because 
it was carried by the rising tide up the river to be brought to London by 
the following ebb-tide, there to mix with each day's past supply, the pro- 
gress of many days’ accumulations towards the sea being almost imper- 
ceptible.” This exactly describes the existing state of things in Mid-Thames, 
both in respect to accumulation of sewage, its daily oscillation, and its slow 
progress seaward ; the only difference now is, that the nuisance which was 
formerly brought down to London by the ebb is now carried up to London 
by the flood.” 

Again: “ The evidence of the senses may also be relied on as an 
important factor for determining the question of purity. While in the 
neighbourhood of the outfalls, I observed that bubbles of gaseous matter, 
arising from decomposition, were continually ascending to the surface of the 
water, reminding me of similar experience in the polluted Clyde. The foul 
condition of the river was also apparent from the smell caused by the dis- 
turbance raised by the steamers’ paddles; and the floating abominations by 
which I was surrounded, when making the test observations, are to be 
remembered rather than described.” 

Again: “ Contemporary and reliable opinions are all opposed to the 
practice of discharging crude sewage into rivers," 


60 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


Again: “ Results worked out, and still being worked out in the ESR 
by sewage discharge, are evils of great magnitude, and seriously detract 
from the general value of the Metropolitan sewage arrangements. If certain 
foul accumulations, formed near to the old sewers at London, led the reporters 
of 1868 to declare that the evil had attained such proportions as to render 
it essential to the well-being of the Metropolis that means should be taken 
for its permanent abatement, what would they say of similar features on a 
more gigantic scale lower down the river? Observing that the present 
channel in Mid-Thames is through banks of fetid matter, that the water 
in the channel is loaded with material in a state of putrescence, and that it 
daily oscillates within the Metropolitan area, with its teeming population, 
and contaminates the atmosphere, they would probably admit this to be a 
state of things altogether detrimental to the public interest. Though it may 
be very true that the action of land-floods, and the frequent passing to and 
fro of the steam-traffic of the river, will always maintain a navigable passage 
through its foul reaches, yet the sides of the channel and the contiguous 
foreshores must, of necessity, become more foul, and to a greater distance 
from the outfalls, as the population increases and the water is more highly 
charged with the accreting matter which sewage contains.” 

Again: “ Nothing can be possibly more unsatisfactory than the present 
condition of things.” 

I may add that no effectual remedy is suggested by Captain Calver, 
though he anticipates that ‘experimental research and discovery” may 
bring about ** a successful solution of this pressing question." 

The report concludes a re-iteration of what has already been advanced, to 
the effect that the “foul and offensive accretions have recently formed in 
the channel of the Thames;” and that a ‘‘ material portion of these accu- 
mulations are in the neighbourhood of the metropolitan sewage outfalls;" 
and he recommends that the Metropolitan Board of Works be called on to 
dredge away those portions of the accreted matter which interfere with 
the convenience of navigation, and that they be requested to adopt such 
arrangements as are calculated to prevent similar accumulations in future.” 
He further hopes that the ** noble metropolitan river” may be “ freed from 
a drawback which is impairing its commerce and usefulness.” 

The report of Captain Calver is met by a lively rejoinder from Sir J. W. 
Bazalgette, C.B., Engineer to the Metropolitan Board of Works, supported 
by other scientific men, in which he premises that, “ when it is considered 
that the report in question purports to be, not the exaggerated statements of 
an advocate, but the calm and deliberate conclusions of a scientific man, 
upon a matter involving the most serious and vital interests, adopted and 


PNEU 


THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 61 


circulated with the authority of a responsible public body, it is impossible 
to overrate the grave importance which attaches to such statements” as are 
contained therein. 

Again: The Engineer states that, **in order to simplify the subject as far 
as possible, we propose to direct our enquiry to the following points, viz.:— 

“1st. Whether there is any evidence that foul and offensive accretions 
have formed within the channel of the Thames since the metropolitan 
sewage outfalls came into operation. 

‘2nd. Whether careful analyses do show a perfect identity between the 
constituents of the Thames mud and those of the metropolitan sewage. 

* 8rd. Whether it is true that the sewage discharged at Barking and 
Crossness does work its way upwards, and cause the same pollution of the 
Thames within and about the metropolitan area as formerly existed. 

“dth. As to the quantity of solid matter contained in the sewage dis- 
charged into the Thames at Barking and Crossness, and whether it is suffi- 
cient to produce any sensible deposit in the bed of the river, and as to the 
real cause of such deposit." 

As to the recent formation of foul and offensive accretions, the Engineer 
argues that comparison of the state of the river thirty years previous to 
1861, and that in fifteen subsequent years, has “no value or significance 
whatever." Further, when it is considered that the traverse sectional areas 
of the river taken at half-tide off the Crossness outfall have been increased 
by the removal of shoals,” &e., “it would be no matter of surprise if the 
river in this part of its course should be even more liable to partial deposits 
forming upon the banks than it was formerly." 

He then enters into the subject of the Woolwich shoals, and concludes 
“that it is obviously impossible to draw the conclusion which Captain Calver 
suggests, that because mud is found in this part of the river, therefore it 
comes from the metropolitan sewers." Then as to the mud deposits higher 
up, near Waterloo Bridge, he remarks ‘that it is obvious that the deposits 
of mud above referred to, and which, it appears, accumulated in a few 
months time, could not have resulted from the sewage discharged into 
the river upon the ebb-tide at a point no less than 14j miles lower down 
the stream." 

— Next, as to the identity of Thames mud with sewage mud, the Engineer 
endeavours to show the fallacy of much of Captain Calver's arguments. 
This is illustrated by a table, from which he (the Engineer) surmises that 
‘‘it is perfectly obvious that no conclusion can be possibly true which is 
founded upon the supposed * perfect identity' of quantities which vary from 
0°85 to 40-91." 


62 Transactions, — Miscellaneous. 


Then, as to the sewage working upwards, the Engineer quotes a previous 
paper by Captain Calver, where he himself “ proves very distinctly the 
decided preponderance of the power of the ebb over that of the flood," and 
points out that the late theory propounded by Captain Calver, to wit, ** the 
operation of accretion has been effected by the superior disturbing and trans- 
porting power of the flood stream,” is ‘diametrically opposite and con- 
tradietory." He also calls attention to Captain Calver's grammar in regard 
to his introduction into the English language of the new word *' stickability."' 

The amount of solid matter actually contained in the sewage is then 
diseussed, of which 32 examples were taken from different parts of the 
Thames, which, being analysed, the Engineer proceeds: ** Then taking the 
&verage quantity of sewage discharged in the 24 hours, at 120 million 
gallons, we have, for the weight of solid matter discharged into the river 
every year, 64,250 tons," A different result from Captain Calver's, which is 
465,000 tons. 

Again: The rejoinder continues, the quantity of solid matter discharged 
into the river at the outfalls in each tide is 88 tons, or 1,380 million grains; 
and the quantity of tidal water passing the outfalls in a spring ebb, as stated 
by Captain Calver is 108,138,140 cubic yards, or 18,248,811,125 gallons ; 
consequently the amount of solid matter thrown into the river from the 
outfalls only ** amounts to ‘076, or 4 of a grain per gallon, a quantity 
far too small to exercise any appreciable influence upon the purity of the 
water.” 

Again: “ That the water in the lower reaches of the river is very much 
loaded with mud, especially upon flood-tide, is a matter of fact which cannot 
fail to strike any person observing it; and the reason will be very evident 
upon examining the state of the river banks.” Then alluding to the 
“ saltings,”’ that is erosions by waves, having been computed; the cubic 
contents of the same are estimated, whereby it is found that “at least a 
million tons of soil are washed into this part of the river every year, in 
addition to that which is brought down from above.” 

It is stated that thus the ** saltings below London, therefore, supply at 
least 153 times as much solid matter as that discharged by the sewage out- 
falls." This, the Engineer adds, ‘‘is, in fact, the real source of the mud 
deposit on the banks of the river, which, as we have shown, Captain Calver 
has erroneously attributed to the metropolitan sewage." 

The report concludes “ that there is no documentary evidence to prove 
that foul and offensive aceretions have recently formed within the channel of 
the Thames;’’ that, “in fact, the water and mud of the Thames have im- 
proved greatly in purity; ' that “there is no resemblance between Thames 


prm 


THomson,—On the Cleansing of Towns, 68 


mud aud sewage mud ;" that “sewage does not work its way up the river;" 
and, finally, that “the muddy condition of the river is caused principally 
by the unprotected state of its banks," 

Here, then, we may pause and exclaim, How doctors differ | 

Captain Calver supports his statements by numerous tables and analyses, 
and Sir J. W. Bazalgette does the same in treble volume, hence his 
chemical referees quaintly conclude their support of their employer by a 
remark, viz., conclusions of a few samples only (by Captain Calver’s 
analysts) must be looked upon with great distrust ! 

The report of Sir J, W. Bazalgette is accompanied by an appendix con- 
taining letters and reports of other authorities, besides plans, charts, and 
sections of the Thames and its estuary. The evidence of Faraday is 
brought out as to the former foul state of the Thames within the city pre- 
cinets, and apart from the question before us the charts of the saltings or 
erosions of the banks of the Thames estuary are interesting to the physical 
geographer. And here we may take the liberty of pointing out that, as 
these all take place below the sewage outfalls, extending for a distance of 20 
miles, from which Sir J. W. Bazalgette ascribes the muddy condition of the 
river above—from this, his own principle, we have a difficulty in clearing 
him from contradiction, when he ignores Captain Calver’s statement in the 
same direction, viz., that the filthiness of the river above the outfalls, 
extending up to London, little more than 10 miles, is due to the sewage 
deposits of Barking Creek and Crossness, which is but a corollary to his 
own theory. 

But, in truth, the controversy is of a kind in which one throws his filth 
into a neighbour’s bed, so complete equanimity is not to be expected, on the 
contrary, perturbations from the true mean of sound judgment are to be 
looked for. It is open, therefore, to the enquirer to suppose, that as the 
sewage issues from the outlets into the Thames with the ebb, weightier 
particles will be the first to descend to the bed not far from the outlets; 
hence, may it not be supposed that, when the advancing flood of the heavier 
salt water, forcing itself beneath the lighter fresh water, yet ebbing at the 
surface, arrives at the outlets, these weightier particles will be carried 
up the river to certain distances? In the notesof experiments, on either 
side of the question, we do not detect that sufficient investigations have 
been made on this point. It is, therefore, yet unsettled, and can here only 
be alluded to. 

But to the general public this subject carries little interest with it, for 
to those acquainted with the Thames near London, 25 years ago and now, 
the enormous improvement in the cleanliness of its waters is palpable. 


64 T'ransaetions,— Miscellaneous, 


This was so patent to ourselves that we had scarcely anticipated a most 
distant demur from any quarter. Leaving this portion then, and proceeding 
to what we suggest as being the vital point of misunderstanding between the 
Thames Conservancy and Metropolitan Board, viz., the interruption of navi- 
gation, we will tarry a little to examine it. 

The official surveys, admitted to be correct by both parties, show changes 
going on in the river-bed near Barking Creek and Crossness, but that it has 
shallowed cannot be stated. 

The cross-sections at Crossness show a bank as increasing on the Kent 
side (that is the side at which the sewage falls); and at Barking Creek, a 
bank inereasing on the Essex side (that is the side on which the sewage 
there falls). But in both cases a deepening to an equal extent has taken 
place at the opposite sides of shallowing. The section lines are given for 
the years 1861, 1867, and 1876. At Crossness the soundings of 1861, on 
the Kent or outfall side, show a decrease of 10 feet, more or less; but on 
the Essex side an increase in like quantity. At Barking Creek, similar 
changes have taken place, but to a less degree. Thus exact data do not 
indieate danger of closing to the channel of the Thames, but only alteration 
of its bed. That this alteration is due to the new influence brought to bear 
on it, viz., the issue of large quantities of drain detritus, we think will be 
admitted by all unprejudiced persons. 

But that the navigation of the Thames will be affected from the issue of 
the drainage of a district at points higher or lower, or the converse, we are 
not prepared, beyond a certain point, to admit. If the present drainage 
were not issued at Barking Creek and Crossness, it would have issued above 

-and below London Bridge, carrying with it the same quantity of matter and 
sediment into the river, and in an equal degree, and no more ; depositing the 
heavier partieles in the beds or along the banks continuously; but at the 
same time continuously aeted on by floods and tides, spreading it out from 
landward to seaward in that equilibrium due to the natural forces at work. 

Thus, in the interests of Thames navigation, the question of outfall at 
London, or at Crossness, 14 miles below it, is of very little consequence. 
If one deteriorate passage of shipping, so would the other; but if either can 
be proved to do so, then the City of London would be bound to seek another 
area for the deposit of its offal. This contingeney appears not yet to have 
arisen. 

In prosecuting my enquiries, on the 2nd August last, I proceeded to 
Abbey Wood, near to which is the outlet of the South London drainage, on 
& point of the river called Crossness. I arrived there at about noon, and was 
taken over the works by the manager, The works are situated on a raised 


Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 65 


mound, close to the south bank of the Thames, and on which are also 
erected official and workmen’s houses, with a school for the children. The 
mound is actually a covered tank of six acres in extent, but being covered 
with earth, and planted with grass, this cannot be detected by a stranger. 

The engine-house is a spacious erection of the Byzantine style, the 
-chimney-stalk being of elegant proportions. The power of the engines 
is 500-horse, and is used in pumping the sewage from the main drain 
into the tank, by means of eight plunge pumps, of about three feet in diameter. 
The main drain is 80 feet below the surface, and the tank rises above this, 
having a depth, when full, of 14 feet. 

The sewage is only let out at high-water, on its turn to ebb, and it con- 
tinues to flow till nearly low-water. There are three outlets for the sewage 
from the tank into the river, constructed of solid brick and cement, leading 
to the high-water mark, then by open timber ducts to the low-water mark. 

It was near low-water mark when I visited the place, and I could not 
markedly detect offensive smell, but the water of the river was exceedingly 
turbid and discoloured. 

I also examined the sewage in the tank, through a manhole, and ascer- 
tained that but slight offensive odours escaped by this aperture. 

I did not consider it necessary to examine the works on the north side 
of the river, as the principle is merely repeated, but they are larger, the 
tank there being equal to 10 acres. 

The effect of the outfall of eity sewage and detritus in a river, then, is 
similar to what may be readily studied on any goldfield where hydraulic works 
in simple gold-washings are in force. The sludge does not pen up the rivers 
of magnitude, but it merely spreads itself out on the banks adjacent to the 
outfalls, and what it occupies of the original bed, the stream compensates 
itself by scouring out a deeper channel on the opposite, so that it maintains 
an equal volume. Limiting the enquiry to navigation, such, in our view, 
is the influence on the Thames in this much-vexed question. 

In regard to its pollution, that is another question. We cannot help 
opining that Captain Calver is more eloquent on this subject than necessary. 
That fetid matter is carried up to the metropolitan area, teeming with popula- 
tion, contaminating its area, is surely their grievance, not his; and so long 
as they are contented with the smells in their precincts, the Thames Con- 
servancy need not disturb themselves, but if they can show that ship and 
barge crews are struck with gastric fever, or otherwise intolerably discom- 
posed by the odours, by passing the outfalls, this comes within their 
functions to remedy, But no statisties are brought forward on this head, 
nor are complaints from this quarter even alluded to. 


Looking at the question with a bird’s-eye view, in our humble kag 


66 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


there can-be no question that London, having adopted the water-gravitation 
system for cleansing its precincts, within practical distance, no sites could 
have been better chosen for the outfalls than Barking Creek and Crossness, 
as here the country around is devoid of population, hence the works, if not 
altogether inoffensive, are placed where they are in a position to give least 
offence. : 

Having thus discussed the Home sewage question in its various phases, 
and noticed the opinions drawn from experimental enquiry, as well as from 
long experience, we will now turn to the subject as it presents itself in this 
Colony. Referring to the report published by the Sanitary Commission of 
Dunedin, dated 25th January, 1865, we find this town principally built of 
wood, at that time containing 15,037 inhabitants, and whose bad sanitary 
state was graphically described by.the city engineer, the late John Millar, 

Esd, FBA. 

The remedies submitted to the Commission by several engineers were as 
follows:—One assumed, as a matter of course, that the sewage would be 
“ hurried into the harbour," though ultimately the outfall might be on to the 
ocean beach. Another propounded a scheme of irrigation, conducting the 
sewage over or through two dividing ranges to the land between Dunedin 
and Saddle Hill, and in which the Taieri Plain might participate. This 
was to be effected by a series of pumping engines. Another suggested 
that the sewage should be discharged at the Lawyers’ Head, by means of 
hydraulie pressure on the drains. Another scheme was to submit the 
Forbury Flat to a system of high-class farming by the application of liquid 
sewage. 

From this it may be surmised that there was great diversity of opinion 
amongst engineers as to the proposed measures; but in saying this, it cannot 
be said to be more so than is or was existent amongst engineers in England 
at that date. The fact of the matter is, the subject is a growing one, in 
which time makes changes, and matured experience, we have seen, has’ 
suggested alterations. 

In this case of Dunedin, we see one engineer proposing to direct a 
system of irrigation over a plain, which ten short years have converted into a 
town. Another proposes to fertilize, by a similar scheme, an agricultural 
district, separated from the town by two ranges of hills, at ten miles 
distance, a project worthy of the greatest cities in Europe, and only prac- 
ticable to them. Another proposes to send it into the sea; another into the 
harbour. It is worthy of note that none proposed a dry system of 
treatment, 

Now it would be wrong to infer, from the want of unanimity in the 

T Pee that iod were n professionally. On the setup 


* 


enterprises, etc. 


Tromson.On the Oleansing of Towns. 67 


the question was not of a technical nature in the first place, and at that 
time, but of the power to bear taxation on the part of the citizens, in their 
anticipated progress and increase, in estimating which (a duty of the statis- 
tician rather than of the engineer) they may be said to have failed. Study 
of the various works applied to cities-in Europe will illustrate this fact in 
every direction; but here, also, fhe lesson cannot escape us. The practical 
end of all the professional advice given to the Dunedin Commission has 
been, that the sewage is carried to the nearest available point; that is, 
into the harbour fronting the city, and into which area it will flow till 
sufficient opposition has been conjured up to prevent it. 

This is the history of older cities ; so it is the same of younger. 

And continuing our theme, with Dunedin as our example; This city, 
like London, having adopted the water-gravitation principle of cleansing, 
the sewage will flow to its assigned levels, till, as in its great prototype, it 
becomes an intolerable nuisance. Then the city authorities will have to 
look abroad for projects in its disposal otherwise; and to all of them, from 
local interests, there will be objections. The question in the end resolves 
itself, not into attaining a project which has no objections attached to it, but 
to one which has the least. Hence, as we see in the cities of the Home 
country, the wearied and puzzled municipalities will have to look to the 
harbour as an easy solution of their difficulties, but to be opposed by the 
Boards in charge of this interest. Next, they will look to the ocean beach, 
to be thwarted by the suburban population and pleasure-seekers of that 
locality. Perchance, then, imitating the Borough of Brighton, they may 
have power to tunnel to beyond Tomahawk on the one side, or Green Island 
on the other; or, taking example by the inland cities of England, such as 
Birmingham, Leeds, or Bradford, they will discourage the water-gravitation 
system, and, perforce, purify their sewage before delivering it into the 
subjacent water of their estuary. 

In Christchurch we also have a recent example in the colony of want of 
unanimity as to measures, the projected scheme only to be thwarted by the 
ratepayers ; the real difficulty being, not what should be done, bat what 
the majority of the several interests will allow to be done. 

From this, it might be inferred, that sanitary engineering is at 2 A 
experimental. To this it may be answered, that it has hitherto bee largely 
80, a necessary concomitant of the modern advance of science, t altered i 
conditions of ae and the variety and complicates arrangements 0 fits 
requirements. In this, it has been no otherwise. with other practical and 
economical branches, eps as railroads, steam navigation, m in 

ut large data, the result of experiment an 
are also now fee i nobi ee 


68 Transactions,—Miscellaneous, 


guidance under the different difficulties he has to meet, are at hand to 
support him, 

Thus in this colony, when principles are sought for, they will be found 
to be simple in the main, however complicated the details may be. 

Sanitary works resolve themselves into two distinct systems, namely— 
wet and dry; the former acting by the gravitation of water, the other by 
manual or machine carriage. 

The wet system carries its burden to the sea, or to rivers, when it can 
do this unopposed ; to areas for irrigation in the production of crops ; or to 
waste areas for the purpose of absorption and filtration. The burden may 
also be brought to tanks for precipitation and the purification of the sewage. 

The dry system has its burden carried to the sea, whether by boat.or 
carriage; to the fields for direct application to cultivation, or to works of 
manure manufacture, for all of which the extracts made in the preceding 
part of this paper give examples. 

The separate systems, suitable for the respective situations, are not difficult 
to decide on. Where towns have accessible water-supply and easy exits, 
the wet system is suitable; where these do not exist, the dry system 
becomes imperative. We use the word imperative, because it is in human 
nature for people to divest themselves of that which is disagreeable with 
the least trouble to themselves, and this, when the conditions are favourable, 
is most readily effected by water. But-it has not in all cases proved 
“economical or efficient in the end where water has been had recourse to, 
owing to the nuisance being cast on other interests, and for which the law 
when appealed to has demanded a remedy at great cost. 

In favour of the dry system one great recommendation is to be said, 
namely—that it returns to the soil that which man took from it; thus, that 
it should have a general acceptance by cities in a practical and convenient 
manner, will always be considered a desideratum. 

In New Zealand, more than in almost any other country, the wet system 
is easily available, districts in which a contrary condition exists being 
limited to Canterbury, Southland, and Auckland. 

The proportion of human excreta to sewage is an important question to 
sanitary engineers ; and taking the data afforded by London, it will be found 
that these do not exceed one-hundredth part of the whole sewage. This 
element makes but a small factor in the whole, and is of very secondary 
consideration, under the circumstances of the city possessing a full water- 
supply and a ready place of disposal, such as the sea or a tidal river. But 
in the case of inland towns, where they are forced to purify the sewage, the 
matter is different; for though the excreta there may only form a small 

portion of the whole volume to be dealt with, they perforce form a large 


ININE Rc S BER Saree 


THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 69 


part of the nuisances to be got rid of. The proportion of excreta must 
necessarily vary with the industries and habits of the towns or cities, in 
manufacturing populations the refuse from factories being great, while with 
residential populations this must be limited. Hence, in inland towns, we 
observe the present measures of municipalities discouraging water-closets 
and promoting some form or other of the dry system. 

In a colony such as ours, where new municipalities are being annually 
incorporated, it is desirable that in their varied responsibilities they should 
not neglect sanitary reform. Though in the early stages of a town cess- 
pools are not to be avoided, yet in relation to the health of the people these 
should, as early as possible, be abolished by law, and in the first place the 
dry system instituted, until they have obtained a water-supply and fully 
considered their facilities of removal and the permanent sites to which 
they could conduct the sewage, with the least offence to interests in 
their neighbourhood. 


70 Transactions, —JMiscellaneous, 
APPENDIX, No. 1. 


Comparison of the Cost of Dispostne of Town Srwaaz by different Processes, 
in proportion to the Axwvan RarrEasLE Vanuz, etc., 1875. Compiled 
from a Table given in the Report of Committee appointed by the Local 
Government Board, 1875, page lviii. 


BY IRRIGATION. 


PER £ OF 
Popula- Number sine es Annual RATEABLE VALUE. 
NAME oF Town. on Water. | Rateable 
(about) ease Closets. M 
Sewage. | Scavenging. 
£ : 
1. Banbury .. .. | 12,000 3,485 | 2,485 84,104 1d. — 
2. Bedford .. .. | 18,000 8,500 | 3,000 5,000 1d 
8. Blaekburn. s 6,7 130 235,127 8d 34d 
Cheltenham .. | 45,000 8,725 | 8,500 217,849 i i4 
5. Chorle $5 i 20,000 4,00 200 44d 24d 
Doncaster .. .. | 20,000 4,30 8, 34d — 
7. Harrowgate : 12,000 1,500 | 1,62 50,000 52d. 
8. Leamington ie 5700 4,5 ,370 ,40 54d. 1d 
9. Merthyr-Tydvil .. | 55,000 | 10,778 | 8,000 135,000 74d. — 
10. Rugby B ou ,400 1,700; 1,4 ,00 13d. =- 
^ Eis Wells.. | 23,000 5,750 | 5,635 142,914 104. E 
i z« | LLUOU 2,400 | 2,000 43,339 64d. -— 
14. NS endis .. | 71,000 | 14,000 750 210,000 2d. 14d. 
14. West Derby sis; | 32,000 — 3,220 163,000 4d. 1}d. 


BY LAND FILTRATION. 


15. Kendal .. ve | 18,700 | 9,927 450 | £44,600 | 4d. | — 
BY PRECIPITATION. 

Birmingham .. [850,000 | 83,420 | 8,000 | 1 225 844 414. 53d. 
^s psta Oai <a e 100 | 18,249 758 563 2d. 14d. 
18. Leeds o .. |285,000 | 57,000 | 8,000 $45 141 43d. 41d. 
19. Bradford . i WA 723 | 34,000 | 4,050 745,671 31d. 23d. 


BY THE PAIL SYSTEM. 


| £ 
.. | 68,000 | 11,218 | 2,600 262,581 — 


20. Halifax  .. 4d. 
et Rochdale .. .. | 67,000 | 14,388 350 222,000 me) 83d. 
3 | 


——— — 


Barstow.—On the Maori Canoe. 71 


Art. IV.—The Maori Canoe, By R. C. Barstow. 

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 10th June, 1878.) 
Tue time is fast approaching when the Maori will hear only of the weapons, 
garments, and utensils of his ancestors in traditional story— when the 
tomahawks, spears, paroas will have disappeared—a few meres remaining 
as decorations or indications of chieftainship— when native kakahus, in all 
their varieties, having ceased to be manufactured, will have perished, and 
when the stone toki, or axe, being indestructible, will remain to be wondered 
at, but not understood. 

Not only will these matters of every-day use be no more, but the grander 
works—their pas, their canoes, their ornamented whares will have decayed, 
and the few surviving fragments of pre-pakeha civilization will have to be 
sought for in our museums. 

It is a duty, then, devolving upon us to endeavour to preserve for the 
information of the future races, both white and Maori, such remnants of 
history as yet exist, and with this object I have persuaded Paora Tuhaere 
to lodge here some of the carvings belonging to the once well-known canoe, 
Toki-a-tapiri ; and as canoes of that class are now uncommon, I propose to 
give a short account of their construction, and a word or two as to their 
history. 

Our first accounts of these Islands, resulting from Tasman’s voyage to 
them, more than two centuries ago, brought into notice the canoes of the 
people; and naturally enough, for what the horse is to the Arab, the camel 
to the dweller in the desert, the canoe was to the inhabitant of New 
Zealand; a country abounding in. bays, harbours, creeks, rivers, and 
destitute of roads and beasts of burden. Water-carriage was a matter of 
prime necessity. In addition to which the dearth of quadrupeds caused 
fish to be much depended upon as an article of food. Our Waitangi treaty 
shows how highly the Maori prized his fisheries. But in Tasman’s time 
the canoes he saw were all double ; though Cook, who was so much longer 
on the coasts, if I remember rightly, much more frequently mentions single 
canoes than double ones, and this latter class must have gone out of fashion 
soon after Cook’s time; for I never heard even the oldest natives mention 
them as used in their own day, save temporarily, when two might be lashed 
together for the purpose of erecting a fighting-stage on the platform between 
them, so as to be able to overtop therefrom the stockade of some water- 
fronting pa. 

Canoes occupying such a leading position in native estimation, many 
of their legends and traditions have reference to them—even the mythical 
Ika-o-Maui, the first drawing up of this island from the oce, wi noti 


be accomplished without a canoe—the accounts of the seven 


72 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


which brought from Hawaiki to this country the progenitors of the present 
race of Maoris are familiar to most of us; one only of these—the T'ainui— 
is always mentioned as being double; and as some ships of our navy have 
been immortalized by the prowess of their crews in celebrated engagements, 
so many of the Maori waiatas or songs are in honour of their ships—most 
often in praise of their celerity, by dint of which some enemies' pa had 
been surprised, or their women and children carried away into captivity. 

Canoes may be divided into four classes—Waka-taua or waka-pitau, war 
canoes, fully carved ; the waka-tetee, which, generally smaller, had a plain 
figure-head and stern ; waka-tiwai, an ordinary canoe of one piece, and the 
kopapa or small canoe usually used for fishing, travelling to cultivations, etc. 

The Toki-a-tipiri belonged to the waka-pitau, which differed from the 
waka-taua in having an untatooed figure-head with a protruding tongue, 
and being less elevated forward. 

Canoes, being of vital importance, whether for war, or as a means of 
procuring food, a superstitious race naturally attributed to the tree set 
apart for the kiwi or hull of the canoe some power over its future fortune; 
not only was & particular site or aspect in its growth deemed lucky, but it 
was supposed that incantations by a tohunga or wizard bestowed upon the 
living tree would increase the virtue of the wood when used. 

Special trees were sometimes the cause of war between two tribes, were 
set apart, or made tapu, by a father for an infant son, remained even as an 
heir-loom for the grandson, and occasionally, in early land sales, were 
specially reserved. 

Totara was the tree chiefly prized, on account of its durability. Kauri 
was next in estimation, and in the north was easier to procure of large size. 
I have seen a waka-tiwai—that is, a canoe entirely of one piece, carry, 
beyond its crew, three-and-a-half tons of potatoes in a seaway. Kahikatea 
was sometimes used; it is light but not lasting, and I have known rimu 
canoes, but these are too heavy to be popular. 

When a tree had been selected either by an individual rangatira or bya 
hapu who had determined to build a war-canoe, it was first necessary that a 
sufficient stock of food to supply the workmen employed upon it should be 
available; if the tree grew in a place distant from the pa, a special cultiva- 
tion as near as possible to the locus operandi might be made for the purpose, 
otherwise a particular patch of kumera, or other esculent, was planted and 
set aside; then the future canoe had to be draughted; certain naval archi- 
tects were the Symonds or Reeds of their day, and were occasionally fetched 
from far to design a craft which was required to possess extra speed; many 
a deliberation of the Kaumatuas or elders took place over the prepared 
model, ere the shape was finally settled, 


Barstow.—On the Maori Canoe. 73 


The next step was to consult the Tohunga as to the day for commencing 
the falling; the state of the moon must be considered ; an inauspicious day 
for beginning would surely cause the canoe to capsize—the taua or war- 
party using it to be defeated, or, if not to be a waka-taua, no fish would be 
caught therefrom. 

When stone-axes and fire were the only means of falling the tree, the 
task of bringing down a totara four or five feet through must have been 
tedious ; the first iron hatchets used were those procured from Captain 
Cook, and those obtained at Manawaora a century ago, when Marion’s crew 
were ashore and slaughtered, whilst getting out a spar; probably it was not 
till thirty years later that iron-axes became sufficiently abundant to super- 
sede those of stone entirely. Some care was needed that the tree in falling 
should not be broken nor shaken ; an accident of this kind is by no means 
uncommon, and many fine spars are now lost in this way. The destruction 
of a specially large tree, after the labour of falling had been incurred, must 
indeed have been a calamity. 

Though when an outlying tree of sufficient scantling could be found, it 
was preferred to one forest-grown, as our shipwrights considered hedge- 
grown better than plantation oak; yet, in most instances, the totara or 
kauri tree stood in a forest miles from the sea-shore, and so far from 
anahingas or cultivations that relays of women were needed to carry up 
provisions for the workpeople; a road for hauling out by would also require 
preparing ; secrecy, too, was often needed, for a hostile tribe would be only 
too glad either to attack the pa weakened by the absence of many of its 
men, or to surround and cut off the party while engaged at work. 

At last, however, incessant labour has fallen the tree, cross-cut the log, 
and dubbed down the outside to somewhat near its destined shape, and fire 
and adze have partially hollowed out the riu, or hold, dry rewarewa wood 
being used for the charring ; the amount of excavating done at this stage 
depending upon the distance to which the canoe has to be hauled and the 
danger of its splitting on its journey. In peaceable times there is a great 
feast, and all the friendly neighbouring pas contribute hands to haul out, 
by dint of akas, or vines, over rollers or skids, the still weighty mass. The 
workmen pull together over the steeps to the songs of the women. 

It is not always fated to reach the water. At the foot of Wairere Hill, 
in Whangaroa Harbour, there lay, some years ago, the two sides of a mighty 
canoe which had been fashioned on the elevated plateau above the bay. 
Whilst a party of some thirty slaves were engaged in lowering it down the 
steep hill-side, a vine broke, the canoe rushed headlong to the bottom, and 
split from end to end; a ery of despair from the awe-stricken slaves brought 
their rangatiras to the spot, and instant death was the punishment m 
out to the unlueky slaves for their neglect or misfortune, = 


74 ; Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


But even when the kiwi, or bottom piece, has reached the sea beach or 
creek in safety, but a small portion of the work has been completed. This 
piece has to be redubbed and further hollowed; this operation, too, is 
repeated as the timber seasons after the canoe has been in use. Then trees 
have to be fallen for the rauawa, or top streak, not much smaller than the 
one first mentioned. These top streaks in the Toki-a-tapiri are each about 
seventy feet long, and eighteen or twenty inches deep amidships. These 
have to be dubbed down to their proper thickness and shape, to be dragged 
out, and fitted to the hull; holes (puerere) require boring through both, so 
as to lash them along together—a simple enough business with a brace and 
bit, but a very different matter when kiripaka or quartz was used, though 
the natives had learned to construct a drill armed with this pointed stone ; 
the tete, or figure-head, and rapa, or stern-piece, have to come, and you 
have only to look at these to form some notion of the time, taste, and skill 
requisite for their manafacture; a very slight mistake, an unskilful blow, 
and the thing is ruined; another seasoned log must be got, and the work 
be recommenced. It is not everywhere that this carving can be executed. 
The Arawa and Wakatohea, Bay of Plenty tribes, were long celebrated for 
their knowledge of designing and carving the ornamental parts of canoes, 
and their services were obtained by hire, or the requisite carvings (of course 
I am speaking now of modern days) were procured in exchange for guns, 
blankets, horses, or European goods. In earlier times raids were made, 
and men carried as slaves to carve for their masters. Only a small portion 
of the tracery must be cut out at a time, lest exposure to the sun should 
cause a crack, A fully ornamented stern-post was months or years even 
before it received its finishing touch, though the pattern had been sketched 
from the first. These portions of the craft have to be carefully fitted and 
bored for seizing on; the taumanu, or thwarts—frequently of manukau 
wood—must be cut, worked out, and lashed to the niao, or gunwale. On 
the proper fitting of these, which took the place of our deck-bearers, much 
of the strength of the canoe depends, and the women spent days in 
preparing the muka, or flax for these lashings (kaha). 

Then along each side of our canoe has to be fitted a batten, called taka, 
covering the joint of the hiwi and rauawa, and the kaha has again to be 
carried over this so as to secure this streak firmly to the side. These pieces, 
too, were of great length, some 80 or 40 feet, so as to have only one joint 
or splice on each side. 

Our canoe is now pretty well built, but yet again requires many fittings 
—Ahe kaiwae, stages or platforms, usualy made of small manuka sticks, 
upon which the kaihoe, or paddlers, either sat or knelt, a kind of grated 
‘deck, running the length of the craft, with openings here and there to 


Bansrow.—On the Maori Canoe. 76 


communicate with the riu, or hold; one or more of these apertures were 
supplied with a tiheru, or bailer, for toughness’ sake made of mangiao wood; 
for many a sea in rough weather would break on board, and were it not for 
the caulking (purupuru) with huni, or flower of raupo, a supply of which the 
women had gathered in the swamps, much water would have found its way 
through the joints and holes. The native substitute for oakum is impervious 
to wet when properly applied. 

The next process is to paint our vessel; and for the prevailing red colour 
in fashion, karamea, a species of clay, which needs to be burnt before being 
applied, is most valued. The parts to be coloured are first cleaned, then 
sized with juice of sow thistle and the poporo shrub, after which the karamea, 
mixed with water, is rubbed on; this yields the most brilliant colour, and 
is very lasting. Kokowaiis a kind of pigment, burnt, dried, and mixed with 
shark-liver oil. This is a good deal darker than the former. 

The batten, carved stern, and head, if a wakataua, are usually blackened 
with powdered charcoal, or lamp-black and oil. The wakatetee has usually 
ared head. On gala days the taka would be adorned with albatross feathers, 
and wreathes of pigeon or wild duck feathers flutter upon the stem and 
stern. 

The equipments are still to follow. According to size, sixty to a 
hundred paddles are requisite. One very large canoe, formerly in Taraia’s 
possession, could seat 140 paddlers ; but the hiwi of this was 96 feet long, 
the projecting stern and stem adding 14 feet to this huge length. It is said 
that Toki-a-tapiri could stow fifty on each side, steer-paddles, too, which are 
much longer than ordinary ones, and usually with carved handles. 

Then the masts (rewa), steps for which have been left when the riu was 
hollowed, with the booms, and cordage, and the queer sails, supposing 
our canoe was made as far back as forty years ago, must not be forgotten. 

These last, ere the days of duck or calico, were made of long leaves 
of the raupo, kept in their places by an interlacing of flax-twine (aho); 
the butt or wide part of the leaf was uppermost towards the boom, the small 
ends of the leaves converging to a point at the tack, making thus a trian- 
gular sail. Two or three masts were used according to the canoe’s length, 
and small as the amount of sail appeared to be, I have seen a great pace 
obtained under raupo alone. 

We yet want a plaited flax cable, and an anchor. Of these last there 
were three varieties: an oblong stone, with a hole through the smaller end, 
a stone enmeshed in a netting of flax or vines; or three or four crooked 
pieces ef pohutukawa lashed together with a stone between the shanks and 
the curved points, forming a rude grapnel. 

Sometimes, though the hull might be new, the carved portions of worn- 


76 Transactions. —Miscellaneous, 


out canoes would be re-used, being renovated for the occasion ; formerly, 
the stem and stern pieces were detached and stored in sheds when a war- 
canoe was laid up in ordinary. 

Our canoe is now at last ready for launching, nearly as much time 
having been occupied in its building as would in England have turned out 
an ironclad; a feast marks the event; and though to the rangatiras of the 
kainga the day was one of rejoicing, fifty years back it would have been a 
poor hapu that could not afford a slave or two as a kinaki, or relish, for such 
an occasion, 

The canoe is run over the skids into the water and anchored; many are 
the comments on the way she sits; presently another one is launched, 
crews of young men are found for each; they paddle out some distance 
quietly, turn and race back, animated by the cries and oon of the 
assembled spectators. 

As with us a name is fixed upon as soon as the keel has been laid, so, I 
think, with the Maori; at a very early stage of the work the appellation 
is agreed upon. 

I do not know what led to the name of Toki-a-tapiri being given to 
the canoe to which these carvings belonged. I had hoped to have 
interested you with a narration of battles in which she had been engaged— 
though sea-fights were not common—or voyages she had made, but can 
only tell you that she was built by the Ngatikahungunu, of Hawke Bay, 
and given by a chief of that tribe to Hone Ropiha, better known as 
* John Hobbs," during Governor Browne's administration ; at that time 
the canoe was not an old one. Hobbs afterwards sold her to Aihepene 
Kaihau and other Ngatiteata chiefs at Waiuku for £700. At the com- 
mencement of the Waikato war she was seized at Waiuku by a party of 
volunteers and militia, composed of Messrs. J. C. Firth and others, and 
brought to Onehunga. She was subsequently conveyed overland to Auck- 
land, by order of the late Mr. John Williamson, when Superintendent, for 
the purpose of landing H.R.H. Prince Alfred, on the occasion of his first 
visit to Auckland, and was used by the natives when the Orakei land claim 
was investigated. 

I ean only add that her length was some 78 or 80 feet, and beam about 
63 feet. 

In Auckland's infant days, twenty or twenty-five of these war-canoes 
rom the Thames alone might be found hauled up in Mechanics’ Bay. 
Where, alas! are these now ? 


——————— 


| WM 


Cotenso,—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 77 


Art, V.—Contributions towards a better Knowledge of the Maori Race, 
By W. Corzwso, F.L.S. 
[Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 12th August, 1878.) 


* For I, foo, + with Solon, that ‘I would fain grow old learning many 
things.’ ” >> Pato: Laches 


“ Though this be Let aia yet there is method in’t.”—Hamlet. 
On THE [DEALITY or THE AnolENT New ZEALANDER, 
Part I.—LrcENps, Myrus, anp FABLES. 
8 1. Introductory. 

I nave long been desirous of adding what little I may have gleaned on this 
subject during an extended sojourn in New Zealand; and I feel still the 
more inclined to do so through (1) it being now evening time with me, and 
(2) through my having noticed the many crude theories which have been 
broached concerning the Whence of the Maori, not a few of which, by their 
several writers, have been laboriously propped and buttressed with all and 
every item, however insignificant, far-fetched, and vague, they could possibly 
impress and bring forward, but in which, in my estimation, they have 
notwithstanding signally failed, because they laboured to build up a pet 
faney or hobby of their own rather than the truth; some even starting 
with assuming the very proposition which they had to prove.* 

For my own part, I altogether disclaim all such; I have no pet theory ; 
I only seek the truth; to do what little I may towards establishing it; firmly 
believing, as I have already written,{ that in the years to come this, too, 
will be found out and known. : 

For this purpose, then, I shall bring before you on the present occasion 
& few, out of the many, curious old legends, myths, and fables of the Maori, 
preferring those which I have known for many years, which have to do with 
natural and tangible objects, and whieh have not been tampered with or 
&dded to by Europeans, or by Maoris who had imbibed new and foreign 
ideas. 


* Plenty of this will be found in several volumes of the “ Transactions N.Z. Inst.,” 
which, although often attempted to be dressed up in a new fashion, is not new. I append 
8 suitable extract on this subject from an old book, as the work itself is scarce and little 
known :— 

“In respect to the New Zealanders, some have imagined that they sprang from 
Assyria or Egypt. “The god Pan, says Mr. Kendall to Dr. Waugh, “is universally 
acknowledged. The overflowings of the Nile, and the fertility of the country in con- 
sequence, are evidently alluded to in their traditions; and I think the Argonautic 
expedition, Pan’s crook, Pan’s pipes, and Pan’s office in making the earth fertile, are 
mentioned in their themes. Query—Are not the Malay and the whole of the South Sea 
Islanders Egyptians ? To which we reply—When will the spirit of conjecture rest ?”— 
Beauties, etc., of Nature, by C. Bucke; new ed., vol. ii., s. 79; London, 1837 (note). 

In Essay on The Maori Races; Trans., Vol. I., pp. 61, 62, 1st Ed. 


78 Vransacttons.—Miscellaneous, 


Here, however, let me pause awhile to explain clearly, yet briefiy, what 
I mean by the term Ideality : I mean that superior faculty—that conception 
of the natural and beautiful, the truthful and symmetrical, which has ever 
been found to pertain to the higher races, or varieties of men, and in par- 
ticular to the more gifted among them. As Cousin says (On the uni ee 
—'* The Ideal appears as an original conception of the mind. * * 
Nature or experience gives me the occasion for conceiving the ideal, but the 
ideal is something entirely different from experience or nature, so that if we 
apply it to natural, or even to artificial figures, they cannot fill up the con- 
dition of the ideal conception, and we are obliged to imagine them exact.” 
Kant lays it down—* By ideal, I understand the idea, not in concreto but in 
individuo, as an individual thing, determinable or determined by the idea 
alone." * On this subject, also, Emerson impressively writes :—“ I 
hasten to state the principle which prescribes, through different means, 
its firm law to the useful and beautiful arts. The law is this: The 
universal soul is the alone creator of the useful and the beautiful; 
therefore, to make anything useful or beautiful, the individual must be sub- 
mitted to the universal mind. *  *  * Beneath a necessity thus 
almighty, what is artificial in man's life seems insignifieant. He seems to 
take his task so minutely from intimations of Nature, that his works become, 
as it were, hers, and he is nolonger free. * *  * There is but one 
Reason. The mind that made the world is not one mind, but the mind. 
Every man is an inlet to the same, and to all of the same. And every work 
of art is a more or less sure manifestation of the same. * * * We feel, 
in seeing a noble building, much as we do in hearing a perfect song, that it 
is spiritually organic; that is, had a necessity in nature for being; was 
one of the possible forms in the Divine mind, and is now only discovered 
and executed by the artist, not arbitrarily composed by him. * * * The 
highest praise we can attribute to any writer, painter, sculptor, builder, is, 
that he actually possessed the thought or feeling with which he has inspired 
us."t  Thatdelightful writer on Art, J. Ruskin—whether considered as artist 
or art eritie—always in love with the Beautiful, and possessing the wonder- 
ful power of telling it in such charming language, says :—‘‘I call an idea 
great in proportion as it is received by a higher faculty of the mind, and as 
it more fully occupies, and in occupying, exercises and exalts, the faculty by 
which it is received. * * * He is the greatest artist who has embodied 
in the sum of his works the greatest number of the greatest ideas.” Then 
Ruskin contrasts the old Venetian worker in glass, with his profusion of 
design, his personality of purpose, and his love of his art, with the British 


* Crit. Pure Reason. 
1 Essay on Art. 


CoLesso.—0On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 79 


worker with his mechanical accuracy. ‘‘ Everything the old Venetian 
worker made was a separate thing—a new individual creation ;* but the 
British worker does things by the gross, and has no personal interest in any 
one article.’’+ 

To this, from the Moderns, I would also add two short extracts from the 
Ancients. According to Cicero, there is nothing of any kind so fair that 
there may not be a fairer conceived by the mind. He says:—“ We can 
conceive of statues more perfect than those of Phidias. Nor did the artist, 
when he made the statue of Jupiter or Minerva, contemplate any one 
individual from which to take a likeness; but there was in his mind a form 
of beauty, gazing on which, he guided his hand and skill in imitation of it." 
(Orator, c. 2,3.) And Seneca takes the distinction between ida and Zidoc 
thus :—‘* When a painter paints a likeness, the original is his ióéa—the 
likeness is the édoc or image. The #idoc is in the work—the idéa is out of 
the work and before the work.” —/ Epist. 58.) 

Possibly some one may say, or think: ‘ Do you really believe that any 
thing of that kind, or power, ever appertained to the mind of a New 
Zealander ?" And my reply would be: “ Yes, undoubtedly, and that in no 
small degree." And here we must be careful in discerning and considering, 
in order to arrive at a right conclusion. 

The fragment of brown floating seaweed, when properly examined and 
considered, shows the hand of the Great Artificer as surely as the superb 
and symmetrical flower of the garden, the admiration of all beholders. In 
viewing the colossal architecture of the ancient Egyptians, we must 
beware how we compare it with that of ancient Greece, especially with the 
airy and flowery Corinthian Order. So, when we contemplate the modern 
Greek, untaught and unskilled peasant it may be, sauntering among the 
marble ruins of the cities and capitals of his forefathers, and thoughtlessly 
breaking up some exquisite creation of the gifted sculptor of ancient days, 
and the question of doubt arises in our minds as to the possible oneness of 
that race, we must not forget how sadly, how greatly, they have degenerated. 
Just so, then, in my estimation, it has been with the nation of the New 
Zealanders. They, too, have degenerated—sadly, surely, and quickly— 
particularly within the last half a century : 

** "Tis Greece, but living Greece, no more." 

But do not mistake me, as if I meant to assert that they in their 
Ideality ever approached to that of the great Western nations which have 
been mentioned. Not so; but speaking comparatively, and in their degree, 


* Much of this re the old Venetian workman is truly relatively applicable to the old 
New Zealand worker. : 
Po + Modern Painters, 


80 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


and according to their own national conceptions, and to the circumstances 
in which they were placed by nature,—without a written language, or the 
use of metals, or beasts of burden, or any knowledge of, or communication 
with, the great world of mankind lying around them,—aye, more ;—without 
teaching or instruction or communication of ideas (even among them- 
selves !) ;—without the healthy incitement arising from competition with 
artists of other tribes, and of exhibition, and of praise from afar !—without 
even a probable certainty of his even completing what he had painfully 
devised and begun (all such being utterly precluded by their constant 
wars !); and without the slightest excitement of pay or reward, as things 
were never made for sale among them; and also with having a share (in 
common with the other members of his tribe) in the almost daily labours 
attendant on the cultivating and obtaining his food,—from which exertion 
no New Zealander in health, whatever might be his rank or intelligence, 
was ever exempt ;—all these things being fairly weighed and considered,— 
this, this is the way in which they should be judged by us—" 
** They are of the works of the Father, 

And of the one Mind the Intelligible. 

For Intellect is not without the Intelligible, 

And the Intelligible does not subsist apart from Intellect."— Zoroast. 

The Maori of to-day is not worthy, in this respect, to carry the shoes of 
his forefathers. And he knows it; he feels it. Ichabod! or Fuit Ilium, 
may well be called upon them. 

I, who have been, I may be allowed to say, long conversant with them, 
have no hesitation in stating, that the more I have seen and known of the 
works of the Ancient New Zealander, the more have I been struck with the 
many indications of their superior mind,—of their fine perception of the 
beautiful, the regular, and symmetrical; of their desire and labour after the 
beautiful; of their prompt and genuine, open and fearless criticisms,—in a 
word, of their great Ideality. And this high faculty of theirs which they 
possessed in an eminent degree, wil probably be better known and under- 
stood hereafter than itis at present. It was their possession of that faculty, 
even in more modern times, which enabled them at a glance, and, as if by 
inspiration,” to detect inaccuracy or want of ssthetic conformity and exact 
precision in the skilled performances of their European visitors, and as 
quickly to declare it ;—as in the martial exercises of the military (regulars), 
in the want of exact time in the rowing of boats by the most skilful seamen 
of H.M. navy ;—and, in all their own works, to perceive instantaneously 
all such want of symmetry if present. 


* I use this word here in the Socratic sense, as by him in Plato, Ton, 


sel iioii emet dti ai 


E TAURUM UA MA UU MUUMMMMUKMNUNUMMMMAMMM€KCMA———-EREEEEEEEMEDENMN 


CoLENso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 81 


That faculty was exhibited in many ways, e.g. :— 

In the building of their war-canoes with all their carving and many 
adornments; and that without plan, pattern, or tools. The exquisite re- 
gularity and symmetry of both sides of the vessel, including even that 
difficult one of carved concentric circles worked in filagree, were astonishing ; 
and, as such, borne ample testimony to by all their first visitors.* 

In the building of the highly ornamented houses of their chiefs. 

In all their better carvings, with which every article of wood, of bone, 
of shell, or of stone, was profusely and boldly adorned—from the handle of 
a working-axe, or spade, to the baler for their canoes. Horace truly says— 

** Pictoribus atque poetis 
Quidlibet audendi semper fuit equa potestas," 
to which, however, I would also add, sculptoribus; unless such may be 
considered as included in poetis; for Plantus affirms, ** Poeta ad eam rem." 1 

In their tattooing. 

In their Weaving, plain and ornamental, of many kinds and patterns 
(more than 200) of textile fabrics; and all simply done by hand! 

In their chequered dogs’-skin, and kiwi-feathered, and red parrots’- 
feathered, cloaks. 

In their making and twisting of threads, cords, lines, and ropes; many 
varieties of each. 

In their ornaments—of feathers,} of greenstone, and of sharks’ teeth. 


* Vide Cook, Forster, Parkinson, and others, passim; also, Nicholas’ “ New Zealand,” 
Vol. I., p. 48; 49. 

T “One of us arts in which the New Zealanders excel is that of carving in wood, 
They often display both a taste and ingenuity, which, especially when we consider their 
miserably imperfect tools, it is impossible to behold without admiration. The N. Z. artist 
has no lathe to compete with, neither has he even those ordinary hand tools which every 
civilized country has always afforded. The only instruments he has to cut with are 
rudely fashioned of stone or bone. Yet even with these his skill and patient perseverance 
contrive to grave the wood into any forms which his fancy may suggest. Many of the 
carvings thus produced are distinguished by both a grace and richness of design that 
would do no discredit even to European art. Their war-canoes have their heads and sterns 
elaborately carved. On their musical instruments much time and labour is bestowed in 

shaping, carving, and inlaying.”—The New Zealanders, pp. 129, 131 

t Of their taste in feathers for decoration of the head, we have notable instances 
recorded. It is well known that the national taste in this respect was severely simple yet 


graceful 
t Simplex munditiis"—HoRn. “Plain in thy neatness."—MILTO: 


The New Zealanders preferring the snowy-white plumes of three birds in leas in 

white stork, the albatross, and the gannet, and the black feathers, tipped with white, of 

the Huia (Heteralocha gouldi);—nothing gaudy or of strong glittering colours was 

approved of by them; otherwise they could easily have manufactured such feathers fom 

several of their indigenous birds. All this we have in the voyages of their 

visitors, and in the plates. But in the principal plate (or the one ostentatiously intended 
& 


B^ 


82 Transactions.—Miscellaneous, 


In their ornamented staffs of rank, carved and inlaid with mother-of- 
pearl, and decorated with quillets of flowing dog’s hair, and red feathers. 

In their symmetrical planting of their food, with faultless regularity, 
and all done “ by the eye.” 

In their language; hence its great grammatical precision, its double 
duals and double plurals, its euphony, its rhythm, and its brevity, and its 
many exquisite particles and reduplications, both singular and plural, all 
highly pregnant with meaning, which almost defy translation into English. 

In many of their songs and recitations; some plaintive and mild and 
full of love, others bold and martial; all natural and sympathetic. 

In their possessing diesic modulations, or quarter-tones, in their airs and 
music.” 

In their proverbs and sayings, and quaint laconic effusions; often 
abounding with wit and beauty of expression and depth of meaning. 

In their legends, myths, tales, and fables. 

In the regular sequence of their peculiar mythology, and of the begin- 
ning and formation of all things; all natural orders of living things having 
each a separate creator or progenitor. 

In their polite and courteous behaviour, and true, open and free hospi- 
tality, often exhibiting the true gentleman.1 

In their knowledge of many of the operations of nature, including the 
periodic return of the moon and stars, and the seasons. 

In the faultless precision of bodies of them moving together, as if it 
were but one man! as in their paddling and dancing and in several games. 

Now in all these matters, and more might be adduced, they ever 
showed their innate national taste, in which they were vastly in advance of 
our own British forefathers when first visited by Cesar; although the 
Britons had many natural advantages, of which the New Zealander had 
never dreamed. 

o return from our earliest intercourse with the Maori, two or three 
peculiar and strange traits and circumstances highly characteristic of him 
have been known. I allude to those respecting his belief in, and fear of, 
animals of the Saurian or Lizard kind. Settlers and colonists of to-day 
can form no correct idea of how a bold and daring New Zealand warrior, 
who feared not to meet his fellow foe in a stern hand-to-hand deadly fight, 
would blanch and run away in horror from a little harmless lizard! yet 


to be such—the frontispiece) to Hochstetter’s work on New Zealand (English edition), we 
have a Maori Chief with three peacock’s feathers stuck in his hair!! a proof of their dege- 
neracy in taste; or, as I believe, of the baser (inferior) taste of the English artist, who had 
c oe learnt by rule, and who had no conception of the superior faculty. 
* See Appendix to this paper ; one highly interesting to trained musicians, 
t Vide Nicholas’ “ New Zealand," Vol, I., pp. 24, 25, 


CoLenso,.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race, 88 


this I have often seen. Why was this? was it that he really feared that 
little harmless animal ? or was it that that tiny creature was to him the 
form and representation of a great, fearful, mischievous, and mysterious 
power, the deadly foe of man, ever hated and dreaded by all New Zea- 
landers, and called an Atua, or demon? of which it was said—aye, and 
firmly believed—that it often gnawed the internal part of diseased folks, 
and so surely caused their death; or was it through their belief in those 
cherished legends of the olden time, that had been strictly handed down 
through many generations from father to son, containing the history of 
some dreadful monsters of the Saurian order, and which the prowess of 
their ancestors, aided by the charms and spells of their priests (mark this), 
had enabled them to vanquish and to overcome ? Animals of such a huge 
and monstrous size as would comparatively leave the Megatherium and 
Mammoth far behind in the place of kittens! 

And here I cannot help calling your particular attention to a very 
curious feature, which will prominently appear in the relations I shall have 
to give you—viz., that while the utmost exactitude is preserved in those 
strange stories—of time, and place, and persons, and of a certain amount 
of strong natural reality, yet not a single vestige of any osteological remains 
of any animal of the Saurian kind has ever yet been discovered! While, 
on the other hand, the fossil remains of many large and extinct Struthious 
birds of several genera and species, and commonly known in the lump by 
the name of Moa, are to be met with in great abundance; and yet, of these 
realities, there are neither credible history, nor curious legendary tale, nor 
myth nor fable, that I have ever been able to lay hold of. 

Captain Cook heard something of those large Saurians on his third voyage 
while at anchor in the Straits which bear his name; which, being but brief, 
I will give in his own words :—'* We had another piece of intelligence from 
this chief, that there are lizards there of an enormous size. He described 
them as being eight feet in length, and as big round as a man’s body. He 
said they sometimes seize and devour men; that they burrow in the ground; 
and that they are killed by making fires at the mouth of the holes. We 
could not be mistaken as to the animal, for, with his own hand, he drew a 
very good representation of a lizard on a piece of paper, in order to show 
what he meant.” And this statement was further confirmed by Mr. Ander- 
son, the surgeon to the ship, as appears from a note appended to that 
voyage, viz. :—‘‘In a separate memorandum book, Mr. Anderson mentions 
the monstrous animal of the lizard kind, described by the two young New 
Zealanders they had on board, after they had left the island."'* 


* 3rd Voyage, Vol. I., pp. 142, 153, 


84 Transactions, — Miscellaneous, 


Mr. Nicholas, who accompanied Mr. Marsden on his first visit to New 
Zealand in 1814, says :—‘‘ While in the forests at the Bay of Islands, 
observing a hole at the foot of one of the trees, which evidently appeared to 
have been burrowed by some quadruped, we inquired of Kena what animal 
he supposed it was; and from his description of it, we had reason to believe 
that it must be the Guana. Wishing to know how far our surmise was 
correct, we desired our friend to thrust a stick into the hole, and endeavour 
to worry the animal out of it; but this he tried with no effect, for either it 
was not in the hole at the time, or, if there, not to be dislodged by such 
means. Kena, however, was rather well pleased than otherwise at not 
meeting with this animal; for his dread of it was so great, that he shrunk 
back with terror at the time he thought it would come out, nor did he 
examine the hole but with very great reluctance. This we thought very 
strange, for the Guana (the animal we took it for) is perfectly harmless. 

* The chief, Ruatara, however, informed us that a most destructive 
animal was found in the interior of the country, which made great havoc 
among the children, carrying them off and devouring them, whenever they 
came its way. The description he gave of it corresponded exactly with that 
of the alligator. * * * The chief had never seen the animal himself, 
but received his accounts from others; and hence it appears to me very 
probable that his credulity might have been imposed upon.”” 

Captain Cruise, of the 84th Regiment, who came to New Zealand in 
H.M.S. ‘ Dromedary’ five years after Mr. Nicholas, and who resided in 
this country ten months, gives in a few words an interesting notice of 
the abject fear exhibited by the Maori at the mere sight of a small lizard! 
which, as it is (or was) so truthful—as I have too often myself witnessed— 
I also quote :—'** A man who has arrived at a certain stage of an incurable 
illness, is under the influence of the Atua, who has taken possession of him, 
and who, in the shape of a lizard, is devouring his intestines ; after which 
no human assistance or comfort can be given to the sufferer, and he is 
carried out of the village and left to die. * * * This curious hypothesis 
was accidentally discovered by one of the gentlemen, who, having found a 
lizard, carried it to a native woman to ask the name of it. She shrunk 
from him in a state of terror that exceeded description, and conjured him 
not to approach her, as it was in the shape of the animal he held in his 
hand that the Atwa was wont to take possession of the dying, and to devour 
their bowels."t 

In various parts of this island, but all to the north of Napier, I have 
had shown me when travelling (1834-1844), many spots where it was said 
monsters of the Saurian Order had formerly dwelt. 


* Narrative, Vol. Il., pp. 124, 126, 
t Journal, pp. 283, 320, 


CorzNso,—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 85 


Thirty-five years ago, when journeying along the Hast Coast, between 
Cape Kidnappers and Castle Point, on reaching the top of the high hill or 
range situated between Waimarama and Te Apiti, named Marokotia, my 
attention was called to a remarkable rift or chasm at the head of the glen 
just below me, on the east or sea side of the old Maori track or pathway. 
This, I was told by the old chiefs of the coast who were with me, was in 
ancient times the dwelling of a monster Saurian, named Hinehuarau ; that 
it burst away from this place, tearing and rending all before it, and so 
went on south until it reached Wairarapa, where it was subsequently killed 
by a chief of note of ancient days, named Tara, whose name he gave to the 
lake near Te Aute, “ Te Roto-a-tara.”’ 

Some time after I was again in the Wasani Valley, and hearing so 
much of the ** bones," or, as some said, “the head," of this monster being 
yet to be seen in the place where it was slain, away among the hills, I 
purposely walked thither from a village called Hurunuiorangi to see them. 
It was rather a long and rough walk to the place among the hills on the 
other side of the Ruamahanga river. Arriving there, I found the said 
* bones" to be a heap or knob of yellowish, friable, glittering, quartz-like 
stone (calcite), which cropped out from the hill-side and lay in large lumps. 
I remember well how angry one old Maori became, who was of the party 
with me, on my asserting that the pile before us was not bone at all but 
stone. Very likely those natives had never seen any other stone like it (up 
to that time I had not). It bore, at first sight, a resemblance to the yellow 
decaying bones of a whale. I think the spot was called Tupurupuru, and 
that it is not very far from the head waters of the river Taueru. 

Such places, however—caves, rifts, chasms, and strange-looking stones 
—are by no means unfrequently met with in travelling in New Zealand, 
especially when journeying (as I was obliged to do) along the old foot-paths, 
which mostly led over ridges of hills; and there are plenty of such stories 
coneerning them, each spot having its own peculiar rudi or legend, which 
was once most certainly believed. 

I have also more than once seen another curious pati in this neighbour- 
hood (Hawke Bay), which deserves recording, the more so, perhaps, from 
the fact of its being no longer to be seen as I saw it. It was on the low 
undulating grassy banks of the river Waitio. There, at that time, was a 
huge earthwork representation of a ngarara, or ika, i.e, a lizard, or 
crocodile, which, several generations back, had been cut and dug and 
formed in the ground by a chief of that time named Rangitauira, wh», in 
doing so, had also dexterously availed himself of the natural formation of 
the low alluvial undulations in the earth. It had the rude appearance of a 
huge Saurian extended, with its four legs and claws and tail, but crooked, 


86 Transactions,— Miscellaneous, 


not straight, as if to represent it wriggling or living, and not dead. It was 
many yards in length, and of corresponding width and thickness, and by no 
means badly executed. On two occasions, in particular, in travelling that 
way, as we generally rested there on the banks of the stream, the old Maori 
chiefs with me would diligently use their tomahawks and wooden spades in 
clearing away the coarse grass and low bushes growing on it in its more 
salient parts, so as to keep its outline tolerably clear, reminding me of what 
has been said of the periodical scouring in the Vale of the White Horse. 
The natural vegetation of the place was well suited for the purpose of pre- 
serving it, being mostly composed of our (Hawke Bay) common carpet or 
mat grass (Microlena stipoides) and a low-growing Muhlenbeckia (M. 
axillaris )*, but in those days no foot of man trod on it, and of beasts there 
were none ! 

This curious earth-work was called Te Ika-a-Rangitauira, that is, that 
that Saurian outline was made or formed by a chief whose name was 
Rangitauira. He was an ancestor of the chief Karaitiana (M.H.R.), and 
of several other chiefs and sub-tribes now living here in Hawke Bay ; he 
lived nineteen generations back ; one of his residences was a large pa called 
Te Mingi, on the Tutaekuri river. He formed this design, or earth-work 
(which originally consisted of three Saurian outlines) in remembrance of his 
having returned from that spot with his fighting party. They had left their 
own pa to attack another on the east side of the Tukituki river, but being 
here overtaken by daylight abandoned their design. First, however, forming 
and leaving there those three monsters, to indicate to the people of the pa 
they had set out to attack, how they had intended to serve (i.e. devour) 
them. This chief subsequently met with his death in returning from the 
Patea country in the interior, through being overtaken by a violent snow- 
storm, and taking refuge in a cave called Te Reporoa (on the lower passes of 
the Ruahine mountain range) where he and those with him miserably 
perished in the snow ! His younger brother, who persevered and kept on 
his journey, escaped. Consequently for many years this chief's huge earth- 
work was attended to and kept clear of coarse weeds by his descendants in 
commemoration of him. 

I now proceed to give you some of those old legendary tales, for which 
I have been preparing the way, premising that these are all fair translations 
from the original Maori as I received them, and without any addition. Like 
most translations, however, they lose much of their striking original 
character and beauty iu attempting to clothe them in a foreign dress. 


* It was here that I discovered that pretty little and very scarce plant, Stackhousia 
minima. 


CoLenso.—0On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 87 


§ 2.—Tales. 
THE Srory or tHE Destruction or MowsrERS. 
1. The Slaying of Hotupuku. 

Here is the tale of the valiant deeds of certain men of old, the ancestors of 
the chiefs of Rotorua. Their names were Purahokura, Reretai, Rongohaua, 
Rongohape, and Pitaka; they were all the children of one father, whose 
name was Tamaihutoroa. As they grew up to manhood they heard of 
several persons who had been killed in journeying over the roads leading by 
Tauhunui and Tuporo, and Tikitapu,—all places of that district. 

People of Rotorua who had travelled to Taupo, or who went into the 
hill country to meet their relations, were never again heard of; while the 
folks of the villages who were expecting them were thinking all manner of 
things about their long absence, concluding that they were still at their 
respective places of abode; but, as it afterwards turned out, they were all 
dead in the wilderness ! 

At last a party left Taupo on a visit to Rotorua, to travel thither by 
those same roads where those former travelling parties had been consumed. 
Their friends at Taupo thought that they had arrived at Rotorua, and were 
prolonging their stay there; but no, they, too, were all dead, lying in heaps 
in that very place in the wilderness! 

Afterwards another travelling party started from Rotorua to Taupo; this 
party went by the lakes Tarawera and Rotomahana, and they all arrived 
safe at Taupo. On their arrival there many questions were asked on both 
sides respecting the people of Taupo who had gone to Rotorua, but nothing 
whatever could be learned of them. On hearing this the people of Taupo 
earnestly enquired of the newly-arrived party from Rotorua, by what road 
they came? They replied, ** We came by the open plain of Kaingaroa, by 
the road to Tauhunui.” Then it was that the people of Taupo and the 
party from Rotorua put their heads together, and talked, and deeply con- 
sidered, and said, ** Surely those missing travellers must have fallen in with 
& marauding party of the enemy, for we all well know they have no kins- 
folk in those parts." Upon this the Taupo people determined on revenge, 
and so they proceeded to get together an army for that purpose, visiting 
the several villages of Taupo to arouse the people. All being ready, they 
commenced their march. They travelled all day, and slept at night by the 
road-side; and the next morning, at daylight, they crossed the river 
Waikato. Then they travelled on over the open plain of Kaingaroa until 
they came to a place called Kapenga, where dwelt a noxious monster, whose 
name was Hotupuku. When that monster smelt the odour of men, which 
had been wafted towards him from the army by the wind, it came out of 
its cave, At this time the band of men were travelling onwards in the 


88 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


direction of that cave, but were unseen by that monster; while that monster 
was also coming on towards them unseen by the party. Suddenly, however, 
the men looked up, and, lo! the monster was close upon them; on which, 
they immediately retreated in confusion. In appearance, it was like a 
moving hill of earth! Then the fear-awakening cry was heard, ‘ Who is 
straggling behind? Look out, there! A monster, a monster, is coming 
upon you!” Then the whole army fled in all directions in dire dismay and 
confusion at seeing the dreadful spines and spear-like crest of the creature, 
all moving and brandishing in anger, resembling the gathering together of 
the spines, and spears, and spiny crests, and ridges of the dreadful marine 
monsters of the ocean. In the utter rout of the army, they fell foul of 
each other through fear, but, owing to their number, some escaped alive, 
though some were wounded and died. Then, alas! it was surely known 
that it was this evil monster which had completely destroyed all the people 
who had formerly travelled by this way. 

The news of this was soon carried to all parts of the Rotorua district, and 
the brave warriors of the several tribes heard of it. They soon assembled 
together, 170 all told, took up their arms, and marched even until they came 
to Kapenga in the plain, and there they pitched their camp. Immediately 
they set to work, some to pull the leaves of the cabbage-tree (Cordyline 
australis), others to twist them into ropes; then it was that all the various 
arts of rope-making were seen and developed !—the round rope, the flat 
rope, the double-twisted rope, the three-strand rope, and the four-sided 
rope* ; at last the rope-making was ended. 

Then the several chiefs arose to make orations and speeches, encouraging 
each other to be brave, to go carefully to work, to be on the alert, and to be 
circumspect, and so to perform all the duties of the warrior. All this they 
did according to the old and established custom when going to fight the 
enemy. 

One in particular of those chiefs said—Listen to me, let us go gently to 
work; let us not go too near to the monster, but stay at a distance from it, 
and when we perceive the wind blowing towards us over it, then we will get 
up closer, for if the wind should blow from us to the monster, and it smells 
us, it will suddenly rush out of its cave, and our work and schemes will be 
all upset.” To this advice the chiefs all assented, and then the men were 
all properly arranged for each and every side of the big rope snare they had 
contrived and made, so that they might all be ready to pull and haul away 
on the ropes when the proper time should come. 


* This was still the custom in late years; their strongest common ropes were made 
from the leaves of the cabbage-tree, after steeping them in water, and a strong and very 
peculiar kind of 4-sided rope was made by them of it, I have had such made for me, 
but I almost fear the art is lost. Flax (or Phormium) leaves would not be suitable, 


CoLenso.—0On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 89 


Then they told off a certain number to go to the entrance of the cave 
where the monster dwelt, while others were well armed with hard-wood 
digging spades* and clubs, with long spears, and rib-bones of whales, and 
with short wooden cleavers or halberts. Last of all, they carefully placed 
and laid their ropes and nooses, so that the monster should be completely 
taken and snared in them ; and then, when all was ready, the men who had 
been appointed to go up to the mouth of the cave to entice and provoke the 
creature to come forth, went forwards ; but, lo! before they had got near to 
the cave, the monster had already smelt the odour of men. ; 

Then it arose within its cave. And the men who had gone forth to 
provoke it heard the rumbling of its awful tread within the cave, resembling 
the grating noise of thunder. Notwithstanding, they courageously enticed 
it forwards by exposing themselves to danger and running towards it, that 
it might come well away from its cave ; and when the monster saw the food 
for its maw by which it lived, it came forth from its den ramping with joy. 

Now this monster had come fearlessly on with open mouth, and with its 
tongue darting forth after those men ; but in the meanwhile they had them- 
selves entered into the snares of ropes, and had passed on and through 
them, and were now got beyond the set snares—the ropes, and nooses, and 
snares, all lying in their proper positions on the level ground. 

At this time those men were all standing around below when the huge 
head of the beast appeared on the top of the little hill, and the other men 
were also ascending that hill and closing in gradually all around ; the 
monster lowered his head awhile and then came on, and then the men, the 
little party of provokers, moved further away on to the top of another 
hillock, and the monster following them entered the snares! At this the 
men on that little hill stood still, then the monster moved on further and 
further towards them, climbing up that ascent also, so that when its head 
appeared on the top of that second hillock its fore legs were also within the 
set loops of the big snare. 

Then it was that the simultaneous cry arose from the party who were 
standing on the top of the little hill watching intently, “Good! capital! 
it has entered! it is enclosed! pull! haul away!” And that other party, 
who were all holding on to the several ropes, anxiously waiting for the 
word of command, hearing this, pulled away heartily. And, lo! it came to 
pass exactly as they all had planned and wished for—the monster was 
caught fast in the very middle of its belly. 


* This implement (called a ko) might be just as well termed a lance, or pick; it was 
narrow, pointed, and 6-7 feet long, and used for digging fern-root, &e., and ag 
here, as an offensive weapon, 


90 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


Now it began to lash about furiously with its tail, feeling more and more 
the pain arising from the severe constriction of its stomach by the ropes. 

Then the bearers of arms leaped forth. A wonderful sight! The 
monster’s tail was vigorously assaulted by them ; they stabbed it over and 
over with their hardwood digging picks and their long spears, and pounded 
it with their clubs, so that even its head felt the great amount of pain 
inflicted on its tail, together with that arising from the severe constriction of 
the ropes on its softer parts. Now the monster began to rear and to knock 
about dreadfully with its head; on seeing this, the enticing band of pro- 
vokers, who had still kept their position in front, again began to entice it to 
make straight forward after them, by going up close to it and then running 
away from it, when, on its attempting to stretch out after them, they suddenly 
faced about in a twinkling, and began to play away upon the monster’s head 
with very good effect. Oh! it was truly wonderful to behold! 

By this time, too, the party of rope-pullers had succeeded in making fast 
all their ropes to the several posts they had fixed in the earth all round 
about for that purpose; this done, they also seized their weapons and 
rushed forward to assist their comrades in beating the monster’s head— 
` this being now the part of it which reared and knocked about the most 
violently. Now, the assault on its head was carried on alternately by those 
men, combined with the others who began it, and who for that purpose 
divided themselves into two parties, when one party rushed forward and 
delivered their blows, and the hideous head was turned towards them, and 
they fell back a bit, the other band came on on the other side and delivered 
their battery, either party always beating in the same place. After a while 
the monster became less vigorous, although it still raged, for its whole body 
was fast becoming one vast mass of bruises through the incessant and 
hearty beating it was receiving. 

Still the fight was prolonged ; prodigies of strength and valour, ability, 
and nimbleness were shown that day by that valiant band of 170, whose 
repeated blows were rained upon the monster. At last the monster yielded 
quietly, and there it lay extended at full length on the ground, stretched 
out like an immense white larva* of the rotten white pine wood, quite dead. 

By this time it was quite dark ; indeed, night. So they left it until the 
morning. When the sun appeared they all arose to cut up this big fish.t 
There it lay, dead! Looking at it as it lay extended, it resembled a very 


* The word is huhu. I suppose this large grub has been selected for a comparison 
owing to its dying helplessly extended, and its plump, fat appearance. 

+ I have translated this word (ika), wherever it occurs in the story, by “fish,” this 
being one of its principal meanings; but it would carry a very different one to a New 
Zealander, Here it would be just synonymous with whale, or large marine animal, 


ies eee eR STR meetin ee 


(RECTO SRS Tea Pe IIR S T UON ee ee Ree ENSE MEN M 


e EE DA 


CorzNs0,— On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race, 91 


large whale,* but its general form or appearance was that of the great 
lizard,t with rigid spiny crest, while the head, the legs, feet, and claws, the 
tail, the scales, the skin, and the general spiny ridges, all these resembled 
those of the more common lizards (tuatara). Its size was that of the sperm 
whale (paraoa). 

Then this man-devouring monster was closely looked at and examined 
for the first time—the wretch, the monster, that had destroyed so many 
persons, so many bands of armed men and travelling parties! Long, ` 
indeed, was the gazing; great was the astonishment expressed. At last, 
one of the many chiefs said, “ Let us throw off our clothing, and all hands 
turn to cut up this fish, that we may also see its stomach, which has 
swallowed so many of the children of men.1 

Then they began to cut it open, using obsidian and pitch-stone knives, 
and saws for cutting up flesh made of sharks' teeth, and the shells of sea 
and of fresh-water mussels (Unio). On the outside, beneath its skin, were 
enormous layers of belly fat (suet), thick and in many folds. Cutting still 
deeper into its great stomach or maw, there was an amazing sight. Lying 
in heaps were the whole bodies of men, of women, and of children! Some 
other bodies were severed in the middle, while some had their heads off, and 
some their arms, and some their legs; no doubt occasioned through the 
working of the monster’s jaws and the forcible muscular action of its 
enormous throat in swallowing, when the strong blasts of its breath were 
emitted from its capacious and cavernous belly. 

And with them were also swallowed all that appertained to them—their 
greenstone war-clubs, their short-knobbed clubs of hardwood, their weapons 
of whales’ ribs both long and short, their travelling staves of rank, their 
halbert-shaped weapons, their staffs and spears—there they all were within 
the bowels of the monster, as if the place was a regular stored armoury of 
war. Here, also, were found their various ornaments of greenstone for 
both neck and ears, and sharks’ teeth, too, in abundance (mako). Besides 
all those there were a great variety of garments found in its maw: fine 
bordered flax-mats; thick impervious war-mats, some with ornamented 
borders ; chiefs’ woven garments made of dogs’ tails, of albatross feathers, 
of kiwi feathers, of red (parrot) feathers, and of seals’ skin, and of white 
dogs’ skin; also, white, black, and chequered mats made of woven flax, and 
garments of undressed flax (Phormium), and the long-leaved kahakaha 
(Astelia, species), and of many other kinds. 


* Nui tohora. 
; Tuatete, the angry, frightful lizard, now extinct. ^ 
1 Uri-o-Tiki: literally, descendants of Tiki: Tiki n in their teres i the 
wa or progenitor of man. 


92 Transactions.—Miscellaneous, 


All the dead bodies, and parts of bodies, the conquerors scooped out and 
threw into a heap, and buried in a pit which they dug there. And that 
work over they proceeded to cut up the fish into pieces; and when they had 
examined its fat and suet, they expressed its oil by clarifying it with heat, 
which was eaten by the tribe; and so they devoured and consumed in their 
own stomachs their implacable foe. This done, they all returned to Rotorua 
and dwelt there, 

2. The Killing of Pekehaua. 

After the destruction of the monster Hotupuku, the fame of that exploit 
was heard by all the many tribes of the district of Rotorua. Then a 
messenger was sent to those heroes by Hororita, or by some other chief, to 
inform them that another man-eating monster dwelt at a place called 
Te Awahou, and that the existence of this monster was known, just as in 
the former case of the one that dwelt in the plain at Kaingaroa. The 
travelling companies of the districts of Waikato and of Patetere were never 
heard of; and so the travelling companies of the Rotorua district, which 
left for Waikato, were also somehow lost, being never again heard of. When 
the people of Rotorua heard this news, those same 170 heroes arose, from 
out of many warriors, and set forth for Te Awahou. Arriving there, they 
sought for information, and gained all they could. Then they asked, 
“ Where does this monster dwell?" The people of the place replied, “ It 
dwells in the water, or it dwells on the dry land, who should certainly 
know ; according to our supposition, no doubt it is much like that one which 
was killed." 

Hearing this, they went to the woods, and brought thence a large 
quantity of supplejacks (Rhipogonum scandens), with which to make water- 
traps of basket-work. Those they interlaced, and bound firmly together 
with a strong trailing plant (MuAlenbeckia complexa), so that when they were 
finished the traps consisted of two or even three layers of canes or supple- 
jacks. "Then they twisted ropes wherewith to set and fix the water-traps, in 
order to snare the monster, and these were all done. Then they made 
similar plans and arrangements for themselves, as on the former occasion 
when the first one was killed. All being ready, the band of heroes set out, 
reciting their forms of spell, or charms, as they went along; those were of 
various kinds and potencies, but all having one tendency, to enable them to 
overcome the monster. Onwards they went, and after travelling some 
distance, they neared the place, or water-hole, where it was said the monster 
lived; the name of that deep pool is Te Warouri (1.e., the Black Chasm). 
They travelled on until they gained the high edge of the river's side, where 
they again recited their charms and spells, whieh done, the 170 proceeded 
to encamp on that very spot. 


Corzs80,—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race, 98 


Then they diligently sought out among themselves a fearless and 
courageous man, when a chief named Pikata presented himself and was 
selected. He seized the water-trap, which was decorated on the top and 
sides and below with bunches of pigeons’ feathers; the ropes, also, were all 
fastened around the trap, to which stones were also made fast all round it, 
to make it heavy and to act as an anchor and to keep it steady; and, having 
seized it, he plunged into the water with his companions, when they boldiy 
dived down into the spring which gushed up with a roaring noise from 
beneath the earth. While these were diving below the others above were 
diligently employed in performing their several works, viz., of reciting 
powerful charms and spells,* of which they uttered all they knew of various 
kinds and powers, for the purpose of overcoming the monster. 

Now it came to pass that, when the spines and spear-like crest of the 
monster had become soft and flaccid, through the power of those spells and 
charms, for they had been all erect and alive in full expectation of a 
rare cannibal feast, Pitaka and his chosen companions descended to the 
very bottom of the chasm; there they found the monster dwelling in its 
own nice home; then the brave Pitaka went forwards, quite up to it, coax- 
ing and enticing, and bound the rope firmly around the monster ; which 
having done, lo! in a twinkling, he (Pitaka) had clean escaped behind it! 
Then his companions pulled the rope, and those at the top knew the sign, 
and hauled away, and drew up to the top their companions, together with 
the monster, so that they all came up at one time. Nevertheless, those 
above had also recited all manner of charms for the purposes of raising, 
lifting, and upbearing of heavy weights, otherwise they could not have 
hauled them all up, owing to their very great weight. 

For a while, however, they were all below; then they came upwards by 
degrees, and at last they floated all together on the surface. Ere long they 
had dragged the monster on shore on to the dry land, where it lay extended; 
then they hastened to hit and beat with their clubs the jaws of this immense 
fish. Now this monster had the nearer resemblance to a fish, because it 
had its habitation in the water. 


* Upwards of ten kinds of spells are here, and in other parts of these stories, parti- 
cularly mentioned by name ; but as we have nothing synonymous in English, their names 
cannot be well translated, and it would take as many pages of MS. to explain them. 
Among them were spells causing weariness to the foe, spells for the T g of taniwhas 
(monsters), spells for the warding off attack, and for the protection of the m 
enemy; spells for causing bravery, for returning like-for-like in attack, for np feet 
from ground, for making powerless, ete., etc., all more or less curious, but mostly very 
simple in terms. Of spells and charms, exorcisms and incantations—for good or for ill- 
luck, for blessing and cursing—the ancient New Zealander possessed hundreds, ingeniously 
contrived for almost every purpose ; few, however, if any, of them could be termed prayers, 
Such form a bulky history of themselves. 


94 Transactions,—Miscellaneous, 


So then went forth the loud pealing call to all the towns and villages of 
the Rotorua district. And the tribes assembled on the spot to look at and 
examine their implacable foe. There it lay dragged on to the dry land on 
the river’s side, in appearance very much like a big, common whale. Yet 
it was not exactly like a full-grown old whale ; it was more, in bulk, as the 
calf of a big whale as it there lay. 

They then commenced cutting-up that fish as food for themselves; on 
laying its huge belly wide open there, everything was seen at one dias all 
in confusion, as if it were the centre of a dense forest.* For, going down- 
wards into its vast stomach, there lay the dead, just as if it were an old 
bone-cave with piles of skeletons and bones—bones of those it had swallowed 
in former days. Yes, swallowed down with all their garments about them, 
women and children and men! There was to be seen the enormous heap 
of clothing of all kinds; chiefs’ mats of dogs’ tails and of dogs’ skins—white, 
black, and chequered—with the beautiful woven flax-mats adorned with 
ornamental borders, and garments of all kinds. There were also arms and 
implements of all kindst; clubs, spears, staves, thin hardwood chopping 
knives, white whalebone clubs, carved staffs of rank, and many others, 
including even darts and barbed spears, which the monster had carried off 
with its food. There these arms and implements all were, as if the place 
were a store-house of weapons or an armoury ! 

Then they proceeded to roast and to broil, and to set aside of its flesh and 
fat in large preserving calabashes, for food and for oil ; and so they devoured 
their deadly enemy all within their own stomachs; but all the dead they 
buried in a pit. 

Then every one of those valiant warriors returned to their own homes. 
The name of that village, where they were for a while encamped, was 
Mangungu (i.e., broken bones). 

So much for thy victorious work! O thou all-devouring throat of man, 
that thou shouldest even seek to eat and to hunt after the flesh of monsters 
as food for thee ! 

3. The Killing of Kataore. 

When the fame of those victors who had killed the monster Pekehaua 
reached the various towns and villages of Tarawera, of Rotokakahi, and 
of Okataina, the people there were filled with wonder at the bravery of those 
men who had essayed to destroy that terrible and malicious man-devourer. 

Then they began to think, very likely there is also a monster in the road 
to Tikitapu, because the travelling companies going by that place to Rotorua 


* The words are: “ Koteriu o Tane-Mahuta ;" lit., the hollow stomach, or centre of 
Tane-Mahuta—i.e., the god of forests; Tane-Mahuta being the god of forests. 
1 Ten kinds are here enumerated, all of hardwood and hard white whale's-bone. 


CoLenso.—0On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 95 


are never once heard of; their relations are continually enquiring, ““ Have 
they arrived at the place to which they went?” but there is no response ; 
therefore they are dead. Hence it follows that the sad thought arises 
within, were they killed by some monster? or, by some travelling man like 
themselves? or, by some armed marauding party of the enemy ? 

But the chief of Tikitapu and of Okareka, whose name was Tangaroa- 
mihi, knew very well all along that there was a monstrous beast at Tikitapu, 
although he did not know that the beast there residing ate up men; the 
chief always believed that it dwelt quietly, for it assumed the very air of 
peace and quietness whenever the chief and his men went to the spot where 
it dwelt to give it food; and that beast also knew very well all its feeders, and 
all those who used it tenderly and kindly. Nevertheless, when they had 
returned from feeding it to their village, and any other persons appeared 
there going by that way, then that monster came down and pursued those 
persons and devoured them as food. 

Now the manner of acting of this ugly beast was very much like that of 
a (bad) dog which has to be tied to a stick (or clog). For its knowledge of 
its own masters was great; whenever its master, Tangaroamihi, went there 
to see it, its demeanour was wholly quiet and tractable, but when people 
belonging to another and strange tribe went along by that road, then it arose 
to bark and growl at them; so that, what with the loud and fearful noise of 
its mouth, and the sharp rattlings of its rings and leg-circlets, great fear 
came upon them, and then he fell on them and ate them up. 

Now when the multitude everywhere heard of the great valour of those 
men, the tribes all greatly extolled them, and wondered exceedingly at the 
prodigious powers of those four chiefs. 

Then it was that the chiefs of Rotokakahi, of Tarawera, of Okataina, 
and of Rotorua began to understand the matter, and to say, “Oh! there is 
perhaps a monster also dwelling in the road to Tikitapu, because the travel- 
ling parties going from those parts to Rotorua, as well as those coming from 
Rotorua to these five lakes, are never heard of.” For when the travellers 
went to Rotorua by the road of Okareka they safely arrived thither; and 
so when they returned by that same way of Okareka they reached their 
homes in safety ;—but if the travellers went from Tarawera to Rotorua by 
the road of Tikitapu, they never reached Rotorua at all; somehow they 
always got lost by that road. 

And so again it was with the people from Rotokakahi, travelling thence 
to Rotorua; if they went by the road leading by Pareuru, they safely 
arrived at Rotorua, and also in returning from Rotorua; if they came back 
by that same road, they reached their villages at Rotokakahi in safety ; 
somehow, there was something or other in that road by Tikitapu which 


96 : Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


caused men’s hearts to dislike greatly that way, because those who travelled 
by it were lost and never heard of. 

Therefore, the hearts of those who remained alive began to stir within 
them, so that some even went as far as to say—‘‘ Perhaps that chief 
Tangaroamihi has killed and destroyed both the travelling parties and the 
armed parties who travelled by the way of Tikitapu." But that chief 
Tangaroamihi had shown his hospitality and expressed his kindly feeling to 
the enquirers who went to his town to seek after those who were missing. 

Now, however, when the suffering people heard of the exceeding great 
valour of those four chiefs in their slaying of monsters, then they con- 
sidered how best to fetch them to come and to have a look at Tikitapu. 

So their messenger was sent to those brave heroes, and when they heard 
from him the message, they all bestirred themselves, that same 170, for they 
were greatly delighted to hear of more work for them in the line of slaying 
monsters. So they immediately commenced preparations for their journey 
to Tikitapu, some in pounding fernroot, some in digging-up convolvulus 
roots, some in taking whitebait (Galawias attenuatus), and some in dredging 
freshwater mussels, all to be used as food on their journey to Taiapu, to the 
mount at Moerangi, for Moerangi was the place where that noxious beast 
called Kataore dwelt. 

In the morning, at break of day, they arose and started, taking their 
first meal far away on the great plain, at a nice kind of stopping-place. 
When they had scarcely finished their meal they commenced conversation 
with the usual talk of warriors on an expedition ; for at this time they did 
not exactly know whether it was really by a monster, or by the people who 
dwelt thereabouts, that all those who had travelled by that road, whether 
armed parties or whether singly, had been destroyed. 

When this armed party took their journey, they also brought away with 
them the necessary ropes and such things, which had been previously made 
and got ready. They knew that such (as they had heard) was the evil 
state of all the roads and ways of that place, therefore they sat awhile and 
considered, knowing very well the work they had in hand. 

However, when the eating and talking were ended, they again arose and 
recommenced their march. They entered the forest and traversed it, 
quitting it on the other side. Then the priests went before the party to 
scatter abroad their spells and charms, that is to say, their Maori 
recitations. But they acted just the same on this as on former occasions 
already related. 

They recited all the charms and spells they had used against both 
Hotopuku* and Pekehaua, going on and reciting as they went; at last 


* Though not once mentioned or alluded to in that story. 


Corzxso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 97 


they made up their minds to halt, so they sat down. Then it was that the 
people in the villages, under the chief Tangaroamihi, gazed watchfully 
upon that armed party there encamped, thinking it was a party of their 
enemies coming to fight and to kill; but in this they were deceived, it being 
altogether a different party. 

A long time the party remained there, watching and waiting, but 
nothing came. At last one of the chiefs got up and said—“ Where- 
abouts does this noxious beast that destroys men dwell?" Then another of 
those chiefs replied —* Who knows where, in the water, or in the stony cliff 
that overhangs yonder ?" On this they set to work, and closely examined 
that lake; but alas! the monster was not to be found there ; nevertheless, 
the appearance of that water was of a forbidding fearful character, that is | 
io say, the fear was caused by the peculiar glitter of the water, as if 
strangely and darkly shaded, having the appearance of the water whence 
the greenstone is obtained. But notwithstanding all that, they could not 
detect any kind of chasm or deep dark hole in all that lake, like the hole in 
which Pekehaua was found. 

Then certain of the chiefs said to the priests, ** Begin, go to work; select 
some of your potent charms and spells." So those were chosen and used; 
the priests recited their charms, causing stinging like nettles, and their 
charms of stitching together, so that the bubbles might speedily arise to the 
surface of the lake, if so be that the monster they sought was there in the 
water. At this time one of the priests arose, upon the word spoken forth 
by one of the chiefs of the party, and said, ** It is all to no purpose; nota 
single burst, or rising, or bubble has arisen in the water of Tikitapu.” 

Then they turned their attention upwards to the stony cliff which stood 
before them ; when, before they had quite finished their spell, causing nettle- 
stinging, and were reciting their lifting and raising charms, a voice was 
heard roaring downwards from the overhanging precipice at Moerangi, as if 
it were the creaking of trees in the forest when violently agitated by the 
gale; then they knew and said, * Alas! the monster's home is in the cave 
in the stony cliff." 

Upon this the whole body of 170 arose and stood ready for action; for 
glad they also were that they had found food for their inner man. In their 
uprising, however, they were not forgetful, for they immediately commenced 
reciting their powerful charms and spells ; all were used, of each and every 
kind—none were left unsaid; the several priests made use of all,* that 
being their peculiar work. 

They now set to work, and soon they got near to the entrance of the 

* Seven or eight kinds of charms and spells are here also particularized, and then 
the remainder given in a lump. 


I 


98 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


cave in the rock where this noxious cannibal beast dwelt. At last they got 
up to the cave, where the whole band quietly arranged themselves, and 
took a long time to consider how to act. At length the valiant, fearless 
men arose—men who had already bound monsters fast 


and, seizing the 


ropes, went forward into the cave. There they saw that noxious beast 


sitting, and staring full at them; but, oh! such fearful eyes! Who can 
describe them ? In appearance like the full moon rising up over the 
distant dark mountain range; and when gazed at by the band, those 
hideous eyes glared forth upon them like strong daylight suddenly flashing 
into the dark recesses of the forest. And, anon, lo! they were in colour 
as if clear shining greenstone were gleaming and scintillating in the midst 
of the black eye-balls! But that was really all that gave rise to the 
appearance of fear, because the creature’s spines and crest of living spears 
had become quite flaccid and powerless, through the potent operations of 
the many weakening spells which had been used by those numerous 
warriors, that is to say, priests. 

Then they managed to put forth their hands stealthily over its huge 
head, gently stroking it at the same time. At length the rope was got 
round the monster’s neck and made secure; another rope was also slided 
further on below its fore-legs, and that was firmly fixed; twice did those 
brave men carry ropes into the cave. Having done all this they came out 
to their friends, those of the 170 warriors who had been anxiously waiting 
their return, and who, when they saw them emerge, enquired, “ Are your 
ropes made fast?” They replied, “ Yes; the ropes are fastened to the 
monster; one round the neck and one round the middle.” Then the 
enquiry arose, ** How shall the dragging of it forth from its cave, and its 
destruction, be accomplished ?" "When some of the chiefs replied, ‘ Let us 
carry the ropes outside of the trees which grow around, so that, when the 
monster begins to lash and bound about, we shall be the better able to 
make them fast to their trunks." Then others said, “All that is very 
good, but how shall we manage to kill it?" Some replied, ** Why should 
we trouble ourselves about killing it? Is it not so fastened with ropes that it 
cannot get away? Just leave it to itself; its own great strength will cause 
it to jump violently about, and jerk, and knock, and beat itself; after that, 
we having made the ropes fast to the trees, the destroyers can easily run in 
on it and kill it; or, if not, let us just leave it alone to strangle itself in the 
ropes." So all this was carried out by those 170 brave warriors. 

Then the several men having been all properly placed, so as to hold and 
handle and drag the ropes effectually; the word of command was given, 
* Haul away !" and then they all hauled with a will! But, wonderful to 
behold, entirely owing to the cave being in the face of the perpendicular 


"ir RM eiae d NUR ehe et tem 


Cotenso,—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 99 


cliff, almost simultaneously with the first pull, lo! the monster was already 
ontside of the entrance to the cave. But then, in so saying, the potent 
work of the priests in reciting their raising and uplifting charms must be 
also included in the cause of the easy accomplishment. The moment that 
the monster’s great tail was outside clear of the cave, then its head began 
to rear and toss and plunge, frightful to behold! On seeing this, they 
loosened a little the rope that held it by its middle; when, lo! its head was 
close to the trees, against which it began to lean, while it knocked about 
its tail prodigiously. The men, however, were on the watch, and soon the 
two ropes were hauled tightly up around the trees, notwithstanding the 
jerkings and writhings of its huge tail. There, at last, it was, lashed fast 
close to the trees, so that it could only wriggle a little that is to say its 
tail. 

Then the armed men came on; they banged and beat and clubbed away 
at the monster, which now lay like a rat caught in the snare of a trap; and 
it was not long before it was quite dead, partly through the blows and 
bruises, and partly through the ropes ; and so it came to pass that it was 
killed. 


The fame of this great exploit was soon carried to all those tribes who 
had fetched and sent Purahokura on his errand to Tikitapu. Then they 
assembled at the place, and saw with astonishment their deadly foe lying 
on the ground, just like a stranded whale on the sea-shore, even so this 
noxious monster now lay extended before them. Then arose the mighty 
shout of derision from all both great and small, the noise was truly deafen- 
ing, loud sounding, like that arising from the meeting together of the strong 
currents of many waters ! 

Early the next morning the people arose to their work to cut up their 
fish ; then was to be seen with admiration the dexterous use of the various 
sharp-cutting instruments—of the saw made of sharks’ teeth, of the sea 
mussel-shells, of the sharp pitch-stone knives, of the freshwater mussel- 
shells, and of the flints. Truly wonderful it was to behold, such loads of 
fat! such thick collops! This was owing to the cannibal monster con- 
tinually devouring men for its common food at all times and seasons; it 
never knew a time of want or a season of scarcity ; it never had any winter, 
it was always a jolly harvest time with it! How, indeed, should it have 
been otherwise ? when the companies of travellers from this place and from 
that place were continually passing and repassing to and fro; therefore it 
came to pass that its huge maw was satiated with food—not including the 
food given to it by its master Tangaroamihi—and therefore it came to be so 
very fat. : 

So the big fish was eut up. As they went on with their work, and got ve 


100 ; Transactions,—Miscellancous, 


at length into its stomach, there the cannibal food which it had devoured 
was seen! there it lay—women, children, men—with their garments and 
their weapons. Some were found chopped in two, both men and weapons; 
no doubt through the action of its terrible lips in seizing them! others were 
swallowed whole, very likely through its capacious mouth being kept open, 
when the strong internal blasts from its great gullet drew down the men 
into its stomach! For you must also know, that this cave is situated near 
to the water, so that whenever a party came by water paddling in their 
canoe to Tikitapu, and the canoe came on to the landing place, this monster, 
Kataore, seeing this, came out of its cave, and, jumping into the water, 
took the canoe with the men in it into its stomach, so that both men and 
canoe were devoured instantaneously ! 

The victors worked away until they had taken everything out of its big 
maw, both the goods (of clothing and instruments as before) and the 
deal; the dead they buried in a pit. Then they finished cutting up that 
big fish; some of it they roasted and broiled; and some they rendered down 
in its own fat, and preserved in calabashes; and so it came to pass that it 
was all eaten up, as good food for the stomach of man. 

But when the news of this killing was carried to the chief Tangaroamihi, 
to whom this pet Saurian belonged, and he heard it said to him,—‘‘ What 
is this they have done; thy pet has been killed?" The chief enquired, “By 
whom?" and they answered, “By the tribe of Tama" (Ngatitama). On 
hearing this the heart of Tangaroumihi became overeast with gloom, on 
account of his dear pet which had been killed; and this deed of theirs was 
& cause of enmity and war between Tangaroamihi and those who had 
destroyed his pet; and it remained and grew to be a root of evil for all the 
tribes. Thus the story ends. 

It should be briefly noticed, in conclusion, that the name of this chief 
(Tangaroamihi), is one highly suited to the event; or it may have been given 
to him at an earlier date, through his having a pet reptile. Tangaroa is 
the name of the god, or ereator or father and ruler, of all fishes and reptiles; 
(though Punga is sometimes spoken of as a god possessing similar powers, 
but perhaps over only a certain natural section of those animals;*) and mihi 
means, to show affection for, or to lament and sigh over, any one,—present 
or absent, living or dead ;—so that Tangaroamihi might mean, (1) that this 
chief lamented over the death of one of Tangaroa's family, or tribe; or (2) 
that he ever liked and showed great affection towards one of them. 


* Vide the beginning of the following fable, —“ The Shark and the large Lizard,” and 
ihe note there, 


Conengo.—0On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race, 101 


$ 8.-— Fables, 
l.— The Fable of the Shark and the Large Lizard—(Guana). 

In days of yore the large lizard and the shark lived together in the sea, 
for they were brothers, both being of the children of Punga.* The lizard 
was the elder and the shark the younger. After some time they fell out, and 
as the quarrel was great and protracted, the lizard, vexed at the conduct of 
his younger brother, determined to leave off dwelling in the sea, and to 
reside on the dry land, so he left the water.t But just as he had got on the 
Shore, his brother the shark swam up to where he was on a rock, and 
wished him to return, saying—“ Let you and I go out to sea, to the deep 

. water.” The lizard replied, with a bitter curse, saying—‘ Go thou to the 
sea, that thou mayst become a relish of fish for the basket of cooked roots. t 
On this, the shark retorted with another curse, saying—“ Go thou on shore 
that thou mayst be smothered with the smoke of the fire of green fern.” || 
Then the lizard replied, with a laugh, “ Indeed, I will go on shore, away up 
to the dry land, where I shall be looked upon as the personification of the 
demon-god Tu,§ with my spines and ridgy crest causing fear and affright, 
so that all will gladly get out of my way, hurrah !” 

.2. The Battle of the Birds.—(A Fable of the Olden Time.) 

In ancient days, two shags met on the seaside. One was a salt-water 
bird and the other was a fresh-water bird; nevertheless, they were both 
shags, living alike on fish which they caught in the water, although they 
differed a little in the colour of their feathers. The river-bird, seeing the 
sea-bird go into the sea for the purpose of fishing food for itself, did the 


* According to the Maori mythology (in which each portion, or kingdom, of Nature 
had a different origin or progenitor), Punga was the father, or former, of fishes and 
reptiles. 

arwin, in his “ Naturalist’s Voyage” (ch xvii.), writing of the large aquatic lizard 
Kabir ynchus cristatus), has some curious remarks very applicable here. 

t “Roots” is not in the original, which has merely “ kete maoa "—basket of cooked 
(food, understood); but the meaning is fernroot, or sweet potatoes. Our common 
potatoes were not then known to the New Zealander, otherwise I should have preferred 
that word, “Sweet potatoes” (or kumara) — not answer well, as this food was not in 
use all the year ronnd; and “ vegetables” islead, as such were never alone cooked 
save in times of great scarcity. The allusion is as to the Maori manner of serving-up and 
setting food before men, each basket having a bit of fish or flesh, as a savour, placed on 
the top. 

|| I had often heard of the old mode of capturing this (the edible) lizard, which lived in 
holes (burrows) at the foot of trees, and was made to appear by smoking them out ; fori 
years ago this animal was still being eaten by an inland tribe named Rangitane, (Vide 
ante, extract from Cook, p. 83, and from Nicholas, p. 84. 

$ Tu was the name of the New Zealand god of war, 


102 Transactions, —Miscellaneous, 


same. They both dived repeatedly, seeking food for themselves, for they 
were hungry ; indeed, the river-bird dived ten times, and caught nothing, 
Then the river-bird said to his companion, ** If it were but my own home, 
I should just pop under water and find food directly ; there never could be 
a single diving there without finding food.” To which remark his com- 
panion simply said, “Just so.” Then the river-bird said to the other, 
** Yes, thy home here in the sea is one without any food.” To this insulting 
observation the sea-bird made no reply. Then the river-bird said to the 
other, * Come along with me to my home; you and I fly together." On 
this both birds flew off, and kept flying till they got to a river, where they 
dropped. Both dived, and both rose, having each a fish in its bill; then 
they dived together ten times, and every time they rose together with a fish 
in their bills. This done the sea-bird flew away back to its own home. 
Arriving there it immediately sent heralds in all directions to all the birds 
of the ocean, to lose no time but to assemble and kill all the fresh-water 
birds, and all the birds of the dry land and the forests. The sea-birds 
hearing this assented, and were soon gathered together for the fray. In 
the meanwhile, the river-birds and the land and forest birds were not idle ; 
they also assembled from all quarters, and were preparing to repel their 
foes. ; 

Ere long the immense army of the sea-birds appeared, sweeping along 
grandly from one side of the heavens to the other, making such a terrible 
noise with their wings and cries. On their first appearing, the long-tail fly- 
catcher (Rhipidura flabellifera) got into a towering passion, being desirous 
of spearing the foe, and danced about presenting his spear on all sides, 
crying “Ti! t?"* Then the furious charge was made by the sea-birds. 
In the first rank came, swooping down with their mighty wings, the 
albatross, the gannet, and the big brown gull (ngoiro), with many others 
closely following ; indeed, all the birds of the sea. Then they charged 
at close quarters, and fought bird with bird. How the blood flowed and 
the feathers flew! The river-birds came on in close phalanx, and dashed 
bravely right into their foes. They all stood to it for a long time, fighting 
desperately. Sucha sight! At last the sea-birds gave way, and fled in 
confusion. Then it was that the hawk soared down upon them, pursuing 
and killing; and the fleet sparrow-hawk darted in and out among the 
fugitives, tearing and ripping; while the owl, who could not fly by day, 
encouraged, by hooting derisively, ** Thou art brave! thou art victor!" ;+ 
and the big parrot screamed, “Remember! remember! Be you ever 
remembering your thrashing !"1 


* Its faint little note, uttered as it hops, and twirls, and opens its tail. 
+ ** Tod koé! toä ko# !" was the owl’s cry, which the words a little resemble. - 
i “Kia iro! kia iro koe!” was the cry of the parrot, 


Wa 


Corzsso.-—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 103. 


In that great battle, those two birds, the tiitii (Haladroma urinatriv— 
petrel), and the taiko,* were made prisoners by the river-birds; and hence 
it is that these two birds always lay their eggs and rear their young in the 
woods among the land-birds. The tiitii (petrel) goes to sea, and stays away 
there for a whole moon (lunar month), and when she is full of oil, for her 
young in the forests, she returns to feed them, which is once every moon. 
From this circumstance arose with our ancestors the old adage, which has 
come down to us, “He tiitii whangainga tahi;” literally, A tiitii of one 
feeding ; meaning, Even as a tiitii bird gets fat though only fed well once 
now and then. 

Appenpix.— Note to p. 82. 

This is an astonishing fact, but it is strietly true, though, I believe, 
scarcely known. I, therefore, with great pleasure, give in a note an extract 
or two from an interesting letter ** On the Native Songs of New Zealand," 
written nearly twenty-five years ago, by a talented musician and author of 
several works on musie (Mr. J. H. Davies, of Trinity College, Cambridge), 
which letter was printed as an appendix to one of Sir G. Grey's works 
on New Zealand; and though highly worthy of being read and of being 
deeply studied—especially by a trained musician—it is, I fear, but very 
little known among us. 


* Of this bird, the Taiko, I have formerly often heard, particularly at the northern 
parts of the North Island, but have never seen one. It is scarcely known here in Hawke 
Bay, save by name to a few of the oldest natives. An old chief at Te Wairoa told me 
ihat he had known of two which were seen together on the shore of Portland Island 
(Hawke Bay), many years ago, one of which was snared and eaten. From another very 
old chief I had heard of two having been once cooked in a Maori earth-oven as a 
savoury mess for a travelling party of rank; and from his story it would appear as if the 
bird could have been easily taken in its habitat, at the will of the lord of the manor; 
for, on that travelling party arriving at the pa, one of the chiefs' wives remarked, 
* Alas! whatever shall I do for a tit-bit to set before our guests ?' The chief said, “TI 
get you some." He then went out and soon returned with two Taikos, which were cooked 
and greatly relished. This bird is said to have been large, plump, and fat, and highly 
prized for food, and only to be obtained on exposed oceanie headlands and islets. (There 
are small rocky islets called by its name, Motutaiko.) Possibly it may be a large species 
of petrel or puffin; although, if the imperfect Maori relation is to be depended on, its 
beak was more that of an albatross. 

+ This proverb would be used by the New Zealanders on various occasions; such 
as (1) When chiefs of lower rank would bring a present (annual, perhaps, as of sweet 
potatoes [kumara] at harvest-time), to their superior chief: (2) When a travelling party 
arrives at a village, and something particularly good, or extra, which perhaps had been 
stored up or set by, or just obtained with difficulty or labour, should be given to the 
party; on such occasions the proverb might be used. Much like (here) our sayings of, 
"We don’t kill a pig every day;” ‘In luck to-day ;” “ Just in time," ke, 


d 


d 


104 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


First, Mr. Davies writes of * the enharmonie scale of the ancient 
Greeks" (which has long been lost, and which, indeed, has been disputed), 
that “it consisted of a quarter-tone, a quarter-tone and an interval of two 
tones, an interval somewhat greater than our third major;" and that this 
long-lost ancient scale has been found to exist among the Arabians, the 
Chinese, and the New Zealanders. 

* As the highest art is to conceal the art and to imitate nature, that 
mighty nation the Greeks, with an art almost peculiarly their own, having 
observed these expressions of natural sentiment," stated fully in the pre- 
ceding paragraph, * thence deduced certain laws of interval, by which, 
while they kept within thelimits of art, they took care not to transgress 
those of nature, but judiciously to adopt, and as nearly as possible to define, 
with mathematical exactness, those intervals which the uncultured only 
approach by the irregular modulation of natural impulses. *  * * 
Hence, I conceive the reason of the remnant of that scale being found 
among most of those nations who have been left to the impulses of a * nature- 
taught’ song rather than been cramped by the trammels of a conventional 
system—the result of education and of civilization." 

“ Plutarch remarks, that the most beautiful of the musical genera is the 
enharmonie, on account of its grave and solemn character, and that it was 
formerly most in esteem. Aristides Quintilian tells us it was the most diffi- 
cult of all, and required a most excellent ear.  Aristoxenus observes that it 
was so difficult that no one could sing more than two dieses consecutively, 
and yet the perceptions of a Greek audienee were fully awake to, and their 
judgment could appreciate, a want of exactness in execution." 

“ Mr. Lay Tradescant, speaking of the Chinese intervals, says that ‘it 
is impossible to obtain the intervals of their scale on our keyed instruments, 
but they may be perfectly effected on the violin; * * * and our own 
ears attest that, universally, in the modulations of the voice of the so-called 
savage tribes, and in the refined and anomalously studied Chinese, there 
are intervals which do not correspond to any notes on our keyed instru- 
ments, and which to an untrained ear appear almost monotonous." 

** Suffice it to say that many Chinese airs, of which I have two, show the 
diesie modulation and the saltus combined; but the majority of the New 
Zealand airs which I have heard are softer and more ‘ligate,’ and have a 
great predominance of the diesic element.” 

** One thing, however, is certain, that, as Aristoxenus tell us, no perfect 
ear could modulate more than two dieses at a time, and then there was a 
* saltus ' or interval of two tones, and as the New Zealand songs frequently 
exhibit more than two close intervals together, it is more than probable that 
many of these songs are a chromatic,” 


Conzxso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 105 


* In proof that a system of modulation like the above still survives, I 
shall produce as nearly as my ear nc discern, the modulation of some of 
the New Zealand melodies. * 

** [ here beg to state, that though with great care and the assistance of 
a graduated monochord, and an instrument divided like the intervals of the 
Chinese kin, I have endeavoured to give an idea of those airs of New Zealand 
which I heard, yet so difficult is it to discover the exact interval, that I will not 
vouch for the mathematical exactness. * * * I must also, in justice to 
myself, add, that the singer did not always repeat the musical phrase with 
precisely the same modulation, though without a very severe test this would 
not have been discernible, nor then to many ears, the general effect being to 
an European ear very monotonous. But I may say that, when I sang them 
from my notation, they were recognised and approved of by competent 
judges, and that the New Zealander himself said, * he should soon make a 
singer of me.’ "* 

Mr. Davies has also, in his letter, given some of our Maori New Zealand 
songs, set by him to music, as examples. 

I may here also mention, that one of the earliest scientific visitors to 
New Zealand, Dr. Forster, who aecompanied Captain Cook on his second 
voyage, has left a statement on record of a similar kind. Here is a short 
quotation from it, given, partly on account of the learned German's feeling 
and truthful deduction therefrom, and partly because his valuable work is 
searcely known in the Colony. (And, to the everlasting honour of the good 
Doctor, it is to be further noted, that he does this immediately after relating 
several acts of killing and cannibalism perpetrated by the New Zealanders 
on Europeans, among which was the very recent one, in which ten seamen 
belonging to Captain Cook's expedition were killed, ete., so that Dr. Forster 
did not allow his reason to be carried away by his feelings.) He says,— 
“The music of the New Zealanders is far superior in variety to that of the 
Society and Friendly Islands. * * * The same intelligent friend who 
favoured me with a specimen of the songs at Tongatapu, has likewise given 
me another of the New Zealand music; and has also assured me that there 
appeared to be some display of genius in the New Zealand tunes, which 
soared very far above the wretched humming of the Tahitian, or even the 
four notes of the people at the Friendly Islands." (Two specimens of their 
tunes set to musical notes are then given.) “The same gentleman likewise 
took notice of a kind of dirge-like melancholy song, relating to the death of 
Tupaea.” (The musical notes of this, with the words, are also given.) 


* (Nore.—See “ Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the New 
Zealand Race, as furnished by their Priests and aue" Appendix, p. 313. By Sir 
George Grey ; Wan London, 1855.—Ep.] 


» 3 


106 T'ransactions.—Miscellaneous. 


“They descend at the close from c to the octave below in a fall, resembling 
the sliding of a finger along the finger-board of a violin. I shall now dis- 
miss this subject with the following observation,—that the taste for music 
of the New Zealanders, and their superiority in this respect to other nations 
in the South Seas, are to me stronger proofs in favour of their heart, than 
all the idle eloquence of philosophers in their cabinets can invalidate."— 
Forster's Voyage, vol. IL., pp. 476-478. 


Art. VI.—Onm the Ignorance of the Ancient New Zealander of the Use of 

Projectile Weapons. By W. Corzxsso, F.L.S 
[Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 9th September, 1878.] 
I save read Mr. C. Phillips’ paper “On a peculiar Method of Arrow 
Propulsion amongst the Maoris,” * and as Mr. Phillips has referred to a 
very brief remark made by me in my essay “On the Maori Races," t and 
is evidently unacquainted with the old state of things which obtained in 
this country with regard to missiles, I have thought it right to say a few 
words on this subject in this paper. 

First, however, I would briefly remark, that in my tbc that essay I 
appended thereto a quantity of “Notes,” all elucidatory of many of the 
statements I had made therein. Somehow those “Notes” were not 
printed with the essay—a matter I have greatly deplored, for it was wholly 
incomplete without them. Had they been printed with it, then Mr. Phillips 
would have found related the cireumstance which gave rise to my remark 
quoted by him, of the New Zealanders “throwing fiery-headed darts ata 
pa (or fort) when attacking it. " That note I shall give in this paper 
further on. 

It should be perfectly well known to us all that the first European 
visitors to New Zealand found the people utterly without the bow and 
arrow, and the sling, and, indeed, the common frequent use of the small 
dart or javelin, as an offensive projectile weapon. And all of those early 
visitors had ample opportunities of knowing this, for they were often 
attacked themselves by the New Zealanders, both on land and on water, 
when such missile weapons were never once used. 

At the same time it should be observed, that whenever a canoe, or a 
body of natives, came up with Cook, whether at sea or on land, and were 
for fighting, a single spear was invariably thrown ; this, however, was by 
way of challenge /taki), and was in accordance with their national custom ; 
just equal to the old European one of throwing down the gage. 

This non-use of prepared missiles appeared the more strange to the 

Europeans, from the fact _ weapons (slings and darts) srd com- 
* Trans, N. Z. Inst., Vol. X. 97. s 
+ Trans, N. Z. Inst., a 15 of the essay; "E 


CoLenso.—IJgnorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles, 107 


monly used as weapons of attack in the South Sea Islands, which Cook and 
his companions had but lately left. While the use of the bow and arrow, 
for sport, was also known to some of those islanders. 

Captain Wallis, who discovered Tahiti in 1767 (two years before Cook’ 
first visited it and New Zealand), was fiercely attacked by the Tahitians, who 
surrounded his ship with “a fleet of more than 800 canoes, carrying 2,000 
men.” On that occasion (when Wallis was in danger, and only saved by 
his big guns), the islanders commonly used powerful slings, with which 
they did some execution even in a ship of war. Captain Wallis says :— - 
“ The canoes pulled towards the ship's stern, and began again to throw stones 
with great force and dexterity, by the help of slings, from a considerable dis- 
tance; each of these stones weighed about 2lbs., and many of them 
wounded the people on board, who would have suffered much more if an 
awning had not been spread over the whole deck to keep out the sun, and 
the hammocks placed in the nettings." Their bows and arrows, however, 
they did not use on that occasion during the fight. Further on Captain 
Wallis adds :—** Their principal weapons are stones, thrown either with the 
hand or sling, and bludgeons; for though they have bows and arrows, the 
arrows are only fit to knock down a bird, none of them being pointed, but 
headed only with a round stone.” 

Sydney Parkinson, who was with Cook on his first voyage, gives a 
drawing of the Tahitian sling (Pl. 13, fig. 1), and a description of it, He 
says :—“ Their sling is about four feet long, made of plaited twine, formed 
from the fibres of the bark of a tree; the part which holds the stone is 
woven very close, and looks like oleih, o which the string gradually 
tapers to a point.” } 

Captain Cook, in 1769, thus speaks of the use of the bow and arrow by 
those Tahitians :—“ Their bows and arrows have not been mentioned before, 
nor were they often brought down to the fort. This day, however, Tupurahi 
Tamaiti brought down his, in consequence of a challenge he had received 
from Mr. Gore. The chief supposed it was to try who could send the 
arrow farthest; Mr. Gore, who best could hit a mark, and as Mr. Gore did 
not value himself upon shooting to a great distance, nor the chief upon 
hitting a mark, there was no trial of skill between them. Tupurahi, 
however, to show us what he could do, drew his bow and sent an arrow, 
none of which are feathered, 274 yards, which is something more than a 
seventh and something less than a sixth part of a mile. Their manner of 
shooting is somewhat singular ; they kneel down, and ee moment the 
arrow is discharged drop the bow.” 

* Wallis’ s Voyage; Cook’s Voyages, Vol, L, pp. 444-448, i 
t crea 75. $ Cook's Voyages, Vol. IL, p. 147, - 


108 Transactions,.—Miscellancous, 


And this is what he says respecting the New Zealanders, after having 
been some time among them :—“ The perpetual hostility in which these 
poor savages live has necessarily caused them to make every village a fort. 
* * '* These people have neither sling nor bow. They throw the dart 
by hand, and so they do stones; but darts and stones are seldom used 
except in defending their forts. * * * Butit is very strange that the 
same invention and diligence which have been used in the construction of 
places so admirably adapted to defence, almost without tools, should not, 
when urged by the same necessity, have furnished them with a single missile 
weapon, except the lance, which is thrown by hand; they have no con- 
trivance like a bow to discharge a dart, nor anything like a sling to assist 
them in throwing a stone, which is the more surprising, as the invention of 
slings, and bows and arrows, is much more obvious than of the works 
which these people construct, and both these weapons are found among 
much ruder nations, and in almost every other part of the world. The 
points of their long lances are barbed, and they handle them with such 
: trength and agility that we can match them with no weapon but a loaded 
musquet.''* 

Sydney Parkinson has an excellent remark on this subject (excellent in 
more ways than one), which I also quote, in the hope that future writers on 
“the whence of the Maori," will take a note of it. He says—“ Something 
has already been mentioned respecting the language of the New Zealanders, 
and of its affinity with that of the people of Tahiti, which is a very 
extraordinary circumstance, and leads us to conclude that one place was 
originally peopled from the other, though they are at near 2000 miles 
distance, * * * The migration was probably from New Zealand to 
Tahiti, as the inhabitants of New Zealand were totally unaequainted with the 
use of bows and arrows til we first taught them, whereas the people 
of Tahiti use them with great dexterity, having, doubtless, discovered the 
use of them by some accident after their separation; and it cannot be sup- 
posed that the New Zealanders would have lost so beneficial an acquisition 
if they had ever been acquainted with it.” 

It must not be overlooked that two Tahitians (Tupaea and his son 
Taiota) were with them on this oecasion.  Tupaea not only aided the 
English considerably as interpreter, but was often facile princeps during the 
whole of their long stay among the New Zealanders. So, again, on Cook's 
second voyage from Tahiti to New Zealand, he had on board a native of 
Porapora (one of the Society Isles), named Mahine, who came on with him 
io New Zealand. % 


£ Cook's Voyages, Vol. II. p. 815 ; III. 466, 
f Parkinson's Journal, p. 75. 


CoLenso,—Ignorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles. 109 


Dr. Forster, who accompanied Cook on his second voyage round the 
world, has given us a full account of the weapons of the people of Tanna, an 
island they discovered and spent some time at on their third voyage from 
Tahiti to New Zealand. There, at Tanna, not only darts and slings were 
used in warfare, but also bows and arrows. And, again, subsequently, 
. when at New Caledonia (which island Cook also discovered during that 
voyage), Dr. Forster gives another interesting account of the very peculiar 
manner in which those natives threw their darts, and, also, their prepared 
stones from slings.* 

Mr. Nicholas, who was in New Zealand with Mr. Marsden in 1814, and 
who spent several months in the country travelling about, and seeing all 
that was to be seen, saw no projectile weapon used by the natives save their 
common hand spears. And Major Cruise, during his ten months’ residence, 
is also equally silent about any missiles used by them in their warfare, 
although as a military officer, in command of soldiers, anything of that kind 
would be sure to have attracted his notice. 

We gather the same from Rutherford's Journal. This witness had 
ample opportunities during his long sojourn of ten years among the New 
Zealanders, during which time he got fully tattooed and lived wholly á-la- 
Maori, in his frequent travellings with the Maoris from place to place in the 
interior, and from his having been a witness of several severe and bloody 
battles. Curiously enough, Rutherford was at the great battle fought at 
Kaipara between the Ngatiwhatua and the Ngapuhi tribes, in which the 
savage and murderous chief Hongi was present, commanding the Ngapuhi, 
and in which fierce battle Hongi’s son, Hare, was slain, and his head, with 
others, carried off in triumph by Rutherford’s Maori party from the East 
Coast; that battle was fought in the year 1825. Rutherford is in many 
respects a truthful witness, as I have good reasons for saying, having formerly 
traced out not a few of his statements. To the above I might add the 
uniform testimony of all the first missionaries, who saw quite enough of 
bloody work; and of Polack,+ who resided a few years in New Zealand; 


* See appendix A for these extracts which I make, as Forster’s Voyage is a scarce 
work; and, also, believing they may be of service hereafter. 

t Polack says :—“ The weapons employed in the native warfare were not remarkable 
for beauty or variety, and are now entirely laid aside. The bow and arrow found among all 
savage nations were unknown in the country, where numerous woods exist admirably 
fitted for the formation of such universally known weapons. Slings, another implement 
that did much execution, were also unknown." (Vol. IL, pp. 28-29). Polack is a writer 
whom I should scarcely ever think of quoting, not merely on account of his being com- 
paratively modern (in my writing of the ancient New Zealander) but owing to his many 
errors ; had he contented himself with giving us plainly what he saw, without colouring 
(for he travelled a little while in New Zealan without attempting anything of 
science or history, theology or language, or Re drawing of deductions,(!) for all which he 
was totally unfitted, then his observations would have been of real service, 


- 


110 Transactions,—Miscellaneous, 


but I will here close with my own, and that for two reasons; 1. That I had 
early travelled more than any one in New Zealand (the North Island), 
leaving few spots unvisited, and had used my eyes and ears in so travelling; 
and that I had also witnessed their manner of fighting and of attack; 2. 
That it was our custom at an early date (1834-1840), seeing we were but 
few then in number in the land, and could not possibly go everywhere—to 
collect young Maoris from all parts, and to teach them at our principal 
mission stations in the Bay of Islands, and then, when taught, return them 
to their homes and tribes; and that many of our Maori servants and labourers, 
amounting to some scores, or hundreds, were from those who had been 
taken young in war (of whom a large number we got liberated and returned 
to their homes), and from them I had often their vivid and interesting 
recitals of those battles and sieges, with every minutia ; and my own testi- 
mony is this (the same indeed as that of Cook and others) that the New 
Zealander never knew the use of the bow and arrow, nor of the sling proper, as 
used, for instance, by the natives of Tahiti. . 

Ås to the use of the little instrument called a kotaha (sometimes a kopere, 
though, more properly speaking, the kopere was that by which the kotaha 
was thrown.") I have ever had very grave doubts of its being a true New 
Zealand implement ; for the endeavonr to learn something about it (when 
first prosecuting my enquiries 40-45 years ago) always ended in disappoint- 
ment. On this head I could say a good deal, but for the present I forbear. 

Here, however, are a few things that should not be lost sight of in this 
investigation: 1. That in all those old Maori tales of fightings and battles 
and sieges, and especially the killing of monsters (taniwhas, some of which 
I have lately translated), while every possible weapon known to the old 
Maori, both of offence and defence, including even walking-sticks, is always 
carefully noticed, nothing of the kind in question (missiles) save plain common 
hand-spears, are ever mentioned ;* and yet, for those very purposes, no 
other weapon would have been so useful. 2. That just as the old New 
Zealanders were early taught how to use the bow and arrow (and, no 
doubt, the sling also, by Tupaea and Taiota), as Parkinson says, so were 
they iu after years taught how to make and use the bow and arrow, by 
myself and other of the early missionaries, as implements of sport for the 
boys, both of the mission families and of the Maori families living with us. 
I have made several for them, but the young Maoris of that day never took 
to it, from the fact of its not being a national weapon, and not falling in 
with the genius of the Maori. 3. That from the beginning of this century, 
or even earlier, the New Zealanders went often abroad in ships as visitors, 


* And even these darts, it should be observed, are not spoken of as thrown at the 
taniwhas. 


MEE tii 5 SN 


Corzxso.—[gnorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles. 111 


especially to New South Wales; indeed, a very extensive intercourse was 
then and for many years carried on between Port Jackson and New Zea- 
land, partly owing to the whale and seal fishery.* 4. That on Mr. Mars- 
den’s visit (1814) several foreigners were residing in New Zealand; mention 
is particularly made, among others, of a Tahitian,+} and a Hindoo, who 
were dwelling with the Maoris as Maoris, and who had quite made this 
country their home, without a wish to leave it; Major Cruise also, in 
1819, found a native of the Marquesas { Islands fairly settled among them ; 
and that for many years convicts from the neighbouring penal colonies were 
continually escaping thence to New Zealand. 5. That from 1820-1840 
young New Zealanders were frequently entering whale-ships and other 
vessels, to serve on cruises in the South Seas, several of whom returned to 
their native country and settled. 6. That during several years, after the 
arrival of the missionaries and before the formation of the colony, many 
harbours in New Zealand, and the Bay of Islands in particular, were the 
common resort of American, Colonial, and other whalers, whose crews were 
composed of men of many nations and of all colours; and among them 
were often natives from the East, including China and the South Sea Islands, 
some of whom settled in New Zealand, and no doubt many of them taught 
the New Zealander not a few novel things. 7. Two old sayings of the 
Maoris bearing on this subject I would also adduce :—1. Their terse old 
proverb, ** He tao rakau ka taea te pare, he tao küekore e taea’’—a wooden 
spear can be parried,|| a slanderous word§ cannot be parried. Now, if any 
other more destructive missile were known and in use among them, than 
the common hand-spear, surely such would have been preferred here. 2, 
Their saying, on the introduction of fire-arms,and for a long time after, 
that the only thing they disliked them for was, that by them the warrior 
fell as well as the slave at a distance," before that the hand-to-hand fight 
begun :** another proof that deadly missiles acting at a distance were not 
known. (8) Further, in all their very many proverbs and sayings there is 
no allusion to any such thing. 

My own opinion has long been, that the old New Zealanders (ever quick 
and able imitators, especially in any matter connected with warfare), having 
early had lessons from the Tahitian, Tupaea (whom they all but adored) 
and his son, Taiota, and also on Cook’s second voyage from Tahiti to 
New Zealand, from Mahine, the native of Porapora, in the arts of 
fashioning and using projectiles, perhaps endeavoured to adopt them, and 


* See appendix B. ? + Nicholas’ “ New Zealand," Vol. L, p. 92. 
1 Cruise's Journal, p. 198. || Lit., a spoken spear. 
8 See appendix, note B, for an illustration.  Lit., died like a nobody—a fool, 
** The chiefs and the principal men urged ohward the rush of the vanguard, but were - 
not in it; they followed. 


112 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


possibly did so to a certain poor extent; but the great facility with which 
they very soon acquired firearms caused them to set those missiles aside. 
What they might have done and perfected, having once been put into the 
way, had they remained isolated and not obtained muskets, is another 
matter. 

I have been led to make all these almost extra remarks through noticing 
what was said by a Mr. Grace at the time of the reading of Mr. Phillips’ 
paper, as reported (I am sorry to find) in the ** Proceedings” (Vol. X., p. 527). 
Mr. Grace might equally as well have said, that because he had always seen 
the Maoris playing at draughts, or growing and eating melons, peaches, and 
potatoes, ergo, such were indigenous! Such observations tend, to mislead 
(being wholly erroneous), and will mislead still more in the future unless 
refuted ; hence, in great measure, I now write to such an extent. It is from 
such superficial remarks that the works of Tylor, Lubbock, and Herbert 
Spencer, and others, become of less value than they would otherwise be, 
through everything being gathered and admitted as of equal authority! 

And just so it is (I regret to say) with some of the remarks made by Mr. 
Philips himself in this very paper; i.e, in my estimation they are 
deceiving, because they assume the very thing we are in search of—‘ the 
whence of the Maori?”—a problem by no means yet proved. Yet Mr. 
Philips says:—* I have often wondered how it is that the aborigines of 
New Zealand should have made so little use of the bow and arrow, this 
being a weapon peculiarly suited to savage tribes, and, moreover, the familiar 
one of their ancestors." (Where did Mr. Phillips get this?) Again, 
speaking of the toy-arrow he had been describing, he says :—'* In itself it is 
& harmless weapon, and how it happens that the Maoris, a section of the 
Polynesian race, should have thus allowed so useful a weapon as the South 
Sea bow and arrow to degenerate into a mere toy,* is to me a curious circum- 
stance." (S. Parkinson's remark on this very point, already quoted by me 
at p. 108, made a hundred years ago, is far more rational every way; but 
then Parkinson, although he had seen more, had no preconception, no pet 
hobby to support!) Further, Mr. Phillips says:—** It is well-known (?) that 
in olden days the Maoris launched their spears against a hostile fort by means 
of a whip, similar to the one above described, and they were even able to 
hurl stones a long distance." (Whence, too, is this derived?) Lastly, Mr. 
Phillips winds up his paper by saying :—“ All these weapons, however, fell 


into disuse after the introduction of fire-arms some sixty jen ago, which 


may account for the disappearance of the bow and arrow." To which 
statement, I trust, this paper will be found a complete answer. 


des one 

* Vide post “ Proceedings H. B. P. Institute, ordinary meeting, September 9, E" j 
for an interesting account of the introduction into New Zealand of this “ toy arrow, bya 
living witness, 


WW Aa OO 


. made, one of the wondrous works of old! in those Notes of mine, 


Corzxso.— /gnorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles, 118 


Mr. Phillips also gives an account of a ‘ pigeon spear," made out of 
a rough unworked piece of a “raataa vine.”(!) Just so; that is the poor 
modern spear, hastily put together by the lazy, loquacious, itinerating Maori 
of modern days! but such make-shifts were not (commonly) used by his 
forefathers, although I have seen them* stored up in the mountain forests ; 
they were far above it.| And then follows the novel idea of “ trapping the 
brown parrot by means of a shorter hand-spear.”(!) As if parrots were 
ever caught in that way! The Maoris had but one general mode of taking 
the parrot (kaakaa), which was admirably adapted and serviceable, and is 
still in use in the dense forests of the interior. 

My Note, referred to at p. 106, is as follows :—'* Note 7, par. 15, § 2. 
—Travelling beyond the East Cape in January, 1838, I arrived at Waipiro 
(Open Bay), and striking inland over high hills reached a place called Tapa- 
tahi, where were the remains of a famous stronghold or pa of the olden time. 
This fort is strongly situated on the abrupt precipitous end of a high hilly 
yet narrow range, and made impregnable by art; the only possible way of 
access leading from the top of the ridge, but this the Maoris had completely 
secured by cutting a deep fosse across it. The Ngatimaru tribe, arriving in 
their canoes from the North, well armed with muskets for the purpose of 
slaughter, the people of this neighbourhood took refuge in their stronghold 
on the crag, where they were regularly besieged. Several hundreds of 
Maoris were cooped up in it, and for some time the place was closely 
invested; and though provisions fell short among them there was no outlet 
of escape. The besiegers getting both tired and hungry (!)—for the entrance 
end of the fort was made so high above the deep-cut fosse that musketry 
could effect nothing, unless any one of the besieged wilfully exposed him- 
self—at last the besiegers hit upon a mode of attack and assault which 
proved successful; they prepared sticks with dry combustibles fastened to 
one of their ends, while to the other was tied a strip of flax-leaf, and the 
wind being favourable, they set fire to them, and then whirled and flung 
those flaming darts across the ditch into the pa, where, alighting on the dry 
thatch roofs of the houses and sheds, the whole was soon on fire; then, in 
the confusion, the assault was made, under cover of their muskets, and the 
slaughter was very great, even for a successful Maori attack! Many of the 


unfortunate besieged threw themselves down the precipice in sheer despera- 


tion, and only a very small number escaped with their lives. There is a 
small moat or pool of deep water close to the base of the precipice on one 
* That is, a spear-head, fitted on to the rough stem of a large creeper (vine): but 
never on a raataa ( Metrosideros robusta ). 
+ If I mistake not there will be a full description of a ** pigeon spear," and how it was 


114 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


side, and possibly a lucky few might have fallen into it, and so broke the 
force of their fall. The whole spot is a most romantic one naturally, and 
at the time of my visit it was desolate and bare—a sad and striking memento 
of the horrid past !” 

The Editor of the “ Transactions,” in a note of his own appended to 
Mr. sea paper, refers us to three works, viz. :— 

. Bir G. Grey's ** Polynesian Milos p. 157. The single case 
S mentioned is said to have taken place in the very beginning of Maori 
history, and was just simply the whirling of a fire-brand on to a thatched 
roof, much the same as the cireumstance above related from my Notes. 

2. Dr. Thomson’s “ Story of New Zealand," Vol. I., chap. 7. In this 
relation (as well as in several other places in his book) there is much of error, 
as must always be the case with all modern compilers who may follow in 
ihe Doctor's wake; for (1) Dr. Thomson has completely ignored all that 
was written by Cook and others,* although he has given a list of their 

Works, and the question has often arisen in my mind, did Dr. Thomson ever 
read them ? (2) Knowing nothing himself personally of the matters in 
question, he copied freely, and picked up and set down all that he heard, too 
often hastily drawing conclusions. Hence it was that he says of their pro- 
jectiles—'* Occasionally red hot stones were thrown from slings in the hope 
of setting pas on fire; so were slight javelins, sharp and jagged at the 
point; occasionally they were pointed with bone, or the barb of the 
stingray ; these were discharged by slings from elevated platforms, etc. 
Bows and arrows were not unknown, though never used in war." (Vol. 
ch. 7.) 

8. Mr. White's new work, * Te Rou,” is one of fiction, and his long 
note, referred to by the Editor, is suited to it ; it is of no use here. 


Apprnpix A.—(See p. 109). 


Dr. Forster says :—'* The weapons which the men of Tanna constantly 
carry are bows and arrows, clubs, darts, and slings. Their young men are 


* In addition to bebe we ck on record (already referred to) by Cook and others, 
there are a few early wn engagements, attacks on Maori forts by Europeans, 
when, if ever, the Maoris ae sd used such projectiles, viz :—(1) That by the French 
under Crozet, in revenge for the death of their commander (Marion) and his men, when 
they attacked and took their stronghold or fort in the Bay of Islands. See App. C. (2) 
That of the combined crews of five the pa in the islet in Whangaroa harbour in 
revenge for the taking and burning of the “ Boyd,” and the killing of the captain, passengers, 
and crew. (3) That of the soldiers and sailors of H.M.S. “ Alligator " on the pa at W : mate, 
near Cape Egmont, in revenge for their having plundered Guard's ship, &c. In all these 
cases the Maori pas, or forts, securely fenced and well situated (after the old custom) and 
almost inaccessible, were attacked and taken; and yet, while the Maoris defended them- 
selves well and long, nothing was seen, or shown, or used, in the shape of “slings” and 

“ hot stones,” “ bows and arrows, jagged darts, and poisoned Kotahas |" (Jam satis !) 


nce a ERIS 


MER a ee EE RENE et ae 


LE aE Se aa Oe CR eee REPETI 


Cotmnso,—Ignorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles. 115 ` 


commonly slingers and archers, but those of a more advanced age make use 
of clubs or darts. The bows are made of the best club-wood (casuarina), 
very strong and elastic. They polish them very highly, and perhaps rub 
them with oil from time to time, in order to keep them in repair. Their 
arrows are of reed, near four feet long. The same black wood which the 
Mallicollese employ for the point is likewise made use of at Tanna; but the 
whole point which is frequently above a foot long, is jagged or bearded on 
two or three sides, They have likewise arrows with three points, but these 
are chiefly intended to kill birds and fish. Their slings are made of cocoa- 
nut fibres, and worn round the arm or waist; they have a broad part for 
the reception of the stone, of which the people carry with them several in a 
leaf. The darts or spears are the third sort of missile weapons at Tanna, 
They are commonly made of a thin, knotty, and ill-shaped stick, not exceed- 
ing half-an-inch in diameter, but nine or ten feet long. At the thickest end 
they are shaped into a triangular point, six or eight inches long, and on 
each corner there is a row of eight or ten beards or hooks. These darts they 
throw with great accuracy, at a short distance, by the help of a piece of 
plaited cord, four or five inches long, which has a knob at one end, and an 
eye at the other. They hold the dart between the thumb and forefinger, 
having previously placed the latter in the eye of the rope, the remaining 
part of which is slung round the dart, above the hand, and forms a kind of 
noose round it, serving to guide and confine the dart in its proper direction, 
when it is once projected. I have seen one of these darts thrown, at the 
distance of ten or twelve yards, into a stake four inches in diameter, with 
such violence that the jagged point was forced quite through it. The same 
thing may be said of their arrows; at eight or ten yards distance they shoot 
them very accurately and with great force ; but as they are cautious of 
breaking their bows, they seldom draw them to the full stretch, and there- 
fore, at twenty-five or thirty yards, their arrows have little effect, and are 
not to be dreaded.” 

** The arms of the natives of New Caledonia were clubs, spears, and slings. 
* * * Their spears are fifteen or twenty feet long, and black. They 
throw them by the assistance of such short cords, knobbed at one end and 
looped at the other, as are usual at Tanna, and which seamen call beckets. 
Those of New Caledonia were of superior workmanship, and contained a 
quantity of red wool, which we should have taken for the covering of a new 
sort of animal, if we had not formerly seen the Vampyre or great Indian bat, 
from whence it was taken. Their last weapons were slings, for bows and 
arrows were wholly unknown to them. These slings consisted of a slender 
round cord no thicker than a pack-thread, which had a tassel at one end anda 
loop atthe other end and in the middle, The stones which they used were 


116 Transactions, — Miscellaneous; 


oblong and pointed at each end, being made of a soft and unctuous soap- 
rock (simectites ), which could easily be rubbed into that shape. These exactly 
fitted the loop in the middle of the sling, and were kept in a wallet or 
pocket of coarse cloth, strongly woven of a kind of grass, which was tied on 
about the middle. Their shape gives them a striking resemblance to the 
glandes plumbee of the Romans." —Forster's Voyage, Vol. IL, pp. 278, 279, 
885, 
Appendiz B.—(See p. 111). 

I here give an interesting extract from ** Turnbull’s Voyage Round the 
World ” (1801-4), as it bears a little on the subject before us :— 

“A chief of note named Te Pahi, with five of his sons, who resided at the 
Bay of Islands, wished to see Port Jackson. They were taken by Captain 
Stewart in his ship to Norfolk Island, where they received every attention 
from the commandant and inhabitants; and after remaining there some 
time they were received on board- H.M.S. * Buffalo, to be conveyed to Port 
Jackson. On their arrival, Te Pahi was introduced by Captain Houstin to 
His Excellency and the officers at the Government House, where he con- 
tinued to reside during his stay in the colony. 

“ Shortly after his arrival, a number of the natives assembled in the 
vicinity of Sydney for the interment of Carrawaye (whose death was 
occasioned by a spear wound in the knee), who the night before was con- 
veyed here in a shell composed of strips of bark ; and the funeral obsequies 
being over, a war spectacle ensued, when an intended sacrifice to vengeance 
(known by the name of Blewit) was singled out to answer for the desperate 
wound inflieted by him upon young Baker. The animosity of his assailants 
was uncommonly remarkable; their party was far the more powerful, and, 
confident of their superiority, took every advantage of their numbers. The 
flight of spears was seldom less than six, and managed with a precision that 
seemed to promise certain fatality. After 170 had been thus thrown, ten 
of the most powerful stationed themselves so as nearly to encircle the cul- 
prit, and front and rear darted their weapons at the same instant. His 
activity and strong presence of mind increased with the danger; five he 
dexterously caught with his feeble target, and the others he miraenlously 
managed to parry off. One of his friends, enraged at the proceedings, threw 
a spear, and received ten in return. Blewit turned one of his assailant’s 
spears, and passed it through the body of old Whittaker; the affray then 
became general, but terminated without further mischief. 

«Te Pahi, who with several of his sons was present, regarded their war- 
fare with contempt; he frequently discovered much impatience at the length 
of intervals between the flights, and by signs exhorted them to dispateh; ' 


4 


Cotunso,—Iynorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles, 117 


he considered the heelaman, or shield, an unnecessary appendage, as the 
hand was sufficient to turn aside and alter the direction of any number of 
spears. He, nevertheless, highly praised the woomera, or throwing-stick, as, 
from its elasticity, he acknowledged the weapon to receive much additional 
velocity. He was visibly chagrined when he saw the old man wounded 
through the body, and would certainly have executed vengeance upon its 
author, had he not been restrained by the solicitations of the spectators, '— 
Nicholas’ ** New Zealand," Vol, IL., p. 869 
_Appenpix C.— (See p. 114). 

M. Crozet's description of this attack is so graphic, and at the same time 
so much in keeping with what I have known to take place among the New 
Zealanders in their old sieges, that I am tempted to give an extract, as I 
believe his work is not commonly known in the colony :—M. Crozet com- 
manded the King's sloop of war, the ‘Mascarin,’ under M. Marion, and put 
into the Bay of Islands in distress, having lost his-masts. With great diff- 
culty they cut down fit trees, some three or four miles off in the woods, and 
to get them out had to make a road! They had now been here at anchor 
thirty-three days, when the Maoris suddenly rose against the French, and 
killed Marion, with twenty-eight men! and it was with extreme difficulty 
that Crozet managed to get on board the ship those left on shore. After 
this the New Zealanders made several attempts to take even the ships, 
which they fiercely attacked in a hundred large canoes. At last Crozet, 
seeing it impossible to supply the ships with masts, uuless he could drive 
the natives from the neighbourhood, went to attack their pa, which was one 
of the greatest and strongest. He put the carpenters in front to cut down 


. the palisadoes, behind which the natives stood in great numbers on their 


fighting stages, from which they threw down stones and darts.* His people 
drove the natives from these stages by keeping up a regular fire, which did 
Some execution. The carpenters could now approach without danger, and 
in a few moments cut a breach in the fortification. A chief instantly 
stepped into it with a long spear in his hand. He was shot dead by Crozet's 
marksmen, and presently another occupied his place, stepping on the dead 


. body. He likewise fell a victim to his intrepid courage, and in the same 


manner eight chiefs successively defended the post of honour. The rest, 
seeing their leaders dead, took flight, and the French pursued and killed 
numbers of them. M. Crozet offered fifty dollars to any person who should 
take a New Zealander alive, but this was absolutely impracticable. A 
soldier seized an old man and began to drag him towards his Captain, but the 
savage, being unarmed, bit into the fleshy part of the Frenchman’s hand, 


* As described in Cook's Voyages, Vol. IL, p. 342-344. 


118 Transactions, — Miscellaneous, 


of which the exquisite pain so enraged him that he ran the New Zealander 
through with the bayonet. M. Crozet found great quantities of dresses, 
arms, tools, and raw flax in this pa, together with a prodigious store of dried 
fish androots. Hecompleted the repairs in his ship without interruption after 
accomplishing this enterprise, and prosecuted his voyage after a stay of 
sixty-four days in the Bay of Islands.—Forster’s Voyage, Vol, IL, pp. 
461-465, 


Art. VII.—On Temporary and Variable Stars. By Professor A. W. 
Bicgerton, F.C.S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines, London. 
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th July, 1878.] 

Tue sudden appearances of stars in various regions of the sky have been 
recorded from very early dates. Some of these stars have had an intensity 
of light greater than any of the fixed stars, and in some cases have remained 
visible for a year or more, the intensity of light all the while gradually 

diminishing. 

Two considerable stars of this kind have appeared within the last twelve 
years, and in both cases they have been examined with the spectroscope. 
Unfortunately the results have not been so satisfactory as could be desired. 
The spectrum of the star of 1866 appears to have been continuous, with 
bright lines. The lines diminished in number and intensity until they 
finally disappeared, leaving only a feeble continuous spectrum. The light 
of the star of 1877 at first appeared yellowish, and when five or six days 
afterwards it was examined with the spectroscope, a line spectrum was 
seen. The number of lines gradually lessened until only one was left, and 
that the same line as is seen in some nebula. 

A few considerations will show the stupendous nature of these pheno- 
mena. Temporary stars have all appeared to be fixed in the heavens, this 
fact showing them to be at true stellar distances, and consequently, like the 
fixed stars, their luminosity is comparable to that of our sun. The sun 
may be roughly classed as a star of the second magnitude ; its intensity is 
approximately one four-hundredth that of Sirius, which is a very short 
distance from us relatively to the size of the universe, therefore it is not 
improbable that these temporary stars should be, on an average, at least 
as far away as he is. 

We may therefore safely assume that most of the temporary stars whose 
appearance has been recorded, have had an intensity of light as great as the 
sun, and probably in some cases many times greater, The amount of heat 


Bicrerton.—0n Temporary and Variable Stars. 119 


radiated from each square yard of our sun’s surface is estimated to be equal 
to the combustion of ten cubic yards of coal in every hour, while the sun’s 
disc has four times the area enclosed by the orbit of the moon. The star of 
1866 when first seen was of the second magnitude, and its spectrum shows 
that it consisted of a nucleus of compressed gas, or of liquid or of solid matter. 
This was surrounded by an atmosphere of heated gas, having a greater 
monochromatic light than the nucleus; or it might have been simply a 
small permanent star in the same line of vision as the gaseous temporary 
star. I cannot say if this suggestion agrees with the present condition of 
the star. This star diminished from a star of the second magnitude to the 
tenth in about a fortnight. The spectroscope showed the star of 1877 to be 
ignited gas only, and from the number of the lines diminishing the tempera- 
ture and pressure probably did so likewise. The intensity diminished in 
four months from the third magnitude to the ninth. 

Many hypotheses have been formed to account for the nature of these 
stars, of which the following appear to be the most noteworthy :— 

1. Zoolner imagines a sun in which spots have covered the whole 
surface, the temporary stars being produced by the breaking of such a 
surface. 

2. Vogel assumes a volcanic bursting-out on a dead sun. 

In both of these hypotheses a decomposition and combustion of hydrogen 
and other elements is also assumed to account for the great intensity. 

9. Meyer and Klein suppose that a similar dark body is suddenly raised 
to incandescence by the projection of a planet or other body xd its 
surface. 

4. Proctor supposes that the atmosphere of a dead sun is suddenly 
brought to a high degree of luminosity by the passage of a meteoric train 
through it. 

In examining these hypotheses, we find that there is one thing in 
common, namely, the assumption of the existence of large dark bodies in 
space. The first two of them also depend on the existence of internal com- 
motion, attended with combustion. The last two depend upon the energy 
developed by gravitation. 

A little consideration will be sufficient to show that, on grounds of 
intensity alone, Zoolner’s and Vogel’s—in fact, any hypothesis not 
dependent upon gravitation—is improbable. Is it conceivable that a 
dark body should suddenly change its surface by voleanic or other internal 
action in such a manner as to heat gases to a pitch of luminosity as high 
as our sun’s, especially when it is considered that if a gas and solid be at 
the same temperature, the solid is much the more luminous of the two; nor 
would combustion or decomposition help it; generally the latter would take 


120 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


place, but would tend to diminish rather than increase the intensity. How 
inadequate combustion would be is shown by the fact that a pound weight 
would develope about forty million units of heat in falling upon the sun, and 
the combustion of a pound of mixed oxygen and hydrogen would only 
develope about 4000 units. And again, in either case the chief luminosity 
must be from the fused material; a continuous spectrum would then result, 
which in the last star at least is altogether contrary to observation. The 
precipitation of a body upon the surface of a dead sun is much more 
probable; so likewise is the meteoric theory; but in the former case if 
sufficient heat could be developed a fused mass would almost certainly 
result, and in the latter case nothing short of a marvellous combination 
would prevent its resulting. The latter hypothesis Proctor bases on the 
bright monientary light once observed on the face of the sun; he assumes 
that the gaseous photosphere was temporarily raised to a high luminosity 
by meteors. I think this of itself is very improbable. I cannot conceive 
how it is possible that if the atmosphere were raised to incandescence it 
could cool again in so short a time as two minutes. I think it far more 
probable that that most wonderful phenomenon (affecting as it did the 
entire earth) was due to the collision of two bodies revolving in approxi- 
mately opposite directions around the sun. Such a pair of bodies would have 
their temperature raised to about one hundred million degrees Centigrade. 
' I need not say that such a temperature would quickly volatilize such small 
bodies and produce an intense light, the phenomenon is in this way 
explained without any assumption other than known laws. The basis of 
the meteoric hypothesis is thus shown to be in the highest degree 
improbable, and even if it were admitted it would require an inconceivable 
number of meteors to raise the atmosphere of a dark body to such a 
temperature as to produce a luminosity as great as our sun’s and of some 
months’ duration. Still more inconceivable does it appear that the body 
upon which they impinge should only have its atmosphere raised to such a 
luminosity, whilst the body itself yemained non-luminous. Altogether the 
theory of Meyer and Klein appears the only possible one, but it is oniy when 
both bodies are of such stupendous dimensions as to produce complete 
volatilization that the hypothesis agrees with spectroscopic observation ; 
and such a case does not appear to be contemplated by the authors or they 
would scarcely have suggested a planet. Complete dissipation into space 
could not take place by the entire coalescence of two bodies however large, 
unless they had a higher initial velocity than observations of the proper 
motion of stars render probable. No one of these hypotheses, therefore, 
appears to be a satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon. 
An hypothesis that agrees better with observation would be one of 
partial impact. If two immense bodies moving in qued come well within 


Broxerton.—On Temporary and Variable Stars. 121 


the influence of each other's gravitation, they would be attracted out of 
their path with a constantly increasing velocity. Three possibilities present 
themselves: the first, the most general one, of passing each other and 
ultimately attaining their original velocity in space; the second would 
be that of imperfect impact; and third, as an extreme case, we 
should have complete impact when the centre of each mass would have, 
except for the collision, occupied the same point at the same time. It is 
reasonable to assume that in impact the case of partial collision would be 
more probable than complete impact. And it is this imperfect impact that 
is the basis of the present hypothesis. In this case a piece will be struck 
off each colliding body; these two pieces would to a greater or less degree 
coalesce, developing at the same time a high degree of heat, whilst the 
remainder of the two bodies would pass on in space. What would finally 
happen to the two retreating bodies depends on the original proper motion 
and the masses of the coalesced piece. If the original proper motions were 
large and the piece cut off small, one or both of the two bodies would most 
likely pass entirely away from the other bodies and travel on independently 
in space. If, on the other hand, the original proper motion were small and 
the piece struck off large, then it would be most probable that they would 
be once more attracted back and collide again and again until complete 
coalescence took place; or, as I shall show further, it is possible that they 
may form a system similar to our solar system. The size of the bodies will 
also have an influence in the escape or otherwise of the pieces. Other 
things being equal, the larger the body the greater the probability of escape, 
as the distance between the centres will be greater and consequently the 
attraction will be less. 

Partial impact appears competent to explain the occurrence of temporary, 
double, and variable stars, nebule of various kinds (the kind depending on 
the nature of the impact), comets, and finally stars or suns accompanied by 
bodies of smaller size. The third case, that of complete coalescence, is pro- 
bable only in the collision of very large bodies, and offers an explanation of 
the existence of large spherical nebule with a general condensation towards 
the centre. (We will consider the hypotheses somewhat in detail.) In 
order to render the conception of the hypothesis as simple as possible, I 
shall all through keep as far as I can to a direct conception of energy, as in 
this way most questions may be reduced to ordinary arithmetical series, 
Thus, if the two approaching bodies be equal to each other (at the same 
distance), the attracting force acting on each unit of mass will be propor- 
tional to the total mass of either; now in a force acting through space, the 
work equals the force multiplied by the space through which it acts, and the — 


work is equal to the heat, A 


122 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


The sun, by attracting a body from infinite space, would give it a velocity 
of 378 miles a second, or each unit of mass would develope about forty 
million units of heat. If we suppose two bodies, each half the size of the 
sun, to come together by mutual attraction alone, then each unit of mass 
would develope about twenty million units of heat. If, on the other hand, 
two bodies twice the mass of the sun come together, each unit of mass 
would have four times the force acting upon it through equal spaces, and 
each unit of mass would consequently develope four times as much heat. 
If the impact of such bodies were imperfect, as we have seen the general 
case would be, a piece of each would be cut off, and these two pieces would 
coalesce. Suppose a quarter of each be struck off, a body of the mass of 
the sun would be produced, but it would have four times the temperature 
the sun would have, assuming the sun to have been formed by direct impact 
and complete coalescence. Each unit of mass in this case would have 
approximately eighty million units of heat; and the temperature will depend 
upon the specific heat of the material, and may be much higher than this. 

I will now show, in the case of partial collision, how small relatively the 
work of cutting off the piece is compared to the energy available. It 
appears to me that in all cases the energy needed for shearing force has its 
superior limit in the latent heat of fusion. This, in the case of ice, is about 
one-fiftieth that of combustion, and combustion is about one twenty- 
thousandth part that of percussion, in the case we have been considering. 
The work of shearing would consequently not be greater than one millionth 
that of the energy of velocity, and soit appears it may safely be disregarded. 
Thus in the case of such a partial collision it may certainly be accepted that 
those parts not in the line of motion of the other body will not coalesce with 
the other body, but will pass on in space. In the piece struck off we shall 
have partial destruction of motion in space, with development of heat; 
many pieces will fly off, and a rotary motion of the whole will ensue. 
There wil be a slight pause from inertia, then the powerful outward 
pressure due to the expansion by heat will overcome all resistance, and will 
expand the whole into gas, much of it certainly passing beyond the limits of 
effective attraction, and away into distant space. Let us pause for an 
instant to examine a little more fully what has happened. 

Two pieces of different bodies, each with a velocity of about 500 miles a 
second, have coalesced, but although the motion of translation is destroyed 
the larger part of each side of the mass is made up chiefly of one of the two 
different bodies: as these are moving in opposite directions, there is con- 
sequently a couple acting on the mass, and this couple spins the mass on 
its centre. Consequently many pieces fly off, and are followed by the mass 
of gas, being impelled outward by the energy of heat and centrifugal force ; 


Bickrrton,—0n Temporary and Variable Stars, 123 


whilst, on the other hand, we have inertia and gravity tending to keep the 
mass together. The centrifugal force acts only in one plane, whilst the re- 
pellent force of heat acts in every plane; a bun-shaped mass must result, 
with a number of distinct pieces, which at first at least are in advance of the 
general mass. Follow it on in time and we get the ring nebula, with or 
without a luminous centre; in the latter case, with a dark circle dividing 
those parts whose velocity has carried them beyond the powers of the 
attractive force, from those parts held prisoner by it, These parts, as they 
gradually radiate heat into space, are once more slowly attracted to the 
centre by gravitation. If the piece struck off from each body were very 
small, then complete dissipation of the whole into space would result, 
Clearly such collisions as I have described would be competent to produce 
every variety of temporary stars that has appeared. Applying the spectro- 
scope to such a star, we get at first a continuous spectrum; then black 
lines, quickly followed by bright lines and spectrum; then bright lines 
alone. Again, if the colliding bodies were of very different size, or if the 
heat were not great enough to entirely volatilize the star, we should have 
lines and spectrum. Lastly, as heat and pressure diminish by the dissipa- 
tion of the body into space, we get fewer and fewer lines, until only those 
substances in greatest quantity, or of greatest power in giving lines at 
lowest temperature and pressure, remain luminous, and we have a nebule 
left; or in the case of total dissipation of the gaseous mass all evidence 
of its existence will disappear. It will be seen how exactly the above 
hypothesis agrees with the spectroscopic observation of temporary stars; 
and I have showa as fully as perhaps it is wise to do in this paper, that the 
hypothesis of partial impact is competent to account for every variety of 
these bodies, and also for their intensity and short duration. 

We must now return to the parent bodies which we left travelling on in 
space. A cylindrical or curved slice has been cut out of each ; sometimes 
that is the chief thing that will happen. But on the other hand we may have 
the molten interior of the body exposed to view. If there were atmospheres 
on the two colliding bodies, a very great heating of the surface of the section 
would result, and when both causes are acting in unison a stupendous lake 
of fire must be formed. Let such a body rotate on its axis, alternately the 
light and dark sides are shown, and we get a variable star. May not Mira in 
this way be attempting to tell us her autobiography ; how she is a dark body, 
with a molten lake of fire, 80 degrees of are, a lake as big as our sun, and 
how she rotates about an axis in a little less than a year? If it be so, she 


tells us of a dark body almost as large as Sirius, or how would 30 degrees moe 
of are produce a star of the first magnitude? Algol appears to tell us that oo 


it is a dark and gloomy PM with a brilliant son who were! passes 


* 


124 Transactions, — Miscellaneous, 


partly behind his dusky parent’s body, and in this way suffers partial 
eclipse, 

But the autobiographies of these bodies must not detain us; we must 
discuss the existence of such gigantic feebly-luminous or non-luminous 
bodies as our hypothesis demands. The existence of variable stars seems 
sufficient to prove there are such bodies, and, as I have shown, all the 
hypotheses offered in explanation of temporary stars assume their existence. 
The high temperature and small relative light of celestial radiation points 
to the same conclusion, or to non-luminous gas. It might be asked, if there 
are dark bodies, why not stellar eclipse. I do not know if such have been 
observed ; it would be wonderful if any had been, for they must be very 
rare, probably as rare as temporary stars; for, although we have all the 
depths of space in which eclipses are possible, on the other hand with 
temporary stars we have attraction bringing very distant bodies together. 
Further, the points of light of the fixed stars form but a small area in space, 
and, lastly, if eclipses occurred they would probably not be recorded, as 
small black patches of cloud so often obscure a portion of the sky that such 
an occurrence would scarcely attract attention. But why should there not 
be large dark bodies? Laplace’s theory of a universal nebule may be 
assumed to be against it; but did Laplace assume that it was contem- 
poraneous ? if not, then even that theory does not interfere. All our con- 
ceptions seem to agree more with a rhythmic cycle than with any definite 
beginning or end. If we assume this hypothesis, then the period of dissipa- 
tion of energy seems indefinitely projected into futurity ; for all radiation 
falling on the matter in space, must prevent its temperature from falling so 
low as without this radiation, and when at a subsequent date a collision 
occurs, this heat must exalt the final temperature. Nor does it appear that 
we need look forward to a gigantic dead sun as the final condition of this 


universe; for doubtless our universe has its own proper motion in space, 


which may bring us into collision with other universes. This shows that 
gravitation may be as competent to multiply worlds as to absorb them one 
into another. But after all our hypothesis only takes us a step back in 
time, and our imaginations a step forward into the future, thus removing 
further than ever from our conceptions every trace of a beginning or pro- 


mise of an end. 


BicxErton.—On Partial Impact, 125 


Art, VIIT,— Partial Impact: a possible Explanation of the Origin of the Solar 
System, Comets, and other Phenomena of the Universe. By Professor 
A. W. Bickerton, F.C.S., Associate Royal School of Mines, London. 
(Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st August, 1878.) 
Iw the last paper which I submitted to the Institute, I gave a short sketch 
of some hypothetical cases of partial collisions, and suggested that such 
cases might possibly be of frequent occurrence throughout space, and might 
offer an explanation of many phenomena of the universe. I especially 
showed the application of the hypothesis to temporary and variable stars. 
To-night I intend to show that it appears competent to explain the 
formation of the solar system, of comets, of meteors, and of some variety of 
nebule. I shall, however, in the first place point out the very great dif- 
ference which exists in the capabilities of cases of partial and complete 
collision, the first offering a field of possibilities of cosmical phenomena 
which is really surprising, the latter being probably confined to but a few 
rare cases. 

In the last paper I assumed that the partial collision of two attracting 
bodies having an original proper motion in space, would be much more 
likely than entire coalescence. It appeared, however, to be a very general 
idea, that if the bodies struck at all, it must be that their mutual attraction 
would certainly produce complete coalescence. On the other hand, it was 
generally admitted that two bodies when attracted by each other would 
seldom come into contact, but would in most cases be carried by their 
original velocity away once more from each other’s influence. It is only 
necessary to assume that the size of the bodies has increased enormously 
without increase of mass for a case of mere disturbance to become one of 
partial collision ; the generality of the case is thus practically demonstrated. 
As cases of partial collisions may be of infinite variety, for the sake of 
simplicity I have in this paper (except where stated to the contrary) assumed 
that all the colliding bodies are of the same size; composed of the same 
chemical elements; with the same initial proper motions, the velocity of 
which is small compared with that developed by attraction; also that the ' 
mass of each of the two bodies of any one pair is the same. 

If two bodies come into direct collision from rest, a definite energy of 
velocity will be acquired at the moment of contact, depending solely on the 
mass. After coalescence, if a single particle were attracted from infinite 
space, the particle being attracted by the whole coalesced mass, and this 
mass not appreciably moving towards the particle, twice the force would act 
through twice the space, and would develope twice the velocity, or four 
times the energy. Hence, also, a particle to leave the body must have this 
double velocity. Therefore, as it does not appear reasonable to expect that 


126 - Transactions.=—Miscellaneous, 


after collision any portion will acquire much greater energy than before, we 
may reasonably assume that no part will acquire four times the energy of 
motion, and be thrown off into space, On the other hand, if two bodies 
come into partial collision, a piece of each would coalesce, and the rest 
would pass on into space. Ifthe motion be entirely destroyed, the temperature 
developed by coalescence will be the same, no matter what proportion be 
struck off; whilst, if the pieces struck off be very small, the coalesced mass 
will have but little attractive power to keep the body together, and hence 
the velocity of each particle may be great enough to project the whole into 
space ; whereas we have seen, in the case of complete coalescence, none 
would be able to be thus projected. This is a most important distinction 
between partial and complete collision. 
Influence of Chemical Composition. 

If two bodies, each a mixture of chemical elements, meet and destroy 
their motion of translation, then a molecular motion of identically the 
same energy must be developed (a small part will be converted into some 
form of potential energy, but this we will disregard). If a mass of small 
bodies have the same energy as an equal single mass, the velocity is also 
equal. Whence we must also assume that the velocity of the molecules, 
no matter what may be their respective weights, is not greater than the 
velocity of the whole body was before impact. Therefore, from what has 
been stated, in direct impact no particle will have sufficient velocity to leave 
the mass immediately after impact. But different elements having the same 
velocity are at different temperatures, inversely proportional to their mole- 
cular weight; the heavy atoms are therefore very much hotter than the 
light ones. We know by the laws of heat that these unequal temperatures 
will tend to equality; but it is worth while looking at this a little in detail. 
Let us suppose a hydrogen and a mercury particle to meet. The mercury 
is one hundred times as heavy as hydrogen, but the velocity of both is the 
same. The collision cannot produce heat, as it is heat motion already. 
The principle of energy at once tells us that the mercury will lose a part 

of its velocity, and the velocity of the hydrogen will be increased. Let this 
happen many times, and the temperature will become equal; in other 
words, the hydrogen will be moving ten times as fast as the mercury. Let 
both of these particles come to the surface of the body; their molecular 
motion will cause them to leave it; the hydrogen will probably have velocity 
sufficient to carry it away from effective attraction, which is impossible 
with the mercury, as initially its velocity was insufficient, and now it is less 
than before. Thus we see that at the surface of a mixed gaseous atmo- 
sphere there is a tendency the opposite to that of the diffusion of gases; 
probably the hydrogen and lighter atomic weight elements will be on the out- 


TE UN Inr diee PENES = Ss ae 


Bicrerton.—0n Partial Impact. 127 


side, and the heavier on the inside of bodies. Hence, the chief elements of 
the surface of bodies may reasonably be expected to be hydrogen, lithium, 
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, magnesium, sodium, and sulphur. All these 
elements, except lithium (which may consequently be assumed to be 
universally rare), are the common elements of the surface of bodies; and 
hydrogen, the highest of all known bodies, is the most common of all. Is 
not the element of 1474 line, which is found outside of hydrogen on the 
sun, an element of still less atomic weight than hydrogen? If this 
hypothesis be true, then it is reasonable to assume that diffused hydrogen 
must fill space. This would account for the retardation of comets and 
planets without the assumption of an ether resistance. It thus appears 
that the molecular motion of gases may become one of mere translation. 
There is accordingly a continuity of heat and mechanical motion. It is 
reasonable to suppose, that at a certain height above the sun the general 
motion of the particles of hydrogen may become more or less parallel ; there 
would be no collisions of molecules, and consequently no luminosity would 
be then produced, and an apparent dissipation of the protuberances would 
occur. I have now shown the most striking points in the contrast of the 
energy of different cases of collision. I have also shown a possible reason 
why the small atomic weight elements are common on the surface of 
bodies; why we should expect to find hydrogen on the surface of all 
bodies, such as the sun and stars; lastly, that hydrogen, and probably the 
unknown element of the sun, may be the resisting substance which retards 
the motion of bodies in space. 
On the Rotation of Systems. 

It does not seem reasonable to expect rapid rotation in the case of entire 
coalescence of two bodies, as only the resultant of the two original rotations 
will tend to develope this motion. But, in the case of partial collision, we 
must have a rapid rotation of the mass, as each of the two bodies from 
which it was formed occupy chiefly one side of the new body, and as the 
velocity of each of the two bodies was originally opposite to that of the 
other, rotation is a necessary consequence. 

There are two chief reasons for the inequality of the balance of mo- 
mentum at the two sides of the coalesced mass: 1st. The piece cut off will 
be much thicker towards the middle of the original mass than at the out- 
side. 2nd. The density of the inside is much greater than that of the 
outside, in consequence of the greater pressure, and also from the fact that 
it is probable the heavier elements are towards the centre of the mass. It 
may easily be seen that the resultant momentum on the two opposite sides 
are in opposite directions, consequently tending to rotation, . 


128 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


Comets and Solar System. 

It is almost certain that the initially irregular shape of the two coalesced 
pieces would cause many smaller masses to fly off into space, producing 
possible visitants to other worlds, but in most cases the heat would be 
sufficient to cause all these masses to be converted into gas. 

When two bodies of different size attract each other, the velocity 
acquired by the smaller body will be greater than that of the larger one (as 
an apple falling to the earth does not give the earth the same velocity as 
the apple itself acquires). With unequal bodies therefore, when collision 
occurs, the larger piece. will have a smaller velocity than the smaller, hence 
there will be two orders of fragments. First, from the small piece, the high 
velocity of which may make comets and shooting stars of them. 

Planets. 

Secondly, the fragments of the larger piece, whose small velocity may 
not take these bodies away from effective attraction, and they may thus 
become planets. 

But the large mass of our sun shows that if the planets of our system 
have been formed in this way, one of two things must have occurred, either 
the original proper motion of the bodies must have been very much greater 
than the average is at present, or the bodies themselves must have been 
very large, so that even at impact the centres were a long distance from 
each other. There is, however, another reason why at impact the centres 
may have been at a distance from each other—namely, the great distortion 
of the bodies which must take place immediately before impact, in conse- 
quence of their mutual attraction. tis impossible to give even an approxi- 
mate idea of how much this may influence the result. Generally, it is easy 
to see that the problems offered by partial impact are of extreme difficulty, 
the data being of necessity of infinite variety. 

It is shown further on, that there is another partial impact hypothesis 
which may possibly explain the origin of our system. 

All the following remarks apply equally to that hypothesis :— 

- At first the orbits of these bodies would be extraordinarily eccentric ; 
on passing away on this firsí journey they would be in advance of the 
expeled gas, but would meet it on returning. This would tend to 
neuiralise the force of attraction, and the orbit would become much more 
circular. Again, the passage of the planet through the gas would retard it. 
And lastly, on each of its orbits the attraction of gravitation would be 
greater on its outward journey than on its return, in consequence of the 
expelled matter passing outside its orbit into space. This fact would both 
tend to render the orbit more circular, and also tend to neutralise the action 
of the gaseous resistance in causing the body to approach the sun. It 


Bicxerton.—On Partial Impact; 129 


is a well-known fact, that if a projectile revolyes on one axis at right 
angles to the line of motion, there is a tendency to move in a curve. 
(The full discussion of this phenomenon would occupy much time.) It is 
possible to show that this force at first would have considerable effect in 
rendering the orbits circular, but finally with the planets near the sun its 
effect may be to render the orbits more elliptical. All these forces, there- 
fore, tend to render the orbits more circular, but not as an average result 
to alter their mean distance from the sun. The larger masses would 
suffer less resistance in proportion than the smaller ones, and the general 
result would be, that if all started at the same distance the smaller bodies 
would be brought nearer the sun. It is easy to see that the centrifugal 
force and the attraction of nebulous mass would cause all the planets to 
travel approximately in the plane of the ecliptic, also why the sun’s equator 
so nearly approaches it, and generally, why the rotations of the planets on - 
their axes should bein the same direction. On the other hand, the pressure 
due to heat, the extreme want of symmetry of such a case of partial impact, 
combined with the original motion of rotation of the colliding bodies, if they 
had any, must all tell in the ultimate resultant motion, both orbital and 
axial. Almost certainly these forces would produce slightly inclined orbital 
planes, inclination of polar axes to these planes, and may as an extreme 
case produce a retrograde motion. It is also easy to see that the enormous 
atmospheres of those early days would effectually clear the bodies of all but 
very large masses of cosmical dust. 
The Asteroids. 

This fact appears of itself sufficient to show that the production of the 
asteroids must have been a subsequent event to the formation of the solar 
system. With respect to the asteroids, it is conceivable that the destruction 
of the planet which formed them may have been produced by a large 
meteorie visitant, with a high velocity. This hypothesis shows that such 
bodies may exist in considerable numbers. Such a mass might conceivably 
bury itself in another body, and when its motion of mass was stopped, its 
heat might be sufficient to produce a pressure of many thousand atmo- 
spheres. Such an explosion of developed gas might reasonably be expected 
to blow the body to pieces. It is generally considered that if the asteroids 
had been produced by the destruction of a planet, the fragments would 
have the same mean distance from the sun, and would pass the same points 
in their orbits where the destruction occurred ; which is contrary to the 
observed motions of these bodies. The hypothesis that they are pieces of a 
planet is therefore not generally accepted ; but these assumptions are only 
true if the velocity remain the same, the eccentricity of the orbit the same, 
and there is no resisting atmosphere. The first of these assumptions ig 

M 


130 Transacttons,—Miscellancous. 


clearly not admissible in such a case as I have suggested, and the relative 
positions of the planets would influence the second. Or if this be con- 
sidered to be insufficient, it is only necessary to assume that the destruction 
took place before the whole of the gas had been absorbed by the sun. 
Altogether, I think from the great eccentricity of the orbits of these bodies, 
from their positions, from the varying inclinations of the planes of their 
several ecliptics, from their varying intensity, and their small size, the only 
conceivable explanation of their formation is by a violent explosion. This 
would account for all their peculiarities. I am unacquainted with any force 
in nature that could produce such an explosion except the one here 
suggested. 
Saturn’s Rings. 

It would appear also that the rings of Saturn cannot be considered to be 
a primary phenomeuon ; they may have been developed by the blowing to 
pieces of a moon, or by Saturn's atmosphere entrapping a train of meteors. 
This latter suggestion hardly appears so reasonable as the former. If the 
destroyed moon was brought to a very high temperature, mere liquid spray 
might have been produced, which would quickly cool and become a mass of 
solid particles revolving around in all eccentricities. 

Comets and Meteors. 

It is a necessity of this hypothesis that there should be large numbers 
of bodies travelling in space. Groups of these bodies may frequently have 
& common direction. Of these bodies it is probable that some may be very 
large, and even come within the solar system, yet remain invisible except 
as meteors. But it is conceivable that in some cases of collision bodies may 
leave, consisting chiefly of carbonie acid ; which at certain stages of a body's 
heat, may form an important part of its atmosphere. It is not difficult to 
imagine that a portion of the atmosphere of such a body may have taken a 
common direction in space, and in its path become attracted by our system. 
Ifits nucleus, when near the sun, were volatilized carbon, and its atmosphere 
carbonie acid, the result of the sun's radiation on such an athermic sub- 
stance as carbonic acid might certainly decompose it. Might it not be the 
case that the temperature of dissociation of carbonic acid may be lower 
than the temperature of the volatilization of carbon? There are certain 
peculiarities in the electric light supporting this. Thus the carbon might 
be liberated as a sublimate away from the sun, but in the direction towards 
the sun, the temperature may be sufficiently high to volatilize the carbon. 
This, or some other radiation theory, as Tyndall has suggested, seems the 
only one possible to explain the stupendous velocity of the growth of the 
tails, amounting in some cases to as much as 5,000 miles a second, a velocity 
which the energy of the sun would be incompetent to give to matter, Again; 


Brexerton,—On Partial Impact, 181 


this hypothesis agrees with some of the spectroscopic observations of comets, 

in which the tail gave a feebly continuous spectrum, showing it to be solid, 

and the nucleus a banded spectrum, showing it to be gaseous. It may be 

possible that there are other gases whose temperature of decomposition is 

lower than the temperature of volatilization of one of their constituents, such 

as fluoride of silicon and generally halogen compounds of infusible bases. 
Lhe Sun. 

I shall now attempt to show that there may be agencies at work which 
may cause a great difference of temperature between the poles of the sun 
and its equator, This may give us an insight into the cause of the tremen- 
dous cyclones of the meeting solar trades, and these cyclones are possibly 
the cause of such spots. If this hypothesis really represents the formation 
of the solar system, then it is probable that radiation is greater in a direction 
perpendicular to the ecliptic than in its plane, Again, the combined energy 
of gravitation and centrifugal force would cause most of the absorbed matter 
to fall upon the sun about the equator; both of these causes may produce 
a great difference of temperature between the poles and the equator of the 
sun, sufficient, perhaps, to produce cyclonie spots. The projection of bodies 
upon the surface of the sun, bodies trapped by the sun itself, might probably 
produce the sea of flame which surrounds it, and the protuberances so often 
seen upon itslimbs. The precipitation of bodies upon its surface appears 
to me to offer the only conceivable explanation of the high velocity which 
the hydrogen on the surface of the sun sometimes possesses. The speed 
of some comets proves that bodies in space may have a velocity of many 
hundred miles per second, and we know that a body at rest would aequire 
nearly 400 miles a second by the sun's attraetion alone. Therefore many 
bodies may fall upon the sun with a velocity of 500 miles a second or more. 
Such a body would bury itself far down in the sun, clearing the gas by 
pressing it down before it and in a few minutes it would be many thousand 
miles into the sun, and, its motion of mass destroyed, a temperature of 
100,000,000 might readily be developed, which, even if the density of the 
body were no higher than air, would amount to a pressure of 400,000 
atmospheres, and would most likely be much greater than this. Here are 
all the conditions for a most powerful explosion, amply sufficient for all 
that has been observed of the prominences. It is quite evident that if there 
are trains of bodies, which have been brought into the orbits around the 
sun, most of the phenomena of periodical variations of spots and protuber- 
ances may be explained on the assumption that these bodies plunge 
obliquely into the body of the sun. 

On Double and Multiple Stars. 

When the original proper motion is small, and the proportions struck 
off large, after partial coalescence the greatly increased attraction acting on 


182 Transactions. — Miscellaneous, 


the two retreating bodies will in many cases cause one or both of them to 
be attracted back to the coalesced mass; but as the foree which produces 
this return is partially due to the other retreating body, and for reasons 
already mentioned, the returning body will not necessarily come into 
collision with the coalesced mass, but may revolve around it producing 
double stars, or, if both bodies returned, triple stars, and in many cases the 
coalesced mass would also separate and produce even quadruple, or still 
higher multiple stars. I need not say that many thousands of multiple 
stars exist. Generally the returning stars, although sometimes of greater 
magnitude, would be of less luminosity, but this body would collect much 
of the matter revolving around the more luminous body, and so have its 
own temperature raised. In the case of nearly complete collision, the two 
pieces leaving the coalesced mass might reasonably be expected to break 
into pieces. Tt is possible to show that the rotation of each of these pieces 
must generally be in the same direction as the rotation of the coalesced 
mass, and that most of the forces acting would tend to produce a system 
resembling the solar system. 
Nebula. 

I have already shown how a ring nebule may be produced by a case of 
partial collision. The cometic nebule would be produced when a high 
resultant velocity was produced in the coalesced mass. It is not difficult 
to conceive that in the collisions of approximately equal bodies the coalesced 
mass might separate chiefly into two other larger masses, and produce 
double nebule, and ultimately double stars revolving around each other. 
Again, a case of almost complete coalescence appears competent to give rise 
to the conditions we observe in the spiral ‘nebulw, as it will be seen that 
rotation wil be very slow in this case, and the expulsion of matter 
irregular, although it must be confessed that it seems probable that 
generaly a large nucleus of eontinuous nebule would be produced. At 
the same time possibly higher power observations may show this to be the 
case. 


Art. IX.—On the Calculation of Distances by means of Reciprocal Vertical 
; Angles. By C. W. Apaus. 
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 12th September, 1878.) 
Tar distance between any two points on the earth's surface may be found, 
if the angle subtended by those points at the centre of the earth is known, 


Avams.—To Calculate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles, 188 


as itis then only necessary to multiply the number of units in the given 
angle by the value of one unit at the earth's surface, in order to find the 
distance, or ** Contained Aro," as it is generally called. 

The method of deducing the subtended angle, or rather the length of the 
** Contained Are," when the vertical angle from each station to the other is 
given, may be shown as follows, dividing the problem iuto two eases—first, 
when one angle is an elevation ; and, secondly, when both are depressions. 

Case 1.— When one angle is an elevation, and the other a depression. 
i To investigate a method of ascertaining distances by 
means of reciprocal vertical angles:—Let 4 and B in 
EE fig. 1 represent the two stations, and C the centre of 
| the earth. Draw A F a horizontal line at A, and B G 
E a horizontal line at B, and B H parallel to A F. 
Then ÆA B G is the true angle of depression at B, and 
B A F' is the true angle of elevation at 4, and G B A 
— H B A (or BAF) = C (the contained are). Thus 
s we see that the difference between the true angles of 
elevation and depression is equal to the “contained 
arc," xcd d taking the mean value of l'on the earth's surface — 101:4 feet 
or 153-6 links, we could thus obtain the distance between the two stations 
in feet or links. 

But the observed angles are not the true angles, as they are both affected 
with refraction. 

Let 4 K and BK — the apparent direction of each station from 
the other. 

Let D pe. the true angle of depression, G B d. 

Let E represent the true angle of elevation B 4 F. 

Let C represent the angle 4 C B or contained are; and 

Let R represent the angle of refraction = K A B or K B A. 

G B K will be the apparent angle of depression = D — A. 

And KA F will be the apparent angle of elevation = E + R, 
and the difference between the observed angles of depression and elevation 
will be (D — R) — (E + R) = D — E — 2R = C — 2R. 

Now, assuming R to be 4, of the contained are, C — 2R will be C — $5 C 
asd» 

Therefore the difference between the observed angles of elevation and 
depression will be 13 C; so, by multiplying the number of seconds in 15 C 
by 13 x 158:6, we shall get the number of links in the contained are, or 
the distance between 4 and B. (Note 44 x 159:6 = 177:3). If the dis- 
tance between 4 and B is required in feet instead of links, then multiply 
by 1$ x 1014 = 117. 


184 Transactions,— Miscellaneous, 


Casz 2.— When both angles are depressions. 

Using the same notation as before, except that D 
and d represent the true angles of depression, and 
D — R, d — R the observed angles of depression ; 
then D + d+ F = 2 right angles, also C + F = 2 
right angles ^. D+d=C;andD—-R+d—-—-R 
=C—2R. ae is, the sum de both angles of de- 
pression — C — —C—fC-i£OC,andiiC 


x 1$ x 153°6 (or sum of observed cbe in ers multiplied y 
177:8) = distance in links between A and D. If the distance between 4 
and B is required in feet, then multiply by 117 instead of 177:8. 

The above results expressed in words give the following 

Practical Rule. 

Take the sum of the observed vertical angles when both are depressions ; 
or their difference when one is an elevation, and reduce this sum or differ- 
ence to seconds; multiply by 177:3, and the result will be the approximate 
distance between the two stations in links. NorE.—lf the distance be 
required in feet, then multiply by 117. 

Or the following general rule will apply to all cases :—Subtract 180° 
from the observed zenith distances, reduce the remainder to seconds, and 
multiply by 177-3, the result wil be the approximate distance between the 
two stations in links. 

In the preceding investigation, I have assumed the mean value of 1" on 
the carth’s surface = 101:4 feet, and I shall now show what is the greatest 
error that can be introduced in any case by this assumption. 


'The radius of curvature on the meridian varies with the latitude from a 
minimum at the Equator e m to a maximum at the Pole (s. et 


And the radius of curvatare of the Prime Vertical also varies with the 
latitude from a minimum at the Equator (= E.) to a maximum at the Pole 
E 


P 

Also, the radius of curvature in any latitude varies with the Azimuth 
from a minimum on the meridian to a maximum on the prime vertical. 

Still the limits of variation are so small, compared with the ordinary 
errors of observation, that in general praetice it is sufficient to assume 
101:4 feet as the mean value of 1” on the surface of the earth for New 
Zealand. 

The following are the precise values for latitudes 89° and 44°, taking 89° 
as the mean latitude of the North Island of New Zealand, and 44? as the 
mean latitude of the South Island, 


cM E E d M RE E 


ApAus.— To Calculate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles. 185 


FEET. 

Taking Bessel's value of the equatorial radius (E) = 20923597 

d sel’s value of the polar semi-axis ( == 20853654 
e value of 1” on the meridi la = 101:164 
The value of 1’ on the prime vertical = 101:575 
he mean value of 1” at all azimuths in lat. 39° — 101:370 
Again, the value of 1” on the meridian at | = 101-252 
A he value of 1” on the prime vertical at lat. 44° = 101-604 
é e alue of 1” at azimuths at - 449 = 101:428 
And the mean value of 1” at all azimuths at 39° E 101:370 
mean value of A atall azimuths for Wa Nude o[N A. = 1:999 


Or say, 101:4 fee 

It will thas be seen es by using this : mean value, the results would be 
sometimes slightly in excess of the true values, and sometimes slightly in 
defect; but in any case the difference would only amount to about 1 per 
cent., d may therefore in ordinary practice be neglected. 

With regard to the co-efficient of refraction which I have adopted, it 
may be thought that 45 is too small, as in most works on surveying it is 
stated to be from 4 to yy. 

The reason I have used 4; is because I find it more in accordance with 
actual observations in hilly country in New Zealand. 

The factor 177:3, as stated above, is obtained by taking the value of 1" 
on the carth’s surface as 153-6 links, and the refraction as 4 of the con- 
tained are; but if it is required to obtain the distance in any other 
denomination, such as feet, metres, miles, etc., for any other values of ter- 
restriul curvature and refraction, this may easily be done by means of the 
following formula :— 

Let v — value of 1" on the earth's surface, in the given denomination 

>> m-co-efficient of refraction 
>> £=the factor required ;~ then 
Foix 
Example. Suppose v— 80:89 metres and m=-071 
then — = = ae = 36, the factor required. 

It must be borne in mind ihat this method is only approximate, as the 
observed vertical angles are liable to an error of 2" or 3” even when an 
8-inch theodolite is used, and a mean of several observations taken. 

Supposing the average error of each double observation to be 5” or 6” 
then the error in the calculated distance would be 5 or 6 times 177 links, 
say about 10 chains. This would be 1 per cent. in a distance of 1000 
chains, which is the usual distance between geodesical stations in New 
Zealand. 

The chief ani of this method is that the observations are not 
subject to a ratio of error in proportion to the distance. Most approximate 
methods, by telemeters, etc., although tolerably correct for short distances, 
fail altogether when applied to long distances; but this method gives pro- 


138 Transaetions.—Miscellatrteous. 


portionately better results, the longer the distance, as I estimate it as subject 
to an average error of 5” or 6’ which is equivalent to about 10 chains, and 
this error is the same for all distances. Thus, in finding the distance 
between two hills 50 miles apart, this would only introduce an error of 
21 links per 10 chains, thus nearly approaching in accuracy to a chained 
measurement, besides being free from accidental errors and omissions which 
all chained measurements are liable to. 

But although the errors of observation do not affect the results in pro- 
portion to the distance, still, any error in the estimated refraction will do so; 
therefore this method is only suitable for hilly country, where other methods 
are not available; as, whenever the line of sight between the two stations 
passes for any considerable distance close to the surface of water or level 
land, the refraction is generally very variable and uncertain, and the results 
obtained by this method will then be unreliable. 

In my own practice, using an 8-inch transit theodolite, reading to 10", 
and noting the level readings at each observation, the distances found by 
this method have an average error of half-a-chain to the mile. 

For instance, in a circuit of 50 miles between two known points, 
average distance of stations 10 miles apart, the error was found to be 23 
chains, or less than half-a-chain per mile. In another case, there was an 
error of 31 chains in 60 miles, or about half-a-chain per mile. 

It is requisite, in this method, to use only the corrected vertical angles, 
that is, they must be corrected for the height of the eye and object. 

Rules for calculating the correction are given in most books on survey- 
ing, but the following blank form will be convenient when the difference of 
heights of the eye and object is given in feet and inches, and the distance 
between the stations in links :— 


Blank Form. 
Difference of height of eye and objesi HEHcheklog 42.790 e a 
Distance between stations in lin AA a 
Colog tang 1'—log 7:92 — REDE log 4°41570 


Correction in seconds of are — log .*..... 
Note.— When the height of the eye exceeds the height of the object, the 
correction is to be added to an elevation or subtracted from a depression. 
When the height of the object exceeds the height of the eye, the cor- 
rection is to be added to a depression, or subtracted from an elevation ; 
Or the rule for applying the corrections may be simplified thus : 


Mark angles of elevation + mark angles of e eque 
Mark he ight of eye -- mark height o of obje 


Then take the algebraical sum of the heights of the eye did object, to com- 
pute the correction, to which prefix the same sign; then the algebraical 
sum of this correction, and the observed vertical angle, will give the true 
vertical angle, 


Uma 


Apams.—To calculate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles. 187 


In order to compute this correction by the above rules, the distance 
between the stations is required to be known; but as in all cases where this 
method is used the distance between the stations is not known, we must 
proceed as follows :— 

With the observed vertical angles, as they stand in the field-book, 
compute the distance between the stations; and with this approximate dis- 
tance, compute the eye and object correction. Then, with the corrected 
angles, again compute the distance, and in most cases no further calcula- 
tion will be required; but in cases where the second calculation gives a 
result differing greatly from the first approximation, it may be advisable to 
repeat the calculation. 

Instead, however, of neglecting the eye and object correction altogether, 
in calculating the first approximation, it will be sometimes advantageous to 
ascertain the correction roughly, and take it into account. This may be 
done as follows :— 

As 1 inch subtends 1" at 26044 links or 8} miles nearly, we can easily 
ascertain the angle subtended by any number of inches, at any number of 
miles distance, by the following rule :— 

Multiply the inches by 81 and divide the product by the number of miles, 
ihe quotient will be the number of seconds subtended. The distance in 
miles can generally be estimated to within 10 per cent. or so, and calcu- 
lating the first approximate pedo ia this way will often save time. 


Exa 
Bryant's Hill to ahadi s Hill. Elev. r " 18” 


Barker's Hill to Bryant's Hill. Dep. 2’ 50" 2 
Bryant's Hill to Barker's Hill. Height of eye ao Gy 
3s object = 0 0 

Ix, 

Eye exceeds object 3 1 = 87 


Distance, say 10 miles 10) 120 
12:0" 
Ew. Ix. 
Barker's Hill to Bryant's Hill. Height of eyo = a 
te object = T 


— HE Ix. 
Eye exceeds object = 1 9 = £^ 


10 ) 68 
6:8 
Bryant 1° 14 13” + 12' = 1° 14 25" 
ee o D Elev., D M trat. LE i 


Barker's io Bryant's Hill. Dep., 
8 182 = 498"2 
3771 
49820 
34874 
8487 


To compute the eye and object corrections 149 


138 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


INCHES. 
37 = log 156820 
88330 =  colog 5:05389 


[uU 
eonstant log 441570 


Correction  10-^9 = log. 1.:03779 


INCHES. 
21 = log . 1:32222 
88330 = -Golog 5105389 
con ni Pe 4:41570 


Correcttion 6*2 = log 079181 
; Corrected Angles. 
Elev. 1° 14' 13” + 10.9 — 1? 14' 28-9 
Dep. 1° 27 50 — 6 2 = 1 22 4*8 
8 199 = 4999 
3 


Distance from Bryant’s Hill to tog s Hill — 88632 links 
ithe rue distance as found by Triangula = 97 


Difference 565 a 
Which is about half a chain per mile. 

Having found the contained arc, or distance between the stations, in 
links, by the rules given above, the difference in altitude may be obtained in 
the usual way, viz., by converting the links into feet and then multiplying 
the distance in feet between the stations by the tangent of the true angle 
of elevation or depression. (Norr.—The true angle of elevation or 
depression is half the sum of the observed reciprocal angles, when one 
is an elevation; or half the difference when both are depressions; or, 
generally, if zenith distances are used, the true vertical angle is equal to 
half the difference of the reciprocal zenith distances;—of course sup- 
posing the eye and object corrections to have been applied.) 

But instead of finding the distance between the stations in links, and 
then converting it into feet, it would be more simple to find the distance in 
feet at once, by MA the factor 117 instead of 177-3, as before explained :— 


Example. 
Bryant’s Hill to enke s E Corrected Elev. 1° 14’ 23⁄9 
Barker’s Hill to Bryant’s " Dep. 1° 22’ 437-8 
Diff. 819^9 — 4999 


Sum. 2° 87077 


$ Sum. 1° 18’ 338 
499.9 = log 2-698883 
117 = constant log 2-068186 
1*1999^8 = tangent  8:359040 


1337°0 feet = 8126109 


Avams.—1o calculate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles, 189 


If no logarithmic or trigonometrical tables are at hand, the difference of 
altitude may be found as follows :— 

As :00000485 represents the value of sin 1’ are 1" or tang 1" (true to 
the last figure), and as the tangents of small angles vary very nearly as the 
number of seconds contained in the angle, we may substitute for the tangent 
of the angle the number of seconds multipled by ‘00000485. 

In practice, the operation may be shortened by combining the two 
multipliers together; thus, 00000485 x 117 = :0005675. 

(Norz.—In order to show how very nearly the sines, arcs, and tangents 
agree for the first two degrees, their values at two degrees are given, for the 
sake of comparison, 

Thus sin 22 = 
are 2° =  :0349066 
tang? — 0349208 | 142 = 8" 


Diff. 
0348995 | 71 = 14 


Therefore, the arc of 2° = sin 2° 00’ 01%’, and the tangent of 
2° = arc of 2° 00’ 08", 

Also, in obtaining the tangent of 2° by multiplying -00000485 x 60 
X 60 x 2, the result is ‘0349200, or just 1 of a second below the true value. 

Similarly the tangent of 1°, found in the same manner, is ‘0174600, or 
just 1” above its true value ; but the value used for tang 1’, viz., 00000486, 
is slightly in excess of its true value, which is -0000048481368, etc.) 

Then the difference of altitude may be found by the following rules :— 
Case 1.—When one angle is in an elevation. 

RuLe.—Take the difference of the observed vertical angles, and also half 
the sum, both reduced to seconds ; multiply them together, and their product 
by ‘0005675; the result will be the difference of altitude between the two 
stations in feet. 

Case 2.— When both angles are depressions. 

Rvrz.—Take the sum of the observed verticle angles, and also half the 
differenee, both reduced to seconds, multiply them together, and their pro- 
duct by -0005675 ; the result will be the difference of altitude between the 
two stations in feet. 

Or, if zenith distances are used, the following general rule will apply in 
all cases :— : 

Rurr.—Subtract 180? from the sum of the observed zenith distances and 
reduce the remainder to seconds; then take half the difference of the 
Observed zenith distances and reduce it to seconds ; multiply the two 
quantities together, and the product by *0005675, and the result will be the 
difference of altitude between the two stations in feet, 


140 Transactions,— Miscellaneous, 
\ 


Example as before. 


poe 
uit, 


1° 18’ 337-8 
8' 19” 


4713-8 
499-9 9994 = 499-9 reversed 


2356300 
0005675 5765000 = 0005675 reversed 


Diff. of altitude = 13373 feet 
Even when a book of logarithms is available, the calculation by logs 


will be more expeditiously performed by using the logs of the above 
quantities than by using the log tangent. 


Example. 
1? 18 33° ‘8 = 4713:8 “log 8 sd 
= 499:9 log 2:6988 
Constant log -0005675 z= 6.158960 
1337:3 feet = 3:126220 


With regard to the actual results obtained by this method, I may 
mention that in the circuit of 50 miles previously referred to, the altitudes 
closed to 18 feet, and in the circuit of 60 miles, the error in closing was 
only 2 feet. 

It is thus evident that this method is quite capable of giving reliable 
results in hilly country, and is well adapted for the topographical survey of 
a new country. A line of stations might be selected in the most accessible 
positions, and each line used as a base from which to extend triangles on 
either side, and as every line is determined independently, there would be no 
accumulation of error. 

On the contrary, by observing to distant hills on either side, the distances 
found would check each other, and any erroneous result could be rejected. 

In very level country, where the refraction is too uncertain to give 
reliable results by this method, other methods may be employed, such as 
chained lines, or triangulation from a measured base, ete. 


Porz,—4 Methad of measuring Position of Double Stars, 141 


Art. X.—A Description of inexpensive Apparatus for measuring the Angles of 
Position and Distances of Double Stays, and the Method of using it. 
By James H. Porr., 
Plate I. 
(Read before the Otago Institute, 13th August, 1878.) 

UxpousrEDLY anyone who wishes to make observations of double stars 
should provide himself with a first-class telescope equatorially mounted, 
having an aperture of from eight to ten inches; he should place this 
telescope in a commodious and well built observatory and should procure a 
first-class filar micrometer and a galvanic chronograph. He should have 
perfect illuminating apparatus, so that the micrometer wires may appear as 
bright lines on a dark field or as dark lines on a bright field, and he should 
be able at will to employ whatever tint he wishes to give to his field or his 
wires. Besides all this, his telescope should be accurately driven by clock- 
work, so that he may keep a star in one part of the field of view as long as 
he wishes to do so, and may have both hands at perfect liberty to take 
angles of position and to measure the distances between the components of 
double stars. But, unfortunately, this apparatus is extremely expensive. 
Cooke of York will provide every requisite for some £1200; it is not every 
one that can quite see his way to spend such a sum. There are many 
enthusiastie students of astronomy who are anxious to engage in this kind 
of work, but think it quite out of their power to do so on account of these 
same pecuniary difficulties. The following paper attempts to show how 
good work in this department of astronomy may be done at a very trifling 
expense, and to make it evident that the possessor of a good telescope may, 
with a small expenditure of trouble and a still smaller expenditure of money, 
hope to be in a position to take measures of double stars, that will be worth 
preserving in the scientific records of the day. Here I would say, once for 
all, that the methods described in this paper are, many of them, not new. 
Some of them were invented by Sir John Herschell, some by other 
astronomers. For many of the details the writer alone is responsible. For 
working out the mechanical construction, and for many most valuable 
improvements in the water-clock used in the method, the writer has to thank 
Mr. Forsyth, station-master, Caversham. All that the writer claims to 
have done is to have worked out a complete system (the materials for which 
have been derived from various sources), by means of which double star 
observation is placed within the reach of a large class of students of the 
starry heavens, who are debarred from pursuing this fascinating branch of 
astronomy by the great expense involved in procuring the instruments 
ordinarily used in it, 


149 Transactions.— Miscellaneous, 


Fig. 1 represents the field of view of a positive eye-piece of high mag- 
nifying power. In this are arranged, in the manner shown in the figure, 
images of wires for ordinary use and of webs for more delicate observations. 

Fig. 2 is the position circle. This is made of very stout block-tin, and 
is wired at the back to prevent its warping. Its circumference is divided 
into degrees (the minutes are to be estimated). The circle is fastened on & 
central cap, like that which is used for a sun-shade, so that the circle can be 
screwed on to the eye-piece with facility. Every care must be taken to set 
the plane of the circle at right angles to the axis of the telescope. 

Before the circle is put on the eye-piece, the index I, fig. 3, is placed 
on the telescope, tube T’, and temporarily secured by means of the clamp 
and screw Cs. Then the circle is put on, and the apparatus will be in 
the condition represented in fig. 8. If the telescope used is equatorially 
mounted and properly adjusted, it may be now turned on a double star in 
any part of the heavens; if it is an alt. azimuth, a star must be chosen on 
or near the meridian, the nearer the better. The star, or rather one of the 
component stars, is now made tó run along between the wires TT, fig.1, by 
turning the eye-piece tube of the telescope round until it does so. Then 
the index I, fig. 8, must be made to point accurately to the zero of the 
position circle, and be firmly secured there by means of the clamp. 

Next the eye-piece tube is turned round until the line joining the centres 
of the two stars is exactly parallel to the two wires. Then the circle 
indication is read off, and, if necessary, 180° must be added to the angle so 
obtained. Then, evidently, the angle of position with the meridian has 
been obtained. Several observations of the same star on different nights 
should be taken. It is advantageous, too, to use different parts of the circle 
as the zero point. If this be done, the mean of all the observations will be 
a very close approximation to the truth. 

Having found the angle of position, we next proceed to obtain the 
distance. This operation should be attempted only in the very finest 
weather. The writer always measures distances either in morning or 
evening twilight, or in full moonlight when the moon is near the meridian. 
Thus the illumination difficulty is avoided. 

The clepsydra, the use and construction of which will easily be under- 
stood from the section of it given in fig. 4, is placed in a convenient position 
near the telescope. The tanks T and T” are filled with water, the eyepiece 
tube is turned round as in the previous operation. until one of the com- 
ponents of the double star runs along the wire TT or the web w.w. Then 
the star is recalled and raised in the field a litttle, so that it may transit the 
oblique wire TW, or the oblique web w.T. The instant that the first star 
is bisected by the wire or web, the lever is pressed sharply down to the peg P 


TRANS. NZ.INSTITUTE VOL XLPLT 


Fig 2. 


JAH Pope, del. 


by LI Pope 


To illustrate paper 


SAA AA AA KAA 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE I 


Rovem Puans or Position CIRCLE, ETC. 
Fig. I.—Field of Oblique Transit Eye-piece. 
MM Meridian transit wire. 

TT  Declination parallel wire. 
ww Declination parallel web. 
TW 20° oblique transit wire. 
Tw  i0?oblique transit web. 


Fig. II.—Position Circle. 
E Eye-hole. 
C Cap for fastening circle to tube of telescope. 


Fig. III.—Vertical Section. 
C Position circle. 


F Field lens. 

T  Eye-piece tube. 

T" Telescope tube. 

œ Clamp and screw for index. 
I 


Rouen SECTION oF CLEPSYDRA. 
Fi 


Bars, supports 
D Lever. 
F Fulcrum. 
S^ Sp 1 


ring. 
P  Pegto limit movement of lever. 
F^ Fastening of spring. 


S" Spring to keep valve shut. 


T ——————— ULA UNI KAA ee KUMALIZA 


Pore.—A Method of measuring Position of Double Stars. 148 


and firmly held there, this raises the valves VV’, and water flows up the 
glass tube G, which has previously been filled up to the zero point of the 
scale. The instant that the second star is bisected by the wire or web the 
lever is released, the valves are immediately closed, and the flow of water 
ceases. The height of the column of water is then accurately measured by 
means of the graduated scale. Then the water is allowed to escape through 
the waste-tap T", and the operation is repeated. A mean of all the observa- 
tions gives the quantity of water that flows into the glass-tube during the 
interval between the transits of the two stars. Let this quantity be 2°25 
inches. Then an observation is made, by means of a watch, of the time 
required to fill the tube, that is to say for 30 inches of water to run into it; 
let this time be 21:5 seconds. A rule of three sum shows us the time 
elapsing between the transits of the two stars :— 
EK UE Sees. 

35 5 * 21:5 t: 1:613 
1:612 seconds of time is, Meroe the interval between the transits of the 
two stars. 

Having found this interval, a simple trigonometrical Spanien gives us 
the distance between the two stars :— 

Let p = the North Polar TM zi ne sy 
= angle of position 
= angle of position of ie line j ue the stars. 
T = interval between the two transits in seconds of time. 
A= distance in seconds of arc between the two stars. 
T x 15.sinp.cosa: 


Gea 


Then A = 


sin (a — 9). 

These calculations are not very troublesome. A very little practice 
enables one to do them very rapidly. It may be as well, in conclusion, to 
give an example just to show how very little labour is really involved in this 
process, 

On April 5th, 1876, twelve oblique transits were taken of the aber 4763 
(of Brisbane’s catalogue), R.A. 14h. Om., Decl. 53° 6 S. The average 
duration of time between the transits of the component stars of the double 
over a wire inclined 78? 5/ to the meridian, was 9:61 secs. The angle of 
position had been found to be 22° 0'. Then— 

9:61 secs. L e — 14415 Log 2158814 


sin : dis 97718455 
cos | 9-314897 
cosec d 56? 5 10081000 

1:333166 


The natural number corresponding to this is 21:58. Hence the distance 
between the stars is 213 seconds of arc. This measure was taken before 
apparatus described in this paper had been made as perfect as it is at 


144 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


present. It is probable that measures taken now with the improved position 
circle and the clepsydra, will at all events approach in accuracy the best 
measures taken with perfect appliances. If mercury could be used instead 
of water with similar apparatus, still better results would be obtained, but 
as the object has been to incur as little expense as possible, it has been 
thought advisable to adapt the arrangements to the use of water. 

It is obvious that this method is available for measuring the diameter 
of planets, sun-spots, etc., and also for selenographical observations. 


Art. XI.—Deflection of Shingle-bearing Currents and Protection of River 
Banks by Druslin’s Floating Log Dams. By H. P. Mackin. 
Plate II. 
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.} 

Tue plain of the Wairau in the Province of Marlborough is a tract of flat 
aluvial country, averaging about ten miles by seventy, and has been 
formed on the channel of an ancient iceberg (mer-de-glace), by the streams 
from the surrounding hills and the Wairau River, which traverses its 
entire length, rising on Mount Mackay, and debouching in Cloudy Bay, a 
portion of Cook Strait. Geologically the plain is of post-pliocene formation, 
surrounded towards the north and west by mountains of metamorphic and 
paleozoie origin, and on the south by low hills of marine tertiary drift. 

The Wairau River has evidently formed the greater portion of the plain, 
and carries with it immense quantities of shingle, of which it is made the 
receptacle, by the rivulets from the hills, The district is & prosperous 
farming one; and from its first settlement, has been liable to considerable. 
damage, not only from the flood-water itself, but also from the shifting of 
the river-bed, and the deposit of shingle on the adjacent lands. The town 
of Blenheim is situated on the middle of the plain, and unfortunately, its 
site is lower by several feet than the surrounding country. Every year its 
danger is becoming more imminent, as the beds of the river and its branch, 
the Opawa, are gradually rising, from these rivers being compelled to deposit 
the drift on their banks and beds by lateral embankments. The late 
Provincial Government, under the direction of eminent engineers, has 
tried in vain many devices to direct the stream from the town. All were 
unavailing, as the rapidity of the current undermined cratings, tanks, and 
wing-walls, while the enormous quantities of shingle deposited defied all 
control. Not a wreck remains of ali the works thus erected, costing some 
£15,000. On plan No. I will be seen, at the point X, the lowest point in 
the river bank, whence the town gets flooded by overflow, and where the 


TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE. VOL. XI. PUIL. 


SECTION AA 


> 


adieu S 
NDI WA MA MAA sel Kirar, g 
o S It b a gt 
9 f g LI 


To illustrate paper by HP Macklin. 


Macxitn.—Protection of River Banks. 145 


river threatens to form a new channel, leading directly through the town, as 
the lowest portion of the plain. The construction called a “dam” was 
erected some two years ago, at the point Z, (plan No. 1) and has not only 
diverted the stream into the * new ” channel, but raised the bank of shingle 
behind and below it. The old bed is gradually silting up. Had solid 
planking been put in to divert the current, it would have got undermined 
almost immediately, and the shingle been carried on and deposited where 
it would do harm. 

The theorem is as follows :—If a current will carry shingle, when 
travelling at the rate of six or seven miles per hour, but will not, if the 
velocity is decreased to say four, then, anything so decreasing it, will force 
it to drop the shingle; and, what is of more importance, at the point where 
itis so decreased. The invention I have to describe was suggested to Mr. 
Druslin, by observing and experimenting on the action of one log floating 
and moored diagonally across a current, by which it was seen that the 
surface current was deflected. It then became clear that a series of logs 
moored at certain distances from the bottom above one another, and so fixed 
to upright posts that they would float or rise with the flood, would not 
only divert the current by producing a resultant between the downward 
velocity and the resistance, but by forming eddies below the logs, and 
decreasing the velocity, cause the deposit of all the shingle. The water 
here in flood time is about twelve feet deep, and there is a series of frame- 
works of five logs each, averaging twenty-eight inches in diameter, placed 
diagonally across the stream, sloping from the bank at an angle of 135 
degrees down stream. It will be seen that these logs, fixed in the following 
manner, check about half the volume of current and divert the remainder. 

Piles of very heavy timber are driven into the bed of the river; the first 
horizontal log lies on the bottom, the next about a foot above it, and so on 
to the surface; the whole series is so arranged that the top log always floats; 
in fact the structure is so buoyed that it rises on the piers with the flood. 
The accompanying plans will show the construction. Reference to plan No. 
8 will show how the stones and sand get piled up during a flood, so high as 
to reach within a short distance of the surface, while in front of the logs 
there is a raging torrent. There is one defect about this invention, which 
led many people to condemn it at first. During flood-time a bank of shingle 
is raised, averaging eight feet (see along the line m n on plan No. 1), but 
during its subsidence, and until the next flood occurs, the river is acting on 
it, and cutting it away. But plans are now devised for placing a wing-wall 
of planks, perpendicularly to the horizon, in a frame in such a manner 
that they will drop into any holes made beneath them by the water, 
thus keeping the bank of shingle intact. There is no doubt in m mind 


146 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


that the town of Blenheim has been saved by this invention. Of all the 
money spent in conservation and attempts to divert the stream, these log- 
dams only remain, and when thrown up shingle can be retained, no danger 
need be feared for the future. It will thus be seen that the great problem 
of how to divert the current and make a bank of shingle where it can be’ 
utilised, has been solved in one of the most dangerous and rapid rivers in 
New Zealand. Unfortunately the conservation of rivers here is in the hands 
of a Board elected by the settlers from among themselves, and such bodies 
are not only slow to see, but timid in admitting the merits of a new idea. 
To make the matter clearer than can be done by written description I forward 
a small model of the invention. 


Art. XII.—On Beach Protection. By W. D. Caurszrr, Ass. Inst. C.E. 
Plate ITI. 
[Read before the Westland Institute, 15th July, 1878.) 

Tue encroachments of the sea on the sandy ridge upon which a portion of 
the town of Hokitika is built, have often been very considerable during 
tempestuous weather, and at times have created no unusual amount of 
alarm among the inhabitants of Revell Street. The subject of beach pro- 
tection will therefore be of interest and importance to many present, and I 
propose to briefly discuss it, prefacing my remarks by a glance at the 
conditions presented by waves in accumulating and removing beaches. 

The movements of shingle and sand along the coast are due to the 
waves, whose direction is determined by the prevailing wind, but tidal 
currents sometimes indirectly affect their action by subduing or increasing 
the waves according as they may be with or against their direction. The 
action of the waves may be taken to be of three kinds:*—1st. The 
accumulative action, which heaps up the particles against the shore. 
2nd. The destructive action, which breaks down the accumulations pre- 
viously made. 8rd. The progressive action, which carries forward the 
pebbles and sand in a horizontal direction. 

The difference between the first and second actions is determined by 
the rate of succession of the waves ; for when they break upon the shore so 
rapidly as to over-ride each other, a continuous downward under-current is 
produced and the destructive action commences. The progressive action 
takes place when the waves impinge obliquely upon the shore. 


* See “Observations on the ,Motions of Shingle Beaches,” by H. R. Palmer, C.E., 
F.R.S., Phil. Trans. Royal Society, 1834, Part I, 


p 
XR 
j 


CaupBELL.— On Beach Protection, 147 


Works, having for their object the protection of the sea-beach, should 
divide the destructive and progressive actions of the waves. This require- 
ment is fulfilled by piled and planked groynes, constructed at right angles 
to the shore line, their tendency being to collect and retain the sand and 
shingle. When the waves approach the shore exactly at right angles, the 
groynes will have their minimum effect, as no progressive action exists, 
The constant shifting of the beach, however, at Hokitika, either to the north 
or south, shows that an oblique direction usually prevails. Groynes have 
been found to be most successful in similar cases of encroachment on the 
coasts of Great Britain. In the Baltic, a double row of piles has been found 
to succeed; while on the Dutch coast groynes are constructed of fascines, 
where the dykes are more than usually exposed to the waves. The English 
practice is to drive the piles from one-half to two-thirds of their length in 
the sand or shingle, either in pairs, placing planking between them, or to 
have a pile on alternate sides of the planking. Sheet-piling would be 
particularly advantageous, and is shown in figs. 1 and 2, which “closely 
resembles a design by Mr. R. Pickwell, A.I.C.E. With main piles 27 feet 
long, and sheet piles 15 feet long, the rate per yard run would be 16 lin, 
feet main piles, 8 CBM timber in planking, sheet piles, and waling, 51lbs. 
ironwork in bolts and 30lbs. in shoes. With planking only, the quantity per 
yard run would be 15 lin. feet main piles, 1 CBM timber in planking and 
40lbs. ironwork in bolts and 8lbs. in shoes. 

To protect the beach from opposite Camp Street to Hampden Street, a 
distance of 770 yards, six groynes, each 66 lin. yards in length, might be 
placed every 154 yards. Their cost would be about £3,000. With the 
foreshore thus protected a line of scrub and saplings could be placed with 
advantage along the beach. The cost would be about £500. 

As instances of the successful conservation of foreshores by groynes, it 
may be mentioned that, at Spurn Point in Yorkshire,* piled and planked 
groynes were used by Sir John Coode, and in four years the line of bent 
grass had extended 200 feet to seaward, covering many drift banks; also at 
Withernsea,+ in the same neighbourhood, some groynes 800 to 350 feet 
long were constructed 200 yards apart by Mr. Pickwell; the piles at first 
stood ten feet above the beach at the land end and six feet at the sea end, 
the upper five planks were added as the beach accumulated, and in four 
years the groynes were nearly covered; at Eastbourne and Folkestone 
groynes of similar construction have been successfully used; at the former 
place they were constructed 150 yards apart, the piles were driven in pairs 
with two walings and a centre row of closely driven sheet-piles six inches 

* Proc. Inst. C.E., Vol. XXVIIL., p. 503. 
1 Proc. Inst. C.E., Vol. LL, p. 206. 


148 Transactions,.—-Miscellaneous. 


thick. At Cranz, on the Baltic, rows of piles 8 x 8 inches and 10 to 12 feet 
long, spaced 18 inches apart, have been successful, with a breastwork of 
piles and fascines, Breastworks are often required in cases of low foreshore 
or where a cliff is exposed to rapid erosion by the sea. 

Beaches have also been successfully formed along the sea barriers of recla- 
mation works by means ofgroynes. At Sunderland, successive additions were 
made to the reclaimed area as the beach formed. In 1874-5 the author had 
charge of similar works at Ayr; a reclamation of 24 acres of foreshore for & 
dock was made, and six groynes with stone filling, each 150 feet in length 
and 250 feet apart (see figs. 8 and 4), were constructed along the line of sea 
barrier in order to collect a beach in front of it. In the first year after their 
erection a rise of two to three feet took place. With main piles, having a 
nett length of 81 lin. feet, the rate per yard run with scrub and stone filling, 
instead of wholly stone as shown in the drawing, would be 18,5, lin. feet 
main piles, 23 CBM timber in way-balks, walings, cross-ties, and planking, 
and 50 lbs. iron work in bolts, 83 lbs. spikes and 21 lbs. in shoes; scrub 
and stone filling 173 cubic yards. The cost of 6 groynes, each 66 lin. yards, 
would be about £5,800. 

On spits and low beaches exposed to encroachment, groynes require to be 
constructed first, and then rows of fascines and scrub can be placed with 
advantage along the crest of the beach. The serub placed along the beach 
at Hokitika probably assisted the accumulation of sand behind it; but 
without groynes it cannot affect the action of the sea at the foot of the beach 
where the erosion is greatest, and encroachment proceeds until the scrub is 
undermined. The rough cribwork groynes that Mr. Rochfort placed on the 
beach in 1867 and 1868* were efforts in the right direction, but a much 
greater length would be required for efficient protection. The formation of 
a broad beach upon which the waves can expend their force is of far greater 
importance than a high narrow ridge which must always be liable to be 
washed down by heavy seas. 

The fetch or reach of open sea is considerably greater here than at those 
places that I have mentioned, and the waves from that cause must be larger ; 
but the depth of water off Hokitika at 1 mile and 1 mile distance is 26 and 
42 feet, at Sunderland it is 27 and 52 feet; while the range of spring tides 
at Hokitika is 9 feet, and at Sunderland it is 14 feet 6 inches; and it must 
follow that the power of the waves are more broken here, having to pass. 
over shallower water. I believe the design shown in figs. 1 and 2 would be 
efficacious, and it has the merit of presenting the minimum amount of 
surface to the seas. 


* Seo Trans. N.Z, Inst., 1871, Vol. IV., p. 299. 


TRANS. INSTITUTE VOLXL PU 


ELEVATION OF GROYNE 


Urawrord.—Growth of Cereals in New Zealand. 149 


The snags cast up after every flood will no doubt dangerously affect the 
groynes when first constructed, as they would then have a large portion 
above the surface of the beach, but such risks must be unavoidably 
encountered. Hurriedly constructed works such as have hitherto been in — 
vogue are seldom satisfactory, for permanent results can only be obtained 
by a system of management pursued when opportunity favours, the best 
time for constructing the groynes being at the period of extension of beach. 


Arr, XIIL—How New Zealand may continue to grow Wheat and other 

Cereals. By James C. CRAWFORD. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 8rd August, 1878.] 
Wz have all heard of the exhaustion of soils in new countries from the 
system of taking crop after crop of the same grain off the land year after 
year without manure, so that eventually the richest soils have been 
reduced to a barren state, and have refused any longer to yield returns to 
the husbandman. 

Thus the fertile bottoms of Virginia were impoverished—although, I 
believe, it was by tobacco and not by grain—and thus the former wheat- 
growing lands of Campbeltown and Appin, to the southward of Sydney, 
now refuse to grow wheat, and are only used for the growth of oaten hay, 
which, the grain not being ripened, takes little out of the soil. 

The immense wheat-fields of South Australia, which now give so large 
an export to that colony, must, in course of time, share the same fate, if 
continued on the same system, and even now the yield per aere is very 
small. 

Wheat-growing has become an important industry in New Zealand, and 
the returns from the provincial districts of Canterbury and Otago have for 
several years past been very large. 

New Zealand soils will not long, however, stand the system of cropping 
above described, for a very few years will exhaust the constituents required 
for a grain crop. Let us consider, however, how grain-cropping in this 
colony can be put upon a permanent footing. 

We must not be too hard upon the farmers who exhaust their soils, and 
supply no manure to make up the waste, because, from the system of 
farming necessary in a new country, it is not easy, perhaps it is impossible, 
to obtain the required supply of manure. In Great Britain and other 
thickly-peopled countries, the farmer lays his plans to provide a supply of 
manure for himself, He has either a dairy, or he stall-feeds oxen, or he 


150 Transactions, —Miscellaneous, 


keeps a flock of sheep to feed off his turnips. He has probably, also, a town 
or large village iu his vicinity, from which he ean purchase house-manure ; 
and, under the system of high farming, other manures are brought to him 
from all parts of the world. 

It probably would not pay in a new country to go into the elaborate 
system of farming which is practised in an old one. Much may, however, 
be done in this direction ; and if we contrast the farm work of Otago with 
that of the rest of the colony, we will see that it can be done to advantage. 

It may be that most of the wheat crops now grown in New Zealand are 
only preparatory to laying the land down in grass. In that case there is 
little harm done. The land is not exhausted, and after being for some 
years under grass, may be again broken up and cropped; but what I 
propose to consider is whether we can hit upon an economical plan of 
continuing grain-cropping without a rest under grass. 

There is nothing new in what I propose to state. It is only a reitera- 
tion of well-known facts, but facts which, strange to say, are seldom known 
to the farmer. He knows that his land is liable to exhaustion, but of the. 
constituents which are taken away in the grain removed, or of how to 
replace them, he is generally ignorant. 

The chief constituents of a grain crop which are carried away with the 
grain are only three in number—viz., phosphate of lime, potash, and 
nitrogen. The two former, when once exhausted, cannot be replaced 
except by earrying them to the ground, or by the slow process of the land 
lying fallow, or in grass, until fresh supplies which may still remain in the 
soil shall be released, and put in a condition to furnish food to plants. 

With regard to nitrogen, there is an ample supply in the atmosphere, 
and, if I remember right, Liebig originally held that no nitrogenous 
man‘ires were necessary, but afterwards, considering the effect of guano 
and of muck, changed his views on this point, and eame to the conclusion 
that the nitrogen of the atmosphere in, I suppose, the form of ammonia, 
did not assimilate with sufficient rapidity to obviate the necessity for 
nitrogenous manures, and that therefore these manures must be provided. 

Now, leaving aside for the time the question of the supply of phosphate 
of lime and of potash, let us consider how the supply of nitrogen may be 
most readily brought about. No doubt the simplest plan would be to pur- 
chase and apply Peruvian guano, but I wish to arrive at the result without 
an outlay of money. If we go back to the time of the Romans we find that 
they supplied nitrogen by growing and ploughing in lupins. Now any of the 
bean tribe will answer for the purpose, these plants being rich in nitrogen, 
and, when ploughed in, the decomposition which is set up places the 
nitrogen in a state to be assimilated by plants, 


Crawrord.—Growth of Cereals in New Zealand. 151 


Can we in the climate of New Zealand grow a crop of some plant of the 
bean tribe, after the grain crop has been harvested, so as to be ready to be 
ploughed in before the next year’s grain crop is sown? If we can do this, 
then, with a supply of phosphate of lime and of potash when required, we 
might grow wheat every year. I think this might be done in the North 
Island, but as regards the wheat-growing districts of the South, it may be 
doubtful. However, I suppose the plan would be to grow and plough in a 
bean crop whenever it should be thought necessary, if a crop of turnips, or 
vetches, fed off by sheep, should not be found equally satisfactory. 

The main point, however, is the supply of phosphate of lime. Asa 
rule, the soils of the colony are deficient in this mineral, and every effort of 
the farmer should go to increase it in quantity. As the best supply of 
nitrogen would be derived from Peruvian guano, so probably the readiest 
supply of phosphate of lime would be from the phosphatic guanos. But we 
have a grand supply of phosphate of lime within the colony without going 
abroad to look for it. We have over 12,000,000 sheep, and a corresponding 
number of great cattle. We have a large supply of bones every year, much 
of which is exported. Not a pound of bones ought to leave new Zealand, 
but, on the contrary, they should be imported from Australia or elsewhere. 
We have plenty of sulphur. The manufacture of sulphuric acid should be 
commenced. Bones treated with sulphuric acid in a state of readiness for 
use, and other manures, such as nitrate of soda, can be manufactured when 
sulphuric acid is procurable. A country which contains a liberal supply of 
sulphur, and in which the inhabitants are intelligent enough to understand 
the uses of sulphuric acid, is placed at an immense advantage over countries 
deficient in this mineral. Both in agriculture and in manufacture the uses 
of sulphuric acid are manifold, and perhaps it is only second to coal in 
productive economy. How much more is the presence of sulphur a God- 
send in a country so remote from the rest of the world as is New Zea- 
land, because sulphuric acid is a dangerous commodity to send by sea, 
and in consequence, when brought from Europe, is very expensive. 

It is to be hoped, therefore, that the manufacture of sulphuric acid 
within the colony may be soon commenced, and then the farmers may be 
supplied with a liberal quantity of superphosphates. 

An excellent example of the use of supplying phosphate of lime may be 
seen in the treatment of the clay soils near Auckland. These soils appear 
to be in their natural state entirely devoid of this mineral, and are in con- 
sequence extremely sterile. A liberal dose of crushed bones makes them 
productive, and without this supply their cultivation is useless, as they will 
give no returns, 


152 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


It might have been of advantage to the farmers of the hills near 
Wellington and other parts of New Zealand, if the phosphates there had 
also been entirely wanting, because by this time they would have learnt the 
necessity of applying them. As the case stands the phosphates are merely 
deficient in quantity, not absent altogether, and thus the farmers have been 
able to get along somehow. A liberal dose of bone-dust, repeated when 
required, would vastly increase the produce of their soils. 

I am inclined to suppose that there is generally a sufficient supply of 
potash in the soils of this Colony, but no doubt the quantity is constantly 
subjected to diminution. On grazing lands a considerable portion is an- 
nually removed in the wool, and sent to England, and in cultivated land it 
is carried away as a constituent of the crop, and if not restored in manure 
is lost to the soil. 

I suppose fresh supplies of potash might be procured by taking more 
care of our waste timber—by saving ashes from timber land when cleared, 
and from the toppings of branches at the saw mills, and also from sea- 
weeds. 

Growing continuous grain crops is not confined to new countries but 
has been tried in England—of course in that country with the use of 
manure 

i think that Mr. Dawes, the celebrated agriculturist, first tried the 
system, and I have come across an account of some experiments in the 
same direction, conducted at Paxton in Berwickshire. These experiments 
seem to have extended over seven years, and a statement of the results may 
prove of interest. I therefore give it :— 


Four-Acre Field. 


; Value of Crop 
Year. Kind of Crop. | Kind of Manure and quantity per Acre. per acre 
with Straw. 
1870  ..| Turnips, after) | Portion of turnips eaten on ground b £ sd 
Barley ..]| shee z io z 917 6 
A3NI es | ey c. [2 owt, nitrate of soda 2 s s 1118 4 
18/2. ...|Osld  .. cwt. guan ja p a 0 0 
19573. >. | Beans .. ..|2 owt. dissolved Noe s : ba 1410 0 
1874  ..| Wheat 20 tons farmyard l0 0 0 
1876  ..|Barley .. .. | 1d cwt. nitrate of soda, and 1 ewt. super- 
phosphate 3 910 0 
1870  .. | Barley .. -« | 14 cwt. nitrate ol pe and 1 ewt. super- ) 
phosphate of lime xd 910 0 
1877  .: | Barley .. .. | 23 cwt. nitrate of d). and 2 ewt. . super- 
phosphate of lim 3 Um 


Crawrorp.—Growth of Cereals in New Zealand. 153 


SetensActe Field. 


Value of Crop 
Year. Kind of Crop. Kind of Manure and Quantity per Acre. per acre 
with Straw. 
1870... | Turni £0. d. 
. | Turnips cule us kanywa dung, and 3 cwt. 6 0 0 
no 
1871. = 3. | Barney .. 2 uet ni en on ground by sheep Bits 
1872 ae MAF ys .. | 2 owt. tga of soda 9.8. 93 
1873 Oats o manure E 715 0 
1874  ..| Beans .. | 2 cwt. bone 12 0 0 
187b .. | Barley .. .. |14 cwt. nitr e of soda, “and dj cwt. ji 6 9 4 
Pride uii ud of lime kj 
1876... .. | Barley... .. | 1} cwt. nitrate of MK and 1 cwt. super. 817 1 
phosphate of li j 
1877  ..|Barley .. .. | 24 ewt. nitrate ts soda, and 3 cwt. imme 700 
phosphate of li 


Ishould be inclined to think that continuous corn-growing in Great 
Britain could hardly come into competition with a rotation of crops, for one 
reason in particular,—viz., the want of provision for destruction of weeds. 
This is a diffieulty which would also occur in New Zealand, where, from the 
moisture of the climate, weeds are very difficult to be kept under. If a 
good payable system of rotation for this colony could be hit upon, I am 
inclined to think it would beat the continuous eorn-growing system. If, 
however, farmers will continue to work their land on the latter plan, I will 
again reiterate that they cannot continue to do so for many years without 
giving and keeping up a supply of phosphate of lime, of potash, and of 
nitrogen. 

I have seen it stated, on excellent authority, that pastures which are 
deficient in phosphate of lime in the soil ought never to be used for breed- 
ing sheep; for the lambs on such pastures scour, get pot-bellied, are deficient 
in size, and many of them die. This seems according to reason, for if there 
is an insufficient supply of mineral to form the bones, the animal must 
probably also suffer in other ways. Possibly, when the sheep has attained full 
growth, and his bones are fully formed, these pastures may do for fattening 
him ; or, if it will pay, the land may be treated with bone-dust, but it would 
be bend to suppose that this could be done with dis on a large sheep- 
run and with stock at present prices. 


154 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


Art. XIV.—On the Rock Paintings in the Weka Pass. By A. MACKENZIE 
Cameron. Communicated by Pror. J. von Haasr, Ph.D., F.R.8. 
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th April, 1878.) 
** 1, Cascade Terrace, Cascade Street, Paddington, 
** Sydney, 9th February, 1878. 
“To Professor Julius von Haast, President Philosophical Institute, 
Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand. 

** My Dear Sir,—You have already received my hurried acknowledgment of 
the receipt of your kind communication enclosing photographs of the newly- 
discovered rock paintings in New Zealand, with notes on them supplied by 
yourself and the Rev. Mr. Stack.* I now proceed to offer some suggestions 
on the figures, premising that being connected with the Society of Biblical 
Archeology of London, and having in the course of extensive travels in old 
Asiatic countries come across and studied many very ancient remains (some 
fully 8000 years old), and further, having made early alphabets and symbols 
special studies, I was entrusted lately in London for elucidation, by my 
very old friend, Dr. Thomas Allan Wise, M.D., F.R.S. Edin., with drawings 
of rock sculptures and figures which he (delighting in antiquarian researches) 
had at considerable labour and expense made in various parts of the kingdom 
of Scotland, and which may be seen on Plates in the ‘ Transactions of the 
Royal Society, Vol. XXI. Ihave thus materials at hand for comparison 
besides my own studies and experience. I may add that I am pleased to 
see Mr. Stack’s name, as I happened in England to be well-known to, and 
sometimes associated in work with, his venerable and respected father, the 
Rey. James Stack. 

“To proceed to the figures, I have to state—(1.) That such ancient 
remains are to be found in such distant parts of the globe as Ireland, Scot- 
land, India, and Borneo, and the distance from the last to New Zealand is 
not so great as the distance of Ireland or Scotland from India. (2.) In the 
western countries there are two sets of figures—one Eastern in origin and 
pre-Christian, and the other Native, and post-Christian. They are easily 
distinguishable. (3.) The pre-Christian figures were made by Phenician 
traders and Buddhist missionaries from India. Both were of the same age 
of the world's history. The first were well known for maritime enterprise, 
and if they made for one extremity of the world in Cornwall for tin, and 
down south-east to Taprobane and the Aurea Chersonesus for other mer- 
chandise and gold, why should it be improbable that they visited the ‘ Isles 
of the Sea’ expressly mentioned by Ezekiel, and reach to the end of the 
chain which begins with Sumatra and ends with New Zealand? We have 


gue 


* Vol. As p. 44, et sês; pl. x 


CauERON.—On Rock Paintings in Weka Pass. 155 


clear philological testimony that the serpeni-race of India in early times 
obtained a foothold in New Zealand. This will be further brought out 
below. Again, as to the Buddhist missionaries, they were noted for their 
enterprise and travels for their faith. They carried their faith, doctrines, 
aud symbols to the extreme east, north, and south of the great continent of 
Asia; over seas, deserts, and extended barriers of eternal snow, and all 
through to the extreme west of Europe. Is it improbable that, whether 
with the serpent-race from India, or in Phoenician vessels, they arrived in 
New Zealand? The association of the Buddhist cross with Phoenician 
letters on inscriptions in the west is a fact. 

** These observations will serve to clear up the following remarks on the 
figures transmitted by you :—First, I may say that the figures strike me as 
divisible into pre-Christian, Indian, symbolie, and later native. The pre- 
Christian are generally the hieroglyphies, while most of the drawings of 
men with marine monsters appear to be later native. This may be a mere 
supposition, but you have other cireumstances to decide this point. Secondly, 
figures 2, 6, 13, 21, 21a, and, perhaps, 24, constitute, along with, very 
probably, 15, 16, 18, one group—the Trinity symbol—and are pre-Christian. 
I can only briefly explain here this symbol. It may suffice to state that 
spirit, matter, and organised life, as the result of the action of the first on the 
second, are supposed to form the pan-theo-cosmical (if I may coin such a word) 
nature or universe of the ancient religious ereed of India, and which was 
carried by the Buddhist missionaries over the world. The symbol of this 
cardinal and esoterie doctrine of religion was three circles near each other, 
and, in my opinion, also two joined circles, crossed with the zig-zag figure 
(supposed by some to be also a Masonic symbol) usually called the ‘spectacle 
ornament, the crossing zig-zag figure representing probably spirit. We 
find these symbols alike on great Buddhist temples in India, on the Bhilsa 
*topes, on the standing stone in Aberdeen, and on the Dingwall stone in 
North Britain. The figures composing the symbol are either plain or 
ornamented, and disposed in various ways. The variations are remarkable, 
and give a clue, as I believe, to the true signification of figures 2, 6, 13, 15, 
16, 18, 21, and 214. In all these, the three parts are distinctly made out, 
especially in figures of 2, 6, 21, 214. In my opinion, figures 18, 15, 16, 18 
are similar to the ‘spectacle ornament’ of North Britain. Figure 14 may 
be a representation of the same symbol, or of a Buddhist temple, the form 
of which figures in North Britain, explaining unmistakably the zig-zag line, 
and the sacred nature of the Trinity symbol. : 

** I make no observations on fig. 17, of which there are several similar 
representations in other parts of the world. Figs. 4, 9, 22, and perhaps 24, 
also have counterparts elsewhere. The Buddhist cross (and Phenician 


156 Transactions,—Miscellaneous, 


tau) is probably intended in figs. 5 and 12, though the execution is very 
degenerate. (The same may be said of all the other symbols). The very 
remarkable figure 23 probably represents the early Pheenician and Hindoo 
Fish-god. I have certainly seen it before somewhere in India. This 
establishes the early age of the drawings, the race of workmen, and the 
sacred character of the drawings. (See also the philological notes lower 
down.) You will perceive that I have not noticed the theory of figs. 2, 6, 
18, 21, 21a, representing any oriental characters, ancient or modern, for 
this reason; that amid the numerous and complicated alphabetical forms 
of various Eastern languages some resemblance is sure to be found. In 
this view I might recognise fig. 2 as Arabic, figs. 18 and 21 as Sanscrit, 
and fig. 24 actually as the Hebrew aleph. Fig. 2, to me, is conclusively a 
Buddhist symbol. Fortunately, however, your communication encloses 
several notes furnished by Mr. Stack, and I find there abundant philological 
proof that New Zealand had early intercourse with India. 

** Te kahui tipua—Ahe definite particle (Greek to, English the, Malay itu, 
ete., etc.), limiting, indicating ; kahui tipua, the deceitful, wicked dog-race 
(Malay tipu, deceitful, and kuh, the dog-race), remnants of whom are still 
to be found in the north-west of Burmah. Of course I may be mistaken in 
this interpretátion, and I should wish to know which is the adjective. 

* Again: Ngapuhi—nga puhi, the serpent-race. This race is to be found 
in parts of India, and plays an important part in early Indian history. 
My Hindoo mythology is rather dull at present, but, if remembranee serves 
me, I believe the Aryan race had a long and desperate contest with the 
earlier serpent-race, and, succeeding, drove these last into hills and moun- 
tains, and beyond the seas. Sanscrit naga, great serpent; and puh, race, 
descendants. 

“I may be tempted on to great length with these and other words 
furnished in Mr. Stack’s letters, and therefore shall conclude here, only 
adding that should any portion of the observations I have made require 
further explanations I shall be happy to give them to you.—I remain, &c., 

* A, Mackenzie CAMERON.” 

“ P.5.—With reference to some of your own remarks, made in your last 
annual speech, I should state that figure 15 resembles an Indian bow and 
arrow; figure 18, a war conch; and figure 14, a broad-brimmed hat, nearly 
similar in shape to those used in Malayan countries. Notwithstanding all 
these resemblances, I still adhere to the opinion that they represent Buddhist 
symbols. The P.S. of your own speech would appear to dash my theory to 
the ground, but what is the meaning of your own words, “they are of a 
more primitive nature’? and of Mr. Stack’s assigning them to “the oldest 
inhabitants of this island—somewhat mythical people—of whom there are any 


J. T. Tuomsoxn.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words, 157 


traditions.’ If furnished with the necessary philological and ethnological 
materials I might be able to indicate the early history of your island.” 
Postscript By Proressor von Haast. 

It is scarcely necessary to point out the important nature of this 
communication, which opens up quite a new field for research into the 
early history of these islands, and goes far to prove the great antiquity of 
the paintings in question. In reference to Mr. Cameron's views, I may, 
however, be allowed to observe that these red paintings have evidently all 
been executed at the same time, and cannot therefore represent two distinct 
periods, or have been the work of two distinct races. In stating in the post- 
script to my address that when speaking of the great antiquity of these 
paintings, I did not do so in the European sense, but only as far as there 
were existing reliable traditions of the present Native inhabitants of these 
islands, I did not wish to give any expression as to my views of what the 
real age of these paintings might be. Before doing so I wished to obtain 
more material. However, anybody acquainted with my own views in 
regard to the great number of years these islands have been inhabited, and - 
the long period of time since the Moa has become extinct through the 
agency of man, of which we have ample geological evidence (the only one 
to be trusted), will easily understand that I can only coincide with Mr. 
Cameron's opinion as to the great antiquity of the paintings in question, 
even in the European sense. 


Art, XV.— Barat or Barata Fossil Words. By J. TumwNsvLL Thomson, 
F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A., ete. 
Plate IV. 
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, February, 1879.] 

This continues the subject of three preceding papers”, and the heading 
requires some explanation. Barat is the Malay traditional and poetical 
name for Hindustan, and to this day they speak of the angin Barat—that 
is, westerly, or wind of Barat; as they do of the angin Jawa—that is, the 
southerly, or wind of Java. Barata, or Bharata, is the ancient term for 
their country by the natives of Hindustan. In the language of Madagascar, 
allowing for difference of phonology, precisely the same word is used for 
the North, viz., avaratra, whose winds wafted commerce from the parent 
country, viz., South India. We use the term parent on the force of the 
facts elicited in our preceding investigations. 

* Whence of the Maori, Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. IV.; Barata Numerals, Vol. V. ; 
Philological Considerations on the Whence of the Maori, Vol. VI, 


158 Transactions,— Miscellaneous, 


The term ‘fossil words” signifies words embedded in a language, or 
which have not been eradicated by foreign influences—such as the Saxon 
words in the modern English language. The roots of the language will be 
found to consist of these; hence they remain as witnesses of derivative, 
national or tribal connection with the parent region, however remote in 
time or distant in space. Fossil words, then, furnish as certain a clue to 
connection of races as either idiomatic or phonetic similarity,* though this 
Opinion is disputed. Root or fossil words, it has been shown in previous 
papers, are only to be eradicated with the extinction of the race, and to 
this branch we at present address ourselves. 

The previous papers on this subject, whose first object was to investigate 
the whence of the Maori, t.e., the tribe that inhabits New Zealand, confined 
their scope to the Malayan, Malagasi, and Polynesian dialects. In the 
present paper I have prosecuted my enquiries far beyond into the regions 
of Asia, Africa, and Australia, in which labour I was assisted by the works 
noted below.t 

The basis of my investigations have been the Malayan Language, with 
which my long sojourn in the Far East made me familiar, but the present 
work has led me into a scrutiny of over four hundred languages and dialects. 

The conclusion that I was brought to previously, viz., that, counter to 
popular opinion, the Maori and hence Polynesian race, was not originally 
from the Malay (though it might be through or with them), but from a race 
or races which in pre-historic times inhabited Hindustan, seemed to claim 
further demonstration than my materials could at that time afford. In my 
recent visit to England, therefore, I collected all the works bearing on the 
subject that I could obtain. 


* For instance, Malay has a compounding construction, Malagasi an inflecting, 
though both are admitted to be originally one. 

+ Non-Aryan Languages of India and High Asia, by W. W. Hunter; Languages of 
India, by G. Campbell; Polyglotta Africana, by S. W. Koelle; Australian Languages, by 
William Ridley; Mosambique Languages, by W. H. J. Bleek; Malagasi, by Julius Kessler; 
Kafir Language, by John Ayliff; Swahili Handbook, Shambala Language, Yao Language, 
all by Edward Steere; Malagasi Grammar, by David Griffiths; Enguduk Iloigob Vocabu- 
lary, by J. Erhardt; Dictionary of Tshi, Akra, &c., by Christaller, Locher and Zimmer- 
mann; Vocabulary, Haussa Language, by J. F. Schon; Languages of Sierra Leone 
(anonymous); Bullom Grammar, by G. R. Nylander; Western and Central African 
Vocabulary (anonymous); Dialects in Africa, by John Clark; Bornu and Kanuri 
Languages, by Edwin Norris; Dialects of Nicobar and Andaman Islands, by F. A. de 
Róepstorff; Fijian Dictionary, by D. Hazlewood; Samoan Grammar and Dictionary, by 
George Pratt; New Zealand Language, by William Williams; Hawaiian Dictionary, by 
Lorrin Andrews; Japanese Dictionary, by J. C. Hepburn; Comparative Vocabulary, 
Malay Archipelago, by Wallace, &c., &e, 


J. T. Tuomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 159 


The present paper is thus principally devoted to the following question, 
viz., by analogy in fossil words or radicals, how far are we justified in 
denoting Hindustan as the original seat of the Malagas-malayo-polynesian 
race, which, for the sake of brevity and distinction, I have taken the liberty 
to term Barata. In attempting to solve this question, we must have regard 
to other theories that have been propounded by various authors. The most 
generally accepted theory, viz., that the Malagaso-polynesians were of 
Malay origin, I have already dealt with in my previous essays. Another 
theory I have since observed to be that the Malayo-malagasi had sprung 
from the Polynesian, the supporters averring that as the Polynesian was 
the more primitive and ancient section, he must have been the progenitor. 
To this the following considerations suggest themselves: 1st. Admitted 
that the Polynesian is the most primitive and ancient section, this only 
denotes that he was the first to migrate from his original seat, when that 
seat—whether in Africa, Asia, America, or Australia—was in possession of 
& primitive and ancient ancestry ; and as there have been waves of migra- 
tion from time to time, the most primitive have stretched out furthest.* 
2nd. The over-running of skilled populous and armed nations by the 
simple weak and defenceless, is contrary to all experience, ancient or 
modern. 8rd. Another theory has been suggested, that Africa was the 
original seat of the race, another that it was in Egypt; but as these have 
had little acceptation, I merely notice the same. 

Before entering into the comparison of words in different dialects or 
languages, i in order to judge of the connection of race we must hold in view 
this fact, that the radicals bear but a small proportion to the whole, thus in 
an English dictionary of 90,000 words, not more than 4000 or „y part are 
Saxon. Hence, amongst the races whose languages we are about to 
consider, and whose dictionaries do not count over 5000 to 6000 words, we 
must be prepared to find not over 800 words more or less which can come 
under the denomination of radical terms or fossil words. This fact at the 
same time facilitates the investigation, making it less laborious. 

The number of works that can be compared are further curtailed by the 
subject or object being only known in portions of the regions inhabited. 
Thus while I have gone over many full vocabularies, I have been forced to 
strike out many of the words from the above cause. For instance, the 
cocoa-nut well known to the Malay is not known to the Maori. In a similar 
manner the deer, elephant, plantain, rice, &c., are well known in some 
regions but not in others—hence, though they come under the designation of 
radical terms, they are inapplicable in our enquiry. 


—: 


* See Trans, N.Z. Inst., Vol. IV., 1871, p. 47. 


160 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


v" 


We must again guard against the error of accepting all radical terms as 
proving affinity of race; the terms most certain are those which are con- 
nected with immediate surroundings or events, such as for parts of the 
body, head, mouth, feet, &c., the principal physical objects—sun, moon, 
stars, earth, &c.; articles of food—water, rice, fruit, &c.; calls to companions 
as come, go, give, &c. If the terms be not connected with immediate 
surroundings then they become less valuable in support of proof of racial 
affinity, as for example :— 


3 In 
Serer Malay Archipelago. gnam 

Dog .. | asu, gaso, kaso, aso | tasu Angami Naga, azz Nowgong Naga, East of Bengal. 

Horse .. kuda ghoda, Kiranti, Nepal; ghora, Nepal; kodo, kudata, 
Central India ; kudre, Southern India. 

CrOW >» gaga gagah -po, Kiranti, Nepal; gugga, Central India; 
kakka, Southern India 

Buffalo .. kurbau eros wasaa Nicobar iak: kla-ou booh, Talain, 

Cocoa-nut nior nio, Malagasi i; nazi, Swahili; nyu, nui, niwi, nua, 
niu mn, me etc., Malay Esci niu, 

a and Haw 


Here the words dog, horse, crow and buffalo being similar, or nearly so, in 
Malay and several races of Asia, do not indicate aflinity, but only that such 
animals had been derived from thence. On the contrary the radical Malay 
word nior, having wide similarity from Africa to Polynesia, may be taken 
to indicate affinity of race, for as the cocoa-nut grows on the sea-shore, 
letting its fruit fall to float and be carried to all tropical regions, it may be 
supposed to have preceded the emigrant tribes; thus, as they approached 
each island or shore, they carried the fossil word and applied it to the same 
species of tree, in whichever parts of their vast regions it had drifted and 
germinated, or they may have carried, exceptionally, the fruit with them. 
Again, in the following examples :— 


= | In Malagasi. | 


amboa 


Dol eee imbua, Inhambane; imbua, Sofala ; umboa, Cap Del 
Cattle .. ombi 


gado. 
ngombe, Tette, Sena, Quellimane, Mosambique, Cap Delgado, etc. 


The dog and the crow are not indigenous words of Malagasi, but derivative 
from Africa, the designations having been imported with the animals 
themselves. 

Hence, in choosing words found in the various dictionaries for compari- 
son, I have had the above considerations in view, and have adopted only 
such as can be held as radical, indigenous, or truly fossil. By this means 
the racial affinities of the separate and far distant tribes can be indicated in 
the Barata of the tropics as in the Gypsies of Europe or the Portuguese in 


—— aa a amt AAA a 


TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE VOLXLPLIV. 


Sketch Map af 
INDIA 


& Shewing the Distribution of 
n € LA NCUACES, 
2 X "d 4 T » by J Beames, MBAS. 


Bikanir 
Rajput tients i 


Niran EN 


Marwart 


Reference. : 
CO Znde-Germante Languages. 
iL 7. P ÉFxt à: A P ^d 


2 Iranic Class Pushtu, ) 
9 Turanian Languages. 


. > 
2^ 7 Ç, 1, (Mon of P: ) G 
E y " 
5 9 FF 7 ass Hodi Ze.) 
7 
Re e E. sa Class. 
ra 4 Kol Class. 
5n. LA; NS 


ulu IE 
8 SU D 


gA 
e 


CSS Eee 


SUMBAW 


THE MOLUCCAS 


J. T. THomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 161 


Africa and Asia, though many tribes of both have in these historic times 
lost their idioms and phonology, but not the roots of their languages. 

We may now come to the comparison of words collected from the 
various sources already stated,* and in commenting on the same it is hardly 
necessary for me to remark that I do so under the conviction that the 
insular races were derived from the continental, but I am open to enquiry 
from what continent or portion of continent :— 

1, Arrow: zana Malagasi, panah Malay, pere Maori. 
The glossarial indication would denote in the case of the Malagasi 
and Malay immediate derivation from Telugu in South India, with 
affinity to Shan in Indo-China. In the case of the Maori from Garo, 
N.E. Bengal, with affinity to Great Nicobar, Bay of Bengal. 
The African affinities in each case are doubtful. 
2. Bird: vorona Malagasi, burong Malay, manu Maori. 
Malagasi and Malay derived from tribes in Nepal and East of 
Bengal, Maori from tribes in Indo-China. 
No African affinities. 
3. Droop: ra Malagasi, dara Malay, toto Maori. 
Malagasi and Malay derived from Tibeto-China, Nepal, and Bay of 
Bengal. 
African aflinity distant. 
4. Bone: taolana Malagasi, tolan Malay, iwi Maori. 
Malagasi and Malay derived from Bay of Bengal, but doubtful; Maori 
from Nepal, Indo-China and China. 
No African affinities. 
5. Doe: amboa Malagasi, anjing Malay, kuri Maori. 
Malagasi from Bay of Bengal, doubtful; Malay from Nepal, Maori 
from Nepal and Indo-China. 
Malagasi from Africa, Maori also from Africa. 
6. Ear: talinhe Malagasi, talinga Malay, taringa Maori. All from East 
Bengal. 
Indications of African affinities. 
7. Earm: tany Malagasi, tana Malay, one-one Maori. 
Malagasi and Malay direct from Khond, Central India, less distinetly 
from Indo-China and Bay of Bengal, Maori from Central India, 
doubtful. 
No African affinities. 
8. Eee: atody Malagasi, telor Malay, hua Maori. 
Malagasi, from Singpho, E. of Bengal, doubtful ; Maori from Burma 


and Indo-China, doubtful. 
Malay from ossa, W. Africa, doubtfal. 7 
* See Appendix I, 


162 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. 


9. Eye: maso Malagasi, mata Malay, kanohi Maori. 
Malagasi and Malay from N. Central and E. Hindustan, Maori from 
Tibeto-China, Central and Southern India. 
Malagasi and Malay have E.W. and S. African affinities. 
10. Fre: afo Malagasi, api Malay, ahi Maori. 
All from India and Indo-China, indications also from China and 
Japan, also all allied to Fulah, Africa, but doubtful. 
11. Fisu: loaka Malagasi, ikan Malay, ika Maori. 
All from Nepal, E. of Bengal, Indo-China and Bay of Bengal. 
All have indications of African connection. 
12. Frowrer : vony Malagasi, bunga Malay, pua Maori. 
All from Nepal, Central and Southern India. 
In Africa indications doubtful. 
18. Foor: tongon Malagasi, kaki Malay, wae-wae Maori. 
Malay from Indo-China and E. Bengal. 
Maori has African connection. 
14. Ham: volo Malagasi, bulu, rambut Malay, huru Maori. 
All Tibeto-China and E. Bengal. 
African indieations doubtful. 
15. Hand: tanana Malagasi, tangan Malay, kutanga, ringaringa Maori. 
All from Hindustan. 
All have African indications, 
16. Heap: loha Malagasi, ulu, kapala Malay, upuko Maori. 
All from Indo-China, Nepal, Central and East India. 
African indications. 
17. Hoe: kisoa, lambo Malagasi, babi Malay, poaka Maori. 
All from North, South, and Central India. 
All have Afriean affinities. 
18. Lear: ravina Malagasi, daun Malay, rau Maori. 
Malay and Maori from Nepal and Indo-China. 
Maori has African indications. 
19. Licur: maivana Malagasi, trang Malay, ao Maori. 
Malay and Maori from Bengal and Indo-China, 
Malay from Swahili, Africa, doubtful. 
20. Moon: volana, Malagasi, bulan Malay, marama Maori. 
Malagasi and Malay from Nepal and Indo-China. 
Indications in Ibu, Central Africa. 
21. Moura: vava Malagasi, mulut Malay, mangai, waha Maori. 
All from Nepal, Central and Southern India. 
All have African affinities, 


22, 


no 
ae 


bo 
Or 


bo 
m 


J, T, Tmowsow.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words, 


Nieut : alina Malagasi, malam Malay, po, kenyo Maori, 
Malagasi and Malay from China and Central India, 
No African affinities. 


. Rain: ranonorana Malagasi, ujan Malay, ua Maori. 


Malay and Maori have African connection. 
Roan; lalambe Malagasi, jalan Malay, ara Maori. 
All from different parts of Hindustan and Indo-China. 
Maori term has indieations in Yao, East Central Africa. 


. Sky: lanitra Malagasi, langit Malay, rangi Maori, 


All from Nepal and Central India. 
No African affinities. 
Star: kintana Malagasi, bintang Malay, whetu Maori. 
Malagasi and Malay, N.E. Bengal, Central and South India. 
No African affinities. 


. Bun; maso-andro Malagasi, mata, hari Malay, ra, komaru Maori. 


Malay and Maori from Indo-Tibeto China and Nepal. 
Maori has affinity with Haussa, Central Africa. 
Toneve: lila Malagasi, lida Malay, arero Maori, 
Malagasi and Malay from Kast Bengal and Bay of Bengal. 


168 


Malagasi and Malay have African affinities in East Central and 


South. 


. Toorn: nifi, nifo Malagasi, gigi Malay, niho, rei Maori. 


Malay from Nepal, East and Central India. 
Malagasi and Maori have African connections. 


. Tree: kazo Malagasi, pun, poko, kaiu Malay, rakau Maori. 


All from Hindustan and borders. 
No African connection. 


. Water: rano Malagasi, ayer Malay, wai Maori. 


All from Hindustan and borders. 
Malay and Maori have African connection. 


. Yam: ovi Malagasi, ubi Malay, uwhi-kaho Maori. 


No Asiatie or African connection. 


. Hor: mafana Malagasi, panas hangat Malay, wera Maori. 


Maori from Tamil, South India. 
No African connection. 


- Raw: manta Malagasi, manta Malay, mata Maori. 


All from East of Bengal and Bay of Bengal. 
No African connection. 


. Rep: mena Malagasi, mera Malay, whero Maori. 


All from South and Central India. 
No African connection, 


= 


164 ; T'ransactions.— Miscellaneous. 


86. Rire: masaka Malagasi, masa Malay, maoa Maori, 
All from Nepal. 
No African connection. 
97. Suarn: keli Malagasi, kichi Malay, riki, iti, nohi-nohi Maori. 
All from Hindustan and borders. 
No African connection. 

88. Come: avi Malagasi, mari Malay, mai Maori. 

All from Hindustan and borders; also, Chinese connection. 
No African connection. 

89. Five: dimi, limi Malagasi, lima Malay, rima Maori. 

No Asiatic or African connnection. 

40. Six : enina, oné Malagasi, anam Malay, ono Maori. 

No Asiatie or African connection. 
41. Seven: fito Malagasi, tuju Malay, whitu Maori. 
Malagasi and Maori from Central and South India, Malay from East 
Nepal. 
No African connection. 

49. E1enr: valo, varlo Malagasi, delapan Malay, waru Maori. 

Malagasi and Maori from Central India. 

No African affinities. 
. NINE : sivi, siva Malagasi, sambilang Malay, iwa, iva Maori. 

Malagasi and Maori from Indo-China. 

No African affinities. 

On analysing the comparative vocabulary given in the appendix, I find 
that the analogies are much greater as between the Barata terms and Asia 
than as between these and Africa; and of the list of 43 given, 235 analogies, 
or close analogies, are found in the primitive languages of the former, 
particularly in Hindustan, while 97 analogies are found in Africa— princi- 
pally in the Mosambique distriets—but in most cases the analogies are by 
no means so perfect. 

It may be further remarked, that of the 43 Barata terms given in our 
list, all except two are found embedded in the languages of South Asia, 
while 17 of them are not found in any African language. 

Proceeding on our basis then—viz., that the Malagas-malayo-polynesian 
tribes derived their origin from the continent— not the continental tribes 
theirs from the islands—which theory some ethnologists support; it can 
scarcely now be doubted (that is, if the testimony of language have any 
value), that the origin of the Barata race extending over the tropics from 
Madagascar to Easter Island was in Hindustan, where the roots of their 
language are yet found so profusely preserved, 


H 
e 


J. T. Tuomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words, 165 


Further, that many of these words should also be preserved in Africa is 
not to be wondered at, seeing that the negro race had in archaic times such 
large expansion* over all the regions under review, and between whose 
tribes and nations there has been immemorial intercourse. 

The question still remains—from what part of Hindustan did these great 
Island Tribes emanate? The reply will be best made by reference to the 
accompanying map (pl. IV). It will be seen from this that Hindustan is now 
overrun by two distinct sections of the human race—viz., Indo-Germanic or 
Aryan and Turanian; or, in other words, the one Caucasian, the other 
Mongolian; the one occupying the western and northern regions, the other 
the southern and eastern ; and in overrunning Hindustan have they extir- 
pated the primitive races? not entirely ; many of these remain, much modi- 
fied, it is true, in colour and physiognomy, but little in language. The 
roots of a language die only with the tribe’s extirpation. Hence, it is not 
in the languages of the intruding sections that we have found the Barata 
fossil words ; but, for the most part, in the various small tribes, yet pre- 
served in the obscure portions of their territory, difficult of access, such as 
under the Himalaya, Jynteah and Nilgherry mountains. In these, the 
undeleted glossarial remains of what had once been the language of a 
numerous people, we have witnesses fo facts and conditions of nations long 
since past and preceding historie record. 

Small tribes may have found their way towards the Tropies by divers 
routes, and partieularly by those through the Malay Peninsula, Tenasserim 
coast and islands, but the section or nation that spread its influence, girdling 
two-thirds of this globe, could not have been one or more of these. 

It is to South India, therefore, that we mustlook. For the inhabitants 
of this region have from times immemorial carried on trading expeditions, 
westerly to Africa and easterly to the Moluccas, a circumstance that can 
neither be stated of the natives of the rest of Hindustan nor of any of the 
Malayan states. The original seat of the great Barata race can then be 
only fairly sought for or denoted in South India, which commands the 
routes east to Malayo-Polynesia, west to Madagascar, and whose population, 
eminently maritime, were competent to the task of navigation. Thus we 
are led to the same conclusion as stated in my previous essays. | 

In my researches I have had to scrutinise the Sanscrit terms, several of 
the Asiatic and Afriean-Arabie dialects, Bask, Finnie, Magyar, Turkish, 
Circassian, Georgian, Mongolian, Muntshu and Japanese languages, without 

ding analogies. I have also examined twenty languages of Australia, 
and, amongst these, instances of but very exceptional and remote affinities 


* See Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1871, p. 32, + See Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1871, p. 36, 
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1871, p. 48, 


166 Transactions,— Miscellaneous, 


are detected, and none such as would indicate connection. The Barata 
language must therefore be held to be a purely tropical one, its offshoots 
seldom extending above thirty degrees from the equator. With Chinese, 
exceptional analogies have been found, but these are either doubtful or 
accidental. 

A fit sequel to this present paper (I suggest) will be E in Appendix 
IL, where I have compared the languages of the Malayan Archipelago with 
that of Samoa or the Navigators Islands in Polynesia. I am enabled to do 
this by the recent publication of a Samoan Grammar and Dictionary, by 
the Rev. George Pratt, edited by the Rev. S. J. Whitnee, F.R.G.S. This 
portion of the subject is the more interesting as Samoa is the reputed 
Hawaiki * of the Maori. 

It will be observed by the comparative vocabulary given in Appendix II, 
that all objects known in the Samoan Islands and the Malay Archipelago 
are, almost without exception, represented radically by the same words in 
either region. Objeets unknown to the Polynesian as a matter of course are 
not represented—such as deer, gold, honey, iron, monkey, ete. And the 
locality where these Malayo-Polynesian affinities exist is not difficult to 
point out, viz., the Moluccas; thus of the 94 analogies represented, 24 
are found in Ceram, 11 in Matabello, 7 in Borou, 7 in Amboyna, 7 in 
Sula Islands, 7 in Sangair, 6 in Celebesi. Again of the 114 words 
contained in the whole list only 26 are Malay. Thus on our premises 
we would infer that the population of Samoa was not directly derived 
from Malaya (Sumatra or Malay Peninsula) but from the Moluccas, In 
other words, in the diffusion of the blood of the Barata race, while Malaya 
may have acted as a vein or path—the Moluccas acted as a gland or 
stepping-stone. 

For this purpose no region could be more appropriate than the Mol- 
uceas, for here were the spices and rare birds so attractive to commerce, to 
be found. From time immemorial here would be the great rendezvous of 
Barat, that is, western adventurers and conquerers, and from whence their 
more enterprising spirits would venture further east. Thus, if it be said 
that the Moluccas were the stepping-stone to Barata emigration, so also is 
it said that Samoa was the focus of Polynesian dispersion. 

That we have not found a language in the Malayan Archipelago com- 
pletely analogous to Samoan is consistent with our theory—for in the 
preceding part of our paper neither has there been found a language in 
Hindustan completely consistent with the Malagas-malayo-polynesian dia- 
lects. In both cases, however, the unquestionable evidence of root or fossil 


* Query; Hawa-iki, literally small harbour, or coral reef opening, 
+ See Appendix III. 


J. T. Taomson.—0On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 167 


words is there, which gives unerring witness of community of blood and 
race. The fossil words preserved in the Moluccas, not in the tongues of 
the great races of Java, Waju, or Malaya, but in those obscure remnants 
whose remoteness or inaccessibility have protected them from the deleting 
waves of successive migrations. 


APPENDIX I. 
Arrow. 
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI. 
zanatsipikia panah pere 
Asia .. | Indo-China | Shan pen pen i 
South ago rind banamu banamu 
N.E Gar s wa phe-e 
Bay = yale Great mak e m enphe hnje 
Africa — .. | East Coast | Mozambiq a z ntere 
East Centra 2 mpamba mpamba A 
0, embai embai ^ 
W. & Central Mandingo benyo benyo + 
» do. arra bien bien we 
do. Fant & Ash- eben eben zi 
anti 
Malay Archi- 
pelago .. | Javanese e pannah pannah és 
P. Tongan vs fanna fanna yu 
awaiian es he pua pana | he pua-pana 
Australia .. ee es isa e 
Bird. 
vorona burong manu 
Asia .. | Nepal Limbu bu “à 
| East of Bengal! Mithan Naga o o es 
do. Namsang Naga vo vo as 
do. Singpho wu wu $ 
Indo-China | Siamese ar is nok 
do. Ahom F ; nuktu 
o Khamti T no 
do. 3 os è nok 
Malay Archi- 
pelago .. | Javanese es é «i 
fi manoko manu, n 
manui, manu- 
Other islands - a = ack, wae 
manuo, manu- 
wan, ete, 
South Celebes| Salayer burung burung T 
boyna Batu merah burung burung ke 
Polynesia .. | Fijian "d o YA manu-manu 
Samoan s ee sy manu 
i Tongan oe .. 
Hawaiian n .. 
Australia oe oe or > 


168 


Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


Blood. 
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI. 
ra dara toto 
Asia Das cm China | Takpa [ten khra khra a 
prm writ- khrag khrag 
FE Pakhya ragat ragat 
Bent Nepal and haa haa s 
do. Walin ha ha sa 
Nepal e ragat agat .. 
do. Denwar raktai raktai ja 
do. Kuswar rakti rakti i 
Bay of Bengal| Nancowry wa wa = 
0. Car Nicobar maham maham s 
Africa ..| W. & Central | Walof is derrete RU 
orah, rara, 
daha, dugu 
poha, p^ 
Malay Archi-| Various Is- raha, 
pelago .. lands lali. lalah, the same 
ia, 
lahim, lasin, 
moh ? 
meu pee 
Polynesia .. | Fijian P dra dra e 
Samoan as "s 2s toto 
Tongan ; vs tawto ` 
Hawaiian E uu he koko 
Australia .. . 2s n 
Bone. 
taolana tolan iwi 
Asia .. | Nepal ar aS js kwe 
Indo-China | Sgau-Karen i khi 
do. Pwo-Karen ia khwi 
Chinese ` | Shanghai A es kweh-den 
Bay of Bengal| Teressa kolran kolran ue 
Ahirieà =. E: A ne .. és 
Malay Archi- 
pelago .. | Javanese ne balong balong as 
N. Celebes | Bolang hitam tula tula ‘ 
Sula Island 2 ies Vs ho: 
Polynesia .. | Fijian . .. v sui-na 
Samoan i: «s s ivi 
Tongan ee we ae hui 
WwW A . ee Ld iwi 
Australia .. i ^ i * od 
anjing kuri 
nangi .. 
ee k 
.. kuti-ma 
xe khwe 


J. T. Tnuousow.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 


Dog—continued. 


169 


REGION, COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI. 
Africa East Coast Swahil mbwa s 
do. Inhambane & 
Sof imbua RE as 
do. Cap Dura umboa R a 
do. Shambala i za kuli 
East Central | Yao "mbwa : oe 
West Coast | Haussa <a s kari 
outh Kafir ys inja x 
BAT Archi- 
pelago .. RF ae Hc eo 
Polynesia .. | Fijian € as koli 
Samoan - Ls uli 
ongan ue ; 
Australia .. i : ` ya 
Ear. 
sofina telinga taringa 
talinhe YA ex 
Asia seg on™ Tengsa Naga telannu telannu telanna 
K Jyn- 
teah Bi 8 wee tarang tarang tarang 
0. Lakadong tarang tarang tarang 
Bay of Bengal) Shobceng = a gna 
Africa East Central | Kimasai ingia ingia 
WwW andingo YA 
0. Sussu tule ak i 
W. & Central Mandingo tulo, tula 43 m 
do. Bambarra tlo 5 s 
East i = ingia in; 
talinga, toli, | telinga, telingan, 
Malay Archi- linganani, one tinget| telina, 
pelago .. | Various isles econ terina,| terina, telinawa, 
teren terina-mo, | likan., 
tae etc. | terinan teninare 
Polynesia .. | Fijian ss daliga-n daliga-na daliga-na 
Samoan ES taliga taliga taliga 
Tongan ; telinga telinga telinga 
Earth. 
iany tana one-one 
Asia ..|Indo-China | Thoungh-thu ham-tan ham-tan E: 
do. Siamese tein tein ve 
Central India | Khond tana tana oe 
N. E. Bengal | Dhimal as ie bhonot 
Central India | Kol za s ote 
ay of Bengal, Teressa matah cet matah cet m 
Shobceng wa hong 
Afio o es Se Ja vá AA 
ppm dr Archi- 
pe o .. LES .. .. oe 
Polynesia .. ex m .. .. .. 
us i .. oe P . .. .. 


170 


Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


Egg. 
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY, MAORI 
atody telor hua 
Asia .. | East of Bengal! Singpho udi a s 
Indo-China | Burma WA $ 
Africa .. | Western Kossa e tegoli . 
( ontolo, tanar, natu, tuloi, 
Malay Archi-| Various Is- metelo, telon,| telo, toli, 
pelago ..| lands mun tero, letuli, > 
teruni, tin, | to lin, tolnin, 
tolor, atulu, | telli untello 
Polynesia.. | Samoan y ae a fua 
Tongan š ; ws foi 
Hawaiian za ri he hua 
Australia .. as wA n s 
Eye. 
maso mata kanohi 
Asia ..| Hast Nepal | Dumi mas mas vv 
East of Bengal) Munipuri it mit .. 
Indo-China | Shan matia matta oe 
0. nnam mat mat ; 
Central India | Ho (Kol) met met E 
do. i met met d 
di Brahui vs s khan 
Tibeto-China | Thochu v 3 kan 
Central India | Uraon e 5 k 
YA ond m E kannuka 
Southern do. | Telugu E 5 kannu 
do. daga S ; u 
Khasi & Jyn- 
ah Hill Khasi m khymat vi 
do. Synteng : khym. oe 
do. Battoa A ka-khymat vs 
do. wee i ka-mat m 
do. Lakadong ka-mat = 
Bay of Bengal) Nancowry an 
Car Nicobar olmat olmat YA 
do. Teressa ema emat ; 
do. Shobeeng inmat hinmat ès 
Africa ., | East Coast | Swahili macho, mato mato a 
Inhamba 
ette, Se 
do. Cap Delgado = e se 
Maravi 
do. fala messo = E 
do. Quillimane and 
Mosambique a eto $s 
do. Shambala mesho mesho . 
East Central | Yao meso meso n 
Western Kongo mesu es oe 
E Benin me-is me-is «s 
South Kafir amaso xx ss 
moto, mata, hama, ram raman, 
Malay Archi- gue ramani, matara, mata-mo, 
pelago .. | Various isles e mata-colo, matan, matara, | qe 
mata-nina, matada, matin, | 
tun, mut, moorba 


J, T. Taowsos,—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words, 171 
Eye—continued. 
REGION. COUNTRY, DISTRICT, MALAGASI. MALAY MAORI. 
Polynesia .. | Fijian ' mata mata oe 
Samoan mata mata E 
mata mata .. 
Hawaiian ve maka vs 
Australia .. vs <a v^ 
Fire. 
afo api 
Asia China Nankin ho 3% we 
do. Canton fo es vs 
Nepal Kuswar F aghi aghi 
do. Tharu ws agi agi 
East of Bengal) Tablung Naga se ah a'h 
Indo-China | Shan s hpihn hpihn 
Siamese fai fai fai 
0, Laos fai fai fai 
Japan Japun = "s hi 
Africa .. | Western Fulah ofe ofe ofe - 
Malay Archi-| Various ) wha, api, ahu, afo, aow, hao, aousa, hao, 
pelago .. islands j xk | yafo, yaf, wahan, a'if, efi, yaf, lap, yap, etc. 
Polynesia .. | Samoan s afi afi afi 
La ongan as afi afi afi 
awaiian a he ahi he ahi he ahi 
Australia .. N. S. Wales | Kamilaroi wi wi wi 
Fish. 
loaka | ikan ika 
Asia .. | Nepal Chepang nga nga nga 
East of Bengal) Namsang Naga nga nga nga 
Indo-China | Burm nga nga nga 
0. Talain v Mon ka ka ka 
do. am l ka ka ka 
Bay of Ben-| Nancowry an 
ed Car Nicobar } ka ma ka 
do. Teressa kha kha kha 
do. Shobæng gna gna gna 
Africa .. | East Coast Swahili s samaki samaki 
Western Bullom & Appa iu iu du 
o. aba i-iak i-iak i-iak 
West  and)| Ako, Eyo, Yabo!) ^ 
daal | or Yuri Jj eja, eya eja, eya eja, eya 
N a, r5 | inl yika ika, yik 
Sou Uu | nzi 
Malay Archi- Various Is- (5 iwa, ikan i, ikan, ikiani, 
pelago . lands se nyan ian, D Seed iem, ein, deiah 
Ped ..| Fijian .. ika ika ika 
Samoan Ea ia ia ia 
Tongan Sm ika ika ika 
Hawaiian ae he ia he ia he ia 
Australia E oe oe d mint bs 


172 


Transactions,— Miscellaneous, 


Flower. 
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT, MALAGASI, MALAY. MAORI 
vony bunga pua 
Asia .. | Nepal Sun phu phu phu 
East Nepal | Rodong bungna bungna bungna 
do. Thulungya bungma bungma bungma 
do. Khaling pungma pungma pungma 
Central India Santali buha buha buha 
pungar pungar pungar 
South'r India dg Tuluva pu pu pu 
Africa East Coast Swahili : ^ ua 
East Central | Yao r ; ndua 
ntral Haussa i fureh 
Malay Archi-| Various 
pelago .. slands = bunga, obunga, burani, mn 
Polynesia .. | Samoan 1 fuga fuga fuga 
Tongan es fu fua 
Hawai 5 he pua he pua he pua 
Australia .. s vA xs E 
Foot. 
tongon* kaki wae-wae 
Asia China Amoy E ka E 
Indo-China | Khyong & Shou! kako 
a Battoa kaki-jat 
do. asi ki-jat 
: do. Synteng ki-jat vx 
ea EN s x vs 
Malay Archi-| Various | { oei, yiei, ai, yai, 
pelago .. is = : oweda, matwey 
Polynesia .. | Fijian : ya-na 
amoan 2 F vae 
Tongan 23 A i vae 
Hawaii s ; E he wae wae 
Australia .. = za z : T 
* tangan, hand in Malay. 
Hair. 
volo bula, rambut huru 
Asia Tibeto- ee Takpa pu pu pu 
Khasi & Jyn- | Lakadon usu usu 
teah Hills 8 usu 
Africa East Coast Tuhambano mududu |mududu, mududu 
East Central Yao umbo 
s a, uhu, uta, wooko, utan, bul fol 
Malay Archi-| Various A oni, 0, 
a A "= "alan ee is | gio oleo. hutu, ia, ,rewohoh, ulvu, u lufuim, 
Polynesia .. | Fijian ‘oe vulua ua 
amoan tata tile fulu- fulu u-fulu 
ongan lau-ulu | lau-ulu lau-ulu 
= Hawaiian «a ka lauoho |ka ma oho ka lau oho 
Ausiralia.. | N. S. Wales | Wailwun - wulla wulla wulla 


Oe OT ee AA 


dq. Ya SHEER me YA 


Spy a kina Win aaa ell ii 


WR Xia Vet AA At oe AM si UA plement 


J. T. Tauoxsox.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words, 178 
Hand. 
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRIOT, MALAGASI. MALAY, MAORI. 
(r prede 
tanana tangan kutan; 
Asia .. | Tibeto-China | Tibetan lango lango C 
Nepal Ser lango lango lango 
laah Hills } Amwee ka ta ka ta kata 
Africa East Coast ma kitanga* kitanga kitanga 
entra Haussa hani hanu hanu 
Malay Archi- J Bai 
pelago .. 1 ava, Baju wa tangan tangan tangan 
Australia .. | Victoria Witaoro munangan | munangan munangan 
* Palm of hand. 
Head. 
: d loha ulu, kapala upuko 
Asia Indo-China eng v Sho lu lu oc 
do. i v uM. lu lu x 
do. om ru E 
Tibeto-China | Thochu 4g kapat 2s 
Nepal Bhramu ii ka-p * 
Central India | Kolami af pal Wa 
do. Kol(Sing bhum) bu bu 
do. santali fe buho 
do. Bhumij s4 buho 
To & Jyn- 
a Hills | Amwee ; kakhlia i 
Lakadong za kakhlan as 
: Bay ot Bengal Shobeng YA za po 
Africa East Coast | Quellimane ud muru és 
ko lo lo 3 
per sass } S. Celebes | Bouton « ubaku 
Ceram Ahtiago oyuko 
u, urie, olum, ulun fatu, i 
Various Is- olun olimbukoi, uruka, 
lands ulura, uru, ulumo, yulim, : 
ulukatim, 1 , ulure, 
uda ulin j 
Polynesia .. iow. lu-na ulu-na es 
amoan ulu u x 
Tc ulu u e 
Hawaiian i ke pu 
Australia . " 
Hog. 
kisoa, lambo babi poaka, 
Asia Nepal Darhi su-er | A e 
0. Tharu suwar i .. 
Central India} Uraon, etc. kis . e 
Southern India| Tamil (anc) "gem * i 2 
Nepal | Run v gehomo mbe 
do. is bha X 
Tibeto-China Tiba aim AI za p phak-pa 


8 NRBEM AA MDC SEMI dH edu igi 


174 


Hog—continued. 


Transactions,— Miscellaneous, 


REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRIOT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI 
Asia Nepal Limbu E. phag 
do. Chingtangya z phak 
do. Vay 1s pog, pok 
N. E. India | Bhutani v Lho- 
pa Ba phagpo 
Africa East Central | Yao mbango i ee 
Fulah a baba 
W.& Central _Bambarra fali T 
do. nti & Ashanti prako 
bahi, "balu, 
bawi fafi 
Malay Archi- Various Is- babue, fafu 
pelago lands : bawu, boh, s 
fafuim, boia, 
faf, b 
Polynesia .. | Fijian z sara F vuaka 
Samoan Xs > ; = pua’a 
Tongan a Aes € boaka 
Hawaiian x Se : he puaa 
Australia .. E. vs s Pe 
Leaf. 
ravina daun rau 
Asia Nepal Gurung T: lau lau 
Newar hau hau 
Indo-China | Ahom bou bou 
o Khamti š mau mau 
Africa W. & Central | Fanti and ; atau atau 
Ashanti 
Malay Archi-| Various Is- aires taha, daun, ailaw, 
lands | n, laini, lan, idun 
Polynesia .. Fijian ; da mag na drau-na 
oan au lau 
awaiian "s he lau he lau 
Australia .. = er zs - 
Light. 
t maivana trang ao 
Asia E. of Bengal | Mithan Naga YA rangai 
do MADE Naga rangvo 
Indo-China lang 
N.E. Bengal toe (Sik- 

: kim) 7 ee aom 
Africa .. | East Coast Swahili YA anga zi 
Polynesia.. | Samoan vs mala malama d" ae 

awaiian mala malama he ao 
Australia .. ud uie 
Moon 
i volana bulan ^^ marama 
Asia .. | Nepal Serpa oula oula e 
: Indo-China | Mru v Toung pula pula dg 


J. T. Tuomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 


Moon—continued. 


175 


REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI. 
Africa W. & Central | Ibu oua | oua . 
wulan, bula, bulan, bal- 
5 : rang, a, buran, bu- 
Malay Archi-| Various Is- rang, bulani,  fhulan, 
pelago ..| lands ul o anita, 
hoolan, hulani, phulan, 
ulani, wua 
Polynesia .. | Fijian : vul vula .. 
Australia .. ew és po YA 
Mouth. 
: vava mulut mangai, waha 
Asia Nepal Lohorong ya Vx ya 
Central India Makee vayi a vayi 
‘Southern India} Tam vay i vay 
do. ioia vaya 3E vaya 
do. Karnatika bayi yi bayi 
do. Toduva payi a payi 
do. ta vai un vai 
do. Kurumba bai zx bai 
Nepal Newar za hutu A 
j Yakha š mulaphu .. 
do. Kusw .. muhu xs 
Bay of Bengal) Teressa ex .. monoi 
Africa .. | East Africa | Swahili kinwa es kinw 
do, Sofala Tete & e muromo T oe 
Sena 
do. Quellimane mulomo .. 
do. Shambala mulomo 
do. do. kanwa es kanwa 
East Central | Yao kamwa i kamwa 
do. Kimasai os eng-uduk sv 
South Kafir .. umlomo ^ 
ped at South Celebes| Salayer bawa a bawa 
Baju boah boah 
poinenia .. awaiian “ he waha " he waha 
Australia .. | N. W. Coast f s mulu (s 
* Lip. 
Night 
alina malam po, kengo 
Asia China ae yali ss ve 
Central India | Naiku ale 23 ss 
do. Tamil (ano) al al oe 
Africa ae . .. .. * 
Malay Archi- i 
pelago .. | Amboyna Batu-merah hulanita WA .. 
aparua es .. .. potu 
Polynesia .. | Fijian js F .. bogi 
amoan .. .. .. po " 
Tongan es ex . bo-uli 
AW ii .. .. LE po 
Australia ee ee .. ee .. .. 


a 


176 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


Rain. 
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI. 
l ranonorana ujan ua 
Asia ae ^w d ws ET Ja 
Africa .. | East Africa | Swahili 3 mvua mvua 
do. Lourenzo Mar- 
gues x. infula infula 
do Inhambane vula l 
do Sofala umvura umvura 
do Tete ura 1 
do Sen ku-bowmba | ku-boumba E 
do Mosambique . ip-pula ip-pula 
do Cap Delgado 3 (m) vula vula 
do aravi vura vura 
do. Shambala .. fula fula 
East Central | Yao ps ula ula 
Central Haussa AN rua 
South Kafir nA i 
buena oha, weng, RA » 
: : ulani, ah, an, 
(em bisce z Pe hulan, hulani, huran, ulane, 
oe | am ulani, ulan, uan, udama, 
hurani, golim, 
Polynesia .. | Fijian ca 
Samoan ua ua 
Tongan YA uh 
Hawaiian T Es he ua he ua 
Australia .. E ší s sa ya 
Road. 
lalambe jalan ara 
Asia ...| Tibeto-China | Tibet (written) lami iy ie 
Nepal Serpa and two 1 
Oo rs 
East Nepal | Kirante and 14 lam e| .. 
" others 
| North Bengal| Bhutani and 4 lam "e ee 
a others 
East Bengal | Mithan Naga lam as “ 
and 2 others 
do. Abor Miri lambeii ae ae 
Indo-China pore and 6 lam vs T 
ata China Tibet — YA lani 
Nep Newar ya lon Wa 
Indo-China Burman za lan ny 
(spoken) 
Tibeto-China | Manyak P ws rah 
Nepa anwar es n^ la 
Central India | Santali es ds har 
0. Mundala ua ho: 
Africa .. | East Central | Yao petal 
3 : * dara. dalre en, lora, dalin, aya, 
poe ere Pies vm | oe (i, Pis lolan, lahan, islang latina, lalim, 
: um laan, laran, lagain, lelin, lalan 
Polynesia .. | Fijian za sala sala 
Sam pas ala ala ala 
oe hala hala 
ah he ala nui | heala nui| healanui — 


J. T. Tuomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 


Sky. 


177 


REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI. 
lanitra ngi gi 
Asia Nepal Sunwar sarangi sarangi sa-rangi 
0. uswar sa-rang sa-rang a-rang 
Central India | Ragmahali sa-range sa-range sa-range 
Africa oe ee oe ee .. .. 
Malay Archi- 
pelago .. x Ok à i 
Polynesia .. | Fijian lagi lagi lagi 
amoan lagi lagi lagi 
Hawaiian ka-lani ka lani ka-lani 
Australia .. em Be wa .. 
Star. 
tana bintang whetu 
Asia N. E. Bengal Garo laitan itan aie 
Central India | Uraon inka Vs 
South’rn India) Toda i min ey 
Africa... m. 
Malay Archi-| Various Buen, tiniang, bituy, bituin, fatui, teon, 
pelago . islands | {| tot 
Polynesia .. | Samoan fetu 
ongan fetu 
Australia .. "m bs 
Sun. 
maso-andro | mata-hari ra, komaru 
Asia Chi Annam 5 mata-troi vi 
Tibeto-China | Sokpa is nara 
epal Sunwar y nd 
Africa .. | Central Haussa . - rana 
Malay Arebi-| Various Is- mata- "alo, mata-rou 
pelago .. ands | | mata 
Polynesia .. | Fijian ja mate ari p mata ni-siga "e 
amo ne px x la 
Tongan oe is laa 
Hawaiian $5 vs la 
Tongue. 
lila lida arero 
Asia ..| Khasi & Jyn- | Battoa u-thylliad | u-thylliad Kx 
ieah Hills 
do Amwee u-khli u-khlid a 
do Lakadong u-khliad u-khliad vi 
Bay of Bengal | Nancowry geletak letak ie 
Africa .. East Coast | Quellimane lilimi lilimi us 
o Shambala lulimi lulimi 
East Central | Yao lulimi lulimi 
r 1 South |K ulwimi |  ulwimé 


178 


Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


Tongue—continued. 
REGION, Country. District. MALAGASI. Marav. MAORI. 
I 
Malay Archi-| Various Is- ilat, lilah, dila, melin, 
pelago ..| lands | ninum, delah : 
ysol a i ae aran 
Polynesia .. | Samo : va $5 alelo 
ongan zs = elelo 
Hawaiian "n ka elelo 
Australia .. e za 
Tooth 
nifi, nifo gigi niho, rei 
Asia .. | Nep Thaksya M gyo ; 
East Nep Chourasya as ginnso YA 
Central India| Gadaba ne ginna m 
Africa — .. | East Coas Swahili jino 22 jino 
do. Shambala zino M zino 
East Central | Yao lino ka lino 
West Coast | Mandingo gi E 
W. & Central | Filatah, Filani 
or Fulah p niye 
do. Bambarra 2 nye 
South Kafir izinyo 
JE nihi. nis | nihi, nis im, 
: nisi formed nisi, re 
ges Archi- cii Is- niki, nio, : niki, 
ade | nisi-mo, nifan "ord mitan, 
| nifoa, nifin nifoa, nifin 
do "d nM gigi, ngisi, isi ra 
Polynesia.. | Samo P nifo i nifo 
Tongan zs nifo nifo 
Hawai ; niho iho 
Australia .. ba KS 5 
m 
Tree. 
[poko 
i hazo pun, kaiu, rakau 
Asia .. | Tibeto-China | Thochu gwozosi zA vs 
x E. Bengal | Garo za pan . 
of Ben La Mithan Naga Ss pan oe 
Singpho pu phun si 
Indo-Persia | Brahui Ap n darakht 
Bay of Bengal | Teressa 2i ; .. 
Africa ee ee or . oe 
Polynesia.. Samoan z Na : la' au 
waiian "e za x helaau 
Australia .. we ja vs i 3 
Water. 
: rano ayer wai 
.. | Tibeto-China | Horpa hrah T an 
0. anyak np dyah YA 
Nepal Bhramu a awa awa 
| Central India | Gondi es yer oe 


J. T. Tuowsow.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 


179 


.. 


.. 


Water—continued. 
REGION. COUNTRY, DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI. 
Asia Central India | Gayeti $ yer ; 
do. utluk ? er wa 
do. Naikude R ir is 
do. Kolami ; ir EI 
do. eh er è 
do. per . 
Southern India Toni (mod.) t 
and 4 others a nir A 
East Nepal | Sang Pang ka is wa 
Africa — .. | East Coast Swahili ‘x maji maji 
0. Shambola * mazi mazi 
East Central | Yao ‘ mesi mesi 
Western Sussu se i-e i-e 
o essa za ah iah 
South s amanzi 
aer, akei, aki, wai, hy 
Malay Archi-| Various Is- zs d waiyr, weyer, weyl, waeli, 
pelago ..| lands welo, wai-im, arr. wehi, wayr 
Javanese v banyu 
S. Celebes Bouton anu e js 
Polynesia .. | Fijian ax = wai wai 
Samoan ine ms vai vai 
Tongan sie eis vai vai 
Hawaiian ue i wai wai 
Australia .. E Ya T ei za 
Yam 
* ovi ubi uwhi-kaho 
Asia E ; oF ay ie 
IR. v sa -— D ks ‘ 
Polynesia .. | Fijian D. uvi uvi ui 
Samoan i ufi ufi ufi 
Hawaiian - uhi uhi uhi 
Australia .. t su d. jum 
Hot. 
— poc wera 
Asia . |South'rn India| Tamil (anc.) veya 
Africa .... ue wA .. 
Malay Archi-| Various Is- |) panas, " mopani, bahaha, panas 
pelago ..| lands j za | bafanat, mofanas, benis 
ysol ae x ne pela 
Polynesia .. | Samoan “a rs vs vevela 
ongan ya $ x vela 
Hawaiian is * "es wela 
Australia .. wa és . I os 
Raw. 
manta manta 
Asia  .. | Eastof Bengal] Nowgong Naga; matok ` tok matok . 
te Bay of Bengal | Teressa mahaa j 


Aa. 


| 
; 
3l 


180 Transactions.——M iscellaneous. 
Raw—continued. 
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI, MALAY. MAORI 
Polynesia .. | Samoan mata mata mata 
awaii maka maka maka 
Australia .. = ae = 
Red. 
mena mera whero 
Asia . |South’rn India| Telugu era era yerupu 
Central India err ae yerodi 
Kolami yerrodi 
Africa -.. a 
Malay Archi-| Various Is- me erai, maramutah, mia, miha, mehani, 
pelago ..| lands meranati, merah. 
Australia . a de 
Ripe 
masaka masa maoa 
Asia .. | Nepal Sunwar iso miso miso 
Africa... a ets À s "T 
Malay Archi- 
pelago . ; 
Polynesia .. H 
Ausiralia .. . 
Small. 
keli kichi riki, iti, nohi 
hi 
Asia .. | Tibeto-China | Gyarung kachai ` 
East Nepal | Thulungya kichem s 
do. Bahingya chim ne 
do. Lambichong michiyuk WA 
North Bengal |Lepcha (Sikkim) chim y 
E = — ingpho katsi Se 
om za zi noi 
Bayo of Bengal Andaman kitimarda | kitimarda kiti-marda 
Africa. M a Wa zs 
Malay Archi- 
pelago .. à T Pi i = 
Polynesia .. | Samoan a FA " laiti-iti 
awaiian s = : palanai-iki 
Australia .. A Š es ' ae 
Come 
Asi Chin Nankin, Pekin a ec ET 
sia YA a ankin, Pekin, : : ; 
peo } lai lai lai 
do. anton loi loi loi 
Tibeto-China | Thochu hai hai hai 
Indo-China | Sgau-karen hai hai hai 


J. T. Tuomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 181 


———— 


Come—continued. 


—— 


| REGION, COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI. 

| 

| Asia. .. | Indo-China | Annam lai lai lai 

| do. Siam, Ahom 

| Khamti, Laos } Ng "s — 

| Central India | Yerukala va i s 

South'rn India Tamil va a i 

| do. Toda, Kota it va YA YA 

do. Malabar va Ex * 
Africa... m xl s de i 
marein, ieri sous vt dumahi, 


Malay Archi- Various Is- maranih, ma ikomai, gumaho, 
pel .. | lands x ber oimai, poen S oL edhe jog- 


ago 
Polynesia .. | Fijian ss lako- mai et mai lako-mai 
Tongan zd hau-mai mai au-mai 
Hawaiian ew e hele mai e sot mai | ehele mai 
Australia .. ae v. Vs je 
Five. 
pane limi lima rima 
Asia = vs En Es wA 
Africa vs 25 a" 
Malay Archi-| Various Is- || ( limanu, ee delima, leplim, rima, enlima, 
pelago lands j y || lim, nima è 
Polynesia .. Fijian $ ee lima i 
amoan "m e-lima e-lima elima 
Tongan i nima nima nima 
Hawaiian ei | elima elima elim 
Australia .. ae: is a 
Siz. 
enina, oné anam ono 
Asia s eu Pa HA ea KA 
Africa — .. os Vi i 
nanam, nanamo, unam, num, "nomo, 
Malay Archi- Mp es kanum, annuh, gane, ne, noh, nena nóo, 
pelago .. oóh, nome, noi, num, ennoi, wonen, 
lomi, onam, nem, onum, 
Polynesia.. | Fijian za e-ono e-ono e-ono 
Samoan za ono ono ono 
ongan ie whaine whaine whaine 
Hawaiian ex eono eono eono 
Australia .. i yi S 2 um 
Seven. 
fito tuju whitu 
Asia .. | Central India} Gondi yetu ae ye 
do. Madi yedu .. yedu 
do. Kuri yeiku is yeiku 
do. oaan yedu S yedu 
erukala yegu i yegu 
Southien’ India Telugu yedu e. yedu 
Ee anean | yelu pi yelu 
I n elu 
East Nepal Balali ; oe nuji tt 
Africa. o e .. 


182 


Transaclions,—Miscellaneous, 


Seven—continued. 


REGION. COUNTRY. DisTRICT. MALAGASI. | MALAY, MAORI. 
pitu, pituano pitu, pituano 
Malay Archi- kapitu, gapitu kapitu, gapitu, 
pelago J , pito, hito, pito, ito 
MES die I hitu, ON itua, hitu, witu 
|| wi u, fitu, fitu, fit, fiti, 
U M itu, tit | itu, 
S. Celebes Salayu tujoh " 
; aj es z. tujoh Ya 
Polynesia .. | Fijian za e-vitu i e-vitu 
amoan is fitu PR fitu 
Tongan ix fidda "m fidda 
Hawaiian vi ahiku s ahiku 
Australia .. Wa 2d Ma Ss = 
Eight. 

: valo, varlo, delapan waru 
Asia .. | Central India | Yerukala vattu i vattu 
Africa .. .. ja s vs ve T 

) ( wola, veluano ( |wola, veluano, 
| | alru waro '| walru, waro 
Malay Archi-| Various Is-| : (| walu waru walu war 
pelago ..| 1 F : | lua wagu oe walua wagu 
j i kh enwal i| wol, enwol 
1 , allu E , allu 
: aj ds | v dolapan = 
Polynesia .. | Fijian ee walu à walu 
? oan es valu èi valu 
ongan 2o aru v. aru 
dui Hawaiian i. awalu is awalu 
ustralia .. ee NA "à a EN 
Nine. 
: : Sivi, siva sambilang iwa, iva 
Asia > IE aus d Hn hkwi m kwi, hkwi 
o wo-Karen wi x kwi 
Africa... AE Wa = 
sioanu, s | sioanu 
Malay Archi-| Various Is- Faso, si siwa kasiow, si siwa 
pelago ..| lands i > ce bey chia, sia, ensiwa 
2 siwer, si, sin | siwer, si, sin 
a aju .. P. sambilan ie 
Polynesia .. | Fijian .. ciwa dis eiwa 
Samoan re iva o iva 
oron za hioa sy hioa 
‘een awan Pes elwa vs eiwa 


oN ae 


J. T. Tuomsun.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 183 


APPENDIX Il. 


ENGLISH. SAMOAN, — 
1 | Black uliuli wulin, Langowan, North Celeb 
2 | Fire afi afu, “satya ; aif Ga b, Msep d Matabella ; yaf, 
; yap, 
3 | Large latele ww "Matabello Ri: 
4 | Nose isu n Lariki; ; inu, Vaiqueno, East Timor 
5| Small laitiiti kiii, Wahai, Ceram 
6 | Tongue alelo , Sasak, Lombok ; kelo, Matabello 
7 | Tooth nifo nifan, UNO. eram ; nifoa, Matabello ; "e. Teor 
8 ater vai ve, Teto, E = Timor ; wai, Solor and other 
9 | White pa-epa-e piuper, 
10 | Ant loi foin, fihi 0, 
11 | Ashes lefu-lefu lavu, Amblaw ; xpo Ahtiago, Ceram 
12 ad eaga sol 
13 | Banana fa-i fiah, Sula Islands 
mo-i muk, Teor; mah, Mysol 
14 | Belly manava tiava, Batumerah 
15 ird manu nu, Camarian, Ceram 
16 | Blood toto kokotu, Tidore 
17 | Blue uli 
18 | Boat tulula 
19 | Body tino 
20 | Bone ivi i, Sula Islands; luliva, Butumerah, Amboyna 
21 | Bow ufa Salayer, South Celebes; fean, Mysol 
22 OX atola-au 
23 | Butterfly pepe pepeul, Morella, Amboyna 
24 gose 
geli 
pusi 
25 | Child tama 
26 | Chopper — 
27 | Cocoanut ni niula, Bah, Ceram; MM Mysol 
28 | Cold a- mariri, Wahai, Cer 
29 | Come fotu mai mai, Sula Islands, Lariki, Amboyna, Gah, Ceram, etc. 
30 | Day heo ARE , Bout h Ce lebes ; aoaaoa , Lariki, Am- 
'boyna; u, Baju 
Deer 
2 | Do ul kafuni, Gah, Ceram 
| | Door püpuni, puipui 
L ar talig telinga, Malay, Baju, etc. 
Egg fua en ie Wayapo, Bouru 
Eye mata Lariki, Amboyn 
3 Face mata da, Wahai, Cera 
} ather tama ama, Wahai, Ceram 
) | Feather fulu fulun, Wayapo, Bouru 
40 | Finger i-lima limin-tagin, Teor 
41 | Fish i-a i-an, Matabello, etc. 
42 | Flesh a-ano 
4 Flower fuga bunga, Gani, Gilolo, etc. 
44 | Fly lago ont o, Sanguir 
45 | Foot vae i, Wahai, Ceram, etc. 
46 | Fowl moa 
47 | Fruit fua fen, re kie etc. 
48 | Go alu ou, Wahai, C 
) | Gold — 
) | Good le 
Hair fulu-fulu folo. Masarati, Bouru 
Hand lim guir, ete, 
|| Hard ma-a-a io Saparua, etc. 
| | Head ulu ulu, Camarian, Ceram 
|| Honey — 


184 


Transactions.— Miscellaneous. 


ENGLISH. 

56 t 

57 use 

58 | Husband 

59 on 

60 | Island 

61 | Knife 

62 | Large 

63 | Leaf 

64 | Little 

65 | Louse 

66 an 

67 | Mat 

68 | Monkey 

69 | Moon 

7 osquito 

71 | Mother 

72 out 

73 | Nail 

74 | Night 

75 il 

76 ig 

77 | Post 

78 | Prawn 

79 | Rai 

80 | Rut 

81 | Red 

82 | Rice 

88 | River 

84 | Road 

85 t 

86 | Saliva 

87 | Salt 

88 | Sea 

89 | Silver 

90 | Skin 

91 o 

92 | Snake 

93 oft 

t Sour 

5 | Spear 

96 | Star 

97 | Sun 

98 | Sweet 

99 | Wax 
100 | Wife 


SAMOAN. ROMA 
vevela pela, Mir 
fale bare, San 
tane burani, Bi, South Celebes 
amea 
nu-utoloto 
otu 
polo 
pena 
naifi 
latele mwani Matabello 
‘lau n, Saparua 
itiiti eid Wahai, m 
utu utu, ) bep ne others 
tagata tomata, Saliba 
tane 
papa 
fala 
masina fasina, Sula Islands 
auli 
namu nymo, Javanese 
ti ina, Lariki, Amboyn 
gut nanguru, Galela, Gilolo 
atigi-lima, fao 
po potu, Saparua 
u- majulu, Mysol 
suau-u 
pua-a hawhua, Camarian, Ceram 
po faolnim, Ahtiago, Ceram 
ua uan, Gah, Ceram 
imoa 
ioli 
isumu 
mumu hamu, Sanguir 
ulaula ululi, Teor 
toto-toto 
vaitafe 
ala aya, Sula Islands 
aa ai aha, Matabello 
pogai 
anu udu, Sanguir 
feanuga 
tai tahi, Matabello 
sami 
vasa 
pa-u 
iliola "etie Ten Ceram 
asu Gil olo 
gata re oan ^ Banguir 
malulu mulumu, Wahai, Ceram 
o-ona ko-unim, Ahtiago, Ceram 
tao 
fetu fatui, Sula Islands 
la lea, Sula Islands 
suamalie 
pulu 
ava sawa, Sanguir 


J. T. Taomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossii Words. 185 


ENGLISH. SAMOAN. — 
AAA 
101 | Wing apu-au opani, Bouton, sius Celebes 
102 | Woman fafine Siné, Masa rati, Bou 
103 | Wood la-au a-au, Cajili, Bour i 
ao-matua 
104 | Yellow sama-sama 
105 ne asi i, Camarian, Ceram 
106 | Two lua Wahai, Ceram 
107 | Three tolu ee Matabello 
a 
108 | Four efa fad, Amblaw 
esoani 

109 | Five elima lima, Ahtiago, Ceram, and o 
110 | Six ono ono-mo, Bolan ees am, Noch € Celebes 
111 | Seven fitu Jitu, Mata 
112 | Eight valu walu, Tes 2 
113 | Nine iva siwa, Cajili, Bouru, and other 
114 | Ten sefulu sapulo, m North uds, and others 
cuu d sc uem p TE 

ApPENDIx III. 


i, xs is 1 Gilolo Ji vs 2 } 3 
Galela : ya : M ee ss | 
angowan .. ya Celebes YA 1 
Salayer n m : Eee =a | 6 
Bouton Sa He 5 M 3 
Bolanghitam i a ; m - 
Ahtiago za Ceram oe 23 ) 
ah se ee se P S ox 
Wahai m ya x a V d 24 
Camarian .. T is sk vs an í 
Teluti . .. oe .. .. .. 
' Lariki us oe s Amboyna vie .. 
Batumerah "E vá YA ie i» 7 
Morella ed we nm ei ve es 
Vaiqueno .. 5 WA Timor we oe } 2 
to "s s wA Pa e eo J 
yapo . .. of Bouru LEO .. í 
Masarati .. en XR tn cx za : 7 
jeli ee oe .. .. ^s E 
mblaw - $e 
Matabello Ns s 1 
eor A ya [ 
Sasak Lombok wa we 1 
Solor s e 1 
Dorey vs «à 1 
Mysol .. x 5 
Sula Islands ya ne 7 
Tidore “a pe 1 
aju LI oe 1 
Malay oe oe 1 
Sanguir RE .. 7 
Saparua WA eal 3 
Salibabo is os 1 
Javanese .. m 1 
—————— MS 


—€—————————— 


II,—ZOOLOGY,. 


Art, XVI.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. By W, M. MASKELL. 
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th June, 1878.] 
Plates V., VI., VII. and VIII. 

Tux Coccide—Scale or Gale insects—are a family of the order Homoptera. 
They are exceedingly common in all parts of the world, and I may say that 
in New Zealand I have scarcely come across a single plant or tree that is 
not in some way attacked by them. In many instances plants are found 
wjth several species of Coccidæ living on them together, and sometimes the 
number of insects on a leaf is so great as entirely to cover the surface, 
rendering the plant very unsightly. 

Notwithstanding, however, the enormous number of these insects and 
the undoubted damage which they do, there is not much known about 
them. I believe I am correct in stating that in this colony nobody has 
yet attempted to study them: probably the very great incentives to research 
in other branches of natural history have diverted attention from these little 
pests. It is, however, curious that in older countries scarcely more know- 
ledge has been attained regarding the Coccide. Books and papers respect- 
ing them are certainly not few in number. I have a list of more than a 
hundred authors who have written something upon the subject. But, with 
the exception of the insects yielding cochineal, gum-lac, and other articles 
of commercial value, and a few whose peculiarities of form attracted special 
notice, hardly any of the genera or species have, until lately, been satisfac- 
torily described. Most of the authors referred to seem to have contented 
themselves either with indefinite accounts or with copying the phrases of 
those who preceded them. 

An application to the Librarian of the British Museum, last year, made 
known to me a work by M. V. Signoret, a member of the Entomological 
Society of France, giving a monographical account of the known species of 


Coccide. After some months’ delay I have succeeded in procuring this 


work, and I have to express my thanks to Dr. von Haast and to Professor 
Milne-Edwards of Paris, the former of whom wrote for, the latter of whom 
forwarded, a copy of M. Signoret’s book to me, 


188 Transactions,— Zoology. 


The chief difficulty under which I have laboured has been that of being 
unable to compare my specimens of New Zealand scale-insects with those 
of other countries. The work just mentioned has, therefore, come most 
opportunely to me as a text-book. 

Not professing any degree of entomological science, I may, perhaps, in 
my descriptions of these insects, fail sometimes in properly expressing 
myself. I must take my chance of this, declaring myself quite open to 
correction. 

The Coccide are, as I said, a family of insects of the order Homoptera, 
The chief distinguishing features dividing them from all the other families 
are, 1st, the absence of wings or elytra in the females, and, 2nd, the absence 
of a mouth or rostrum in the males. 

The damage done by these insects, which attach themselves to different 
trees, is very great. Everybody must know the scale on the apple and pear 
trees, which covers the trunk and branches and eventually kills the tree. 
Every gardener knows how destructive they are to his flowers and choice 
plants, whether in the open air or in green-houses. It is stated that, in 
France, different species of Coccus and Lecanium have destroyed whole 
forests of almond, orange, and olive trees; in Mauritius and in Brazil the 
sugar-cane, and in Ceylon the coffee-plant, has been ravaged by them. Sir 
Wyville Thomson, in the volumes just published of the voyage of the 
** Challenger," states that in the Azores the cultivation of oranges was for a 
time almost stopped by a small species of Coccus; and we all know how the 
oranges and lemons which come to us from Sydney are covered with 
innumerable insects of the same family. In Christchurch a good example 
of their work may be seen in the holly hedge round the Christchurch Club, 
where Lecanium hesperidum reduced the plants a few years ago to a miser- 
able state. In Auckland, I saw a month or two ago a fine hedge of the 
kangaroo 4cacia being rapidly destroyed by colonies of an insect which 
appears to be a new species of Coccus, allied to Icerya. 

There is an immense variety in the appearance of the different species 
of Coccidæ, and this variety is rendered still greater by the fact that the 
insects themselves are by no means the same as a rule in all the stages of 
their existence, and by the difference between the sexes. There are, how- 
ever, certain characters which belong to all the species, and with which I 
may fitly begin my description of those that I have observed :— 

lst. In the first stage, after leaving the egg, there is no appreciable 
difference between the male and the female. The change in form does not 
take place until the insect discards its second pellicle. 

2nd. The males of all species have two wings, six legs, two antenna 
(generally pretty long), two proper eyes, and in some species two other eyes 
placed further back on the head, 


Masgrni,—0n some Coccida in New Zealand, 189 


8rd. The males, in their perfect state, are absolutely destitute of mouth 
or beak, the place of this organ being apparently taken by the two last eyes 
just mentionod. 

4th. The females of all species are wingless. 

5th. The mouth of the female, in all species, consists of a beak or 
rostrum, usually jointed, from which start long tubular sete or bristles, 
apparently retractile, sometimes longer than the insect itself. Westwood, 
and after him Signoret, says that there are four of these sete. This is 
certainly the case in some species, but in many instances I have been 
unable, though carefully watching, to see more than three, and in some 
specimens there would seem to be no doubt on the matter. 

The above characters are constant in all the species. The differences 
observable will be noticed as I go on. 

I may say here that, in the majority of instances, the males are 
extremely rare and difficult to find; in fact, for some species, such as 
Mytilaspis pomorum (the common ne scale), I believe that the male insect 
has never been found. 

The whole family may be divided, according to Signoret, into four great 
groups :— 

1. The Diaspidse, of which we may take as the type the apple scale, 
Mytilaspis pomorum. 

2. The Brachyscelide: these appear to be chiefly Australian species, 
and have been described by M. Schrader, in the Proceedings of the 
Zoologico-Botanical Society of Vienna for 1868. 

8. The Lecanide, type L. hesperidum, common on our hollies. 

4. The Coccide: our type for this will be an insect found on the 
Norfolk Island pine and on native trees in Riccarton Bush. 

The species which I shall have to describe as being, in my opinion, 
new, will not, as far as I know at present, require the creation of a new 
group.” 

I propose to take the above groups in order, and for the present shall 
confine myself to the first. I shall begin by giving an account of the 
features characteristic of the whole group; then pass on to the distinguish- 
ing features of the various genera, and lastly describe the species which I 


have observed. 
1. Drasprpz. 


This group includes those scale insects which cover themselves with 
separate shields, composed partly of the discarded pellicles of the earlier 
stages, partly of a fibrous secretion more or less independent of the body of 
the insect. 

* Powellia (vide post) seems to belong to none of the m Soup, but I have not 
yet been able to make out where to place it, 


190 Transactions.—Zoology. 


We are all familiar with the appearance of the outer shell or shield of 
the apple scale. The shield varies considerably in different genera: some- 
times it is round, sometimes long, sometimes white, sometimes brown, but 
it invariably exhibits, in some part or other of its extent, when taken from 
the adult female insect, the two pellicles which she has discharged in her 
earlier transformations. In my plate V., fig. la, is shown part of the 
shield of the apple scale, mounted to show the pellicles. In the shield of 
the male insect, in certain species, only one pellicle appears, the insect 
undergoing only one transformation before the pupa stage. 

The female insect, having arrived at her full growth, fills her shield with 
eggs. A figure of its appearance is given in plate V., fig. 15, for the apple 
scale. 

The young insect shows no sexual differences. It is oval in shape 
(plate V., fig. 1c), with six legs, two antenne, and two eyes. 

The female, discarding her first skin, throws off also at the same time 
all external organs except the mouth or rostrum. In the first pellicle 
attached to her shield the remains of the antenne may almost always be 
seen. The legs are not to be found, andI cannot say what becomes of 
them. The insect, thus debarrassed of her limbs and eyes, becomes only 
an inert mass. She remains thus for some time, merely feeding and grow- 
ing, still retaining an oval shape, as shown by the second pellicles in the 
shield. Throwing off this pellicle, she appears in her adult stage, a des- 
cription of which must be left till I come to each species, as they differ 
considerably. 

What I have just said as to the discarding of the limbs is, like every 
rule, subject to some exception. In one or two species, chiefly of the genus 
Mytilaspis, a pair of minute protuberances, which M. Signoret states are 
rudimentary antenne, are visible on the head. 

The adult female, whatever her shape, oval or round, is much cor- 
rugated, in fact made up of rolls of fat, with the exception of the head— 
which is usually smooth, and of the abdomen—which is peculiarly shaped 
and marked. The colour of the insect as a whole varies—being sometimes 
whitish, sometimes pale yellow, sometimes red. 

In all cases that I have observed the abdominal region is of a bright yellow 
colour, and it is from the markings of this portion of the body that the 
specific differences of the genera of Diaspide are taken. My plate V., fig. 
ld, gives the appearance of the abdomen of Mytilaspis pomorum, the 
apple scale, which I have taken as the type of the group. It will be seen 
that the corrugations of the body end a short distance from the posterior 
extremity, which has a curved outline, broken by numerous small lobes, 

“intermixed with scaly hairs, The anal opening is at what might be termed 


iene no PENNE 


MasxeLu.—On some Coccidz in New Zealand. 191 


the focus of the curve (this does not hold good for all genera), and it is 
surrounded by groups of minute circular marks, arranged like bunches of 
grapes, whilst other marks are scattered singly over the abdominal region. 
These marks, which are in reality the open ends of tubes, are supposed to 
be a kind of spinnerets from which the insect builds round itself the shield 
of which I spoke just now. Some of the chief characters upon which the 
specific differences of Diaspide are founded, are the presence or absence of 
these spinnerets, the number of the groups, their continuity or separation, 
and the number of openings in each group. There are other features, such 
as difference of outline in the body, difference of shape of shield, difference 
of form of the male, difference of length in the thoracic band of the male. 
But these are often more properly generic than specific differences; more- 
over, the excessive rarity of the male insects renders it very difficult to 
arrive at certainty from them; whereas the abdominal markings of the 
females are in general so distinctly clear that they offer an excellent means 
of distinguishing between individuals. 

The mouth is, as I said above, absent entirely in the male insect in its 
perfect state. The mouth of the female consists of a rostrum, or beak, on 
the underside of the head, some little way from its anterior edge. It appears 
in the Diaspide to have no joints, and from its interior start three (or in 
some cases four) very long, thin tubular bristles, which, I suppose, the insect 
inserts into the stomata or minute orifices of the plant on which it lives, for 
the purpose of withdrawing thence its food. My plate V., figs. le and f, 
show this rostrum (which is, with modifications, common to all Coccide), as 
it appears on the insect, and as it shows after mounting for the microscope. 

So much for the general features of.the female. The male differs a 
good deal in shape in various species, but, as far as it is known, has always 
two wings, six legs terminated by a single claw, antenna usually of ten 
joints, and, at the posterior end of the abdomen a long double spike, 
sometimes nearly equal in length to the whole body. The insect undergoes 
three transformations. From the egg it emerges as an oval insect similar 
in all respects to the female; in some species it surrounds itself with a 
shield like that of the female, in others the shield is much longer and 
narrower. After a time it discards its first pellicle and remains in the 
shield, gradually changing into the pupa stage. During this process, 
according to M. Signoret, the successive formation of the eyes, wings, 
antenne, and abdominal spike may be observed. I have specimens of 
pups of Aspidiotus epidendri, in which this formation is apparent. The 
first pellicle is the only one which remains attached to the shield, as the 
insect emerges from the pupa stage, winged and perfect; consequently, in 
some species it is possible to distinguish between the shields of the two 
sexes simply from the presence in one of two pellicles, in the other of only 
one, 


+ 


* 


192 Transactions.— Zoology. 


Having thus briefly enumerated some of the characters which are 
common to all the Diaspide, I proceed to particulars. 

The group is divisible into several genera, but I need now only mention 
those of which I have obtained specimens in this country. Considering the 
immense number of plants, imported or native, whether in greenhouses, 
gardens, or the bush, which are attacked by scale insects, and the multi- 
tudinous variations of form and markings which distinguish the individuals, 
it is likely that future research will discover, if not new families and genera, 
at any cate many new species. 

The genera known to me at present are the following :— 

1. Myritaspis. This includes the apple scale and many others. The 


- shield, or puparium, is elongated ; the two discarded pellicles are seen at 


the smaller end. 

2. Asprpiotus. Shield of the female round, or nearly so; that of the 
male somewhat oval; discarded pellicles in the centre. 

8. Draspts. Shield of the female round, as in the last genus; the dis- 
carded pellicles usually near the side ; shield af the male elongated. 

Subsection I.—Myrtinaspis, Linn. 

The females in many species of this genus, as a rule, resemble each 
other in form. The number and disposition of the groups of spinnerets 
offer a means of distinguishing the species. The males, in most cases, are 
unknown. 

1. Mytilaspis pomorum, the apple scale. 

Plate V., figs. 2a, b, c, d. 

This species is not indigenous. The shield, which may be seen cover- 
ing the trunks and branches of oür apple, pear, and other trees, is elongated, 
mussel-shaped, brown or grey (I have seen some white). It is open under- 
neath, adhering to the tree with its edges; it has considerable consistency ; 
length averaging 4'; inch, breadth nearly „y inch. The discarded pellicles 
are at its smaller end, and, when mounted in balsam, the rest of the shield 
is seen to be composed of transverse interlacing curved fibres. 

In the spring, a close inspection of a branch of apple tree will show a 
number of extremely minute yellowish specks intermingled with the adult 
puparia. These specks are the young of the insect, hatched and beginning 
to travel on their own account. Plate V., fig. 1c, shows the form at this 
stage. It is oval, flattish, yellow-coloured, with two antenne, each with 
six joints (of which the last is the longest); the antennz have longish hairs 
on each joint. The head is smooth, rather darker in colour than the body, 
with four hairs on its anterior edge. The body is corrugated, each corruga- 
tion having a spine. The anal extremity is yellow, with several hairs, of 
which two are of some length. The legs have short femora, tibie rather 


MaskErL.—ÓOn some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 193 


longer and very thick, tarsi somewhat longer and thin, and a single claw at 
the tip. Just above the claw spring two long hairs each ending in a knob. 

After fixing upon a suitable resting-place the young insect remains in 
the same state for some time, and then undergoes its first transformation, 
The result of this is seen in the puparium, where the oval pellicle overlying 
what is evidently the pellicle of the young one shows that it becomes merely 
an oval inert mass. ‘The antenna and legs disappear, the skin of the 
former remaining attached to the first pellicle. The mouth only survives 
the change. In this second stage the insect begins to spin its shell, or 
puparium, and after another interval undergoes another transformation 
appearing at length in the shape shown in plate V., fig. 2b, or as the perfect 
female. 

The body is here seen to have lost its former regularly oval shape and 
to have become longer. The cephalic end and about half the rest are 
smooth, the remainder much corrugated. There are no legs, or antenne 
proper, but in some specimens may be seen two extremely minute pro- 
tuberances on the head, each with a few attached hairs, which are said to 
be rudimentary antenne. Some of the corrugations near the abdomen 
have three or four spines. The mouth, or rostrum, which is of the same 
general character as in all Coccide, exhibits three very long sete. 

The abdominal region, as in all Diaspide, is bright yellow. Plate V., 
fig. 2c, shows ‘its outline, which is a pretty regular curve broken by a 
number of small triangular and foliated lobes. Two of these lobes, in the 
middle, are the largest, and have on each side of them one smaller lobe. 
Between the lobes are several strong spines. The anal orifice is situated at 
what might be called the focus of the curve of the abdomen; it is oval and 
hairless. 

Forming an arch around the anus are five groups or bunches of minute 
circular openings, which are the spinnerets used in building up the 
puparium. In the uppermost group are l7 openings, in each of the two 
upper side groups 17, and in each of the two lower groups 14. Plate 
V., fig. 2d shows the appearance of these spinnerets, magnified 700 
diameters. A few single spinnerets are scattered about the abdominal 
region, and near the edge of the abdomen is a row of egg-shaped openings, 
larger than the others, the narrow ends of the eggs pointing outwards; 
these are arranged in pairs. 

I am inclined to think that the whole abdomen is covered with extremely 
minute fine hairs, for it usually presents a velvety appearance, with very 
fine parallel strise. 

When in its perfect stage the female insect occupies nearly the whole 
puparium. Later on, however, she begins laying her eggs, with which she 
dap the shield, shrivelling up herself into pore m 


194 Transactions.—Zoology. 


The eggs, according to my observations, are usually from thirty to fifty in 
number, oval in shape, of a white or opaline colour, changing to yellow as 
spring comes on. 

The males of this species have yet to be discovered. 

I have often found amongst the eggs of Mytilaspis pomorum a minute 
white Acarus. It is to be hoped that it feeds largely on the eggs. 

Several cures for this pest of the apple tree have, I believe, been tried. 
Mr. A. Carrick, of Park Terrace, showed me last year a tree of his which he 
had painted over with a mixture of kerósene and linseed oil. Inspection 
of the puparia showed that the fluid had thoroughly penetrated them and 
surrounded the eggs ; and I understand that the cure has been complete. 

Mytilaspis pomorum attacks in this country the pear and plum trees as 
well as the apple. Indeed, I have found specimens identical in almost every 
respect on the following trees :—plum, peach, apricot, pear, lilac, cotone- 
aster, thorn, sycamore, ash, and many others. That these are all the 
same or different species, I do not like to affirm. Yet in the numbers of 
their spinnerets they differ. M. Signoret states that in Europe Mytilaspis 
pomorum is found only accidentally on the pear tree, sometimes on the 
plum; and he names scarcely any other trees. Here all those which I 
mentioned appear to be indiscrimately attacked by them. The scale on the 
ash is perhaps a little smaller. I give, however, as an indication for com- 
parison the spinnerets of insects on a few of these trees :— 


— Upp & Groups. Upper side Groups. Lower side Groups. 
Apple 17 17 14 
Plum ` 20 17 17 
tiae 22 ee 17 19 16 
Ash 10 12 9 
Cotoneaster .. .. 4 15 10 


2. Mytilaspis pyriformis, sp. nov. 

Plate V., fig. 8. 

The puparium is broadly pearshaped, the discarded tests occupying the 
smaller end ; the tests are of a pretty regular oval shape ; the pellicle of the 
second stage reaches to about the middle of the puparium. Colour of 
shield light brown ; texture thinner than in Mytilaspis pomorum, and form 
flatter ; length about ji inch; greatest breadth about j inch. Plate V., 
fig. 8a, shows the appearance of the puparium. 

This species in the shape of its shield and a few other partieulars 
resembles Mytilaspis buwi of Bouché; but there are differences which 
authorise me, I believe, in considering it as new, 


MASKELL.—On some Coccidz in New Zealand, 195 


The adult female is deeply corrugated except (as in every Mytilaspis) on 
the cephalic portion. The corrugations bear a few strong spiny hairs. 
The abdominal pygidium shows an almost continuous arch of spinnerets 
over the anal orifice. In Mytilaspis buwi the groups are distinct. The 
spinnerets of Mytilaspis pyriformis run in a double ring round the anus, 
with here and there an outlying opening. Altogether there may be from 
60 to 70 openings in the arch. There are many single spinnerets scat- 
tered about, a large number of them more or less oblong; and they may 
be traced up the sides of the body as far as the corrugations extend. 
Plate V., figs. 3b and c, show the appearance of the female and the arrange- 
ment of the spinnerets. 

The abdomen, including all that is tinted yellow, does not show a con- 
tinuously curved outline. On each side, next to the last corrugation of the 
body, is a large triangular lobe, the apex furnished with scaly, triangular, 
serrated hairs. The rest of the abdomen shows a curve broken by small 
lobes, of which the two middle ones are the largest, the next two on each 
side smaller, and the rest inconspicuous. Between the lobes are scaly hairs, 
and near the edge runs a row of large oblong openings. 

I have a specimen of a scale from Dysoxylum spectabile, which seems to 
resemble much more nearly Mytilaspis buai; and this is not unlikely, as the 
specimen came from a greenhouse. 

3. Mytilaspis cordylinidis, sp. nov. 

Plate V., fig. 4. 

This scale, which appears to be also new, I have found on a great 
number of New Zealand plants, such as Cordyline, Asplenium, Phormium, 
Gahnia, Drimys, Astelia, and many others. I have also seen it on Eucalyptus 
globulus, but only in the vicinity of New Zealand trees. It is perhaps more 
abundant on the cabbage tree than on others; hence I have named it as 
above. 

The puparium is very long and narrow, generally straight, sometimes 
curved, semi-cylindrical. Length about 1 inch; breadth jj inch. Colour 
pure white, except at the end where the discarded tests are; these are 
bright yellow. The tests are oval; the second more elongated than the 
first, and the two together generally occupy rather more than a quarter of 
the length of the puparium. The eggs are small, oval, and of a bright 
yellow colour. 

The adult female is pale golden, about three times as long as broad ; the 
cephalic end a little flattened anteriorly, and above the rostrum are often 
seen the two minute hairy protuberances called rudimentary antenne. The 
body is somewhat corrugated, but less so than in M. re the gi : 
tions show a very few fine hairs, ^ 


196 Transactions.—Zoology. i 

The abdomen exhibits a curve almost continuous and regular, broken 
only by very small lobes except in the middle, where there is a deepish 
depression with a large lobe on each side. Between the lobes are scaly 
serrated hairs, some of which are pretty long. 

There are five groups of spinnerets of which the middle has 7 to 8 
openings, the two upper-side ones 14 to 20, the two lower 20 to 25. 

There are a great number of single spinnerets, a few oval or circular, 
the majority oblong. They are placed in curved lines arching round the 
pygidium, each arch lining the groove of a corrugation, and are visible on 
the sides of the body nearly to a level with the rostrum. 

The male insect is very minute and difficult to find. I succeeded in 
procuring one specimen, though not in good order. I could observe that 
the antenns were short and the tibiæ excessively large. 

Plate V., fig. 4a, is the puparium ; fig. 4b, the adult female; fig. 4c, the 
pygidium. 

4. Mytilaspis drimydis, sp. nov. 

Plate V., fig. 5. 

I have found this species on a great many native plants, but more often 
perhaps on Drimys colorata, whence I give it its name. 

The puparium is straight, long and narrow, but not so much so as in 
M. cordylinidis. Average length 41, inch; breadth 4L. inch; colour generally 
& dirty white, sometimes brown, yellow at the end with the discarded 
pellicles, which are oval, narrowing somewhat at the tip. 

The adult female is of a dull red colour, about twice as long as broad ; 
the widest part is about two-thirds of the length from the head. It is less 
corrugated than M. pomorum ; the head and thoracic portion of the body 
are smooth and roünd, the anterior edge not so much flattened as in M. 
cordylinidis. The remainder of the body, on the corrugations, has a row 
of short, thick, tubular bristles extending down the edge as far as the com- 
mencement of the abdominal pygidium ; these are cylindrical, some with a 
circular top, some forked, some appearing like bundles of parallel fibres. It 
is probable that they are spinnerets protruding further than is usual in 
other species. 

There are no groups of spinnerets on the abdomen, but a number of 
single ones, mostly oblong, scattered about. 

The abdomen ends in a number of very small lobes of which four are 
conspieuous in the centre. Between the lobes fine hairs. 

On the cephalic region are a few scattered spines and the two rudimentary 
antenne. 

I have no adult male, but pups showing long antennæ, a very long 
body, short wings and the usual abdominal spike peculiar to the Diaspide. 


TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE VOL XLP] V. 


COCCIDA- 


MaskELr.—On some Coccidg in New Zealand. 197 


Males of this species are not so rare as in some others, and I hope before 
long to have a perfect specimen.* 
Subsection 2.—Aspiniotus, Bouché. 

This genus is characterised by a round, or nearly round, puparium ; the 
discarded pellieles are in the middle, and usually their major axes are inclined 
to eaeh other. Several species are known in Europe. 

1. Aspidiotus epidendri, Bouche. 

This is a well-known species. In Mr. Duncan’s hothouses it may be 
found in abundance upon the Seaforthia palm, upon Lelia anceps and other 
orchids, and on several other plants. 

The puparium is round, flat, of a dirty white colour, sometimes (as on 
the wattle) brownish ; the pellicles in the centre are yellow; the fibres 
run in interlacing circles. 

The eggs are yellow ; the young insect is oval, somewhat broader than 
in Mytilaspis pomorum, and has at the posterior extremity two protruding 
lobes with a pair of very minute lobes between them. 

As a rule, the insects are found in considerable numbers, in colonies, 
the puparia of the females intermingled with the young and with the 
cocoons of the males. 

The pellicle of the second stage is oval, tapering to the posterior 
extremity, 

The adult female is almost round, or rather in the shape of a peg-top. 
Plate V., figs. 6a and b, show the insect and its puparium. The curve of the 
cephalic portion is circular and smooth ; no hairs are visible, but the two 
rudimentary antennæ can be seen. The abdominal region is yellow, ending 
in lobes of which the two middle ones are the largest; between the lobes 
are very fine hairs. The pygidium has four groups of spinnerets ; the two 
upper groups have from eight to ten openings, the two lower from six to 
eight. Many single spinnerets. 

The puparium of the male is elongated, cylindrical. At one end is seen 
the pellicle of the first stage. The male escapes from this cocoon, when 
perfect, backwards. This mode of egress is, as I understand, not uncom- 
mon amongst the Coccide. 

In the pupa stage the male (plate V., fig. 6d) exhibits the wings, legs 
and abdominal spike coiled up to fit the cocoon. 


* Since writing this paper I have obtained a specimen of the adult male. The wings 
are about equal in length to the body. The antenns have ten joints, of which the two 
first are very short and thick, the rest very long and thin, covered with hairs and equal 
to each other with the exception of the last which is spindle-shaped. These antenne 
resemble those of the hie 3 of Depi giga dece pur The thoracic band is 
inconspicuous. The le g airy. 


198 Transactions.—Zoology, 


In its perfect state the male has a roundish head with two globular eyes 
on its anterior portion, and further back, in the place where the rostrum 
should be, two other eyes (?) filled with a mass of pigment. The antenne 
are long, hairy, ten-jointed. The wings are a little longer than the body. 
The thorax is somewhat broad, with a band crossing it near the middle; 
this band (seen I believe in all species of Diaspide#) does not in this species 
reach across the whole thorax. The abdomen, smaller than the thorax, is 
oval, and ends in a tubular sheath from which start the two long spikes 
characteristic of the Diaspide. The legs exhibit a few hairs; the femora 
are thick; the tibiw not very long, narrow; the tarsi end in the usual single 
claw. 

2. Aspidiotus budlai, SP 

On the silver wattle, in Nelson, last year, I found specimens which I 
believe to belong to this species. I have had one or two from a tree of the 
same kind in Christchureh. My specimens are all females. 

The difference between this and the last species is, for the female, in 
the number of the spinnerets. These are in four groups, the two upper 
ones having only five or six openings, the two lower only three or four. 

Tt is possible that these specimens may be Aspidiotus aloes. It requires 
an examination of the male to distinguish clearly. 

3. Aspidiotus atherosperma, sp. nov. 

I take this to be a new species; I have it from an indigenous tree, 
Atherosperma nove-zealandie. The puparium resembles that of Aspidiotus 
epidendri, but is somewhat darker in colour. The adult female is much 
more corrugated, and the corrugations overlap the abdominal region. The 
pygidium has four groups of spinnerets; the upper pair have 15 openings, 
the lower 9 or 10. The abdomen ends in several lobes, of which the four 
middle ones are the largest. The rest of the lobes are sharply pointed. 
Between the lobes are scaly serrated hairs. 

Plate VL, figs. 7a and b, shows the adult female and the abdomen. 

4. Aspidiotus dysoryli, sp. nov. 

Plate VL, fig. 7. 

The puparium is brown, somewhat convex, the underside white. The 
female in the middle is bright yellow, corrugated, the corrugations over- 
lapping the abdominal region which is comparatively small. There are 
four groups of spinnerets—the upper pair with ten openings, the lower with 
nine, many scattered oval and oblong spinnerets. The abdomen ends in 
six lobes, of which only the two median are conspicuous; between the lobes 
fine, serrated hairs. The abdomen is very velvety. 

? Am the second stage, shown in plate VI., fig. 7c, the body is more oval 
g i 24 ihe rostral sete are exceedingly 1 ong. 


* 


WA AA aa WW Wa AA WA AA AA AA Wa Wa aaa aa aa aa aa aa i ia a 


CONCERN IRT 


MasKELL.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 199 


With the exception of the abdominal lobes and the numbers of spinnerets 
in the groups, the adult female resembles Aspidiotus atherosperme. 

9. Aspidiotus aurantii, sp. nov. (?) 

Plate VI., fig. 8. 

This is not an indigenous species, being found in immense numbers 
upon the oranges and lemons in our shops, imported from Sydney. As, 
however, it occurs on orange trees growing at Governor’s Bay, I introduce 
it here. 

M. Signoret describes, under the name of Parlatoria zizyphi, or aurantii, 
an insect infesting orange trees in Europe. Its form, as given in his plate 
V., fig. 9, bears certainly great general resemblance to the insect I am 
describing, but it differs altogether in the shape and colour of the puparium, 
and the abdominal lobes are also different. . 

The puparium of Aspidiotus aurantii is round, yellowish, flat. The 
insect, in the centre, is curiously shaped. It has a generally spherical out- 
line, but looks as if, from rich feeding, rolls of fat were produced, making 
the corrugations of the body very largely overlap the abdomen. It is 
yellow, the abdomen being the deepest coloured. The curve of the body 
and head is regular and smooth; the rudimentary antenna are absent; the 
abdominal region, very small in comparison with the rest, ends in six lobes 
of which the two middle ones are the largest. There are no groups of 
spinnerets, Pan 

The young insect (second stage) is somewhat different, being of a nearly 
regular oval shape, without the rolls of fat. 

The male is very small, brown in colour; the antenne have ten joints. 
The two first joints are very small, round and smooth; the third, fourth, 
fifth and sixth equal in length, the seventh, eighth and ninth half as long, 
the tenth somewhat shorter still and pointed. All the last eight joints show 
numerous hairs. The thorax is short and thick, the thoracic band oceupy- 
ing more than one-half the width; the abdomen short, the double spike of 
some length. The wings are oval, about as long as the body. The legs 
are hairy, femora thick, tibie longer, thicker at the end next the tarsus than 
at the other end; tarsi broad at the top, tapering gradually down to the 
usual single claw. The hairs on the femora are much fewer than those on 
the tibie and tarsi. 

This insect does not correspond in any particular with the species 
described by M. Signoret, except in the general outline of the adult female, 
resembling Parlatoria. Nevertheless, as it is manifestly not a species 
indigenous to New Zealand and must be known to entomologists, I give it 
the name of Aspidiotus aurantii only in default of better information than I 
have at present, M. Schrader, in the work above cited, mentions an insect 


200 Transactions.—Zoology. 


attacking orange trees in Sydney, which, he says, “appears to be an 
Aspidiotus.” I take it that this is my Aspidiotus aurantii ; but it would seem 
from his expression that hitherto no detailed description has been given of 


[Nore.—Aspidiotus limonii, Signoret, cannot be this species.] 

Aspidiotus camellie, Boisduval, attacks camellias in our greenhouses. 
It somewhat resembles Aspidiotus nerii, but there are no groups of spin- 
nerets. 

Subsection 3.—Diaspis, Costa. 

In this genus, as in the last, the puparium of the female is round and 
flat, but the discarded pellicles are usually at the side instead of in the 
centre. The female is generally rather more elongated than in Aspidiotus. 
The puparium of the male is long and narrow; the perfect insect does not 
differ from Aspidiotus, except that the space between the first and second 
pair of legs appears disproportionately long. 

1. Diaspis boisduvalii, Signoret. 

Plate VI., fig. 9. 

This is an European species. I have found it in abundance upon 
orchids in Mr. Dunean's hot-houses. The female is somewhat pear-shaped, 
the cephalic region smooth, with a protruding lobe at each side on a level 
with the rostrum, distinguishing it from all the other species. There is 
sometimes a cottony fluff on the body. The widest portion is a little below 
the lateral protuberances ; from thence it tapers gradually to the posterior 
extremity, where the abdomen ends in two lobes with a depression between 
them. The abdominal curve is broken by small serrations with a few spiny 
hairs amongst them. The pygidium has five groups of spinnerets; the 
uppermost group has from five to eight openings, the two upper side ones 
twenty to twenty-five, the two lower somewhat less. There are a few 
scattered single spinnerets, mostly oblong. 

The male is very small; its cocoon is white, cylindrical, with the dis- 
carded pellicle (similar to that of the female) at one end. As in Aspidiotus 
epidendri, the perfect insect escapes from its cocoon backwards (Plate VI., 
fig. 9b. The head is transverse, grooved in front, with four eyes, of which 
the two occupying the position of the rostrum are full of pigment. The 
antenne spring from the anterior region; they are very long, having ten 
joints, of which the two first are short and thick, without hairs, the 
remainder twice as long but narrower, and covered with fine hairs. The 
last jomt (which possibly may consist of two or three soldered together) is 
spindle-shaped. 

The thorax is long ; the thoracic band conspicuous, but occupying only 
about half the width of the body. The wings, which appear to have only a 


MaskELL.—On some Coccidee in New Zealand. 201 


single nervure, are oval, and estend far beyond the extremity of the 
abdomen. The abdominal spike, which has a tubular sheath of larger size 
and length than in Aspidiotus, is double and long, but does not reach the 
tip of the wings. 

The legs are hairy; femora and tibiæ about the same length, but the 
former thicker than the latter; tarsi thick and spindle-shaped, ending in 
the usual single claw. The great distance between the first and second 
pair of legs gives the insect a peculiar bg uas: 

2. Diaspis rose, San dberg. 

Plate VI., fig. 9c. 

This also is European. It occurs here on rose trees at Governor's Bay, 
in Mr. Potts's garden. The puparium is flat and white, and the discarded 
pellicles on one side. The adult female is of a deep red colour, elongated 
in form, distinguishable from all other species by the size of the cephalic 
region and the deep corrugations of the body. Its appearance is more 
striking than that of any other species of the Diaspide, and the contrast 
of the blood-red head and thorax with the bright yellow abdominal region 
is curious. 

The cephalic region, mushroom-shaped, is quite smooth. There is no 
appearance of rudimentary antenna. The body has four large corruga- 
tions, nearly equal in size, and on the last two are a few spiny hairs. The 
abdomen, broken by serrations, ends in two lobes with a depression between 
them. The pygidium has five groups of spinnerets, but the side groups are 
almost continuous. The upper group has about 20 openings, the side ones 
50 or 60; there are no single spinnerets but on each side 8 or 4 rows of 
large oval openings forming arches. 

The young insect is brown, oval, with the head a little flattened 
anteriorly ; the legs and antenne and abdominal hairs as in other species. 

The cocoon of the male is white, cylindrical. I have not yet a specimen 
of the perfect insect. 

3. Diaspis gigas, sp. nov. 

Plate VI., fig. 10. 

I found this species on Atherosperma nove-zealandie, a North Island tree, 
of which Mr. Armstrong gave me a branch some months ago. I believe it 
best, as a rule, to use the name of the tree on which a scale-insect lives as 
its specific name, but as I have already used this particular name in the 
case of an Aspidiotus, I prefer, in order to avoid confusion, to call the 
present species by a descriptive title. I have lately found it in abundance 
on a species of Astelia, in Riecarton Bush. It is the largest of the Diaspidw 
which has yet come under my notice ; the puparium of the female is some- 


times more than } inch long and pẹ inch wide; the female reaches yy inch - 
in length, : i | 


* 


202 Transactions.—Zoology. 


The puparium is yellowish-brown or dirty white, flat, roughly pear- 
shaped, thin in texture. The discarded pellicle of the first stage occupies 
the broad end of the pear; that of the second nearly fills the puparium. 
This second pellicle is different in shape from those of other species. 
Instead of being oval in shape with a regularly curved outline, it is nearly 
identical with the form of the adult female. Its cephalic and thoracic 
portions are very large, oval, and smooth; at the point corresponding to 
the metathorax are two prominent lobes, triangular, with rounded angles, 
the apex of each turned slightly outwards. The outline then descends with 
three or four other smaller lobes to the extremity of the abdomen. Plate 
VI., fig. 10b, shows the appearance of this pellicle. 

The adult female would appear to be, in its earlier state, as large as the 
second pellicle, that is, filling the puparium or nearlyso. In the specimens 
which I obtained the female had begun in every instance to lay her eggs, 
and was gradually shrivelling up. Her appearance is shown in plate VL, 
fig.10a. It will be seen that the lobes visible in the pellicle are here absent, 
but I am not sure whether this is not the effect of the shrivelling of the 
body. 

The cephalic region is still proportionately very large. The abdomen is 
conical, the sides broken to within a short distance of the extremity by 
sharp serrations, between which are triangular scaly hairs. There are no 
groups of spinnerets, and only a few scattered single ones. 

The puparium of the male is long, narrow, whitish, and with the 
appearance of a semi-cylinder lying upon a plane base. The perfect insect, 
in general appearance, resembles the male of Diaspis boisduvalii; but the 
abdomen is not nearly so long, and the tubular sheath of the abdominal 
spike is much smaller, being nearly globular. The antenne are much the 
same as in D. boisduvalii. The thoracic band occupies about half the width. 

This species appears to be very subject to fungoid growth. In dealing 
with the succeeding families of Lecanide and Coccide, we shall find that 
very many of their species are subject to fungus; but in the Diaspide, so 
far as I have been able to observe, this is not the case. Diaspis gigas, how- 
ever, on the branch of Atherosperma, which I received, was in several 
instances entirely overgrown by a fungus which appeared to me to belong 
to the Physomycetous Order and family Antennariei. In one instance this 
growth, which was clearly attached to the puparium, extended nearly an 
inch in every direction round it. 

4. Diaspis —— 

©) Plate VI., fig. 10e. 

On the same tree, Atherosperma, I found a Diaspis which may perhaps 

be an abnormal form of the last species, perhaps distinct. The puparium 


ucc c eee 


* 


Maskeni,—0n some Coccide in New Zealand. 208 


was oval; the adult female, somewhat resembling Mi ytilaspis pomorum, was 
dark yellow in colour, irregular in shape, having three prominent lobes on 
each side, The male puparium was oval; the enclosed pupa was not to be 
clearly made out, but seemed to resemble Diaspis gigas. 

The above include all the species of Diaspide which I have as yet 
observed. There are doubtless many more in the country, and I hope at 
some future time to be able to procure new specimens. Meanwhile I shall 
go on to the next family of scale insects, the Lecanids. 

Since writing the above I have found three other Diaspide, which may 
be new species, but which I have not had time to thoroughly examine. 

The first, a Mytilaspis, is found on a small Leucopogon growing on dry 
soil in the hills, It is yellowish, with a puparium somewhat pear-shaped, 
quite white, and rather tough. It is very minute, averaging only about y 
inch in length. The puparium of the male seems to be narrower, if the 
specimens I have looked at are the cocoons of males. The abdominal 
region of the female has a pygidium with eight groups of spinnerets; the 
lower groups have from twenty to thirty openings in each, the upper only 
from four to six. There are a great number of cylindrical protruding 
tubes. The abdomen ends with six spines. The lobes are inconspicuous, 
with a medial depression. 

Another M ytilaspis, found on a very small Mesembryanthemum growing 
moss-like in our river-beds, appears to differ from the last only in its colour, 
which is dull red. I am not sure how far mere colour may be taken as 
constituting a specific difference. 

The third insect, growing on the Wild Irishman (Discaria toumatou), 
Seems to me a species of Diaspis; but the only specimens I found were a 
number of discarded pellicles of the female mixed up in a mass of white 
cottony fibre as in Diaspis rose. 

I hope shortly to be able to identify all these insects. 

I nave now to pass from the first group of Scale Insects to the second 
group, the Lecanide. In investigating this group it will be necessary first 
of all to divide it into several classes, because otherwise it will be impossible 
to avoid confusion. The number of genera and species of the Lecanid@ is 
So great, the plants infested by them are so various, and their specific 
differences so slight in many instances, that it is easy, I should say, to fall 
into errors concerning them, I have, however, no intention of dwelling at 
length upon those species which, although attacking plants in this country 
in gardens or greenhouses, are European, and described by other observers. 
Of these, as far as my experience goes, we have in New Zealand several ; 
but, with one exception, which I take as the type of the group, I shall pass 
lightly over them and go on to the genera and species which I believe to be 
new and indigenous. | 


204 Transactions.—Zoology. 


The Lecanide affect the most varied forms and habits. Some are flat, 
some are globular; some are naked, some covered with a test which may be 
cottony, or glassy, or waxy; some are viviparous, some form cocoons or 
nests for their eggs. But there are two charaeters which very clearly 
distinguish them all from the Diaspide. These are the presence of a 
mentum or under lip, and an abdomen cleft at its posterior extremity, with 
two triangular lobes above the cleft. 

In the Diaspide the rostral sete are clear of the body from the moment 
they leave the tip of the rostrum. In the Lecanide the sete pass some 
little way down the body, and then, returning towards the rostrum, pass 
through a second tube, or mentum, as shown in plate VL, fig. 11a. This 
mentum is also visible in the next group, the Coccide proper; but it is there 
articulate, whereas in the Lecanids it has but one segment. 

The rostral sete appear to be generally three, but in some instances I 
ean observe that one of them is double. 

The abdominal cleft and its lobes are shown in plate VI., fig. 115. There 
are of course specific differences in the size and shape of these lobes, in the 
hairs on the abdomen, and in the spines surrounding the anal ring. 

In plate VI., fig. 11c, I give a representation of the respiratory system of 


& Lecanium, the arrangement of which does not greatly differ in the species l 


which I have observed. It will be seen that there are four stigmata, from 
each of which start large trachee covering the body with their ramifica- 
tions. Fig. 11d gives a magnified figure of a stigma, mounted in balsam, 
with the stigmatic spines. - 

The antenne in the young insect have usually six or seven joints; in 
the adult female seven or eight. The feet end in a single claw; just above 
the claw spring four hairs, of which the two uppermost are long, ending in 
a small knob, the lower pair generally shorter and broader, swelling out into 
a club at the end. See plate VI., fig. 11e. 

The males of most of the Lecanide are, I believe, unknown. 1 have 
been fortunate enough to procure specimens of males of one indigenous 
species. 

The two distinguishing characters just mentioned, the uni-articulate 
mentum and the bi-lobed abdomen, are best observed in the young insect. 
The former, indeed, is often not to be made out in the adult, but the latter 
is generally conspicuous enough to prevent mistaking one of the Lecanide 
for an insect belonging to another group. 

All the Lecanide are very much infested by a fungus, apparently of the 
order Coniomycetes. No doubt most people have observed that plants 
attacked by seale, such as for instance the holly, or the ivy, have also their 
leaves much blackened. The blackening is due to the fungus just men- 


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TRANS NZINSTITUTE VOLXLPLVL 


COCCIDA. 


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MaskELL.—On some Coccide in New Zealand. 205 


My subsections of this group, after having said so much of its general 
characteristics, are as follows :— 
1, Lecaniee, for the species having the body of the female naked, 
often viviparous. 


2. Pulvinariee, for the species having the body naked, but formimg 
cottony nests for the eggs 

8. Lecanio-diaspide, for the species having the body covered with a 
test ; sometimes viviparous. 

Of course, Tam here only paying attention to such classes as contain 
genera known to me in New Zealand. There are many other divisions, but 
they do not come within my scope. 

Subsection I.—Lzcanmz. 

All the species which I have observed in this class are European, and I 
might therefore, according to my intention expressed just now, pass them 
over without entering into details. But there is one species which has 
become so widely spread and so noxious in this country, and which is 
moreover so excellent a type of the whole group, that I am constrained to 
dwell more particularly upon it. This species, which infests in our green- 
houses a vast number of plants, and in our gardens the holly, ivy, ilex, bay, 
Portugal laurel, orange and other trees, is, I suppose, tolerably well known, 
as far as its outside appearance goes, to most amongst us. It is 

1. Lecanium hesperidum; auctorum. 

Plate VI., fig. 12. 

The young insect, in outline, is not much different from that of Mytilas- 
pis pomorum, with the exception of the abdominal cleft. In colour it is 
reddish brown; it is flat and very active. The antenns have six joints, 
but the fifth joint looks as if it were composed of two soldered together; the 
third joint is the longest. The last joint has a few hairs. The tibie and 
tarsi are of about equal length; the upper pair of hairs, or digitules, above 
the claw long, the lower pair short and narrow. The abdominal lobes end 
in two very long sete. Plate VI., fig. 12a. 

The adult female is figured by Westwood (vol. 2), but not large enough 
for detail. M. Signoret gives only a brief — The insect is flat, 
oval, brown in colour, sometimes as much as } inch long. The abdominal 
lobes are not, in the live animal, so apparent as in the young; but when 
mounted for the microscope they are plainly seen to be without the two 
long hairs characterising the young insect; as shown in plate VI., fig. 11b. 
The anal ring is surrounded by six long hairs. The lobes are triangular, 
with rounded angles, or heart-shaped. 

The antenns, which do not, as in the Diaspide, disappear with age, — 
have seven joints; fig. 12b. The first and second joints are the thickest; 


206 Transactions.—Zoology, 


the third, fourth, and seventh the longest, and about equal to one another ; 
the fifth and sixth somewhat shorter. There are a very few hairs on most 
of the joints, but the seventh has a good number. 

The feet are moderately long; the coxa thick, the femur moderately 
large and about the same length as the tibia which is somewhat thinner, 
the tarsus still narrower, tapering to the claw. The upper pair of digitules 
above the claw are pretty long, ending in a very small knob; the lower pair 
are about twice the length of the claw, very broad. 

The general outline of the body (fig. 12c) is oval, but varying in eccentri- 
city. On the holly and ivy in our gardens it forms a pretty regular ellipse ; 
on the Portugal laurel it is more elongated; on the orange nearly circular. 
It is covered with minute specks, and a row of small hairs, not very close 
together, runs round the edge. There are four stigmata, as shown in plate 
VL, fig. 10c, and opposite each, at the edge, is a depression with three 
strong spines, of which the middle one is much longer than the other two. 
At certain stages of the life of the insect, on lifting it from the leaf, cottony 
trails may be seen on the plant marking the position of these stigmata, an 
appearance usual, according to Signoret, amongst the Lecanide. 

The male of this species is unknown. 

Lecanium hesperidum is said to be always viviparous. In the Diaspide, 
the female lays her eggs in a prepared nest; in the Lecaniew she becomes 

herself the nest of her young. About April, in this country, on turning 
over one of the females, it will be seen that on the under side of the body, 
there is a broad deep-red cavity, between which and the leaf numerous 
young ones run briskly about. Inserting the insect into some transparent 
fluid, such as glycerine or balsam, the body is seen to be full of eggs; but, 
with the exception of some minute white objects amongst the brown young 
ones which might be remains of shells, no eggs are visible outside her. I 
am unable to account for the blood-red colour of the cavity. Signoret 
speaks of it as ‘‘a mortified spot;" but it sometimes occupies nearly half 
the under surface of the body, and at the same time the insect is not dead. 
The interior substance, which, in mounting for the microscope, is pressed 
out of the body, is not red but yellowish brown. 

This insect is becoming a veritable pest in this country. Hollies, ivies, 
Portugal laurels, and many other trees in our gardens are every year 
becoming more and more infested with it. Whatever may be the chances 
of keeping it down in greenhouses, it is to be feared that a cure for plants 
out of doors is next to impossible. 

2. Lecanium depressum, Targioni. 

This is an European species, occurring here in our greenhouses. The 
adult female is oval, not so flat as Lecanium hesperidum, and with the skin 
curiously marked with a mosaic pattern, 


| ESSA on Gan GE ToS Rp EO A TOT AEN eee eR ase REOR a A eae ei aa Rt TERT PORE SEC 


MasKELL.—On some Coccidee in New Zealand. 207 


8. Lecanium hibernaculorum, Targioni. 

Also European; the body, in its later stages becomes quite rounded or 
bag-shaped, the open mouth of the bag downwards on the leaf. The bag 
becomes filled with eggs and young. The skin is marked with small spots 
at pretty regular distances. It is common in our greenhouses. 

4. Lecanium maculatum, Signoret. 

European; occurring here on a hothouse plant, Bavardia. The species 
is distinguished by a row of oval spots commencing above the abdominal 
lobes and extending up the centre of the dorsal region as far as the rostrum. 

I need not dwell longer on the species of Lecanies; there are others 
here, but European. Nor shall I dwell upon the next subsection on my list. 

II.—PurvisanrE x. 

As far as my observation has extended, this subsection is confined here 
to one species, namely, the Camellia scale. 

5. Pulvinaria camellicola, Signoret. 

The insect, which is European, differs from Lecanium hesperidum chiefly 
inits mode of propagation. Instead of producing the young beneath itself 
it forms elongated cocoons of white cottony fibre in which it encloses its 
eggs. Ihave not been fortunate enough to procure a male, although, as I 
understand, it is not rare. - 

III.—Lecanto-piaspip#, Targioni. 

I come now to my third subsection, containing in this country only 
genera and species which are, as I believe, new to science. The subsection 
itself has been created by Professor Targioni-Tozzetti, of Florence, in order 
to include those genera of Coccide which partake of the characters of the 
Lecanide and of the characters of the Diaspidm. They have the mentum 
and abdominal lobes of Lecanium, but they are surrounded by a shell, shield 
or test, as in Diaspis. This test or carapace is therefore a character clearly 
distinguishing them from the other Lecanide which have the body naked in 
allits stages; at the same time the abdominal lobes forbid their entrance 
into any other group. 

It would appear that Professor Targioni makes one of the distinguishing 
characters of this subsection the fact that the insects lose their limbs like 
the Diaspidz, ** becoming apodous in the adult stage." Now the genera 
and species which I have to describe do not all entirely agree with this 
account. The feet and antenna are preserved at least until the female has 
propagated her young and sometimes still later, although in other instances 
I have been unable to detect the limbs in the later stages. To the naked 
eye, indeed, or even with a low power of the microscope, all the insects 
appear apodous ; but a higher power often reveals the limbs as if buried in 
the fat body. It seems to me that I have therefore only two alternatives; 


208 Transactions.—Zoology. 


either to create a new subsection, or to attach so much elasticity to the 
existing classification as to allow these species to belong to the Lecanio- 
diaspide. I am loth to take the former course, because in their other 
characters they present little difficulty ; moreover, the context of the 
expression quoted above is not entirely free from doubt. I shall therefore 
proceed upon the second course. 

I have already said that the insects in this subsection combine the 
mentum and lobes of Lecanium with a test or carapace as in the Diaspide. 
In the species before me this test is whitish, glassy, and transparent in the 
earlier stages, often waxy on the old insects. A fringe more or less broad, 
and divided into segments more or less large, is seen in most species ; and 
the old female, after having produced her young, is generally found 
shrivelled up at the cephalic end of the test. 

Spinnerets are not to be made out in the earlier stages, but whan the 
insect is fully grown there may be seen, all round the edge of the body, a 
row of numerous cireular openings, and, especially in Ctenochiton viridis, 
other rows of minute oval marks disposed along the borders of seales like 
those of a tortoise. I imagine that these marks are the spinnerets. 

In this subsection I have two genera, both of which I believe to be new. 

CTENOCHITON, gen. nov. 

Four genera are included by Signoret in the subsection Lecanio- 
diaspidee :— 

lst, Pollinia, in which the test is globular, and the young insect pre- 
sents, instead of the abdominal lobes of Lecanium, the anal tubercles of 
Coccus, 

2nd, Asterolecanium, in which the fringe is double, and the females in 
most cases apodous. 

8rd, Planchonia, in which the test is felted, the adult female without 
feet or antennæ. 

4th, Lecanio-diaspis in which the test is also felted, but the female 
retains her antenne, 

It will be seen that my genus Ctenochiton does not agree with any of 
these. The young insect has the abdominallobes; the test is glassy and 
transparent, becoming waxy at a later period and, in one species, felted at 
the latest stage ; the females preserve their feet and antenne at least until 
after producing the young. 

6. Ctenochiton perforatus, sp. nov. 

Plate VIL, figs. 18, 14. 

This species is very common upon native trees and shrubs near 

Christchurch. Pittosporum, Drimys, Coprosma, Rubus, Panaz and many 
others are attacked by it, sometimes so much so that the underside of the 
leaves is scarcely to be seen for the number of insects covering them, 


TWAA BANA TAPE PPA aa 


AA a em eee EE Ne poet re NE RS 


MasKELL.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 209 


The young, on leaving the parent, resembles that of Lecantum hesperi- 
dum ; in fact I can see no difference except that perhaps one of the hairs on 
the last joint of the antenus is longer in this species. The antenna has 
Six joints, on the last of which are eight fine hairs. 

In its next stage the female insect is extremely thin, appearing on the 
leaf like a translucent blueish film; so thin indeed that some care is 
necessary to detach it unbroken from the plant. Sometimes so many of 
these films are seen together as to give quite a slimy appearance to the 
under side of the leaf. Plate VII, fig. 18a, shows the appearance of the 
insect at this stage. The toothed fringe is here seen as closely attached to 
the body; it is very difficult, if not impossible, to detach it mechanically at 
this stage. Upon immersion, however, in turpentine or spirits of wine and 
then in Canada balsam the test seems to become dissolved, and with it dis- 
appears the fringe, leaving the insect as shown in fig. 134. 

It will be seen that the outline of the body is elliptical, but instead of 
presenting a regular curve as in Lecanium hesperidum the edge shows a 
number of re-entering curves, giving a wavy appearance. This peculiarity 
is noticeable to a greater or less extent in all the species of the present sub- 
division which I have observed; and I am somewhat inclined to think that 
it might be taken as a distinguishing characteristic of the New Zealand 
Lecanio-diaspida. 

The rostrum and mentum are of the usual kind. The antenna have 
seven joints (fig. 13c); the third much the longest, the two first short and 
broad, the fourth rather less than the fifth which is again rather less than 
the sixth, the sixth about equal to the seventh which has a few long hairs. 
The legs have the cox; very thick, the femora thick and not very long, the 
tibie and tarsi narrow and of about equal length. The claw (fig. 18d) has 
the upper digitules very long, with a minute knob, the lower pair shorter, 
and not nearly as broad as in Lecanium hesperidum. The abdominal lobes 
are as usual, and the anal ring has six or eight long hairs. 

Opposite the stigmata are spines, as in all Lecanid@, and several short 
hairs are placed all round the edge. 

The eyes appear as small red granular spots placed in front of the 
antenne. 

It is not until the female insect has entered upon a later stage that the 
character of the test or carapace can be made out. An insect taken towards 
the end of summer, say in February, can be easily detached from its test; 
and in the autumn and winter a large number of tests, empty, may be 
seen on the leaves. The female herself does not, I think, undergo a change, 
except that she has increased in size and thickness and is full of eggs. She 
appears circular in outline, somewhat convex, with an average diameter of 

w 


210 Transactions.—Zoology. 


l inch. A rather broad edge runs round the body, on the interior of which 
are seen the numerous circular openings of the spinnerets. The antenna 
and feet do not seem to have changed. There is a small quantity of white 
cottony fibre visible on the under side, but the general appearance is rather 
leathery. 

The test, detached from the insect, is seen to have become thicker and 
more solid than on the young female. It has now the appearance not of a 
translucent film but of a thin cake of cloudy wax. It is still extremely 
brittle, but it does not dissolve when immersed in Canada balsam. The 
whole of the central space, as shown in fig. 18e, is seen to be divided into 
segments, irregular in shape, of which the row along the middle may be 
said to be roughly hexagonal, having next to i& on each side a row of 
elongated pentagons with apices turned outwards and then a third row of 
pentagons with their bases outwards, with a few triangular segments filling 
up the spaces. The divisions between the segments are somewhat thickened, 
and along each runs a line of very small oval marks, possibly spinneret 
orifices. I have not, in this species, observed any symmetrical markings 
on the interior segments, a feature which, I think, distinguishes the next 
species on my list. 

The apices of the first row of pentagons reach nearly to the edge of the 
solid part of the test. The bases of the second row form the edge itself, and 
are in juxtaposition to the segments of the fringe, which are much the same 
as in the earlier stage. In this outer row of pentagons, however, and in the 
fringe are observable certain peculiar markings, shown in figs. 18e and 13f. 
I am not aware of the use of these, which appear to be produced by rows of 
perforations containing air. The effect of them is not without beauty. 

In autumn the female is seen in her last stage. Having produced all her 
young she becomes shrivelled up at the cephalic end of the test in a shape- 
less mass, in which the legs, antenns and abdominal lobes can be dis- 
tinguished with difficulty. 

The male of this species is by no means uncommon. In the spring a 
large proportion of males will be found under tests similar to those of the 
female. The insect is shown in plate VII., fig. 14a. 

The head is somewhat rounder than those of the Diaspide. The eyes 
are small and granular, and there are four pairs of them. The antenna, 
fig. 14a’, are placed at the anterior part; they are long, having nine joints, 
of which the first is very short and thick, the second thin and rather longer, 
the three next each about twice as long as the second, the remainder equal 
to the second and to each other. Every joint has numerous hairs. 

The coxæ are thick, the femora longer and more slender, the tibie still 
longer and thinner, broadening a little to the tarsus which is not quite half 


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WA —— €— 


Wa IP UTEBNIRUPE PUNIRI mn 


MaskELL.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand, 211 


as long, and tapers slightly to the claw. All the joints are hairy. The 
upper digitules are not long, and the knobs small; the lower pair are only 
airs. 

The thoracic band occupies nearly the whole width; the wings are 
broad and elliptical, with a single nervure of two branches. The abdomen, 
somewhat long, ends in a single spike shorter than that of the Diaspide. 

This species is very much infested by a hymenopterous parasite which 
takes advantage of its test to lay therein its eggs. A very large number of 
tests will be found to contain, not their proper insects, but pups of this 
parasitic fly which might possibly be mistaken for males of Ctenochiton, I 
have been able to follow the transformation of the parasite, which appears 
to be one of the Proctotrupidz and which I have described in a short paper 
read before you to-night,” 

T. Ctenochiton viridis, sp. nov. 

The differences between this and the last species are not, I think, 
noticeable in the earlier stages, except that the insect when first appearing 
on the leaf with its fringe has not so much of the filmy look of C. perforatus, 
but is yellower and somewhat more solid. The divergence is more apparent 
in the stage of propagation, when C. viridis attains a much larger size, The 
female insect has then a bright green colour, is sometimes j-inch long 
and }-inch wide and pear-shaped, acuminate at the cephalic end. It 
has a repulsive appearance on the underside of the leaf where it forms a 
depression corresponding to its body. I have found it abundant on Co- 
prosma, Panax, and Rubus, near Christchurch, in Riccarton Bush. 

The test, in the earlier stage, resembles that of C. perforatus, being 
glassy, with a fringe of broad segments. At the later stage the fringe 
disappears, and the test, instead of being easily removable as in the last 
species, becomes intimately attached to the insect, so that in order to 
examine it one has to tear and wash away the body and internal organs. 
When this is done it is seen that the rows of segments are more numerous 
than in C. perforatus, the segments themselves smaller, and the oval mark- 
ings on the dividing lines in double rows. Moreover, each segment is 
marked by radiating straight lines crossed by wavy curves, giving it an 
appearance something like the scale of a fish. These lines are not clearly 
to be made out after immersion in a fluid, such as glycerine or Canada 
balsam. 

The fringe is absent at this stage, and there is no sign of the lines of 
perforations characteristic of the Jast species. 

The appearance of a segment of the test is shown in plate VIL, fig. 145. 


> Vide Art. XVII, 


212 " Transactions..—Z oology. 


The antenns and feet do not, as long as the fringe is present, differ 
from those of C. perforatus. In the later stage, when the insect has 
attained its full size, they become very small proportionately, indeed 
almost atrophied, and difficult to make out. Maceration in potash shows 
them as existing, but they can be of no use to the insect. I cannot detect 
any difference between them and the antenns and feet of C. perforatus, 
except their comparative smallness. 

The edge of the female in the earlier stages presents the usual wavy 
outline which I referred to just now. 

In its last stage the female is enclosed in a thick coat of whitish-cottony 
felted fibre. The feet and antenn# are only to be made out after prolonged 
maceration in potash. The whole mass inside the felted matter is dirty- 
brown in colour, leathery in texture, preserving the acuminate pear-shape 
of the last stage. 

When arrived at this condition the insect appears on leaves of Panaz, 
Rubus, Coprosma, ete., like splashes of birds’ dung, giving the leaf a 
peculiarly nasty look. 

I have not found the male insect. 

8, Ctenochiton elongatus, sp. nov. 

Plate VII., fig. 14. 

I obtained this species in Auckland, on Geniostoma ligustrifolium. I have 
only the female, in one stage. The body is very much more elongated than 
in the last species, the width being not more than a quarter of the length; 
the edge of the body is, as usual, wavy; the stigmatie spines very pro- 
minent. 

The antenne and feet resemble those of C. perforatus, but I can detect 
no lower digitules. 

The fringe, which disappears in Canada balsam, differs from that of 
C. perforatus in the absence of the perforations and in the shape of the 
segments. Instead of the perforations there seem to be transverse wrinkles, 
and the segments are not roundly triangular but quadrate outwardly, their 
inner apices pointed; see plate VIL, fig. 144. The remainder of the test is 
divided into quadrangular scales. The whole test is extremely delicate and 
transparent. 

9. Ctenochiton spinosus, Sp. nov. 

Plate VII., fig. 15. 

I have this species from Atherosperma nove-zealandie. The female is 
brown, oval, about „y inch long, the edge slightly wavy. The antenne are 
thick, with seven joints, all nearly equal in length; the third joint is some- 
| what the longest; the seventh has a few hairs; plate VIL., fig. 15a, The 


Masxeti.—On some Coccida in New Zealand. 918 


. feet are long; the coxa thick, femur thick and twice as long, tibia and 
tarsus narrow but equal in length to the femur; upper digitules short; I 
have not seen the lower pair. Fig. 15d. 

The abdominal lobes, rostrum and mentum as usual, 

The body, fig. 15b, is edged with a row of strong bristly spines, seemingly 
hollow, starting each from a distinct tubercular root, and set close together. 
Each spine is slightly curved, and the whole row gives the insect something 
of the look of Dactylopius citri, Signoret, a similarity which is at once seen 
to be deceptive on comparing the species. 

The test is thin and waxy, and does not appear to be subdivided into 
segments as in C. perforatus; but my specimens are so much covered with 
fungoid growth that I cannot make this out with certainty. The fringe is 
composed of feather-like segments, much narrower than in the other species. 
Each feather corresponds to, and covers, a spine of the body. See figs. 15b 
and 15c. 

T have not a specimen of the male. 

I come now to another genus, which I believe to be also new. It was 
brought to me first by Mr. J. Inglis, from whom I have named it; but I 
have since found it on Coprosma in Ricearton Bush. 

I include this genus in the Lecanio-diaspide, on account of the test and 
the presence of the abdominal lobes, but it differs from Ctenochiton in the 
shape of the test and the absence of segmental fringe. 

Inguisia, gen. nov. 

I have as yet only one species of this genus, which presents one or two 
remarkable characters. Exteriorly it resembles very much in shape a 
limpet, from which I have given it the specific name of 

10. Inglisia patella, sp. nov. 

Plate VII., fig. 16. 

The test is whitish, glassy, limpet-shaped, marked with istic strie ; 
the stris, on examination, prove to be composed of rows of oval perfora- 
tions containing air. They give to the test, which is composed of several 
corrugations, a very elegant appearance—fig. 16a. The insect, test and all, 
reaches j to y inch in diameter. The height is about one-third of the 
length. 

The female insect, fig. 16/, corresponds in shape to the test, filling it 
entirely. In this state the antenne and feet are scarcely to be made out, 
but on maceration in potash and subsequent pressure the underside presents 
the appearance shown in fig. 16b. The wavy edge spoken of above is here 
visible, and it is seen that the curves of the body correspond with the cor- 
rugations of the test. The antenns are very short, and, as far as I have 
` observed, have only six joints, but I may be in error in this, as the Lecanida 


£ 


Wa 


214 Transactions.—Zoology. 


have almost all seven-jointed antenna in the adult. The second joint, fig. 
16c, is very short, the third the longest, the fourth, fifth and sixth about 
equal in length; the last three have some hairs. The feet, fig. 16e, have the 
femur thick and strong, tibie rather longer and thick, tarsus still longer 
and thin; the upper digitules very long, the lower pair narrow, about twice 
as long as the claw. The edge of the body is surrounded with a row of 
small spines, of which each alternate spine is pointed (fig. 16d), the remainder 
club-shaped. The abdominal lobes of the Lecanide are present, but the cleft 
is different from that of any other species. The abdomen, as shown in figs. 
16 and 16d, ends in a pair of narrow curved protuberances, nearly meeting 
at their ends, but separated above by a broad open space in which the two 
abdominallobes are seen protruding. The row of alternate spines does not 
extend round this space. The anal ring has eight long hairs. 

The edge of the body shows a double line, like a ribbon, in which are set 
the alternate spines. Inside thisis a row of spinnerets with, on the inner 
side, a line of short curves. . The edge itself is crenated. i 

The female in the stage immediately preceding that which I have 
described, and before covering itself with the test, resembles somewhat the 
female of Ctenochiton, as given in plate VII., fig. 18b. The outline of the body 
is much the same, with the four spiracular spines, and the alternate pointed 
and clubbed spines are absent. But, on close examination, it cannot be 
mistaken for Ctenochiton, as the antennæ are shorter and thicker, and the 
abdominal cleft already shows signs of the peculiar shape assumed in the 
later stage. Moreover, a commencement of the test may usually be detected, 
and this is quite different from that of the Ctenochiton. 

I have not yet found the male of this interesting species which, in out- 
ward appearance, has some similarity to Fairmairia bipartita, Bignoret, but 
is certainly not the same. 


I ovext now to proceed to the description of the third great group of Scale 
Insects, the Coccide proper. But I must first give an account of a genus 
which perhaps should have come into my last paper, but which I had not, 
at the last meeting of the Institute, made out sufficiently for description. 

This genus is somewhat anomalous. It is clearly not belonging to 
Lecanium, nor does it come under the subdivision Lecanio-diaspide, as the 
abdominal lobes are wanting, or rather different. At the same time it has 
so much likeness to the Lecanide that I cannot connect it with any other 
group. I imagine, then, that the genus is new, and typical, in fact, of a 
new subdivision, to which I give the name of 

ÁASTEROCHITON, gen. nov. 
"The genus is characterised by enclosure in a test which is so intimately 


os : masi to the insect that it cannot be removed without injury. The 


Masxetu.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 215 


specimens which I have obtained from Canterbury, Wellington, and Auck- 
land, although taken at different seasons, in October, J uly, February, March, 
and April, show only two forms. The one is the young insect before it 
becomes covered by the test; the other is apparently an intermediate stage 
prior to appearance as a perfect insect. In July, on fronds of Polypodium 
billardieri, I have collected great numbers of empty tests, and intermixed 
with them tests with enclosed insects. It might be assumed that this fact 
points to the emergence of insects in the perfect state leaving their pupa- 
eases behind them. But so many of these cases contained the pupe or the 
remains of the pupe of parasitic flies, that it is equally probable that the 
scale-insect had been devoured. I hope to obtain, ere long, specimens of 
other stages of this insect; meanwhile, as there is no doubt that, in the 
stages whieh I have observed, it differs considerably from any other genus, 
I shall proceed to describe it. 

In the Lecanio-diaspide the test does not entirely enclose the insect, 
which is, on the underside, free. Ctenochiton viridis, which I described in 
my last paper, becomes in its later stages closely attached to its test, and 
in its last form of all enveloped inacottony mass. But this last takes place 
when the insect is practically dead, or dying ; indeed, I am inclined to think 
that the white mass is not the usual cottony web of the Coccide but 
fungoid.  Asterochiton, on the other hand, in the specimens I have seen, is 
entirely shut up in its test ; even the feet are useless to it, being enclosed. 
All that emerges is the mentum with its suctorial sete ; and it is this which 
prevents me from considering the insect as being in a pupa state. If it 
were a pupa I imagine that it would not require to feed, and the mentum 
would be enclosed like the other organs. 

This genus, I may observe, cannot well belong to any of those described 
by M. Signoret, under his subdivision Lecanio-diaspide, such as Pollinia, 
Asterolecanium, as in those the young insect has the abdomen ending in 
two protruding tubercles, which in this genus is not the case, 

I have two species of the genus. 

1. Asterochiton lecanioides, sp. nov. 

Plate VII., fig. 17. 

Common near Christchnrch, on Pittosporum eugenioides and Polypodium 
billardieri. 

The young insect is extremely minute, and requires great care to mount, 
It is oval (plate VII, fig. 17a), greenish gray in colour, the outline smooth, 
with the four spiracular spines of the Lecanidz; at the posterior end are 
six long hairs, of which the two middle ones are the longest. The eyes are 
red, comparatively large, granular, and set somewhat far back; the anal 
marks resemble those of the adult, I have not been able to make out the 
&ntenne and feet, 


216 Transactions.—Zoology. 


With a very high power of the microscope the commencement of the 
test may be observed, which in the next stage envelopes the insect. Here, 
as shown in fig. 175, the outline is still oval, but the edge is slightly crenated ; 
there are now only four hairs at the posterior end and these are short. The 
insect is evidently quite enclosed in the test. There is an indication of the 
abdominal cleft, but it is only a sort of groove, and the abdominal lobes are 
replaced by a sort of vase-shaped organ. It is possible sometimes to mount 
a specimen so that the sight is not wholly impeded by the test, and it is 
then seen that the antennz are short and the legs thick, but I have not 
been able to make out the joints of either satisfactorily. Round the edge 
runs a row of cup-shaped spinnerets, and a number of others, sometimes 
protruding in form of tubes, are scattered over the body. 

Later on, although the insect appears not to have entered any further 
stage, the tests are very frequently found empty. This may be attributed 
to the action of parasitic flies, for the tests commonly enclose either the 
pupa or the pellicles of these, the scale insect having disappeared. The 
tests are white and glassy, and over them are scattered, chiefly round the 
edge, tubular appendices corresponding to the spinnerets on the body of the 
insect. Sometimes these tubes are set so close together that they are 
straight and have the appearance of a fringe, but as a rule they are 
irregularly set and curled in different directions. 

2. Asterochiton aureus, sp. NOV. 

Plate VII., fig. 17. 

I have this species from Melicytus ramiflorus at Auckland. It differs 
from the last in being of a golden or orange colour, the insect in the middle 
being purple. The outline is also more inclined to be circular, the size is 
larger, the test is somewhat thinner and allows the insect to be better seen, 
the groove at the posterior end is deeper, and the rows of spinnerets more 
numerous. I have not observed in this species any protruding tubes. The 
antenne and legs, so far as I have been able to make them out, seem 
to resemble those of A. lecanioides. Fig. 17d. 


I pass now to the description of the Coecidz proper. This group con- 
tains several subdivisions, but, as heretofore, I shall confine myself to those 
which appear to me to be indigenous. The differences between many of 
the subdivisions are not to be detected without the microscope, depending 
as they do upon the number of joints of the antenn;, number of anal hairs, 
number of digitules, ete. As for the species which I have collected here I 
have had a good deal of difficulty in deciding sometimes whether they differ 
or not from European species; and even now I am not, in some cases, 


TRANS.N.Z INSTITUTE VOLXLPIVIL 


COCCIDAL 


MaskELL.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 217 


The general characteristics of the group are as follows :—the females are 
of all shapes and colours, usually covered with a mass, more or less thick, 
of cottony or waxy secretion, but not, as a rule, enveloped in glassy tests like 
the Lecanio-diaspide. The mentum differs from that of the Lecanide in 
being bi- or tri-articulate. The abdominal lobes of Lecanium are absent, and 
the posterior end is not cleft; but the body ends in two protuberances, 
more or less developed and prominent, which I shall call the ** anal tubereles.”’ 
These tubercles usually terminate in fine hairs, sometimes long, sometimes 
short. The tubercles are not always easily detected, but close examination 
reveals them. The segments of the body are much more visible than in the 
Lecanide, and the insect has altogether a more woolly appearance. In 
some genera the female envelopes herself in a cottony sac, white or yellow. 

The males are not uncommon; but I have not been able to procure 
many specimens. They do not greatly differ from those of the Lecanide, 
but in my specimens the abdominal spike is accompanied by a shorter 
curved spike at the side. 

The subdivisions of this group to which my specimens belong are :— 

1. Acanthococcus, of which I have specimens from the common broom 
plant and from Budlaa. 

2. Eriococcus, from the Norfolk Island Pine. 

8. Dactylopius, from Rubus australis, Pittosporum, Calceolaria and 
other plants. | 

4. Icerya, from the Kangaroo Acacia. 

All these contain species known in Europe, from which mine, I believe, 
differ, 


I. Acaxrnmococcus, Signoret. 

The subdivision is characterised by an elongated sae, usually brownish . 
yellow, enveloping the female, by the prominence of the anal tubercles, and 
by the number of rows of conical spines distributed over the body. One 
species is known in Europe. I give to my specimen the name o 

Acanthococcus multispinus, sp. nov.(?) 

Plate VIIL, fig. 18. 

The sac, fig. 18a, is dull yellow, nearly cylindrical, one end closed with 
a curve, the other open. It is composed of interlacing cottony fibres. The 
female insect, fig. 18b, is of an elongated oval form, the widest part being 
near the posterior end. It is dull pink in colour, covered thinly with whitish 
meal. The segments of the body are not very distinct. The anal tubercles 
are plainly visible, and between them is a pencil of white meal glueing 
together the long hairs of the anal ring. 

After mounting for the microscope and expressing the interior substance, 
the insect is seen, as in fig. 18c, to have several rows of large conical spines, 

X 


218 Transactions.—Zoology. 


which distinguish it from the next genus which has but two or three rows, 
and from the European species which has six. Besides these there are a 
number of spinnerets secreting the cottony meal, and many of these protrude 
as tubes of peculiar shape, as shown in fig. 184. The antennze, fig. 18e, have 
six joints, the third the longest, the fourth and fifth equal to each other and 
nearly round. The legs have the tibia somewhat shorter than the tarsus, 
the upper digitules are pretty long, the lower only short hairs. 

The male insect is orange red, with long wings, undergoing its trans- 
formations in a sac resembling that of the female. The antenne have ten 
joints, of which the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh are long ; the second, 
third, eighth, and ninth wider and globular; the tenth globular but smaller. 
The hook of the foot is long; the abdominal spike, fig. 18/, is short and 
thick, with a curved appendage. 

i II.—Enrococcvs, Targioni. 

This subdivision also has a sac, but it is usually less elongated than in 
the last, and white in colour. My species, to which I give the name of 

Eriococcus araucarie, sp. nov. (?) 
is found on the Norfolk Island pine at Governor's Bay, but I am by no 
means certain that it is indigenous. The female insect differs from the last 
described only in the number of the conical spines, of which there is usually 
only one row round the edge, though in some specimens a few seattered 
spines may be seen elsewhere. It appears to resemble greatly E. buzi, 
Signoret, and I doubt whether it is a new species; at the same time, the 
anal hairs are only six in number as against eight in E. buzi, and the lower 
digitules appear to be much smaller. I therefore provisionally consider it 
a distinct species. 

I have a specimen of the male, not in its perfect state but as a pupa 
upon the point of undergoing transformation. It appears to differ some- 
what from that of Acanthococcus, but I am unable to say how far it differs 
from E. buzi. 

III.—DaoryLorius, Signoret. 

The females of this subdivision have eight-jointed antennz, the anal 
tubercles less prominent than in the two foregoing, and usually a series of 
cottony appendages running all round the edge ef the body, increasing in 
length at the posterior end. 

The differences between my species and those described in Europe are 
not, in some cases, great, yet they are such as induce me to set down my 
New Zealand specimens as distinct species. 

Dactylopius calceolaria, sp. nov. (?) 

Plate VIII, fig. 19. 

This insect is effecting great destruction in the publie gardens in Christ- 

church amongst the calceolarias, and upon several native plants such as 


Maseeni,,—0n some Coccide in New Zealand, 219 


Traversia, Cassinia, ete. I am glad to say that the gardener, Mr, Arm- 
strong, has seen the little white-eyes (Zosterops) busily engaged in picking 
them off the plants. 

The general form of the female is shown in plate VIIL., fig. 19a. Itis 
pink in colour, covered with white meal. It resembles in several particulars 
some of the Dactylopii described by M. Signoret, but, either in the antennæ, 
or in the feet, or in the appendages, differs from them all. The body is pretty 
regularly oval, the segments very distinct; the appendages are short except 
at the posterior end where there are two very long, with, on each side of 
them, another somewhat shorter. The two longest surround the hairs of 
the anal tubercles, which are inconspicuous, and between them is visible 
the white pencil of meal surrounding the anal setze, 

The interior substance of the body, expressed for mounting, appears to 
be very oily, at least containing great numbers of oil globules. The 
antenne, in the adult female, have eight joints, fig. 195, of which the 8rd 
and 8th are the longest, the 6th and 7th the shortest. Each joint has 
several hairs. The mentum appears to be tri-articulate, and has a few 
hairs at its tip; the rostral sete are long. On the legs the coxa and femur 
are thick; the tibia, much thinner, is more than twice as long as the 
tarsus; the upper digitules, fig. 19c, are not very long; the lower are 
narrow and about equal to the claw. 

The anal tubercles are inconspicuous; each has a few hairs, of which 
one is longer than the others, and two conical spines. The anal ring has 
six hairs. These details are shown in fig. 194. 

The young insect differs slightly. The antenne have six joints, the 
sixth much longer than any of the others, which are about equal. The 
tibia is shorter than the tarsus. (According to M. Signoret, this character 
affords the means of judging the age of any insect of the group Coccide. 
Whenever the tarsus is longer than the tibia the insect is in an early stage). 
The anal tubercles are somewhat more prominent than in the adult, giving 
the insect an appearance of having been cut off square at the end. 

I have not the male of this species. 

Dactylopius glaucus, sp. nov. (?) 

This species differs from the last in its colour, which is light green, and 
in having a less regularly oval line ; the abdominal region runs more to a 
point. The antenna, feet, ete., resemble those of D. calceolarie. My speci- 
mens are from Pittosporum enyenioides and Rubus australis. 

I have one specimen which appears to me to be a male in an early stage. 
In outline it resemb:es a female, but the rostrum is absent, and at each side 
there is a protuberance which seems to me to be the rudiments of the wings. 


A 


220 Transaciions.—Zoology. 


The abdominal segments overlap each other, tending to the form of abdomen 
ofthe male Coccidm. The antenne, which are thick, have six joints. The 
claw of the foot is very small. 

Dactylopius poe, 8p. nov. 

Plate VIL., fig. 19. 

This species is found on the roots of the common tussock grass, or rather 
on the stems close to the ground. 

It is a rather large insect, bright pink in colour, covered with a white 
meal, and with a very regular oval outline; flat on the underside, convex 
above. The mentum has a few hairs at the tip ; the seta are long. 

The antenne are very short; the second and third joints are the longest; 
the last joint has a few hairs. Fig. 19e. 

The legs are short; the eoxa thick, the femur somewhat thinner, the 
tibie and tarsus still less and about equal in length. The upper digitules, 
fig. 19f, are not long, the lower inconspicuous, if not wanting. There are a 
few hairs on the tarsus. 

The anal tubercles are extremely small, searcely perceptible ; each has 
three conical spines but no hairs, and a few other spines are visible on the 
abdomen. The anal ring has, I think, six hairs; fig. 19g. All over the 
body are numbers of small circular spinnerets. —' 

I have not the male of this species, which is, I think, certainly new. 

IV.—lIoznva, Signoret. 

My specimens of this subdivision were found on a hedge of the kangaroo 
acacia, in Auckland, in March last. I understood from Mr. Cheeseman 
and Dr. Purchas, who kindly brought the insect under my notice, that it 
had only lately appeared in Auckland, and that it was only, as yet, to be 
found upon that one hedge. The plants, I may say, were nearly destroyed 
by the insects, which covered them in great numbers; and the large size 
and peculiar appearance of the pest were very striking. 

The genus Icerya belongs to the Monophlebide, a family of Coccide, 
which has eleven joints in the antenne of the female, and ten in the 
antenne of the male. There are several genera of these, but the insect 
before me seems certainly to belong to Icerya. There is but one feature,. 
the absence of which in my species may perhaps relegate it to some new 
genus. M. Signoret says that, after treatment with potash, a tube may be 
seen above the anal orifice forming a sort of folded ring; this tube he takes 
to be the oviduct. I have not been able to observe this tube although I 
have examined several specimens. At the same time all the other features 
correspond to the description of the genus Icerya; and I am not inclined 
to attempt the formation of a new genus simply on account of the absence 
of a feature which perhaps I ought to have been able to make out. 

- 


MaskELL.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 221 


Only one species of this genus seems to be known, and that is Icerya 
sacchari, an insect which, in Mauritius, does great injury to the sugar- 
canes. M. Signoret deseribes this species, which differs from the one I am 
describing in a few particulars. First, its general colour is yellow; secondly, 
its cottony fibres appear to envelope it more completely than in my species; 
‘thirdly, the segments of the body are more clearly defined; fourthly, the 
young insect is more hairy, and the hairs are not similarly arranged ; fifthly, 
the abdomen ends in a trifoliated lobe, which is not the case in my species. 
I imagine, then, that the insect from Auckland is new, and I take the 
liberty of naming it after the Rev. Dr. Purchas who, I believe, first found it. 

Leerya purchasi, sp. nov. 

Plate VIII., figs. 20 and 21. 

The eggs of this species resemble those of the other Coccide ; they are 
red in colour. The young insect emerging from the nest is reddish, 
inclining to brown. The body, fig. 20a, is oval, hairy, with a quantity of 
cottony down beginning to cover it. The antenne have six joints, fig. 20f, 
the first wide and short, the next four a little longer and about equal to each 
other, the sixth much larger, club-shaped, having apparently four segments 
joined together. All the joints have a few hairs; on the sixth are several, 
of which four are very much longer than the rest. The legs are brown, 
thin. The coxa and femur moderately large, the tibia and tarsus long 
and thin. The tibia and tarsus have several long hairs. The claw is some- 
what long. I am not sure about the upper digitules, but they seem to be 
only hairs; the lower pair are a little wider, bent like a hook. 

The eyes are prominent, tubercular, set behind the antenne. The 
mentum, which is broad and thick, seems to be bi-articulate. The rostral 
setze are not long. 

The abdomen ends in a smooth curve, but at each side of the centre are 
three small lobes from which start six very long hairs, as long or longer 
than the body of the insect. 

Six rows of spinnerets are seen on the body, four along the middle and 
one at each side. Alternating with these are rows of hairs. 

In its next stage the female insect becomes somewhat altered. Its out- 
line is still oval, but not so regular, and its colour is a darker red, nearly 
brown, under the white curly cotton which covers it. The six hairs o 
abdomen are still visible, but they are much shorter than in the young 
insect, scarcely appearing beyond the other hairs of the body. Maceration 
in potash and subsequent mounting get rid both of the interior substance 
and of the cotton, and the insect is then seen to be much more hairy than 
the young. The hairs are short, and distributed.pretty thickly over the 
thoracic portion of the body, less thickly on the abdomen; but all round 
the edge they are placed in tufts close together, each tuft containing twenty 
or thirty hairs; fig. 20b. 


222 Transactions.—Zoology. 


The spinnerets are not arranged in rows, but scattered in great numbers 
over the whole body. The vast majority of them are small and circular, 
but round the edge of the body, amongst the tufts of hairs, runs a row of 
others much larger. These protrude some distance from the body; their 
lower end being brown, with a sort of crown encircling it, from which 
springs a long glassy tube. Some of these spinnerets and a tuft of hairs 
are shown in fig. 20¢. 

The feet and digitules, fig. 20e, resemble those of the young insect, but 
the antenne have now nine joints, all nearly equal, the last joint smaller, 
comparatively, than in the young; the hairs of the antenns are also 
shorter. 

In its third stage (fig. 21), the insect acquires its very peculiar appearance 
and afterwards ehanges no more. The feet are much the same as before; the 
antenne have now eleven joints, tapering slightly to the tip, and all some- 
what more hairy than in the last stage; fig. 20d. The tufts of hairs are still 
at the edge; the spinnerets are still more numerous than in the earlier 
stages. 

The general colour of the inseet is now a rusty brown, but it is so 
covered with cottony down as to seem, in the latest period, nearly white. 
All round the edge, especially at the abdominal end, runs a row of black 
marks (the tufts of hair spoken of above), and just within it a fainter line. 
At the commencement of this stage the insect lies flat on the leaf or twig, 
but its edge is slightly raised all round, whilst along the middle of the upper 
side of the thoracie portion is a raised hump, or rather a prominence 
divided into three humps. A white meal covers the back, and all round the 
edge is seen a narrow ring of white felted cotton. This is the commence- 
ment of the large ovisac or nest, in which the young insects are enveloped. 

Later on the female begins to proereate. The body becomes full of eggs, 
and these are ejected into the ovisae, which is gradually becoming larger. 
The insect now begins to be raised up; the cephalie end still remains 
attached to the plant, but the abdominal end is elevated, and the space left 
is filled with the cottony down of the ovisae. At the same time, white 
cottony processes form at the edge of the thorax, over the feet, looking, in 
fact, to the naked eye, as if they were actually attached to the leg. Long, 
fine, translucent white hairs or spines radiate from the body in every 
direction. The general colour of the insect is still brown, powdered with 
white. 

The female at length reaches her full development. Now the abdominal 
end is still more raised, so that the insect has the appearance of standing on 
its head. The ovisae attains its full size, and extends for some distance 
behind the body, filling also the space between it and the plant, as shown 


MaskeLu.—0On some Coccidee in New Zealand. 223 


in fig. 215. In fact the insect is now, as it were, resting on a bed of cottony 
down, its head downward to the twig. The ovisac, in its upper portion, is 
divided by regular grooves; the under side is flat, having several short 
cottony processes radiating from its edge. It is now full of eggs, and these, 
rapidly hatching, produce the young insects which emerge through the 
cotton and go to seek their fortunes on the plant. I think the ovisac usually 
contains from 60 to 70 young insects. The extreme length, from the head 
of the female to the extremity of the ovisac, is sometimes nearly } of an 
inch, the height being about } inch. 

I have not been able to find a male insect of this, which is certainly the 
most curious species of the Coccide with which I am acquainted. The 
male of Icer; ya sacchari is also, I believe, unknown. 

I have now completed the description of the species Coccide proper, and 
in fact of all the insects which I am as yet able to relegate to well-defined 
genera. I have still to describe one species whose position I cannot deter- 
mine with certainty. Itis by no means the least beautiful of the family. 
My specimens have come from Pittosporum engenioides and Discaria toumatou. 
I am constrained to form from it a new genus, which I dedicate to my 
friend Dr. Powell who was the first to find it. 

PowELLi, gen. nov. 

The genus is certainly not one of the Diaspide ; it does not belong to 
the Lecanide, for it has not the abdominal cleft and lobes and the mentum 
is tri-articulate, nor to the Coccide proper, for there are no anal tubercles, 
and the feet are clearly different. In some of its characters it bears a 
resemblance to an Aphidian insect which is very common here upon the 
young leaves of very young Eucalypti, although I do not think that Powellia 
belongs to the Aphides. Is it not possible that it may be a link between 
the two families Aphis and Coccus ? 

Powellia vitreo-radiata, sp. nov. 

Plate VIII, fig. 22. 

The female insect is shown in fig. 220. Itis at once apparent that, in 
some respects, it has the characters of the Lecanio-diaspide; there is the 
test covering the body and there is the fringe. But further examination 
shows that it differs a good deal from that group. First, there is an evident 
division between the test over the thorax and the test over the abdomen; 
the fringe of the latter is seen to overlap that of the former. Moreover, the 
eyes are faceted, which is not the case in the Lecanide. ^ Again, there is 
no abdominal cleft, 

"The first peculiarity of the species is that it seems to have four well 
defined wings. If this were really the case, as the insect is undoubtedly a 
female (for it has a mouth), it could not belong to the Coccide, But I am 


224 Transactions.—Z oology. 


not able to consider these lateral appendages as wings; first, because they 
start from the head itself and not from the thorax; secondly, because 
trachez may be seen ramifying from the thoracic spiracles through them ; 
thirdly, because in the discarded tests which, in November, can be found 
pretty numerous, these appendages are very clearly portions of the test 
itself; fourthly, because the fringe runs round their edges in the same way 
as on the rest. 

The second peculiarity is in the different size of the thoracic and 
abdominal regions and the clear line of demareation between them. In the 
other species of Coccide it is difficult, if not impossible, to tell where the 
thoracic portion of the female ends and the abdominal portion begins. 
In Powellia the division is as distinct as in the males of the other genera. 

À third peculiarity is in the feet, which I shall describe presently. 

The eggs of this species are bright yellow, tapering to a point at one 
end; the point appears to be somewhat hooked; fig. 22a. "They are seen 
attached in clusters to twigs of Discaria and Pittosporum. 

The young insect is extremely minute, not so large as the dot over the 
letter iin small type. Its colour is brown; the winglike appendages are 
not distinguishable. The abdomen, which is similar in outline to that of 
the adult, is marked by six transverse dark bands and a dark patch at the 
extremity, fig. 22c. From each band, at the edge, spring long transparent 
tubes, in form of fringe, but they are not set so closely together as in the 
later stages. The antenns, I think, have only four joints, of which the 
third is the longest; the fourth joint has two long hairs. The legs are 
short and very thick; I saw no coxa; the foot resembles that of the adult. 

In the next stage the general form is not altered. The bands of the 
abdomen have become fainter, and the tubes of the fringe are set closer 
together. 

Still later, the insect appears as in fig. 225. This is the last stage which 
I have been able to observe. The four wing-like appendages are now 
clearly defined, but, as shown in the figure, five tracheæ ramify from the 
body through them, and they cannot be considered as wings. The head, 
thorax and abdomen are distinct. The head, transverse, is oval; the eyes 
are large, faceted, red in colour. The mentum, tri-articulate, ends in brown 
toothlike processes. The antenna have six joints; the first and second 
very broad and short, the third narrower and longer, the fourth and fifth 
still narrower and shorter than the third, the sixth very long, somewhat 
fusiform, with two small spikes at the tip and just above the spikes a long 
hair.* See fig. 22d. The legs are thick and long, set equi-distant on the 
thoracic region ; the coxa and femur very thick, the tibia and tarsus some- 


* Mite 1 ete ae EN eee 


8 8 in all specimens. 


TRANS NZ INSTITUTE VOL XLPI VILL 


f 
d li YA M 


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aiia haz 
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M4 dl do 


COIT 
Epe 


COCCIDA- 


Maskeni.—0On some Coccidee in New Zealand. co -— 


what thinner and of about equal length. The tarsus does not taper to the 
claw as in the other Coccide, but is cylindrical, ending, as in fig. 22e, as if 
suddenly compressed and bent downwards. The claw, in which this insect 
differs from all other Coccidex, is double, opening like the hooks on the foot 
of the housefly; it does not spring directly from the tarsus but is set in a 
sort of ring or socket. At the root of the claw, and spreading over it, is a 
fan-shaped translucent appendage which is not observable in any other 
species of the Coccide. Above the claw, near the abrupt angle of the end 
of the tarsus, is a long stiff bristle, slightly curved at the end. 

The abdomen, divided clearly from the thorax, is nearly round. The 
transverse bands seen in the young insect are not now distinct, but may be 
traced. The anal markings, fig. 22f, differ from those of all other Coccide. 
They form an elongated ring on the abdomen, not unlike an Australian 
boomerang in outline; the outer edge marked like a fine comb, and with 
a row of small circular spots following the inner contour. I cannot detect 
any hairs or cilia. 

The fringe of this species, which borders the whole test, is very delicate 
and pretty. Itis quite white, glassy and transparent; the threads, very 
fine, are set close together, and their great length gives to the insect a 
peculiarly elegant appearance. Under the microscope they are seen to be 
composed of three parts; a small socket in which is set a vase or cup, and 
springing from this a long cylindrical glassy tube, apparently open at the 
end. Very great care is needed in handling the insect, to avoid breaking 
this very delicate fringe. The cups will remain attached, but the long glass 
tubes fall off with almost the slightest touch ; see fig. 225. " 

This genus, Powellia, presents so many MACH Heg in its general shape, 
in the wing-like appendages, in the divisions of the body, in the shape of 
the antenns, the peculiar foot and the abdominal markings, that it scarcely 
seems related to the members of the family of the Coecide. On the other 
hand it has many affinities with the family, and it will fitly conclude the 
series of papers which I have been able to draw up this year. I feel sure 
that there must be many species of Coccide yet to be discovered in New 
Zealand; perhaps at some future time I may be able to describe them. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATES, V.—VIIL.* 
Coccrpz.— Plate V., figure, 1.—Dtaspipz, 
Fig. a, Mytilaspis pomorum : portion of puparium, showing discarded tests of first 
iwo stages: magn. 40 
b, Mytilaspis pomorum : rja, female with eggs: magn. 25 diams. 
* The measurements are one-third less than stated, the original drawings having 
been reduced, 


X 


226 Transactions.—Zoology. 


Fig. c, Young insect: magn. 60 diams. 
d, Mytilaspis pomorum: abdominal region: magn. 60 diams. 
e, Rostrum of Diaspide, natural state: magn. 60 diams. 
, Rostrum, mounted: magn. 60 diams. 
Coccipm.—Plate V., figure 2.—DIASPIDÆ. 
Fig. a, Mytilaspis pomorum: eggs: magn. 60 diams. 
b, jy n adult female: magn. 60 diams. 
e, s pygidium of female: magn. 200 diams. 
d, a pinneret: AR 700 diams. 
Coccmæ.—Plate V., figure 3.—DIasPInÆ. 
Fig. a, Mytilaspis pyriformis: puparium : magn. 25 diams. 
b, » i adult female: magn. 60 diams. 
e, 33 i pygidium: magn. 200 diams. 
; Coccma.—Plate V., figure 4.—Dusrida. 
Fig. a, Mytilaspis cordylinidis: puparium: magn. 25 diams. 
b, 2 We adult female: magn. 60 diams. 
e, ” > pygidium: magn. 200 diams, 
Coccwæ.—Plate V., figure 5.—DIASPIDÆ. 
Fig. a, Mytilaspis drimydis: adult female: magn. 60 diams. 
b, s » pygidium: magn. 200 diams. 
e, js $5 pupa of male: magn. 25 diams. 
Coccrpz..—Plate V., figure 6.—Diaspipz. 
Fig. a, Mention. epidendri: puparium of female: magn. 60 diams. 
b, 


” T adult female: magn. 60 diams. 
e, » > pygidium of female ; magn. 200 diams. 
d, » » pupa of male from cocoon : magn. 60 diams. 
Cocctpm.—Plate VI., figure 7.— DIASPIDÆ. 
Fig. a, Aspidiotus atherosperme: adult female: magn. 60 diams. 
b, 2» extremity of kia magn. 200 diams. 


dyso. ayli female, 2nd stage: magn. 60 diams. 
" MG of adult female: magn. 200 diams. 
Coccrpm.—Plate VI., figure 8.—DrzAsPIDE, 
Fig. a, Aspidiotus aurantii: adult female: magn. 60 diams. 
b, o s extremity of abdomen : magn. 200 diams. 
6, PA 3; male: magn. 60 diams. 


Coccrip#.—Plate VI., figure 9.—DrsPIDJE. 
Fig. a, Diaspis boisduvalii: adult female: magn. 60 diams. 
x 5 eocoon, with male E Md magn. 40 diams. 
6, »  rosæ: adult female: magn. 60 diam 
Coccipm.—Plate VI., figure 10.—D1aspipm. 
Fig. a, Diaspis gigas: female shrivelled after egg laying: magn. 40 diams. 
D s » pellice of 2nd stage of female: magn. 40 diams. 
e ‘a serie of adult female: magn. 200 diams. 
40 diams. 


MaskErLr,— On some Coccide in New Zealand. 297 


Coccrp®.—Plate VL, figure 11.—Lecanma. * 
Fig. a, Rostrum and mentum of Lecanide : magn. 90 diam 
b, Abdominal cleft, and lobes, and anal ring of ditto; magn, 60 diams. 
6, Respiratory organ of Lecanium, 
d, Stigma, and stigmatic spines of ditto: magn. 200 diams, 
e, Foot and digitules of ditto: magn. 200 diams, 
OCCIDIE,—Plate VI., figure 12.—LECANDÆ. 
Fig. a, Lecanium hesperidum : young insect: magn, 90 diams. 
" » Pn antenna of adult: magn. 200 diams. 
e, T iy adult female: magn, 15 diams, 
Coccrp2#.—Plate VII., figure 13.—LECANIDÆ. 
Fig. a, Ctenochiton perforatus: female, 2nd stage: magn. 40 diams. 
b, ditto without the test: magn. 40 diams. 


” ” 


e, » ” antenna: magn. 200 diams, 
d, ie s foot: magn. 200 diams 
e, ” 3 test of adult female: magn. 20 diams. 


perforations of fringe: magn. 200 diams. 


t, ” ” 
Cocoz.—Plate VIL, figure 14.—LECANDÆ. 
Fig. a, Ctenochiton perforatus; male: magn. 25 diams. 
a, enna of male: magn. 60 diams. 
b, AA viridis : Bes of test: magn. 40 diams, 
€, Ctenochiton elongatus: adult female: magn. 40 diams., 
, » » portion of fringé.of test. 
Coccrpug.—Plate VIL, figure 15.—LECANIDJE. 
Fig. a, Ctenochiton spinosus: antenna of female: magn. 200 diams. 
ult female 


e, ” i spines, with fringe: magn. 200 diams. 
d, » + foot of female: magn. 200 diams. 
Coccin#.—Plate VII.. figure 16.—Lecanda. 
Fig. a, Inglisia patella: test, or id: magn. 60 diams. 
b, » » adult female, after treatment with potash: magn 60 diams. 
e, » a antenna: magn, 200 diams. 
ee * abdomen, showing alternate spines: magn. 200 diams. 
e » ý foot: magn. 200 diams. 


EU. = adult female, external appearance: magn. 25 diams, 

Coccinæ.—Plate VII., figure 17.—LECANIDÆ. 

Fig. a, Asterochiton lecanioides : young insect: magn. 60 diams. 

female in test: magn. 40 diams. 

abdomen of female: magn. 90 diams. 

A dAnterac on aureus: female in test: magn. 40 diams. 
Coccip#.—Plate VIII., figure 18.—Coccipz. 

Fig. a, Acanthococcus multispinus: sae: magn. 25 diams. 

b ” female: 


, ” ” 


e, " n part of female, with spines: magn. 60 diams. 
d, » » a spinneret : magn. — diams. 

e, » n antenna of female: magn. 200 diams. 

i, >” » anal spike of male: magn. 200 diams. 


228 Transactions.—Zoology. 


*  Cocomæ.—Plate VIIL, figure 19.—Coccwz. 

ig. a, Dactylopius calceolarig: female; magn. 20 diams, 
” za antenna: magn. 60 diams. 
" 4 foot: magn. 60 diams. 


? , 
Dactylopius poe : antenna magn. 60 diams. 
S magn. 60 diams. 
g, "T 5 ae region: magn. 200 diams. 
Coccrpz.—Plate VIIL, figure 20.—Coccrpz. 
Fig. a, Icerya purchasi: young insect: magn. 40 diams. 
b, p sr female, 2nd stage: magn. 20 diams. 


«B c ^t hairs and spinnerets: magn. 200 diams, 
d " antenna, 3rd stage: magn. 40 diams. 
ONDE ii foot, 9rd stage: magn. 90 diams. 

* cw * antenna of young: magn. 90 diams. 


occip#.—Plate VIII., figure 21. 
Fig. a, —-— purchasi : female, commencement of last stage, viewed from above: 
6 diams. 


b, Nye Mie: ditto, under side; magn. 6 diams 
Q, k xi female, end of last stage: magn, 6 diams, 
d... » ditto, under side, 
Coccrp x.—Plate VII., figure 22, 
Fig. a, Powellia vitreo-radiata ; eggs: magn. 150 diams. 
b 


’ " > female: magn. 25 diams. 
Cy: os " abdomen of young: magn. 90 diams. 
& y " antenna: magn. 100 
e, » i foot: magn. 200 diams. 
5h » anal marking; magn. 200 diams, 
8; n 5 fringe: magn. 200 diams, 


Art. XVII.—On a Hymenopterous Insect parasitic on Coccide. 
By W. M. Masxeut. 
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th July, 1878.] 
: Plate IX. 

Some of the Coccide are much troubled by parasites. In this country I 
have not found this to be the case upon the naked-bodied species, Lecanium, 
ete. But some of the Diaspidz, particularly Mytilaspis pomorum, have often 
in their shells minute white Acari; and as in these cases many of the 
enclosed eggs have been shrivelled or empty, I imagine that the Acarus may 
devour them. 

The insect I am now describing attacks some of the indigenous test- 
bearing Coccide. When in June, 1877, I found my first specimens of 
Ctenochiton perforatus, Y did not at first understand the nature of an object 


TRANS NZINSTITUTE VOLALPL IX. 


HYMENOPTEROUS PARASITE ON COCCIDA. 


MasreLL.— On a Parasite of Coccide, 229 


which was frequently seen under the centre of the tests. This object, which 
is shown in the accompanying puts, fig. 1, I took to be the pupa of the male 
Ctenochiton. 

Later on, in September, I found other pups in a more advanced stage, 
for I was able to detach them easily from the test of the scale.. They now 
resembled the pupæ of Eulophus nemati, a common Hymenopterous insect. 
One of them is shown in my fig. 2, where it will be seen that the form of 
the head, with its bars or stripes, and the spurs on the end of the tibia, 
seem to refer the insect to the genera Eulophus or Encyrtus. In Eulophus, 
indeed, the antenns are branched, but this could not be distinguished in 
the pupa stage. 

In October, when searching for more specimens of Ctenochiton in order 
further to examine these pups, I came across a tree, one of the species of 
Olearia, on which I found numbers of them in another condition. The leaves 
of the tree had evidently been pierced by a leaf-mining insect, and were 
covered with the blisters formed by it. Some of these were closed, others 
open; in each of the closed ones I found the remains of the larva of the 
leaf-miner and the pupa of which I was in search. It was quite evident 
that it could not be the pupa of a male Ctenochiton. The blisters, I may 
mention, were on both sides of the leaves; but the orifice by which the 
insect escaped was always on the under side. 

I was able to procure several specimens of this parasitic insect in the 
imago state. 

According to Westwood, there are five families of parasitic Hymenoptera; 
but only one has all the characters of the insect I am describing. In the 
Evaniide the antenne are straight and the wings are veined; in the 
Ichneumonide the same; in the Chalcidide the pupa is naked; in the 
Chrysidide the abdomen is oblong-ovate. There remains only the Procto- 
trupide, and to these I relegate my insect. Of the genera of this family 
Diapria approaches it most, by the form of the wings. The only other 
genus resembling it seems to be Platygaster ; but, according to Westwood, 
the legs in this genus are “not saltatorial,’’ whereas the fly before me 
can leap pretty actively. I may observe that Westwood states that the 
Coccide are much infested by Chalcidideous parasites, of a genus to which 
he gives the name ** Coccophagus,” and which, he says, is intermediate 
between Encyrtus and Eulophus. My insect cannot be this, for the antenne 
have at least 12 joints, against 8 in Coccophagus, and the three terminal 
joints, although soldered together, do not form a club, Again, it cannot be 
Encyrtus, for there is no dilation of the tarsus; hor Eulophus, for the 
antenna are not branched. And the thin covering of the pupa prevents it 
from entering the Chrysidide, 


230 Transactions.—Zoology, 


I propose for this insect the name of Diapria coccophaga. 

In colour the insect, to the naked eye, is black; under the microscope 
the vertex of the head is green, the eyes red, the thorax and abdomen brown 
with green streaks; the whole body diapered with spots. The posterior 
wings are furnished with two minute hooks. The antenne are moniliform, 
with from 12 to 15 joints; elbowed at the third joint, the last three being 
soldered together. The head is transverse, the eyes faceted, the mandibles 
. foreipate. The tarsus is five-jointed; the anterior pair of legs has a sharp 
curved spur with three points at the end of the tibia. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX. 
Fig. 1. Outline of test of Ctenochiton perforatus, with enclosed pupa of Diapria. 
Fig. 2. Pupa of Diapria eoccophaga. 
Fig. 8. 1, Head of D. coccophaga, magnified 25 diams. 


2, Posterior wing, 5 I 
3, Antenn ” 55 ” 
4, NER dn with spur, wA 5b: ^. 
5, Mandibl jen DOS 
Fig. 4. Female WA YA O 
Fig. 5. Ovipositor, retracted ss GOS; 


Art. XVIII.—New Zealand Crustacea, with Descriptions of New Species. 
By Gzonger M. Tuousox. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 13th August, 1878.) 
Plate X. 

Tar publication of a Catalogue of the New Zealand Crustacea by Mr. Miers, 
of the British Museum, under the auspices of the Government of this colony, 
fills up a wide gap in our records of local zoology, and enables others to work 
up the subject, on the spot, with a much greater degree of certainty. The 
catalogue enumerates altogether 140 species, of which no less than 62 sp. 
are Brachyura (Crabs); while of Anomoura, 18 sp.; Macroura, 18 sp.; 
Stomapoda, 2 sp.; lsopoda, 28 sp.; Anisopoda, 2 sp.; and Amphipoda 
15 sp. are described. I now propose to add 22 species to the above, of 
which 19 are new to Science. Of these, 2 species belong to Macroura, 6 to 
Isopoda, and 14 to Amphipoda, "Type specimens of all of these are lodged 
in the Otago Museum, 


G. M. Tuowsox.—New Zealand Crustacea. 281 


I would here desire to express my thanks to Professor Hutton for the 
great assistance he has given me, and particularly for handing over for my 
inspection the collection of Crustacea in the Otago Museum, poker with 
his own valuable notes and manuscript descriptions. 

Decapoda macroura. 
Sub-tribe Caridea. Fam. I. Crangonidae. 
Crangon, Fabricius. 

Internal antenne dilated at the base, the peduncle short, and terminated 
by two filaments. External maxillipeds pediform, the terminal joint obtuse 
and flattened. Anterior legs sub-didactyle, stronger and thicker than the 
others; the hand flattened, the moveable finger inflexed upon the hand, and 
meeting a rudimentary thumb; second and third pairs very slender, the 
second didactyle ; two last pairs shorter and thicker. Abdomen large and 
rounded, 

1. Crangon australis, Hutton, MS. Cat. Fig. A.1. 

Carapace with five longitudinal rows of spines, the outer with three from 
the base of the moveable plate, the next with five from the outer margin of 
the orbit, and the median with two. Moveable plate extending beyond the 
peduncle of the outer antenne. Inner antenne short, hardly passing the 
external maxillipeds. Anterior legs extending beyond the tip of the move- 
able plate; second pair about half the length of the first; the third much 
longer. Abdomen smooth, not keeled, suddenly contracted at the second 
and third segments from the end, posterior segment nearly cylindrical. 
Length 14 inches. Common. 

Cook Straits, Dunedin, and Stewart Island. (Allied to C. spinosus, of 
Britain). 

Palemon. 
Sub-genus Leander, Miers’ Cat., p. 85. 
2. Leander fluviatilis, nov. sp. Fig. A.2 
Palemon fluviatilis, Hutton, MS. Cat. 

Beak narrow, slender, nearly straight, with from nine to fifteen teeth 
on the upper margin, which are more or less separated into three groups, 
the posterior of which consists of two, or rarely three, situated behind the 
orbit ; the middle of four to six, in front of the orbit; and the anterior of 
three to six, much smaller and situated near the apex ; four to six teeth on 
the lower margin. Anterior margin of carapace with one spine, and another 
over the inner angle of the orbit. Anterior feet short, but rather stout, 
reaching to the end of the peduncle of the outer antenne# ; second pair very 
slender, longer, but not reaching to the tip of the EA plate. Length 

14 inch. 

Waikato River (Professor F, W. Hutton); Taieri River, and lagoons in 

Taieri plain, 


232 Transactions.—Zi oology. 


Edriophthalmata. 
Tribe I.—Isoropa. 
Sub-tribe I. Idoteidea. Genus Idotea. 

Idotea affinis, Miers' Cat., p. 93. 

In the description given of this species the flagellum of the antenna is 
said to be about 20-jointed, and the length 13 inch. The species is said 
also to ** vary slightly in the number of the joints of the external antenna.” 

In a great number examined by me, I found the length to vary from 1 
inch to over 23 inches, and the number of joints in the flagellum from 
sixteen up to thirty-two. 

Sub-tribe IT. Oniscoidea. 
Fam. II. Oniscidee. Miers’ Cat., p. 98. 
Sub-Fam. I. Oniscing. Genus Oniscus. 
8. Oniscus punctatus, nov. sp. Fig. A.3. 

Body rather convex, oval, minutely granulated over the entire surface. 
Head short and broad; eyes small, round and black. Antenne finely 
hirsute, fifth joint the longest, equalling the last three. First segment of 
thorax wider than those succeeding ; last segment produced acutely back- 
wards. Abdomen not much narrower than thorax, but falling away rather 
abruptly; two anterior segments narrower than the others, and not pro- 
duced into exserted lateral angles; three succeeding segments subequal, 
with their latero-posterior margins acutely produced; last segment short 
and rounded. Caudal stylets short, external branch the longest, narrow- 
cylindrical, minutely hirsute, with two or three short sete at the extremities. 

Colour light brown, with darker markings. Length :8 inch. 

Dunedin. 

Sub-Fam. III. Ligiine. 
Genus Ligia, Miers’ Cat., p. 108. 
4. Ligia quadrata, Hutton, MS. Cat. Fig. A.4. 

Oval, sub-depressed, with minute granulations on the back, but free from 
hairs. Three posterior segments of thorax acutely prolonged backwards on 
either side. Abdomen considerably narrower than thorax, last segment 
sub-quadrate, the angles hardly projecting. Outer antenna two-thirds the 
length of the animal, fourth and fifth joints much the longest; flagellum 
from 15-to 23-jointed, minutely setose. Base of caudal stylets about half 
as long as abdomen; rami slightly unequal, shorter branch with a long 
slender seta, which reaches beyond the extremity of the longer branch. 
Colour yellowish-olivaceous closely speckled with black. Length :5 inch. 

Dunedin. 

This species lives among loose stones on the beach, and runs with great 


rapidity. 


G. M. Taomgon.—New Zealand Crustacea. 288 


Sub-tribe TII. Cymothoidea. 
Fam. I. Cymothoide. 
Genus Ceratothoa, Miers’ Cat., p. 104. 
5. Ceratothoa trigonocephala. 
Cymothoa trigonocephala, M. Edw. Hist. Nat. Crust., iii., p. 272. 

Head small, triangular, having the antero-lateral margins very concave 
above the antenns, and the front narrow but obtuse, and projecting a little 
beyond the base of the inner antenne. Eyes very distinct. Outer antenna 
considerably longer than the inner. Anterior margin of the first thoracic 
segment produced a little at the corner upon the head so as to give rise to a 
tooth upon the median line; antero-lateral prolongations of medium size, 
narrowing in front, but rounded and not reaching to the base of the outer 
antenns. First segment of the abdomen about a third less than the second, 
which exceeds on each side the margin of the last thoracic segment.  Pos- 
terior margin of the fifth segment very sinuous, and presenting a deep, 
median indentation. Sixth segment large, but gradually narrowing from 
the base, rounded posteriorly, and not nearly so far extended as the terminal 
plates of the lateral appendages, Length 1:6 inch. (My specimens are 
about 1 inch long). 

Dunedin. 

This species is also found in the Australian and Chinese Seas. 

Fam. III. Spheromide. Miers’ Cat., p. 109. 
Genus Amphoroidea, M. Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., iii., p. 222. 

Body eonvex, somewhat oval and flexible. Head quadrilateral, broader 
than long; eyes small, occupying the lateral margin; anterior margin of 
the head with five small teeth. Basal joint of inner antenne very large, 
lamellate, quadrilateral, broader in front than behind, horizontal, and in 
contaet with its fellow; second joint small, inserted at the side of the first, 
near its posterior angle; the rest almost moniliform. Outer antenne in- 
serted under the inner and directed forwards; the peduncle cylindrical, 
terminal joint longer than that of the inner antenne. Abdomen broader 
than thorax; last joint large, seutiform and deeply exeavated below. 

6. Amphoroidea falcifer, Hutton, MS. Cat. Fig. A.5. 

Smooth, sub-depressed, rounded on the back. Head broader than long, 
the anterior margin three-lobed, the middle one pointed and acute; lateral 
margins hollowed; posterior margin straight, sub-sinuated, produced 
posteriorly on either side into a truncated lobe. Basal joint of inner 
antenne longer than broad, the anterior margin convex, the outer side 
straight, the posterior side bilobed, fitting into the lobes of the head. 
Outer antenne reaching to the middle of the third thoracic segment. 
Last segment of the tail triangular, bidentate at the tip. Outer ramus of 

YA 


234 Transactions.—Zoology. 


appendages long, projecting considerably beyond the tail, falciform, acute, 
curved inwards; the inner much shorter, sub-rectangular, longer than 
broad, truncated at the apex. Claws short, subequal, hooked. Reddish 
brown. Length -6 inch. Kaikoura Harbour and Stewart Island. 


Norz.—Since writing the foregoing description, I have seen, through 
favour of Dr. Haast, the Atlas of the Crustacea described by Dana in the 
Zoology of the U.S. Exploring Expedition. From the figures alone (not 
having been able to obtain a description), l think that this tennis may 
prove to be identical with A. australiensis, Dana. 


Genus Cymodocea, Miers’ Cat., p. 118. 
Sub-genus Dynamena, Leach, Dict. Sec. Nat., t. 12., p. 343. 

Terminal segment of the abdomen simply notched, but without a median 
lobe. Rami of caudal appendages lamellate, as in Spheroma. 

7. Dynamena huttoni, nov. sp. Fig. A.6. 

Moderately convex, nearly smooth, marked with numerous minute 
granulations. Head small, twice as broad as long, with small obtuse 
frontal lobe. Segments of thorax subequal, the three last slightly produced 
backward at their infero-posterior margins, the last with a slightly rounded 
lobe, just overlapping the edge of the abdomen. First segment of abdomen 
with four lines of articulation, the last of which has a tooth on each side on 
its posterior margin. Last segment triangular, swollen above, ending in 
two short acute teeth, with a rounded sinus between them. Rami of 
caudal lamelle equal, oval-oblong, obtuse. Orange-yellow colour. Length 
'5 inch. 

Dunedin. 

I have named this species after Professor Hutton who collected it. 

Genus Nesea, M. Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., iii., p. 216. 

Body not very flexible, and incapable of being rolled into a ball. Ex- 
ternal ramus of the caudal lamelle projecting, thick and rounded, incapable 
of being folded beneath the inner. Inner rami united to the inferior 
margin of the abdomen and earried transversely underneath it, so as to be 
easily mistaken for it. 

8. Nesea caniculata, nov. sp. Fig. A.7. 

Body very convex ; roughly granulated, particularly towards the abdomen. 
Head prominently rounded. Eyes black, triangular, received into a deep 
indentation in the margin of the first thoracic segment; an intra-marginal 
groove extending between the eyes round the front of the head. Frontal 
lobe small, obtuse. Basal joint of inner antenne large, and adhering 
nois to the head, second joint short and rounded, third slender. Outer 


G. M. Taomson.—New Zealand Crustacea. 985 


antenna springing from underneath the base of the inner, half as long again, 
and slender. Segments of the thorax directed backwards at their postero- 
lateral margins; first segment broader than others; succeeding segments 
subequal, each with a flattened granulated ridge on its posterior margin, 
giving the back a transversely grooved appearance. First segment of 
abdomen produced posteriorly into a flattened truncate expansion, with a- 
slight median indentation; last segment placed almost underneath, the 
former, triangular in shape, with a pyramidal tubercle on each side, its apex 
united to the internal rami of the caudal lamelle. External rami thick, 
angular, and two-jointed. Legs fringed on their inferior margins with 
short, thick hair, Colour dark brown, Length *6 inch, 

Dunedin, 

Collected by Prof. Hutton. 


Tribe III.—A wPnrpopA. 
Division Normalia. Family I. Orchestide. 
Talitrus ? nove-zealandie, Dana, ( Orchestoidea ? novi-zealandie ). 

This species is certainly the female of Talorchestia quoyana, and therefore 
ought to disappear from the catalogue. I have repeatedly found the two 
together, and in fact have seldom collected the one without the other. 
The males of the Talitrus, and the females of the Talorchestia, have never 
yet been described as such. 

Genus Nicea. 
Nicea, Nicolet, Gay's Chili, Vol. IIL., p. 237. 1849. 
Galanthis, Spence Bate, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1857; and Cat. Amphip. Crust. Brit. 
Mus., p. 51. 1862. 

This genus is defined as follows :—‘ Superior and inferior antennm 
subequal, scarcely longer than the cephalon. The rest of the animal 
generally resembling Allorchestes, except the telson, which is deeply cleft.” 

It in reality includes all those Crustaceans which would range under 
Allorchestes, but for the cleft telson. 

9. Nicea nova-zealandie, nov. sp. Fig. B.1. 

Eyes reniform. Inferior antenna about one-fourth as long as body; 
flagellum slightly longer than base, with 18 or 14 articulations, which are 
minutely setose. Superior antenne reaching to middle of flagellum of 
inferior ; flagellum 14.jointed. Gnathopoda of first pair small; carpus 
produced inferiorly to a rounded lobe, furnished with a bundle of sete ; 
propodos sub-quadrate, inferior margin excavate about the middle and 
furnished with a bunch of setm, palm transverse, defined by two stout 
spines, setose; a bunch of set at the articulation of the dactylos. Propo- 
dos of second gnathopoda large, ovate (almost pyriform) in male, palm very 
oblique, occupying nearly all the under surface, furnished with a double 


__ Tow of stiff setæ, and defined by two stout spines; dactylos long, slender, aS 


236 Transactions.—Zvology. 


arcuate. Same organ smaller in female, with the palm more transverse, 

and dactylos relatively shorter. First, second and third pairs of pereiopoda 

subequal; fourth and fifth longer; all with crests of short setw at the 

joints, Telson deeply cleft, smooth. Colour yellowish, marbled with red. 
h. 


Rock pools at Taiaroa Head (Otago Harbour). 
10. Nicea fimbriata, nov. sp. Fig. B.2. 

"Eyes round, Inferior antennæ about one-third as long as body; 
peduncle more than half as long as flagellum, penultimate joint crowned 
with a ring of short setze, ultimate with a dense fringe of long, slender hairs 
on its inferior margin; flagellum from 17-22-jointed, each articulation 
with a dense bunch of long hairs on its inferior margin, diminishing 
towards the extremity. Superior antenne half as long as inferior; flagellum 
13-15-jointed, slender, minutely setose. First pair of gnathopoda with the 
carpus dilated; propodos broadly oblong, the palm very oblique, furnished 
with numerous sete, and defined by two stout teeth. Gnathopoda of 
second pairlarge; propodos ovate, tapering to the extremity, lower margin 
densly fringed with long hairs, an excavation marking the very oblique and 
not well-defined palm. Pereiopoda subequal, second and third pairs rather 
the shortest. Telson cleft almost to the base, minutely tuberculated. 
Colour pale yellow. Length :8 inch. 

Dunedin. 
11. Nicea rubra, nov. sp. Fig. B.B. 

Eyes round. Inferior antennæ half as long as body; flagellum four 
. times as long as peduncle, with over fifty articulations, sparingly and 
minutely setose. Superior antennæ nearly half as long as inferior; 
flagellum 18-jointed, joints slender, with their apices expanded, minutely 
setose. Gnathopoda of first pair with the carpus rounded; propodos 
oblong-quadrate, setose on the inferior margin, palm extending along half 
its length, obliquely transverse, defined by two teeth, and furnished with 
two rows of sete. Gnathopoda of second pair with the propodos ovate, 
palm extending obliquely along half of its inferior margin, furnished with 
two rows of stout sete, but without any defining spines; dactylos long and 
curved, with two tubercles at the joint. Fourth and fifth pairs of 
pereiopoda longer than those preceding. Telson deeply divided into two 
acute, smooth lobes. Colour pink. Length :4 inch. 

Dunedin. 

Fam. II. Gammaride. 
Genus Lysianassa, Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust., iii, p. 20; Dana, U.S. Explor. 
Exped., p. 908; Spence Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip., p. 64. 

Superior antenne pyriform, very short, stouter than the inferior, and 

furnished with a secondary appendage, Mandibles having an appendage ; 


G. M. Taomson.—New Zealand Crustacea, 287 


the incisive edge not furnished with teeth; armed upon the anterior margin 
with a stout tubercle ; secondary or moveable plate wanting. Maxillipeds 
with large squamiform processes attached to the third and fourth joints, 
First pair of gnathopoda not subchelate. The second pair subchelate, 
imperfectly developed, long, and membranous, Ischium and carpus long. 
Dactylos rudimentary. Coxe of the gnathopoda and the two anterior pairs 
of pereiopoda deeper than their respective segments of the pereion; those of 
the second pair of pereiopoda produced inferiorly and posteriorly. Coxe of 
the fourth pair much shorter than the third.  Pereiopoda subequal. 
Posterior pair of pleopoda double-branched. Telson single, er 
entire. 
12. Lysianassa króyeri, Spence Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip., p. 66. 
Ephippiphora krüyeri, White, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 2, vol. i., p. 226, 
d Zool. Erebus and Terror, pl. 5. 

Animal not much compressed, smoothly ae a dorsal sinus in the 
fourth segment of the pleon. Eyes reniform. Superior antenne having 
the first joint of the peduncle reaching scarcely beyond the ocular process 
of the cephalon, the second and third joints very short; the flagellum not 
longer than the peduncle. Inferior antenns three times as long as the 
superior, the peduncle not extending beyond the peduncle of the superior 
flagellum. First pair of gnathopoda having the propodos nearly three 
times as long as the carpus, and armed upon the under side with a strong 
curved spine near the base of the dactylos. Second pair of gnathopoda 
having the propodos a little shorter than the carpus, and both inferiorly 
covered with minute denticles ; the propodos furnished upon the superior 
margin with tufts of long hair, serrated on both margins; palm short, 
inferior angle produced into a tubercle ; dactylos not so long as the palm. 
Coxe of the second pair of pereiopoda having the lower half of the posterior 
margin greatly produced. Posterior pair of pleopoda having the rami much 
longer than the basal articulation. 

Dunedin. 

This species was originally described from Tasmania, where it was 
obtained by Sir J. C. Ross. Its length is stated at 1 inch, but none of the 
specimens examined by me exceeded *8 inch. 

Genus Dexamine, Leach, Edin. Encye. vii, p. 483; Sp. Bate, Brit. Mus. 
Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 180. 

Antenne long, subequal, slender; superior*not appendiculated ; peduncle 
consisting of only two joints, the third not being distinguishable from the 
first of the flagellum. Mandibles without an appendage. Gnathopoda 
subequal, feeble, subchelate. Coxe of the third pair of pereiopoda about 
half as deep as the preceding; dactyla of all the pereiopoda generally 


238 Transactions.—Zoology. 


directed posteriorly. Posterior pair of pleopoda biramous, Telson simple, 
divided, squamiform. 
18. Deramine pacifica, nov. sp. Fig. B.4. 

Cephalon without a rostrum, but produced into an aeute tooth between 
the bases of the antennsz.  Pereion smooth; segments of pleon dorsally 
and posteriorly three-spined, and with the inferior margin produced 
posteriorly into an acute tooth. Eyes ovate-reniform. Superior antenna 
about as long as the body; basal joint stout, with a spine at its lower 
anterior margin; second joint about twice as long; flagellum 40-50- 
jointed. Inferior antennse about two-thirds as long as superior, slender; 
basal joint very short; second joint as long as corresponding joint of upper 
antenne; ultimate joint of peduncle just half as long; flagellum about 
25.-80-jointed. Gnathopoda of first pair larger than second, with the 
inferior margin of the carpus and propodos crenulated and hairy; palm 
oblique, dactylos nearly straight. Second gnathopoda similarly toothed and 
hairy; propodos shorter, dilated, with two spines at the base of the palm; 
dactylos curved. Pereiopoda slender, thickly setose, all having the dactylos 
directed posteriorly, except the last pair, which also are much the longest. 
Penultimate pair of pleopoda reaching to extremity of ultimate; ante- 
penultimate much shorter. Telson bifid, apex of each division with two or 
three small teeth and a few short hairs. Length ‘25 inch. (No locality). 
Genus Atylus, Leach, Zool. Miscel., ii., pl. 69; Edwards, Hist. des Crust., 

iii., p. 67; S. Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 188. 
Iphimedia, Dana, U. S. Explor. Exped., p. 926. 

Animal compressed. Antenne subequal; superior without a secondary 
appendage. Mandibles with an appendage. Maxillipeds unguiculate, having 
a squamiform plate developed from the bases and isehium. Gnathopoda 
subchelate. Pereiopoda subequal. Posterior pleopoda biramous.  Telson 
single, squamiform, divided. 

Differs from Dewamine in having the third joint of the peduncle of the 
upper antenne distinguishable from the flagellum, and in having an 
appendage to the mandibles. 

14. Atylus dania, nov. sp. Fig. C.1. 

Cephalon produced into a short rostrum. Segments of the pleon 
slightly elevated posteriorly, fourth segment with a deep dorsal sinus, none 
prolonged into teeth; margins smooth. Eyes large, round, black. Superior 
antenne about a third shorter than the inferior; joints of the peduncle 
short, subequal, produced into three teeth on the lower margin; flagellum 
with over 25 artieulations, which are broader than long, every third or 
| fourth joint produced on its inferior margin into a tubercle, bearing several 
| m and a crown of short hairs, Inferior antenne half as oe as 


G. M. Taomson.—New Zealand Crustacea. 239 


body, also with fascicles of hairs on the under surface of the peduncle; 
flagellum with between 40 and 50 articulations. Gnathopoda rather small, 
subequal; carpus somewhat produced on its inferior surface; propodos 
ovate, with several transverse rows of spines on the infero-posterior 
margin; palm imperfectly defined; dactylos slender, smooth. Three 
posterior pairs of pereiopoda having the basa increasing in width. Ante- 
penultimate pair of pleopoda reaching to the extremity of the penultimate, 
smooth; penultimate pair with a few spines; ultimate pair with the rami 
about twice as long as the peduncle, thickly studded with short spines and 
fringed with long cilia. Telson divided to nearly half its length, with a 
minute spine somewhat remote from the apex at each side. Length :8 
inch. Semi-transparent in colour, with dark blueish spots. 

Rock pools, Dunedin. 

(Named after Prof. Dana). 


Genus Pherusa, Leach, Edin. Encye., vii, p. 432, ete.; Spence Bate, 
Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 143. 

Antenne subequal; superior without a secondary appendage. Mandibles 
with an appendage. Maxillipeds unguiculate, and furnished with a squami- 
form plate. Gnathopoda subchelate. Telson single, squamiform, entire. 
15. Pherusa nove-zealandie, nov. sp. Fig. C.2. 

Cephalon produced into a small, acute rostrum between the bases of the 
superior antenne. Eyes oblong-reniform. Two posterior segments of the 
pereion and two anterior segments of the pleon produced dorsally into two 
teeth. Antenne about as long as body.  Peduncle of the superior pair 
about one-fifth as long as the slender flagellum ; basal joint very short, 
buried in front of the cephalon, second joint stout. Gnathopoda small. 
First pair very long and slender; carpus and propodos subequal, linear ; 
daetylos minute, transverse. Second pair short; propodos expanded above, 
palm obliquely transverse, defined by a tooth. Three last pairs of pereio- 
poda much longer than preceding; their cox: with comblike teeth on their 
posterior margins. "Third segment of pleon with the sides produced pos- 
teriorly, and ending abruptly in a serrated margin (almost smooth in young 
specimens). Posterior pair of pleopoda reaching to the extremity of the 
penultimate pair. Length about *8 inch. 


Genus Calliope, Leach, MS. Brit. Mus.; Speuce Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. 
Amphip. Crust., p. 148. — 

‘Superior antenna without a secondary appendage. Mandibles furnished 

_ with an appendage. Gnathopoda having the propoda in the second or both 

. Pairs largely developed, and the carpi inferiorly produced. Telson not 


240 Transactions.—Zoology. 


16. Calliope didactyla, nov. sp. Fig. C.3. 

Cephalon without a rostrum; the whole back of the animal smooth. 
Superior antenne two-thirds as long as inferior ; joints of the peduncle 
subequal ; flagellum about 17-jointed, each articulation with an auditory 
cilium and a few short hairs. Lower antenne with the peduncle extending 
to middle of flagellum of upper; basal joint very short, next two subequal ; 
flagellum about 15-jointed. First pair of gnathopoda small; carpus pro- 
duced posteriorly into a large acute projection; propodos subquadrate, 
bulged posteriorly, with an ill-defined palm, and bearing a double-clawed 
dactylos. Second pair of gnathopoda large, carpus triangular, acute, its 
inferior portion separated into a narrow, arcuate projection, ciliated on its 
lower margin, and curving slightly round the base of the propodos; pro- 
podos dilated, ovate, with an oblique and tolerably well-defined palm, 
marked by a double row of long teeth, and its base by two stout spines ; 
dactylos arcuate, with a double row of very short, sharp, equi-distant teeth. 
First and second pairs of pereiopoda slender ; other pairs somewhat larger. 
Penultimate pair of pleopoda reaching slightly beyond the ultimate ; rami of 
all the pleopoda spinose. Telson foliaceous, truncate, slightly produced at 
the apex. : 

Female. Both pairs of ngathopoda small, subequal; carpus developed 
posteriorly into an obtuse projection, which has a small fringe at its apex; 
propodos with a transverse palm; dactylos single and slightly toothed. 

Whole body of a rich brown colour, with greenish grey eyes. Length, 
about °3 inch. 

Among kelp washed upon the beach at Taieri mouth. 

(When preserved in spirits the body becomes yellowish-white in colour, 
and the eyes jet black.) 

17. Calliope fluviatilis, nov. sp. Fig. C.4. 

Cephalon without a rostrum. Body slender, compressed. Eyes large, 
black, rounded. Upper antenne about one-fourth shorter than lower ; 
peduncle—with apparently only two joints—not reaching to extremity of 
penultimate joint of peduncle of lower. First pair of gnathopoda rather 
smaller than second; carpus triangular, developed posteriorly into a rounded 
lobe, ciliated at the extremity; propodos oval, palm transverse, dactylos 
acute, nearly straight, half as long as propodos. Second pair of gnathopoda 
apparently reversed ; carpus produced anteriorly (posteriorly) into a narrow 
obtuse lobe. Last pair of pereiopoda much longer than preceding. Pleo- 
poda long and slender; antepenultimate and penultimate pairs reaching to 
extremity of the ultimate. Telson squamiform, rounded, entire. Colour 
greyish, more or less marked with dark spots, and frequently covered with 
circular, wart-like markings. Length '2 inch. 

Common in fresh water round Dunedin, 


G. M. Tuomson.—New Zealand Crustacea. 241 


Paramoera tenuicornis, Miers, Cat. N. Z. Crust., p. 127. Fig. C.5. 

This species, of which I have examined perfect specimens, must be 
replaced in the genus proposed by its original describer Dana, viz., Melita. 
It differs from Paramvera in having the superior antenne furnished with an 
appendage, and from Moera—in which it is placed by Spence Bate in the 
British Museum Catalogue—in having the posterior pair of pleopoda very 
unequal, with the inner ramus quite rudimentary, and not subfoliaceous. 

There are several points in connection with the specific description 
which require amending. Thus the flagellum of the inferior antenne only is 
terete, that of the upper pair having the joints wider at the apex than at 
the base; the appendage to this pair consists of 4 joints, and springs from 
the apex of the last joint of the peduncle. The fifth segment of the pleon 
is furnished on the dorsal posterior margin with a crest of spinose sete. 
The antepénultimate and penultimate pairs of pleopoda only reach to the 
extremity of the peduncle of the ultimate. The external ramus of the last 
pair is very long, while the internal is a mere rudiment. 

The specimens examined by me were taken in the Taieri River in fresh 
water, but they had probably come up with the tide, which is felt 15 miles 
from the mouth. 

Genus Gammarus, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. iL, p. 514.; Spence Bate, 

Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 208. 

(The generic characters are taken from the latter authority quoted). 

Slender, laterally compressed. Cephalon not produced into a rostrum. 
Pereion and pleon subequal in length. Three posterior segments of the 
pleon having each two or more fasciculi of short stiff spines. Eyes 
reniform, oval or linear.  Antenns long, slender, filiform, having the 
peduncle subequal with the peduncle of the inferior, and carrying a 
secondary appendage. Mandibles having an appendage. Maxillipeds 
having a squamiform plate, arising from the basos and ischium. Gnatho- 
poda subequal, not largely developed. Pereiopoda subequal; cox of the 
three posterior pairs much shorter than those of the anterior. Posterior 
pair of pleopoda biramous. Telson double. 
18. Gammarus barbimanus, nov. sp. Fig. D.1. 

Segments of the body smooth. Eyes small, oblong, with dark coloured 
blotches between and posterior to them. Superior antenne with the 
peduncle longer than the flagellum ; basal joint with a spine on its inferior 
margin; appendage 5-jointed, less than half as long as the flagellum, which 
is about 10-jointed. Inferior antenne somewhat shorter than superior, but 
stouter ; peduncle extending to the extremity of the peduncle of the upper 
antenne ; flagellum stout, short, about 6-jointed. Maxillipeds with a dense 

al 


242 Transactions.—Zoology. 


fringe of hairs on the lower surface. First pair of gnathopoda with carpus 
and propodos subegual, straight, and densely clothed with long, feathery 
hairs. Second pair with the carpus long, straight, and flat on the under 
surface, which is fringed with a double row of similar plumose hairs; 
propodos tapering and hairy ; dactylos minute. Fourth and fifth pairs of 
pereiopoda longer and stouter than preceding pairs. Antepenultimate and 
penultimate pairs of pleopoda reaching to extremity of ultimate ; all three 
pairs fringed with short spines. Telson short, reaching to extremity of 
peduncle of ultimate pleopoda, and furnished with a few short spines. 

(No locality). Length :8 inch. 

Sub-tribe. Hyperidea. 
Fam. I. Hyperide, Spence Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust. p. 287. 

Superior antenne, with a peduncle of three joints, and a variable 
flagellum. Inferior antenns, with a five-jointed (?) peduncle, and multi- 
articulate flagellum. ^ Gnathopoda more or less complexly subchelate. 
Four anterior pairs of pereiopoda subequal, normal. Three anterior pairs 
of pleopoda normal; three posterior pairs, broad, flat, and biramous. 
Integument thin and free from hairs. 

Genus _Themisto, Guérin-Méneville, Mém. de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat. 
de Paris, iv., 1828; Edwards, Hist. des Crust., iii, p. 84; Spence 
Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust. p. 811. 

Cephalon transversely ovate.  Pereion not largely distended. Pleon 
slender. Eyes occupying the entire cephalon, dorsally separated. An- 
tenne subequal, as long as the cephalon is deep; superior pair having the 
flagellum not articulated ; inferior pair having the flagellum more or less 
articulated. Mandible having an appendage. First pair of gnathopoda 
short, tolerably robust; carpus not having the anterior margin inferiorly 
produced ; second pair having the carpus on the inferior angle anteriorly 
produced. First pair of pereiopoda having the carpus dilated; propodos 
narrow, and capable of being inflected against the carpus ; second pair like 
ihe first; third pair twice the length of the second; carpus very long; 
propodos longer than the earpus, fringed along the anterior margin with & 
comb-like series of teeth, and capable of impinging against the anterior 
margin of the carpus ; fourth and fifth pairs subequal, of the same form as 
the third, but not more than half the length. Three posterior pairs of 
pleopoda subequal, the last being the longest; rami double, lanceolate. 
Telson small, squamose. 

The above description is taken from Spence Bate’s catalogue, and from 
the examination of a great number of specimens I can vouch for its cor- 
rectness as far as females are concerned, from which indeed all the descrip- 
tions appear to have been taken. The males, however, differ in the 


G, M. Tuousos.—New Zealand Crustacea, 248 


superior antenn:; in a very striking manner, this being furnished in this 

gex with a multi-articulate flagellum of about 18 joints. 

19. Themisto antarctica, Dana, U.S. Explor. Exped., p. 1005, pl. 69, fig. 1; 
Spence Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust. p. 812. 

Male, Eyes reddish. Superior antenna with the peduncle 8-jointed ; 
second joint extremely short; third long, slightly arcuate, tapering to the 
extremity, fringed on the lower margin with fine comb-like teeth and 
numerous hairs; flagellum of twelve or thirteen articulations, which 
lengthen towards the extremity, Inferior antenna half as long again as 
the superior; peduncle 8-jointed; flagellum of seventeen slender articu- 
lations, basal one long, those succeeding short, but lengthening to the 
extremity. First pair of gnathopoda with a broad carpus, fringed poste- 
riorly with numerous hairs; propodos about half as broad as carpus, taper- 
ing to the extremity, furnished on the anterior margin with a row of stiff 
cilia. Second pair of gnathopoda having the carpus infero-anteriorly 
produced nearly to the extremity of the propodos, with the inferior margin 
furnished with a few hairs; propodos slightly tapering, and furnished with 
afew hairs on the superior margin; dactylos short and straight. First 
pair of pereiopoda twice as long as the gnathopoda, having the meros short, 
expanded below; carpus stout, with a few hairs on the infero-posterior 
margin; propodos as long as carpus, slender, arcuate, inner margin double, 
the most prominent, and fringed with closely-set, straight, minute cilia, the 
outer with long straight hairs; dactylos subulate. Second pair of pereio- 
poda resembling the first, but having the carpus slightly larger. Third pair 
of pereiopoda nearly twice as long as first two; basos stout; meros short; 
carpus long, and furnished on its anterior margin with equi-distant comb- 
like teeth, and minute, close-set thick cilia between ; propodos long, slightly 
curved and slender, similarly furnished on its anterior margin; dactylos 
short, slender, sharp, and slightly curved. Fourth pair of pereiopoda 
about half the length of the third, and resembling it in form: fifth pair 
like the fourth, but not armed with fine teeth along the anterior margin of 
the propodos. Ultimate pair of pleopoda having the peduncle more than 
four times the length of the telson, and the rami half as long as the 
peduncle, with the margins scarcely serrated; penultimate pair reaching a 
little beyond the extremity of the peduncle of the ultimate; antepenulti- 
mate reaching a little further than the extremity of the penultimate. Telson 
lanceolate. 

Female. Superior antenne with the basal joint of the peduncle nearly 
covering the second; terminal joint (flagellum, according to Sp. Bate) 
elongated, tapering to the point, which is curved like a hook, furnished on 
its lower margin with a row of comb-like teeth. Other characters as above. 

Length about 3 of an inch, 


244 Transactions.—Zoology. 


The young, taken from the incubatory pouch of the female, differ some- 
what from the adult. The back is smooth and rounded, whereas in the 
adult it is sharply keeled, and the segments of the pereion are produced 
posteriorly into teeth. The pereion is very broad and expanded. Antenne 
subequal; superior stout and conical, three-jointed, terminal joint with a 
few short sete at the extremity and two longer ones projecting at right 
angles from near the middle of the inferior margin ; inferior pair somewhat 
more slender, and with very minute sete. Some of the appendages also 
. are either wanting or are not fully developed, probably the first or second 
pair of gnathopoda. Pleopoda normally developed. 

These minute creatures approach in form and general appearance to 
Hyperia cyanea much more than Themisto. Every adult female had several 
of them in the ineubatory pouch under the pereion. 

Frequently washed up on Ocean Beach, Dunedin. 


Fam. ITI. Platyscelids. 

Cephalon round. Eyes large. Antenne attached to the inferior surface. 
Epistoma proboscidiform; oral appendages rudimentary. Gnathopoda 
complexly subehelate. First two pairs of pereiopoda simple; two succeed- 
ing pairs having the basa largely dilated; fifth pair imperfectly developed. 
Posterior pleopoda foliaceous. 

Genus Platyscelus, Spence Bate, 
Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 329. 

Cephalon transversely ovate. Pereion distended ; first segment narrower 
than the cephalon. Pleon much narrower than the pereion, having the 
fourth and fifth segments coalescing, the fifth and sixth pairs of pleopoda 
being attached to the posterior margin; sixth segment and telson fused 
together, the posterior pair of pleopoda being attached to the under surface 
near the middle of the segment. Superior antenne short, consisting of a 
peduncle and a flagellum. Inferior antenne not longer than the cephalon, 
consisting of four joints, concealed beneath the cephalon, not folded. 
Mandibles without an appendage. Third pair of pereiopoda having the 
basos largely dilated, and the remaining joints shorter than the basos ; 
fourth pair having the basos twice as large as the third, the remaining 
joints not half so long as the basos; fifth pair membranous, a small 
tubercle representing the PORE joints. Three posterior pairs of 


pleopoda biramous, foliaceous, Telson obtusely triangular. 


20. Platyscelus intermedius, nov. sp. Fig. D.4. 

Cephalon rounded in front, First two segments of pereion very narrow; 
succeeding broader, subequal. Eyes very large, oceupying nearly the whole 
~ eephalon, with a large triangular red pigment spot on the outside of each. 
Epistoma triangular. Antenne placed quite underneath the epistome. 


kaa KA TA WS aa a R ia L hee a aa tuii e i a a a 


G. M. Taomson.—New Zealand Crustacea. 245 


Superior pair consisting of a stout peduncle, bearing a crown of cilia and a 
small tuberculate appendage, with a flagellum of two long slender articula- 
tions. Inferior antenns four-jointed; first three joints subequal, with 
numerous cilia ; fourth joint very short and furnished with a few long hairs 
at its extremity. First pair of gnathopoda with the carpus antero-inferiorly 
produced to an acute point almost to the extremity of the propodos, serrated 
on both margins, with numerous slender spines surrounding it near the 
base of the propodos; propodos narrow-oblong, serrated on both margins, 
with a small dactylos which antagonises with the extremity of the carpus. 
Second pair of gnathopoda similar to first, but rather larger, and with the 
carpus produced slightly beyond the extremity of the propodos. First two 
pairs of pereiopoda with the basos somewhat dilated; meros, carpus and 
propodos diminishing uniformly in size and quite smooth; dactylos very 
small, acute. Third pair with the margin of the basos quite smooth, and 
the distal extremity sub-acute ; ischium articulating subapically within the 
posterior margin ; remaining joints about half as long ns the basos; meros 
and carpus quite smooth; propodos slender, slightly longer than the pre- 
ceding joints, and serrated on the posterior margin only. Fourth pair of 
pereiopoda with the basos posteriorly arcuate and anteriorly excavate, 
rounded at the extremity; ischium articulating within the posterior margin 
near the centre; remaining joints about one-third as long as basos ; meros 
very small; carpus long; propodos half its length, both serrated on the 
posterior margins; dactylos long, nearly straight, sub-acute. Fifth pair of 
pereiopoda membranous; basos curved forward nearly to a right angle ; 
remaining joints represented by a small tubercle. Three last pairs of 
pleopoda foliaceous; ante-penultimate pair having a short pedunele, the 
rami somewhat unequal, margins smooth; penultimate pair with a long 
peduncle and rami subequal, outer ramus finely serrate on its outer margin ; 
ultimate pair with the peduncle rather short and rami very unequal; 
external ramus minute, lanceolate, with smooth margins; internal ramus 
oblong, oblique, finely serrate on the distal half of both margins. Telson 
iriangular, obtusely pointed. 

Colour yellow, nearly transparent, with small red spots. Length :5 
inch. Can roll itself almost into a ball. 

Washed up on the Ocean Beach at Dunedin. 

I have named this species as above, from the fact that it is almost inter- 
mediate between the only two species hitherto described— P. rissoine, Bate, 
and P, serratus, Bate. 

Spence Bate remarks of this genus :—“ It appears to me to be not 
improbable that Platyscelus may prove to be the female of Typhis(Thyropus), — 
from which it differs, only in the form of the superior and length of the - 
inferior antenne.” 


246 Transactions.—Zoology, 


Group ABERRANTIA. 

Coxe of the pereiopoda not squamiformly developed, some, or all, 
being fused to their respective segments. One or more segments of the 
pleon absent. 

Fam. Caprellide. 

Pleon rudimentary. Oral appendages normally developed. Cox fused 
with the pereion. Branchial sacs attached to the first two or three 
segments of the pereion. 

Genus I, Caprella, Lamarck, Syst. des. Anim. sans Vert., p. 165; 
Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust., iii., p. 105; Spence Bate, Brit. Mus. 
Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 353. 

Body cylindrical. Cephalon and first segment of the pereion confluent. 
Pleon rudimentary. Gnathopoda subchelate. First two pairs of pereiopoda 
represented by the branchis attached to their respective segments only ; 
three posterior pairs of pereiopoda subequal. First and second pairs of 
pleopoda rudimentary in the male ; the rest obsolete. 

21. Caprella caudata, nov. sp. Fig. D.5. 

Female. Body rather robust. Cephalon smooth, not toothed nor 
tuberculate, short; four succeeding segments of pereion subequal. Eyes 
round. Superior antenne more than half as long as body; first joint of 
peduncle with an acute spine on the antero-superior margin; second joint 
longest; flagellum about 15-jointed (first few fused together), as long as 
peduncle, and spinose at the articulations. Inferior antenne more than 
half as long as the superior; two basal joints short and smooth; the rest 
fringed on their lower margin with long hairs. Maxillipeds well developed, 
unguiculate, ciliate on the lower margin, with the carpus distended. First 
pair of gnathopoda small and fringed with hairs; carpus with a deep 
transverse incision; propodos ovate, dactylos long and slender. Second 
pair of gnathopoda large; propodos narrow-ovate, with the palm extend- 
ing along the greater part of the lower margin, with a large tooth 
surmounted by two spines to receive the point of the dactylos, and two 
smaller teeth nearer the hinge corresponding to two indentations in the 
dactylos; dactylos stout, curved. Branchie narrow-oblong. Ovigerous 
pouches nearly circular, thickly ciliated on their inner margins. Three last 
pairs of pereiopoda increasing in size posteriorly, similar in shape; in all 
the propodos is narrow, excavate along its anterior margin to receive the 
slender curved dactylos, point of impingement of which is marked by two 
serrated spines. First pair of pleopoda rudimentary, represented by minute 
tubercles. Pleon prolonged into a slender flat expansion. 

Dunedin, in rock pools. Length -4 inch, 


ee aa ae gps nis qi get 


G. M. Tuomson.—New Zealand Crustacea. 247 


Genus Caprellina, nov. gen. 

Body cylindrical. Cephalon confluent with first segment of pereion. 
Pleon rudimentary. Gnathopoda sub-chelate; branchiw attached to second 
pair. First two pairs of pereiopoda represented by the branchism attached 
to their respective segments; third pair feebly developed; two. posterior 
pairs well developed, subequal. First and second pairs of pleopoda 
rudimentary in the male, rest obsolete. 

This genus appears to be intermediate between Cercops and Caprella. 
From the former, it differs in not having the pleopoda developed, but agrees 
with it in having branchig attached to the second gnathopoda. In respect 
to this latter character it differs from its nearer ally Caprella, and also in 
having the third pair of pereiopoda feebly developed. 

The genus contains only the following species :— 

22, Caprellina nova-zealandie, nov. sp. Fig. D.6. 

Body slender. Second and third segments of pereion shorter than the 
three following; last segment very short. Superior antenne nearly half as 
long as animal; basal joint of peduncle stout, two succeeding joints long 
and slender; flagellum setose, semi-articulate at the basal end, ending in 
about ten articulations. Inferior antenn very short, reaching to middle of 
penultimate joint of peduncle of superior. First pair of gnathopoda with 
the propodos ovate, the palm extending along the inferior margin, fringed 
with eilia, and with two spines at the base; dactylos sparingly ciliated on 
inner margin. Second pair of gnathopoda much larger than first, and 
having the basos very long. Propodos long, narrow ovate, palm extending 
along half the inferior margin, hollowed out, and with two or three small 
spines at the-denticulation which receives the point of the dactylos, and a 
tooth near the hinge; dactylos slender, arcuate. Third pair of pereiopoda 
very small, but with well-developed carpus, propodos and dactylos. Fourth 
and fifth pairs of pereiopoda long; propoda well-developed, narrow- 
ovate, with slightly excavated palms fringed with strong spines; dactylos 
minutely ciliate on inner margin. Two pairs of pleopoda present, one- 
jointed, filiform, fringed with minute, comb-like cilia. Colour pale red, 
with dark spots and markings. Length :8 inch. 

Dunedin, in rock pools. 

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X. 
Fig. A (all enlarged)— 
1. Crangon australis: (a), head viewed from above, magn. 2; (b), leg of first pair, 
. 6; (c), leg of second pair, magn. 3. 

2. Leander fluviatilis, magn. 1}: (a), rostrum, magn. 4. 

3. Oniscus punctatus, magn. 2: (a), caudal stylet, magn. 10. 

4, Ligia quadrata, magn. 13: (a), tail and caudal stylets, magn. 4, 


248 Transactions.—Zboology. 


5. Amphoroidea falcifer, magn. 2. 
6. Dynamena huttoni, magn. 2. 
7. Nesea caniculata, magn. 13: (a), abdomen viewed from below, magn. 23. 
Fig. B (all enlarged)— 
1. Nicea nove-zealandie, magn. 2: (a), superior antenne, magn. 22; (b), inferior 
nne, magn. 22; (c), first gnathopod, magn. 11; (d), second gnathopod 
(female), magn. 11; (e), second gnathopod (male), magn. 11; (f), telson, 


2. Nicea fimbriata, magn. 2: (a), superior antenne, magn. 22; (b), inferior antenna, 
magn. 22; (c), first gnathopod, magn. 11; (d), second gnathopod, magn. 11; 
(e), telson, magn. 11 
3. Nicea rubra, magn. 2: (a), superior antenne, magn. 22; (b), inferior antenne, 
magn. 22; (c), first ions ge magn. 11; (d), second gnathopod, magn. 11; 
(e), telson, magn. 1 
4, Dexamine pacifica, magn. 4: (a), segment of pleon viewed dorsally, magn. 11; 
(b), first gnathopod, magn. 11; (c), second gnathopod, magn. 11; (d), telson, 
agn. 22 


Fig. C (all enlarged)— 

1. Atylus danai, magn. 3: (a), portion of superior antenne, magn. d (b), first 

gnathopod, magn. 22; (c), telson and posterior pleopoda, magn. 

2. Sa nove-zealandie, magn. 3: jisi first bod: magn. ae ; a —Y 

gnathopod, magn. 11; (c), telson, m 

8. Calliope didactyla, magn. 24: (a), first d (female), magn. 11; (b), second 
gnathopod (female), magn. 11; (c), first gnathopod (male), magn. 11; (d), 
second gnathopod (male), magn. 11; (e), telson, magn. 11. 

4. Calliope fluviatilis, magn. 4: (a), first gnathopod, ions 11; (b), second gnatho- 
pod, magn. 11; (c), telson and pleopoda, magn. 1 

5. Melita tenuicornis : posterior segments of pleon, magn. “i. 

Fig. D (all enlarged)— 

1. Gammarus barbimanus, magn. 3: (a), superior antenne, magn. 11; (b), inferior 
antenne, magn. 11; (c), maxillipeds, magn. 11; (d), first gnathopod, magn. 11; 
(e), second gnathopod, magn. 11; (f), telson and pleopoda, magn. 11. 

2. Themisto antarctica: superior antenne, magn. 11, (a) male, (b) female.’ 

3. Young of Themisto antarctica, magn. 11: (a), superior antenne, magn. 37; (b), 
inferior antennæ, magn. 37. 

4. Platyscelus intermedius, magn. 2: (a), under-surface of epistome, with superior 
antenne, magn. 73; (b), inferior antenns, magn. 74; (c), firs nip ers 
magn. 74; (d), nens gnathopod, magn. 74; (e), first (and second) pereiopoda, 
magn. 73; (f), third pereiopoda, magn. 13: (g), fourth pereiopoda, magn. 13; 
(h), fifth pereiopoda, magn. 73 ; (i), telson and pleopoda, magn. 23. 

5. Caprella caudata, magn. 4: (a), superior antenna, magn. 11; (b), inferior antenne, 

. 11; (c), first gnathopod, magn. 11; (d), second gnathopod, magn. 11; 
(e), posterior pereiopoda, magn. 11; (f), pleon, magn. 20 

6. Caprellina nove-zealandie, magn. 1}: (a), first gnathopod, magn. 73; (b), second 
gnathopod, magn. 73; (c), third pereiopod, magn. 73; (d), pleopoda (1, last 
segment of pereion ; 2, basos of posterior pereiopoda; 3, pleon), magn. 15, 


can Pa, e uu 
y : | KA 


WE 
MAS 
\ 


jo) 


TRANS NZ INSTITUTE. VOLXLPLX. 


CRUSTACEA 


G. M. Tuomson.—On a Crustacean from Auckland Islands. 249 


Arr. XIX.—Description of New Crustacean from the Auckland Islands. 
By George M. Tuomson. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th September, 1878.) 
Fam. Oniscide. Sub-fam. Scyphacine. 

Genus Actecia, Dana, U.S. Explor. Exped., XIV. Crust., p. ii., p. 784. 

Antenne very stout, not distinctly geniculate at the fifth joint; flagellum 
indistinctly 5-6-jointed, exclusive of the minute apical joint. Terminal 
joint of maxillipeds broad and serrately lobed. Feet of the seventh pair as 
long as the others. 

After his description of Scyphax ornatus, Dana describes and figures a 
smaller specimen which was found at the same time and in the same 
locality, and which he suspects may be the young of that species. Besides 
many minor points of difference, however, it is quite distinct from the 
generic character of Scyphax, in possessing the seventh pair of legs of 
normal size. He remarks, that if this is a new species, it is also a distinct 
genus, and suggests that it may be named Actecia euchroa as designated in 
his earlier MSS. The species found by Mr. Jennings on the Auckland 
Islands, being evidently an Actecia, I have drawn up the above generic 
character. The genus therefore contains the following species :— 

1. Actacia euchroa, Dana. 

Body elliptic, abdomen not abruptly narrower than thorax. Head short, 
transverse. Eyes rather large and prominent. Antenne short, curving 
outwards, surface minutely spinulous. Last thoracic segment not shorter 
than the preceding. Abdomen filling the concavity below the last thoracic 
Segment, and forming a semicircle beyond it. Third, fourth and fifth 
abdominal segments much produced backward on either side. Last seg- 
ment smallest, not projecting between the stylets, which are placed close 
together. Large branch of stylets very short and obtuse; smaller branch 
quite slender and arising from a point far anterior to the base of the larger 
branch. 

Surface of thorax and abdomen with a few "T short scattered spinules. 
Length 2 lines. 

Bay of Islands—Parua Harbour (Dana). 

2. Actecia aucklandia, nov. sp. 

Body narrow-oblong, abdomen. narrowing ; gradually from the thorax. 
Head triangular, widest in front; anterior margin nearly straight, rounded 
at the corners; eyes situated above the angular projections. Segments of 
thorax subequal, more or less acutely produced posteriorly. Two first seg- 
ments of the abdomen partly covered by thorax; last segment (sixth) much 
narrower than preceding, broadly triangular, and with obtuse apex. Caudal 
stylets subequal, only about half as long as abdomen; inner ge placed 


250 Transactions.—-Zoolo gy. 


close together between the two external, completely exposed. Antenne 
hirsute towards the extremity; basal joint short; fifth joint expanding 
posteriorly; flagellum short and thick, all the joints together not so long as 
preceding. Colour brown. Whole body more or less covered with minute 
granules, 

In the female each segment of the body is furnished with a row of stout, 
obtuse spines, which are longest towards the side of the thorax. In the 
male the whole body is nearly smooth. Length :8 to 1:2 inch. 

Auckland Islands (Mr. Jennings). 


Art. XX.— Description of a New Species of Isopodous Crustacean (Idotea). 

By George M. Tuomson. 
( Read before the Otago Institute, 2Gth November, 1878.) 
Tar animals forming the genus /dotea are readily distinguished from other 
Isopods by having the segments of the abdomen more or less coalescent, 
and fewer than the normal number, seven, and particularly in having the 
“terminal segment very large, its appendages greatly developed, covering 
the whole inferior surface of the abdomen, and closing like doors over the 
branchial appendages.” 

Of the three species described in Miers’ Catalogue of N. Z. Crust., 
pp. 92, 93, the first, I. argentea, Dana, is a doubtful New Zealand species, 
having been obtained by Dana near New Zealand. It is found on the 
Australian Coasts, and also at Borneo, and is probably common in the West 
Pacific. The second species I. affinis, M. Edw., is common on our coasts, 
and seems to be the same as a species found on St. Paul's Island, and at the 
Cape. The third, I. elongata, Miers, has only been found hitherto at the 
Auckland Islands. The species which I now propose to add, is chiefly 
remarkable for its habitat, being the only species, as far as I can find out, 
occurring in fresh water. Numerous specimens were found by Prof, Hutton 
in the Tomahawk lagoon, near Dunedin. They were creeping about under 
stones, and appeared to be feeding on the ova of a fish, probably Galaxias, 
sp., which was found abundantly in the same locality. Whether they occur 
permanently in the fresh water, or only come up when a very high tide 
renders communication with the lagoon possible, I cannot say. The species 
is a distinct one, and has not hitherto been found on our coasts. 


WAA or sg 


G, M. Txuomson.—On the New Zealand Entomostraca, 251 


Genus Idotea, Fabr. 
Idotea, Miers’ Cat. N. Z. Crust., p. 91. 

Idotea lacustris, nov. sp. 

Body narrow-elliptical, little more than twice as long as broad. Front 
of head excavate, not toothed. First segment of thorax somewhat longer 
than those succeeding, which are subequal; epimeral pieces nearly square, 
the last three slightly produced posteriorly. 

Abdomen 3-jointed, terminal joint (formed of three coalescent segments) 
hardly narrowing to the rounded extremity. Inner antenne not half as 
long as base of the outer, 4-jointed, joints subequal. Outer antenna 
one third as long as the body, flagellum 9—11-jointed, with a dense fringe 
of very short sete on the outer margin. Colour dark gray, mottled with 
brown, with a darker median band extending from the head to near the 
extremity of the abdomen. Length :6 inch. 

In numerous females, an ineubatory pouch extended along the whole 
under surface of the thorax. The young animals, taken out of this sac, 
have their bodies somewhat elongated in shape, with all the segments 
developed, and appendages present, but having the outer antenne furnished 
with a flagellum of only one joint and a few short sete. 


Art. XXI.—On the New Zealand Entomostraea. By Gzoncz M. Taonson. 
(Read before the Otago Institute, 26th November, 1878.) i 
Plate XI. 

Tue study of the lower orders of Crustaceans is, as a rule, confined to a few 
specialists, hence it is only now and then that they form the subject of 
communications to societies. In regard to this colony, the fact is that till 
the publieation of Miers' Catalogue of the New Zealand Crustacea in the 
British Museum, our knowledge of the whole class was fragmentary and 
scattered throughout numerous works. Now, however, that all the infor- 
mation on the subject has been thus collected and published in a condensed 
form, it becomes more easy to fill up the existing gaps. 

The Entomostraca are an interesting and but little studied division of 
Crustaceans, and from their abundance are of considerable importance. 
The species enumerated here have been collected chiefly within a few miles 
of Dunedin, and the marine forms only between tide marks ; so that we are 
as yet only on the threshold of the subject. 


252 Transactions.—Zoology. 


Examination of other portions of the Islands, and particularly the use 
of the dredge at various depths of the ocean, will certainly reveal many 
other forms. 

For subsequent reference, I have here tabulated the characters of the 
whole family. 

Sub-class Entomostraca. 

Legion I. Lophyropoda. Branchie attached to the organs of the mouth ; 
legs few, not exceeding five pairs, serving for locomotion; articulations 
mostly more or less cylindrical; antenns two pairs, one pair used as organs 
of motion. 

Order I. Ostracoda. Shell consisting of 2 valves, entirely enclosing the 
body ; feet 1-3 pairs, adapted for progression ; no external ovary. 

Sect. I. Podocopa. Inferior antenne simple, subpediform, geniculate, 
clawed at the end. 

Fam. 1. Cypridze. Superior antenne mostly seven-jointed, with a 
dense brush of long setze; eye single; feet two pairs, the last bent up 
between the valves ; abdominal rami two, elongate, clawed at the end. 

Genus I, Cypris, Müller. 

Upper antennz seven-jointed, with numerous long plumose sete. 
Lower antenne five-jointed, furnished with a brush of sete, and termi- 
nated by four long, serrated claws. Second pair of jaws possessing a 
branchial plate, and a sub-conical obscurely-jointed palpus, ending in three 
long sete.  Post-abdominal rami long and slender, terminating in two 
strong, curved claws. Animals free-swimming, mostly found in fresh or 
slightly brackish water. 

1. Cypris nove-zealandia, Baird. 

Cypris nove-zealandiz, Baird. Dieffenbach’s N. Z., vol. ii, p. 268. 

“Shell ovate, elongated, both extremities of the same size, somewhat 
turgid and slightly sinuated in the centre of anterior margin, white, smooth 
and shining, perfectly free from hairs.” 

This may be the species described next, as the valves bleach after the 
animal dies, and lose their hairs. The shape, however, is not quite the 
same, and the whole description is too meagre to found any identification 
upon. 

The following three species belong to Brady’s Section a, and agree in the 
following characters :— 

* Sete of lower antenne plumose, subequal, reaching about as far as, 
or only slightly beyond, the apex of the terminal claws. Second foot 
terminating in a short, hooked claw, and one or more moderately long 
sete,” 


SE ID p Pee eee eae 


G. M. Tuomsox.—On the New Zealand Entomostraca, 258 


2. Cypris ciliata, nov. sp. Fig. A.1 a-g. 

Valves oval-elliptical, slightly narrowing anteriorly, high in the middle, 
very convex; greatest height less than two-thirds of the length. Margin 
finely denticulated on the inside, thickly fringed with fine hairs. Surface 
more or less hairy, minutely granular; when examined under a high power 
it appears closely reticulated. Colour very variable, ranging from whitish 
yellow to dark brown, more or less marked with brown, and sometimes with 
irregular black dots, varying chiefly with the nature of the mud of the 
pools in which the animals occur. Valves rather opaque, seldom semi- 
transparent. Sete of second pair of legs about as long as terminal joint. 
Post-abdominal rami long and slender; their claws long and pectinately 
toothed ; the uppermost seta nearly as long as the claw next it, terminal 
seta about half as long. 

Length 4, inch; height 41. inch. 

Very common in all stagnant fresh water near Dunedin. Wellington 
(T. W. Kirk). Probably the most abundant form in New Zealand. I have 
not found it in running streams. October to April or May. 

9. Cypris viridis, nov. sp. Fig. A.2 a-g. 

Valves broadly reniform, rounded at the extremities, slightly hollowed 
on the lower margin, elevated in the centre of the upper margin; greatest 
height about equal to three-fourths of the length. Viewed from above the 
valves are very convex posteriorly, broadly ovate in form, and tapering to 
the anterior extremity. Margins and surface clothed with hairs. Colour a 
dirty green, varying in intensity; substance of the valves quite opaque. 
Under a high power the surface appears to be minutely granular. Sets of 
second pair of legs short. Post-abdominal rami very slender; the claws 
unequal, and also very slender. Length j; inch; height 3 inch. 

Not uncommon in pools about Dunedin and Taieri Plain. 

To be found all the year round. I have taken it in blocks of ice, and 
found it quite lively as soon as its covering was thawed. 

4. Cypris littoralis, nov. sp. Fig A.8 a—b, and B.1 a-d. 

Valves narrow oblong, compressed; lower margin nearly straight, upper 
evenly aud slightly arched, highest in the middle; greatest height equal to 
less than half the length. Surface and margins quite smooth. Colour 
yellowish-grey, dotted with irregular black or brown spots. Valves semi- 
transparent. Terminal sete of second pair of legs very long and glumose. 
Post-abdominal rami long, slender and smooth; the two large terminal 
claws bearing three stout teeth near their apex. 

Length jjin.; breadth jin. 

This minute and very distinet species was found in pools of brackish 


water at Blueskin, north of Dunedin. The specimen figured was a male ; e T. 


254 T'ransactions.—Zp oology. 


owing to the transparency of the shell the mucus-gland (testis ?) could 
easily be seen. 
Fam. II. Cytheride. : 

Superior antenne five- to seven-jointed, armed with sete or spines; 
inferior antenne four- to five-jointed, without a brush of sete. Three pairs 
of feet, all very much alike, adapted for walking. Post-abdomen rudimen- 
tary, consisting of two very small lobes. 

Genus I. Cythere, Müller. 

Shell usually thick and strong, with a more or less rough and uneven 
surface. Superior antenne five- to six-jointed, spiniferous ; inferior antenna 
four-jointed. Mandibular palpus three- to four-jointed, and furnished with 
a tuft of from two to five sete. Internal lobe of first maxille well developed. 
1. Cythere atra, nov. sp. Figs. A.2 and C.1. 

Valves subreniform, highest behind the middle, narrowing anteriorly, 
rounded posteriorly; when viewed from above, narrow-oblong, evenly 
convex, tapering to a subacute apex anteriorly, more obtuse posteriorly. 
Examined under a high power, the shell is seen to be sparsely covered with 
circular translucent spots, which appear black when the animal is within. 
Margin fringed with very short close cilia. Colour nearly black, opaque, 
except near the margins. Limbs yellowish. Superior antenne 6-jointed, 
last joint small, three preceding subequal in length, sete short; second 
joint fringed with minute hairs on lower margin. Inferior antenne stout, 
with the last joint very short; terminal claws short and uneven ; urticating 
seta bi-articulate, reaching to the extremity of the antenna. Limbs similar 
in shape, lengthening posteriorly. Length jj inch; height 4, inch. 

Among Alge in shallow water. Otago Harbour. 

2. Cythere truncata, nov. sp. Fig. 0.2 a—c. 

Valves sub-quadrilateral, highest in front, lower margin slightly hol- 
lowed in the middle, anterior extremity very wide and rounded, middle of 
upper margin falling slightly away ; posterior extremity with its upper half 
hollowed out into a deep oblique notch. When viewed from above, the 
valves are elongate-quadrilateral in outline, obtuse in front, sides nearly 
straight, and about even in width to the posterior angle, where they sud- 
denly fall away to the margin. Whole anterior margin fringed with broad, 
curved, and flat teeth, the rest all smooth. Surface irregularly pitted and 
grooved, marked with cireular dots. Greatest height barely equal to half 
the length. The limbs of the animal are brownish-yellow in colour. Last 
joint of upper antenrz only half as long as preceding; terminal sete stout. 
Urtieating seta of lower antenna short, only reaching to middle of third 
joint, uniarticulate. Mandibular palp bearing three curved and pectinately 


* 


Anania Ba ua aa ee ee ee 


ee 


NENNT Ce ee ee eee eS ee ee TA 


G. M. Tuowsox.—On the New Zealand Entomostraea. 255 


fringed setze. Terminal claws of the legs long and curved, those of last 
pair pectinately toothed. Abdominal lobes terminating in two short, 
unequal, fringed sete. 

Length 4 inch ; height s inch. 

In Alge along with preceding species. Otago Harbour. 

Genus 2. Loxoconcha, G. O. Sars. 

Valves sub-rhomboidal in shape, surface usually marked with fine con- 
centric pittings and circular papille ; ventral margins forming a thin and 
more or less prominent keel behind the middle; posterior dorsal margin 
obliquely truncate. Limbs of the animal slender and colourless. Upper 
antennz very slender, six-jointed, last joint very long, linear and bearing 
long, simple sete; lower antennz four-jointed, third joint long and narrow ; 
flagellum long and bi-artieulate. Mandibular palp three-jointed, bearing a 
distinct branchial appendage. Lowest seta of the branchial plate of first 
pair of jaws deflexed. Abdomen terminated by a hairy, conical process; 
postabdominal lobes bearing two moderately long, subequal setae. 

“The genus is well characterised by the oblique * peach-stone' outline 
of the carapace, and by the very slender setose, but non-spinous limbs of 
the animal." 

1. Loxoconcha punctata, nov. sp. Fig. B.8 a-k. 

Valves of the male sub-rhomboidal; greatest height less than two- 
thirds the length ; extremities obliquely rounded, whole lower margin more 
orless flattened and keeled, minutely ciliate. Viewed from above, evenly 
convex, widest in the middle, and tapering to both ends. Surface marked 
with dark spots and numerous translucent punctations. Colour greyish, 
shining and somewhat translucent. Valves of the female rather longer, 
more reniform in outline and usually much more opaque; keel not so 
prominently flattened. Hinge processes well marked ; intervening portion 
of margin crenulated. Eyes distinct and separate. Superior antenne very 
sparingly setose: sete long. Third joint of inferior antenna with two 
sete above the middle of the posterior margin, and pectinately toothed 
towards the extremity. Urticating sets reaching to extremity of antenne; 
glands large. Terminal claws of all the feet long and curved. Length 4, 
inch; height 4, inch. 

Among seaweed, along with the two preceding species of Cythere, in 
Otago Harbour. ? 

This appears to be a very variable species, particularly in the texture of 
the shell. In some the valves are nearly translucent, while gradations can 
be traced up to complete opacity. 

Sect. II. Myodocopa. 

Inferior antenne two-branched; one branch rudimentary, the other 

powerful, many-jointed, with long natatory sets; pue palp very 


256 Transactions.—Z oology. 


large, sub-pediform, geniculate, not branchial. Post-abdomen with two 
broad plates, clawed. 
Fam. I. Cypridinide. 

Superior antenne large, many-jointed, setiferous at the extremity. 
Inferior antenne with the natatory branch nine-jointed, and furnished with 
ciliated setze.  Mandibles rudimentary; palp large, pediform, four-jointed. 
Second pair of jaws with a large branchial plate. One pair of feet, vermi- 
form, annulated and armed with prickly spines at the apex, oviferous. Two 
compound eyes, and one large simple eye. 

Nore.—In the Zoological Society Proc. for 1850, at p. 255, Mr. Baird 
has described, from the dried and bleached valves, a species of Cypridina (?) 
Not having seen his drawings, I am unable to say whether it is the same as 
the species described by me, as Philomedes agilis. The following is Baird’s 
description :— 

** Cypridina zealanica, Baird. 

Carapace valves of an oval form, somewhat flattened, but convex in the 
centre and striated; the strie are numerous, close-set, and of a waved 
appearance. Surface of valves covered with minute punctations, which 
probably give origin in the fresh state to short hairs, though they are not 
visible in the dried specimens. The anterior extremity is slightly narrower 
than the posterior. The whole carapace is of a uniform white colour. 
Natural size one-fourth of an inch long, and one-fifth of an inch broad. 

Hab.—New Zealand. Two specimens were sent to the British Museum 
by the Rey. R. Taylor of Waimate in New Zealand, along with a collection 
of marine and freshwater shells, but without any history attached to them.” 

At p. 102 of the same volume this species is described as C. zealandica. 

Genus I. Philomedes, Lilljeborg. 

Cypridina, Baird. Brit. Entom., p. 176. 

Philomedes, Lilljeborg; G. O. Sars; Norman; Brady, Zool. Soc., Proc. 1871, p. 291. 

Shell of moderate strength and density. Superior antenne six-jointed ; 
in the female short and thick, and bearing several subequal terminal setze 
of moderate length ; in the male more elongated, two of the terminal sete 
of excessive length, the antepenultimate joint bearing a stout and densely 
setose auditory filament. Natatory branch of lower antenne nine-jointed ; 
in the female having the first joint very long, the rest short and subequal ; 
in the male the first and third joints long, the second much shorter, the rest 


> short and subequal; secondary branch in female indistinctly jointed, setose ; 


in the male long, three-jointed, cheliform. Mandibular feet nearly alike in 
both sexes; in the female armed with mandibuliform processes and spines, 
in the male bearing on the basal joint a small tubercle with two short hairs; 
second pair of jaws in the female armed with mandibuliform processes. 
Eyes of the female small and pale-coloured; of the male large, deep-red, 


G. M. Taoxsox.—On the New Zealand Entomostraca. 257 


1. Philomedes agilis, nov. sp. Fig. 0.8 a-e, and D.1 a- 

Male.—Valves, when viewed from the side, oblong; greatest height about 
two-thirds of the length, obtusely rounded posteriorly, beak not greatly pro- 
duced anteriorly ; superior and inferior margins evenly and slightly arched ; 
oral notch wide, margins more or less setose. When viewed from above the 
valves are narrow, sides nearly parallel, almost truncate posteriorly, tapering 
to an obtuse point in front. Surface marked with numerous circular pits, 
and several translucent spots in the centre of each valve. Behind each 
prominent eye-spot, is a more or less deep transverse sinus or depression, 
extending nearly across the whole valve. Colour of shell yellowish-brown. 
Terminal setz of upper antenne nearly half as long as the antenne itself. 
Natatory branch of inferior antenn:e (exclusive of sets) exceeding in length 
the basal portion, second joint very short, bearing a straight plumose seta, 
equal in length to the third joint, which again is longer than the next six 
joints; terminal sete about as long as the branch itself. Secondary branch 
with the basal joint short and stout, bearing short plumose sete; second 
and third joints subequal, former with two sete in the middle of external 
margin, latter curved, external margin denticulate and with a single seta on 
its inner margin near the base. Last joint of mandibular foot slender, 
twice as long as preceding, terminal claw subequal to it; all the joints 
bearing several plumose sete. “Oviferous feet" terminating in a vermi- 
form toothed extremity, bearing a pair of long spinose sete above and 
three beneath; about five pairs of shorter spinose sete on the annulated 
portion near the extremity. Post-abdominal laminæ terminated by three 
large jointed and doubly-serrated claws,—the first very long, second only 
half as long, and third about half as long as second,—and about five 
smaller spines. Eyes large black. 

Female.—Valves somewhat larger, and much more circular in outline, 
with the beak small and very slightly produced; oral notch nearly rectangu- 
lar; height about three-fourths of the length; easily distinguished externally 
from the male by the small size of the eye-spot. Superior antennz with 
the setze at the extremity of the antepenultimate joint beautifully plumose. 
Natatory branch of the inferior antenna with the first joint very long; all 
the rest short and subequal; no sete on the first three joints, those on the 
fourth, fifth, and sixth joints about as long as the basal joint and bluntly 
toothed ; the remainder (seven in number) very long and densely plumose ; 
— branch rudimentary, with a few small sete. Eyes reddish. 

Length 4', inch ; height . inch 

Swimming actively in ro bols on the Taieri Beach. 

' II. Copepoda 

Shell jointed, fortüing a buckler dina the head and thorax ; legs | 

five pairs, mostly adapted for doped ded external, 


AB 


258 Transactions.—Zoology. 


Fam. I. Cyclopide. 

Head consolidated with thorax; foot-jaws two pairs, generally small; 
fifth pair of legs rudimentary ; eye single; both of the superior antenne in 
the male furnished with a swollen hinge-joint. 

Genus I. Cyclops, Müller. Fig. D.2 a-l. 

Foot-jaws large and strong, branched; inferior antenne simple; 
external ovaries two. 

1. Cyclops nove-zealandie, nov. sp. 

Female.—Cephalothorax greatly exceeding in length the three following 
segments, produced downwards in front into an obtuse beak. All the body 
segments rounded on their postero-lateral margins; segments of the 
abdomen slightly produced posteriorly above and below, last segment with 
the whole posterior margin finely serrated.. Superior antenne fourteen- 
jointed ; last five articulations long and slender. Each joint furnished with 
one or more setze, which are most abundant on the basal joints ; terminal 
joint with one long and four shorter sete. Inferior antenne four-jointed ; 
first joint bearing at its extremity a long plumose seta, which exceeds the 
rest of the antenna in length; second nearly smooth ; third with the inferior 
margin sinuously curvéd and bearing about eight sete ; last joint terminated 
by seven unequal sete. Mouth organs as in C. quadricornis. Last pair of 
legs two-jointed ; basal joint very short; second sub-triangular in shape 
and bearing three sete, the longest of which is plumose. Caudal lamelle 
about four times as long as broad, with a line of serrations down the outer 
margins. Sete sparingly ciliated near the base, but becoming beautifully 
plumose towards the middle and extremities; inner seta longer than the 
abdomen, about eight times as long as the lamelle ; outer seta about five 
times as long as lamellie ; a short-toothed seta on the outer margin at the 
extremity; two more on the inner margin. Ovaries usually of a slate blue 
eolour, broadly oval, only about half as long as the abdomen, and diverging 
somewhat widely from it. 

Male.—Smaller than the female and more active, similar in shape, but 
readily distinguished by the shape of the superior antenne. These have 
the joints much more crowded together, and very flexible. Antepenultimate 
joint not setiferous; ultimate joint having about eight setæ on one side, the 
last (and longest) being somewhat removed from the smooth extremity. 
These last two joints have an extremely flexible hinge, and ean be bent 
completely back so as to lie against the io joints. Fifth pair of legs 
as in the female. 


AH 


brown oil globos: sometimes so encrusted with Foe and confervoid 


DNE SESS EE Slat ride M LIE 


G. M. Taomson.—On the New Zealand Entomostraca. 259 


growths as to be bright green. Eye usually red, sometimes brown or nearly 
black. Length, exclusive of caudal sete, about zy inch. Occurs all the year 
round. 

This is a very common species, occurring in every little pool, and even 
in brackish water affected by the tide. It is extremely lively in its move- 
ments, and avoids danger with much more alacrity than the majority of the 
Entomostraca, darting away on the approach of a dipping-tube or other 
large object. 

From the figure in Dana’s Atlas of Crustacea (U.S. Explor. Exped.), 
this species appears to be very near C, vitiensis, Dana. I have not seen 
any description however. 

Genus II, Arpacticus, Baird. 

Foot-jaws forming strong cheliform hands; inferior antenne simple. 
Ovary single, : 

' L, Arpacticus bairdii, nov. sp. Fig. D.8, and Fig. E.1. 

Body indistinctly ten-jointed. Cephalothorax produced downwards into 
a beak. Eye usually crimson. Superior antenns stout, composed of ten 
articulations, the last seven subequal in length, but greatly narrowing, 

earing numerous sets, which are particularly abundant on the third, 
fourth, fifth, and sixth joints ; one very long and stout seta from the fourth 
joint ; last joint terminated by about five sete of different lengths. Lower 
antennæ two-jointed; basal joint with a two-jointed, setiferous appendage ; 
ultimate joint with about nine long sets. Mandibles strong. Posterior 
foot-jaws three-jointed ; second joint ovate, with a broad, flat margin 
furnished with two rows of small teeth; third joint in form of a strong 
hook. First pair of feet with both branches three-jointed, external branch 
having the first joint short, bearing one strong seta, second much longer, 
with seta on each side, last joint very short and terminated by about five 
somewhat curved sete, the largest of them being somewhat serrated on its 
inner margin ; internal branch with first joint very long, second short, and 
third in the form of along, slender hook. Second, third, and fourth pairs of 
legs somewhat similar in shape, with the external branch in each longer 
than the internal, and all furnished with numerous set, the longer of which 
are beautifully plumose. Fifth pair with both branches formed of a single, 
nearly circular joint, bearing five sets at the extremity. All the legs more 
or less serrated on the margins. Abdomen cylindrical, tapering posteriorly ; 
posterior margins of segments minutely serrate. Bilobed extremity bearing 
on each side one seta, which exeeeds the abdomen in length, one about a 
third as long, and four short ones. Ovisae large, usually exceeding the 
abdomen in diameter, and reaching to about the penultimate segment, 

Length 4; of an inch. 

Occurs abundantly among shore-algz in Otago Harbour. 


260 Transactions.—Zoology, 


Legion 11. Branchiopoda. 
Branchie attached to the legs; legs from four to sixty pairs. 
Order I, Phyllopoda. 

Legs from eleven to sixty pairs in number; joints foliaceous and 
branchiiform, chiefly adapted for respiration and not motion; eyes two or 
three, sometimes pedunculated; antenn: one or two pairs, neither adapted 
for swimming, 

Fam, I. Apodide. 

Feet sixty pairs. Antenne—only one pair—short, styliform. Eyes two, 
sessile. Body multi-articulate, the greater part covered by a shield-like 
carapace. 

Genus I. Lepidurus, Leach. 

Last segment of the body produced into a lamina, which projects to 
some distance between the caudal filaments. First pair of legs short, 
1. Lepidurus kirkii, nov. sp. Fig. E.4. 

Carapace very broadly oval, covering nearly the whole abdomen, very 
membranous. Keel visible along the whole back, becoming more prominent 
at its posterior extremity. Posterior notch with from eleven to thirteen 
acute teeth, inter-dental portions smooth. Edges of the carapace very 
slightly serrated towards its posterior angles. Appendages of the first pair 
of feet more developed than is usual in the species of this genus, external 
branch being about one-fourth as long as the carapace. Segments of the 
abdomen studded with a row of numerous, stout, curved spines. Caudal 
lamella oval, evenly rounded at the extremity, margins finely and acutely 
serrate; dorsal row of spines extending about two-thirds of its length. 
Caudal setz more than half as long as the body, densely hirsute. Colour 
pale olive green. Length, including caudal lamella, 1:25 inch; breadth of 
carapace (about) :75 inch. 

Wellington, T. W. Kirk, junr. 

2. Lepidurus compressus, nov. sp. Fig. E.5. 

Carapace oval, not spreading, but somewhat arched, hardly covering the 
abdomen, keeled only at the extremity. Posterior noteh very deep, with 
about twelve very small teeth, and minute serrations between. Lower 
margin of carapace smooth. Appendages of first pair of feet short, hardly 
extending beyond edge of carapace. Segments of abdomen with a row of 
small, straight spines. Caudal lamella as in the previous species, but with 
the keel extending to its extremity, and sparingly toothed. Caudal setze 
densely hirsute, not half as long as the iir Colour dark olive green. 
Length ‘8 inch; breadth only about :3 ine 

Collected by Prof. Hutton in pools at Waikouaiti, and at Queenstown 
(Lake Wakatipu.) 


ka meza di 


7r aca ua AA ie eran menie Den 


G. M. Txromson.—On the New Zealand Entomostraca. 261 


It is with considerable hesitation that I advance the above as distinct 
species. As Sir John Lubbock states (Linn. Soc. Trans. Vol. XXIV., p. 206), 
the relative length of the carapace and the form of the caudal lamella vary 
so much in different individuals, even when taken from the same pool, that 
they do not constitute good characters on which to found new species. 
Though the specimens examined by me were sufficiently distinct to be 
readily recognised and separated into two lots without any close investiga- 
tion, yet Iam inclined to think that both constitute only varieties of a 
wide-spread species. In fact, I should be inclined to include under one 
species, L, productus, Bose., from Europe, L. viridis, Baird, from Tasmania, 
L. angasii, Baird, from South Australia, and perhaps even L. glacialis, 
Kroyer, from North America. 


Order II. Cladocera. 

Legs four to six pairs, chiefly branchial; eye single and very large ; 

antenna two pairs, inferior large, branched, and adapted for swimming. 
Fam. I. Daphniade. 

Superior antenna small; inferior large, two-branched; legs five (or six) 
pairs, all enclosed within the carapace. 

Genus I. Daphnia, Müller. 

Head produced downwards into a more or less prominent beak. Superior 
antenne exceedingly small, one-jointed, and situated under the beak; 
inferior large and powerful. 

1. Daphnia obtusata, nov. sp. Fig. E.2 a-e. 

Carapace (viewed laterally) oval, broadest below the middle, obtusely 
pointed below, infero-anterior margin oblique; anterior margin rounded, 
finely ciliated. When viewed dorsally, the valves are narrow-obovate in 
shape, tapering downwards. Head small, produced into a very obtuse 

eak. Inferior antenn® comparatively small as compared with European 
species, not more than one-fourth the length of the carapace. Superior 
antenne very minute, thick and slightly curved, with a few very delicate 
cilia at the extremity. Eye moderately large. Abdominal segment bearing 
two slender filaments. Caudal claws long, slender and curved, serrated 
below. Lower edge of abdomen with numerous curved tee 

The whole carapace is semi-transparent and closely striated. 

Length > inch. Occurs in great abundance in still water in neigh- 
bourhood of Dunedin from October to May. 

The young are very abundantly produced, over thirty sometimes occur- 
ring within the valves of the parent. Before leaving this shelter they are 
remarkably well-developed and able to swim about freely. At this early 
stage the carapace is subquadrate in shape, and both pairs of antenne are 
relatively large, the inferior being nearly as long as the animal. 


262 ; Transactions.—Zoology. 


This species is very distinct in general shape from any European form, 
which are all more or less acutely produced inferiorly, and it also has the 
antenne very much shorter than is usual in the genus, 

Fam. IT. Lynceide. 

Superior antennz very short; inferior of moderate size, branched, each 
branch three-jointed ; legs five pairs; eye single, with a black spot in front; 
intestine convoluted, having one complete turn and a half, 

Genus I. Chydorus, Leach. 

Nearly spherical in shape; beak very long and sharp, curved downwards; 
inferior antenns very short. 

1. Chydorus minutus, nov. sp. Fig. E.3 a. 

. Carapace broadly oblong in young specimens, becoming more spherical 
in adults, dorsally rounded ; antero-inferior margin oblique, fringed with 
rather long cilia. Beak long, very acute. Eye rather small; eye-spot not 
half as large. Superior antenne very small, blunt, with a few very delicate 
sete. Inferior antenne short; lower branch with two sete from extremity 
of last joint; upper branch with one seta from the penultimate joint, and 
three from the last jomt. Abdomen strongly serrated on the inferior 
margin, with the terminal claws short and curved. The postero-dorsal 
border of the abdomen furnished with two filaments. Length about zty of 
an inch. 

Very common in ditches, ponds &c., near Dunedin, from October to May. 

In the larger specimen figured, a solitary young one was inside the 
carapace of the parent. This was well-developed, having the eye and eye- 
spot prominent, and apparently all the limbs perfect. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Baird’s British Entomostraca. Micrographic Dictionary. G. S. Brady 
on Ostracoda, Zool. Soc. Proe., 1871; Zool. Soc. Trans., Vol. V., p. 859; 
and Linn. Soc. Trans. XXVI.. Dr. Baird (Apodidæ), Zool. Soc. Proc., 
1850-52 and 1866. Sir John Lubbock, Linn. Soc. Trans., Vol. XXIL., 
1860. 

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE ZI. 
(The small numbers represent the linear magnifying power." ) 
Fie. A.1. Cypris ciliata: (a) superior antenne; (b) inferior antenne; (c) portion of 
mandible; (d) first pair of feet; (e) second pair of feet; (f) bot abdominal 
ramus; (9) portion of valve. 
2. Cypris viridis: (a) superior antenne: (b) inferior antenne; (c) portion of 
mandible; (d) first pair of feet; (e) second pair of feet; (f) post-abdominal 
us; (g) portion of valve. 
3. oki littoralis : (a) mucus-gland (of Brady); (b) post-abdominal ramus. 


ve '. * These numbers should be reduced by one-half, as the original plates have been reduced to 
that extent.—Ep, 


VOVYLSOWOLNS 


KA bed oe 
E sb yea 


X DC TOA 3ERLUSNLZN SNYL 


* 


PowELL.—On Desis robsoni. 263 


Fig. B.1. Cypris littoralis: (a) superior antennz; (b) inferior antennæ; (c and d) first 
and second pair of legs 


"al 


Cythere atra: (a) portion of valve ; (b and c) legs of first and second pairs. 


e 


. Loxoconcha punctata: (a) superior antennæ ; (b) inferior antenne; (c) man- 
dible; (d) maxille; (e) third pair of legs; (f) outer margin of valve; (g) 
hinge-line ; (h) abdominal lobe; (k) post-abdominal ramus 


Fig. C.1. Cythere atra : (a) superior antenne ; (b) inferior antenns. 


be 


Cythere truncata: (a) superior antenne ; (b) inferior antennz ; (c) mandible. 


oo 


. Philomedes agilis: (a) central portion of valves showing lucid spots; (b) por- 
tion of seta on natatory branch of lower antenn:s, female; (c) second 
joint of lower antenne, male; (d) same, female; (e) extremity of oviferous 
foot 


Fig. D.1. Philomedes agilis: (a) superior antennæ, male; (b) same, female; (c) natatory 
branch of inferior PENA male; (d) same, female; (e) mandibular foot ; 
(f) post-abdominal laminæ ; (g) second maxillæ ; 

- Cyclops nove-zealandie, iet : (a, b) superior and inferior antenne; (d) second 
foot-jaws, outer branch; (e) inner branch; (f) leg of third pair; (g) leg of 
fifth pair; (A) caudal lamelle and set»; (k) second segment of abdomen 
with triple spines; (J) superior antenne of male. 


bo 


o 


. Arpacticus bairdii, female: (a) foot-jaws; (b) first pair of legs. 

Fig. E.1. Arpacticus bairdii, female: (a) inferior antenna; (b) superior antenne; (c) 
cephalothorax from above; (d) third pair of legs; (e) fifth pair of legs; (f) 
abdominal segments and caudal sets. 

Daphnia obtusata: (a) head, seen from a ; (b) superior antenne; (c) 
mandibles; (d) extremity of abdomen; Ui NENE taken from carapace of 


‘as 


arent. 

3. Chydorus minutus: (a) inferior antennæ ; (b) superior antenne ; (c) extremity 
of abdomen 

. Lepidurus kirkii: (a) foot of the first pair. 

5. Lepidurus compressus : (a) foot of the first pair. 


d» 


Art. XXII.—On Desis robsoni, a Marine Spider, from Cape Campbell. 
By Luewettyn Powell, M.D. 
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Tth November, 1878.] 
Plate XII. 

Ix the tenth volume of the Transactions, p. 299, is a short description of 
& spider, discovered inhabiting old Lithodomus holes, beneath the surface 
of tidal pools, by Mr. C. H. Robson, at Cape Campbell. Dr. Hector in a note 
states that this spider is allied to the genus 47gyroneta, and proposes for it 
the name Argyroneta marina, 


264 Transactions.— Zoology. 


It scarcely needs more than a glance, however, at the lip and maxille to 
decide that this interesting spider does not belong to Argyroneta, but, 
indeed, that in the form of these appendages it differs very strikingly from 
that genus. Dr. L. Koch deseribes two closely allied species (Arachniden 
Australiens, p. 345-351, plate xxix., figs. 1 and 2) referring them to the 
genus Desis, founded by Walekenaer on a single species, Desis dysderoides 
from New Guinea. 

The following are the characters of the genus Desis, as given by 
Walckenaer.* 

“Eyes eight, in two lines, the anterior very close to the anterior margin 
of the cephalothorax, curved backwards, and forming an open crescent; the 
eyes forming the intermediate square, larger than the lateral eyes, which 
are situated on a-slightly raised tubercle. 

** Lip elongated, with parallel sides, deeply notched at its extremity. 

* Maxille straight, diverging, dilated at their base, pointed at their 
extremity. 

** Legs strong, suited for running; the anterior longer than the posterior ; 
the first pair the longest, the second next, the third pair the shortest.” 

The above characters are supplemented in the description of the species 
Desis dysderoides, which I subjoin. 

«Abdomen oval, convex above and below, of a uniform pale grey. Cepha- 
lothorax, mandibles, sternum, legs and palpi coral red. Mandibles long 
and strong, directed forwards. 

“New Guinea. Quoy and Gaimard. 

** Aspect of Dysdera erythrina. Cephalothorax as long and as large as the 
abdomen, sides almost parallel, scarcely at all narrowed anteriorly, flattened. 
Sternum without spots, without eminences, and clothed at the insertion of 
the legs with yellow hair. The mandibles are very strong, directed forwards 
as in Dysdera, as long as the cepthalothorax, eylindroid, with the claws of 
a red brown, elongated, half opened and not completely folded back in the 
groove, which last is toothed. The teeth are prominent and number eight 
or nine as in Dysdera erythrina. The legs have the tarsus provided with 
three claws, of which one is very short and almost hidden in the hairs." + 

The agreement of our spider with the above characters is so close that 
there can be no doubt as to the propriety of placing it in this genus. 

= Desis robsoni, nov. sp. 

Male.—Cephalothorax moderately dark mahogany brown, darkening 
towards the facial border, paling towards the sides and posterior border of 
the thorax, Map clothed with short hairs. Angle of the caput bor- 
dered with 


—— 


* Histoire des Aptéres, Vol. I, p. 610, plate iv., figs. 15 a and b. 
+ Histoire des Aptéres, Vol. I., p. 611, 


AA Ua LESSONS MEESCIBVEE E AE EE E EEEN N EE E I EE A SS LEA A AAR A RE O BDE OEE EAEE E 


| 
| 
| 
| 


Powzrr.—Oa Desis robsoni. 265 


Falees a rich red brown, glabrous above, hairy beneath, inner and 
upper border fringed with long coarse dark hairs. Fangs very dark red 
brown, nearly black proximally. 

Sternum yellowish brown, with a dark edge, clothed with yellowish 
white hairs. 

Lip and maxille reddish brown, both with a pale border anteriorly, 
clothed with yellowish white hairs, inner border of maxille fringed with 
long coarse dark hairs. 

Abdomen greenish grey, in some specimens yellowish grey, paler beneath, 
thickly elothed with yellowish white and dark hairs intermixed. 

Coxal joints of legs yellowish brown. Legs otherwise same colour as 
abdomen but yellower, anterior pair inclining to brown, in some specimens 
much browner than in others. 

Palpi yellowish brown. 

Cephalothorax nearly one and two-thirds longer than broad, sides nearly 
parallel, scarcely contracted anteriorly, and cut off nearly square, sides of 
thorax only slightly rounded; longitudinally a very flat uniform convexity 
above, becoming somewhat more abrupt anteriorly, transversely only 
moderately convex. Normal grooves of thorax feebly indicated by darkish 
lines. A short deep median groove to thorax. 

Mandibles equalling the cephalothorax in length, directed nearly straight 
forwards, cylindroid and robust, immediately beyond their origin on upper 
and outer side is a small prominent ovoid boss. 

Upper border of groove for fang, armed with six teeth, the first small 
and rather remote from extremity, the second the largest of all, the other 
four smaller and regularly diminishing. Lower border armed with two 
teeth, the first close to the insertion of the fang, moderately large, the 
second quite small and on a level with the first of the upper border. 
Fang long, rather straight. Eyes of very uniform size, the posterior middle 
pair being the smallest; disposed in two rows, the anterior straight or 
curved very slightly indeed, the opening of the curve being forward. The 
posterior. row nearly straight, but in consequence of the small size of the 
middle pair a line touching their posterior margins would be slightly concave 
backwards. 

Anterior middles less than own breadth from border of face, lateral 
middles almost on border. Anterior middles separated from one another 
by own diameter, and from laterals by more than twice own diameter. 
Posterior middles more than own distance from anterior middles and nearly 
four times own diameter apart, the same distance from posterior laterals. - 
Lateral eyes barely their own diameter apart. Anterior middles situa 
on a slight common eminence, they look directly forwards; anterior laterals 

a4 


266 Transactions.—Zoology. 


situated on a very slight eminence common to them with the posterior 
laterals, they look forward and slightly outwards. Posterior middles look 
upwards, posterior laterals upwards and outwards. 

Sternum a long heart-shape, flat, with concave emarginations opposite 
the coxe. 

Lip twice as long as broad, tongue-shaped, sides nearly parallel, but 
narrowing somewhat anteriorly, towards its origin it is pinched in and then 
widens to its insertion. Its anterior border is notched. 

Maxille cut obliquely away from the lip and running to a sharp point 
anteriorly, outer border rounded, pinched in anteriorly to the insertion of 
the palpi, flattish, but becoming more convex towards their insertion. 
Abdomen ovoid. Spinnerets short, diverging, the upper and lower pair 
rather longer than the middle pair. Legs long, slender, clothed with 
yellowish white hairs intermingled with bristles at distal end of third and 
fourth tibial joints. 

Tarsi have three claws, the two principal claws deeply combed, the 
posterior claw small, inconspicuous, not combed, and abruptly bent just 
beyond its origin. 

Male palpi long, slender. The radial joint has on its outer side a 
bifurcate process, the lower segment thin, broad, and flattened, yellowish, 
with the upper border thickened, and dark brown, the upper segment thick, 
very much narrower than the lower segment, from which it is slightly 
turned away, blunt at its point, dark brown. The digital joint ovoid, pro- 
longed, and tapering distally, and provided at its extremity with short, stout 
spines; the palpal organ has a coiled cirrhus about three-fourths the cir- 
cumference of the organ in length. The palpi are clothed with abundant 
long hairs. 

MEASUREMENTS, 
Totallength .. Rs F 0-015 
ephalothorax .. M .. 0:0042 


Falces .. NA oe .. 09-0042 
Abdomen X Vs xs UU 
Leg of 1st pair ap .. 00145 
: us : ^ i o verified exact in a second eponimen, 
4th. ,, is ss 0-0105 
Male palpus | .. 0:0075 


Female.— Colouring as ERA Cephalothorax more convex above. 
Falces slightly shorter but more massive. Fang thicker and stronger. 
Epigyne pale-yellowish. A small concavity with a denticle on either side 
pointing inwards, posteriorly a short blunt process directed backwards. 

Desis robsoni is excedingly like Desis martensii (Koch, Arachn. Austral.), 
which it also resembles in its marine habits. This is so interesting that I 


~ make no apology for quoting Dr. Koch's remarks in full ;— 


NEN ees SMR ae ee chen AA 


Powzrr.—0On Desis robsoni, 267 


“I received from Dr, E. v. Martens, of Berlin, a third species of this 
interesting genus (Desis martensii). It was collected by him on coral reefs 
at Singapore, and kindly given to me for examination. This species is 
remarkable in that it has established itself in these reefs which are only 
temporarily uncovered by the sea; Herr v. n has "e gen speci- 
mens of the spider in this locality. * * 
* * That the species discovered by Dr. E. v. Martens and Dr. Johswick,* 
can really, like our indigenous Argyroneta aquatica, Ol., live under water, 
is to me doubtful in the highest degree, for it is wanting in the outward 
visible signs of the breathing apparatus which corresponds to such sub- 
marine mode of life, and which has been anatomically demonstrated in 
Argyroneta aquatica]. It also speaks against it that yet another species of 
spider, an Atta, was found on the same coral reefs, and we may assume 
with all certainty that this is a true terrestrial form. I opine that these 
spiders, perhaps, in former times, were floated in an accidental manner 
from the land to these reefs, and now live in the holes of the coral bank, 
within which they withdraw at the time of flood, and which they close 
against the entrance of the water with a thick web. * * When once 
both sexes had been transferred to the coral reefs, Desis martensii would 
increase and form a colony there.” 

I take the liberty of quoting a further valuable communication from 
Dr. E. v. Martens on the discovery of this interesting spider, as follows :— 

“During my residence at Singapore, in October, 1861, I repeatedly 
visited a coral bank in the neighbourhood of New Harbour, of which large 
tracts were exposed above water during the ebb, at the times of new and full 
moon. My attention was chiefly directed to Crustacea and Mollusca; I tore 
off pieces of coral and broke them up to get at the ereatures hidden within. 
To my astonishment I several times observed spiders hurriedly escaping, 
the idea occurred to me at first that we ourselves had brought them from 
the shore in our clothing. I generally went with the late staff-surgeon, Dr. 
Johswiek, in a little skiff pulled by a Chinese from the frigate * Thetis ' 
which lay in the roadstead, or from the town, distant about half-a-league 
from the coral reef. This suspicion was rendered unlikely by the frequent 
repetition of the event, and conclusively disproved, as Dr. Johswick found a 
web of undoubtedly one of these spiders in an old dead mussel shell, between 
the coral, stretched sheet-like in the cavity of the shell.” { 

* Sitzungsbericht der Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin vom Mai 24, 

35. 


1864 

t ruie “ Einige Resultate aus Untersuchungen über die Anatomie der Spinnen," 

in Müller's “ Archiv. für Anat. und Physiologie," 1842, p. 300 ; und Menge “ Ueber die 

Lebensweise der Arachniden,” *' Neueste Sc Boite der xni aeta Gesellschaft,” 
in Danzig, IV. Band Hit. i, p. 23. 

1 Koch, Asi Aui: pp. 349, 350, - | 


~ extremity of radial joint. 


268 Transactions. —Z oology. 


The discovery of Desis robsoni, and its highly aquatic and marine habits, 
clear up Dr. Koch’s doubts as to the voluntarily aquatic habitat of Desis 
martensit, 

In reply to some enquiries of mine, Mr. Robson gives the following 
additional information as to the mode of life of this interesting spider :— 

** The nests of this spider do not, in my opinion, occur below low water; 
but it is difficult to state positively. The mouth of the Lithodomus hole in 
which the nest is made is often, if not always, under low water in a tidal 
pool, and the nest is only to be got at by breaking up the rock with a heavy 
hammer. The spider, when going to the bottom of a pool, on being dis- 
turbed, does not take down an air-bubble so far as I could see, and is able 
tolive a considerable time without air or only the small amount to be found 
in sea-water. I have kept them alive for several days in a bottle quite full. 
The cocoons of eggs are found at the end of the hole and always quite dry. 
Ihave not seen these spiders at any place but Cape Campbell, and there 
not far above low-water mark, there being many feet of water over the 
rocks in which they live at high tide." 

Further observations on the habits of this spider are desirable. An 
examination of their nests might disclose the nature of their food. Also, if 
Mr. Robson is correct in stating that the mouths of the holes in which they 
live are always below low water, how are they supplied with air? A careful 
comparison of Desis robsoni with Koch's description and figures of Desis 
martensii, shows that these two spiders differ very slightly. The posterior 
pair of legs are much shorter relatively in Desis robsoni. The posterior row 
of eyes in Desis martensti are concave anteriorly, in D. robsoni very slightly 
concave posteriorly. The process on the radial joint of the male palpus 
differs in form in the two species, and there are only six teeth to the upper 
border of the fang groove in Desis robsoni, there being seven in Desis 
martensii. Walckenaer’s diagnosis of the genus founded on a single species 
needs revision now that three more species have been discovered. The 
arrangement and relative proportionate size of the eyes and the length of 
the legs vary from the characters as laid down by him in the Histoire des 
Aptéres. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII. 
Desis robsoni. 

1. Male, showing form and relative proportions of cephalothorax and falces. 
2. Lateral view to show elevation of cephalathorax, female. 
8. Anterior view of caput showing arrangement of eyes. 
4. Sternum, lip, maxillz, and falx, female. 
5. Epigyue, female. 
6. Radial and digital joints of palpus, male, as from beneath, b from outer side, ¢ 


————— 


INOSEGOY SISTO 


TX TEDCTONFINUSNIZN-SNYHL 


PowELL.—On Anatomy of Regalecus pacificus. 269 


Art, XXIII, — Notes on the Anatomy of Regalecus pacificus, von Haast. 

By LunEgwELLyN Powerr, M.D., F.L.S. 
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 21st February, 1878.] 
Dr. Haast, in the description of Regalecus pacificus,* speaks of the silvery, 
or rather, to my eye, steely coating which contributes so greatiy to the 
beauty of this splendid fish. It is impossible to reproduce it either in a 
drawing or to perpetuate it by any mode of preservation, as it is detached 
by the slightest touch, leaving a slimy, silvery patch on the finger. This 
coating has been described as consisting of minute scales by one observer, 
and by another as scales resembling those on a butterfly’s wing. Such is 
not, however, the case. It is evidently a secretion similar to the slimy 
mucus which many other fishes secrete so copiously. The microscope 
resolves the steely layer into myriads of exceedingly minute crystalline 
needles, or elongated tabular prisms with oblique ends. The largest have 
a length of 41, inch by 4454 inch in breadth. These crystals show a 
beautiful metallic lustre, are not perishable, do not polarize light, are 
immediately dissolved in liq. potass., but are insoluble in strong acetic 
acid. I cannot ascertain the nature of the silvery coating found in the 
swim-bladder of certain fishes, such as Atherina, which was formerly used 
in the manufacture of artificial pearls, It is not improbably of a similar 
nature. 

The scales of the lateral line are peculiarly formed, being very long in 
proportion to their breadth. Their length slightly exceeds } inch, while 
their breadth does not exceed j inch; one extremity is slightly expanded 
or spoon-shaped, the other duran uude abruptly to a point which 
articulates firmly with the dilated extremity of the following scale. These 
seales appear to me to be tubular, but I cannot be ceriain of this as they 
shrivelled in drying. 

I noted a few points in the internal anatomy. I regret that as daylight 
was closing, and it was necessary from the extremely soft and watery nature 
of the integument and the flesh to use despatch in order to save the skin in 
good condition, I was unable to make a more thorough examination of this 
interesting fish. 

The gulle& terminated at 2ft. Tin. from the snout in a remarkably 
elongated muscular stomach, prolonged backward as a kind of cecum to a 
length of 4ft. and about 2in., extending 2ft. 7in. beyond the vent in a 
diverticulum from the peritoneal cavity, and becoming narrower and more 
and more attenuated until it becomes so exceedingly thin and delicate that, 
with the utmost care in dissection, the extremity was torn and imperfect. 

The pylorus was seated immediately by the side of the cardiac orifice, - 


being provided with a strong muscular ring, the duodesma, if one may æ had : 


*Hü Sans NX Ind X O46 ORD ni vu NC 


270 Transactions.—Zooloyy. 


speak of the commencement of the intestine, passed directly forwards, 
Plunged immediately into a cylindrical mass of densely packed pyloric 
pancreatic ceca. These were short, adherent to one another, and so closely 
massed that the intestine appeared to have no proper wall, appearing more 
like a broad glandular duct; on cutting into the pancreatic mass, a white 
chylous fluid exuded abundantly. The glandular mass was 15in. long by 
more than 3in. broad. At its extremity the thin-walled intestine emerged 
from the pancreatic mass and turned abruptly backwards, passing without 
any convolution to the vent. It was full of a gruelly fluid. 

The stomach exhibited, in its anterior part, strong longitudinal 
muscular bundles becoming more and more attenuated as they proceeded 
backwards. It was empty, being merely coated with a layer of mucus, 
stained of a pinkish hue, with dark red particles here and there. A 
microscopic examination of this mucus made with the object of determining 
the nature of the food of this deep-sea fish, discovered myriads of minute 
conical calcareous bodies, some of them perforated longitudinally, having a 
very uniform size of about 41, inch by 441,4 inch broad at the base. I do 
not know what these may be, but am inclined to think that they are the 
cutaneous species of some echinoderm. 

The fish was a female, the ova exceedingly minute and undeveloped. A 
single oviduct, divided 12 inches anteriorly to the vent into two cylindrical 
ovaries, these ran forward to a point 17 inches posteriorly to the snout, the 
right being somewhat smaller than the left, they each terminated in a 
strong suspensary ligament. 

The large liver, of a most beautiful vivid orange tint, weighed 41b. 12302. 
It was cleft into two longitudinal lobes posteriorly; there was also some 
minor lobation, one smaller lobe overlapping the large gall bladder which 
was full of dirty watery fluid. The liver overlapped the pyloric mass which 
was entered by the ductus choledocus. 

The kidneys had the usual situation and appearance ; their length was 
2ft. 6in. There was no swim-bladder, and of the dorsal bladders spoken 
of by Mr. Travers I need hardly say there was no trace. It is evident that 
the curious spaces left by the detachment of the strong longitudinal 
 intermuscular septa were mistaken for bladders by that gentleman. 

The skeleton consisted of the softest cartilage; it would have been & 
matter of the greatest diffieulty to isolate and preserve it. 


Artuur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 271 


Art. XXIV.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. By W. Anruur,C.B. 
(Read before the Otago Institute, 9th July, 1878.) 
Plate XIII. 
Tue principal object of this paper is to put on record those facts which have 
been ascertained, connected with the acclimatization of trout in Otago. The 
present time is in many respects peculiarly suitable for observing how exotie 
plants and animals adapt themselves to the conditions of life in New Zealand, 
into which they have been recently introduced. It is equally true, and has 
been advoeated before now, that observations eonstant and careful should 
be undertaken by all the friends of science, on the effects of colonization 
upon the native flora and fauna; because the existing circumstances under 
which these are placed are in a state of progression and change, while the 
old conditions will soon be things of the past. So also with our trout, for 
in twenty years hence the banks of many streams, which at present in a 
state of nature supply certain food, will be cultivated and probably yield a 
totally different description of food, while-the trout themselves will be much 
more numerous and, I am afraid, of a smaller average weight. The 
opportunity can only occur once, of observing the immediate results of 
stocking any stream with trout. Therefore it seems to me a reasonable 
precaution to publish periodically an aecount of the progress of our know- 
ledge, and as a contribution towards this object I have selected the special 
subject of this paper, being one in which I have always taken much 
interest. 
1. Distribution and Growth of Trout in Otago. 

The first successful hatching of trout (Salmo fario) in Otago was in 
October, 1868. This was achieved by Mr. Clifford, then Curator to our 
Acclimatization Society, who went to Tasmania, and got from the natural 
spawning-beds at the breeding-ponds of the Plenty, 800 ova, whereof 720 
were hatched out as above at our Opoho breeding-ponds. Part of this lot 
was sent to Lake Wakatipu, but all the young fish died on the road. The 
remainder seem to have been sent to Mr. Young, at Palmerston, and were 
turned out in the mill-race on that gentleman’s property. A year after- 
wards one of these fish was caught, and found to be seven inches in length. 
In October, 1869, the second shipment of 1,000 trout ova was brought from 
Tasmania by Mr. Clifford, and placed in the breeding-boxes at Opoho, the 
water having a temperature of 44° Fah. The fish from these two lots of 
trout ova form the original stock, which were liberated in our streams in 
November, 1869, and from these and their descendants the ova for stocking 
the rivers in Otago have been obtained. I append a table published 
by our Acclimatization Society, showing the rivers into which young trout 


272 Transactions.— Zoology. 


have been put, their number, and the years in which this was done. 
Altogether, 64,810 young trout have been liberated in 134 rivers and 
streams in Otago up to December, 1877. 

As showing how soon and easily confusion may arise for want of a few 
precautions, I may here mention that beyond the general fact that our 
breed of trout is believed to be from a Thames tributary, we really do not 
know much about them. It is true that the trout in Tasmania, whence 
ours were brought here as their ova, were got from England, but 
what particular stream to trace them to seems from all I can learn to be 
now impossible. From notes kindly given me by Mr. Howard, of the 
Wallacetown salmon-ponds, it appears that three lots were sent to Tasma- 
nia, which turned out more or less successful. Of these, Mr. Francis 
Francis sent one from the Weycombe, Bucks, and another from the Wey 
at Alton, Hants, and Mr. Buckland sent one lot from Alresford, on the 
Itchen, Hants. If I am not able to say, therefore, to which place the 
descent of our trout is to be traced, or if each of the places named has not 
a joint honour in their parentage, I think you will agree that we have got a 
very handsome and valuable variety of Salmo fario. 

Growth of the Trout.—I will now proceed to lay before you such facts as 
I have been able to collect, teading to show the probable rate of growth of 
trout in our rivers, under the conditions of the state of nature which existed 
when these fish were first turned out and which still hold good for most of 
our streams, and particularly that no trout are ever known to have pre- 
viously inhabited these waters. The rivers that I shall refer to are the 
Shag, Water of Leith, Lee Stream, Deep Stream and Upper Taieri, not 
because we have not information of the success of trout in other streams, 
but because such information is as yet rather general and indefinite. 

Shag River —In the year 1868, young trout, 75 in number, appear to 
have been put in Mr. Young’s mill-race at Palmerston, as already men- 
tioned, and in 1869 there were 53 liberated in Shag River. The mill-race 
has communication with the river. After this, the first specimens I am 
aware of, caught in this river, are those taken in 1874, and which are now 
preserved in the Otago Museum. The male fish (one of these) was taken in 
June of that year, and weighed l4lbs. The female (the other) was taken in 
July, and weighed 163ibs. Now, comparing the above dates, we find that 
the greatest possible age of these fish could not exceed six years. This 
indicates an average growth for the male fish of 21Ibs. a year, and of 231bs. 
a year for the female. But I am inclined to believe that for the first year 
or eighteen months trout do not attain that average in our streams, or at all 
events in the Shag River. A certain amount of corroboration arises from 
Vue fact I have alluded to above, of Mr. Clifford catching one of the 1868 


na 


Artuur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 273 


trout in 1869, and finding it measure seven inches, which would represent a 
weight under half a pound. If we say then that the above two trout 
attained a weight in the first year of even one pound, then their subsequent 
average growth must have been 221bs. and $ lbs. respectively, yearly. 

Water of Leith.—In 1869 the first trout were put in this stream, 75 in 
number, and additions have from year to year been made to this and other 
rivers to keep up the stock. In the end of 1874 and beginning of 1875 the 
Leith was opened for angling, when the largest trout caught weighed 8lbs. 
In August, 1875, among a number of spawning fish taken, I saw one 
which must have weighed 7lbs. Mr. Deans, the curator of our Acclimatiza- 
tion Society, informs me of a male trout taken in the Leith, in 1877, which 
weighed 121lbs.; and in February of this year a gentleman caught a female, 
while fishing with artificial minnow, which weighed 10lbs. This latter fish 
I saw; it was a very well-shaped specimen and in excellent condition. It 
is certainly astonishing that trouts can attain such weights in so small a 
stream running through a city like Dunedin! The average yearly growth 
of the largest of these trout—viz., the male fish—is a little over 141bs.—on 
the same supposition as I used regarding the Shag River fish—viz., that it 
was one of the fish put in in 1869. Any other theory will, of course, give a 
more rapid growth, but I do not consider it safe to err in that direction. 

Lee Stream.—Trout were, to the number of 98, put into this (which has 
become the favourite angling stream of Otago) in the year 1869. No other 
lot of trout has ever been added, yet these 98 young fish have stocked the 
stream throughout its whole course of some twenty miles from near the 
Lammerlaw mountains to the Taieri River into which it flows. It was open 
for angling in 1875. In October of that year a well-known angler killed 
some very fine fish with fly. The heaviest of these weighed 5lbs.—this is 
equal to a yearly growth of 4 of a 1b., or say 11b. 

Deep Stream.—In 1869 there were 100 young trout turned out in this 
stream. This is the only lot ever put into the Deep Stream, where fish are 
now plentiful. It was opened for angling in 1875, but no fish over 2 to 4lbs. 
was taken till 1876, when one of 8lbs. was caught with grasshopper. This 
gives ljlbs. as the known yearly growth, on an average, of the trout in 
the Deep Stream. 

Upper Tateri.—In 1870 a few dozen young trout were put into this river 
at the Styx, and in 1875 there were 425 more turned in. At the beginning 
of this year it was fished for the first time, when several large trout were 
taken, weighing from 3 to 6lbs., the largest which was caught with the fly 
being 6Ibs. Gozs. in weight. This gives the greatest possible yearly growth 
at 13 ozs., or say 11b. 

Of other streams we have not so much information; but I may mention 
that large trout have been seen in the Kakanui, Waitati, Lovell’s Creek, 

Ad 


274 Transacitons.—Zoology. 


Fulton's Creek, Waipahu River, Mimihau, and some of about 10lbs. in 
weight in the Wakatipu Lake at Queenstown. In the Kuriwao a trout 
6ilbs. was killed in the beginning of this year. Trout were first put 
in this stream in 1874, but into the Waiwera, into which the Kuriwao 
runs, in 1878. So that the average yearly growth may be taken at about 
1iibs. As regards the Waikouaiti River, I have had, from two different 
sources, tolerably reliable evidence that the trout put into it have lived and 
thrived, but this requires confirmation. 

In the above I have, as explained, regarded the average weight on the 
theory (which is a safe one), that the fish actually eaught and weighed, may 
have been individuals of the first stock put into each stream. Of course there 
still remains another, but more laborious, method for the future, of determin- 
ing the rate of growth, viz., marking young fish when eaught, and returning 
them to the river for future observations. Two summers ago I began this 
plan in the Lee Stream, by removing the posterior half of the adipose fin ; 
but as yet I have not been fortunate enough to recapture any of those 
so marked. These fish would run from four to seven inches in length, and 
in number about one dozen. In the Southland rivers young trout were 
turned out from 1870 to 1877, as shown by a list appended, which Mr. 
Howard has sent me. As yet, however, I have not been able to get any 
positive information as to how they have succeeded. 

Comparing now the growth of our trout with river trout of England and 
Scotland, I find that Stoddart, in his Lochs and Rivers of Scotland, gives 
the following as his opinion. The fry are hatched out in April, and by the 
month of October stop growing for that season, having attained a length of six 
or seven inches, and weighing a quarter of a pound. "There is no perceptible 
growth till the following spring, when food again becomes plentiful. They 
then resume growing, and before winter have increased in length by two 
inches, and in weight up to half a pound, by which time a certain number are 
in spawning condition. It is four years before these fish reach one pound 
weight, when many cease growing, but some from favouring conditions of 
locality and feed reach a greater weight. These latter live almost entirely 
upon ground and surface food—not minnows. In well sheltered waters and 
when the feed is particularly good, as in the Leet and Eden, in the course 
of five or six years trout have reached two pounds weight and upwards. * 
Again, Yarrel, in his British Fishes, says:—“ An acutely observing friend 
of mine * *  * has for years kept trout in a kind of store stream, 
and having fed them with every kind of food, has had some of them increase 


* Stoddart says that in South of England an experiment with trout in three tanks 
.. fed respectively with worms, minnows, and large water-flies, was tried, when those fed on 
| flies attained twice the weight of the others, 


a ee oe ERIT eer AAA ee ee 


Arraur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago, 275 


from 11b. to 10Ibs. in four years, I found, says he, that one of the trout I 
had fed and weighed regularly for the last six years was not improving in 
size and colour. I therefore killed it. The fish is a female and weighed 
exactly seven pounds. The accompanying schedule will show its gradual 
increase :— 
Date of weighing .. .. 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 
Ib.oz.  lb.oz.  lb.oz. Ib. oz. Ib. oz. Ib, oz, 
April 1st. 0 12 1 12 34 5 4 10 7 4 
October is. .. .. 1 4 2 0 5 0 5 12 1 9 T. 9 

Littlecot, October, 1840." This latter experiment shows, under careful 
artificial feeding, that trout are capable in England of a growth, according 
to this gentleman, of 12 lbs. yearly to 23lbs. when they have reached their 
full growth. But trout, in a state of nature, as described by Stoddart, may 
more properly be eompared with the results I have given of our Otago 
trout. “Stoddart’s remarks therefore amount to this, that under the most 
favourable circumstances at home, river trout will attain up to maturity, a 
yearly average increase in weight of Hb., while our experience here shows 
they have reached an average yearly increase of from 11b to 23Ibs! In no 
river of Otago have these fish grown so rapidly, are so fat, or have become 
so heavy as in the Shag, some individuals having been seen in Mr. Rich's 
property supposed to be 20lbs in weight. They abound from the estuary to 
the “second gorge,” a distance I should think of 15 miles by the river, 
The banks of the Shag are partly cultivated and partly covered with native 
grass and flax. Surface food cannot therefore be plentiful, but at all 
seasons there are in the pools and shallows numbers of Galaxias or native 
minnows, bullheads, and during summer immense shoals of smelts and 
silverfish.* On one occasion I killed a trout below Palmerston, 6}Ibs. 
weight, in the stomach of which I found about three dozen smelts. It is 
rather against the trout, that during summer the Shag River runs low and 
clear, so low as to be easily erossed in the fords with watertight boots 
without the feet getting wet. The growth of trout in the Leith may also 
be attributed chiefly to the great numbers of smelt which frequent its lower 
waters. But it is different witM the Lee, Deep Stream, and Upper Taieri 
rivers, where the great staple of food is made up of flies, gnats, grass- 
hoppers, cadis-bait, fresh-water shell-fish, beetles and cray-fish—the small 
kinds of native fish are not very numerous in these streams. Before 
leaving this part of my subject, I may mention a curious circumstance 
regarding the Lee Stream which anglers have discovered. Painfully lean 
trout have been caught there, which took the fly or grasshopper greedily 

* This fish is called Silverfish by Mr. Powell, but Smelt (Retropinna richardsoni) 
by Dr. d fe Oe a called ee 

whitebait, 


also known 


276 Transactions.—Zoology, 


and were apparently in good enough health. In December, 1875, I killed 
one of these which, though about 24 inches in length, only weighed 41058. 
It ought if in good condition to have been about 7 Ibs. Several other similar 
or worse-conditioned trout have since then been taken. But the worst speci- 
men I have seen was caught at the beginning of this year, in a feeder of the 
Lee, the Broad Creek, which surpassed all others in its poverty. It was 
about twenty inches long and weighed only 1lb. or thereby. There was 
really no substance on its body, it was literally a skeleton. It is difficult to 
account for such a phenomenon, particularly when equally large trout have 
been killed in the Lee, which were in excellent condition. 
2. Habits of the Trout. 

In dealing with this part of my subject, [ propose to offer a few remarks 
under the heads of Spawning Season, Differences of External Appearance, 
and the Habits of our Trout as observed during the open season. _ 

Spawning Season.—From actual observations, trout are known to have 
spawned in the several streams named as follows :— 


Shag River my Ap zi from June 20th to July 31st 
Water of Leith  .. <u we » June 30th ,„ Aug. 4th 
Lee Stream v =e Ts » June 15th  ,,July 25th 
Lovell’s Creek s me vs » June 6th ,, July 31st 
Fulton's Creek during July, &e. 


In Silverstream, a man of Mr. Mi oa saw trout engaged, as he 
thought, spawning from June 20th to July 20th.* As regards Southland, 
propagation of trout has been carried on there solely with fish kept 
constantly confined to small ponds at Wallacetown by or under charge 
of Mr. Howard. This gentleman’s experience of this method has proved 
it to be a mistake. Spawning is late and prolonged and the breed- 
ing fish do not thrive. He found that they lived well enough throughout 
the year, but were liable to attacks of fungus, which killed them in 
fourteen days. This fungus he cured repeatedly by washing or dipping 
the fish in salt water; but it invariably returned, and eventually the 
trout succumbed. With us, Mr. Deans has followed a more natural 
plan, that of catching the fish when ripe, gtripping the females of their ova, 
and impregnating these with the milt of the male. The milt of young or 
mature males does equally well, and one male is sufficient to fructify the 
ova of several females. The trout in the Leith will average 800 ova to 
the ib. weight of the fish itself. A female ilb. weight has yielded about 
400, and one of the largest caught, being a healthy fish of about 7Ibs., gave 
close on 6000 ova. In our breeding boxes at Opoho, we have found the 
time the ova take to hatch to be 78 days; but this is modified to some 


* This period is later than the corresponding time at home, which is in October and 
November, by about six weeks. 


Arrnur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago, 277 


extent by the temperature of the water. During the winter months the 
temperature of the water averages about 42°F.; and during the period of 
hatching it ranges from 42° to 52°. The strongest and healthiest fish 
are those which are hatched out in water at 48°. After birth the young 
trout are ready for turning out in from 30 to 50 days, but will carry best 
whenever they begin to feed, which is at an age of 25 to 28 days. 
When the young fish are about 6 weeks old and well fed, they average, 
in our ponds, 14 inches in length, and at 100 days measure 8 inches, being 
distinguished by dark bands like the fry of the salmon. In transporting 
the trout fry from the ponds to the rivers in which they are liberated, it has 
been most successfully done with fish about 1 inch to 14 inches long, the 
can of water having a sufficient quantity of watercress put into it carefully 
to prevent the consequences of shaking in transit. In this manner Mr. 
Deans has conveyed many supplies to our streams without losing a single 
trout. It has been observed with us, that in spawning, when the female has 
selected her male companion, she proceeds to a suitable gravel bed, where 
she prepares the ridd with her tail, the action of the stream assisting. She 
frequently rolls on her side and lashes the water with her tail, the ova being 
passed and impregnated from time to time, until the whole operation is 
completed. When confined they have been seen to take 8 to 10 days or 
more in spawning; but as yet I have not ascertained how long they 
naturally take in our rivers ; probably, however, not more than a week. 
Differences in External Appearance.—The differences in the external 
appearance of our trout are corroborative of all previous experience of 
these fish in home waters. Here, as there, these are due to various causes, 
such as age, sex, abundance or scarcity and also quality of food, range and 
colour of water, geological character of formation over which the river flows, 
and the season of the year. My own observations here, enable me to say 
that our trout are finest in appearances at the height of summer. By 
autumn they begin to get darker, some even I have caught were black- 
looking and lean, though all originally from the same stock. Already the 
various streams have stamped the trout with local peculiarities of some 
interest. Thus for example, in summer, trout which I have seen taken out 
of Shag River were remarkable for plumpness and good condition almost 
to deformity. They were all very bright silvery on the sides running into 
pure white on the belly, the back being grey or very light olive. Spots 
sometimes numerous and mostly of large size and black in colour, red spots 
are awanting or rare. The heads are small, even in the males, those of the 
females being beautifully shaped. The extreme fatness of form and bright 
silvery colour, I have no doubt are due to the river bottom being fine sand 
and gravel, the water clear, and the great bulk of the food being the small 


278 Transactions,— Zoology. 


fish already mentioned. This agrees with tho opinion expressed by Bir 
Humphrey Davy, as mentioned in Dr. Hamilton's British Fishes, which is, 
that when trout “feed much on hard substances, such as larvae and their 
cases, and the ova of other fish, they have more red spots and redder fins, 
and that when they feed most on small fish and on flies, they have more 
tendency to be spotted with small black spots and are generally more 
silvery." 

In the Water of Leith, when first opened for fishing, the trout were ofa 
fine appearance, colours being bright and the red spots large, but there is a 
falling off in this respect, at least as regards average-sized fish, and during 
spawning they all assume a darker or greyish hue. This water flows 
through bush, and its bed is one mass of trap rock, boulders, and small 
stones. No doubt a large amount of the feed is in flies, caterpillars, and 
slugs, and also, in the lower pools, smelts. 

The trout in the Lee Stream also, when it was opened for fishing in 1875, 
were, as a rule, of a handsomer shape and colour than they now are. The 
females, of 2 Ibs. and upwards, were silvery on their sides, very fat, and 
had small well-formed heads, a few red spots also along the sides. The 
males were dark olive brown on the back, golden yellow on the sides, and 
pure white on the belly. They had, and still have, numerous black spots, 
and large red or crimson spots on the sides and below the lateral line. The 
adipose fin in these and the trout in the other rivers is tinged with 
red, and is distinguished by two or three dark brown spots. The tail 
also has a few dark spots, generally confined to the upper margin. The 
males in this stream, when in good condition, are very handsome fish, the 
head though large is not unusually so. The bed of this river is mostly rocky, 
but in the upper water it is more gravelly than below the Accommodation 
House. Some of the pools towards the end of summer get very much over- 
grown with water plants. The feed consists of the native life from the tussock- 
covered banks, flies, beetles, spiders, and numerous grasshoppers, while the 
bed of the stream contains small shell-fish, larve, and crayfish. The 
native minnows and small fish are not plentiful. The Lee rises near the 
Lammerlaws, at a height of about 1,500 feet above the sea, and joins the 
Taieri River at about 40 feet. 

The Deep Stream trout have a tendency to be more silvery in colour than 
those of the Lee. Still, the males are very much alike, with numerous. 
large black spots, the usual number of large red ones, and a rich golden 
tinge over their sides. In February of this year I saw three very fine trout 
caught by Mr. Pillans in the Deep Stream, with minnow. In weight they 
were from 2Hbs. to 23lbs.; they were females. Two of them were olive 
_ brown on back, silvery on sides and belly, the spots large and dark, but not 


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NECEM au NE MENTI RO RET SER WA Ta Ka RT TNI Te ee ee RATER TRUE TENERENT NE GE P ee VIE ERE ee eee ee 


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AnTHUR.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 279 


numerous, and a few red ones as usual. The third fish differed in a marked 
degree from these, though all three were fat and in good condition. Its back 
was olive colour like the others, but its sides were of that rich golden hue, 
so pleasing in an angler's eyes, while the black spots were exceedingly 
numerous, only about an eighth of an inch apart. I have not in New 
Zealand seen another case of such a difference in external colour and 
markings in trout of the same sex taken under such exactly similar 
conditions. In waters I have fished in Seotland, however, I must admit I 
have seen more remarkable differences, and where least to be expected. 
The character of the bed of this stream is generally rocky, but it has many 
more gravel-beds than the Lee, particularly for two miles above and below 
Walsh's Accommodation House, where anglers usually put up. The banks 
of the stream, like those of the Lee, are all in a state of nature—all native 
tussocks and rushes, with a few veronicas in places—the feed also is 
the same. In its course from the Lammerlaws to the Taieri, it will cover a 
distance of 80 or 40 miles, and, being snow-fed in early summer, is rather 
later as an angling stream than the Lee. 

As regards the Upper T'aieri, the fish, so far as I have seen them, are 
similar to those of the two last streams described; but my aequaintance 
is as yet too limited with the trout there, to warrant me saying more about 
them as to appearance. The capabilities of this river for producing large 
well-conditioned trout, consist in the immense ranges of water, or reaches, 
free from any obstructions which characterise it, and a considerable supply 
of bottom feed, abundance of insect life, and rich loamy banks. The 
course of the stream is also marked by abundance of gravel, suited for 
spawning beds. 

In no stream here have I as yet seen*trout of mature size, marked with 
distinet bands of dark colour transversely to the length of their bodies. 
This is à common mark in British streams, but the colour is evanescent, 
and will disappear in a short time if a trout goes under a stone or bank. 
When fishing clear reaches of water at home, I have frequently noticed 
this peculiarity. "These bands are only assumed by the fish when the river 
is clear. I have never seen them when the water was discoloured, nor in 
lake fish. It is well known at the same time that trout can alter their 
colour to suit that of the water for the time being; they are much lighter 
when the water is clear than during floods. 

. Habits of the Trout, as observed by Anglers. 

Duden. the trout here are more bold, when feeding, than at home, 

possibly because as yet our streams are not so much fished.* The time 
* They always feed with their heads up stream, seize their prey by the head, and 
bolt it or suck it into the gullet. 


280 Transactions.—Zoology. 


of day also when they appear to feed most, differs in some of our waters 
fished by me from all previous experience. Thus in the Lee and Deep 
Streams, every angler has remarked that they are more on the feed during 
the middle of the day, from spring to autumn, than either in the morning 
or evening ;* while in the Shag River and Leith they are found to 
feed when the water is low and clear, almost entirely at night. In the 
Shag River, there can be no doubt, this is owing to the fineness and 
transparency of the water. There, during the day, a few fish only are 
seen; but from dusk, all through the nigbt until dawn, they are more or 
less on the move, while at times the water seems alive with large fish, 
which throw themselves out of the water, tumble along the surface, or 
pursue the whitebait and minnows right into the shallows. Then is the 
time when the fish are nearly all caught, that being done by the use of 
natural or artificial minnows. A fresh in this river operates similarly to 
nightfall, and large takes have been often made on such an occasion. In the 
Leith good fishings have been got in the morning, but the best at night.t 
In all these streams of Otago the meteorological conditions of the 
atmosphere seem to have a marked effect on the movements of the 
trout. Thus, with a falling barometer and the approach of rain, particu- 
larly if the air is at the same time getting colder, I have noticed that the 
trout invariably cease feeding. It is only rarely I have caught trout, and 
never more than a solitary one, under these circumstances. Electricity 
also, when approaching in the form of thunder clouds or otherwise, has the 
same effect. But when the storm actually bursts over the stream, as a rule 
I have found the fish begin to take once more. I have seen the very same 
thing occur on Scotch waters. As a rule here, it is found far more trout are 
caught when an east wind blows than when it comes from any other 
direction; the temperature of this favourable wind has a good deal to do 
with this result. Although no experiments as yet have been made here to 
test the theory, yet I believe that, as regards temperature, trout will take 
surface food as long as the air is warmer than the water, and at times when 
colder, but only within certain limits. Not only do my own observations 
lead to this conclusion, but I may mention here a corroborative fact which 
came to my knowledge some years ago. Then being in Scotland, I had the 
good fortune to be permitted the perusal of a register of the temperature of 
the air and water at Loch Tay, which was shown me by a gentleman who 
had been residing there as factor to the Earl of Breadalbane, to whom the 
fishings belong. By comparing the readings of the thermometers for air 


* I have killed good fish in the morning on one or two occasions, but rarely any fish 
at all at night, and never large ones. 

t In British rivers, under ordinary weather, evening and night are the times when 
trout feed most, unless in spring, when this is confined to the middle of the day. 


TRANS. NZ.INSTITUTE, YOLXLPLXIII. 


L2. Salmo fario. 
3.4.5. Salmo iruita. 


Arruur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 981 


and water during each day of the fishing season, it was found that most 
salmon were killed with the rod on Loch Tay when the difference in tem- 
perature did not exceed 2° Fah.; but when it became as much as 5°, the 
fish ceased to take altogether. Although fish are cold-blooded animals, 
this would appear to indicate a certain degree of sensitiveness to variations 
in temperature. It is not so easy to account for trout and other species of 
the Salmonidz being aware (to use a common expression) when the baro- 
meter is falling before rain, as I have stated already. But one thing I am 
convinced of is that they do feel when the atmospheric pressure on the 
water alters to an appreciable extent. They get sluggish, and will not 
move to feed when the air becomes rarefied. But when the weather begins 
to change and clear up they soon move about again and resume feeding. I 
explain this on the supposition that, in the first instance, the fish feel their 
bodies sensibly heavier, so as to indispose them to move; but when the 
atmosphere regains its normal pressure, they are relieved from the sensation 
of weight, and their ordinary lively habits are resumed. Other animals— 
human beings included—are affected by the very same cause. This is, no 
doubt, rather a speculative part of my subject, and I could easily enlarge 
my remarks on it, but probably I have said enough for the present. 
4. Distinguishing Marks of Trout. 

This brings me to the concluding and more technical portion of my paper, 
but before going into that I think it will be better to record my examina- 
tions of a number of specimens of S. fario, which were caught in some of 
those rivers which I have already frequently referred to. From various 
causes my notes are not so complete as they should be, but still I give them 
just as they are. They may be useful for comparison and reference. 

: Specimens of Salmo fario examined in Otago. 

a.—1877, Nov. 30th.—Male trout caught in Lee Stream—the gorge 
water—with grasshopper, the river being very low. Condition thin, head 
long, and lower jaw hooked; colour, brown on back, golden on sides, 
numerous black spots and large red ones, a few being beneath the lateral 
line. 

Dimensions: Weight, 5lbs.; length, 25 in.; depth, 6 in.; head, 6} in.; 
maxillary bone projecting } in. behind the vertical from posterior margin 
of orbit; sixteen round black spots on gill-cover, one side. Teeth, vomer 
three firm five loose, palatines each well armed with teeth, tongue also, and 
with two small teeth loose near the tip. 

Fin Rays: P.14 on each fin; C.21 (doubtful), Scales: 16 in trans- 
verse row from adipose fin backwards to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: 54. 
Contents of stomach: crayfish, 2 in. long, and remains of larger one; three 
legs of a grasshopper and part of a black beetle, ái 


282 Transactions.—Zoology. 


b.—Dec. 7th.—Male trout, taken at night in Shag River with natural 
minnow, water very low; colour silvery white, back light olive, spots black 
and numerous; condition very fat; head ordinary size, lower jaw hooked, 
maxillary projecting 4 in. behind posterior margin of orbit; body of vomer, 
5 teeth firm, 2 awanting ; palatine left, 13 firm, 3 gone; right palatine, 10 
firm, 4 gone. 

Dimensions: Weight, 5 Ibs. 2 oz.; length, 23 in.; depth, 54 in.; girth, 
18iin.; head, 53 in. 

Fin Rays: P.18 on each. Scales: 15 on one side, 16 on other, in 
transverse rows from dead fin backwards to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: 48. 
Contents of stomach: remains of one or two small minnows. 

c.—Dec. 19th.—Male trout, taken in Shag River at night with natural 
minnow; water low; colour, silvery sides, back, light olive; spots black 
and numerous, some on upper margin of tail, lower margin gone, probably 
bitten off by a shag; condition fat; head ordinary size, lower jaw hooked, 
maxillary projecting } in. behind the posterior margin of orbit; head of 
vomer, 8 teeth; palatine a row each. Dimensions: Weight, 5 lbs. 5 oz.; 
length, 231 in.; depth, 6 in. ; girth, 18} in.; head, 6 in. 

Fin Rays: D.18, P.43 one sido, o V-9, A.12, 0.22. Scales: 14 in trans- 
verse row from Aa ^g Kida to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: (not 
taken). Contents of stomach: part of one small minnow. 

d.—1878, Jan. 19th.—Female trout taken with grasshopper in Lee 
Stream in the Ledge pool; colour, back brown, sides olive colour, belly 
white, black spots plentiful, red ones very large; tail slightly forked; head 
smalJ, maxillary within vertical from posterior margin of orbit; head of 
vomer, 2 teeth and 2 gone; body of vomer, double row ; palatines, one row 
of teeth on each. 

Dimensions : Weight, 2 lbs.; length, 16in.; depth, 81 in. ; girth, 8} in.; 
head, 84 in. 

Fin Rays: D.18, P.14, V.9, A.11, C.19. Scales: 15 in transverse row 
from adipose fin backwards to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: 54. Contents of 
stomach: shell-fish and cadis-bait numerous, leg of crayfish, two small 
stones. 

e.—Feb. 8th.—Male trout caught in Deep Stream with grasshopper; 
water low and clear; colour, back brown, sides and belly, golden tinge, 
black spots very numerous and large, red spots large, a few black spots on 
adipose fin and upper margin of tail; head ordinary size, maxillary project- 
ing j in. behind vertical from posterior margin of orbit; head of vomer, 3 
teeth and 1 gone; body of vomer, double row, some missing; palatines, 
1 row on each. 
epee Weight, 84lbs.; length, 19 in. ; depth, 5 in. ; girth, 11} in. ; 


Arrnur.—0n the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 283 


Fin Hays: D.11, P.19, V.9, A.10. Seales: 15 in transverse row, from 
adipose fin backwards to lateral line, Pyl, ceca: 46, Contents of stomach: 
crayfish, beetles, flies, 

J.—Feb. 8th.—Female trout taken in Deep Stream, with grasshopper. 
Colour, back olive brown, silvery towards belly, black spots ordinary 
number and large, red ones not very distinct, on gill-cover six distinct 
large black spots; head small; maxillary projecting 3 in. behind vertical 
from posterior margin of orbit; teeth, double row on vomer, some awanting ; 
one row oneach palatine bone, This fish was in excellent condition ; roe 
well developed. When cooked was found of first-rate quality; the flesh was 
very red, 

Dimensions: Weight, 4 lbs. 10 oz.; length, 22 in.; depth, 5 in.; girth, 
12} in.; head, 41 in. 

Fin Rays: D.18, P.12, V.9, A.11. Scales: 17 in transverse row from 
adipose fin backwards to lateral line, Pyl. caca: 47. Contents of 
stomach: crayfish, green beetles, and flies. 

g.—March 2nd.—Female trout, taken in Broad Creek, with grasshopper. 
Colour, back olive brown, sides and belly silvery, black spots ordinary 
number, red ditto all large; six black spots on left side of head and five on 
right; tail large, forked and handsomely shaped; it and adipose without 
spots; head very small; right maxillary projecting 3 in. behind vertical 
from posterior margin of orbit; left maxillary awanting, excepting small 
portion of posterior end, evidently lost by some accident; fish fat and in 
good condition. 

Dimensions : Weight, 23 lbs.; length, 173 in.; depth, 4j in.; girth, 
103 in. ; head, 31 in. 

Fin Rays: D.18, P.18, V.9, 4.10, 0.19. Scales: 16 in row from 
adipose fin backwards to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: 47, surrounded by 
unusual quantity of fat. Contents of stomach: cadis-bait, larve, grass, 
rushes, and one small shell-fish. 

h.—March 6th.—Male trout taken in Shag River at night with natural 
minnow. Colour, back light olive, sides and belly silvery, black spots 
numerous and large, no red ones, black spots on adipose fin but none on 
tail, tail square; head small, maxillary projecting jin. behind vertical 
from posterior margin of orbit; fish fat, short and thick, back arched; 
teeth, two on head and usual rows on body of vomer and on palatine. 

Dimensions: Weight, 541bs.; length, 212in.; depth, 6in.; girth, 14}in. ; 
head, 43in. 

Fin Rays: D.11, P.18, V.10, A.10, C.19. Scales: 16 in transverse row 
from adipose fin back to lateral line. Pyl. ceca: 47, doubtful number, 
some being cut in removing stomach, Contents of stomach: not « 


284 Transaetions.—Zoology, 


The following two specimens described are the stuffed ones in the Otago 
Museum already referred to under the heading Distribution and Growth of 
Trout, and the natural colours of which cannot now be given. 

i.—Male trout taken in Shag River, June, 1874. Present colour brown 
on back and dark grey on sides; head large; mandible terminating in very 
long hook ; tail square; black spots numerous. 

Dimensions: Weight, l4lbs.; length, 29%in.; depth, 7in.; head, Tin. 

Fin Rays: D.10, P.18, V.9, A.10, 0.19. 

Scales: 15 in transverse row from adipose fin back to lateral line. 

j.—Female trout, taken in Shag River, July, 1874. Present colour brown 
on back and dark grey on sides; head short and blunt; tail square; black 
spots plentiful but not numerous. 

Dimensions : Weight, 164lbs. ; length, 294in. ; depth, 62 in. ; head, 5}in. ; 

Fin Rays: D.11, P.18, V.9, A.10, C.19. Scales: 16 in transverse row 
from adipose fin backwards to lateral line. 

Collecting now the results together of my examination of the various 
specimens above detailed, I find, that as regards the colour and spots, 
these vary in the different rivers from which the respective individuals 
were taken. The Shag River fish are all silvery, and, as a rule, have 
numerous black spots, red spots awanting or rare. The other trout, furthest 
removed in appearance from these, are those of the Lee and Deep Streams, 
which are golden on the sides; in the males black spots numerous; the 
females are mostly silvery, the spots being less plentiful, and both have red 
spots, the male most. The fin rays vary more or less; they are in the 
specimens examined by me dorsal, 10 to 18; pectoral, 12 to 14; V. 9 to 
10, A.10 to 12, C.19. Of these, the most constant is the caudal fin, which 
never seems to vary from 19. Intwo specimens where I found more than 
this number, I am inclined to think I must have made a mistake in 
counting them. Next in invariability are the ventrals; seven individuals I 
found had each 9 rays in these fins, and only one had 10. The anal fin 
rays are tolerably constant, but the pectoral and dorsal fins vary a good 
deal. 
The scales I found, reckoning from the adipose fin backwards to the 
lateral line, to range from 14 to 17, and the pyloric ceca from 48 to 54.* 
Now, if we compare these results with the numbers given by three 
authorities, Günther, Hamilton, and Yarrell, we find they give the 
following :—D.13 to 14, P.14., V.9., A.11 to 12, C.19, scales 15, and 
pyloric ceca, 83 to 46. That is, with the exception of the ventral and 
caudal fins, a higher number of fin rays than I find; scales fewer in a 


* The head of vomer carries 2 to 4 teeth, and body of vomer teeth allthe way. 
 Palatines, tongue, and mandible all armed with teeth, 


Artaur.—0On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 285 


transverse row, according to Günther, and the pyloric ceca fewer on an 
average by 9. As yet, I have made no examination of the number of 
vertebre, so my comparison in that and one or two other particulars is 
incomplete. 

With regard to the features of the head, as to structure, my remarks will 
refer to two heads, both of females—one of a fish, 4}1bs. in weight, taken 
in the Lee in October, 1877; and the other of a fish over Olbs. in 
weight, caught in the Upper Taieri River in March, 1878.  Fac-similes* 
of these are represented on pl. XIIL, fig. 1 and fig. 2 (S. fario) 
accompanying this paper. In fig. 1 the posterior end of maxillary is 2,% 

inches from the snout, and at its greatest width measures yy of an 
inch. The lower limb is strong and prominent, and the whole bone 
characteristically coarse and large.t Of the gill-covers, the posterior 
margin of the operculum forms nearly a right-angle with the june- 
tion line of the operculum and suboperculum. This junction or joint 
of the operculum and subopereulum forms an angle of nearly 23° 
with the axis of the body of the fish. The suboperculum in shape 
roughly resembles or approaches a rectangle, the posterior lower margin 
forming a blunt rounded angle. The average length, or middle length 
of this bone, is 1,3, inches, and the middle width $ of an inch. The 
interopereulum forms rather less than a right angle at its junction with the 
subopereulum, this line making with the axis of the body of the fish an 
angle of 47°. The lower margin is flatly rounded and continuous, nearly in 
line with lower margin of suboperculum, and the anterior extremity nearly 
semi-circular. The preoperculum is sinuously rounded in margin, and 
covers about one half of the surface of the interoperculum. 

In the case of fig. 2, the posterior end of maxillary measures 212 inches 
from the snout, and the body of the bone very nearly 4 an inch at its greatest 
width. It is approximately similar to the maxillary of fig. 1, the Lee 
Stream trout, only the posterior extremity is much more rounded, this fish 
being evidently an older individual. The end projects Q4 in. behind 
vertical, from posterior margin of orbit. The posterior margin of the 
operculum forms nearly a right-angle with the junction of the operculum 
and suboperculum. This line or joint of operculum aud suboperculum 
forms an angle with the axis of the body of the fish of nearly 26°. The 
suboperculum in shape roughly approaches a four-sided figure, almost a 
rectangle, the posterior lower margin forming a blunt angle with a sharp 
curve at the apex. The middle length of this bone is 147; inches, and its 
middle width $ inch. The interoperculum forms at its junction with the 


* [Reduced one-half from author's original drawings.] 
t It projects 45. in. behind the vertical, from posterior margin of orbit, 


286 Transactions.—Zoology, 


suboperculum rather less than a right-angle, this line of junction making 
with the axis of the fish an angle of 50°. The lower margin is flatly 
rounded, and is a general continuation of lower margin of suboperculum. 
The anterior end is semi-circular, or nearly so, The preoperculum has its 
margin rounded, and not so sinuous as in that of fig. 1; it covers fully 
the half surface of interoperculum. 

The gill-covers, when examined from the outside, appear to be divided 
as shown by hatched lines on the diagrams, which traverse the body of 
the suboperculum. These lines, however, are only the margin of an 
integument or skin, covering a series of spines, They do not represent the 
true articulation of the bones, which can only be correctly seen by dividing 
the head in two, and examining the gill-covers from the inside. When this 
is done there is no difficulty, as the joints are marked by distinct ridges or 
lines of thickened bone. Dr. Giinther lays some stress on the presence or 
absence of a lower limb to the preoperculum in salmonoids, and says of that 
of S. fario, it “is without or with a very indistinct lower limb." At the same 
time he makes no reference to the interoperculum, so far as I have been 
able to find. Now the lower limb referred to is not by any means a very 
distinct mark, but the interoperculum is a well-defined bone. ‘There is 
only one general remark I need add here, which is, that the specimens of 
trout from our Otago stock examined are representatives of only one variety, 
while those available to the authorities I have named are of many varieties. 

As an article of food, when our trout are taken from 2lbs. to 5lbs., in 
good condition, and at the proper season, they cut up pink or red, and if 
properly cooked are excellent. Those from the Lee and Deep Stream are 
the best I have eaten. The Shag River fish are rather earthy in taste, but 
this flavour almost disappears if they be cut across in thin steaks and fried. 

Salmo trutta. 

Having now concluded all I have to communicate for the present of the 
growth, habits, and characteristics of our brown trout, I should like, before 
closing this paper, to give you, for comparison, the results of such limited 
observations as I have been enabled to make on the sea trout / S. trutta) 
introduced into Otago. In 1871, Mr. Young, of Palmerston, put 184 young 
sea trout into Shag River. In November, 1875, a fish 101lbs. weight was 
netted near Quarantine Island, Otago Harbour, which was declared on good 
authority to be a true sea trout. Isaw this fish, and have no doubt as to 
its identity, though I had no opportunity of making an examination. Since 
then they have been taken in the salt water, in the harbour at Blueskin 
and at Moeraki, but not as yet in any river. A considerable number of 
these I saw ; they ranged in weight from 1 1b. to 15 lbs., and I believe them 
to have been sea trout, As this is questioned, however, by some, I have 


AnrHUR.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 287 


made diagrams of the heads of three sea trout (being the only ones I can 
get), two of which are at present in my possession, and one belongs to our 
Museum. They were caught in Otago harbour. 

These are placed beside the diagrams of S. fario to facilitate comparison. 
By this means some characteristic distinctions are at once apparent. In 
each head the lower jaw is rather longer than the upper. The maxillary 
does not project beyond a vertical line drawn from the posterior margin of 
orbit. The lower limb is narrower and the upper broader relatively than 
in the two heads of S. fario, and the whole bone is finer and more delicate. 
Of the gill-covers, the greatest difference is manifest in the suboperculum, 
which roughly approaches a sector of a circle in outline, its lower free 
margin being nearly semi-circular. The outline of integument on surface 
of this bone has a great similarity in the three specimens, and differs 
decidedly from that on the same bone on the trout heads. The spots on 
the gill-covers are from three to four, while in the trout they are from seven 
to eleven; while of the more general features the heads are short and 
deep, and fine at the snout, that of the Museum specimen being only one- 
fifth of the whole length of the fish. This fish measures—length, 16 in. ; 
depth, 33 in. ; head, 23 in.; and scales 16 in transverse row from adipose 
fin backwards. And lastly, these three fish have the distinct coating of 
bright silvery scales all over their bodies. The description of the head 
( S. trutta), given by Günther and Yarrell, agrees very well with the above 
three specimens. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIII. 
[Norz.—Reduced one-half from the author’s original drawings. ]- 
Salmo fario. 
Fig. 1. Fac-simile head of female trout, taken in Lee Stream, Oct., 1877; weight, 43 Ibs. 
2. Fac-simile of dried head of female trout taken in Upper Taieri, Mar. 1878; weight 
6 lbs. 6 ozs. 
{Norz.—The numbers represent the following bones: 1, pre-maxillary or inter- 
maxillary; 2, maxillary; 3, mandible; 4, operculum; 5, suboperculum; 
6, interoperculum ; 7, preoperculum. 
Salmo trutta. 
" Fac-simile head of female, 7 Ibs. weight, got in harbour, Nov. 6, 1877. 
Do. do. dried specimen, 1 lb. weight, got in Otago Harbour, March, 


1878. 
6. Hand-sketch head of specimen, Ijlbs. weight, in Otago Museum; caught at 
Otago Heads, April, 1874. 


288 Transactions.— Zoology. 
List or Youne TROUT DISTRIBUTED SINCE 1869. 
(From the Report of the Otag tization Society for the Years 1876 and 1877.) 
NAME OF RIVER. 1869. | 1870. | 1871. | 1872.) 1878, | 1874. | 1875. | 1876. | 1877. 
Abbott’s Creek .. y 5 Fe O cs x ix 
Ahuriri (Waitaki i 2e . ; : a 300; 286) .. 
Ahuriri ( emery) T . ` i i m Wa 255 
Akato SE ya ‘ 75| 150| 500) .. j 
Avahokoma (Waitaki) Vs . f ka ji. = 120 .. 
Awamoka zi ; à IULL 4. e es 
Back Creek (Clydevale) - se AP it TU 
Beaumon é : RA gi 100 F i 
Beck's OK (Manuberikia) . : 3 T5 s BE b 
Benger Bur ie : $ 2 75 P aa ee 
Black Pepe is - s 5 Te a 200) .. WA 
Boat- ord Creek 80 i 5 ji 60} ce 500| .. 520 
Branch (W ao ui cam pus a 200 .. .. 
Boundary wanu (Waihola) WA WATA AA do. bo... is uh 256 
5 y atap an Pa es ee . Y ; 5 Das 2 
(Oam ‘ m 5 ; i a ei 60 
Bullock Creek (Wanaka) es ha . m : Um 
Catlin's River ap ; : : à i E 270 
Clifton (Rashi) whe E pe 50 : " . 
Clutha (Albertown) AIO Reales Wa Glee. 854 .. 
Clydevale Station Creek is su etes es : 210 ; 
( /rookston Ss ai PE e a BOTS a ai . 
at G fa A sich hae dates = : Bip 
Jeep Airean is 100; + S gcns re ie ER 
Eearnseleugh e| EIS. II... wd 
Fall's rec (Kaitangata) i a md ated posa 3o E 
Fern B "s iiis E S11 e: zA ol. 
: lagsta na ek . ds S oo di gud DUE OO. 60| 100| .. : 
Flag Swamp Creek b T? 1-212190]. vs za 
lodden ia . Sle bk Mee PS à 
Fraser's Creek d E Sint Lo DU .. : 
Fruid sedo. qoH opo bas | 225 ga sd 
] oid x Greek (West Taieri) .. AA WAA me nn ya za è 
‘len HIC ee | Ee 500} 140) .. 
] E a a WA D a 
] EV Creek (Rock ax and d Pillar) GODS CPI TOUT 50r .. . 
] seed die ne ae ira YA ue Ks 453) .. 
Haw vy $ ke bi 1095 ... id ` > 
Hillond (m S. Pillans) .. exl uu A Per v Hm S00 .., 
sland Rx AB |... sg 3 iu za zi . 
+ pein Hals Creek SOR anaka) ; o > un ba i 33 ; 109 a 
akanui .. è DIL. sc YA x ^ "e YA á 
Kaihiku Ne za x elu 5s Ed gi 150| 250; 6 50 . 
Kaikorai .. YA Be as Las Ee SC NE 2 200. a = 
Kaiw Se un x ke us EE 100 i ke . 
Kaitangata Cree «T ks (xd ae za 804 .. ve 
Kilm E eek, or Wathein B Gliese lli $1. : ina 2 
Sows el re sels ax c DUET. dO. .. 00 
dirige a is IU. * aw ae Pe e t 305) .. 
Lake Ohou si * Ae pue a 5 Iu. 2221 300 .. 
Lauder i . b us wA es fast 006 px : i: 
Lees Canal WA «lc seo ee fo 00 200| .... . 
Lee Stre . D ae 98 .. ee . oe oe .. os .. 
Lindis River .. SER ep elabi s ; s% E t620 
Lin B i. .. oe oe LE oe oe ee ee 30 on .. 
Lei .. .. LE .. .. LE LE LI 100 LI of oe 
Carried forward .. ac | DOBI iy | oa | os 1,670 1,940 | 5,512) 4,485) 2,921 
* All died on journey, + All died on journey but 60, 


Arruur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 289 


List or Youna Trout—continued. 


NAME oF RIVER. 1969. | 1870. | 1871. | 1872.) 1878. | 1874. | 1875. | 1876. 1877. 


mete A ran B a (> BOG .. .. | e+ 11,579 1,940] 5,512) 4,485) 2,321 
dad petites home wear ka 49|.300| 500) . m 
nos ? 


—M—— À—— 


Lovell's C 
Manuherikin (Upper). ou poe podes PRMD] coe) oU pes 
Mar saN Creek (Clinton) as es és QUE. bass ds 210 ; 


M. Pheri s Creek i (Waipoii Lake) ee ees ss ee we ei - 
elec ion SAA KAA [es pee . 122) .. 


Mecosé Baro (Waho -ea logs As eh edes leuc] selon MEUM 
Merton Creek  .. EN vu Eo sk E ANI PARA i Pe e^ 


u j i 300 
Cree : 75 
Okapua (Mataura) ; x b 00} .. 
Oamarama (Waitaki) oe i 200 - 
Otakaik Ulo botub lb 4e qoo MI AMA ND 
Otara (Matanza) > sa froe Ja due Lee ya PA 200)... 
Otam ki NRI. clu i Mente d MAR o 


ka (Waitaki) UI LECT Maa aa bose Dr [o 2 
Otepopo River .. oT ORE bud ea a ji $3 
Owake * (Uppen | Ni a ui CON ANG Pe ES IL 
pia Sick wm. R2 eee Pre run m d 
Owiho (N. E ey) . Op es bie das bow e 100 
Peat Bog Creek ‘Pomabaka) | zi ya died ae oe 50 ed s es 
Pl t Riv QBUS COUTE 28 v i EA 
P Aso priedi WAA a E E D d 2001 Dee S Bee 
i 100 


Purua ii - - "lotbzt] cbr. b deg a00] 1000 1162 700 
Puker eo of .. . oe .. .. LE 

nail Burn (W aki) . c du corn COEM IN e ibn 100 xs 
( eia [ete Wanaka)” e re is (dd ss es "e ys x 


à onal’ Oei (Pomahaka) . 2s wa AI OR eae BO! ss kė -a 
mbling Burn dd aka) PE du is r .. 
key er's Bay is ST rade oe 
beer en shay P 55 


+ eee i. 
*—-* . 


ag tied [o ; 2 = 2s oe el wee I0 i 
oc e fft ^ LI WERL. do ePae ore d onn ; » 
ung's Pon 224 T5 UR Paus tents EUN IB mS 
eo Creek (Benmore) i2 d d. ex arena Veh pea g^ 110.53 
to . . E . oe of .. .. .. 
wift Aue :y 24 ; ; zi 50] .. $ ʻi 
win urn .. oe ee . 250 . L LI oe 
t. Leonards .. zi drl si a exo "e 60 VR . 
i i * .. .. 2 LEO .. .. oe LJ 
am (Upper) .. s ' 220 


alla *» .. .. .. .. 

wove WE cee Pb goog bast me epe 
Cosi pb d Miu a 
rotter's Ck. Hampden dh ms. ix wA ce $ a 30001 oe i 
enirn 's Sube: AA AA AA 
Vaikoikoi 2$ col ve ro Se we 150] >: 
Waikouaiti River LE .. 61 2? .. .. .. .. of 


Carried forward .. ++ | 913, 25) j| | 4,095 3,947|13,649 


awa. 


290 Transactions.—Z oology. 


List or Young Trovur—continued. 


NAME oF RIVER. | 1869. | 1870. | 1871. | 1972.| 1873. | 1874. | 1875, | 1876. | 1877. 
“Brought forward.. ..| MBI .. | .. | .. 4,095 8,947 13,649 11,663] 7,651 
Waitapeka : aed dI. na 
Waihemo, or Kilmog 1 n * A M 500 Ad 
Wairuna.. » uu defe 125| 500 oe 
Waitahuna s : ds : SP BSEC i 500| . 800 
MEN. UU. ce o1] I ERINFISIi-Lel]| 989 41 « 
Waitati (Upper).. i ed cA L|] 1001 x bes ; 
Ower). . a x 57 g g E E 250 500| . 820 
Water of Leith . "d Ni 75 3 Boe 450 š 650 
Waterworks Reservoir 5 2 lt 2s : i = 
Waikaka . à dis LU EE 84 i BA .,, 
Waikouaiti M Es s e 2 E: 80| 350| .. M 
Waim YA eil d NA 3 "n 30 ; 
(To op waters ne à n alB]l- is es ;[- 4,000 
Waipahi e s pe eae 42) 83i)8 300} 1,100 1,300 
Low we T 5 4? le 76| 401 700 
Wall. uu ve ES A | A |^ | 150| 450| 900 1,000 
an (top)... HA APA ux 4 s um gem is za WA 600 
ms zm m e Piai as a DUO: ... 410 
eng ae s other Creeks Or teen ae eae Peas Wis se Hs YA ya 
.. oe ee .. .. .. a” 100 .. LI 
n tcl (Peninsula) Se Dodd sp 58 tas A 150 
ji Heid (Elderslie) ee la. Ll er E LM 
3» nlove dar we Pu). WA exea. xe ex 150 
$ Matters A R M a en Ii... 500 
a Heed w PE RS ** sjaj ae ee 500 
Wheatley (Kakanui) uM ates EX 2. ay ol aoe wa ee 800 
Totals .. —.. {1,085|1,000 2,000) .. |4,841 |6,228 119,799115,626114,231 


List or Young TROUT DISTRIBUTED ma THE MEMBA Salmon Ponds, SOUTHLAND 
y Mr. How. 


NAME OF RIVER. 1870. | 1871. | 1972. | 1873. | 1874. | 1875. | 1876. | 1877. 


Benmore Creek "t <4 YA 4 = | BLO .. ka ae 


Centre Creek .. ja i 50] X K : à 
Cintha River - ea ik ix YA BIDI ie x ix d 
Eyre Cree ks ee B .. bs si e e^ za os 
bas (Upper za ee EA vs m YA YA Ms a 
5 E E 82 Ug 220a | 500 | 125 (41a, 929 25a, 11b 
Mataura (pier) H sel e. .. px. |] ADU YA YA ya An 
Mimihou River A id YA xe du WE MA Hm 500 YA 
mes Creek .. .. sho ^. X us 500, 800| .. s 
— a em zA ae x 60 DOi s AM Bm de Wa 
Oreti- River ae as "i wA WA . xs 450 |1,000 |1,500 | 75 
Otamaite reek .. P 100 EI ae ae ae >. ae 
en (Upper Makarewa) PI AS x B i [LOD s. 4s 
Puni C .. . .. 100 LE .. .. .. ae 
ya E O a. 2$ A ax e nm da is 250 ka 
iver .. a P £5. 2 aw 500 3 ss n ; 
Wakatipu Lake " 100 | -> 5 $e se WA ; 
River rae 3 WA ; x * 350 +é 
ai = NA bá Gri a II .. ix s x» n 
» i ar IW & ^ de sx x 
Waimatuku River .. He ae x Ra 147 e 500 


a, yearlings ; b, old fish, some 10lbs, weight, 


CLARKE, —On some new Fishes, 291 


Art, XXV,—On some new Fishes, By F, E. Oran. 
Plates XIV. and XV. 
[Read before the Westland Institute, 16th July, 1878.) 
Trypterigium dorsalis, Pl. XV. 
B.6, D.4-19-12, P. 8 branched, 7 simple, V.2, A.25, C.18. 
Head is to total length as 4 is to 19. 
Total length, 5:1 inches; length of caudal fin, *65 inch; length of head, 1:1 inch. 
Length of 1st portion dorsal, ‘6 inch—extreme height, 3rd ray, :85 inch 


n 2nd ” ” 19 ” " ” wo ” 
n js ” ” 9 ” ” " 4th ” 63 ” 
” nal ” » 19 ” ” ” 22nd ” 48 y 


fs peto, 9th ray 118 ,, 
entrals, 1st ray 55 ,, 
Ludi dans orbit of m^ 4 ere 
Shortest d. 
Distance WA commencement AE to do. anal, 1:2 in. 

Termination of bases 8rd portion of dorsal and anal fins in same vertical, 
and 0:4 in. from commencement of caudal fin; commencement of 1st 
portion of dorsal fin slightly behind vertical from posterior margin of pre- 
operculum, at terminal portion fin-membrane connected half-way up 1st 
ray of 2nd dorsal; fin-membrane at termination of second dorsal connected 
with 1st ray of 8rd dorsal; gill openings very large, branchiostegous rays 
very strong; rays of ventral exceedingly fleshy; lower simple rays of 
pectorals also strong and fleshy ; body covered with small etenoidal scales, 
arranged in well-marked transverse series; lateral line running low 
down on side with concavity towards dorsal aspect, plainly marked from 
commencement to caudal fin. Head, throat, base of pectorals, gill-covers, 
and cheeks scaleless. Summit of head dotted with numerous papilla ; 
portion of back, of a breadth of 0:1 in. on each side of and along base of 
dorsal fins, devoid of scales, division between scaled and scaleless portion 
being very harshly marked; eyes, oval medium, with strong supra- 
orbicular ridges; portion of forehead between eyes, narrow and grooved ; 
profile almost vertical, cheeks wide and deep, and slightly flattened; body 
broad, rounded, thick, and fleshy, but elongate; mouth small, underhung, 
with fleshy lips, upper protruding beyond lower; nostrils single, very 
minute, close below eye, and with tubular orifice; no crests; tongue fleshy. 
Female fish, ova fully developed. 

Ground colour of body, head and fins, brownish ; and sides with yel- 
lowish tinge, mottled and spotted with darker, verging into banded appear- 
ance near tail; pupil of eye black, iris brown, with yellow ring round pupil. 

Captured at mouth of Hokitika, 26th January, 1871, and presented by 
Mr. Moss Levy. 


292 Transactions.—Zoology, 


Trypterigium decemdigitatus. Pl. KV. 
B.6, D.3-19-14, P.8-6-9, V.2, A.29, C.13, 

Scales: lin. lat., 48; lin, trans. 4 

Lateral line, convex, very prominent and plainly marked to near caudal 
(over 84 scales), when it ends abruptly, it follows general slope of dorsal 
aspect, high up on body; head is to total length as 1 is to 5; depth is to 
body and tail as 5 is to 27. 

Teeth recurved, small, with row of larger (cardiform) outside on upper 
and lower jaws; teeth on vomer; tongue thin, sharp-pointed ; caudal fin 
large, rounded; scales large, ctenoid, continuous to base of dorsal fins; 
none on head, cheeks, gill-covers, bases of pectorals or throat; eyes large 
and round; orbicular ridges hidden in substance; a supra-orbital fringed 
palmiform, tentacle—decemfid—on simple base stalk; trifid tentacle at 
nostril; upper jaw protrudes slightly beyond lower when mouth is closed— 
when open, lower jaw is longest; head small, profile sharp and sloping, 
top of head and snout very much rounded, muzzle pointed ; commencement 
of first portion of dorsal fin in vertical with margin of pre-operculum and 
base of ventrals, terminating membrane of same joins with second portion 
at base of first ray; commencement of second portion in vertical with base 
of pectoral fins, terminating membrane of same joins first ray of third 
portion a little distance up ray; ventral fin rays slight but long; a strong 
papilla at anus; bases of rays of first portion of dorsal fin very close 
together, and far separate from the commencement of second portion of 
dorsal; termination of third portion of dorsal in vertical with termination of 
anal fin; head and gill-covers with numerous pores; nostrils double, one 
close to edge of orbit, the second lower and with tentacle; back and belly 
rounded, sides and tail flattened. 

Total length, 3:2 inches; depth, -42 inches; length of head, “65 inches; diameter 


of eye, '15 inches 
— of Ist portion of dorsal +35 ee gaa height of 3rd ray .45 inch 
)nd u il y = + TU y *8D 45 
» ua i 53 g Be ua 4th ,, uu 
i anal T35 24th,, BB 4, 
) caudal 45 distance tin snout to ventral fins 5  ,, 
» pectorals (12th ray) — :65 ditto from ventrals to anal do 4 


ditto from end of anal and dorsal 

ventrals (2nd do.  :5 pied the commencement of} :2 ,, 

Colour (preserved in carbolic solution), sooty black; tips of anal fin rays 
and membranes between (central) caudal fin rays, almost immaculate. 

Collected by Mr. Wm. Docherty, Dusky Sound, March 1877. 

Trypterigium robustum. Pl. KV. 
B.6, D.6-20-14, P.1-9-7, V.2, A. 28, C. 16. 
Head is to total length as 1 is to 4, 


——€—— ZOP 2440719 TY 


EN 

FNS 

| RSS 
È prem =< 


M Pht je) 2288 CS. 
I Tu IPLA IA AAS / MYA z 


AX «d XT VON GULLLSNEZN SNVHL 


CrankE,— On some new Fishes, 293 


Scales large, ctenoidal ; head, cheeks, gill-covers, scaleless ; eyes, large, 
oval; with trifid supra-orbital tentacle ; nostrils double, one close in front 
of eye, simple, the other lower down, tubular; lips fleshy; profile of head 
high, but round; top of head round, nose round, blunt; supra-orbital 
ridges not very prominent, but fleshy; lateral line prominent, following 
dorsal profile, high up on sides, and terminating suddenly under last third 
of 2nd portion of dorsal; 1st portion of dorsal, very low; bases of 1st and 
2nd rays close together, terminating portion of membrane joins 1st ray of 
2nd portion of dorsal a little above base; 2nd portion of dorsal high 
anteriorly ; membrane at termination does not reach to commencement of 
8rd portion of dorsal; 8rd portion of dorsal high ; belly tumid; body, 
thick fleshy, sharp on back, rounded below :— 

Total length, 3:35 inches ; length of head, ‘8 inch. 

Length, 1st part dorsal, :45 inch—extreme height, 4th ray, 25 inch. 


” ” 1:25 LE] ” ” 2n ” :38 ” 
” 3rd ” ” "5D ” ” ” 3rd ” 4 ” 
” anal, ” 1:27 9 ” ” 17th ” 33 ” 


pe caudal, ,, 45 ,, ext. ht. of pectoral, 1lth,, :76 ,, 
Longest diameter eye, ‘2 ,, 
Shortest 2 im 
Distance from snout to ventral fin, :55 inch 


” » ventral fin to anal fin, ‘8 inch 
i >> end of anal (in vertical with end of dorsal) to beginning of caudal fin, 
7 ine 


between 2nd and 3rd portion of dorsal fin, ‘05 inch. 

Ground colour (preserved in carbolic solution) brownish, with dark 
brown blotches on back, surrounding seven light patches or spots, four of 
which run up on to base of second portion of dorsal; upper part of first 
portion of dorsal very dark, anal fin greyish, with dark brown free margin; 
belly grey; pupil of eye black, iris brown. 

Collected at Jackson's Bay, December, 1874, and presented by J. S. 
Browning, Esq. 

Acanthoclinus taumaka, Pl. XV. 
B.6, D.20-4, P.1-17, V. 1-2, A.9-4, C.19. 

Head is to total length as 5 is to 21. 

Total length, 4:3 inches; length of head, 1 inch; depth of Pres '8 inch 
Length of dorsal, 23 inches—extreme height, 21st ray, ‘55 inch 
E anal, i 7 » o Da a (0 


$ auum (2nd m s 3” 
5 eaudal 
Teeth on tongue, vomer, MIWA upper and lower j jaws. 
Lateral lines as in generic distinctions. Head small and pointed, but 
with nose (in profile) slightly truncated, rounded above, flattish below; 


294 Transactions,— Zoology, 


sides very flat; tail compressed flat; caudal fin large, rounded; eyes 
round; lips very thick and fleshy; cheeks fleshy; head, cheeks, gill-covers 
and throat, sealeless; body, sides and belly covered with small, smooth, 
close-set scales; fins thick; terminating membranes of spinous rays of 
dorsal and anal fins slightly produced in fleshy appendages; pectorals 
small, round; no simple rays to pectorals; anal with one spine and two 
rays only. 

Ground colour, brownish-grey, mottled with black; dorsal and anal fins 
with large black spot on rayed portion; base of spinous portion of dorsal 
with irregular blackish bands, and both dorsal and anal margined with 
black; summits of spinous appendages pink, with lower membrane imma- 
culate; two black streaks on cheeks. 

Collected and presented (with 5 of the same species) by Mr. J. N. 
Smyth, Jackson’s Bay, December, 1874. 


Lepidopus elongatus. Pl. XIV. 

B.6, D.155, P.12, V. {minute i eb 4.25, C.18. 

Total length, 27-6 inches; greatest depth, ^7 inch; width (at vent), '2 inch; vent, 
9:6 inches from tip of snout; 6:5 inches from end of head; diameter of eye, ‘5 inch. 

Body scaleless, but covered with a delicate, deciduous, silvery pigment, 
adhering to fingers on handling; length of gape 1 in.; body long, narrow, 
and compressed ; cheeks flat; dorsal fin long and low, extends from top of 
head above gill-opening to half an inch from base of caudal fin ; extreme 
height, near termination, almost equals half the depth of body; pectoral fins 
with lower rays longest, length 1 in.; ventral fins, minute rudimentary, 
placed in vertical with posterior termination base of pectorals ; length of 
anal 4:5 in., equals height of dorsal and terminates in vertical with end 
of same; caudal fin deeply forked; tail, before commencement of caudal, 
very slender and slightly carinated ; nostrils situate *2 in. in front of orbit, 
simple and single; gill-openings large ; mouth large, gape extends to under 
nostril; teeth in single row (eight in number) on each intermaxillary bone 
(laneet-shaped and inclined slightly forwards), five long recurved fangs at 
extreme end of upper jaw, two on each side and one at symphysis; on 
lower jaws, single row of incurved lancet-shaped teeth (eleven in number on 
each side) with two small recurved fangs at end of jaw; no teeth on tongue 
palate or vomer; pharyngeal teeth very fine, brush-like; lower jaw (at 
symphysis) praised in a strong conical point, or quasi- ere *5 in, in 
length ; lateral line strongly but evenly marked—yellow. 

Colour, a uniform bright metallie silver; fins, yellowish ; caudal with 
pinkish hue. 

Collected by self, Hokitika beach, 12th October, 1874, and the only 
perfect specimen of some eight or ten which have come under my observa- 


Cranxz.—On a new Fish found at Hokitika. 295 


tion. All were in the same proportion as the one above described, and 
varied but little in size; but were generally much mutilated by attrition on 
the sand and shingly beach. 


Art. XXVI.—On a new Fish found at Hokitika. By F. E. CLARKE. 
Plate XIV. 
[Read before the Westland Institute, 8th January, 1879.) 

Tur fish, hereafter described, and thé occurrence of which on the West 
Coast of New Zealand I have the honour to bring under your notice this 
evening, is interesting on account of its being the first of its genus dis- 
covered in the seas of the southern hemisphere, or, in fact, in any other but 
European waters. 

Hitherto they have been found off the coasts of Norway, Scotland and 
islands (very rarely), and the Mediterranean, in which sea 2 common 
variety occurs, which is notable as affording the silvery pigment formerly 
used in the manufacture of artificial pearls. 

The first British specimen was noted by Yarrell in 1837, and was caught 
off Rothsay in the Isle of Bute, and British specimens have been but few in 
number since then. It is stated that all specimens obtained there, and off 
the coast of Norway, occur usually after severe and cold wintry weather, 
and this kind of weather ushered in the arrival of our species which was 
found washed on shore on the South Spit, Hokitika, 6th August, 1878, by 
W. Duncan, waterman, and was kindly brought under my notice by Capt. 
Turnbull harbour master, under the impression that it was one of the 
young Californian salmon lately liberated in the river. It turned out to be 
one of the Salmonide, though not the one wished for. 

As far as can be arrived at, by comparison with descriptions, ete., our 
specimen agrees very well, except some ill-defined peculiarities, with the 
Hebrides variety, and it would be of excessive interest to have more proof 
than mere imagination, that our antipodean species had gradually worked 
its way “sub mare” in those cold lower strata of water to our coasts. 

The specimen has been forwarded as a “type” to the Colonial Museum, 
Wellington. 

Argentina. 

Seales rather large; cleft of mouth small; intermaxillaries and maxillaries 
very short, not extending to below the orbit; eye large; jaws without teeth, 
an arched series of minute teeth across the head of the vomer, and on the 
fore part of the palatines; tongue armed with a series of small curved teeth 
on each side (except in one species); dorsal fin short, in advance of the 
ventrals; caudal deeply forked, 


296 , Transactions.—Z oology. 


Pseudo-branchise well-developed. Pyloric appendages in moderate num- 
bers; ova small. 

Marine fish which never enter fresh waters, and hitherto found only in 
some parts of European waters, i.e., coasts of Norway, rarely coasts of 
Scotland and islands and the Mediterranean. 

Argentina decagon, nov. sp. 


D.10, 2nd adipose; P.14; V.12; A.11; C.19; B.5; L. Trans. 1; 
L. Lat. 51. * 


First dorsal situated in depression on back ; adipose dorsal high ; pectorals 
small, fragile; ventrals rather large, fragile, large axillary scale; caudal 
large, deeply forked; eye large, round; mouth very small, and protractile 
to some extent; anal fin very high anteriorly (this fin and adipose dorsal 
placed close to caudal; cheeks and head scaleless, top of head flat, head 
small, snout pointed; operculum, suboperculum and preoperculum covered 
with thick transparent (immaculate) glossy flesh (showing colouring pig- 
ment on bony plates in a very beautiful manner) ; lower angle of preoper- 
culum and interoperculum free from fleshy substance; nostrils small, 
double, one placed before vertical of front of orbit, the other near tip of 
snout; back, belly and sides rather flattened, but body thick. 

No teeth on superior or intermaxillaries or on inferior maxillaries, but 
the front edge of vomer is produced and bare and crenulated, forming dental 
apparatus ; edges of palatines bared, forming cutting apparatus; tongue 
long, thin, narrow, and round, with four long recurved fangs at tip; gill- 
arches armed with long rakers; gills four and one pseudo- gill; upper jaw 
projects slightly over lower. 

Head rounded under throat; eye large; gill-opening large, section 
through body shows same to be an irregular decagon in shape. 

Scales (in beautifully arranged series) very large, thin, and covered with 
silvery pigment on lateral band, very bright, duller on series superior and 
inferior to same. Scales along lateral line high and narrow, with large 
core, the opening of which is directed towards head. At the angles of the 
irregular decagon the scales are large, squared in front, rounded at back, 
and bent in an angular form with an opening or slit extending some 
distance into scale. These scales overlap in the centres of the facets of the 
decagon, and over these, and extending nearly from angle to angle, are, on 
the dorsal, second, third lateral band and ventral facets superposed, large 
deep rounded scales filling up intervals between angles of decagon, and 
causing the ribbed appearance of body; the depression at lateral line is also 
caused by these large scales overlapping in unbroken marginal line, above 
and below same, 


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CauPBELL.—ÓOn a new Fish. 297 


The substance of back and top of head, when first out of water, guite 
transparent; belly white; iris of eye silvery, pupil black, upper and lower 
sides silvery, but lateral band bright polished metallic silver. 


Total length za ad i "P .. 6:9 inches. 
Length of head id acq v 
Length of head, body sid tail MLAWA oi DER fin) ws uu ED Hs 
Distance from snout to commencement of dorsal aa zs Cu : » 
yA i » ii ventrals ae VI: ui sper 
s H e i anal YA V pU t 
Width of eye, horizontal diameter, 45 inch; vertical diameter, "4 inch 
Greatest depth of body (under commencement 1st dorsal) vic. 4 
Length, base, 1st dorsal, '5 inch; height, 1 inch 
is ventrals, ED s 
ji pectorals, 75 5 
base of anal, ‘55 ,, height, 55 in 
Distance between commencement ist dorsal Aw adipose „e 200 
n = ventrals and anal TA se ED 
js A diis. dorsal and commencement caudal wo’ 
commencement anal and commencement caudal 1:18 
Short ki of eye (vertical), 4 length of head 
Length of head is to body and tail as 16 is to 61 
» is to total length as 16 is to 69 m 


Greatest depth of body is to total length as 10 is to 69 
» is to total length of head, body, and tail, as 10 is to 61 
Distance in snout to commencement ventrals, 3-1 inches 
» » Commencement anal to end of tail, 3:1 inches. 


Arr. XXVII.—On a new Fish. By W. D. Caurszzzr, C.E., F.G.S. 
(Read before the Westland Institute, 8th January, 1879.] 
Tue following description is of a new genus of fish, four specimens of which 
were obtained by myself on the 18th of May last, on the Hokitika beach. 
It has very marked peculiarities. The single dorsal, and the stout spinous 
rays in both it and the anal, connected by a perforated membrane, presents 
entirely distinct characters from any previously described genus. The most 
nearly allied appears to be the genus Drama. There is a possibility that 
the specimens obtained are young, but the characteristic points described 
below appear uniformly in them all. "E 
Fam. Scompripz. 
Group 5. Coryphenina. 
Genus nov. Discus. 
Body compressed and elevated ; general form circular-pointed at snout 
and tail. Head and lower portion of body scaleless, minute scales on 
5d 


298 Transactions.—Zoology. 


upper portion of body and tail; cleft of mouth very oblique. A single 
dorsal, which, like the anal, is composed of stout spinous rays connected at 
their mid-length by a membrane having a breadth of one-third of their 
length, leaving apertures between the base of the rays. Caudal forked, 
ventrals slender; a single series of minute teeth in the jaws, finely 
pectinate ; branchiostegals four; air-bladder large. 
Discus aureus, sp. n 
B.4, D.26, A.21, V.T, Q/10/5 EJ 

The greatest height of body is two-thirds of length, and is vertical to the 
origin of the dorsal and ventrals; head equal to half height; snout equal to 
half, and interorbital space equal to one quarter 
greatest diameter of orbit, which is equal to 
half length of head; a depression extends down 
the snout; greatest thickness of body above 
the pectorals, and equal to greatest diameter 
of orbit; the upper maxillary extends to the 
vertical, below the centre of the eye; colour 
silvery, with minute bronze spots, with a dorsal margin of a similar 
colour, extending from behind the orbit, where the depth equals half 
orbit, to the caudal; pectorals yellowish brown, others dirty white. 

Total length, 23in. 

Four specimens cast up on Hokitika beach. 


Arr. XXVIIL — Notes on the Genus Callorhynchus, with a Description of an 

undescribed New Zealand Species. By W. Corzwso, F.L.S. 

Plate XVII. 

[Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 12th August, 1878.] 
Ix a “Catalogue of the Fishes of New Zealand with Diagnoses of the 
Species," compiled by Captain Hutton and printed for the Colonial Museum 
in 1872, only one species of the genus Callorhynchus 1s mentioned as belong- 
ing to our seas—C. antarcticus ; but, as I take it, there are several other 
species, two of which I have seen, viz., C. australis, Hobson, and an 
undescribed one, which I believe to be a species nova (C. dasycaudatus, 
mihi), of which I shall give a fair diagnostic and specific outline in this 
paper. 

It was in December, 1844, that I first saw this fish. I was leaving 
Poverty Bay in a brig, bound for this place, when, on passing the heads, 
we saw some Maori canoes fishing, one of which paddled alongside and sold 
us some of their fish they had just taken ; among them was one that I had 


Corzsso,—ÓOn the Genus Callorhynehus. . 999 


never seen before; I knew it was of the genus Callorhynchus, and, as I 
thought, distinct from C. antarcticus (the only species of that genus then 
known to me), so I took a sketch drawing of it, with notes of its dimensions, 
ete., which I now give. 

Callorhynchus dasycaudatus, mihi. 

Total length, 8ft. 8in.; girth, (belly) 1ft. 5in.; length of pectoral fin, 9in.; 
first dorsal fin, 5in.; of attached bony ray, 7in.; length of tail, from angle 
in upper surface, 19in. ; length from snout to anterior base of first dorsal 
fin., 94in.; the bony ray in front of the first dorsal fin is partly separated 
from that fin, it is a little curved, and barbed slightly on the posterior edge; * 
the extremity of the tail is free and feathered, which. being such a great 
peculiarity and so very characteristic of this species, has given rise to its 

pecific name, Whole fish silvery white, but highly iridescent; the fins of 
dark grey colour. It had no teeth, only palatal bones; a crayfish was 
found in its maw, Be 

In its produced whip-like tail and barbed dorsal spine this species 
approaches more nearly toits northern congener, Chimera arctica, Linn., 
formerly the type of the genus, before that Callorhynchus was separated from 
it by Cuvier. 

Captain Hutton, in the work above cited (p. 74), gives as a character of 
this genus, ‘extremity of the tail distinctly turned upwards:" I scarcely 
understand this; such is certainly not the case in the one species mentioned 
by him as belonging to these seas, C. antarcticus; neither does any such char- 
acter belong to C. australis,—another of our species, which I have also seen, 
Both of those species also differ widely from C. dasycaudatus,in the very 
. large size of their pectorals, which overlap the base of their ventrals, 
Drawings of the tails of those two species I also give in the subjoined plate. 

I also note that Dr. Richardson, in a paper on some new Tasmanian 
fishes, read before the Zoological Society in 1839, has another new species, 
C. tasmanius, which may also be found here in our seas; I have, however, 
never seen it. It differs from those two species last mentioned in the size 
of its pectorals; in which respect it approaches to C. dasycaudatus. Dr. 
Richardson gives the following characters to distinguish it from C. antarcticus 
(probably at that time C. australis was unknown to him)—* pinnis pectoralibus 
ad ventrales haud attingentibus; pinná dorsi secundá pone ventrales incipienti, 
ante lobum anteriorem inferiorem pinne cauda desinenti." And then he adds : 
“ This species agrees with the Callorhynchus smythi of Benne, figured in 
Beechy's Zoological Appendix, in the distance between the pectorals and 
ventrals, but is so unlike that figure in other respects that it is impossible to 
assign it to that species.” Of this last mentioned species (C. smythi), I 
know no more than what I have here quoted; should it be found in our 
seas, then, we may probably count on having five species of this genus, 


500 Transactions.—Z oology. 


Dr. Hobson, of Tasmania, has given an admirable deseription of C. 
australis, which he dissected and described in 1840 (Tasmanian Journal of 
Natural Science, Vol. I.) This species is near to C. antarcticus in the size 
of its pectorals, ete., but widely different in the shape of its tail. Its length 
is said to be 2 feet 6 inches. His whole paper is replete with valuable and 
interesting information relative to the viscera, and other organs and parts 
of this peculiar fish. One short sentence only can I guote:—“ The inferior 
extremity is especially interesting from its quadruped-like form; here is, in 
reality, the pelvis of the fish.” I quote this the more willingly in hopes 

that some of our young anatomists (to whom that circumstance quoted may 
be unknown), may also be led to dissect and describe other species of this 
curious genus; seeing, too, that they are not uncommon here on our shores 
during the summer, 


——— 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVII. 
1. Callorhynchus dasycaudatus, Col. 
2. Callorhynchus antarctieus, Cuv. (tail only). 
8. Callorhynchus australis, Hobson (tail only). 
(N.B.—The figures are drawn to one scale). 


Art. XXIX.—Notes on the Metamorphosis of one of our largest Moths— 
Dasypodia selenophora. By W. Corrwso. 
[Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 10th June, 1878.) 
Ox the 21st January, 1878, my attention was called to an unusually large : 
caterpillar, apparently asleep on the trunk of an Acacia tree (silver wattle). 
At first sight, it seemed so much like the bark of the tree in hue, that it 
was not readily distinguished from it. 'The larva was stretched out to 
its full length, nearly 3’ 6’; it was elongate, and of the ordinary form, 
pretty evenly cylindrical throughout, though thickest in the middle and 
tapering towards its head and tail, and skin smooth. In colour, it was 
peculiarly mottled or finely speckled (irrorated) with very minute points 
of black, red (carmine), and ash eolours—the latter predominating—which, 
combined, and at a little distance gave it the colour of the reddish-grey 
bark of the tree above-mentioned. It had two minute bright red (carmine) 
spots close together on its back, near the tail, and when in motion two 
large triangular dark splashes were displayed on its back ; the colour of the 
belly of the larva was pale (dull white), with several Void olive spots in 
pairs, corresponding to its belly feet. Its head was small, of a pale Indian- 
“exes otour; ; its hind feet were doe and it had also two broad anal feet, 


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Cotznso,—On the Metamorphosis of Dasypodia selenophora. 801 


On being touched, it coiled itself up very rapidly and closely. This it 
did many times, so that it was difficnlt to get to see its under parts. It did 
not seem inclined to crawl, and was very quiet. I put it under a large bell- 
glass, and tried it with various leaves, but it would not eat anything; so I 
left it, thinking it would shortly undergo its transformation. 

The tree on which I found it was a large old one, and it was on its main 
stem about 4 feet from the ground ; how it came there was a mystery, for 
there were no shrubs nor plants nor even grass near,—it being the very 
middle of our dry season (which this year was extreme), and while the upper 
overhanging branches of the tree were several feet above my head. 

All that day and part of the next it remained very quiet, still keeping 

stretched out to its full length, but not moving; it ate nothing, though on 
the 22nd it discharged several large pellets (feces), of an obtuse cylindrical 
shape. 
I kept watching it daily, and on the 25th January I found it had spun 
a small white web (cocoon) with which it had managed to bring together 
and curl down around it the edges of a large leaf of the common red 
geranium, fastening also the leaf pretty closely to the sheet of paper below, 
so that I could not get a single glimpse of the larva, although I tried many 
ways; but as the weather was so hot and dry, and the leaf quickly 
withering, I soon left off making any further attempts to observe it, 
fearing I might injure the larva. 

Several weeks passed and no sign of its change appeared; and I was 
almost getting tired of making so many diurnal visits, when, on the morning 
of the 21st of March, I found it had emerged a perfect insect, a large moth 
of wondrous beauty! Ido not think that it had left its pupa-case during ' 
the night, as there was but a very small amount of its long downy covering 
about the glass; for had it done so, being a nocturnal creature and of a 
large size, it would surely have knocked itself about a good deal in its vain 
attempts to get out. 

I may truly say that I gazed on it with pleasure and astonishment; for 
though I had pretty largely known our New Zealand Lepidoptera (having 
collected many hundreds of species some 25-40 years ago)” I had never 
before seen one like this. It differs too, very considerably from our British 
species, although I thought I had formerly seen something not altogether 
unlike itin books. There, however, it was, a handsome large black moth, 
forming almost an equilateral triangle of 1:6” as it remained at rest. I 


* I may here mention that the moth described in Dr. Dieffenbach’s work on New 
Zealand, Vol. IL, p. 284, ( Hepialus; was also raised by me from larve which I had fed 
on kumara leaves, much to the annoyance of the Maoris in those times, who made a 
great fuss and objection to my so doing. (See note at end.) 


802 Transactions.—Z oology. 


knew that it belonged to the Noctuina group, but that was all. So I sent 
an outline of its appearanee to Mr. Fereday, the celebrated entomologist 
residing at Christchurch, enquiring if there were any such specimens in the 
Museum there, or if he knew of such a moth. From Mr. Fereday I 
received a very kind and full reply, that, while there were no specimens of 
this moth in the Canterbury Museum, he had one (a female) in his own 
possession, which had been taken some years ago at Nelson; and that, 
though rare, the perfect insect had been described, and was the Dasypodia 
selenophora of Guenee.* 

And now for a brief description of the perfect insect. 

Its size across, with wings extended, is 9' 8"; length of body, 1’ 
9": the body thick, with 7 segments, but tapering downwards rapidly 
from its second segment almost to a point at the tail (not unlike, in this 
respect, those well-known British species of the Sphingide family, Smerinthus 
tilig, and Cherocampa porcellus), and densely covered with very long 
down. Antenne, nearly l' long, slender and evenly attenuated, but not 
smooth, being apparently very finely and regularly ringed and serrulated ; 
legs, large and stout. 

Its colour, on the other side, when living, was a sooty black ; but after 
death it changed to a dark umber colour, with dark zig-zag and other 
markings on its wings (somewhat resembling those on the wings of the 
Emperor Moth, Saturnia pavonia-minor), and with a peculiar large and 
lustrous ocellated spot on each fore wing near the costa—in a line with the 
anal angle; all the wings are ciliated, bearing minute whitish dots at the 
extremities of the nerves or rays just within the margin. Its colour on the 
under side was ochrous or fulvous; the legs, amber-coloured below the 
knee, but its thighs were ochrous, and thickly covered with excessively long 
and waving down; its horns also were ochrous coloured but darker at 
their bases. 

While living, it was a truly superb, rich, velvety-looking creature ; 
presenting, too, when at rest, such a regular and graceful equi-triangular 
outline. The eyes on its wings had (if I may so express myself) a living 
look, much as the irises of the eyes of men and animals are sometimes 
drawn when represented under bright light. Those spots, or eyes, were all 
alike, black, but the two circular rims round each, and the lunate or 
triangular iris-pupil-like part within were shining lustrous and Waxy, Or as 
if strongly gummed. What with its fine moony eyes on its wings, and its 
long wavy down on its thighs, it well deserved its expressive name, both 
generic and specific. I could not help thanking its describer, for it is not 

often that we find so fit and distinguishing a name given in these modern 


* In Spécies Général des Lépidoptéres Nocturnes. 


anaua 


Corrxso.—On the Metamorphosis of Dasypodia selenophora. 203 


times, either to an animal or to a plant. Much, however, of its surpassing 
beauty quickly faded after death, which I attributed to the fumes of the 
sulphur I had used in killing it, not having any chloroform at hand, and 
leaving home on that very day by train to visit the country schools. ; 

The pupa-case (after the moth had emerged) is nearly cylindrical, very 
obtuse'at the head, and tapering regularly downwards from end of folded 
wings at 4th segment, and pointed conical at the tail; length, 1" 8", and 
diameter in thickest part 6” ; suspended slightly by tail; well-marked in 
front with folds of wings and antenns, eyes and head of imago, and very 
strongly with 7-ringed segments, each having two long spiracle marks, one 
on each side. Colour dark red (garnet), with a blueish or violet bloom 
(dust), but smooth and shining on its prominent parts. 

Cocoon very small, white and coarse, almost woolly; just sufficient to 
hold the edges of the leaf down to paper, where, however, it was strongly 
fastened ; fecal pellets emitted after enclosure. 

The imago had made its exit by a small round hole at the top of pupa- 
case, back of the head, the case having also slightly given way down the 
costal marking of the wings on each side. 

Norz.—Dr. Dieffenbach saw the moth I had raised from the larva referred 
to (in the note, p 301), at my house in the Bay of Islands, where he was a 
frequent visitor during his stay there in the summer of 1840-1841; and 
from me the doctor obtained not a few specimens and much information 
(like many other visitors of that early period), which, however, he never 
acknowledged. 

As it may be of some little interest I will just quote what I then wrote 
about that larva and imago, in a letter to Sir W. Hooker, dated **July, 
1841," and published by him in the London Journal of Botany (1842), vol. 
L, pp. 304, 805. 

* In a phial you will find specimens of what I believe to be the true 
larve of Sphaeria robertsii.* These larve are abundant in their season 
on the foliage of Batatas edulis (?) +, the kumara of the New Zealanders; 


_ to the great distress of the natives, who cultivate this root as a main article 


of their food, and whose occupation, at such times, is to collect and destroy 
them, which they do in great numbers. They vary a little in colour, as 
may be observed inthe specimens sent. The New Zealanders call them 
Hotete and Anuhe (the same names which they apply to the Spheria 
robertsii itself), and always speak of them as identieal with that Fungus. 
The common belief is, that both (those living on the kumara and those 
which bear the Fungi) alike descend from the clouds! this opinion doubtless 
arising from their sudden appearance and countless numbers. 

* Cordiceps robertsii.—Hand-Book, Fl. N.Z. 

t Ipomaa chryssorhiza.—Hand-Book, Fl. N.Z. 


a 


304 Transactions:—Zoologyj. 


* À moth from the larve also accompanies the above, for I have fully 
satisfied myself of their identity. In 1836 I kept the larve under glasses, 
and fed them with the leaves of kumara (much to the annoyance of the 
natives), until the perfect insect was produced. There cannot reasonably 
exist a doubt that this insect deposits or drops some of her eggs on the 
` branches of the raataa (Metrosideros robusta, A.C.), beneath which tree 
alone the Spharia robertsii has hitherto been found, when they (the larve) 
fall to the earth beneath, die, and the Spheria is produced. 

“ I think I can offer a fact for consideration relative to their being only 
(or chiefly) found beneath Metrosideros robusta. One fine evening last 
summer, when enjoying, as usual, a promenade in my garden, just as the 
. sun had set, I was admiring the splendour of some plants of Mirabilis, 
which had just unfolded their scarlet petals. Suddenly several of these 
moths made their appearance, darting about the plants in every direction, 
pursuing one another, and eagerly striving to obtain the honey which lay at 
the bottom of the perianths of the Mirabilis. From this plant they flew 
upwards to the flowers of a stately Agave (A. americana), where, being 
joined by other moths, their congeners, their numbers soon increased ; and 
thus they continued to enjoy themselves every evening during the whole 
season. The inference I deduce is this, that the M. robusta, blooming at 
this season, having scarlet flowers which abound in honey, becomes the 
centre of attraction of these insects—increased, too, by its densely crowded 
coma of inflorescence, more particularly so from the blossoms being always 
at the extremity of its branches; by which, and by their colour, this tree 
may at once be distinguished from the other denizens of the forest, even at 
a great distance. 

** The larva whereon the Spheria is found, when first taken out of the 
earth, is white internally, and appears solid and succulent. A finely-cut 
slice, when held against the light, presents a beautiful appearance.” 

I may further add that, 25-30 years back, I had a honeysuckle (Lonicera 
periclymenum ) trained round the doorway of a house in my garden. This 
plant flowered abundantly in the summer, and it was interesting and curious 
of an evening to sit on the step (as I have often done) and watch those large 
moths (Hepialus); they would visit the plant in great numbers, and 
unrolling their long probosces, probe the flowers to get at the honey, pass- 

ing quickly from flower to flower, and continually coiling and uncoiling their 
long trunks with great rapidity; they never lighted on the plant, and all the 
time kept up a tolerably loud humming noise from the quick and incessant 
vibrations of their wings, which, indeed, drew the attention of the cats, who 
often, in consequence, captured them, 


Srurm.—Further Notes on Danais berenice. 805 


Art. XXX.—Ferther Notes on Danais berenice, in a letter from Mr. F. W. 

C. Srurm to the Honorary Secretary, Hawke Bay Philosophieal Institute. 

[Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 9th September, 1878.) 
* Hawke Bay Nurseries, 17th February, 1878. 

“ Drar Sm,—In regard to the butterfly, Danais berenice, or a closely-allied 
species (as per your paper on the same),* the first time I saw it was at the 
Reinga, up the Wairoa River, in Hawke Bay, in December, 1840, or January, 
1841. In 1848, I captured a number at the Waiau, a tributary to that river, 
the Wairoa; I cannot recollect how many, but it must have been eight or 
nine at least, as I sent some small collections of insects to several of my 
friends and correspondents in Europe, and all, or nearly so, had one or two 
of the Danais included. Again, in 1861, I captured three on the Rangitikei 
River (near to the Messrs. Birch’s sheep-run), one of which I have still in 
my collection, although in a very imperfect state. About twelve years ago 
Mr. Brathwaite captured one in his garden at Napier; this he sent to 
England, and it came into the hands of the Rev. H. Clarke, who mentioned 
it to me in a letter, as we corresponded. Four years back I saw three or 
four in my garden here, and two years ago there were a great number in 
my gardens, always keeping about the Lombardy poplars and Houheria 
populnea. Mr. Duff, of Kereru, also informed me that he had captured one 
pretty high up on the east side of the Ruahine range, about ten years ago. 
I certainly believe the butterfly to be indigenous and not introduced; and 
my observations of it fully coincide with yours, that while, in certain years, 
it is plentiful, in other years it is not to be seen.—I am, dear sir, yours, etc., 
F. W. Srurm.” 


Art. XXXI.— Notes on some New Zealand Echinodermata, with Descriptions 
of new Species. By Prof. F. W. Hurron. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.] 
Amphiura parva, sp. nov. 

Small, dise pentagonal, covered with rather large imbricating scales, 
and a pair of large, nearly semi-circular, radial shields at each corner. 
Rays two or three times as long as the dise, tapering; upper plates broader 
than long with the outer edge convex; under plates laterally constricted, 
with a blunt tooth on each latero-anterior margin, and with the outer edge 
slightly emarginate. A single broad tentacle scale. Side plates with a row 
of three or four nearly equal spines, which are almost as long as the breadth 


” Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol, 5 P. 276. 


AQ 


306 Transactions.—Zoology. 


of the ray. Mouth shields triangular. The whole animal is of a pale 
brown colour. The distance between the tips of the rays is about three 
quarters of an inch. 

Dunedin Harbour. 

Asteracanthion graniferus, Lam. 

À specimen of what I take to be this species is in the Otago Museum. 
It was found in Dunedin Harbour. : 

Asterias rupicola, Verrill, Bull. U.S. Nat. Museum, No. 8, 1876, p. 71. 

À specimen of this species, found near Dunedin, has been presented to 
the Museum by Mr. A. Montgomery. 

Echinaster fallax, Mull. and Troch. — Othilia luzonica, Gray. 

The Henricia occulata of my Catalogue of the Echinodermata of New 
Zealand (1872) is the same as this species. 

Echinaster (?) sp. 

Rays seven; five and a half times as long as the diameter of the disc. 
À specimen 18in. in diameter from Waikouaiti, presented by Mr. Orbell. I 
cannot identify it. 

Chetaster maculatus, Gray (Nepanthia). 

I have placed with great doubt under this species a,starfish that I have 
received from Wellington. 

Pentagonaster dilatatus, Perrier, Arch. Zool. Exper. 1876, v., p. 88. 
Asterina nove-zealandia, Perrier, l.c., p. 228. 

I have not seen any description of either this species or the last. 
Asterina regularis, Verrill. 
| Ihavea variety of this species, from Dunedin, with six rays, which can 
hardly be distinguished from 4. australis. 

Goniocidaris canaliculata, A. Ag. 

During a late visit to Sydney I was able to examine specimens of both 
G. tubaria and G. geranioides, and found that our species differed from both. 
It is, however, I think, identical with G. canaliculata ; but the ocular pores 
are at the external angle of the plates, and Mr. Agassiz does not mention 
the trumpet-shaped secondaries surrounding the abactinial system. It has 
ten primary tubercles in a row. 

Norr.—Since reading this paper, I have seen the figure of Goniocidaris 
canaliculata in Sir Wyville Thomson's “ Atlantic,” and find that it is not 
our species. Our species may be called Goniocidaris umbraculum. 

Salmacis globator. 

Specimens sent to the Otago Museum, by Mr. C. Traill, from Stewart 
Island, appear to belong to this species. But there are eight or nine 
tubercles on a plate of the interambulacral system at the ambitus. The 


Hutton,—0n some New Zealand Echinodermata, 307 


test is white with pink tubercles; the integument a pale brownish yellow. 
The spines on the upper portion are reddish purple with white tips; on the 
lower portion they are white, getting yellow towards the base. 

Diameter 2 inches. Height 1:4 inches. 

Echinocardium australe. 

A specimen of this species, presented to the Museum by G, Joachim, 
Esq., from Northport, Chalky Inlet, measures 23 inches in length. 

Molpadia coriacea, Hutton. 

This is evidently not a true Molpadia. It is probably a Caudina or an 
Echinosama, but as the type is in the Wellington Museum, I cannot 
re-examine it. 

Cucumaria thomsoni, sp. nov. 

Body fusiform, scarcely subpentagonal. Skin rough, wrinkled. Ambu- 
lacra with the tubercles densely crowded in about 5 or 6 rows. No feet 
on the interambulacral areas. Tentacles—? 

Rich brown, the white tips to the feet giving the ambulacral areas a 
spotted appearance. Length, 14 inches. 

Stewart Island. Presented to the Museum by G. M. Thomson, Esq., 
after whom I name it. A single specimen in spirit. 

Echinocucumis alba, Hutton. 

The receipt of another specimen of the Chirodota (? ) alba of my catalogue 
has enabled me to dissect it, and I find that it has five well-marked 
ambulaera, and should be placed in the genus Echinocucumis. 

Labidodesmus turbinatus, sp. nov. 

Body rounded, suddenly contracted posteriorly into a short-pointed tail, 
and anteriorly into a rather long cylindrical neck; skin smooth, slightly 
transversely wrinkled ; the two dorsal ambulacra, with two rows each of 
rather distant feet; the three ventral ambulacra either like the dorsal or 
with more crowded feet in several rows. Tentacles—. Body white, covered 
with a brown epidermis, which easily peals off, except round the ambulacral 
feet. Length, 21 or 3 inches. 

Stewart Island. Presented to the Museum by G. M. Thomson, Esq. 
Two specimens in spirits. 

PENTADACTYLA, gen. nov. 

Feet evenly spread over the greater part of the body.  Tentacles five, 
peduneulated, frondose ; dental apparatus very large. 
Pentadactyla longidentis, Hutton. 

In the Catalogue of the Echinodermata of New Zealand (1872), p. 16, I 
described a Holothurian under the name of Thyone longidentis, It is, how- 


808 Transactions.—Z oology. 


ever, evident that it is not a Thyone, but belongs to the family Aspidochirota, 
and must form the type of a new genus, distinguished by having only five 
tentacles and scattered foot-papille. I therefore propose the name Penta- 
dactyla for it. 

Holothuria mollis, Hutton. 

This species in many respects approaches Stichopus. I have had no 
specimens for dissection, and cannot therefore say whether the reproductive 
organs are in one or two bunches. A knowledge of this will settle to which 
genus it should be referred. 

Holothuria robsoni, sp. nov. 

Elongated, rather slender. Skin, smooth. Feet, scattered sporadically 
over the ventral surface, apparently none on the back. Pentacles, 20. 
Anus, round. Back, pale purplish brown; ventral surface, dirty white, 
with scattered brown spots. Length, 4i inches. 

Cape Campbell. Presented to the Museum by Mr. C. H. Robson, to 
whom I have much pleasure in dedicating it. 


Art. XXXII.—The Sea Anemones of New Zealand. By Prof. Hvrrox. 
(Read before the Otago Institute, 11th June, 1877.] 
I sgovrp not have chosen such a pretentious title for this paper, but that I 
wished to include in it descriptions of the three New Zealand sea anemones 
that have not been found near Dunedin. The sea anemones are animals 
that can only be described from living specimens; they must be collected, 
brought home alive, and placed in water before their structure and colour 
can be seen, and when they are dead there is no known means of preserv- 
ing them so as to be of any use. To enable observers, therefore, in any 
part of the colony away from libraries, to describe these animals, I have 
included in this paper not only descriptions of all the New Zealand species 
not described in our Transactions, but also an analysis of all the known 
genera. 
ZOANTHARIA-MALACODERMATA. 
Analysis of the Families. 

Base adherent at pleasure. 

Tentacles all compound... ses -.  Thalassianthida, 

Tentacles both compound and simple ie -- — Phyllactide. 

Tentacles all simple 


Hutton,—0On the Sea Anemones of New Zealand. 809 


Column pierced with loopholes 5 .. — Sagartiade, 
Column imperforate. 
Column smooth 


Margin simple xis wee . — Antheade. 
Margin beaded ids wi ..  Actiniade. 
Column warted  ... ee T .. Bunodide. 
Base non-adherent. 
Lower extremity rounded, simple ... e.  _Llyanthide. 
Lower extremity enclosing an WA oe .  Minyadide, 
THALASSIANTHIDE. 


Analysis of the genera (after Milne-Edwards). 
The tentacles of one kind only, 
The trunk ramified. 
The branches long and four-fingered ... Thalassianthus. 
The branches inflated and with scattered TATA Actinodendron. 
The trunk simple. 
The trunk with scattered branched filaments Actinaria. 
The trunk with groups of rounded papille ... ^ PAymanthus. 
The tentacles of two kinds. 
The internal with globular papille, the external 
laciniated Sarcophianthus. 
The internal "—— the pee — i Heterodactyla. 


PHYLLACTIDE. 
Analysis of the genera (after Milne- Edwards). 
Compound tentacles on the margin of the disc. 


Column smooth WA v Hi sso Phyllactis. 
Column warty . Oulactis. 
Compound tentacles on the diso, pend two ae of 
simple tentacles — ... m sl nes ..  Rhodactis, 
BAGARTIADE.” 


Analysis of the genera (after Gosse). 
Tentacles moderately long, slender. 
Disc perfectly retractile. 
Column destitute of suckers ... a ..  Actinoloba, 
Column furnished with suckers s .. A Sagartia, 
Column clothed with a rough epidermis ^ ... Phellia. 


Disc imperfectly retractile. 
| Base annular, parasitic on shells — ... e. Adamsia, 
| Base entire, not parasitic ^... .. Gregoria, 


Tentacles mere warts; set in radiating desde m -. Discosoma. 


* Nemactis (Actiniadæ) has also the column pierced. 


810 Transactions,—Zoology, 


ANTHEAD2, 
Analyis of the genera, 
Mouth normal. 
Tentacles not fully retractile, 
Column long, trumpet-shaped... 
Column normal. 
Tentacles conical 
Tentacles fusiform 
Tentacles retractile. 
Tentacles subulate. 
Tentacles sub-equal va 
Tentacles very unequal ... YA 
Tentacles not subulate, 
Tentacles club-shaped 
Mouth elevated 
Mouth depressed 
Tentacles moniliform 
ACTINIADE, 
Analysis of the genera. 
Tentacles not retractile. 
Column short and cylindrical 
Column long and conical 
Tentacles retractile, 
Skin smooth. 
Column pierced 
Column imperforate 
Skin warted 


Bunopiwz.* 


Analysis of the genera (after Gosse), 


Tubercles conspicuous, 
Dise and tentacles retractile, 
Tubercles of one kind only. 
In the form of rounded warts. 
Irregularly scattered 
Arranged in vertical lines 


Arranged in wavy horizontal Sei: 
Arranged in a single horizontal Wie: 


In the form of queer blisters ... 
Tubercles of two kinds, 
and erectile cie papille 
Disc and tentacles not retractile |... 
Tubercles obsolete 


-» rounded ati 


Aiptasia, 


Anthea, 
Eumenides, 


Paractis, 
Dysactis, 


Melactis 
Corynactis, 
Heteractis, 


Comactis. 
Ceratactis, 


Nemactis. 
Actinia. 
Phynactis. 


Aa 
Cystactis. 


Echinactis. 


Bolocera. 
Stomphia, 


* Phymactis vetitis has also the column warted, 


Hurron.—On the Sea Anemones of New Zealand. 311 


ILYANTHIDÆ. 
Analysis of the genera (after Gosse). 
Tentacles of one kind ; marginal 
Column thick, pear-shaped. 


Mouth with a papillate gonidial tube .. A Peachia., 
Mouth simple ... d ies d -. — Dlyanthus, 
Column slender, long, worm-shaped 
Invested with an epidermis  ... ded „Edwardsia. 
Without an epidermis es ...  _Haleampa, 
Tentacles of two kinds; marginal and pum 
Naked ; idis swimming  . es -. Arachnactis, 
Padling in a membranous ihe: sedentary 
Column inferiorly perforate ... --- Cerianthus, 
Column inferiorly imperforate .... Saccanthus. 
Minyadida 


Analysis of the genera (after Milne-Edwards.) 
Tentacles simple. 


Column smooth ees ERE e ..  Plotactis. 
Column warty MA is ses 2; Minyas. 
Tentacles compound  ... s de: Pid ..  Aautactis, 


Descriptions of the New Zealand Species, 
PHYLLACTIDA. 
Tentacles of two kinds ; simple and compound. 
Oulactis (M. Edwards). 

Column with warts. Compound tentacles placed round the margin of 
the disc, and outside the simple tentacles. 

Oulactis plicatus, sp. nov. 

Column cylindrical, not much expanded at the base, about as high as 
broad; warts arranged vertically in numerous (80 or 100) rows. Brownish 
yellow, with the warts dirty white. Disc circular, concave; the margin, 
when expanded, thrown into five deep folds. Crimson, radiately streaked 
with yellow near the margin. The simple tentacles are conical, about two- 
thirds of an inch in length, and arranged in two rows. They are trans- 
parent, of a violet or greenish colour, and often with opaque whitish 
transverse bands on the interior aspect. The compound tentacles are in a 
single row, and about two-thirds the length of the simple tentacles. They 
are white, and multi-lobed, the lobes being subcylindrical and rounded at 
the ends. 

Height about 2} in, when extended. In rock-pools on the coast, near 
Dunedin, 


312 Transactions.—Zoology. 


The animal fastens pieces of broken shells, small stones, ete., to its 
column, and when retracted looks like a small heap of gravel. The com- 
pound tentacles are not sensitive. Its nearest ally is Metridium muscosum 
Drayton, from New South Wales, which Milne-Edwards and Haime have 
placed in their genus Oulactis. Occasionally some of the lobes of the 
compound tentacles are pink or orange. 

SAGARTIADE, 
All the tentacles simple. Column pierced with loop-holes. 
Gregoria, Gosse. 

Disc imperfectly retractile ; column smooth, without suckers, perforated 
by a few large loop-holes. 

Gregoria albocincta, sp. nov. 

Column cylindrical, broader than high; yellowish-orange, vertically 
striped with yellowish-green, each band having a central line of darker 
green. Dise circular ; reddish orange or brick red, radially streaked with 
darker; margin not beaded ; mouth elevated, round; throat ribbed. Tentacles 
in four indistinct rows round the disc, short, about half the diameter of the 
disc, conical with blunt points, and often much swollen at the base. Their 
colour is opaque white. Diameter, about ‘3 or “4 of an inch. 

Common in rock-pools near Dunedin. Sometimes the column is vertically 
streaked with red and white. 

ANTHEAD. 
All the tentacles simple. Column imperforate, and smooth. Margin of 
disc not beaded. 
Paractis, M. Edwards. 
Column naked. Tentacles retractile, subulate, sub-equal. 
Paractis monilifera. 

Actinia monilifera, Drayton in Dana re AM Zooph., p.136. 

Paractis monilifera, M. Ed., Corall. I., p. 2 

Column broader than high, dilated i Ld extremities, where the exterior 
surface has moniliform rugosities, of a pale brown with deeper lines. 
Tentacles longer than the dise, in three rows ; ringed with brown and white. 
Disc yellowish. 

Bay of Islands. 
Anthea, Johnstone. 

Column short, expanded at the base, surface wrinkled. No suckers, 
warts, nor loop-holes. Tentacles numerous, submarginal, scarcely retractile. 
Anthea olivacea, sp. nov. 

Column short, broad, and expanded at the base, slightly horizontally 
wrinkled; of an olive green colour down to the base. Disc circular, concave, 
with the mouth slightly raised; of a darker green than the column and 


be. 
b T us : 
E o » 


Hurron.—On the Sea Anemones of New Zealand. 313 


tentacles ; mouth plaited, pink inside. Tentacles in four rows, much longer 
than the disc, tapering, not perfectly retractile, of the same colour as the 
column. 

Diameter, about half an inch. 

In rock pools near Dunedin. 

In small specimens the tentacles are quite retractile. 

There is also a variety in which the column is longitudinally streaked 
with yellow. 

ActTINIADA, 

All the tentacles simple. Column imperforate, smooth. Margin of the 
disc beaded. 

Actinia, Linn. 

Column short, much expanded at both ends, the margin separated by a 
broad but shallow fosse from the tentacles. Tentacles subequal, retractile. 
Actinia (? ) thomsoni, 

Actinia thomsoni, Coughtrey, Trans. N.Z. Inst. VII., p. 280. 

Port Chalmers. 

Ihave not seen this species, and as Dr. Coughtrey has not mentioned 
any marginal beads, I doubt its being a true Actinia. 

Actinia (? ) striata. 
Actinia striata, Quoy and Gaim., Voy. Astrol., IV., p. 1 
“Small, cylindrical, elongated ; pale blue iios pem reddish ; tentacles 
numerous, acute, yellowish ; mouth brownish yellow. Height, half an inch. 
Bay of Islands.” 
I have not seen this species, and cannot say to what genus it should 
be referred. 
Phymactis, M. Edwards. 
Column with suckers, but no loop-holes ; margin of disc beaded. 
Phymactis polydactyla, sp. nov. 

Column short, cylindrical; suckers raised on warts, crowded at the upper 
part of the column, but arranged in vertical rows lower down; whitish, 
with the warts olivaceous brown. Dise circular, concave, of a deep crimson ; 
a row of round white beads round the margin. Tentacles numerous, in 
three rows, conieal, much shorter than the diameter of the dise; the 
exterior rows generally pink, the interior yellowish, or whitish, or greenish ; 
sometimes with opaque white transverse bands interiorly. 

Diameter, about one inch. 

In rock pools near Dunedin. 

Phymactis inconspicua, sp. nov, 

Column cylindrical, as long or longer than broad, with vertical rows of 
suckers on warts. Olive brown above, passing into yellowish white below; 

alo | 


314 Transactions.—Zoology. 


the warts brown, often pale-centred. Disc round, concave, olive brown, 
sometimes marked with grey, marginal row of beads white. 

Tentacles moderate, nearly or quite equal to the diameter of the disc, 
quite retractile; olive brown margined with white, and often white-spotted. 

Diameter about :3 of an inch. 

In rock pools near Dunedin, abundant. 

In some the warts are obsolete near the base, owing to the animal 
having lived in a narrow crack in the rocks. There is also a variety in 
which the tentacles are purplish grey, and the dise even is sometimes the 
same colour. 

Mmyadida. 

Base not adherent; lower extremity enclosing an air-chamber. Floating 

on the ocean. 
Minyas, Cuvier. 

Tentacles simple ; column warty. 

Minyas (?) viridula. 

Actinia viridula, Quoy and Gaim., Voy. Astrol., IV., p. 161., pl. 18, f. 15-21. 

Minyas ? viridula, M.Ed., Corall. L, p. 229. 

Shape variable, discoid or elongated, longitudinally ribbed. Ribs 
twenty, tuberculated, and with a median row of white suckers. Mouth 
plicated. Greenish, mixed with bistre upon the ribs, and of a deeper green 
in the intervals. | 

Pacific Ocean, between New Zealand and the Friendly Islands. 


ArT. XXXIIL —Catalogue of the hitherto described Worms of New Zealand. 
By Prof. F. W. Hvrrox. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th January 1879.) 
Class TURBELLARIA. 
Unjointed, ciliated, leaf- or ribbon-like worms. 
Order Ruaspocena. 
Intestine a simple pouch ; pharynx protrusible or not; usually one sex- 
Meum Genus Chonostomum, Schmarda. 
Mouth central; pharynx infundibuliform ; eyes two. 
C. cRENULATUM, Schmarda, Neue Wirbelloser Thiere (1861). 
Body oblong, subrounded, green. The two eyes purple.  Pharynx 
infundibuliform, margin crenulated. Penis cirriform. 
In still fresh water near Auckland. 
Order Denproceata.* 
_ Intestine tree-like, aproctous; pharynx protrusible; body broad and 
flat; sex-openings double. 


Hurron.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand, 815 


Genus Polycelis, Hemp. and Ehr. 

Mouth subcentral ; pharynx cylindrical. Eyes numerous, occasionally 
in a heap on the neck, also in lines on the margin. 
P. AvsrRALIS, Schmarda. 

Body flat, oblong-oval, brown; eye-clusters irregularly surrounded by a 
halo, 

Auckland, and New South Wales. Marine. 

Genus Centrostomum, Schmarda. 

Mouth central, orbieular ; pharynx multilobed, divided or crenated. 
C. potysorum, Schmarda. 

Body oblongo-oval, truncated anteriorly ; ; light brown; eye-clusters 
many. 

Auckland. 

Genus Thysanozoon, Grube. 

With frontal pseudo-tentacles, Back with numerous papille, Eyes 
numerous. 

T. eruciatum, Schmarda. 

Body flat, elliptical.  Papille conical. Two bands at right-angles to 
each other, destitute of papille.  Eye-clusters cervical; two semi-circular. 

Port Jackson and Auckland. Marine. 

Genus Geoplana, Schultze. 

Body long; mouth central; eyes numerous, anterior, and marginal. 
Terrestrial. 

G. traversu, Moseley. Q.J. of Micros. Science, Vol. XVIL., p. 284. 

Body elongate, flat beneath, slightly convex above, bluntly-pointed 
posteriorly, more gradually attenuated anteriorly ; broadest in the centre; 
generative aperture a little less than half the distance between the mouth 
and posterior extremity; ambulacral line absent, the whole under-surface 
acting as a sole; eye-spots forming a single row of ten or so on the front of 
the anterior extremity, and an elongate patch composed of two or three 
rows on the lateral margin of the body, just behind the anterior extremity ; 
also present, sparsely scattered, on the lateral margins of the body for its 
entire length ; body of a pale yellow on its lateral margins, with a broad 
mesial stripe on the dorsal surface, extending for its entire length, of a dark 
chocolate colour; and four narrow, ill-defined, and somewhat irregular 
similarly eoloured stripes on either side of it, extending to the lateral 
margins of the body ; under-surface, pale yellow. 

ellington. 
Order NEwERTIDEA. 

Long Sao e mostly marine, diccious,  proboscis-bearing ; body 
sometimes transversely striped, 


316 Transactions,— Zoology. 


Genus Ommatoplea, Ehrenberg. 
Abranchiate; head entire; eyes many; proboscis terminal; mouth, 
subterminal; appendix none. 
O. HETEROPHTHALMA, Schmarda. 
Body depressed, tape-worm-like. Median line white, rest of the body 
red. Head indistinct, apex acuminate. Eyes in transverse lines. 
Under stones on the shore, Auckland. 


Genus Meckelia, Leuckart. 

Respiratory fissures two, longitudinal. Eyes none. Proboscis terminal. 
Mouth subterminal. 

M. macrostoma, Schmarda. 

Body depressed, greenish blue. Head attenuated. Fissures sub- 
terminal, short. Proboscis subterminal. Mouth oblongo-ovai, very broad. 

Auckland. 

M. macrorruocuma, Schmarda. 

Body rather flat, brownish olive. Head distinet, oblongo-lanceolate. 
Respiratory fissures as long as the mouth. 

Shores of New Zealand. 

Class GEPHYREA. 

Body cylindrical, with a thick coriaceous skin, often indistinctly ringed. 

Head not distinct from the body, often produced into a proboscis. 
Family Sipunculide. 

Cylindrical, mouth at the tip of a retractile proboscis, surrounded with 

tentacles, and often with hooks; anus dorsal; teeth none. 
Genus Sipunculus, Linnzus. 

Skin netted with anastomosing muscular fibres; proboscis short, with 
simple tentacles. 

S. mnzvs, Baird, P.Z.S., 1868, p. 81. 

Body eylindrieal, slender, attenuated anteriorly, posteriorly thick, fusi- 
form, retieulated, in the anterior portion corrugated, then smoother and 
minutely granulated ; caudal apex oval, smooth, shining; proboscis short, 
smooth, the anterior portion thicker than the body; colour white, shining 
bronze. Length, 64 in.; thickness of anterior part, 14 lines ; of posterior 
part, 4 lines; length of proboscis. 6 lines; thickness, 2 n New Zea- 
land (Mr. Cuming). 

Class ANNELIDA. 

Body composed of numerous, more or less similar, segments; limbs 

none, or rudimentary ; skin generally with chitinous bristles. 
Order Oricocmgr. 5 
a rudimentary; ño branchiæ; hermaphrodite ; mostly land or fresh 


Hvrrox.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 817 


Genus Lumbricus, Dinngus. 

Sete in four double rows.* 

L. uLiginosus, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 851, pl. VIL, f. A. 

Cephalic lobe large and rounded, completely dividing the buccal segment 
superiorly into two parts, and with a transverse sulcus on the posterior 
superior portion, between the divided halves of the buccal segment; anterior 
margin of buccal segment deeply emarginate inferiorly. Colour, reddish. 
Length, eight or nine inches. 

L. camrestris, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 851, pl. VIL, f. B. - 

Cephalie lobe large, subeonieal, completely dividing the buccal segment 
superiorly into two parts; anterior margin of buccal segment entire, or 
slightly eroded inferiorly. Colour reddish, or olivaceous green, paler 
below. Length, two or three inches. 

L. vevis, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. TX., p. 851., pl. VIL., f. C 

Cephalic lobe small, conical, simple ; anterior border of buccal segment 
slightly emarginate superiorly, entire inferiorly, Pale flesh colour or 
greenish. Length, three to four inches. 

L. annunatus, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., IX., p. 852, pl. VII. f. D. 

Cephalie lobe small and flattened, divided into anterior and posterior 
divisions inferiorly ; anterior border of buccal segment emarginate 
superiorly, entire inferiorly; colour pale brownish-red, each segment with 
a dark reddish-brown transverse band in the centre, paler below. Length, 
about three inches. 

Genus Megasolex. 

Sete in numerous rows all round the body. 
M. antarctica, Baird, P.L.S., XI., p. 96. 

Body consisting of about 180 rings ; sets surrounding the body, short, 
black, rather distant; rings not keeled, larger and more distinct at the 
anterior extremity, closer at the posterior end, amd all smooth. Length, 
seven inches. 

M. syuvestris, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 852., pl. VIL, f. E. 

Cephalic lobe small flattened, with a deep transverse groove superiorly, 
and divided into anterior and posterior portions inferiorly; anterior border 
of buccal segment deeply excavated superiorly, entire inferiorly; sete in 
about 80 double rows. Colour dark red-brown. Length, one and a-half to 
two inches. 

M. uinzatus, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., IX., p. 852, pl. VIL, f. F. 

Cephalic lobe small, rounded, completely dividing the buccal segment 
superiorly into two parts; anterior border of buccal segment slightly 


s, i orthoetiehon Sehmarda, is stated to come from New Zealand by mistake ; " | 


proper habitat is Tasmania. 


818 Transactions,—Zoology. 


emarginate inferiorly ; sete minute in single rows; colour reddish-brown, 
finely longitudinally striated with lighter ; length two inches, 
Order CHÆTOPODA. 

Body not presenting distinct regions; branchiw dorsal; sexes distinct ; 
limbs tubular, setigerous, Marine. 

Family ApHropitips. 

Segments unequal, with dorsal, shield-like elytra ; head lobes developed, 
with a single tentacle and lateral antenne and palpi; eyes sessile or 
stalked ; gills small, simple; epipharynx generally with two upper and two 
lower teeth and jaws. 

Genus Aphrodita, Linnseus. ; 

Head with three antenns, two eyes, and a median earunele or tubercle; 
buccal segment rudimentary without appendix; all the feet more or less 
covered with hairs, no barbed bristles ; elytra 12-15 pairs alternating with 
the superior cirri; proboscis unarmed, or with rudimentary cartilaginous 
teeth. 

A. TALPA, Quatrefages, Hist. Nat. des Annelés, I., p. 196, pl. 6, f. 2. 

Median tentacle very short, laterals long; body of 82 segments; feet 
enveloped in hairs; elytra 80, rounded, small; the whole back covered 
with dirty, brown hairs. 

A. squamosa, Quatrefages, l.c. I., p. 201. 

Head small, distinct, hidden by the prominent elytra; median antenna 
short, thick, truncated (?); laterals twice as long, slender ; tentacles short; 
body of 27 segments, moderate, elongated; feet apparently one-oared, 
prominent; elytra 24, large, rugose, robust, covering the whole body; 
superior cirri longish, on a thick, compressed, swelling; hairs short, not 
covering the elytra; branchiæ more or less conical, and separated tubercles. 

| Genus Polynoe, Savigny. 

Head distinct with 9 antenne and 4 eyes; buccal ring indicated by the 
presence of two pairs of tentacles, the superior of which are bifurcate ; the 
inferior longer, thicker, and simple. Feet more or less evidently biramous ; 
the setigerous tubercles on a common peduncle; elytra alternating with 
the superior cirri of the feet, covering the whole length of the back; pro- 
boscis with two pairs of horny jaws. 

P. avuckLANDICA, Schmarda, Neue Wirbelloser Thiere, p. 158. 
Body long, greyish-yellow ; segments 60; tentacles 7; elytra oblique, 


P. uacnoLePIDATA, Schmarda, le., p. 155, pl. 86, f. 306. . 
| Body flat, brown; elytra 15 pairs, large, oval, or suboval, greyish- 


" 


ccu. OW 


Hurron.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 319 


yellow, spotted with brown, margin fimbriated with conical spines. Ten- 
tacles smooth; dorsal cirri spinulose. * 

Auckland. 

This species belongs to the genus Antinoe of Kinberg, in which the bases 
of the antenne are fixed under the margin of the emarginated cephalic lobe, 
close to the tentacle. 

P. rorycHRowa, Schmarda, l.c., p. 153, pl. 86, f. 807. 

Body flat, yellowish-red; elytra 12 pairs, oval, yellowish, spotted with 
greyish-blue or greyish-red on the inferior external margin. Tentacles and 
cirri smooth. 

This species, and the next, belong to the genus Lepidonotus of Leach, 
in which the bases of the antenna are produced from the anterior ERU 
of the cephalic lobe. 

P. sixcramir, Baird, P.L.S., Zoology, VITI., p. 184. 

Head lobe rather small; palpi stout white, setaceous, smooth; dta 
12 pairs, pale coloured, mud with black ; rounded, thin, covered all over 
with minute points, with some larger raised and rounded punctations 
intermixed ; ciliated on outer margin. Back completely covered. Feet 
biramous; ventral branch the larger, with a fascicle of yellow bristles, stout, 
slightly curved at the point, and serrated a short distance below the apex. 
Dorsal branch small; bristles short, slender, sharp-pointed, and minutely 
serrated nearly their whole length. Dorsal cirri conical, setaceous, smooth; 
anal cirri rudimentary. Length, about 9 lines; breadth, 2 lines. 

Genus Pelogenia, Schmarda. 

Body vermiform, long; elytra in all the segments. Suctorial feet in 

the back and abdomen ; oars biramous. Tentacles seven, their external 


. bases coalescing. 


P. antropa, Schmarda, l. c., p. 160. 

Back convex, blackish in front, reddish-yellow behind. Abdomen 
ferruginous, with a deep median sulcus. Suctorial feet disposed in four 
systems on the abdomen ; two at the margins of the sulcus, the others at 
the bases of the ventral cirri. Dorsal suctorial feet behind and between 
the elytra. Dorsal elytra hardly covering, brownish-red, the margins 
undulating. Setæ golden, articulated, the superior part longer than the 
inferior, thin ; superiorly short and broad. 

Family Evnicema, 

Rounded, long, flattened ventrally ; head lobes notched in front, with 
1-5 tentacles; several separate upper, and two, often united, lower jaws ; 
feet simple with acieula. Living in sand-burrows. 


320 Transactions.—Zoology. 


Genus Eunice, Cuvier. 

Head with two eyes, and five antenne placed in a single transverse row; 
buccal segment with two tentacles; branchis pectinate, or laciniate, on 
one side; sete composite, with short spoon-shaped appendage. 

E. camari, Quatrefages, l.c. I., p. 821. 

Head moderately notched ; antenne apparently moniliform ; buccal 
segment rather long; tentacles moderate, subarticulated ; upper jaws 
slender, lower six-toothed; border of denticule undulated ; labrum 
narrow, slightly notched; body composed of 120 segments; upper cirri 
of feet thick longish, the lower smaller; branchie 6-fimbriate. 

E. australis, Quatrefages, l.c. I, p. 821. 

Head short, broad, deeply notched ; antenne long, moniliform ; buccal 
segment long. Tentacles longish, subarticulated. Upper jaws robust; 
lower 10-dentate ; denticule toothed ; body of 120-130 segments ; upper 
cirri of feet thick and longish, the lower small, fixed to a thick base; 
branchie 7-fimbriate. 

Genus Notocirrhus, Schmarda. 

No eyes nor antenne; feet with a superior cirrus and simple sete, or 
the sete simple and composite. 

N. sPHEROCEPHALUS, Schmarda, l.c., p. 116. 

Head globose. Body rounded, ochraceous. Branchie (dorsal cirri) sub- 
cylindrical. Sete few, two-haired, border fringed, apex short and with 
five uncinate spinules. 

Family AMpHINOMID=. 

Angular or flat; segments equal, few; head small, usually with five 
tentacles; toothless; branchie dorsal comb- or tree-like; bristles hair-like 
serrate, not acicular; head lobes often compressed. 

Genus Chloéia, Savigny. 

Head with three antenne, two eyes, and a caruncle; buccal segment 
with two tentacles. Body more or less oval, with two thick, short, 
cylindrical cirri at the posterior extremity. Feet biramous, the branches 
distinct. Branchie bipinnate, two on each segment, remote from the feet. 
C. mermis, Quatrefages, lc., I., p. 389. 

C. gegena (?), Grube Beschr., neu. od. Wen. bek. ann., p. 91. 

Head small. Lateral antenne about equal to the tentacles, median 
larger. Caruncle crested, broad, and with a narrow margin. Body oval, 
elongate. Sete of both feet simple; branchie small. 

C. srecrasnis, Baird, P.L.S., X., p. 234. 

Body rounded-fusiform, attenuated at each end, of about 34 segments. 

Colour pale, dotted all over with numerous small white round spots varying 


Hurton.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 821 


in size. Caruncle long, narrow, extending over 4 or 5 segments. Ventral 
cirri white; dorsal cirri long and subulate, of a beautiful purple colour. 
Branchie simply branched. Bristles of both feet capillary, slender, and 
simple, those of the dorsal tuft longer and stouter than the ventral. 

Family Nupuruyipa. 

Body long, many-jointed; lateral feelers small; peristome without 
cirri, but with parapodia and papille in place of teeth. 

Genus Nephtys, Cuvier. 

Head small, with four small antenna. Body terminated by one anal 
curus. Branches of feet separated; the superior carrying a cirriform 
branchia on its inferior border. 

N. macroura Schmarda, l.c., p. 91. Quat., I, p. 480. 

Body prismatico-cylindrical, greyish-yellow. Head trapezoidal. Eyes 
large. Tentacles four, distinct; jaws two on a horny base. Branchie 
short; inferior lamellar process large. Ventral cirrus obsolete. Caudal 
cirrus filiform long. 

Family NEREDA. 

Body long, with two anal cirri; head flat, small, with four eyes, two 
small middle and two large outer antenne ; peristome with eight feelers ; 
epipharynx protrusible, with two large horizontally moveable jaws, armed 
with denticles; parapodia double, with acicula, and no hair-like bristles. 

Genus Nereis, Lamarck. 

Head with four eyes and four antenne; latero-external antenna very 
thick terminated by a small distinct joint ; buccal segment very distinct with 
4 pairs of subulate tentacles; proboscis short, divided into 8 regions, of 
which two are exsertile, always armed with two strong curved jaws, and 
generally with very small and numerous denticles ; feet biramous ; superior 
branch with two tongue-like accessory branchie, inferior kadh with a 
single similar one ; both branches with bristles and a cirrus. 

N. Robusta, Quatrefages, l.c. I., p. 544, not of Kinberg. 

Head broad, elongated, anterior suleus apparently bipartite; lateral 
antenne very thick, broad, shorter than the head; the median small 
conical; buccal segment short. Tentacles shorter than the head; jaws 
broad, internal margin straight, 5-6-dentate. Denticles numerous, large, 
disposed in balls ; body broad, of 107 segments ; feet very short, appendices 
rounded, each with a short cirrus. 

N. praoca, Schmarda, l.c., p. 107, pl. XXXI., f. 246. Quat., lc., I., p. 546, 
not N. pacifica, Quat., from Peru. 

Back obscure green; belly greenish-yellow ; segments 180; head 
rounded; external tentacles rounded, short; branchiæ and ventral cirri 

all 


322 Transactions.— Zoology. 


Shorter than the feet; jaws with short apices; teeth five, rounded, 
irregular. 

Auckland. 

Genus Heteronereis, (Brsted. 

Head, body, and anterior feet like Nereis; posterior feet very different 
from the others, carrying a foliaceous ibe, and the bristles sometimes 
single, sometimes mixed. 

H. AUSTRALIS, Schmarda, l.c., p. 101, pl. XXXL,- f. 242. Quat. 1., p. 577. 

Body flat, 96-ringed; jaws tridentate ; appendices of the feet tongue- 
shaped and leaf-like; branchie (dorsal cirri) longer than the feet; upper 
tubercle subglobose ; green in front, yellow behind. 

Family GLYCERIDÆ. 

Segments many-ringed ; proboscis club-shaped, protrusible; bristles with 
acicula; branchie short or none. 

Genus Glycera, Savigny. 

Head small, conical. Branches of the feet approximated, on a common 
peduncle, bristles simple and composite, with two acicula in each branch. 
Proboscis with four hooked teeth, with no points. 

Q. ovicERA, Schmarda, l.c., p. 95, pl. 80, f. 239. Quat. II., p. 188. 

Body yellowish or brownish-green; bipartite segments of the jaws 
with a broad base, external process quadrangular,; pedicelled ; proboscis 
ringed at the base, with a double series of papille ; branchie (dorsal cirri) 
short, conical; feet notched; pectiniform ovaria at the base of the feet. 

The body of this species is greenish, the feet yellow. 

Family Puyrropocrp. 

Body long, many-jointed; head lobes small; antennes 4 or 5; eyes 2-4; 

epipharynx with papille ; ventral cirri leaf-like. 
Genus Eulalia, Savigny. 

Head with five antennz and two or four eyes; buccal segment simple, 
double or triple, with four pairs of tentacles; body long, linear, narrow, 
always composed of a large number of rings; feet one-branched, armed 
with composite bristles, generally with a leaf-like cirrus. 

E. cmoa, Quatrefages, lc., IL., p. 123. 

Head small, rounded; antenna small, the median behind; eyes none (?); 
buccal segment triple; tentacles very short, thick, disposed 1,2,1 on each 
side; body roundish, of 250-270 segments ; feet small, exposed; upper cirri 
thick, hardly leaf-like, small, lanceolate; lower small mamilleform ; bristles 

simple, short, straight, deciduous, 

This very common species is of a dark green colour—(F.W.H.) 


Hurton,—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand, 323 


Genus Porroa, Quatrefages. 

Head with five antenne ; buccal segment with only two tentacles. 

P. mrcropuyiia, Schmarda, le., p. 86, pl. 29, f. 280. Quat: E., p. 128. 

Back very convex, blackish green; branchim rich green, small, ovalo- 
cordate ; eyes four. Tentacles (antennæ) two frontal, two lateral, dissimilar, 
cervical. Tentacles two; ventral cirri tubercular. 

Family Svrrma. 

Body elongated; head with tentacles, often with eyes; peristome with 
2-4 cirri, often united to the prostomium ; pharynx not protrusible, some- 
times toothed, or with a chitinous tube, which bears a boring spine; feet 
one-branched, with two aciculate bristle clusters; ventral cirri short or 
none, 

Genus Sph rosyllis, Quatrefages. 

Head not distinct from the buccal segment, with two frontal lobes, five 
antenne or tentacles, and eyes. 

S. macrura, Schmarda, l.c., p. 70 (Syllis). Quat., l.c. IL, p. 58. 

Body yellowish, convex above; below flat; frontal lobes conical ; eyes 
four, disposed in a trapezium; branchise (upper cirri) short ; 30 articulated. 
Family CrggnarTULIDAE. 

Body rounded, fusiform; head with no teeth, antenne, nor tentacles ; 
feet in two series, on the lower hooks; thread-like gills on many of the 
segments, 

Genus Cirratulus, Lamarck. 

Head conic, mouth inferior; body cylindrical; first and last segments 
only without branchie. 

C. ancuytocnatus, Schmarda, l.c., p. 58. Quat., IL., p. 458. 

Body ochraceous; branchi red; back convex, belly flat; sides narrow, 
angulated. 

Order CEgPHALOBRANCHIATA. 

Worm-like marine animals, mostly protected by a tube; body presenting 
distinct regions; respiration by branchie placed near or on the head. 
Sexes distinct ; no teeth, nor epipharynx. 

Family Purrvusips. 

Free; peristome without bristles; branchism of simple threads surrounded 
by a girdle of long, yellow, thick bristles; segments not ringed; feet with 
upper linear and lower hook-like bristles; sometimes with terminal suckers. 

Genus Chlorema, Dujardin. 

Mouth subterminal, placed between the two antenne ; body elongated, 

iform, covered with long hairs, 


824 Transactions.—Zoology, 


C. sicotor, Schmarda, l.c., p. 21, pl. 20, f. 169. Quat., le., I., p. 477. 

Segments 50; body rounded, attenuated behind, greyish-yellow, anterior 
portion blue; the whole surface covered with a hyaline jelly ; upper bundles 
of bristles 4-haired ; the lower with hooked seta. 

Genus Siphonostomum, Grube. 

Head distinct; body naked, attenuated behind ; feet with simple bristles 
on both feet. 

B. antarcticum, Baird, P.L.S., XI., p. 95. 

Sete surrounding the head numerous, very short and fine; branchism 
short, numerous; body covered with an enveloping substance like that of 
most of the known species (shaggy). Sete of the inferior ramus of feet 
single, crooked or hooked at the point, and of nearly a black colour. 
Colour of body varying from a very dark to a light brown, and of a trans- 
parent look. Length of longest specimen nearly three inches. 

Family HERMELLIDÆ. 

Tubiculous; segments of two or three kinds, the hinder thread-like 
with no appendages ; head lobes fleshy, with a circlet of yellow pales on 
the prostomial border, which acts as an operculum; tube built up of 
cemented shells. 

Genus Pallasia, Quatrefages. 

Tentacles joined upon the upper face; operculum formed by two con- 
centric rows of sete ; body divided into three regions. 

P. quapricornis, Schmarda, l.c., p. 25, pl. 20, f. 174 (Hermella). Quat., l.c., 
., p. 924. 

Body reddish-yellow ; head and branchie violet; dorsal branchis blue; 
papille short; external pales aculeate at the sides; internal geniculate, 
aculeate; occipital spines four. : 

Family TEREBELLIDA. 

Inhabiting soft, fragile tubes; body with two distinct regions; head 
without pales and lobes, but with large, moveable, ciliated, branchis, 
serving as touch- and prehensile-organs. 

Genus Terebella, Linneus. 

Three pairs of arborescent branchiæ. 

T. puaciostoma, Schmarda, l.c., p. 41, pl. 24, f. 196. Quat., l.c., IT., p. 366. 

Body reddish-yellow ; cephalic branchis pale, short; laterals cinnabar- 
red, short; pinnule in the last segment; mouth transverse. 

T. HETEROBRANCHIA, Schmarda, l.c., p. 42, pl. 94, f. 197. Quat., le., IL., p. 966. 

Body yellowish-grey ; cephalic branchiw clear; first lateral branchia, 


consisting of many equal branches, the others with one branch longer; 
mouth obsolete quadrangular ; pinnule, 


Hurton,—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 825 


Family SABELLIDÆ. 

Tubiculous ; body with two distinct regions; cephalic branchiæ pinnate, 

in two circlets or spirals, one of which may be rudimentary. 
Genus Sabella, Savigny. 

Head indistinct; branchie equal, more or less fan-shaped; anterior 
region not very distinct, scarcely broader than the posterior region ; tubes 
membranous, open at one end only. 

S. ARMATA, Quatrefayes, l.c., IL., p. 453. 

Head indistinct; branchie short, base produced into 22 free cirri; 
antenne two pairs; collar dilated, six-lobed; anterior body segments 
light ; sete dissimilar, uncinate and crested, 

S. CERATODAULA, Schmarda, l.c., p. 33, pl. 22, f. 186. Quat., Le., IL., p. 459. 

Branchi# hardly one-fourth the length of the body, striped with yellow 
and brown ; body brownish-yellow. 

B. arandis, Baird, P.L.S., XIII, p. 160. 

Collar rather broad, and deeply bilobed; thoracic feet seven pairs; 
segments belonging to them smooth, not grooved on the upper dorsal 
surface; back dark brown, rather yellow underneath; feet numerous, 
about 100. Peduncles large, well developed; anterior and posterior divisions 
separated by a groove, in the centre of which are situated the feet; a deep 
groove along the dorsal surface, except the seven thoracic segments; sete 
short, slender, smooth, setaceous, sharp-pointed. Length, without branchis 

iinches. Case, a leathery-looking tube, covered externally with a thin 
coat of mud. 
Family SERPULA. 

Tubieulous; two ciliated skin-folds on the front segments; branchis 
with a spiral basis, with one or two opercula with chitinous or calcareous 
discs. "Tubes calcareous, attached to stones, etc., or free. 

Genus Serpula, Linneus. 

A single cartilaginous or horny operculum; base of the branchie 
circular. Tube calcareous, fixed. 

B. anrarctica, Quatrefages, l.c., IL., p. 503 (1865). 

Branchie short, cirri 24-25. Operculum infundibuliform, sub-concave, 
margin denticulated ; body of 70-80 segments, anteriorly 7; anterior sete 
filiform, rounded; laminæ denticulated; tube like that of S. vermicularis, 
S. zeananpica, Baird, P.L.S., XL, p. 21, pl. IL, f. 9 (1864). 

Animal unknown; opereulum white, small, sub-concave, margin with 
20 denticulations ; tube slender, white, creeping, nearly round, longitudinal, 
dorsal keel small, transversely flexuously striated. 

Probably the same as the last (F.W.H.) 


326 Transactions.— Zoology. 


S. (Buromarus) Bonroxr, Baird, P.L.S., XI., p. 12, pl. L, f. 2. 

Animal unknown. Operculum horny, infundibuliform, external margin 
densely crenated, internally with 20 calcareous pointed teeth. Tube red, 
three-angled, adherent, transversely rugose, back canaliculated. 

Genus Vermilia, Lamarck. 

A single operculum terminated by a calcareous plate, conical, or with 
various appendages; base of the branchie circular; tube calcareous, fixed. 
Sub-genus Placostegus, Philippi. 

Operculum terminated by a calcareous, disc-like plate, with an entire 
margin. 
V.canmmirERUS, Gray. Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, IL., p. 242. 
(Vermitus), Baird, P.L.S., XL., p. 12. 

Tube thick, irregularly twisted, opaque white, with a high compressed 
wavy keel along the upper edge; mouth orbicular, with a tooth above it, 
formed by the keel; operculum orbicular, horny. (Gray). 

The whole animal is of a fine blue colour, and the elegant tuft of 
branchial filaments intensely azure, banded with white. (Baird). 

V. cxRULEA, Schmarda, l.c., p. 29, pl. 21, f. 178. Quat., l.c., IL, p. 512. 

Tube trigonal, blueish ; operculum clavate, border smooth. Peduncles 
short, irregularly three-sided. 

New Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope. 

No doubt the same as the last (F.W.H.) 

V. cnEYI, Quatrefages, l.c., IL, p. 510. 

Branchie short, cirri 24-26; operculum sub-infundibuliform, flat, 
roughish; body 70-80-ringed ; anterior sets rather short, curved, slightly 
margined ; laminæ striate; tube rough, keeled ; aperture wide and obtusely 
dentated. 

Sub-genus Podioceros, Quatrefages. 

Opereulum terminated by a flat surface, Mcr ter: or cartilaginous, 
carrying a large number of short thick spines. 
V. uanonn, Quatrefages, l.c. II., p. 520. 

Branchis very short; cirri 20; operculum margined, bidentate behind ; 
body of 50-60 rings, anteriorly 7; anterior sete curved, fringed ; lamina 
obtusely denticulated. Tube like that of V. greyi. 

V. STRIGICEPS, Morch, Rev. Serp., p. 66. Quat. l.c. IL, p. 621. 

Opereulum orbicular, flat; tube agglomerated, creeping, trigonal ; 
dorsal keel compressed, acute, laciniated, beaked, with a series of punctiform 
impressions on either side; laterally convex; lines of growth often lami- 
nated, crowded. 

North Australia and New Zealand, 


Ei 
KA 

| 
ZA 
b 


Huvrrox.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 327 


Sub-genus Vermilia, Lamarck. 

Operculum terminated by a calcareous prolongment, generally in the 
form of a simple cone, entire or truncated. 
V. Homsront, Quatrefages, l.c. II., p. 527. 

Branchie short, cirri 28 ; apex of the operculum irregularly spirovform ; 
body of 40-50 rings, anteriorly 7; sete elongated, curved, fringed ; laminæ 
serrated. Tube unknown. 

Sub-genus Galeolaria, Lamarck. 

Operculum terminated by a calcareous plate more or less flat, often 
composed of several juxtaposed pieces, carrying a large number of variously 
shaped spines, delicate, and elongate, disposed either on the circumference 
or on a more or less considerable tract of the operculum. 

V. uystrix, Morch, Rev. Serp., p. 24, pl. 21, f. 8,4. Quat., le., IL., p. 584. 

Bottom of operculum excentric, anterior border sloping, composed of 
eleven diverging pieces, posterior border erect, composed of hexagonal 
pieces, bearing externally a long spine, from whence the surface of the 
operculum is hidden by crowded prostrate spines. Spines subulate, the 
upper layer ornamented with about 20 scales. The rest naked, apices 
slightly bent. Tube sub-solitary, creeping, above with two approximated 
keels, often vanishing towards the aperture; lines of growth strong, 
unequal; aperture circular, entire. 

Genus Cymospira, Blainville. 

Operculum single, corneo-caleareous, more or less complicated ; base of 
the branchim spiral; horny lamine instead of uncini. 
C. INCOMPLETA, Quatrefages, l.c., IL., p. 543. 

Head indistinct ; branchial cirri very numerous, on a quinquespiral 
base; operculum (?); collar large, trilobed; body with about 100 rings, 
anteriorly seven; anterior setæ large, fringed, curved; laminæ finely 
crenulated. 

Genus Spirorbis, Daudin. 

Basal leaves of the branchie rolled in a circle or semi-circle; one or 
two opercula, not united together when two; tubes generally isolated, 
entirely attached, twisted into a flat or nearly flat spiral. 

S. zELANDICA, Gray. Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, Il., p. 295. 

Tube reversed, whorls two or three, rapidly enlarging ; the last with 

three spiral ridges, the middle rib most prominent. 


328 Transactions.——Z00l09y. 


Arr. XXXIV.—List of the New Zealand Cirripedia in the Otago Museum. 
By Prof. F. W. Hurrox. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.) 
1. Baranus pecorus, Darwin, Monograph of the sub-class Cirripedia, 
Balanide, p. 212, pl. 2, f. 6. 
Dunedin, generally attached to the peduncle of Boltenia. The Museum 
also contains specimens from South Australia. 
2. BALANUS AMPHITRITE, Var. variegatus, Darwin, Le., p. 240, pl. 5, f. 2. 
Dunedin, on seaweed and shells. 
. Baraxvs porcatus, Da Costa. Darwin, l.c., p. 256, pl. 6, f. 4. 
Campbell Island, on rocks. 


e 


4. Barawus vestitus, Darwin, l.c., p. 286, pl. 8, f. 8. 

Stewart Island, on shells. 

TETRACLITA PURPURASCENS, Wood. Dana, l.c., p. 337, pl. 11, f. 1b. 

Wellington and The Bluff, on rocks. 
All the New Zealand specimens that I have seen are like fig. 1b of 
Darwin, which is probably the Conia depressa of Gray (Dieffenbach's 
New Zealand, II., p. 269). The Museum also contains specimens 
from Sydney, which are like fig. la of Darwin, as well as some like 
fig. 10. 


uh 


6. Ermmıvus modestus, Darwin, l.c., p. 350, pl. 12, f. 1. 
Auckland, on rocks, abundant. 
7. EnwiNIUS SINUATUS, sp. nov. 
Smooth, conical or depressed; parietes of each valve with two 
broad rounded folds, and faint transverse striations; white; sutures 
always distinctly defined. Scuta with the occludent margin smooth; 
adductor ridge obsolete; basal margin longer than the tergal margin. 
Terga with a long spur continuous with the scutal margin; crest for 
depressor muscle prominent and rounded. 
Wellington, on shells. 
Although the opercular valves are almost identical with those of 
E. modestus, the wall valves are so different and so constant that I 
cannot doubt the distinctness of the two species. 
8. Eruiwivs puicatus, Gray. Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, IL, p. 269; 
Darwin, l.c., p. 951, pl. 12, f. 2. 
Auckland and Dunedin, on rocks, abundant. 
9. ErwrNIUS RUGOSUS, sp. nov. 
Rugged, deeply folded, the folds of the parietes often meeting and 
growing together, conical, sutures only distinct in young shells. 


Horrox.—List of N.Z. Cirripedia in the Otago Museum. 929 


Dirty white or greyish. — Seuta with a prominent adductor ridge; 
the articular furrow deep and strongly grooved ; basal margin larger 
than the tergal margin. Terga stout, the articular ridge straight; 
carinal and basal margins confluent; spur short and broad. 
The Dluff, on rocks, not common. 
Distinguished from all varieties of E. plicatus by the straight arti. 
cular ridge. 
10. Conoxura piapema, L. Darwin, l.c., p. 417, pl. 15, f. 3. 
Waikouaiti, on a whale. — 
There are also in the Museum specimens from South Austra'ia and 
Sydney. 
11. CHAMÆSIPHO cotumna, Spengler. Darwin, l.c., p. 470, pl. 19, f. 3. 
Dunedin, on rocks and shells, abundant. 
There are also in the Museum specimens from Sydney. 
12. Lepas Huu, Leach. Darwin, l.c., Lepadide, p. 77, pl. 1, f. 2. 
Wellington and Dunedin, on floating timber. 
18. Leras PEcTINATA, Spengler. Darwin, l.c., p. 85, pl. 1, f. 8. 
Auckland, on Spirula levis, common. 
14. Lepas AusTRALIS, Darwin, l.c., p. 89, pl. 1, f. 5. 
Dunedin, on sea-weed. 
15. Lepas rascrcuLARis, Ellis and Solander. Darwin l.c., p. 92, pl. 1, f. 6. 
Dunedin, on seaweed, North Cape on Velella pacifica. 
16. ScarPELLUM viLLosUM, Leach. Darwin, l.c., p. 274, pl. 6, f. 8. 
Dunedin, on rocks. Mr. R. Gillies. Mr. Darwin gives no certain habitat 
for this species. 
17. Porrrciezs spinosus, Quoy and Gaimard. Darwin,l.e., p. 824, pl. 7, f. 4. 
Wellington and Dunedin, on rocks. 
18. POLLICEPS DARWINI, sp. nov. 
Capitulum with one or more whorls of valves under the rostrum. 
Scuta triangular, as broad as high, not reaching half-way up the 
terga. Terya oval, elongated, more than twice as long as broad. 
convex. Carina curved, internally deeply concave, reaching more 
than two-thirds of the length of the terga, and with its apex close 
to the terga. Rostrum short and broad, much less than half the 
length of the carina. Scales of the peduncle unequal and unsym- 
metrieally arranged. 
Dunedin, on rocks. Mr. A. Montgomery. 
Easily distinguished from P. spinosus by the projection of the terga 
beyond the scuta, and from P. sertus by the short rostrum, and the 
short rostrum and the apex of the carina not projecting. 
— 


330 Transactions.—Zoology. 


APPENDIX. 
The following additional species are said to occur in New Zealand:— 
Balanus trigonus, Darwin, l.c., p. 223. 
Coronula balenaris, Gml. L. balenaris, Gray, in Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, 
II., p. 269. 
Tubicinella trachealis, Shaw. Gray, in Dieffenbach's New Zealand, II., p. 269. 
Anatifa elongata, Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Astrol. IIL., p. 635, pl. 93, f. 6. 
Darwin, l.c., p. 374. 
Bay of Islands. 
Anatifa tubulosa, Quoy and Gaimard, l.c., III., p. 643, pl. 98, f. 5. Alepas 
tubulosa, Darwin, l.c., p. 169 
Tolaga Bay, attached to a living Palinurus. 
Dollicipes sertus, Darwin, l.c., p. 327. 


Art XXXV.—On a new Infusorian parasitic on Patella argentea. 
By Prof. F. W. Hurron. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.) 
Lasr month, while investigating the structure of Patella argentea, Quoy and 
Gaimard, I discovered numerous specimens of an infusorian attached to the 
branchiz, of which the following is a description :— 

Body campanulate, naked, devoid of cilia, hyaline, highly contractile ; 
sessile or subsessile; mouth surrounded by a spiral ring of rather coarse 
cilia, which are Sp of being moved or held motionless at the will of the 
animal. Length, zl, inch. These little animals were attached to all parts 
of the branchie, and closed up suddenly, in the manner of Vorticella, when 
touched by any foreign body. 

The absence of a carapace and of a stalk would appear to put this 
species into Trichoda, Ehr., but the disposition of the ciliaround the mouth 
precludes this; and I am inclined to regard it as a Cothurnia, in which the 
lorica has become obsolete owing to its commensual habits. I therefore 
propose to call it Cothurnia patella. 


Hurron,—Description of some new Slugs. 881 


Art. XXXVI.— Description of some new Slugs. By Prof. F, W, Hurron. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 26th November, 1878.] 
LIMAX MOLESTUS, 

Mantle short and flatly rounded behind, smooth and sub-concentrically 
wrinkled when alive, rugose and not wrinkled in spirit. Pulmonary 
opening in the posterior third of the mantle; back rounded behind the 
mantle, pointed and keeled posteriorly ; body with irregular longitudinal 
rib-like protuberances; colour variable—greyish or reddish-brown variously 
marbled with dusky. Tentacles of the same colour as the back; foot 
yellowish-white. Length, about 1} inches, Shell slightly concave. A 
rather common variety is quite black. 

Dunedin, Wellington, ete. Abundant everywhere. 

The radula has 88 rows of rachis teeth, and about 20 on each side of 
lateral teeth. 

This species is closely allied to L. agrestis of Europe, but is larger, the 
keel is not oblique, the pulmonary opening is placed more posteriorly, and 
the ovo-testis is more elongated. In Dr. Knight’s paper on the Bitenta- 
culate Slug of New Zealand (Trans. Lin, Soc, XXII., p. 381) figures 8, 11, 
12, and 15 belong to this species. 

MILAX EMARGINATUS. 

Mantle slightly shagreened, short and emarginate behind ; pulmonary 
opening a little behind the centre. A depressed line runs from this opening 
forward over the back, and backward again to a point on the left side 
opposite the pulmonary opening. Back sharply keeled up to the mantle ; 
body smooth, with depressed lines radiating from the mantle. Colour dark 
grey or olive above; foot and lower sides of the body yellowish-white. 
Length 1 inch. Shell small, nearly flat; length 08 inch. 

Dunedin; common in gardens, etc. 

Distinguished from M. antipodarum by the shape of the mantle and 
smooth body. I have M. antipodarum from Wellington. The radula has 
27 rows of rachis teeth, and about 25 on each side of lateral teeth. The 
transverse rows are curved, the convexity being in the direction of the 
apices of the teeth. 

ÅRION INCOMMODUS. 

Mantle rugose, short and rounded behind; pulmonary opening in front 
of the middle; back rounded, not pointed posteriorly ; colour dark lead- 
grey, a lateral stripe on the mantle, and a longitudinal band on each side, 
black; sometimes the whole upper part of the body greyish black; foot 
yellow. Length 1 inch; shell rudimentary. 

Dunedin, Not uncommon in gardens, etc, 


332 Transactions.—Zoology. 


This species has the form of Geomaleus, but the genital organs open 
below the pulmonary opening; the ovotestis is small and globular, the 
albumen gland very large; the penis is long, and, when retracted, lies 
across the renal organ; the spermatheca is large and flask-shaped; there is 
no prostate gland, and the retractor of the penis is attached to its anterior 
end, 

The retractor muscles of the tentacles are two—one on each side, and 
the retractor of the buccal mass is quite distinct from them, and originates 
much further back, on the right side. The teeth are arranged in slightly 
arched transverse rows; they are 32:1:32 on each row. The central tooth 
has a cusp on each side; the other rachis-teeth a cusp only on the outer 
side; the laterals decrease in size outwards. The laterals change gradually 
into the rachis-teeth, but there are about 10 rachis and 22 lateral teeth on 
each side. 

JANELLA PAPILLATA. 

Like J. bitentaculata, but with small papille on the back, between the 
oblique grooves, 

Wellington and Dunedin. On trees. 

Konophora, gen. nov. 

Like Janella, but the eye peduncles short and conical. 
KoxoPHORA MARMOREA. r 

Body smooth, rounded above, scarcely distinct from the foot; tail 
rounded; back with a central groove with lateral branches sloping obliquely 
backward ; colour blackish, marbled with pale brown on the back; an 
indistinct black lateral line; region round the pulmonary opening yellowish. 
Length, 1 inch. 

Dunedin. In the bush. 

I have only seen a single specimen, which was collected by Mr. F. J. 
Browne, Articulator to the Museum. 

[Nore.—Both Limax cinereus and L. flavus have been introduced into 

Dunedin, but at present they are rare.] 


Arr. XXXVII.—On Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Gmelin. 
By Prof. F. W. Hurron. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th September, 1878.) 
Domo his voyage with Captain Cook, in 1778, J. R. Forster described a 
shag, which he said was found in New Zealand and Terra del Fuego, under 


Hvrrox,—On Phalacrocorax carunculatus. 333 


the name of Pelecanus carunculatus, distinguished, among other things, by 
having red caruncles, or elevated papillæ, behind the nostrils. 

Dr. Latham in his “General Synopsis of Birds,’’* (1878), using the 
unpublished manuscripts and drawings of the Forsters, appears to have 
divided this species into two, which he called the carunculated =e and 
the tufted shag respectively. 

Subsequently (1788) Gmelin, in editing Liunsus' ** Systema Natura" 
took these two species out of Latham and named them Pelecanus caruncu- 
latus and Pelecanus cirrata, the last being Latham’s “tufted shag." Both 
are said to come from New Zealand only. P. carunculatus is said to have 
the face naked and *'earunculated red," and to be about 20 inches in 
length. 

P. cirratus is said to have the crown erested, the tail composed of 
fourteen feathers, and in length to be about 84 inches. 

In 1828 Latham published his ** General History of Birds," in which he 
adopts Gmelin's scientific names. 

Graculus carunculatus is said to be about 30 inches in length, and to have 
the space between the bill and the eye much carunculated, and over the eye 
a tubercle much larger than the rest. It is said to be rare in Queen Char- 
lotte Sound (New Zealand) and abundant in Staaten Land. Graculus 
cirrhatus is said to be 34 inches in length; no caruncles are mentioned, but 
the skin round the eye is said to be bare. Evidently following Gmelin 
doubtfully, he remarks—* tail rounded and said to have fourteen feathers.” 
Queen Charlotte Sound is given as the only habitat. 

Captain King, R.N., deseribed in 1830 (P.Z.S., Part L, p. 80) under 
the name of Phalacrocorax imperialis, a shag, from the Straits of Magellan, 
which has the head crested. No mention is made of any caruncles, but the 
tail-feathers are said to be twelve in number. Brandt (Bull. Sei. Acad., 
Petersburg, 18371) not only gives all these three species, but adds another, 
Carbo purpurascens, from Chili and the Falkland Islands, characterised by 
the absence of any white on the wing-coverts. 

Mr. G. Gray in the “ Zoology of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror” 
(1844) united Gmelin's two species under the name of G. cirrhatus, and 
said that G. carunculatus was the young, “ wanting the crest, the long 
linear feathers over each eye, and the oblong spot on each wing." He gives 
P. imperialis, King, as a synonym of P. cirrhatus, Gmel. 

Bonaparte in his ** Conspectus Generum Avium"' (1857) separates 
cirrhatus from carunculatus, and puts them in different genera, on account 
of the supposed difference in the number of the tail-feathers. Hypoleucus 


* This book I have not seen 
t I take these from the edition of 1806. The length is probably a mistake for "e. 
t This publication I have not seen 


834 Transactions, — Zoology, 


cirrhatus is said to come from Chili, to be 27 in. in length, and to have 14 
feathers in the tail. | Leucocarbo carunculatus is also said to come from Chili 
and the Straits of Magellan. The base of the bill is said to be carunculated, 
and in the breeding season the bird is said to be crested, and to have a 
broad band of white on the back. He gives P. imperialis, King, as a 
synonym of L. carunculatus. Dr. Finsch says in 1870 (Jour. für Ornith., p. 
915) that he has compared a specimen of G. caruneulatus, Gm. from the 
Crozet Islands with those from the Straits of Magellan in the Leyden 
Museum, and finds them to belong to the same species, Dr. Buller in his 
Birds of New Zealand (1878) keeps both species together and gives Carbo 
purpurascens, Brandt, as another synonym. In 1874 Dr. Finsch (Jour. für 
Ornith., p. 213) having received a specimen from the Chatham Islands, 
again separates P. carunculatus from P. cirrhatus, pointing out that the 
South American birds have the gular and chin regions totally naked, while 
in the Chatham Island bird there is à central feathered strip, and the sides 
of the head and neck are dark. He considers the Chatham Island bird to 
be G. carunculatus, Gmel,, and the Magellan Strait bird to be G. cirrhatus, 
Gmel. 
Mr. R. B. Sharpe, in the appendix to the Birds of the * Zoology of the 
* Erebus' and * Terror'" (1875), aecepts Dr. Finsch's views; but in the 
same year Dr. Coues (Bull. U.S. National Museum, No. 2) identifies the 
shag from Kerguelen's Land as G. carunculatus, although pointing out that 
it has no white band on the wing, and considers G. cirrhatus as a synonym. 
Dr. Kidder, in the same publication, remarks that in this bird the caruncles 
at the base of the bill are brilliant yellow. 

Such, in short, is the history of the nomenclature of these birds. The 
first statement (Forster) was that there is one species found both in New 
Zealand and South America. Then (Gmelin) that there are two species, 
both found in New Zealand. Then (Latham) that there are two species, 
both found in New Zealand, and one of them (carunculatus) in South 
America also. Then (Gray) there is said to be only one species, inhabiting 
both places. Then (Bonaparte) there are said to be three species, all 
inhabiting South America. Then Dr. Buller again considers them all as 
one species, inhabiting both places. Then Dr. Finsch and Mr. Sharpe 
consider that there are two species—G. carunculatus, inhabiting New Zea- 
land and the Chatham Islands, and G. cirrhatus inhabiting the Straits of 
Magellan and the Crozet Islands; at the same time Dr. Coues, who has 
probably never seen a specimen from New Zealand, thinks that there is 
only one species. 

During a late visit to Melbourne I had, through the kindness of Prof. 
McCoy, the opportunity of examining a specimen in the Museum, named 
P. cirrhatus, from the Falkland Islands, and of comparing it with specimens 


Hvrrox.—On Phalacrocorax carunculatus. $35 


from Kerguelen’s Land, the Chatham Islands, and New Zealand, in the 
Otago Museum, and I have no hesitation in confirming Dr. Finsch’s opinion 
that there are two quite distinct species. 

The Falkland Islands and the Kerguelen’s Land birds have the gular 
pouch naked ; the white of the throat extends over the sides of the upper 
part of the neck, and the caruncles at the base of the bill are large, project- 
ing considerably above the line of the front, the two meeting, or nearly 
meeting, in the median line above the bill. In the Chatham Island and 
New Zealand birds, there is a band of white feathers along the centre of the 
gular pouch; the sides of the upper neck are dark, and the caruncles are 
reduced to small papillæ, which do not project above the line of the front, 
and are divided by the feathers of the front. 

But, although it is easy to show that there are at least two species, it is not 
easy to say which name should be applied to each. Forster, no doubt, first 
described the New Zealand bird, and afterwards erroneously identified the 
South American bird with it, but it is doubtful whether he had applied the 
name carunculatus to the New Zealand bird before he had examined those 
in Terra del Fuego, and as his manuscripts were not published until 1844, 
it is immaterial for the present enquiry whether he did or not. Gmelin was 
the first to name the birds, and he gave the name carunculatus to the smaller 
carunculated bird without a crest, and cirrhatus to the larger and crested 
bird.* Gmelin says that both birds come from New Zealand only, but he 
took his birds from Latham, and Latham says that cirrhatus occurs in New 
Zealand only, while carunculatus is rare in New Zealand, and common in 
South America. The smaller size, the caruncles, and the locality would all 
point to carunculatus as the South American bird, but, on the other hand, 
the New Zealand bird appears never to get a crest. 

Dr. Kidder gives the length of a Kerguelen's Land bird at 231 in. ; the 
specimen in the Otago Museum is rather larger. Dr. Buller gives the 
length of birds from New Zealand as 32 in., and of birds from the Chatham 
Islands at 26 in. (Trans. N.Z. Inst., IX., p. 339). The Chatham Island 
birds are evidently smaller than those from New Zealand, but neither 
Latham, Gmelin, Brandt, nor Bonaparte had seen birds from the Chatham 
Islands. Brandt or Bonaparte appear to be the first to state that both 
species came from South America, and when Dr. Finsch had to transfer one 
back again to New Zealand, he took carunculatus. The evidence is, how 
ever, I think, in favour of the New Zealand bird being cirrhatus; and, as 
the Magellan Straits bird truly merits the name carunculatus, while the New 
Zealand bird does not, I think it would be better to change Dr. Finsch's 
nomenclature, 


* The number of tail-feathers can be omitted, as both species have 12 tail-feathers, — 


586 Transactions.— Zoology. 


The idea that the South American bird is P. cirrhatus was probably 
stated by Mr. Gray, who no doubt had seen Captain King's specimens, 
giving P. imperialis, King, as a synonym of P. cirrhatus, Gml.; but Mr. 
Gray included P. carunculatus with P. cirrhatus, and Bonaparte gives 
imperialis as a synonym of P. carunculatus, Gml. 

The synonomy will therefore be as follows :— 

PHALACROCORAX CARUNCULATUS 
Caruneulated Shag, Latham (1775). 
Pelecanus carunculatus, Gmelin (1778). Habitat wrong. 
Graculus carunculatus, Latham (1828). 
Phalacrocorax imperialis, King (1830). 
Carbo carunculatus, Brandt pani 
Carbo purpurascens, Brandt 
MPH bo a PEPERIT oes (1857). 
aparte (1857). 
Graculus caricata. oe (1870). 
Graculus carunculatus, Hutton (Cat. Birds of New Zealand, 1872, ex Layard) 

Hab. wron 

Graculus cirrhatus, Finsch (1874). 


Graculus carunculatus, Coues (1875). 
b.: Straits of Magellan, Falkland Islands, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen's 
Land. 

PHALACROCORAX CIRRHATUS. 
Tufted Shag, Latham (1775). 
Pelecanus cirrhatus, Gmelin (1778). 
Graculus cirrhatus, Latham (1828). 
Carbo cirrhatus, Brandt (1837). 
Graculus cirrhatus, Gray (1814). 
Hypoleucus cirrhatus, Bonaparte (1857). Habitat wrong. 
Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Buller (1873). 
Graculus carunculatus, Finsch (1874). 
Graculus carunculatus, Sharpe (1875). 

Hab.: New Zealand and the Chatham Islands. 

The next question is, are there more than two species? The Kerguelen's 
Land birds differ from those of South Ameriea in having no white bar on 
the wing, and in the caruncle being yellow instead of erimson. If constant 
these differences are sufficient to distinguish the Kerguelen's Land species, 
to which the name of P. purpurascens, Brandt, should be applied, unless that 
is only the immature P. carunculatus, which is most likely. 

Dr. Buller has also suggested (Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 388) that P. 
cirrhatus may possibly include two species, the birds of the Chatham 
Islands being distinguish:d from those of New Zealand by being smaller 
and crested, and he formerly proposed to call the New Zealand bird P. 
finschi, but found that that name had been appropriated by Mr. Sharpe. 


Hurron.—On Collections from the Auckland and Campbell Islands. 887 


The statement that the Chatham Island birds are crested, while the New 
Zealand birds are not, must be taken with caution. I have certainly never 
seen a crested bird from New Zealand myself, but they are very rare, and I 
have not seen many; and P. cirrhatus appears to have been founded on a 
crested bird from New Zealand. The bird also appears to be scarce in the 
Chatham Islands, for although Dr. Buller quotes Mr. H. Travers as saying 
that “he met with P. carunculatus in large numbers in the Chatham 
Islands" (l.c., IX., p. 339), Mr. Travers himself states that it is “not 
common "' (l.c., V., p. 221), and the specimen sent to Dr. Finsch from the 
Chatham Islands was not crested. Consequently the question as to the 
crest must be considered as unsettled. However, it appears that the 
Chatham Island birds are decidedly smaller than those from New Zealand ; 
but if Dr. Buller decides on considering this difference as of specific value, 
it is to the Chatham Island bird that he must apply the new name, and not 
as he supposes to the New Zealand bird. 


DIMENSIONS OF THE THREE SPECIMENS IN THE ÜTAGo Museum, 


Kerguelen's Land. | Chatham Islands. Otago. 
Crested. Crested. Not crested. 
jo Me DE EET M 115 11:5 12:5 
Tail dE v. x ve 5:5 5:5 6:0 
Bill (culmen) .. ne ee 2:25 2:5 2:8 
Tarsus ., A 2 eR 2:0 2:0 24 
Outer toe and claw .. vx 425 4:3 50 


Art. XXXVIII.—Notes on a Collection from the Auckland Islands and 
Campbell Island. By Prof. F. W. Hvrrox. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th September, 1878.] 
Lasr June, Captain Townsend, R.N., was kind enough to agreeto take Mr. 
E. Jennings, taxidermist to the Museum, to the Auckland and Campbell 
Islands in H.M.S. Nymphe, in order that he might collect specimens of 
natural history for the Museum. The Nymphe arrived at Port Ross on 
13th June, 1878, and left again on the 17th, but as the 16th was Sunday, 
Mr. Jennings only had two days and a half for collecting. On the 19th 
they arrived at Campbell Island and left again the same day, Mr. Jennings 
going on shore for an hour and a half only. It was during these short 
times that the collections referred to in these notes were made. 
No seals were seen during the trip. ET 


338 Transactions.—Zoology. 


BIRDS. 
Anthornis melanura, Sparrm. 


A single male individual from the Auckland Islands, which in colour 
quite resembles specimens from New Zealand. The following are its 
dimensions in inches :—Length 8:5, wing 3:6, tail 3-5, culmen “57, tarsus 
1:8, outer toe (without claw) *55, middle toe ‘7, inner toe ‘45, hind toe “47. 
Phalacrocorax magellanicus, Guil. 

Head, neck, back, rump, thighs and upper tail-coverts blue-black ; 
shoulders, scapulars and wing-coverts green-black, except a very narrow 
bar of white formed by some of the upper wing-coverts; chin, throat, and 
whole under surface of body, except the neck, white, wings and tail 
brownish-black. Head crested, a few linear white feathers above the eye 
and on the upper part of the neck. Irides brown. Skin in front of the 
eyes dark blue, the minute papillæ crimson, sparingly clothed with small 
feathers. Bill dark brown passing into orange at the base of both man- 
dibles, gular skin bright orange. Legs and feet flesh-colour, with the soles 
and the joints on the upper surface black; webs flesh-colour shading into 
black towards the margin. A narrow strip of white feathers runs along the 
centre of the chin pouch. 

Immature.—The whole of the upper surface, neck, wings and tail dark 
brown, in places glossed with greenish, no white alar bar; chin, throat and 
belly white. Skin before the eye dull orange with crimson spots; bill 
brown passing into orange at the base of the mandibles, gular pouch 
orange. Feet as in the adult, but not so pink. 

Length 28 inches, extent 39, wing 10:5, tail 6, culmen 2:2, bill to gape 
8:1, depth at nostrils -52, breadth -48, tarsus 2:4; outer toe (without claw) 
9:8, middle toe 2:85, inner toe 1:85, hind toe 1:25. 

Two individuals, both females, from Campbell Island. 

This species is allied to P. carunculatus, but is at once recognised by its 
black neck. The white alar band is also much smaller. 

Stercorarius antarcticus, Lesson. 
A single female from Campbell Island. 
Larus dominicanus, Licht. 
A young female from Campbell Island. 
Larus scopulinus, Forster. 
Three specimens from the Auckland Islands and three from Campbell 


d. 
Five of these birds are adult (four males and one female) and all have 
the breast beautifully tinged with rose colour, as is often the case with 
Sterna frontalis, I have never seen this colouring in the New Zealand 


* 


Hurros.— On Collections from the Auckland and Campbell Islands, 839 


Fis 
Notothenia angustata, Hutton, T.N.Z.I. ani p. 213. 

Five specimens of this fish were brought from the Auckland islands, It 
may be identical with N. maoriensis Haast, T.N.Z.I., 1872, p. 276; but 
that species is said to have only three spines in the first dorsal, and to 
have scales below the eyes, It is no doubt the same as N, coriiceps of 
the ** Fishes of New Zealand ” (1872), and most probably Sir J. Richardson 
confused it with his N. coriiceps in the Ichthyology of the Voyage of the 
“Erebus” and “Terror.” The type of N, coriiceps, according to Dr. 
Giinther, comes from Kerguelen’s Land, 

Notothenia arguta, sp. nov. 
B. 5; D. 4| 80; A. 24; L. lat. 52. 

Height of the body goes 41 times into the total length ; T of the 
head four times ; posterior limb of the preopereulum perpendicular ; top of 
the head flat, not concave, scaleless, roughened with small rounded papille; 
above purplish black, lighter and pinkish below; gill membrane marked 
with orange. A single specimen 7} inches in length from Campbell Island. 
In general shape it approaches N. microlepidota, but is easily distinguished 
by the fin formula, 

Notothenia microlepidota, Hutton, T.N.Z.I., 1875, p. 218. 
D.7|27; A. 22. 
Two specimens from the Auckland Islands. 
Notothenia parva, sp. nov. 
B. 6; D. 6 | 28-29; A. 23-25; L. lat. 62. 

Height of the body goes 51 times into the. total length ; length of the 
head five times; top of the head scaleless, flat, with scattered papillæ. 
Colour, gebiaiih: black, belly white, vertical fins black. 

Four specimens from the Auckland Islands; 8 to 31 inches in length, 

This species approaches N. sima, but has no scales on the top of the 
head, and differs in its fin formula. 

Tripterygium jenningsi. sp. nov. 
D. 6 | 20-21 | 15-16; A. 28. 

A simple tentacle above the orbit, and another at the nostril; teeth on 
the vomer, none'on the palate. Colour, very variable; greenish-brown, 
reddish-brown, or black, marbled with darker. 

Sixteen specimens from the Auckland Islands, the largest 33 inches. 
in length. 

The lateral line is as in T. nigripenne, to which species it is closely allied, 
but differs in having constantly 28 rays in the anal fin 

Note.—Notothenia arguta, N. parva and Tripterygium jenningsi were taken 


840 Transactions.—Zvology, 


in rock pools, N. angustata and N. microlepidota ina net. Not a single fish 
was caught with a hook. Most of the fish at the Auckland Islands are 
attacked by parasites in a most remarkable way; in some cases the whole 
of the lateral muscles being full of a round worm about an inch in length, 
So bad are they that nothing but sheer necessity would induce any one to 
eat fish at these islands, 

CRUSTACEA, 
Prionorhynchus edwardsii, Jacq. and Lucas. 

Six specimens from the Auckland Islands, all mele. 

Nectocarcinus antarcticus, Jacq. and Lucas. 

Six specimens from the Auckland Islands, of which five were obtained 
from the stomach of a large specimen of Notothenia microlepidota. 
Halicarcinus planatus, Fabr. 

À great many specimens from both the Auckland and Campbell Islands. 
Munidia subrugosa, List. 

Three specimens from the Auckland Islands; two adult and one young. 
The young specimen is quite as small or smaller than Grimothea greyaria, 
so abundant round the South Island in March, and yet it does not show 
the slightest approach to the foliaceous maxillipeds of Grimothea. The 
habits of the two species are also quite different. Grimothea is pelagic and 
floats on the surface of the sea, while Munidia lives at the bottom. Mr 
Jennings caught these specimens in a baited net. 

Squilla levis, sp. nov. 

Rostral-plate semi-lanceolate, acute ; carapace smooth, without crests, 
slightly expanded and rounded behind; inner antenne reaching nearly as 
far as the outer, second joint extending as far as the eye, third joint as 
long as the second. Prehensile finger with 12 teeth (exclusive of the 
extremity) ; penultimate finely toothed internally and with three spines at 
the base; externally quite smooth ; abdomen smooth, without longitudinal 
ridges, scarcely broader than the carapace, without lateral spines except on 
the penultimate segment; last segment with about 10 spines alternately 
large and small, while on each side of the central line there are six very 
small spines ; internal lateral caudal plates oval, not passing the marginal 
spine of the basal joint. Length, 13 inch 

A single specimen taken from the onik of a specimen of Notothenia 
microlepidota, caught at the Auckland Islands. 

- Cirolana rossii, List. 

Many specimens from the Auckland Islands. 
Spharoma gigas, Leach. 

Several specimens from the Auckland Islands. 


Hurron.—On Collections from the Auckland and Campbell Islands, 841 


Spheroma obtusa, Dana. 

A few specimens from Campbell Island, and two from the Auckland 
Islands. 
Actacia aucklandie, G. M. Thomson. 

For a description of this species see Mr, Thomson's paper in the present 
volume of Transactions. (Ante p. 249.) 


MoLLusca, 
Euthria lineata, Chemnitz. 

Many specimens from the Auckland Islands, 
Euthria littorinoides, Reeve. 

Two specimens from Campbell Island. 
Polytropa striata, Martyn. 

single specimen from the Auckland Islands. 
Diloma, sp. 

Two specimens from the Auckland Islands. There are specimens of 
this species in the Museum from Campbell Island, presented by Dr. H. 
Filhol, who will doubtless describe it. It is something like D. nigerrima, 
but smaller, bluer, and not so depressed. ` 


Cantharidus episcopus, Hombron and Jacquinot. 

Several dead shells from the Auckland Islands. It is also in the 

Museum from Campbell Island. 
Tectura pileopsis, Quoy and Gaimard. 

Several specimens from the Auckland Islands. 
Patella magellanica. 

Several specimens from the Auckland Islands, and one or two from 
Campbell Island. I believe that P. inconspicua, Gray, is only a small variety 
of this species. 

Patella redimiculum, Reeve 

Several specimens from the Auckland Islands. 
Chiton cireumvallatus, Reeve. 

Several specimens from Campbell Island. 
Chiton lineolatus, Frembly. 

Several specimens from both the Auckland Islands and Campbell 
Island. It varies much from black to gaily painted. It is also found near 
Dunedin. 
Chiton longicymba, Blainville. | 

A few specimens from the Auckland Islands. There are also in the 
Museum specimens from Campbell Island, presented by Dr, H. Filhol, 


842 Transactions.-—Zoology. 


Plaziphora biramosa, Quoy and Gaimard. 

Two specimens from Campbell Island. When drying, this species often 
gplits longitudinally. 

Onchidium patelloides, Quoy and Gaimard. 

Seven specimens from the Auckland Islands. 
Siphonaria redimiculum, Reeve. 

Four specimens from the Auckland Islands. This curious species will 
probably form the type of a new genus, It is of on olive brown outside and 
dark purple inside. 

Mesodesma nove-zealandia, Chemnitz. 

A single specimen from the Auckland Islands. 
Venus oblonga, Hanley. 

A single specimen from the Auckland Islands. 
Chione stutchburyi, Gray. 

Eight specimens from the Auckland Islands. 
Mytilus magellanicus, Lamarck. 

A few specimens from both the Auckland Islands and e Island. 
Mytilus dunkeri, Reeve. 

Several specimens from both the Auckland Islands and Campbell 

d. 


Nots.—In addition to the foregoing there are in the Otago Museum the 

following shells from the Auckland and Campbell Islands :— 
Euthria bicincta, Hutton, Auckland Islands. 
Neptunea, sp., Auckland Islands. 
Cominella maculata, Martyn, Auckland Islands. 
Turbo granosus, Martyn, Auckland Islands. 
Diloma @ethiops, Gml., Auckland Islands. 
Diloma nigerrima, Chemnitz, Auckland Islands. 
Haliotis iris, Martyn, Auckland Islands. 
Haliotis rugoso-plicata, Chemnitz, Auckland Islands. 
Haliotis gibba, Philippi, Campbell Island. 
Patella radians, Gml., Auckland Islands. 
Patella imbricata, Reeve, Campbell Island. 
Patella rubiginosa, Hutton, Auckland Islands. 
Tapes intermedia, Quoy and Gaimard, Campbell Island. 
Modiola areolata, Gould, Auckland Islands. 
Terebratella rubicunda, Sow. ?, Auckland Islands, 


^ 


Warre.—0On the Black Rat. 348 


ANNE 
Several specimens of Chetopod worms ae both the Auckland Islands 
and Campbell Island are in the collection, but they cannot be determined 
until the New Zealand Chetopods have been examined. 
ECHINODERMATA. 
Asterias rupicola, Verrill, Bull. U.S. National Museum, No. 8, p. 71. 
var. levigatus, Hutton. 
Spines of the back obsolete. 
Several specimens from the Auckland Islands. 
I should have regarded this as a new species if one of the specimens had 
not shown a row of spines along the back and traces of a lateral row on 
each side, thus connecting the two forms. 


Art. XXXIX.—Note accompanying Specimens of the Black Rat (Mus rattus, L.) 
By Taytor Warre, Esq., of Glengarrie, Napier. 
Communicated by Prof. Hurron. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 26th November, 1878.) 
Two of the rats were caught in 1876 in a field of oats which I was 
cutting, eighteen miles from the shipping, and so might be called country 
rats. Ithink I killed four. The two kept were an old male and a young 
female not quite full grown. I have found no others since. The skin I 
picked up at Napier port, alongside the shipping. 

It may be of some interest for me to state that the rats on the Canterbury 
plains in 1855 had regular warrens, and lived in communities. I have 
taken six and eight from one warren. The warren was not raised above 
the surface of the ground, but could be detected by the unusual greenness 
of the grass. There were a number of bolt holes within a circular radius 
of about four feet. At the time I was under the impression that they were 
ordinary rats; but not having seen this habit since or elsewhere, I now 
think that they must have been peculiar. In colour, I think, they resembled 
the common rat (Mus decumanus). We used to dig them up for the fun of 
seeing the dogs catch them. 

I was witness to the first migrations of the common mouse (Mus mus- 
culus) on three separate occasions. First, from about Christchurch to the 
plains at Oxford; second, from Oxford onwards over the first range of hills 
to country through which the Hokitika road now passes; and third, to the 
country bordering Lake Wakatipu. In all three places I lived a consider- 
able time, and never saw such a thing as a mouse, but the rats were legion, 


344 Transactions.—Zoology. 


After a time the sight of the first mouse was reported as seen in the grass. 
In the course of a week the grass country and the houses were plentifully 
supplied. It is most remarkable that the rats immediately cleared out 
before them, and from that time were much scarcer. 

In Otago, formerly, I used to kill a great number of rats living singly 
under plants of the Spaniard, the old leaves of which made them a nice 
thatched roof, and the root was eaten if nothing better offered. Once in 
the early days of settlement in Otago, when I was snowed in, and could get 
nothing to feed my fowls on, I caught large numbers of rats near the house 
(getting them from under the Spaniard bushes) and roasted them for the 
fowls. I noticed that the stomach of these rats was generally full of a white 
wire-like worm, about two inches long, which I considered a parasite, as they 
were always perfect ; but, if I remember right, there was no appearance of 
other food in the stomach, and very little room for it, as the worms were 
knoited together into a mass that about filled the cavity. 

Nore sy Pror. Hurron. 

The skin from Napier belongs to Mus rattus. It agrees perfectly with 
the description of the specimen in the Colonial Museum, from Wellington, 
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., IV., p. 183), and with Dr. Buller’s description of his Mus 
nova-zealandi@ (Trans. N.Z. Inst., IIL, p. 1). The two specimens caught 
in the oat-field had been put into kerosene, and were not fit for stuffing. 
They both presented, externally, the same characters as the skin from Napier. 
I have examined these two skulls, and find that they agree with Mr. Salter's 
description of the skull of M. rattus, except in being smaller and more 
elongated. Consequently, they differ from the Maori rat skulls, from Shag 
Point, in the partieulars that I have already pointed out. 

There can, I think, be no doubt that these rats belong to the Polynesian 
variety of Mus rattus, and consequently the Maori rat must be regarded as 
a distinct species, for which I propose the name of Mus maorium. 

The following are the measurements of the skull of the adult male 
specimen. I have added measurements of M. rattus from England (from 
Mr. Salter’s drawings), and of M. decumanus from New Zealand :— 


M. rattus, M.rattus, | M. decumanus, 
: Napier, England. Dunedin. 
Length we a a pH .. 1:43 1:64 1:78 
Width at zygomatic arch* st Pe “59 “82 “75 
Foramen magnum, height =: ie 19 14 20 
a by width ee es :25 "28 28 
* In the measurements of the skulls fr i i i d 
bes and qaare orn Shag Point, the width at the zygomatic atch should 


Tenison- Woops.—On a new Species of Millepora. 845 


Arr. XL.—On a new Species of Millepora. By the Rev. J. E. Tzxisox- 
Woops, F.L.S., F.G.S., Corr. Mem. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Tasmania, 
Linn. Soc. N.S.W.; Hon. Mem. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Adelaide Phil. 
Soc., etc., etc. Communicated by Prof. Hurron. 

[Read before the Otayo Institute, 10th September, 1873.) 

Tue specimen to which I have the honour to call the attention of the 
Society was sent to me by my friend Captain F. W. Hutton, of Otago, and 
was stated to have been found in Foveaux Strait; but the depth at which 
it occurred and its station were not stated. It is a tufted zoothome of 
highly reticulate structure, but hard and compact. It grows apparently 
in a solid mass, from which pencil-like cylindrical stones grow out verti- 
cally, to a height of two or three inches, but not more than a third of an 
inch in diameter. On examining the surface with the microscope, it is seen 
to be covered with minute rounded pores, which have an exact, thiekened, 
very slightly raised margin. These pores are very close to one another, 
but there are interstices which are oceupied by much smaller pores, which 
are in fact nothing but the polygonal spaces left between the closely- 
crowded tubes. When a fragment is broken across, two different kinds of 
structure are observed. One is a kind of outer ring, on which a radiate 
arrangement of the tubes is preserved, that is to say radiating from the 
axis to the circumference ; the other is a central cancellous tissue, made up 
of tubes exactly like the surface, but the walis more delicate. The outer 
radiate ring of tubes is about one-fifth of the diameter; the remaining four- 
fifths is occupied by the central tissue. The latter is of different colour, 
or blueish white, while the outer ring is a reddish-brown. The tubes, which 
open on the outer surface, are not more than half a millimeter in depth, 
but it is not at first very clear whether they are closed by tapering to a 
point or whether they curve downwards or upwards, and so join the 
cancellous tissue or pith, as it.might be termed, of the centre. ‘lhe tubes 
of the centre seem to be continuous. A hair can be easily passed down 
them for half an inch or more. When a section is made it is then clearly 
seen that the tubes curve downwards, and are crossed from time to time 
by tabule or partitions, which are few in number and wide apart. 

All these details point very decidedly to the nature of the organism with 
which we have to deal. It is a Millepore, but of an exceptional and peculiar 
type. Until very lately these singular corals were ranged amidst the 
Madreporaria tabulata. Their true character was, however, discovered by 
Agassiz on one of his cruises to the reefs of Florida, Prof. Dana says that 
he often had Millepore corals under study in the Pacific, and waited long 
for the expansion of the animals, but was never gratified by their making 

al4 : 


346 Transactions.—Zoology. 


their appearance.” Agassiz observes that they are very slow in expanding 
themselves. When espanded they have no resemblance to true polyps. 
There is simply a fleshy tube with a mouth at top and a few small rounded 
prominences in place of tentacles, four of them sometimes largest. The 
corals of the Millepore are solid and strong, as much so as any in coral 
seas. They have generally a smooth surface, and are always without any 
prominent calices, there being only very minute rounded punctures over 
the surface from which the animals show themselves. The cells in the 
coralline are divided parallel to the surface by very thin plates or tabies. 
The Millepore are very abundant corals. They extend outside the tropics 
in Australia as far south as Moreton Bay. In the West Indies they con- 
tribute largely to the formation of the reefs. 

According to Professor Verrill, there are thirteen species of the genus 
Millepore known, but two of these, M. monilifornis and complanata, are sup- 
posed to be varieties of M. alcicornis and plicata respectively. Without any 
exception they are all tropical and living. They occur, as already stated, 
in the West Indies, and also in the Indian Archipelago, the Red Sea, 
Mauritius, and the Fiji Islands. The occurrence, therefore, of a species in 
New Zealand, and in so cold a latitude as Foveaux Strait, is most singular 
and interesting. Such facts have a tendency to make us doubt some of the 
geological conclusions at which we sometimes arrive. A few years ago, 
the discovery of two reef-building genera of corals in the tertiary beds of 
Tasmania was looked upon as the evidence of an almost tropical climate. 
Indeed, a discussion ensued at the Geological Society of London as to 
whether it might not be presumed that the axis of the earth had shifted 
since these beds were deposited. The coral to which I am now drawing 
attention is truly of a reef-building kind, but I am not aware whether it 
forms reefs. This would be a very interesting subject of enquiry. I have 
named the species Millepora undulosa, from the peculiar undulating character 
of the surface of the branches. It is thus described :— 

Millepora undulosa, n.s. 

Corallum arborescent, very much branched, branches crowded cylindrical, 
spreading in all directions, generally somewhat flattened at the extremity 
and with a short bifurcation, often coalescent, either along the whole side 
of the branch or just at a point of contact, or by sending out a short small 
branchlet from one stem to another. The whole surface of the branches 
undulating with broad but not deep rugosities; cells exceedingly small, 
crowded, giving a spongy appearance; colour, dull reddish-brown. Alti- 
tude of specimen described 80; width at farthest extremity of branches 


* Qorals and Coral Islands, by James D. Dana, English Edition, p. 79. 


Gosser.—Notes on the Life History of Charagia virescens. 847 


52; diameter of branches from 33 to 6; diameter of extremity of branch 
at bifurcation, 7 millimetres. 

It is nearest in shape, dimensions, etc., to M. tortuosa, of Fiji, the only 
known Pacific form. 

Norz.—Millepora undulosa is obtained not uncommonly by the Stewart 
Island oyster dredgers, in from 14 to 20 fathoms of water, along with 
Cinctipora elegans, Pustulipora purpurascens, Idmonea radians, and other 
polyzoa, Iam not aware that it forms anything like reefs,—F, W. H. 


ArT. XLI.— Notes on the Life History of Charagia virescens. By the Rev. 

C. H. Gosser. Communicated by Prof. Hurron. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.] 
Tur larva lives chiefly on the extremely hard wood of the Black Maire 
(Olea apetala ), but I have also found it in a tree known to the settlers about 
Masterton as the wine-berry or New Zealand currant tree (Aristotelia 
racemosa). The wood of this last differs widely from the Maire, being very 
soft and white. I believe I have once or twice found the larva in other 
trees. C. virescens passes certainly three years in the larval state, probably 
four. In this stage of its existence it is extremely plentiful wherever the 
Black Maire abounds. It is not easy to find a single tree of this species 
that is not more or less honeycombed by its ravages; the imago, however, 
is far more rare. Of the larva I have obtained twenty specimens in about 
an hour, notwithstanding the loss of time in getting them out, whereas I 
have only come across seven specimens of the perfect insect in four seasons. 
I believe I have once seen it on the wing, but I am not positive about it. I 
have generally come across it half dead, partially stiff and much faded 
and frayed. I have also found the wings, the insect having evidently fallen 
a prey to some bird. 

When newly emerged the perfect insect is very beautifully markedswith 
blackish markings, but these soon fade, or get rubbed off, and the insect 
then presents a pretty uniform green with a few whitish markings. 

Although the larva is so plentiful, it requires a little practice to detect 
its burrow readily. If the limbs or trunk of a Black Maire be carefully 
examined, a more or less diamond-shaped mark, two or three inches in the 
side, may often be noticed, which varies slightly in tint from the surrounding 
bark; and if this patch is pressed with the finger it gives way; if the patch 
is torn off it is seen to be composed of yellowish or greyish silk, covered on | 
the outside with scraps of bark, lichens, excreta of the larva, etc., the whole 


848 Transactions.— Zoology. 


forming a wonderfully close imitation of the natural bark of the tree. 
Beneath this covering is seen a cavity, the depth of which varies from a 
quarter to half an inch, and rather above the centre of the cavity is the 
entrance to the burrow. The cavity around the entrance of the burrow is 
used by the larva to turn itself in. The burrow at first takes a course 
inwards and upwards for one, two, or more inches ; this upward inclination 
preventing the entranee of water. Then the burrow turns downward ina 
nearly vertical direction. This vertical portion of the burrow varies in 
length according to the age of the larva. That of a full-grown larva is about 
four or five inches long. I have seen them eight inches and proportionally 
wide. I have ascertained positively that the larva frequently inhabits the 
same burrow for more than two years, and I am of opinion that they 
generally keep to the same burrow during the whole larval stage. But I 
have occasionally found larve in terminal shoots which would not admit 
of their attaining full growth, and consequently they must in these cases 
change their ground. 

When the larva has attained its full size, it spins, at the top of the 
vertical portion of its burrow, a contrivance very much resembling that of 
the Trap-door Spider, as an additional security against its foes during the 
pupa state. 

The imago emerges in October and.November. The best time to obtain 
the pupa is in September and the early part of October. It is easy to 
ascertain if the insect in a burrow is in the larval or pupa stage, for, if the 
exterior web is torn off, the larva, if inside, will replace it by the next day. 

The larva is flesh-coloured, tinted with purple; head dark brown, with 
a few strong bristles ; spiracles black; segment next the head darker than 
the rest, horny, with a large black mark on each side, just above the spiracle. 

The pupa is flesh-coloured, inclining to brick red; head and thorax deep 
chestnut brown. The semi-transparent wing-cases show the markings of the 
future imago. 

I have examined these larve and pups in their different stages up to 
the time when by stripping off the pupa case, just before the insect was 
ready to emerge, the easily recognised Charagia virescens was disclosed. 

I do not think that the larva of C. virescens is the larva which is 
attacked by the fungus Cordiceps robertsii. Not only do the two laive differ 
in the size of the head and shape of the body—the larva cf C. virescens 
being more cylindrical and with proportionately a larger head— but I do not 
see how C. virescens could get into the ground, which is the position in 
which the larva, which is attacked by the fungus, always is found. I tLink 

that the fungus-attacked larva is probably a Purina, 


Burrkn.— Further. Notes on the Habits of the Tuatara Lizard. 849 


Art. XLIT.— Further. Notes on the Habits of the Tuatara Lizard. 
By Warrer L. Burren, C.M G., Sc.D., F.L.S. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 8rd August, 1878.) 

In Vol. TX. of the Transactions I gave an account of a number of 
tuatara lizards (Sphenodon punctatum ) which I had received from the Island 
of Karewa, in the Bay of Plenty, in April, 1876, to which were afterwards 
added an adult pair of my Sphenodon guntheri and a young one of the same 
species, obtained by exchange from the Colonial Museum. It is now nearly 
two years since I received these lizards, and I have a few nbtes to add to 
the observations so fully recorded in that paper. 

For many months my captive lizards ate nothing, although I tempted 
them with all sorts of savoury morsels, A small tree lizard / Naultinus) 
which I placed in the cage with them disappeared; but whether it was 
devoured by the tuataras or effected its escape I was unable to determine. 
They were sluggish in their movements, and usually appeared to be asleep 
with their eyes partially closed, even when lying in the trough of water with 
their bodies submerged. As the summer approached they showed more acti- 
vity and began to feed, evincing a decided preference for flies and the large 
brown locust (Cicada), of which latter they sometimes devoured as many as 
fifty in the course of a day. But as it was necessary to catch the locusts 
on the garden trees before they could be supplied, for many days together 
the tuataras were compelled to fast, as they stubbornly rejected the minced 
meat which we continued to place in the cage. As winter came round 
again they relapsed into their former languid state, although never 
absolutely torpid, and for two or three months did not eat a morsel of any 
thing. In November last we tried them with earth-worms, of which they 
partook freely, When the supply of worms ran out we gave them fresh 
meat again. Sphenodon punctatum refused it, but (strange to say) Sphenodon 
guntheri devoured it greedily, gorging themselves to repletion. Apparently 
from this cause (following so immediately on the prolonged fast). the 
largest of them died. About this time also they developed a new phase of 
character by attacking and biting one another. One lost an eye, and 
another had a portion of his under lip torn off, completely altering the 
expression of his face. The half-grown Sphenodon quntheri suffered most. 
First of all he had the end of his tail bitten off, and ultimately he was killed 
outright, the whole of his tail consumed, and one of his hind in much 
erunched and lacerated. 

A temporary change of residence made it difficult for a time to obtain 


locusts, and the lizards (with the ent © of the surviving L. MA eoa : 


850 Transactions.— Zoology. 


refusing the ordinary fare of fresh meat, from December to February they 
were on very short commons- indeed, and practically ate nothing. In 
March a new feature of character came to light, and one likely to affect 
most favourably their future prison life. My son, Percy, having brought 
home one day a basket-full of sea-minnows, for the purpose of feeding a 
tame skua, out of mere curiosity I offered one of them to the tuataras; it 
was instantly pounced upon by the nearest of them, and a few minutes 
afterwards each of the lizards was crunching and swallowing a fish three or 
four inches long with evident relish. Some more were placed in the cage 
and were eagerly devoured. Seeing how very difficult it is to induce the 
tuataras to take other than their natural food, it is sufficiently manifest 
that fish-eating is nothing new to them. Their evident fondness for water, 
. basking as they do in the tin reservoir for the most part of the day and 
often with the head submerged, raises the question whether they are not, in 
point of fact, amphibious animals, subsisting in their wild state, to some 
extent at least, on fish and other marine life. I have experimented by 
filling their trough with sea water, and they have taken to it just as readily 
as when the bath was of fresh water. I have not yet had an opportunity of 
trying them with alarger vessel, containing live fish. But feeding our 
tuataras plentifully with small fish in the manner described, we have 
succeeded in advancing their education another step, for they wil now 
partake freely of fresh meat, in almost any quantity, if minced up and 
offered at the end of a fork or pointed stick. It is amusing to watch this 
operation. The lizards climb up the inclined floor of the cage, and then 
clinging to a projecting stone they elevate the head and watch in a stupid 
way till the food is offered, when they deliberately snatch it away, and then 
proceed very slowly to crunch it between their jaws before swallowing. 
While thus feeding they remind one of a tame bear at the top of his pole. 
When a live fly or locust is thrown into the cage, the tuatara approaches it 
in the same cautious way, then turns his head so as to bring his vision in à 
line with the object, which he eyes intently for a moment, and then seizes 
with a rapid movement, the tongue being protruded. 

Having kept and closely watched both species of tuatara, I am satisfied 
that they not only differ in their superficial characters but also in habits 
and disposition. The Museum examples, all of which, except the two 
received from me, belong to Sphenodon guntheri, feed readily on fresh meat, 
soaked bread, and indeed almost anything edible that is offered to them, 
and they have done so from the first. Till very recently all my specimens 
of S. punctatum obstinately refused the fresh meat, were always more 
lethargie than the other form, and when roused appeared to be more shy 
and timid. Both species are equally fond of basking in the water. 


BurrER.—On the specific Value of Prion banksii. 851 


Note on the Tuatara from East Cape Island. 

In a paper* read before this Society last year, I described a new form of 
tuatara / Sphenodon guntheri, var.), from East Cape Island, in the posses- 
sion of Mr. John White, of Napier. Referring to this specimen, Mr. White 
writes me :—“ The tuatara which my son Arthur has, was obtained in the 
year 1878 from the island called Whangaokino at the East Cape. The 
native who got it informs me that he saw on this island tuataras green in 
colour, and others like the one in question." 


Art. XLIII.—On the specific Value of Prion banksii. By W. L. BuLLER, 
C.M.G., Se.D. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.) 

Iw treating of Prion banksii, in my “ Birds of New Zealand" (page 811), I 
made the following observations :—‘‘ The propriety of retaining the above 
specific distinction appears to me very doubtful; but I am unwilling to 
dismiss the supposed species till the subject has been further investigated.” 
In an article which I afterwards contributed to our Transactions,+ I 
expressed my belief that the species would stand, and pointed out what 
appeared to me good distinguishing characters. 

A recent visit to the West Coast, after very stormy weather, has enabled 
me to settle this point beyond all doubt. A north-west gale had been 
blowing for several days, and large numbers of Prion had been washed 
ashore. In travelling by coach from Waikanae to Otaki, a distance of only 
ten miles, I counted no less than twenty-seven lying on the strand, and 
there were probably many more. As I performed the rest of the journey 
to Manawatu in a buggy, I was able to stop and pick up specimens. 
In this way I was fortunate enough to obtain, during one day, twenty fresh 
birds. Of these, twelve were referable without hesitation to Prion turtur and 
eight to Prion banksii. The difference in the size and form of the beak 
was constant, and among individuals of each species there was only a slight 
variation. I selected the smallest of Prion banksii for the purposes of 
comparison, and I beg now to exhibit it together with an ordinary 
specimen of Prion turtur. It will be seen that the two birds are very 
readily distinguishable. 

Thinking that the difference in the size of the bill might possibly be a 

* Transactions New Zealand Institute, Vol. X., p. 220. t Vol. VII, p. 208, 


352 Transactions.—Z oology. 


sexual character, I dissected the whole of the twenty specimens, with the 
following result:—Of P. banksii there were four males and four females ; 
of P. turtur there were seven males and five females. In some cases, owing 
to the state of the productive organs at this season of the year (first week 
in July), I was unable to determine the sex with absolute certainty. 
In others, however, the testes were sufficiently conspicuous; while in two 
females of P. turtur and in one of P. banksii I was able to detect a bunch 
of undeveloped eggs. The examination in this respect was therefore con- 
clusive, and I have now no hesitation in admitting P. banksii into the list of 
well established species. Diagnosis :— Similis P. turturi, sed rostro latiore, 
pileo saturatiore et cauda nigro latiüs terminatad distinguendus. 

All the specimens picked up by me on this occasion were dead, with the 
exception of the Prion banksii, now exhibited. I found this one on the 
sandy beach, where the surf had left him, sitting up in wet and draggled 
plumage, looking the very picture of abject misery. Beside him stood a 
seagull (Larus dominicanus) patiently waiting for his victim to succumb 
before commencing his savoury feast, when the unbidden guest appeared in 
the guise of a naturalist! 

Dr. Finsch refers the Prion vittatus, and P. banksii of Hutton’s “ Cata- 
logue,” to P. banksii, Smith, and P. turtur, Sol., respectively, and he is 
certainly right in doing so; for Prof. Hutton gives his P. banksii a bill only 
the decimal part of an inch broader than that of P. turtur, while he makes 
that of P. vittatus only -6. On reference to the figures accompanying my 
paper in Vol. VIL, it will be seen that the width of the bill in the true 
P. banksii is “55, and in P. vittatus 85. 

Dr. Fiusch agrees with me in sinking Gould’s Prion ariel, as it cannot 
be separated from P. turtur; and he unhesitatingly refers the bird described 
by Mr. Potts under the name of Prion australis to D. vittatus, Dr. Hector 
having forwarded him a specimen for examination. Not having seen the 
type of P. australis, I accept Dr. Finsch’s determination; but it must be 
borne in mind that Mr. Gould, who was quite familiar with P. vittatus, 
declares positively that there is another and broader-billed species, adding, 
however, “the precise latitudes in which this fine bird flies are unknown 
io me." 


BuLuer.—0n Eudynamis taitensis. 353 


Art. XLIV.— Remarks on the Long-tailed Cuckoo (Eudynamis taitensis). 
By Warrer L. Burzrn, C.M.G., Sc.D. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.] 
Terk is a remarkable phenomenon in the animal world known to naturalists 
as '* mimicry,” or the law of protective resemblance. It is developed chiefly 
among insects, and particularly among the Lepidoptera. Mr. Wallace des- 
cribes, at page 205 of his enchanting book on the ** Malay Archipelago,” a 
butterfly which, when at rest, so closely resembles a dead leaf as almost to 
defy detection. The varied details of colouring combine to produce a disguise 
that so exactly represents a slightly curved or shrivelled leaf as to render 
the butterfly quite safe from the attacks of insectivorous birds, except when 
on the wing. The flight of the species, on the other hand, is so vigorous 
and rapid that it is well able then to protect itself. Mr. Wallace adds that 
in many specimens there occur patches and spots, formed of small black 
dots, so closely resembling the way in which minute fungi grow on leaves, 
that it is impossible not to believe that fungi have grown on the butterflies 
themselves! This protective imitation must obviously favour the species in 
the common struggle for existence, and may of itself be sufficient to save it 
from extinction. But there is another kind of ‘ mimicry” where one 
insect which would, on discovery, be eagerly devoured, assumes for similar 
protective purposes a close resemblance to some other insect notoriously 
distasteful to birds. and reptiles, and often belonging to a totally different 
family or order. Numberless instances might be given in illustration of 
this singular fact, every department furnishing examples of adaptation more 
or less complete, and all being explainable on the principle of variation 
under natural selection or the “survival of the fittest." Mr. Wallace, 
when exploring in the Moluccas, was the first to discover similar instances 
of mimicry among birds, although the law of protective colouring had long 
been observed to exist in-the case of birds’ eggs. He gives two very curious 
examples of external resemblance, co-existing with very important struc- 
tural differences, rendering it impossible to place the model and the copy 
near each other in any natural arrangemeut. In one of these a honey- 
sucker has its colours mimicked by a spevies of oriole, and the reason is 
thus stated ;—** They must derive some advantage from the imitation, and 
as they are certainly weak birds, with small feet and claws, they may 
require it. Now, the Tropidorhynchi are very strong and active birds, 
having powerful grasping claws, and long, curved, sharp beaks. They 
assemble together in groups aud small flocks, and they have a very loud, 
bawling note, which can be heard at a great distance, and serves to collect. 
ald 


354 Transactions.—Zoology. 


a number together in time of danger. They are very plentiful and very 
pugnacious, frequently driving away crows and even hawks, which perch 
on a tree where a few of them are assembled. It is very probable, there- 
fore, that the smaller birds of prey have learnt to respect these birds, and 
leave them alone, and it may thus be a great advantage for the weaker and 
less courageous Mimetas to be mistaken for them. This being the case, 
the laws of Variation and Survival of the fittest, will suffice to explain how 
the resemblance has been brought about, without supposing any voluntary 
action on the part of the birds themselves; and those who have read Mr. 
Darwin's ‘ Origin of Species’ will have no difficulty in comprehending the 
whole process.’ 

Among the many minor instances that have attracted notice, the 
English cuckoo (Cucubus canorus) is supposed to derive protection from the 
resemblance of its markings to those of the sparrow-hawk / Accipiter nisus), 
but the resemblance is far more strikmg between our long-tailed cuckoo 
(Eudynamis taitensis) and a North American species of hawk (Accipiter 
cooperi). In the fine specimens of the former which I exhibit this evening, it 
will be observed that the markings of the plumage are very pronounced, 
while the peculiar form of the bird itself distinguishes it very readily from all 
other New Zealand species. Beyond the general grouping of the colours there 
is nothing to remind us of our own bush-hawk, and that there is no great 
protective resemblance is sufficiently manifest from the fact that our cuckoo 
is persecuted on every possible occasion by the tui, which is timorous enough 
in the presence of a hawk. During a trip, however, on the Continent, in the 
autumn of 1871, I found in the Zoological Museum at Frankfort, what 
appeared to be the accipitrine model, in a very striking likeness to our bird. 
Not only has our cuckoo the general contour of Cooper’s sparrow-hawk, but 
the tear-shaped markings on the under parts and the arrow-head bars on 
the femoral plumes are exactly similar in both. The resemblance is carried 
still further in the beautifully banded tail and marginal wing-coverts, and 
likewise in the distribution of colours and markings on the sides of the neck. 
On turning to Mr. Sharpe’s description of the “young male” of this species 
in his Catalogue of the Accipitres in the British Museum (p. 187), it will be 
seen how many of the terms employed apply equally to our Eudynamis, 
even to the general words “deep brown above with a chocolate gloss, all 
the feathers of the upper surface broadly edged with rufous.” 

The coincident existence of such a remarkable resemblance to a New 
World form, cannot of course be any protection to an inhabitant of New 
Zealand, and I do not pretend in this instance to apply the rule; but in the 
light of natural selection, to which at present no limit can be WA the 
fact itself is a suggestive one, the more so when we remember that this 


BS i a an ota cg A a lO e re 


BuLLer,.—0n a Species of Lestris. 855 


euckoo of ours is not a permanent resident, but migrates every winter to 
the Society Islands. Of this annual migration, across 1,500 miles of ocean, 
Captain Hutton has well remarked “there is nothing in the whole world so 
wonderful |” 


Art, XLV.—Remarks on a Species of Lestris, inhabiting our Seas. 
By Walter L. Burizr, C.M.G., Sc.D., eto. 
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.) 

I mave the pleasure of exhibiting this evening, in illustration of the remarks 
I am about to offer, the only four known examples of the small Skua yet 
obtained in New Zealand. The first of these is the adult bird described in 
my ‘ Birds of New Zealand ” (p. 268), and shot by myself at Horowhenua, 
on April 30th, 1864; the second is Dr. Hector's young specimen, noticed 
by me in the Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 225; the third is another young 
bird, shot in Wellington Harbour in January, 1877, and mentioned in my 
paper in last volume of Transactions, p. 200; and the fourth, and most 
recent, is a specimen in more mature plumage, for which I am indebted to 
Mr. C. H. Robson, who picked it up at the beach at Cape Campbell, in a 
perfectly fresh state, in the last week of November, 1877. 

In my work I referred the first-named example to Stercorarius parasiticus, 
Linn., and added the following remarks :—‘ Dr. Finsch, to whom I sub- 
mitted the skin, is of opinion that it is an immature bird; and Mr. Howard 


Saunders, who has made the Laride his special study, expresses his convic- 


tion that it is a new and hitherto undescribed species. I am rather disposed, 
however, to consider it an aged female of the species known as Buffon's 
Skua, with the plumage much faded and worn, indicating a sick or exhausted 
condition of body. I may add that the two middle tail-feathers are only 
partially developed, being encased in a sheath at the base. They extend 
only about an inch beyond the rest, and are much abraded, having a 
peculiar filamentous appearance,” 

Mr. Howard Saunders, who, as Lord Walden justly says, may be con- 
sidered the “first authority” on the family of birds to which the Skua 
belongs, communicated to the Zoological Society on the 8rd March, 1876, 
a paper ‘On the Stercorariine or Skua Gulls,” in which he deals chiefly 
with the synonymy and geographical range of the members of that group. 

In his list of synonyms of Stercorarius crepidatus (Riehardson's Skua) 
Mr. Saunders includes my Stercorarius parasiticus, and in his account of the 
species he observes that he can refer to no other the example recorded, as - 


above-mentioned, in my book, adding—‘ His general description suits m ! ; » 


856 Transactions.— Zoology. 


erepidatus; and he expressly states that the shafts of the primaries are 
white, the characteristic which particularly serves to distinguish it from 
Buffon’s Skua, with which he has identified it, At the time that I 
examined the specimen in question, I was not aware of this distinctive 
feature; the skin, also, had been badly preserved; and, to make matters 
worse, the plumage was so worn and abraded that it is a marvel that the 
bird was able to fly at all.” 

Mr. Saunders has evidently, in this case, trusted more to his memory 
than to the notes which, we may assume, he would make on examining a 
novel specimen—one which, in fact, he took to be a ** a new and hitherto 
undescribed species.” It will be seen, at a glance, that the specimen now 
before the meeting (which passed through Mr. Saunders’ hands in the 
same condition) instead of being a “ badly prepared skin ” is a first-class 
cabinet specimen, and that, instead of having “the plumage so worn and 
abraded as to make it a marvel that the bird could fly at all,” the wings are 
in perfect plumage, the only abraded feathers being about the head and 
neck, which could not well affect the flying capabilities of the bird. 

It would almost seem that Mr. Saunders has not the courage of his 
opinion, although, as it turns out, his first expressed conviction on seeing 
my specimen is not unlikely to prove the true one after all. 

Of Stercorarius crepidatus Mr. Saunders says:—' Dr. Coues follows 
those authors who have chosen to divert Linneus’s name of L. parasiticus 
to this species—-a supposition utterly negatived by the description in the 
Syst. Nat., p. 226, which is based upon that in his ‘ Fauna Suecica,’ p. 55, 
No. 150. Nothing could well be clearer than this statement :—‘Rectricibus . 
duabus intermediis longissimis, which can only apply to Buffon’s or the 
Long-tailed Skua; but, as if to make assurance doubly sure, Linnæus adds 
*remiges nigre, rachi 1. 2. nivea’? The natural inference, from drawing 
especial attention to the fact that the shafts of the first and second primaries 
are white, is clearly that those of the other primaries are not white. Now 
the particular characteristic by which Richardson’s Skua may be dis- 
tinguished, at any age beyond that of the nestling, is that the shafts of the 
other primaries are conspicuously lighter than in those of Buffon’s Skua, in 
which only those of the first and second primaries are white, those of the 
third and successive primaries being dark. I am indebted to Mr. R. 
Collett, of Christiania, for pointing ont to me, some years since, this 
excellent distinction. The Lestris parasiticus of Linneus is therefore not S. 
erepidatus, but the Buffon’s Skua; and so is, according to my view, 
Catharacta parasiticus of Brünnich, but it is needless to discuss the latter 
name as it is out of date.” 

If Mr, Saunders is right in making this character of the shafts a specific 


BULLER.—On a Species of Lestris. 857 


test, itis sufficiently evident that our bird is not Stercorarius parasiticus, 
as Dr. Finsch and myself had supposed; for it will be seen that in all 
the specimens now exhibited the whole of the primaries have white shafts. 

The next point to be considered is whether Mr. Saunders is right in 
referring it to Stercorarius crepidatus. He says :—“ Dr. Coues considers 
that the Larus crepidatus of Gmelin is in all probability based upon the 
young of the Pomatorhine Skua, to which Brisson gave the name of 
Stercorarius striatus. It is true that Gmelin (who translated from Latham) 
identifies S. striatus of Brisson with his L. crepidatus; but although S. 
strialus is certainly a young Pomatorhine, it was by no means easily 
recognizable by the naturalists of that day. * * * On referring to 
Hawkesworth's Voyages (1773) Vol. IL, p. 15 (not Vol. L, p. 15, as 
erroneously cited by Latham, and of course duly copied by Gmelin, 
without reference), we find in the narrative of Lieut. Cook's Voyage in the 
‘Endeavour ' that ** on the 8th Oct., 1768, when a little to the South of the 
Cape-Verd Islands, Sir Joseph Banks shot the black-toed gull, not yet 
described according to Linneus’s system; he gave it the name of Larus 
ereptdatus.« The black-toed gull is described in Pennant’s British Zoology 
Vol. IL, p. 419 (1768); and plate 2 is an excellent representation of 
Richardson’s Skua of the year, the feet of this species at that age having the 
upper parts of the webs yellowish, and the posterior portion black, giving the 
bird the appearance of being ‘shod’ or ‘ sandalled,’ whence Bank's some- 
what quaint Latin rendering.” (The italics are mine). 

If this character of the coloured feet is reliable, then it is pretty evident 
also that our bird is not Stercorarius crepidatus ; for it will be seen that in 
the young examples exhibited, the feet are similar to those of the adult—-a 
uniform greyish-black—if we except a dull spot of yellow at the inner angle 
of the toes. There is nothing of the ‘ sandalled’ appearance described by 
Sir Joseph Banks, though possibly a still younger bird might exhibit more 
of the yellow. 

I do not care to pronounce any distinct opinion till I have received 
specimens of the European bird for comparison with ours; but it seems 
to me that the nearly adult example of the New Zealand bird, now 
exhibited, is readily separable from the adult of S. crepidatus as described 
in the books of reference. The ‘burnished acuminate feathers" on the 
nape are wanting in our bird, and the points of the two narrow, over- 
lapping tail-feathers extend only two decimal parts of an inch beyond the . 
rest, as shown in the accompanying sketch (fig. 1) :— 


558 T'ransactions.—Zooloqy, 


On a eomparison of these 
specimens it is perfectly 
elear that the one originally 


described by me in the 
‘Birds of New Zealand’ is 
an adult bird, and not 
* immature" as Dr. Finsch 
supposed. It is in the con- 
dition of those described 

Reduced to half the natural size. by Mr. Saunders from 
Layard's collection, “all of which were in the act of losing and renewing 
the central tail-feathers and the outer primaries, which are the last to be 
moulted." The remarkable filamentous appearance of the central rectrices 
in my first bird is shown in the second sketch (fig. 2) :— 


9 There is an ob- 

vious difference in 

p the colouration of 

ALL < J the two quasi-adult 

<S KE RK KZ OP ae specimens exhibited, 
TAS hol ml qm ; 

e rU the one having (as 


deseribed in my 

work) the breast 

greyish- white and 

the abdomen ashy- 

Reduced to half the natural size. grey, tinged with 

brown, while the other has the entire under surface white, marked on 
the breast and sides with iuterrupted bars of sooty brown. In both, 
however, the under surface of the wings and the axillary plumes are of & 
uniform dark ashy-grey. These individual differences are thus accounted 
for by Mr. Saunders in treating of S. erepidatus :—'* It is now well known 
that there are two very distinct plumages to be found in birds of this 
species, even in the same breeding-places—an entirely sooty form, and one 
with light underparts—and that white-breasted pair with whole-coloured 
birds as well as with those of their respective varieties. If this species is 
* dimorphic, the offspring of one parti-coloured and one white-coloured bird 
ought to resemble one or other of their parents without reference to sex. 
My examination of upwards of a hundred specimens from widely different 
localities, and in all stages, inclines me to the belief that this is not the case, 
and that the young of such union will be intermediate, whilst the offspring 
of two similar parents will “breed true, This point can only be solved by 


BuLuer.—Note On Mr. H. Saunders’ Review of the Laring. 359 


some ornithologist, who will devote his attention to a colony during the 
breeding-season, observing the produce of all these unions, and, if possible, 
marking the nestlings before they take wing. It is worthy of notice that in 
Spitzbergen, its most northern breeding-ground, neither Dr. Malmgren nor 
Professor Newton found a single example of the dark whole-coloured form ; 
all those which Admiral Collinson’s and Dr. Rae’s expeditions brought 
home from the far North are also white-breasted specimens, which looks as 
if the dark form was a more exclusively Southern one." 


Art.—XLVI.—WNote on Mr. Howard Saunders’ Review of the Larine, or 
Gulls. By Dr. Burrzz, C.M.G. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.) 

Mr. Howard Savunpers, in his revision of the Larine, in the Proc. Zool. 
Society, Part I., 1878, steps out of his way (at page 161) to notice my 
having adopted Bonaparte's Bruchiyavia, “a genus playfully made,” for a 
New Zealand species, this being as he states ““its only claim to remem- 
brance.” Had Mr. Saunders possessed that close acquaintance with the 
literature of his subject which is supposed to be an essential qualification in 
& monographist, he would of course have been aware that Mr. Gould, in his 
* Handbook to the Birds of Australia " (published in 1865), adopted Bona- 
parte's playful name for **a genus of gulls the members of which are 
delieate in their structure, elegant in their appearance, and graceful in all 
their actions '——deliberately substituting that generic title for Xema, the 
one previously «sed in his folio edition. 

In 1869, in a communieation to * The Ibis,' I described a new species of 
this group from New Zealand, and provisionally referred it to that genus 
under the name of Bruchigavia melanorhyncha. To this, no doubt, Mr. 
Saunders' attempted witticism refers, although (at page 190) he incorrectly 
quotes me for ** Bruchigavia melanorhynchus.” But when I treated of the 
group more exhaustively in my ‘ Birds of New Zealand’ (1872), as Mr. 
Saunders is or surely ought to be aware, I adopted the generic division of 
Larus for this /— L. bulleri) and the allied forms. 

Mr. Saunders is entitled to our thanks, however, for having apparently 
cleared up the confusion in the nomenclature of this species with Larus 
pomare. He states that during a recent visit to Bremen he went into the whole 
question with Dr. Finsch, who had previously studied the subject, and had 
made numerous and "aim drawings of the primaries of Bruch's types of 
L. pomare in the Mainz Museum, and of many other specimens. He gives 
figures of the three outer primaries of Larus bulleri, and says, “ I have 
examined the type of Bruch’s L. pomare of 1855, and it is undoubtedly of : 
this species; but the type of his L. pomarre of 1853 is as certainly L. nova. 


i bi 
860 Transactions.—- Zoology. 


hollandie." When I was in London, Dr. Finsch courteously forwarded me 
the same drawings for examination, but, as stated at page 277 of * The Birds 
of New Zealand, I was unable to accept his conclusions, my bird being 
entirely distinct from the so-called type which I had seen in the Mainz 
Museum. The explanation now offered puts the matter in.a perfectly clear 
light; and both pomare (Bruch) and melanorhyncha (mihi) having been 
previously employed for other species, our b'ack-billed gull must stand as 
Larus bulleri, Hutton, under which name it is described and figured in my 
work. 


Art. XLVIL.—On a further Occurrence of the Australian Tree Swallow (Hylo- 
chelidon nigricans) in New Zealand. By Warmer L. Buruzn, C.M.G., 
D.Sc. 

{Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.] 

In the ‘ Birds of New Zealand’ I have recorded two distinct occurrences of 

the Tree Swallow in this country as a visitant from Australia. In the 

summer of 1851, Mr. F. Jollie observed a flight of swallows at Wakapuaka, 
in the vicinity of Nelson, and succeeded in shooting one; and on the 14th 

March, 1856, a specimen was shot by Mr. Lea, at Taupata, near Cape 

Farewell. This is still preserved in the Otago Museum. It would appear 

from some observations made by the late Sir David Monro, at a meeting of 

this Society in February, 1875,* that there have been other instances of 

its occurrence in Nelson. Having reference, no doubt, to the same bird, I 

have lately received the following interesting communication from a gentle- 

man in Blenheim :— 


“22nd June, 1878. 
“Dr. W. L. Burrzzs, Wellington. 


* Dear Sir—Knowing the great interest you take in the ornithology of New Zealand, 
I wish to bring under your notice the following :— 

* On Sunday, the 9th instant, about two miles from Blenheim, on the bank of the 
Opawa River, I saw the first martin I have met with in New Zealand. The bird was 
hawking after insects close to the ground in a ploughed field. I was accompanied by two 
residents in Blenheim at the time, and we watched it closely for some time. It passed us 
at one time within a few yards. There was no mistaking either the appearance or the 
flight of the bird. It seemed to me more like the English house martin than the common 
Australian martin. It seemed, however, dingier in the black than the English bird, and 
rather smaller—more like the sand-martin, indeed. 

“ Unfortunately I was absent from the district for some days after seeing it, but 
since returning I have carefully watched for its re-appearance. I have not again seen the 
bird, so presume it has shifted its quarters. & 

“I shall be glad to hear from you if you have had any notice sent you of the appear: 
ance of the martin in New Zealand.--I am, dear Sir, yours truly, 

“J, R. W. Coor” 


* Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. VIL, p. 510, 


€———— rem 


Burzzn.— Additions to List of Species, and Notices of Rare Occurrences. 861 


Art. XLVIII.— 4dditions to List of Species, and Notices of Rare Occurrences, 
since the publication of ‘The Birds of New Zealand.’ By Warrer L. 

. Bouurr, C.M.G., Sc.D. 

(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.) 
Puatycercus AvuPINUS, Buller, Ibis, 1869, p. 89. 

Sr. nov. P. auricipiti similis, sed minor et fronte aurantiacá, vertico 
pallide flavo distinguendus. 

This species, originally described from a specimen forwarded to mo by 
Dr. von Haast, was for a time reduced to the rank of a synonym; but its 
validity, as a species distinct from Platycercus auriceps, was established, 
beyond all doubt, just in time to allow of my noticing it in the sup- 
plementary notes to the ‘ Birds of New Zealand.’ (See Introduction, page 


PLatycERcUs ROWLEY, Buller, Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. VIL, p. 219 

SP. Nov. P. nove-zcalandie similis sed conspicué minor. 

This species, although exactly similar in plumage to Platycercus nove 
zealandie, is so much smaller in size as to be less than some examples of 
the yellow-fronted parrakeet / P. auriceps). There can be little doubt about 
its being a distinct species, although I am not sure that my name will stand 
against Mr. G. R. Gray’s Platycercus aucklandicus. I may mention, how- 
ever, that it is smaller than the type of the last-named species in the British 
Museum. 

Rarpipura Fuuicinosa, Sparrm., Mus. Carls., p. 47. 

Several more instances of the occurrence of this southern species in tho 
North Island have been recorded. (Sec Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. IX., p. 
930 ; Ib., Vol. X., p. 194.) 

? GERYGONE SYLVESTRIS, Potts, Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. V., p. 177. 

Dr. Finsch seems to be in favour of admitting this species; at any rate, 
pending further information. I have never had an opportunity of seeing 
the type, but I shall be glad if my supposition of its being the same as 
Gerygone albofrontata should prove erroneous. 

Aptonis ZEALANDICUS, Gray, App. Dief., N.Z. IL., p. 101. 

This species, described as Lamprotornis zealandicus, by MM. Quoy and 
Gaimard, in the ** Voyage of the Astrolabe," was expunged from the list of 
New Zealand birds as of doubtful authenticity; but Dr. Otto Finsch has 
set tle matter beyond question by an examination of the type specimens at 
Paris and Leiden, which were obtained at Tasman's Bay. (See Trans. 
N.Z. Inst., Vol. VIII., p. 198.) 


416 


P^ 


962 T'ransaciions.— Zoology. 


Rarrus snacurPUS, Swains., An. in Menag., p. 996. 

Lewinia brachypus, Bonap. Compt. Rend. de l'Acad. Sci., tom, XLIII. 
Séances des 15 et 22 Sept., 18506. 

Rallus lewinii, Gould, Birds of Australia, fol. VI., pl. 77. 

Baron A. von Hügel, in a communication to ‘The Ibis’ (July 1875), 
writing from Christchurch, says :-—“ I have received a rail killed on the 
Auckland Islands by the unfortunate Captain Musgrave of the ‘Grafton.’ 
As soon as I got the bird I was struck with its resemblance to one of the 
Hallide l was acquainted with, but for some time could not make out 
which. At last it struck me that it must be the Australian Rallus brachypus, 
and on comparing the Auckland with the Australian bird, I found them to 
agree very closely, though the colouring seemed different, but as the Canter- 
bury Museum specimen appears to be very old and faded, it is impossible to 
judge. I shall be able to determine if my rail is Rallus brachypus, or new, as 
soon as I get to Melbourne, there being a good series there. At all events 
it is the first rail known to have been procured in the group.” 

? Ocypromus BRACHYPTERUS, Lafr., Mag. de Zool., 1842, pl. 42. 

As already explained in my paper on the genus Ocydromus,* the above 
is the fourth New Zealand species, if another is really admissible. 
Casaus modestus, Hutton, Ibis, July, 1872. 

Several specimens of this now well-established form have been received 
from the Chatham Islands. 

Noumenius cvaworus, Vieill., 2nd Edit. du Nouv. Dict. d'Hist. Nat., tom. 
VILL, p. 306. 

The occurrence of this species in New Zealand was first mentioned by 
myself, on the authority of Dr. Hector, in the Transactions of the New 
Zealand Institute, Vol. VIL, p. 224; and in the following year, Dr. von 
Haast described two male specimens, obtained in Canterbury (Trans. N.Z. 
Inst., Vol. IX., pp. 427-429). 

NuxxiUs vRoPvoraurs, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc., part VIIL, p. 175. 

Specimen shot at the Wairau and presented to the Colonial Museum by 
Mr, Travers. Noticed in my communication to the Wellington Philoso- 
phical Society on 10th February, 1875.1 
Himantopus ALBICOLLIS, Buller, Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. VIL, p. 224. 

Sp. nov. Capite toto eum collo undique et corpore subtus toto albis; 

inter-scapulio, scapularibus cum dorso summo et tectricibus alarum nigris; 
remiges angusté albido terminatis; subalaribus nigris; dorso postico et 
uropygio albis; cauda nigra: rostro nigro: pedibus pallidé cruentatis. 


* Trans. N.Z. Inst, Vol. X., pp. 213-216. .` 
t Trans. BZ Inst., Vol. Vil, P. 224. 


WA AA T 


Burer, —Additions to List of Species, and Notices of Rare Occurrences, 868 


Limnocrcrvs AcvurATUS, Horsf.; Jard. and Selb, I.O., pl. 91. 

Several specimens in Canterbury Museum. 

PLATALEA REGIA, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc., part V., p. 106. 

The first authentic record of the occurrence of this fine Australian bird 
in New Zealand is contained in my paper on the subject, read before the 
Wellington Philosophical Society in July, 1876 (Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. IX., 
P. 887) based on a specimen obtained at Manawatu, forwarded to me by 
Mr. C. Hulke, and subsequently presented by myself to the Colonial 
Museum, 

? Mznavs avsrRALIS, Hombr. and Jacq., Ann. des Sci. Nat., 1841, p. 820. 

In the communication already noticed, Baron von Hügel writes :—'* I 
procured a pair of Mergansers with a few other skins in Invercargill, from a 
man who had just returned from a surveying trip to the Auckland Islands. 
He had not even turned the skin after taking it off the body ; but as soon as 
Isaw the back through the opening, and felt the beak through the skin of 
the neck, I knew what I had. * * * * 1 have compared this Mergus 
with the original description of Mergus australis, in the voyage of the 
* Astrolabe’; from it I find that either the description is a very poor one, or 
my two birds must belong to a new species. But what agrees well, and made 
me first think they were an immature pair of birds, is the lower surface 


Se 


of the body, which, instead of being white as in M. serrator, is of a dull 


slaty grey, variegated with white bands (the feathers being edged with 
white). The whole plumage is very dark, approaching black on the back, 
the crest well formed, and the size, I fancy, considerably smaller than the 
British red-breasted Merganser ( M. serrator). From the great difference in 
size and brightness of colouring in bill and feet, I deem them to be male and 
female; but in plumage there is little difference. The birds were killed the 
latter end of Noveniber last, and I procured them on the 27th of the follow- 
ing month." 
STERCORARIUS ANTARCTICUS, Gray, Gen. of Birds, III., p. 653. 

A living example in my possession, obtained at Waikanae, in the North 
Island. (See Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. X., p. 207.) 
STERCORARIUS parasiticus, Buller, Birds of New Zealand, p. 268. 

Three more examples have been obtained since the capture mentioned 
in my work. 


Diomepea cauta, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc., Part VIIL., p. 177. 

Prof. Hutton added this bird to the New Zealand avifauna, on the 
authority of a specimen captured at Blueskin Bay, in Otago, and in last 
year’s volume of Transactions, I described very fully an adult female, taken 
on the beach near the Wellington Pilot Station, and brought to me alive, 


884 Transactions.—Zoologiy, 


ProceLtara arris, Buller, Trans. N.Z. Iost., Vol. VIL, p. 215. 

Sr. nov. Supra saturaté cinereus ; dorsi plumis et supra-caudalibus 
nigro terminatis ; alarum minimis et ald spuriá nigrieanti-brunneis; pri- 
mariis extüs nigricanti-brunneis, intüs albis; secundariis pallidà cinereis, 
albo angusté marginatis, basaliter albis; rectricibus saturaté cinereis, 
duabus externis intùs albidis; fronte alba cinerascenti-nigro variá; regione 
suboeulari conspieué cinerascenti-nigré ; facie laterali guttureque albis; 
pectore imo et abdomine cinereis plumis basaliter albis; corpore reliquo 
subtùs alba, pectoris lateribus cinereo lavatis, hypochondriis et subeaudalibus 


inferioribus cinereo variis ct minute trausfasciatis ; subalaribus albis, exte- 
rioribus conspicué nigrieantibus : rostro nigro : pedibus sordidé flavis, 
digito externo et membranis interdigitalis nigris. 

Dr. Finsch suggests that my P. affinis, as described above, may turn out 
to be D. mollis. I am unable at present to adopt this view, and for tho 
following reasons :— 

Procellaria mollis (the soft-plumaged petrel) was discovered by Mr. Gould, 
who first described it in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History (Vol. 
VIII., p. 868), and afterwards figured it in his Birds of Australia, Vol. VIL, 
pl. 50. In his Handbook, at page 454, Vol. II., he has given a full descrip- 
tion of the adult bird, from which I take the following particulars, by way 
of comparison :—Total length 184 inches; wing 92; tail 5; tarsus 1$. 
My bird has an extreme length of 18 inches, the wing (from the flexure) 
measures 10:5, the tail 4, and the tarsus 1:2. It will be seen, therefore, 
that taking the two birds to be of somewhat equal size, (the Jength of a 
dried specimen being always an uncertain measurement), Procellaria mollis, 
with a wing nearly an inch shorter than P. affinis, has a decidedly longer 
tarsus and the tail a full inch longer. Ina group of birds, where tho 
species are so closely allied, this test of relative proportion in the functional 
parts is, I consider, a sound means of discriminating species. The plumage 
of D. affinis has a close general resemblance to that of three other allied 
species, forming together, as I have before pointed out, 2 very natural 
group or sub-genus. In the full deseription which I have reproduced above, 
there are some details of colouring which are, I think, due to immaturity, 
but the general plumage comes nearer to P. cookii than to P. mollis, 
although in other respects, as pointed out in my original description of the 
new bird, the two forms are specifically distinet and easily discriminated.* 


* Since writing the above, I have received from Mr. C. H. Robson a Petrel answering 
exactly to my P. c finis, with the slightest possible variation in the measurements. This 
was obtained at Cape Campbell; but Mr. Robson writes me (under date June 3) that he 
has secured another, which etruck the Moeraki Lighthouse in thick weather and was 
killed, 


WA ES (a E T ER 


Buruer, — Additions to List of Species, and Notices of Rare Occurrences, 866 


Procertarta morts, Gould, Ann. and Mag. Nat, Hist., Vol. XIIL, p. 868. 
Dr, Finsch has added this species to our list on the authority of a 

specimen captured by the Novara Expedition. After what has been said 

above, the identification (in the absence of measurements) may be open to 

question, as between this species and Procellaria affinis. 

Procenuaria cærvLea, Gmel,, Sys. Nat., I., p. 560. 

In my account of this species” I referred to the scarcity of specimens in 
the colony, the Auckland Museum alone at that time possessing it. 

I received last year a specimen in very perfect plumage from Mr. C. H. 
Robson of Cape Campbell. 

It is readily distinguished by the scapulars being edged and the tail- 
feathers broadly tipped with white. 

Priocenta AwTARCTICA, Gmelin, Syst. Nat., I., 565; Sharpe, App. Zool. 
Ereb. and Ter., 1875, 87. 

I am in doubt as to the propriety of admitting this species into our 
avifauna, the specimen described by Dr. Hectort having been shot in lat. 46° 
S., long. 116° 9” E., or “about 1,000 miles west of Tasmania, and in the 
latitude of Otago." It was included among the ‘ Birds of New Zealand’ in 
the “Voyage of the ‘Erebus’ and ‘Terror; " and one or more of the five 
specimens in the British Museum are said to have been captured in our 
seas, but the evidence is by no means complete. 

Paxton rnusrtciupa, Dodd.; Gould, Birds of Austr., VIL, pl. 78. 

The claim of this species to be considered a New Zealand inhabitant is 
fully discussed in my paper of the 12th January last (Trans. N.Z. Inst., 
Vol. X., pp. 219-220). 

Prorus xovze-HornixprE, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc., part XV., p. 84. 

The occurrence of this Australian species in New Zealand was recorded 
by me in October, 1874 (Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. VII, p. 217). 
Puatacrocorax Finscut, Sharpe, Ibis. 

Mr. Bowdler Sharpe has distinguished, under the above name, a specimen 
from New Zealand, in the British Museum, differing from P. brevirostris in 
having a white spot on the wing-coverts. (See my notes, on a hitherto 
undescribed form, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. VILI., p. 197, and Vol. IX., 
pp. 838-340). 

Paaracnoconax cmancoxorUs,] Gray, Voy. Err. and Terr., Birds, p. 20, pl. 21. 

Dr. Finscli has identified an example of this species, forwarded to him 
by Prof. Hutton, from Otago. 3 
* Birds of New Zealand, p. 306. + Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. IX., p. 464. 

1 | Sac cone Aran of this species, in tho “ Birds of New Zealand: "i is from the typo in 


the Bri 


866 Transactions.— Zoology, 


Eupyeres vrrrATA, Finsch, Ibis, 1875, pp. 112-114. 
? Aptenodytes papua, Vieill. (nec Forst. nec Gmel.) Gal. Ois. IL, p. 246, 
(nee diagn.), tab. 299. 

This is a new species from Otago, and I believe the type is in the 
Dunedin Museum. ' 
EUDYPTES scHLEGELI, Finsch, Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. VIIL, p. 240. 

(= E. diadematus, Schleg.) 

This form has been added from the Macquarie Islands, 

Another penguin referred by Schlegel to E. diadematus but identified by 
Finsch as E. chrysolopha, Brant, is said to have come from New Zealand, 
but only on the authority of a dealer. 

Evupypres atrata, Hutton, Ibis 1875, p. 112. 

This very distinet species was received by Prof. Hutton from the Snares. 
The jet black colouration of its under surface separates this form from all 
the other known species, and its massive deep bill, its very small hind toe 
and long tail, afford other distinguishing characters. In size it is equal 
to the well-known crested penguin / Eudyptes pachyrhynchus ). 

? EUDYPTULA ALBOSIGNATA, Finsch, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874; et Trans. N.Z. 
Iust., Vol. VII., p. 286. 

I have already stated* my reasons for considering this a mere variety of 
Eudyptula minor, but Dr. Finsch still believes in its validity as a species. 
The only differences pointed out by the learned doctor are, a patch of white 
on the upper tail-coverts, and a strongly marked peculiarity in the 
colouration of the flippers. 


Art. XLIX.— Further Contributions to the Ornithology of New Zealand. 
By Wa ter L. Burer, C.M.G., Sc.D. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 9th September, 1878.) 

HIERACIDEA FEROX, Peale,—Bush Hawk. 

Ix Volume VI of our Transactions, page 118, I pointed out why, in my 

opinion, Mr. Sharpe was wrong in proposing to substitute Hieracidea 

australis for the above name, in his communication to ‘The Ibis,’ 1878 pp. 

327-330. In his official catalogue of the Accipitres in the British Museum, 

he not only gives H. australis the precedence, but commits (as I venture to 

think) the further error of making it a *sub-species," whatever that may 

mean, of H. nove-zealandia. The two birds are either specifically distinct, 28 


* Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol, VIL, p. 210, 


BurLER.— Further Contributions to the Ornithology of New Zealand. 367 


I and others at present believe, or they belong to one and the same species, 
as contended for by Professor Hutton. On this point we are still waiting 
for further evidence, but unfortunately both the large and small forms are 
becoming so scarce that there are few opportunities of examining fresh 
specimens. 

Mr. Sharpe has adopted Bonaparte's genus for our bird, merely altering 
the termination for classical accuracy and making it Harpa. He has given 
a woodcut of the foot, but has not diagnosed the genus. As he has treated 
the Australian genus Hieracidea in the same manner, it may be inferred 
that the difference in the arrangement of the scutelle is the only ground 
for separating the genera. It seems to me, however, that as a distinguish- 
ing generic character this is somewhat uncertain. On comparing Mr. 
Sharpe’s figure of the foot of H. australis with that given by me in Volume 
VI. of Transactions (facing page 214), it will be seen that there is a 
considerable amount of divergence. The following very truthful woodcut 
of the head of our bird will show its close relation to the Australian form, 
familiar to us as Hieracidea berigora. 

Mr. Sharpe, at 
page 420 of his Cata- 
logue, cites Gould, 


141, for the genus 
leracidea, of which 
H. berigora is the 
recognized type. I 
have not access here 
to the early proceedings of the Zoological Society, but I find that Mr. Gould 
himself cités his Syn. Birds of Austr., part III., as the earliest authority for 
Ieracidea berigora, and the Proc. Zool. Soc., June 25, 1844, for Ieracidea 
occidentalis, 

On the subject of the systematie position of our bird, Dr. Finsch has 
the following remarks, which I have translated from the German of the 
* Journal für Ornithologie” for March, 1872:—“ Falco nova-zealandia 
must be ranged among the Tree-falcons, and follows next in order to Falco 
femoralis, having, like the latter, a long tail, which is only half covered by 
the wings. * * * Third primary longest; second shorter and somewhat 
longer than fourth ; first and fifth equal. Tarsi covered in front with ten 
sexagonal seutes in double rows. Middle toe very long, being with the claw 
nearly as long as the leg; lateral toes equal, the points of their claws 
scarcely reaching to the base of the middle-toe claw. A subgeneric dis- 
tinction appears justifiable.” 


368 Transactions. — Zoology. 


Circus couLpt, Bonap., N.Z. Harrier. 

It is worth recording that the Harrier will sometimes pursue on the 
wing. Riding along the road near the Whenuakura river, I observed a 
kahu pursuing a small bird (apparently a ground lark) high in the air. The 
pursuit was continued for a eonsiderable time, the hawk making frequent 
swoops and the small bird eluding its grasp by suddenly altering its course, 
and thus gaining on its pursuer. When nearly out of sight the hawk was 
joined by another, both in pursuit of the same bird, from which circum- 
stance I conclude that the raptor was foraging for hungry ones at home. 
This might account for the eagerness of the pursuit, and for a mode of 
chase which I have never observed before during a very long acquaintance 
with this species. 

Puatycercus RoWLEYI, Buller, Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. VIL, p. 220. 

So many specimens of this small form have been obtained in the South 
lsland (whereas it never oecurs in the North) that I think it may safely be 
admitted into the list of true and accepted species. 

I have been looking over my notes on the series of this group in the 
British Museum, and I find that there is an appreciable difference in size 
between my bird and the type of Gray's Platycercus aucklandicus, which is, 
I believe, only a small example of P. nove-zealandie. 

As the notes to which I have referred may be useful for reference, I have 
transcribed them from my pocket diary. 

British Museum Collection.—My examination of the types gives the 
following results :—Platycercus aucklandicus not distinguishable from P. 
nove-zealandie, but smaller than ordinary examples; beak decidedly smaller, 
being of same size as in P. auriceps, but lighter at the base; ear-spots 
indistinct; frontal spot less extensive, but of same colour as in P. nove- 
sealandie. P. malherbii = P. auriceps, but smaller than average specimens 
of the latter. P. pacificus similar to P. nove-zealandie but much larger, 
with a more robust bill P. erythrotis, from Macquarie Islands, — P. 
pacificus, but with lighter plumage. P. forsteri — P. nove-zealandia, with 
the thigh-spots accidentally absent. There is another specimen marked 
‘* Platycercus forsteri,” to which I shall refer again presently, in very 
different plumage. P. cookii = P. pacificus. P. unicolor, a much larger 
and very distinct species. (See my remarks in Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. VI., 
p. 121). P. rayneri, from Norfolk Island, is like P. pacificus, but larger and 
with a more powerful bill; the frontal spot is more extensive but lighter in 
colour; ear-spot small and obscure as compared with P. nove-zealandiea. I 
think we may pretty safely conclude that P. rayneri is in reality P. pacificus, 
although the British Museum specimen is both larger and lighter coloured 
than ordinary specimens of the latter, Platycercus ulietanus, from the Society 


Butuzrn.— Further Contributions to the Ornithology of New Zealand. 869 


Islands, is very distinct in appearance from all those enumerated above. 
The so-called ** P. forsteri,” referred to above, labelled as from the main 
island Otaheiti, appears to hold an intermediate position between P. ulietanus 
and P. pacificus. It has the general plumage of P. pacificus but of much 
duller tints, mixed with brown on the upper parts and clouded with a colder 
green on the under parts. It wants the crimson vertex; but there is a 
frontal patch of brownish black corresponding to the colour of P. ulictanus, 
which changes to crimson in front of the eyes; behind which, also, there is 
a small obscure spot of dull crimson. It has the concealed nuchal patch of 
yellowish white, which is found in D. pacificus; while, on the other hand, it 
has the bright crimson rump which is characteristic of D. ulietanus. The 
tail has a dingy, washed-out appearance, and the colours of the plumage 
generally are very undecided. The bill and feet are exactly as in D. ulietanus, 
cf which species this bird may be an accidental variety, or possibly, a hybrid. 
There is a specimen of our P. nore-zealandia, exhibiting much bright yellow 
mixed with the green on the abdomen and under tail-coverts. It likewise 
has the thigh-spots very large and bright; the rump stained, and the tail 
obseurely banded on the upper surface with dull yellow. Another (collected 
by Strange) has a single bright yellow feather on the abdomen, and, accord- 
ing to the collector, the irides also were yellow. 

Nestor wERIDIONALIS, Gray.—Kaka Parrot. 

A curious circumstance in the natural history of the kaka has lately 
come to my knowledge. Ata certain season of the year, when this bird is 
excessively fat, large numbers of them are found washed ashore in Golden 
Bay, or onthe Spit which runs out from it. They are generally dead, but if 
not, are so exhausted as to be unable to take wing. The apparent 
explanation is that the kakas in their migration aeross Cook Strait, which 
is widest at this part, are unable to maintain the long flight, owing to 
their fat and heavy condition, and fall into the sea. The sot of the current 
being towards Cape Farewell, the bodies of the perishing birds are swept in 
that direction, and finally cast ashore. 

Hatcyon vacans, Gray.—N.Z. Kingfisher. 

On driving round Porirua harbour on the 19th July last, I noticed an 
unusual number of kingfishers perched on the rocks along the beach, and 
on the telegraph wires stretched across the numerous little bays. They 
were evidently attracted by the shoals of little fish that were frequenting tho 

allow water at the time; and at one spot I had an ocular demonstration 
of my argument with Captain Hutton,* which I should like him to have 
witnessed. “Ten little kingfishers sitting in a row ” were in possession of 


* Trans, N.Z. Inst, Vol. VL, p. 129, "T 


870 Transactions.—Zoology. 


a short span of telegraph wire overhanging the water, and, one after the 
other, they were dipping into the shallow sea-water in pursuit of fish. 
Sometimes two or even three of them would dip at the same moment, 
raising a tiny splash all round, and then mount again to the wire or fly off 
to the shore with their finny prey. 

In further illustration of the piscivorous habits of this bird it may be 
mentioned that Mr Brandon, of this city, has an indictment to file against 
the kingfisher for robbing the fountain in his garden of goldfish. 

Tam not aware that our kingfisher is ever nocturnal in its habits; but 
on a recent occasion, when travelling by coach along the banks of the 
Manawatu River, about 2.30 a.m., it being a cloudy night and quite dark, I 
heard the loud call-notes of this bird with startling distinctness. Probably 
it was a sleeper disturbed by the passing of the coach; although under 
these circumstances birds, as a rule, betake themselves off in silence to 
another roosting place. 

HeErTERALOCHA AcuTIROSTRIS, Buller.—The Huia. 

To the long list of albinoes among New Zealand birds already recorded, 
I have now to add a very remarkable one. I have received from Captain 
Mair some feathers which have much the appearance of the soft grey 
plumage of Apteryx oweni, although of course the structure is different, but 
which are in reality from the body of a Huia. I hope to receive the skin 
for examination, but in the meantime I will give a quotation from the letter 
forwarding the feathers :—‘‘ Old Hapuku, on his death-bed, sent for Mr. F. 
E. Hamlin, and presented him with a great taonga. This has just been 
shown tome. It is the skin of a very peculiar Huia, an albino I suppose, 
called by the Hawke’s Bay natives ‘Te Ariki.’ I send you a few feathers. 
The whole skin is of the same soft dappled colour, but the feathers are 
longer and softer. The bill is nearly straight, strong, and full length. The 
wattles are of a pale canary colour. The centre tail-feather is the usual 
black, while the four on each side are the beautiful grey colour. These 
birds are well known to the Huia-hunting natives of Hawke’s Bay, and to 
possess an ‘Ariki’ skin one must be a great chief. The specimen I have 
described was obtained in the Ruahine mountains.” 

Evpynamis TArTENSIS, Sparrin.—Long-tailed Cuckoo. 

The range of this species has been extended to the Friendly Group, 
Dr, Finsch having identified a young male in the spotted dress in a collec: 
tion of birds from the Island of Eua. 

The long-tailed cuckoo remains with us from October to February, and 
breeds in this country; but we have yet a good deal to learn about its 
peculiar habits and nidification. 

It is very pleasant to hear a pair of these birds answering each other for 
hours together from the lofty tops of neighbouring trees. Indeed, I have 


— m 


Burue, —Further Contributions to the Ornithology of New Zealand, 871 


observed that it is habitually stationary, for it may often be heard uttering 
its long, plaintive scream for a whole day in the same tree, but always 
quite out of view. During the quiet summer nights of December its far-off 
ery may be heard at intervals till break of day, varied only in the earlier 
watches by the solemn hooting of the morepork, 

ZOSTEROPS LATERALIS, Reich.—Silver-eye, 

Referring again to the migration of Zosterops from the South Island in 
1856, it may, I think, be assumed that tho large flights which came across 
the Straits made tho island of Kapiti in their passage, and tarried there 
for a time before they reached the North Island. It will be remembered 
that the flocks which afterwards spread over the province appeared first at 
Waikanae and Paekakariki, on the lee shore from that island. I found 
Zosterops excessively abundant at Kapiti during my visit in April. Every 
bush swarmed with them, and sometimes fifty or more would crowd together 
in the leafy top of a stunted karaka, warbling and piping in chorus, pro- 
ducing sylvan music of a very sweet description. They appeared to be 
feeding on a species of Coccus that afflicts that tree. 

The large numbers of these birds that appeared in flocks at Waikanae 
and Otaki in the early part of June last would seem to indicate another 
incursion from the South Island at that date, 

GERYGONE FLAVIVENTRIS, Gray,—Grey Warbler. 

A nest of this little bird in the Canterbury Museum, of rather larger 
size than usual, presents the uncommon feature of several soft Emeu 
feathers, as well as 
some bright coloured 
feathers of the domestic 
fowl, worked into the 
felting, among the ordi- 
nary substances (see 
fig. 1); another in the 
same collection is orna- 
mented with the long 
dry leaves of the red 
gum (Eucalyptus), 

UT, around and among 
Fig 3 Fig. 2. Fig. 1. which the round struc- 
ture is most cleverly built (seo fig. 2). There is another, showing very con- 
spieuously the porched entrance, described in a former paper (see fig. 8). 
The form of the nest appears to be generally adapted to circumstances of 
locality, ete., and the accompanying woodeut will show how variable it is. 
HrLocmeLmos nigricans, Gould.— Australian Tree Swallow. 

Mr. Cook has added to his former communication the following (under - 
date Blenheim, 28rd August):—' I have no further notice to give of the 


872 Transactions.—Zoology. 


appearance of the Treo Swallow, except that I saw what I believe to 
be the same bird about half a mile from where I saw it before, a month 
after its first appearance. Although I have kept a good look out for 
it since, I have not again seen it. If I mistake not, I have often seen the 
Treo Swallow on the Wimmera, in Australia. Its nesting place was in 
hollow logs; sociable in nidification ; a dozen or morc nests of clay, bottle 
shaped, and built touching one another.’’ My correspondent’s remarks on 
the nesting habits refer evidently to the Australian martin, which builds 
bottle-shaped nests of the kind he describes; sometimes in the cavities of 
decayed trees, often in clusters attached to the perpendicular banks of 
rivers, the sides of rocks, or other prominences, and gencrally in the 
vicinity of water. Tho Tree Swallow, on the contrary, as Mr. Gould 
informs us, breeds in the holes of trees, forming no nest but depositing its 
eggs, from three to five in number, on the soft dust, or pulverised wood, 
generally found in such places. 

The species has a rather wide range, being migratory over the southern 
portion of Australia and Tasmania, arriving in August and retiring north- 
wards on the approach of autumn, Mr. A. R. Wallace brought specimens 
from the Aru Islands; and other localities have been recorded. 

It visits the towns, in company with the common swallow; and I 
remember seeing it comparatively numerous in and about Sydney, during 
a visit there in August, 1871. 

Hiswantopus ALBICOLLIS, Buller.—White-necked Stilt. 

Through the kind attention of Mr. C. H. Robson, I have received from 
Cape Campbell a Plover clearly referable to the above species, From the 
enlarged condition of the tarsi below the joint, it is evidently an immature 
bird, and this will account for the crown and hind neck being tinged or 
faintly mottled with grey, these parts being wholly white in the adult. The 
flanks, rump, and under tail-coverts are clouded with black; tail-feathers 
on their inner web and towards the base white ; the rest of the plumage as 
in my type. 

Axas SUPERCILIOSA, Gmel.—Grey Duck. 

As an instance of how the grey duck may be tamed by protection, I may 
mention that, on October 26, I saw a pair with eleven young ones within a 
few yards of Travers’ Bridge, Avon, almost in the heart of Christchurch, 
and several other pair in the vicinity. It has generally been found almost 
impossible to domesticate this bird owing to its tendency to revert to the 
wild state. But lately, when riding between Woodville and the Manawatu 
Gorge, I saw, ata“ cockatoo homestead,” a flock of domestic ducks on the 
roadside, and with them a perfectly tame Anas superciliosa, apparently 2 
bird of the first year. It was distinguishable at a glance from the rest, by 
its manner of walking, carrying its head low or in a crouching attitude. Its 
smaller size and more slender form also betrayed it, before I came near 
enough to examine the plumage, 


Ed 


[ "eee 


Buuter.— Further Contributions to the Ornithology of New Zealand. 878 


Anas cnronoris, G. It, Gray.—Brown Duck. 

An albino form of this duck, the whole of the plumage being of a dull 
cream colour, with obsolete markings, was shot in the Horowhenua Lako 
in June last. 

The brown duck is far more plentiful than is generally supposed; but, 
being a nocturnal feeder, it is not so commonly seen as the grey duck and 
the “black teal" or pochard. It always retires up the creeks iu the woods 
during the day, or conceals itself among the sedges and vegetation which 
usually fringe the inland watercourses and lagoons, At Horowhenua, for 
example, where they are particularly abundant, you rarely surprise one, 
except by means of a dog, during the heat of tho day, But after sunset 
they begin to collect on the surface of the lake, emerging in pairs from their 
concealment, swimming down to the mouth of the bush creek, and then 
taking wing to the place of rendezvous. ‘They then form into flocks, some- 
times of considerable size, and are on the alert, feeding about the lake all 
night long. When hunting for its food, it makes a peculiar and rather 
musical sniffing noise. 

QUERQUEDULA GIBBERIFRONS, Bonap.—Little Teal. 

This duck is very plentiful in some of the sulphur springs at Ohinemutu, 
and likewise at Rotomahana, where, as Captain Mair informs me, he onco 
killed as many as eleven at a single shot on the water. It sometimes 
swims in pairs, but usually associates in small flocks of a dozen or more. 
It is easily distinguished from all the other species by the conspicuous 
white bar on the wings. 

STERCORARIUS ANTARCTICUS, Gray.—Southern Skua. 

The living example of this fine Skua-gull, referred to in last year's 
volume, is still an inhabitant of my garden, where, after much preliminary 
persecution, it now tolerates the companiouship of a grey sea-gull (Larus 
dominicanus). The history of this bird is somewhat remarkable. About a 
year and a-half ago it was captured somewhere in the viciuity of Kapiti, and 
came into the possession of the Hon. Wi Parata, who kept it in his marae till 
it became quite tame. Being injured in the wing it was unable to fly, but 
having made its escape, it travelled some ten miles up the coast, and was 
recaptured by some natives at Otaki. It remained there some three months, 
and then made a fresh start northwards. Its next stage was Horowhenua, 
where it was caught and taken inland to Hector McDonald's homestead. 
Here it became an inmate of the farm-yard, and appeared to get quite 
reconciled to its changed mode of life. It fraternized with the dogs and 
poultry, sharing their food and occasionally devouring a chicken. But one 
day, after a fight with a rival turkey, in which it appeared to come off 
second-best, it travelled to the coast, a distance of some four miles, and 


874 Transactions,—Zvology, 


then turned its head northwards again. A week or two later it was found 
near the mouth of the Manawatu River, and carried inland to Foxton, It 
commemorated its arrival by swallowing some ducklings and chickens, It 
was then passed on to a settler * up in the bush," where it killed and 
devoured a well-grown pullet. I arrived just in time to prevent its being 
sacrificed to the anger of the good housewife. Thence it was deported by 
coach to Wellington, making its escape on the Manawatu sands, en route, 
and detaining Her Majesty’s mails while being recaptured. After keeping 
the bird caged for a few days I turned it loose in the garden, where it has 
remained for upwards of six months without any attempt to get away. 
Christened “Peter” by the children, he has become quite tame and 
familiar, answering to his name and taking food from the hand. He has 
selected a sunny spot on high ground, as an outlook station by day and as a 
sleeping-place by night. He wanders over the place freely, looking for 
worms and grubs, and during the heat of the day seeks the shade of some 
bushy shrub. He is almost omnivorous, but gives the preference to fish 
and meat. On a dead bird being offered him he runs off with it in his beak, 
then holding it down with his feet, plucks the feathers off and devours the 
flesh. On throwing him a blight-bird (Zosterops lateralis) he bolted it, 
feathers and all. His capacity for swallowing fish is something astonishing, 
his crop becoming greatly distended. He has the power of regurgitating his 
food, and will sometimes reproduce from his throat a bone of marvellous 
size, the wonder being how he ever managed to swallow it. Although not 
habitually a nocturnal bird, he sometimes gets very excited after dark, 
hurrying about the garden with outstretched wings and uttering a peculiar 
cry as if being suffocated. At other times he emits at intervals a note like 
the crowing of a pheasant. During the day Peter is noiseless, except when 
quarrelling with the sea-gull or disputing possession of a bone with the 
dog, when he has a short peevish note, quickly repeated. His first encounter 
with a tame cockatoo in the garden was quite ludicrous. He first played 
the role of assailant, but the moment his opponent erected his crest, Peter 
quailed and ran away. After this they established friendly relations with 
each other, often basking together in the sun, and drinking from the same 
fountain. 

I have mentioned before that this capture is the first known instance of 
the occurrence of the Southern Skua in the North Island. I have lately, 
however, met with another on the West Coast. Travelling by coach we found 
one, apparently a fine male in full plumage, on the sandy beach, not far 
from the Otaki river. He was evidently worn out with fatigue, and would 
not rise till the coach was within a few yards of him; then rising with a 
slow and laboured flight, he proceeded a few hundred yards and alighted 


E 
i 
3 
h 


SA AA Aa AAA 


Burrzzn.—l'urther Contributions to the Ornithology of New Zealand. 875 


again on the beach, repeating the operation again and again till the coach 
reached the Paikakariki, a distance of some twenty miles. Any bird of 
ordinary intelligence would have made a circuit and got behind the pursuing 
coach. But the Skua ashore was evidently out of his latitude; and this 
was made more apparent by the manner in which the sea-gulls (of both 
species), his hereditary victims at sea, pursued him in the air and buffeted 
him. As is well known this bird usually subsists by plunder, pursuing the 
gulls and compelling them to disgorge their food. Here, however, the 
conditions were changed, as I myself had an opportunity of observing from 
the box-seat. The skua had alighted in a shallow beach-stream and was 
ducking its body in the water when a fine old hawk / Circus gouldi) with 
hoary white plumage, suddenly appeared from the sandhills and swooped 
down upon the intruder. The skua, without making any show of resistance, 
instantly disgorged from its crop the entire body of a diving petrel 
( Pelecanoides urinatriv). The hawk, balancing himself for a moment with 
outspread tail, dropped his long talons into the stream and clutched up his 
prey without wetting a feather of his plumage, and then disappeared among 
the sand-hills, while the terrified skua hurried off, only to be pursued again 
by the clamorous sea-gulls. Thus we have examples of ‘retributive 
justice” even among birds. 

The flight of this bird is heavy, and performed by slow regular flappings 
of the wings, with the shoulders much arched. It possesses, however, the 
faculty of turning quickly in the air, as I observed when the gulls were in 
pursuit. On the wing the white mark across the primaries is very 
conspicuous, but it is not sufficiently apparent to distinguish the bird when 
the body is at rest. 

Prion vittatus, Lacép.—Broad-billed Dove Petrel. 

As already stated in my paper on Prion banksii, after boisterous weather 
in July, I found the sea-beach between Waikanae and Manawatu strewn 
with the dead bodies of Prion turtur and P. banksii, the former species 
preponderating. Having occasion to make the journey again after stormy 
weather in the early part of the following month, I found the strand strewn 
with even a larger number of bodies, but, strange to say, nearly all 
belonging to the very broad-billed species, Prion vittatus. Out of twenty- 
four specimens picked up in succession, there were only three of Prion turtur 
and none of P. banksii. Scores of others which I was able to determine 
from the box of the coach, belonged to P. vittatus, with here and there a P, 
turtur, but not a single example could I find of the intermediate form so 
plentiful a month before. It may be inferred from this singular fact that 
the species do not intermingle, but fly in separate communities. I have 
observed flocks of Prion turtur on the wing together numbering many 


376 Transactions.—Zoologis 


hundreds. Prion vittatus and Prion banksii, in like manner no doubt, keep 
to themselves, for it is evident that the flocks in the vicinity of our coast 
when caught in the fatal storm, on the occasion I have referred to, were 
composed almost exclusively of Prion vittatus. 

I opened a large number of these birds for the purpose of ascertaining 
on what they had been feeding. As might have been expected with storm- 
tossed fugitives, the stomachs of many were quite empty. In others there 
was a black mass of comminuted matter, and in two or three of them I 
detected among this matter what appeared to be the beaks of a very minute 
cephalopod. 

PHALACROCORAX varius, Gml.—Pied Shag. 

Captain Mair writes me, under date 20th Wa :—-* I went to 
Whale Island ten days ago. The sea-birds building there are very interest- 
ing. There are some colonies of white-breasted shags on this island as 
well as at Rurima—only the one species. I found the young in every stage, 
from partly developed ones in the egg to young birds just ready for flight, 
all with white breasts and bellies. Iam going to Rotoiti in a few days to 
have a look at the shaggery there. i 

** On the island I saw some thirty crane (Ardea sacra), and I found a 
number of their nests in a cave. Those that were fully fledged were a 
beautiful light blue colour, with bright yellow legs. It was very funny to 
watch them flying into the high trees, perching among the shags, and look- 
ing very gawky; then, presently, the shags, with loud guttural noises, 
would sally forth, chasing them far and wide. 

* I may add that, although there are no tuis on the islands, korimakos 
(Anihornis melanura) are very plentiful. It was really delightful to see and 
hear them again. They abound in numbers in the shrubbery, and hearing 
them sing at daylight, carried one back in spirit to one's boyhood, at the 
North, thirty years ago!” ; 


Art, L.— Memorandum of the Ked. By the Hon. Dr. Mzxzrzs, M.L.C. 
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 98th September, 1378.) 
Is Dr. Buller’s ‘Birds of New Zealand’ we learn that the habits of the 
“Kea” or Mountain Parrot, ( Nestor notabilis, of Gould) are carnivorous; 
that it attacks and destroys living sheep, apparently at random. Recent 
observation leads to a belief that, in some localities at all events, it selects 
its victims and also its delicacies, 


Menztes.—On the Kea. 877 


These birds, common on the high ranges, are not always to be found in 
the same localities, but appear to migrate from place to place in small 
flocks of a dozen or a score. Shepherds who have been for some time in 
charge of sheep on the higher ranges in Southland, say that the Keas 
attack sheep even when they are being gathered or driven along, 
invariably selecting fat sheep as the objects, and one particular point of 
attack. After a few days, during which the shepherds have to be on the 


alert, they disappear and are not again seen for days or even weeks in the 


same locality. 

They suppose that these birds formerly fed chiefly on berries and the 
large white grubs abounding in mossy vegetation on the hills; and that 
after the country was stocked they, first by feeding on maggots and insects 
on dead sheep, and afterwards on the dead animals, acquired not only a 
taste for meat, but also a discrimination of the choice parts. By-and-bye 
they attacked living sheep, alighting on their backs, where their powerful- 
hooked upper mandible enabled them quickly to tear open the skin, and 
gain access to the fat about the kidneys, for which delicacy they appear to 
have a particular relish; after tearing away and consuming the kidney-fat of 
one, they flit away to attack another victim. 

On some runs the loss from this cause is considerable. The sheep that 
have been wounded but yet have been strong enough eventually to shake off 
these birds, or have been otherwise rescued from them, usually pine and 
die. Many of these have been seen with their intestines torn and pro- 
truding from the wound in the back. 

Of the probable number of sheep destroyed in this way, some idea may 
be formed from the facts observed during the last shearing season. Upon 
one run, on which about 80,000 sheep were shorn, above one hundred were 
found to have been torn by the Kea, and it was necessary to kill the greatest 
number of them. On this particular run the annual loss is unusually 
large. A proportion of the loss is no doubt attributable to the predaceous 
habits of this bird; for in such a rough country a very large proportion 
of the sheep that die are never seen, and of those that are discovered, 
decay will very often have obscured the cause of death. 

These parrots frequent the higher ranges of mountains, such as the 
Takarahaka and Takitimo in Southland, where they are common. On the 
lower ranges, under 2000 feet, they are only occasionally seen, and up to 
this time do not usually disturb sheep depasturing below that elevation, 


A18 


378 Transactions.—Zoology. 


Arr. LI.—Descriptions of three new Species of Opisthobranchiate Mollusca, 
from New Zealand. By T. F. Cuzeseman, F.L.S., Curator of the Auck- 
land Museum. 

Plate XVI. 
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 22nd October, 1877.] 

From a number of new species of Opisthobranchiate Mollusca, collected 

in or near Auckland Harbour, I have selected for description the three 

following prominent forms :— 

1. PLEUROBRANCHUS ORNATUS, n. sp. (Pl. XVI., figs. 1, 2.) 

Body 8-4 inches long, broadly elliptical, depressed, nearly equally 
rounded at both ends, colour varying from pale buff to a clear reddish 
brown, with irregularly disposed blotches of a rich dark red-brown ; mantle 
large, extending over and concealing both head and foot, quite smooth, 
margin thin, entire; dorsal tentacles short, stout, abruptly truncate, finely 
transversely wrinkled, approximate at their origin, but gradually diverging 
at their apices; colour reddish brown tipped with white; eye-specks black, 
placed a little distance behind the tentacles, embedded in the integument, 
but appearing through it; oral tentacles united in front by a thin semi- 
circular expansion which forms a veil concealing the mouth, and which is 
carried in advance of the foot; mouth roundish, with fleshy lips; buccal 
plates two, regularly reticulated; odontophore with numerous rows of 
similar unciform teeth. Branchial plume placed in the groove between the 
foot and the mantle, very large, composed of about 22-24 pectinations; foot 
oblong, thin and flexible, pale waxy white. 

Shell internal, 4 to 3 inch long, squarish oblong, thin and membranous, 
semitransparent, slightly iridescent, closely marked with somewhat irregular 
concentric strie or folds; colour varying from nearly white to pale pinkish 
or tawny brown. Spire minute, obscure, mouth occupying the whole of the 
undersurface. 

My first specimens of this handsome species were obtained from under 
stones between tide-marks in Auckland Harbour; where, however, it is by 
no means common. Near Waiwera and in some other localities on the 
Hauraki Gulf it is much more frequently met with. It is easily kept alive 
in an aquarium, but is very sluggish in its movements. 

2. PLEUROBRANCHEA NOVE-ZEALANDLE, n. Sp. (Plate XVL, fig. 3.) 

Body oval, convex, thick and fleshy, smooth and lubricous to the touch, 
but the whole surface nevertheless covered with minute puckers and folds. 
Colour light grey, copiously streaked with irregular anastomosing lines of 
dark greyish-brown, and sprinkled with numerous minute and almost 


DS SA ORT Ee RA 


COPAS HAY va SPR Da ie waa QU ICE Se eRe Ea ESAE EPR Eee IGNARIS oR S ete SSNAN a ERBEN DRE 


CnzrzsEMAN.— On new Opisthobranchiate Mollusca, 979 


microscopic white dots. Mantle smooth, not nearly so long as the foot, and 
not concealing the branchism, rather broader on the right side; oral veil 
broad, extending over and concealing the mouth, in front semicircular, and 
with a delicate fringed margin, but at each side produced into a short 
tentacle-like lobe; mouth large, round, in a state of rest concealed in the 
sulcus between the oral veil and the foot, but capable of being greatly pro- 
truded in a proboscidiform manner; buccal plates two, large, finely and 
regularly reticulated or faceted ; odontophore broad, with numerous rows of 
similar unciform teeth; tentacles dorsal, wide apart, short and stout, project- 
ing outwards, folded down the outer side, tips obliquely truncate; eyes 
minute, black, placed within the integument at the inner bases of the 
tentacles, quite internal, and not to be seen without dissection; foot long, 
extremely flexible, sole pale ashy grey; branchial plume often over an inch 
in length, and free for half that distance; pectinations about 17, finely 
ciliated; shell none; length 2:5 to 3:25 inches. 

This species is very abundant in Auckland Harbour, usually affecting 
sandy or muddy localities. In the winter and spring months large numbers 
are often exposed at neap tides, having probably come into shallow water to 
deposit their ova. Captain Hutton, of the Otago Museum, informs me that 
he has collected the same species at Port Nicholson. It is hardy and not 
easily killed, and may be kept in confinement for a long time. When in a 
healthy state it is by no means inactive, crawling along by means of its 
muscular foot much more quickly than might be expected. It has a curious 
habit of floating in a reversed position, just under the surface of the water; 
and I have also observed it swimming by means of rather violent vertical 
undulations of its body. 

8. AcrESIA GLAUCA, n. sp. (Plate XVL., fig. 4.) 

Body from 8 to 5 inches long, about ovate when at rest, but capable of 
considerable extension, a little contracted behind the head, then elevated, 
and suddenly sloping to a point posteriorly ; entirely covered with numerous 
simple and branched tentacle-like processes, the largest of which are some- 
times eight lines long. Colour on the sides pale greyish-brown, passing on 
the back into a dull sea-green; the whole surface with numerous irregularly 
shaped black blotehes that are largest on the back. Along the back there 
is also a double row of from 8 to 12 emerald-green specks, each surrounded 
with a zone of umber. Dorsal tentacles 3 inch long, folded down the outer 
side so as to appear tubular, beset with filiform appendages. Labial ten- 
tacles similar in shape, but rather larger. Branchial cavity large, protected 
by the folded-in edges of the mantle, branchiz quite internal; foot long and 
narrow, pointed behind, without side-lobes as in Aplysia, sole pale sea- 
green; mouth roundish, placed under the head; odontophore with very 


880 Transactions.—Zoology. 


numerous rows of simple hooked teeth; gizzard een with large 
triangular calcareous plates; shell none. 

Like many of the species of the allied genus Aplysia, this animal 
possesses the power of emitting a purple fluid from the edges of the mantle, 
but only in small quantity; and it may often be handled without anything 
of the kind being observed. All my specimens are from Auckland Harbour, 
and were obtained from rather sandy localities near the extreme verge of 
low-water mark. 

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI. 
Fig. 1. Pleurobranchus ornatus. 
2. Shell of the same. 
8. Pleurobranchea nove PEPEE 
4, Aclesia glauca, 


Art. LIL.—Our Fish Supply. By P. Taomson. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 18th August, 1878.] 
I pec to lay before the members of the Institute the third and concluding 
series of my notes on the Dunedin Fish Supply.” I think enough has 
been done to show the times and seasons of the principal food fishes of this 
part of the colony ; and if some one will take up a similar duty for a port 
in the north, say Auckland, and another for one in the middle of the 
colony, say Wellington, a very good idea may then be had of the whole 
question. 

The most important event of the past year in connection with my 
subject, was the passing of an Act regulating Fisheries, by the Colonial 
Legislature. It may be thought presumptuous on my part, but I must take 
a little credit in having at least assisted in bringing this about. A little 
stir has been induced, both.among the fishermen and the dealers, by the 
fact of some one being in their midst who was “ taking notes.” During the 
past year or two I have been in frequent communication with the dealers, 
as wellas by paragraphs in the Press, urging the necessity of steps being 
taken to preserve the fisheries in the harbour from utter destruction, by 
either refusing to take from the fishermen any fish under a certain size, or 
agreeing among themselves to refuse dealing with those who persisted in 
bringing undersized fish to town. The Act was rather a surprise, as no one 
here knew of its introduction to the House until it had passed its second 
reading, and in the hurry at the close of the session there was no time for 


* Vide Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. IX.; Art. LXVII. and Vol. X., Art. XLIV, 


LAVI. 


HUTENOL.XLP 


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p em 
PETS ee 


NEW OPISTHO-BRANCHIATE MOLLUSCA. 


71 


P. Taomson,—Our Fish Supply. 881 


alteration. A synopsis of the Bill appeared in one of the Dunedin papers, 
and I wrote pointing out what I thought objectionable features. When a 
copy of the Act was procured, it was found to be very general in its details, 
and as far as Otago harbour is concerned, almost unworkable. When 
Ministers arrived in Dunedin, after the close of the session, no time was lost 
by the dealers in waiting on them and ascertaining the intention of the 
Government in the matter. Deputations explained what was wanted, and 
arrangements were made for a conference of all concerned, fishermen and 
dealers, which took place on January 5th. After a number of those 
present had expressed their sentiments on the matter, a memorandum was 
drawn up, setting forth the sizes of fish which were to be considered 
marketable. These sizes were:—That no flounders should be sold under 
nine inches long; no red cod under ten inches; no mullet under nine 
nehes ; and no garfish under fourteen inches—a penalty to be incurred for 
contravention. It was not considered advisable to make any regulations 
about the outside fishing, as it was thought that risk, weather, etc., were 
quite sufficient protection. After this it was thought there would be no 
grumbling at any steps that might be taken to carry out the objects of the 
Act, which are, so far, of a merely tentative nature. ; 

Nothing has yet been done in the way of establishing a fish market in 
the city, but as the matter has now been taken in hand by that active and 
influential body, the Chamber of Commerce, it is to be hoped that a market 
place for the sale of fish, ete., will soon be in full swing. 

The following table gives the details of the various fishes, taken day by 
day from the different shops in the town, as well as by inquiries at the 
jetties, Port Chalmers, etc. I have taken great pains with the table, and 
the information it contains may be taken as substantially correct. 

Various other fishes occur, but at irregular intervals, and only one or 
two at a time. Among these I may mention the following as occurring 
most frequently :— The Whiting, Pseudophycis breviusculus, is got occasionally, 
as is also the Haddock, Gadus australis, The Granite Trout, Haplodactylus 
meandratus, occurs now and then. Quite a lot of Horse Mackerel, Trachurus 
trachurus, were brought to town in March last, only individual specimens 
being the rule previously. Occasionally a few Gurnard, Trigla kumu, may 
be seen in the shops, but they are very shy visitors. About the end of 
January, a few Tarakihi, Chilodactylus macropterus, were brought to market, 
so it must be enrolled as a summer visitor. That very dark-skinned fish, 
the Maori Chief, Notothenia maoriensis, of Dr. Haast, is not uncommon, but 
is rarely seen more than one ata time. The Herring, Clupea sagax, did not 
turn up during the past summer as usual, The Kingfish, Seriola lalandii, 
also put in no appearance this year. i 


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P. Taomson.—Our Fish Supply. 883 


Of the regular food fishes the following notes may be of interest :— 

The Hapuka or Groper was in pretty regular supply from the close of 
September till towards the end of June. The demand for this fine fish is 
not half so great as it should be. It wasin the market 157 days. 

Ling has been in rather irregular supply during the year. For a few 
days this fish would be quite common, and then for a week or a fortnight 
there would be none at all, and this quite irrespective of the weather. Was 
79 days in the market. 

Kahawai was in good supply for a few days in January, and occurred 
again in March, 

Snapper was brought to town in summer and autumn, but the catch 
was limited to a few individual specimens, all of good sizes. 

Moki was constantly to be found in the market, a few days at a time, all 
through the year, though most numerous in the summer months. Was in 
the market 105 days. 

Trumpeter was in rather short supply during the year, very few having 
been received from the southward. 29 days in the market. 

The Barracoota made its appearance on the 29th October, when a 
solitary specimen was caught, followed by abundance on the 81st. It 
continued in season till the end of May, although one was caught by net in 
the Lower Harbour on the 19th of June. Was 109 days in the market. 

A few Frostfish were caught (I should rather say picked up, for the fish 
is never caught in the ordinary sense of the word) in August, and again in 
April; but towards the end of June and nearly all July large numbers of 
this fish were brought to town, one dealer passing no fewer than 109 
through his hands in a fortnight, mostly brought from the vicinity of 
Purakanui. On all the beaches to the west of the Heads, and away to the 
north, particularly about Moeraki, large numbers were got. Nothing is 
yet definitely known as to why this fish comes ashore in the peculiar way 
it does, but I may give you the latest theory as it appeared in one of the 
papers here a week or two ago. The writer said:—‘‘ The stranding of 
these fish is accounted for from the fact that, not being well supplied with 
fins, they swim with an undulating motion, like that of the leech, the head 
being elevated. In cold weather they follow their prey into shallow water, 
and when the tail touches the ground they become helpless, and are 
washed ashore.” The writer was very easily crammed. It is a noticeable 
fact that all the fish are about the same size—4} feet to 5 feet in length. 
In the market 28 days, being the longest known. 

Blue Cod.—This staple fish was in fair supply nearly all the year, with 
the exception of some weeks in winter, when there was some severe 
weather, which put a stop to outside fishing. The supply Tr Stewart 
Island was very irregular. Was 65 days in the market. 


884 Transactions.—Zoology. 


Red Cod.—Both from inside and outside fishings ; was in very regular 
supply, the shops being seldom without a few. Indeed, this fish is always 
to be had, and is in finest condition during the winter months, when pretty 
large takes of good-sized specimens are got from the outside fishery, those 
caught by the seine-net in the harbour being as a rule much smaller. Red 
Cod was in the market 267 days. 

Sandling or Sandeel.—This delicate little fish is never very plentiful, 
but a few are generally caught in the seine-nets. Properly cooked, this is 
one of our finest food fishes. Was present 35 days. 

. Garfish was pretty plentiful during the spring and summer. In October 
immense numbers were brought to town, large shoals being present in the 
Lower Harbour for several days. In the market 39 days. 

The true Butterfish was more frequently brought to town during the past 
year than ever before. Some of them were of pretty large size, and mostly 
netted among the rocks along the coast, and near Moeraki. 28 days in the 
market. 

Wrasse, Parrotfish, and Spotties were often in the market, the latter 
especially being a regular seine-fish, and got along with Flounders, etc. 
There are two sorts of Spotty—a big and a little. The Wrasse and Parrot- 
fish are mostly caught outside among the kelp, and with the Spotty are 
indiscriminately named Kelp-fish by the fishermen, though the term Butter- 
fish is also given to the smaller sorts. Spotties in market 154 days. 

The Mullet or Herring is to be had almost constantly, and is present in 
greater or less quantity the whole year round. At very irregular periods 
large shoals of the fish congregate in the Harbour, when they are caught 
by the net in immense numbers. This fish gives good"sport with rod 
and line. Was 147 days in the market. 

Trevally.—This excellent little fish is also a constant visitor, and may 
be had in quantity all the year round. Some pretty large ones are now 
and then to be seen. Was 110 days in the market. 

That favourite fish the Flounder was in full supply nearly all the year. 
Latterly, I notice that the Flounders brought to town have increased in size 
a little; it is to be hoped that this will continue, and that the new Act will 
have some influence with those who catch them. 282 days in the market. 

Soles are not very common, only those caught by the seine being 
brought to market. If trawling were introduced in suitable localities along 
the coast, the fish would be more plentiful. Was 11 days in market.” 

Skate was brought to market on 23 days. Those exhibited were mostly 
of small size. 

I subjoin the following notes on the weather, incidents, etc., for the 
twelve months :— 

August was characterised by cold and dull weather, with two or three 


Our Fish Supply. 985 


storms. Fish, with the exception of small Flounders and Mullet, were 
generally scarce. 

September had very stormy weather at the beginning, which moderated 
gradually towards the end. The supply of fish sympathised with the weather, 
being very scarce at commencement, and improved towards the close. 

October.—The weather was fine at the beginning, but stormy and 
irregular towards the close. There was a good supply of fish about the 
middle of the month. Butterfish were pretty numerous. On the 25th, 
very large hauls of Garfish were made in the Lower Harbour, and this fish 
was very abundant for some days. On the 29th, a solitary Barracoota was 
caught in a net in the harbour, and next day the fishermen were out for 
miles off the coast, looking for the expected shoal, but were unsuccessful. 
On the 81st, they were met with in abundance. A new curing work was 
started this month in Horseshoe Bay, Stewart Island, to employ about 
20 men, two large cutters, and several smaller boats. : 

November was a month of full and pretty varied supply, the weather 
mostly fine, with some dull and showery days. 

There was some stormy weather during December, but the supply of 
fish was pretty liberal. A well-boat started to work the reefs off the coast 
between Waikouaiti and Moeraki, the intention being to bring the fish alive 
up to the town jetty. 

Fish were in full supply during January, save during one or two days 
of rough weather, which kept the boats from getting out. On the 24th, a 
fine Snapper was caught, rather larger than the ordinary run of these 
visitors to our coast. It was 131bs. in weight, 29 inches long, by 24 inches 
in girth. On the 29th, some Tarakihi were brought to market, accom- 
panied by some fine large Trumpeter. ; 

February, except for a few days at the beginning of the month, was a 
time of full supply, both large and small fish being plentiful. On the 20th, 
a large Stingaree (Trigon thalassia) was caught and brought into town; and 
on the 22nd a Conger-eel ( Conger vulgaris), 6 feet 2 inches long, weighing 
40 lbs., was on exhibition. 

During March there was a fair average supply of all varieties. For 
some days near the beginning of the month a number of Horse Mackerel 
were brought to the market. On the 14th a Snapper, and on the 18th a 
Kahawai was caught. 

At the beginning of April fish were abundant, but the supply fell off 
towards the middle, when severe cold weather prevailed. On the 20th two 
Frostfish were brought to town, and on the 23rd a big Snapper. An 
incident of the month was the imposition of a license fee, under the 
authority of the new Act, of £1 for each net in use, : 
A19 


886 Transactions.— Zoology. 


Fish were in fair supply during May, except during a few days of 
stormy weather. Some exceptionally large Flounders were caught on 
the 7th; on the 8th, a fine Snapper; and towards the close of the month 
Trevally were very plentiful. 

June was a month of very severe weather all through, but with the 
exception of a few days the supply was good and sometimes plentiful. 
On the 19th, a solitary Barracoota was caught in a net in the Lower 
Harbour. A market for the sale of fish, etc., was the subject of some 
discussion during the month. 

July was characterised by a continuance of fine clear frosty weather 
nearly all through the month, winding up with a snowstorm on the last 
day. The great feature of the month was the abundance of Frostfish which 
were brought to town in greater or less number for 20 days. They were 
mostly brought from the beaches between Blueskin and the Heads, and 
formed quite a small harvest to the younger settlers along that line of the 
coast, as pretty fair prices were given for them by the dealers, who resold 
them at prices ranging from five to ten shillings each. 

In accordance with the wish of the President and others, expressed at 
the time I read the paper last year, I wrote to Mr. Traill, of Stewart 
Island, for particulars as to the state of the trade there, but I never 
received any reply. However, I am able to give the following statistics as 
to the number of boats and men engaged in the trade at the present time, 
August 7th, 1878 :— 

There are engaged in the fishing, outside of the Heads, 9 whale-boats 
and 2 cutters, employing about 30 men. In the Harbour or seining branch 
there are 16 boats and about 40 men engaged. At Port Chalmers there are 
two smoke-houses with four men to each. At Stewart Island I have 
learned there are two smoke-houses, and about 80 men engaged in 
boating, ete. 

Hoping that the figures and facts I have drawn together may be of 
some use to the members, I now bring my three years’ task to a conclusion. 


Art, LITL—TAÀe District of Okarito, Westland. By A. Hamilton. 
[Read before the Westland Institute, 16th July, 1878.] 
Tae Okarito district comprises a large area of comparatively unknown 
ground, as the whole of the settlements which have at one time or another 
existed on it, have been either on the sea-coast or on the river-beds. The 
sole attraction to settlers having been the “ Auri sacra fames," agriculture 
has been comparatively neglected, though many excellent areas of groun 


EE ii ia 


Hamruton.—0On the District of Okarito, Westland, 887 


exist, quite eqfal to much land in the North Island, that amply repays the 
capital investeck The opening of the Okarito-Bowen Road will, no doubt, 
cause more land to be taken up for boná fide settlement. Communication 
will then be of a more certain character, and travellers will be enabled to 
avoid the difficulties and dangers of the rivers and rocky bluffs on the coast 
line. One of the most interesting sights in New Zealand, the Franz Josef 
Glacier, will then attract more visitors to its beautiful scenery and wondrous 
masses of ice and snow. 

In what are generally known as the “early days,” Okarito was a 
flourishing township, and the diggings on the various beaches north and 
south of it, were swarming with busy workers, washing from the sands the 
particles of gold brought down by the rivers from the hills ages ago, and 
since divided into small particles now found. The geology and mineralogy 
of the hill-country, towards the main range at the back of the district, is 
not known with accuracy, owing to the difficulties of penetrating the inter- 
vening bush. As far as can be judged from the materials composing the 
terraces which form the undulating ground between the hills and the sea, a 
number of valuable minerals are stored in this part of the country, and it 
is not too much to express an opinion that, when fully explored, the ranges 
south of Mount Tyndall will prove to be the Cornwall of New Zealand, 
Owing to the deficiency of good harbours on this part of the West Coast, 
it may be very long before a trade can be established. Hitherto the only 
mineral sought for has been gold, and many are the places in which it has 
bzen found—in fact, it never having been found in the river Waitaki (or 
Waitangi) renders it a remarkable river, running as it does through the 
same kind of country, and having rivers and creeks on each side of it that 
have yielded heavy amounts of gold. I have not the opportunity of exam- 
ining areturn of the total amount of gold procured in the district, but it 
must be very large, as the different diggings at the Forks, the Three-Mile 
and Four-Mile Beaches, the Waio and Wateroa rivers and McDonald's 
Creek, have proved at one time or another very rich. Very few are now 
working on the beaches, for, though far from being exhausted, the sand 
shifts so much with every gale of wind and heavy sea, that it mixes the 
sand from which the gold has been taken with that still containing the 
metal. Thus to extract the gold requires more labour than previously, as 
much sand has to be washed that has already been impoverished. Very 
curious and beautiful this black sand looks under the low powers of a 
microscope, heaps of rubies and diamonds appear to be mixed with ** patines 
of fine gold ” and stones of less brightness and beauty, with here and there 
thin laminz of mica and pearly-looking quartz. 

Unfortunately for Okarito no reefs have yet been found showing any 


E 
888 Transactions.—Zooloiy. 


signs of gold, though there is plenty of quartz near MeDon Creek, and 
quartz has been found adhering to gold got at the Forks, «ad also in the 
Wateroa. lf good reefs were to be discovered they would be of great use in 
opening up the back country and restoring the now fast-decaying town of 
Okarito. 

Leaving the consideration of the inanimate productions of the district, if 
we consider the eonformation of the country, sloping away from the main 
range in hills and terraces to the sea-level, we perceive that it is a favourable 
spot for the occurrence of those.forms of animal and vegetable life for which 
this * Bird and Fern Land’ is noted. 

In the sub-alpine, and even alpine regions, are found large numbers of 
those curious birds, commonly ealled kiwis and rowis, now the last repre- 
sentatives of that peculiar struthious avi-fauna that once roamed over these 
islands. Although moa bones have been ‘found in places all over the South 
Island, their occurrence in Westland is unknown to me. I should be glad 
to learn if any remains were ever obtained in the neighbourhood of the 
Haast River, as there seems to be no very great obstacle to their passage 
from the eastern plains in that direction. Two other birds are peculiar to 
the alpine regions, the kakapo ( Stringops habroptilus) and the kea ( Nestor 
notabilis) ; the former is getting very scarce now, in consequence of its 
falling an easy victim to dogs and eats that have taken to the bush. In the 
centre zone or lower hills we find a larger number of perching birds, pigeons 
and kakas, etc., and also along the river-beds swarms of Maori hens 
( Ocydromus australis), ete. This impudent and inquisitive bird furnishes a 
much-prized article of food to diggers and prospectors. A good dog will 
sometimes catch sixty or seventy in one night. The bodies of the birds are 
split open and smoked, and will then keep along time. Their oil is much 
valued, and is used for as many purposes as Holloway’s pills, being an 
ingredient in many a damper, and an infallible remedy for bruises and 
rheumatism, besides being used for the general purposes of fat and grease. 
Attached to this paper will be found a list of all the birds I have seen since 
I have been here, together with those that are, no doubt, found here, but 
which are only included from trustworthy report; these have a mark 
affixed to them. 

From this list it appears that the district contains representatives of 
almost every species of land bird found in the South Island, with few 
exceptions. Many of the petrels, puffins and other sea birds are doubiless 
seen off the coast in bad weather, but few come ashore. This district 
claims, as pre-eminently its noblest bird, the beautiful white heron (Ardea 
alba), formerly remarkably numerous. I regret to say that since certain 
miscreants destroyed a quantity of nearly hatched eggs, they have slightly 


Haurprox,—0On the District of Okarito, Westland. 389 


diminished in number, though many still ornament the upper waters of the 
lagoon and the river on which they breed, on which river there is also 2 
shaggery (C. brevirostris and carbo). Another very handsome and remark- 
able bird, the crested grebe / Podiceps eristatus) is tolerably plentiful on the 
lagoon and smaller lakes. The Okarito Lagoon has been formed from a 
large bay by the silting up of successive bars of sand and shingle, through 
which the river and streams flowing into it have had to force their way. 
Within the past month a succession of heavy southerly winds raised a huge 
bar of sand and shut up the mouth of the river. The consequence of course 
was that the water rose till a channel was cut through the bar and the 
water liberated. It is six or seven miles from the town of Okarito to the 
head of the lagoon, by a tortuous channel, now winding amongst the mud 
flats, uncovered at low water, and abounding in pipis and cockles, small 
crabs and other animals peculiar to brackish water; and now flowing 
between bushes and shrubs with a channel ten or twelve feet deep, and 
wide enough to have admitted a steamer, the Woodpecker, I think, once 
upon a time. Amongst these bush-covered points and islands are quiet 
nooks in which you may come suddenly upon a flock of black teal ( Fuligula 
nova-zealandia ), or a party of grey ducks will rise with a great commotion, 
increased by the harsh scream of the paradise duck (C. variegata). Iam 
glad to see that the black swan ( C. atrata) is now well established in this 
district; they have increased very rapidly within the last two or three 
years. I have seen as many as fifty, with a lot of young cygnets, in sight 
at one time. Some of them occasionally go down south somewhere, in 
flocks of six or eight, for a few days. Seeking their food on the mud flats at 
low water may be seen pied redbills (H. longirostris), curlews, plovers, dot- 
terels, and the pretty lake gull (Larus bullerij. On going inland tho 
silence of the bush is broken by the peculiar notes of the bell-bird YA. mela- 
nura) and the tui ( Prosthemadera nova-zealandiz), especially where the rata 
shows its crimson flowers, frorn extracting the juices of which, with their 
brush-like tongues, they are often disturbed by the kaka who forsakes the ` 
grub-infested log for the honey of the flower. The demand for feather 
trimmings and kiwi skin muffs has caused the slaughter of a great number 
of birds in this district and further south. Though the poor kiwis have a 
slight respite from their former persecutor, there is another on their track 
with large orders from London houses, and no doubt he will considerably 
reduce their numbers. I must now apologise for the superficial manner in 
which I have run over the subjects I have brought before your notice, and 
I trust when my collections are more complete, that I shall be able to 
present to the Society a list of the plants, etc., found in the neighbourhood, 
and to supplement this paper with further particulars of other objects of 
interest, 


390 Transactions.— Zoology. 


Since the above was written I paid a visit to the well-known 
heronry on the Waitaki-tuna, and I regret to say that the birds have 
abandoned the spot in which they formerly bred. In 1876 six broods were 
reared, and the nests, as well as remains of numerous old ones, still remain. 
There can be no doubt that the way in which the saplings were torn down 
to procure the eggs was the cause of the disruption of the colony, The 
small shag (G. brevirostris) has also disappeared simultaneously. It is to 
be hoped that the white herons will find a more secure place for their new 
home, and thus arrest for a few years their extinction. 


— 


List of Birds found in Okarito District. 

I. AcorPrrRES. 
Falconide. Hieracidea nove-zealandia, Lath. Circus gouldi, Bp. 
Strigide. Athene nova-zealandia, Gml. 

II. Psrrract. 
Stringopide. Stringops habroptilus, Gray. 
Platycercide. Platycercus nove-zealandie, Sparrm. P. auriceps. 
Trichoglossidæ, Nestor meridionalis, Gml. N, occidentalis, Buller. N. nota- 

bilis, Gould 

III. Proarre. 
Alcedinide. Halcyon sanctus, Vig. et Horsf. 
Cuculide. Chrysococcyx lucidus, Gml. Eudynamis taitensis, Sparrm. 

IV. Passeres. 
Menuride. Orthonyx ochrocephala, Gml. Certhiparus nove-zealandie, Gul. 
Meliphagidg. Zosterops lateralis, Lath. Prosthemadera nove-zealandia, Gray. 

Anthornis melanura, Sparrm. 

Muscicapide. Rhipidura flabellifera, Gml. R. tristis, Homb. et Jacq. 
Turdide. Keropia erassirostris, Gml. 
Sylviade. Gerygone flaviventris, Gray. Petroica macrocephala, Gml. 
Motacillidæ. Anthus nove-zealandig, Gml. 
Certhiidæ. Acanthisitta chloris, Sparrm. 
Maluridæ. Sphenæacus punctatus, Quoy et G. 
Sturnidæ. Creadion carunculatus, Gml. 
Corvidæ. Glaucopis cinerea, Gml. 

V. CoLumba. 
Columbidæ. Carpophaga nova-zealandia, Gul. 


VI. Gatuwa. 
Tetranoide. Coturnix nove-zealandie, Q. et G.* 


* I have not obtained these, 


| 


Rozson.—On the Breeding Habits of the Katipo: 891 


VII. Gaarux. 

Rallide. Ocydromus australis, Sparrm. O. fuscus, Dubus.* Rallus pectoralis,* 
Less. Ortygometra affinis,* Gray. O. tabuensis, Gml. Porphyrio 
melanotus, Temm. 

Scolopacide. Limosa uropygialis, Gould. 

Charadriide. Charadrius obscurus, Gml. C. bicinctus, Jard. Thinornis nove- 

zealandie. Hematopus longirostris, Vieill. 

Ardeidæ. Ardea alba, L. Ardea pusilla, V. Ardea poiciloptera, Wagl. 
Nycticorax caledonicus, Lath.* 

VIII. AxszEnES. 

Anatide. Casarca variegata, Gml. Querquedula gibberifrons, S. Müller. 
Hhynchaspis variegata, Gould. — Fuligula nova-zealandie, Grol. 
Hymenolaimus malacorhynchus, Gml. 

Laride. Larus dominicanus, Licht. L. scopulinus, Forst.* L. bulleri, Hutton. 
Sterna caspia, Pall. S. frontalis, Gray. 8. antarctica, Forst. 

Pelecanide. Graculus carbo, L. G. brevirostris, Gould. 

Ptilopteri. Eudyptes pachyrhynchus, Gray. 

Podicepide. Podiceps cristatus, L. P. rufipectus, Gray. 

IX. SrRuTHIONES. 
Apterygide. Apteryx australis, Shaw. A. oweni, Gould. A. mazima, Verr. 


Art. LIV.— Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Katipo (Latrodectus katipo). 
By C. H. Rozsox. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.) 
Tar Katipo is found in great abundance all along the coast of the South 
Island, from the mouth of the Wairau river to the Kaikoura peninsula. 
They are all of the variety so well described by Dr. Buller and Dr. Powell, 
in Vol. III. Trans. N.Z. Inst., pages 34 and 56, and all have the bright 
scarlet band with yellow border on the abdomen; the other markings are 
distinct on some individuals and faint on others. The black variety without 
a red dorsal stripe, and which is mentioned by the Rev. M. Taylor and 
Mr. Wright does not seem to inhabit this part of the coast, nor have I ever 
seen it. The above writers having made no mention of the number of 
young which these spiders produce from a single cocoon, or the time 
occupied in doing so, I determined to try and settle these points by actual 
experiment, with the following results:—On November 4, 1877, I put a 
* [ have not obtained these. 


392 Transactions.—Zoology. 


female katipo in an empty, clear glass bottle; she at once began to make a 
fine irregular web, and, on the morning of the 8th, I found that during the 
night she had constructed and suspended near the neck of the bottle, a 
spherical cocoon, composed of a pale yellow silky web, through which one 
could see the purplish eggs; for the next two months the spider remained 
on or close to the cocoon ; I put several flies and other insects into the 
bottle, all of which she at once killed and threw down to the bottom without 
eating. Early in January she shifted the cocoon close to one side of the 
bottle at the shoulder, and took up a position for herself three-quarters of 
the distance from it to the bottom of the bottle. By this time she was 
reduced to half the original size and was very inert, and, on the 7th 
February, 1878, sixty young katipos issued from the cocoon. Next morning 
the mother lay dead at the bottom of the bottle; it must not be supposed 
that the old spider always dies in this way, for I had one which ate the 
greater part of her family before doing so. The young ones are of a semi- 
transparent white, with two lines of black dots on the abdomen, and black 
joints to the legs, the underside of the abdomen being brown, with an 
irregular whitish centre. 


Art LV.—On Additions to the Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand. 

By T. W. Kurs, Assistant, Colonial Museum. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 31st August, 1878.] 
Tur publication of a * Catalogue of New Zealand Crustacea’ by the Geolo- 
gical Survey and Colonial Museum Department, has proved a great boon to 
students and collectors in the colony, by bringing together, in a convenient 
form, descriptions of all the species known to inhabit these shores, thus 
enabling them to pronounce, with some degree of certainty, upon any speci- 
men which may be under discussion. 

The remarkable resemblance which our fauna bears to that of England 
and California has been pointed out by many authors. I have now to 
record the occurrence here of at least two additional European and tho 
same number of Californian species. 

Three of the species mentioned in this paper, viz., Caprella lobata, C. 
nova-zealandiz, and Ebalia tumefacta, were obtained in Cook Strait, in 
January, 1876, whilst dredging for the telegraphic cable. 

Group ABERRANTIA. 

The coxæ of the pereiopoda are not squamiformly developed, some or 
all being fused to their respective segments. The pleon has one or more of 
the segments absent, 


T. W. Kirz.—dddittons to Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand. $98 


Fam. 2, CapRELLIDA. 

Pleon rudimentary: oral appendages normally developed; coza fused 
with the pereion ; branchial sacs attached to the first two or three segments 
of the pereion. 

> 
Caprella, Lamarck, Syst. des anim. sans vert., p. 165. 
Leach, Linn. Trans. II., p. 363. 
Edwards, Hist. des Parii n, p. 105. 
Króyer, Nat. Tidskr. IV., p. 496, 1842-8. 

Mgina, Kroyer, Nat. Tidskr. IV., 1843. 

Podalirius, Króyer, Nat. Tidskr. V., 1844. 

Body cylindrical; cephalon and first segments of pereion confluent; 
pleon rudimentary ; gnathopoda sub-chelate; first two pairs of pereiopoda 
represented by the branchis attached to their respective segments only; 
three posterior pairs of pereiopoda subequal; first and second pairs of 
pleopoda rudimentary in the male; the rest obsolete. (Spence Bate, Cat. 
Amphip. Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 858.) 

Caprella nove-zealandie, sp. nov. 

Cephalon furnished with a spinous tooth directed forwards; first segment 
of the pereion rather short, second long, third and following gradually 
decreasing ; superior antenne two-fifths the length of animal; flagellum 
with the infero-distal extremity of each articulus produced, but without cilia ; 
inferior antenne not so long as the peduncle of the superior by one joint ; 
second pair of gnathopoda articulating behind the centre of second segment 
of pereion; propodos ovate; palm armed with a prominent posterior tooth, 
against which the closed dactylos impinges, and a smaller but distinct 
anterior tooth (not lobe); dactylos very much curved; three posterior pairs 
of pereiopoda have the anterior margins excavate and ciliate; the parts 
against which the closed dactylos impinges, armed with a strong tooth. 

Length 1 in. 

Hab : Cook Strait. 

This species approaches C. geometrica, Say, (Cat. Amphip. Crust. Brit. 
Mus., p. 857), from which it differs, however, in the form of the spine on the 
cephalon, in the length of the antennæ, and in the articulation and arming 
of the second pair of gnathopoda. 

Caprella lobata, Guérin. 
Squilla lobata, Müller, O. Fabr. Faun. Grónl,, p. 248. 
Caprella lobata, Guérin, Iconogr. Crust., pl. 28, f. 22, 
" » Kroyer, Voy. en Scand., pl. 25, f. 3. 
” » Stimpson, Nat. Hist. Invert. Grand Manan., p. 44, 
ZEgina longicornis, Króyer, Voy. en Scand., pl. 26, f. 3. 
Caprella levis, Goodsir, Edinb. New Phil. Journ., XXXIII. 
" » White, Hist. Brit. Crust., p. 215. 
Caprella linearis, Leach, Edinb. Encycl., p. 404. 


394 Transactions.—Zoology. 


Body carrying a few minute tubercles, the most conspicuous being the 
one on the cephalon, and the most constant those upon the posterior seg- 
ments of the pereion. First segment of the pereion long; second scarcely 
longer than the first; the three succeeding rather shorter, sub-equal. 
Superior antenne not half the length of the animal; inferior scarcely 
reaching beyond the second joint of the peduncle of the superior. Second 
pair of gnathopoda articulating with the pereion posteriorly to the centre 
of the second segment; propodos long-ovate, palm defined by one and 
armed with two teeth, the anterior one being often less perfectly defined 
than the posterior. Three posterior pairs of pereiopoda having the propoda 
with the anterior margin excavate; the part against which the closed 
dactylos impinges armed with two stiff corrugated spines. 

Hab: Cook Strait. 

The only examples of the genus Squilla yet recorded from New Zealand 
are S. nepa, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 89, and S. armata, M. Edw., Trans. N.Z. 
Inst., IX., p. 474. It is with very great pleasure I now add a third. In 
addition to the specimen exhibited, which was obtained at the Chatham 
Islands, another, unfortunately mutilated, was secured by H. B. Kirk while 
on a visit to Kapiti. 

j Squilla indefensa, sp. nov. 

E SS Rostral plate semi-oval, and pointed at its 
V distal extremity. Carapace retracted in front, 
\ SU WA A expanded and rounded behind, smooth, the 
/l (1M antero-lateral angles rounded and slightly 
produced forward; large prehensile limbs wi 
terminal joint as long as preceding one, and 

Ñ armed with nine spines; abdomen smooth, 
ZN terminal segment with six marginal spines, 
| and three depressed longitudinal ridges which 

terminate posteriorly in spines. 

Length, 24 inches. 

Hab: Chatham Islands and Kapiti. 

This species is easily distinguished by the 
absence of carine on the abdomen, and by 
the absence of the antero-lateral spines of the 
carapace, 

Ebalia. 
Ebalia, Leach, Zool. Misc. IIÍ. 

External antenne extremely minute, inserted in the inner canthus of 
the orbit; internal antenne lying in oblique fosse, which are entirely 
separated by a small process of the epistome, and concealed by the front ; 
external pedipalps elongato-triangular, reaching forward to the margin of 


————————————— ——— 


T, W. Kmx.— Additions to Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand, 896 


the epistome; the internal footstalk gradually acuminated, the third joint 
internally palpigerous ; anterior legs large, equal, the hand inflated, those 
of the male larger than those of the female; the other legs shorter than 
the first pair, diminishing gradually in length, terminating in a slightly 
curved, rather strong claw; abdomen seven-jointed, but with several of 
the middle joints confluent; that of the male narrow; of the female very 
broad, the last joint very small, abruptly narrower than the preceding ; 
carapace rhomboidal, with the angles more or less truncated or rounded ; 
front produced, elevated ; eyes very small; orbits with two small fissures 
on the superior margin, 
Ebalia tumefacta, Bryer’s Nut Crab. 

Cancer tumefacta, Mont., Trans. Linn, Soc. IX., p. 86, T. IL, f. 8. 

Ebalia bryerii, Leach, Mal. Podoph. Brit., T. XXV., f 12-13. 

Carapace slightly and minutely granulated; lateral margin entire, some- 
what revolute at the angles; two tubercles on the cardiac region, and one 
on each of the branchial in the male; these parts very tumid in the 
female; abdomen in the male with the third to the fifth joints united; in 
the female the fourth to the sixth ; arm not more than twice as long as it 
is broad. (Bell’s Brit. Crust., p. 145.) 

Hab: Cook Strait. A single female, and the right anterior leg of 
another specimen. 


Elamena producta, sp. nov. New Zealand Spider crab, * 


Carapace flat, 
broader than long, 
x margin with two teeth, 
which, however, vary 
much in size; ros- 
irum very  promi- 
nent; anterior legs in 
male large and equal, 
hand and wrist 
much swollen ; fingers 
curved and armed 
with hairs along their 
inner margins ; in the 
female these legs are 
slight, and the fingers 
almost straight; suc- 
ceeding legs very flat, 
the anterior margin ` 


896 Transactions.— Zoology. 


of the first joint produced so as to form à very prominent point, almost 
a spine; claws half the length of preceding joint; whole animal destitute 
of hair, except on the fingers. Length, $in.; breadth, $in. First three 
pairs of ambulatory legs very long, more than twice the length of the 
carapace. 

Hab; Wellington. 

Petrolisthes elongatus, Miers. 

In the ‘ Catalogue of New Zealand Crustacea,’ p. 60, this species is said 
to be of a *'reddish-yellow " colour. The specimens from which the 
description was drawn up must have been preserved in spirit. This change 
of colour is usual in specimens so treated, The following is taken from 
living examples. 

Above dark blue, greenish-blue, or sometimes even black. Below green, 
getting much darker towards the posterior margin of the anterior legs, 
anterior face of wrist a bright red, mobile finger and antenns deep brown, 
Porcellana rupicola, Stimpson. 

zm A single specimen of this species was 
recently obtained by myself at Lyall Bay, 
living apparently upon terms of intimacy 
with a large family of Petrolisthes elon- 
gatus. Upon a comparison with the foreign 
Crustacea in the Colonial Museum, I find 
it to agree in every particular with a 
Specimen contained in the collection 
lately received from Prof. Button of the 
University of California, and labelled as above. 

Unfortunately I have not been able to obtain the description either of 
this or the next species, but there can be no doubt respecting their identity, 
as those forwarded by Prof. Button are duplicates of the U.S. Exploring 
Expedition's collection. 

This species may be easily distinguished from Petrolisthes elongatus by its 
having the posterior margin of the wrist produced, so as to form one strong 
tooth, by its more drooping front, and by having the lateral margins 
obtuse instead of thin and sharp. Length, 3 in.; breadth, 4 in. 

Xantho spino-tuberculata, Lockington. 

A fine pair of this beautiful little crab was procured at Porirua Harbour, 
in January of last year, and although only about half the size of the Cali- 
fornian specimen, there can be'no mistaking their identity. 

The carapace is much broader than long, the front armed with spinous 
tubercles; regions well defined; anterior legs strong, equal, the outer and 


a 


T. W. Kmx.—On some New Zealand Aphrodite. 897 


upper surfaces covered with very prominent tubercles; fingers brown, 
tipped with white, smooth, except theirinternal margins, which are armed 
with 3 or 4 tubercles. Ambulatory legs densely covered with hairs, 

Male, length ,° in., breadth 4$ in. 

Female, length 45; in,, breadth 4$ in, 


——————— 


Arr. LVI.—On some New Zealand Aphrodite, with Descriptions of supposed 
new Species. By T. W. Kir, Assistant in the Colonial Museum, 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 30th October, 1878.) 
Aphrodita. 

Halithea, Savigny, Syst. Annel. 11 and 18. Lam., An. s. Vert., v. 306. 

Aphrodita, Leach, in Suppl. Encyclop. Brit. L, 452; Aud. and M. Edw., Litt. de la France, 
IL, 63; Blainville in Dict. des Sc. Nat. LVIL, 455; Fleming in Encyclop. Brit., 
Edit. 7, XL, 221; Johnston in Ann. Nat. Hist. IL, 427. 

Body ovate or oblong, the back convex, covered with fifteen pairs of 
scales, either concealed by a felt or exposed ; the venter distinctly separate, 
flat, marked with the dissepiments and a longitudinal mesial furrow; 
antenna one, mesial, small; the palpi two and long; segments 89, with 
scales on the second, fourth, fifth, seventh, and every alternate segment to 
the twenty-fifth, and on the twenty-eighth and thirty-second ; the inter- 
vening segments with a dorsal cirrus; feet stout, biramous, with three 
fascicles of bristles, two on the dorsal and one on the ventral branch; and 
each foot has a ventral setaceous cirrus ; bristles various, simple or com- 
pound, with a spine in each fascicle; no anal styles. 

A. aculeata. 
Aphrodita aculeata, Linn. Sys. X., 655; XII., 1084. 

Body from 8 to 8 inches long, oval, narrowest behind, convex dorsally ; 
the back of an earthy colour; roughish, with a thick close coat of hair and 
membrane, forming a sort of skin, which entirely conceals the scales; the 
sides clothed with long silky green and golden hairs clustered in fascicles, 
and glistening like burnished metal, with blackish-brown spiniform bristles 
intermixed ; ventral surface flat, often light coloured and dotted, sometimes 
dark brown, obsoletely ribbed across; head small, entirely concealed, 
roundish, with two round clear spots or eyes on the vertex ; antenna 
minute; palpi large, subulate, flesh-coloured or dusky, jointed at the base, 
where they approximate, but are separated by a black membranous crest ; 
mouth with a large edentulous proboscis ; the orifice encircled with a short, 
even, thick-set fringe of compound penicillate filaments divided into two 


898 Transactions.—Zoology, 


sets by a fissure on each side; each filament has a short stalk, with a tuft 
of numerous forked papille on its summit; exterior to the orifice of the 
proboscis there are four fleshy tubercles placed atthe angles; scales fifteen 
pairs, roundish, smooth, thin and vesicular, blotched with black stains and 
specks, the first pair small, laid over the head, the anal pair oval; feet 
thirty-nine pairs, largest and most developed near the middle of the belly, 
very small and approximate at the anus, biramous, the branches wide 
asunder ; the superior carries, in a sort of crest-like fashion, the long, 
flexible, brilliant-coloured bristles which form the silky fringe on each side 
of the body, and above them some still more delicate hairs, which, by their 
intertexture, constitute the membrane covering the scales, and with which 
the strong spiniform bristles are intermixed, placed in a sort of cross series ; 
the inferior branch is armed with three rows of stout, short bristles; in 
the upper row only two or three, which are longer and stouter than those 
of the next row, in which there are five or six, and which again are 
stouter but less numerous than those in the lower row; spine golden- 
yellow, conical, smooth ; superior cirrus long, subulate, bulged at the base; 
the inferior short and conical; anus large, with a dorsal aspect, encircled 
with several tentacular cirri. 

* The very vivid iridescent hues, which the hairs of this remarkable 
worm reflect, render it an object of wonder and surprise to the most 

` incurious ; they are not equalled by the colours of the most gaudy butterfly, 
and rival the splendour of the diamond beetle. It creeps at a slow pace, 
and in its progress a current of water is ejected at short intervals, and 
with considerable force, from the anus. When placed in fresh water, the 
creature gives immediate signs of its painful situation, and soon dies, first 
ejecting a white milky fluid, and in the agony of death, a large quantity of 
blackish-green turbid liquor. The size and strength of the proboscis is 
remarkable, and not less so the structure of the filaments which garnish 
the orifice. The esophagus is short; the stomach and intestine seem to 
be alike and inseparable; together they form a straight intestine, some- 
times with a wide dilation in some part of its canal, with a velvety inner 
surface folded into longitudinal plaits near the termination at the anus.” 
(Cat. Worms, B.M., p. 104.) 

I have quoted Dr. Johnston's descriptions and remarks at some length 
in the hope that the attention of local collectors being called to this branch 
of our fauna, we shall soon possess better specimens of this very interesting 

` group than are at present to hand. 

Unfortunately our specimen, which is very young, does not show the 
brilliant iridescent colours mentioned above; it is of a uniform dull brown, 
but after a very carefyl examination and comparison with two specimens 


T. W. Krrr.—On some New Zealand Aphrodite. 399 


from Europe contained in the collection of Annelids in the Colonial 
Museum, I have not the slightest hesitation in referring it to this species; 
it was obtained, together with specimens of the following species, amongst 
a mass of tangled seaweed, thrown up in August last, at Worser Bay. 
Lepidonotus. 
Lepidonotus, Leach in Ann. Phil. XIV., 205 (1819), and in mm Encyclop. Brit. I., 452. 
Lepidonote, Oersted, Annul. Dan. TE 12; Annul. Dors 
Poly E nisi Syst. Annel. 20. Lam. An. s. Vert., V. di dui and M-Edw. Litt. de 
nce, IL, 74. Cuv. Régn. Anim., IIL, 207. Johnston in Ann. Nat. Hist., IL, 
i^ im 431. Williams, Rep. Brit. iia 1851, 217. 
Eumolphe, Blainville in Dict. des Sc. Nat., LVII., 457. 

Body oblong, flattened, obtuse and rounded at both ends, composed of 
a definite number of segments, the back covered with two rows of scales ; 
head distinct with two pairs of eyes on the sinciput; proboscis fringed with 
simple tentacles at the orifice, and furnished with two jaws; antenna 3; 
palpi 2; tentacular 2 on each side; these are similar in structure, and 
jointed only at the base; scales naked, 12 placed over every alternate 
segment, so that the 12th is on the 23rd; if there are more scales, the 
succeeding are on every third segment; feet well developed, biramous, but 
the branches are almost connate, furnished with two fascicles of bristles, 
the superior in a spreading tuft, the inferior in a flattish brush, a spine on 
each fascicle; bristles simple, stout, the superior tapered to a serrulate 
point ; the inferior with a claw-like point, and flattened underneath on one 
side of the shaft, where it is roughened with spinous tentacles in claw-set 
transverse series; anal segment with styles. 

** Lepidonotus is easily distinguished from Aphrodita by the number of 
the antennes, by the more powerful armature of the mouth, and by the part 
of the body at which the scales cease to alternate with the cirri. The back 
is either entirely covered with scales, or naked in the middle, the scales in 
the latter case being less developed, and not meeting on the mesial line.” 

* The Lepidonoti are carnivorous. They prey on living invertebrates, 
and the strong do not hesitate to kill the weak of their own and allied 
species; they live in obscurity on rocky shores, and can move with 
considerable quickness. Some of them swim easily in a wriggling manner, 
but they hasten to find the bottom. They have the power of renewing the 
scales, which are frequently removed by abrasion and injury.” 

Lepidonotus squamatus. 
Aphrodita squamata, Linn. Syst. X. 655; XII. 1084. 
epidonotus squamatus, Johnston, Cat. Worms B.M., 

* Body generally about one, rarely two inches iol depressed, linear- 
oblong, of equal breadth at both ends, of a uniform cinereous colour, rough; 
scales twelve on each side, rather large, ovate, imbricate, rough with brown _ 


400 Transactions.—Zoology. 


granulations, ciliated on the external margin, the overlapped smoother 
than the exposed portion, for the granules on the former are more minute 
than on the latter; the anterior scales are smaller and rounder than the 
others, and completely cover the head, which is a sub-triangular pink or 
purplish corneous plate, furnished with four small eyes; antenne three, 
the central one largest, bulbous near the point ; palpi two, longer than the 
antenne, swollen near the apex; the tentacular cirri similar to the superior 
cirri of the feet, these are white, with a blackish ring at the bulb where the 
acumination commences, retractile, originating from above the dorsal branch 
of every alternate foot, and under the scales; the last three pairs of feet 
each with a cirrus; feet twenty-five pairs, obtuse, sub-bifid, the dorsal 
branch shorter and less than the ventral, each terminated with a brush of 
stiff brown bristles, and under the ventral branch there is a small setaceous 
cirrus, and also a fleshy spine at its junction with the belly ; bristles when 
removed golden-yellow, those of the dorsal branch slenderest, gently 
curved, pointed, and serrulate for about half their length, those of the 
ventral branch stouter, slightly bent near the top, and serrulated with a 
double series of teeth on the outer side of the bend, each tuft of bristles 
enclosing a dark brown straight spine, the inferior stouter than the upper 
one; ventral surface straw colour, prismatic, marked with the viscera, and 
sometimes spotted with black near the base of the feet.” (Cat. Worms, 
BiM., p. 107.) 

Two very fine specimens of this species were obtained at Worser Bay in 
August last. 

Lepidonotus yiganteus, sp. nov. 

Body elliptieal, rather broader posteriorly than in the front; convex 
dorsally, of a brown colour, tinged with slate; scales ovate, imbricate, 
coarsely granulate, projecting beyond the sides of the body, towards the 
posterior and lateral margins of each scale the granulations assume the 
character of short stout spines, external margins ciliated, the overlapped 
smoother than the exposed portion ; anterior scales smaller than the others, 
sub-circular, very coarsely granulous, completely covering and projecting 
beyond the head; twenty-five pairs of feet, sub-bifid, the dorsal branch 
much the smaller, and carrying a bunch of silky hairs, while the ventral is 
armed with a bundle of coarse bristles of a deep golden colour. Under the 
ventral branch is a fleshy cirrus. A very obtuse fleshy spine marks the 
junction of each foot with the belly ; ventral surface a pale yellowish white. 

Length, 4 inches ; breadth, 1,4 inches. 

Hab: Wellington. 


T. W. Kirg.—Notes on some New Zealand Crustaceans. 401 


Art. LVII.—Notes on some New Zealand Crustaceans. By T. W. Kmr, 
Assistant in the Colonial Museum. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.) 
Squilla, Fabr. 
Squilla armata, M. Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., IL., p. 521; Gray, Hist. Chile, 
Zool., Vol. IIL, Crust., p. 228; Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. X., p. 474. 

Several very fine specimens of this species were recently obtained in 
Wellington Harbour. 

At the same time a specimen was procured differing from S. armata in 
having a high median crest on the carapace; no spines on the ophthalmic 
segment; only five spines on the terminal joint of the prehensile limbs, 
and a nearly square rostral plate. 

The specimen is much broken, the whole of the thoracic segments aro 
missing. Length about 5 inches. 

Squilla indefensa, Mihi. 

A third specimen of this species was shown to me a short time since; it 
was procured at Waikanae by Mr. J. Taylor, a student of the Wellington 
College, and is now preserved in the Museum of that institution. 

Calocaris, Bell. 
Calocaris macandree, Bell; Brit. Crust., p. 231. 

Two specimens of this remarkable Crustacean were obtained by myself 
a few weeks since, on the Otaki beach, near tho wreck of tho ‘City of 
Auckland. Although they must have been lying on the sand for somo 
hours at least, one of them showed distinctly the delicate pink colouring 
mentioned by Prof. Bell in his description. 

Callianassa, Leach. 
Callianassa. sp. ind. 

A specimen undoubtedly referable to this genus has been obtained by 
Mr. H. B. Kirk, at Island Bay. The carapace is much broken ; right claw 
the largest. Total length, 14 inch. 

Gebia, Leach. 
Gebia hirtifrons, Dana; U.S. Explor. Exped., XIII., Crust., part I., p. 611. 

A specimen in the private collection of Mr. H. B. Kirk appears to belong 
to this species. It measures 24 inches in total length, ** the hand slender, 
hairy, and not dentieulated below; the wrist has a spine at its upper apex 
and one on the inner margin, but none at the lower apex;" legs hairy; 
“front hardly, if at all, three-lobed.” 

The specimen agrees well with the figure of G. hirtifrons, in tho Zoology 
of the Voyage of H.M.SS. ‘ Erebus’ and * Terror,’ 

A21 


402 Transactions.—Zoolony. 


There are also in the collection specimens agreeing well with the descrip- 
tion of G. danat, Miers. 
Portunus, Leach. 
Portunus pusillus, Leach, Malac. Brit., t. IX., f. 5-8; Edwards, Nat. 
Hist. Crust., I., p. 444; Bell, Brit. Crust., p. 112. 

Three specimens agreeing well with Prof. Bell's description are in the 
Colonial Museum ; the only difference being that the New Zealand speci- 
mens have a prominent spine on the anterior margin of hand. 

Female, length, 7; inch; breadth, inch. Male, length, 45; inch; 
breadth, +5; inch. 

Hab. : Cook Strait. 

Podocerus, Leach. 
Podocerus cylindricus, Say, Jour. Acad. Philad., L, part 2; Edwards, 
Hist. des Crust., III., p. 64; Cat. Amp. Crust. B.M., p. 256. 
Three specimens were obtained at Worser Bay, in tangled seaweed. 
Pleustes, Spence Bate. 
Pleustes panoplus, Kroyer, Grön. Amf., p. 42, pl. 2, f. 9; Edwards, 
Hist. des Crust., t. IIL, p. 41: Cat. Amp. Crust. B.M., p. 63. 

Seven specimens at same time and place as last species. 

These are both arctic species, and their occurrence on our coast is 
somewhat remarkable, j 


III.—BOTANY, 


ArT. LVIIT,— Further. Observations upon certain Grasses and Fodder Plants, 
By 8. M. Curt, M.D, 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.) 
Ix addition to those grasses and fodder plants I had the honour to recom- 
mend, in papers read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, in the 
years of 1876 and 1877,* there are others which I have tested, and which I 
would now desire to bring before this scientific society, 

All who have experimented in the introduction, culture, and growth of 
plants in New Zealand, will have been struck with the wonderful way in 
which plants from very differont climates seem to acclimatise themselves 
and do well in this country; and when looking through my notes upon the 
growth of hundreds of genera and species of grasses under test culture, it 
is interesting to find how many there are that have done not only more 
than was expected of them, but that have proved themselves fully worthy 
of being introduced here into the systems of farming and grazing in the 
several localities of this colony. 

The moderate range of temperature between the extreme heat of summer 
and the worst of our cold weather in winter, with the frequent occurring 
rains, seem to enable those plants that can be generally raised from seed to 
accustom themselves to this country, although they may be indigenous to 
very different climates. 

And as grasses and many fodder plants may be frequently removed from 
seed sown, the succeeding are more acclimatised than the preceding genera- 
tion, so that in a few years a race of plants are produced that have become 
accustomed to the climate, and whilst possessing their several characteristics 
have become hardy here, and have developed qualities that are not found in 
other species, and these various differences make them valuable to those 
requiring such particulars in the plants they cultivate. 

In growing grasses and fodder plants, not only is the constant succes- 
sion of growth in the diverse species a matter of much importance, as 
growing greater apania of herbage, but as cach species takos up and 


* Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 581; TUNE 345, 


404 Transactions.— Botany, 


changes into its tissues, structures or parts, elements different from the 
others, the animals fed thereon will not only eat the fresh food with greater 
avidity, but they will digest and assimilate it better than if fed upon ono 
kind alone, and some will grow, thrive, and fatten quicker upon it. And 
further, from the peculiar habits of growth, and their root and leaf action, 
the different species of grasses will, either in mixed pastures or alone, extract 
from the soil, the water, and the air, exactly such qualities and quantities of 
the elements as will build up their own tissues and products, and which 
they alone will be able to present in that peculiar form to the animals fed 
thereon; thus, from the very same fields and farms, the many different 
varieties, species, and genera of grasses, will not only grow and give larger 
quantity than one kind alone, but will present to the animals fed on 
this field or farm, a far larger number and amount of chemical 
elements than ean any one or two species, and it does not require a 
very profound knowledge of physiology and dietetics to understand that 
varieties of food are very beneficial, for though to men and women a beef 
steak, or a vonsion haunch, may be very delightful occasionally, yet if 
they had only these all their lives for every meal, they would have to be 
starved into eating them; and precisely so with our sheep and cattle cating 
rye-grass and clover ali their lives, yet they would thrive much better, and 
pay their owners more quickly, if fed on forty or fifty different species of 
grass and fodder plants. It is well known that the cheese made in certain 
parts of the world, cannot be made elsewhere, and this is because the 
animal cannot obtain the same food and assimilate its elements in other 
places. For while botanists have found over forty kinds of plants in the 
fields of Leicestershire, Gloucestershire, Huntingdonshire, and Cheshire, 
besides other places, and upon any of them the pedigree sheep and cattle 
can feed at their pleasure, it is hardly likely that they will thrive and pay as 
well when forced to live on two or three kinds. And while in the several 
parts of the earth, whether upon the Swiss mountains, the Dutch water 
meadows, the wild pastures of the Cape, America, or Australia, the animals 
fed there develope certain qualities and excellences, without you can provide 
them with the same grasses and fodders they will not do the same else- 
where. But in this favourable land of ours here we can, if we will, make 
these plants grow and thrive upon our fields and pastures, and our sheep 
and cattle will benefit by these introductions and being fed thereon. Now 
that population is pouring into this Colony, and the land will have to be 
more highly tilled and fully worked, it will be necessary to make the same 
quantity of land more profitable and yield a larger return per acre, and 
therefore the pastoralist must sow down fifty or sixty species of grasses, 
where before he has sown only one or two, and the farmer, if he wishes to 


Curt.—On Grasses and Fodder Plants, 405 


grow meat as well as grain, must largely increase the number of his 
fodder plants; not only must he grow several kinds of Sorghums, Maizes, 
Millets, Holcus, Andropogons, Panicums, and other such plants in the hot 
weather of summer, and feed his live stock therefrom, but he must bury 
them in silos, as the French farmers do, for feed in the winter, and at that 
season he will have the advantage over other parts of the world of growing 
feed in the winter itself, by planting those things that will grow favourably 
in the late autumn, the winter itself, and the very early spring. The Sugar 
Beet, the Prickly Comfrey, Cabbages, Turnips, Swedes, Kohl Rabi, various 
kinds of Vetches, winter Oats, Cape Barley, Prairie Grass, and other 
Brome grasses, with some of the best of the indigenous grasses of New 
Zealand added thereto, supplemented by Italian Rye, Devon evergreen Rye, 
several Poas, Anthovanthums, and many other grasses. While the several 
kinds of Achillea, Pentria virgata, the various salt bushes, Apiums, Carrots, 
Menthas, Thymes, and Taraxacum will act as condiment and medicinal 
herbs to the sheep and cattle depastured on the places where they grow. 

And here we must remember the writings and experiences of persons in 
England and countries with as severe a climate, will not serve us, as tho 
conditions of our colony and climate are altogether different. The orange, 
the Eugenia, the guava, and the olive, which cannot bear the winter climate 
of the places round Great Britain, will here grow in the open air, and stand 
our winter frost, as they have done for some years in my experimental 
ground, is a proof of our milder climate. We must therefore experiment 
for ourselves, and thus build up a system of agriculture and grazing suit- 
able for the peculiarities of this colony. But without further dwelling upon 
the difference of climate in this country, and the necessity of a different 
procedure for farmers and graziers to that adopted in Great Britain, we 
will now consider a few more grasses and fodders that might be grown in 
our fields and farms with great advantage. 

Agrostis solandri.—This grass is a native of Eastern Australia, is there 
spoken of very highly as of a nutritious quality, it grows there a quantity of 
herbage during the winter season, and my experience of it in my test 
cultivation was, that it was not only good as a winter grass during the cold 
weather in New Zealand, but that from the greater moisture here, it grows 
further into the summer season as well. It may, therefore, be described as 
a very good permanent pasture grass for autumn, winter, and spring 
growth, and thus is a valuable addition to our permanent mixed pasture 
gasses. There are several varieties which I received from Australia, some 
much better than others. 

Agrostis stolonifera.—A grass found indigenous in Great Britain, which 
Sinclair, and other writers on grasses, brought into prominent notice as a 


406 Transactions.—Botany, 


grass that would cause cows to produce very rich milk, and was then called 
“butter grass.” It was much sown and cultivated in Ireland, and was 
there called “ fiosin,” and highly valued; but during the past fifty years 
the extensive drainage operations have made it less esteemed, and this has 
been brought about by the drains drying the land, and rendering it less 
guitable for its growth, but on damp lands it is very valuable, as my experi- 
ments prove to me. Wherever I sowed it, upon damp or swampy lands, it 
gave a very large amount of exceedingly valuable herbage, and was eagerly 
sought for by the animals, who fattened upon it rapidly. It has proved 
itself a good grass for damp, undrained, or swampy lands, also along the 
edges of streams, or creeks near ground too moist for other nutritious 
grasses to succeed. 

Bromus emarginatus.—This excellent grass should be introduced into all 
mixed pastures, as it grows all through the winter season and withstands 
the ground-frosts that bring so many other grasses to a standstill, while 
its abundant foliage gives an amount of feed during the cold wet weather 
that live stock seem greatly to relish. We may look upon this as a very 
valuable winter grass in these latitudes, and a most useful introduction into 
all moderately open alluvial or loam lands. 

Andropogon laniger.—This fine grass is indigenous in the various parts 
of Eastern Australia. When growing it here, I found it began to shoot 
when the warm weather set in, and continued to grow during the summer, 
and seeded in the autumn ; its short thickly set leaves were much relished 
by sheep, horses, and cattle, and analysis showed they were nutritious and 
fattening. 

Dasuta grass.—The seed of this grass was sent me to test, and upon 
sowing itin tilled loamy soilit eame up freely, and shooting out formed 2 
thick sward; its seed ripened in abundance; this was sown down and 
rapidly covered the ground, showing that this climate suited it. It gives a 
large quantity of herbage, and is green here summer and winter, and if not 
too closely fed or eut down, always shows rapid growth; stock like it. I 
think it would be of great benefit mixed with other grasses as it holds its 
own place amongst them. 

Bromus ciliare.—This fine fattening grass produces an abundance of 
seeds that are as large as those of prairie grass, and though it is of a more 
spreading habit than prairie grass, it resembles it in general character, but 
possesses the merit over prairie grass, that it will bear feeding by stock 
better, and is not so casily destroyed, still it is not so well adapted for close 
feeding as some other grasses named, but proves itself an excellent grass 
forhay. lt grows all the winter and during summer, if the drought is not 
too long continued, and starts afresh after the least rain. 


WA AA AAA AA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AA AAA AWA AAA AA AWA AWA WA WA WAA AAA AA AA AA 


CurL.—0n Grasses and Fodder Plants. 407 


Ceratochloa exaltata.—A strong-growing perennial grass; is useful for 
introduction into perennial mixed grasses, as it possesses a peculiar tasto 
that causes live stock to select it from other kinds, gives a variety constantly 
growing for them to choose from, and, as it is nutritious, it is well adapted 
for sowing with other kinds, as it grows late in the autumn and in the early 
spring, when other grasses are not growing. 

Dactylis altica.—This grass has the habit and general character of the 
cocksfoot, but is better suited for stiffer soils, where the Dactylis glomerata 
does not so well succeed. It grows all the year, but least in the driest 
weather; makes quicker growth than the Dactylis glomerata in winter. It 
is a good grass for permanent pasture, and should be sown when the cocks- 
foot is not suitable. 

Festuca aquatica.—This is a grass that should be sown down along the 
banks of rivers, creeks, streams, and other waters, as it will grow and 
thrive where no other grasses would succeed. It is much liked by stock, 
being fattening and nutritious; horses and cattle will eat it down to the 
ground, so that during summer not a blade can be seen, but the moment a 
shower comes the grass springs, and on all wet or occasionally wet ground, 
this grass ought to be sown. 

Festuca billardiert.—An indigenous Australian grass, which I have found 
to be an excellent grass for permanent mixed pasture. It grows in tho 
winter, spring, and autumn, and after every shower in the summer, at all 
seasons of its growth, will send up an abundance of highly-nutritious herb- 
age, and is a grass all stock thrive on; it should be widely introduced. It 
is 2 producer of abundant seed, and will readily propagate itself if onco 
fairly sown and fairly treated. 

Glyceria aquatica.— This fine grass has proved itself with me a largo 
producer of seed, by which it sows itself along tho water-courses and 
swamps, sending out an abundance of green leaves all the year in all damp 
situations, so that the stock, in places where before only rushes and sedges 
grew, are able to keep themselves in good condition upon it. It is therefore 
& very desirable introduction into suitable places, as one of a mixture with 
others recommended for such situations, and where grasses suited for dry 
localities would fail. 

Elymus arenarius.—'This grass is an admirable introduction for all sandy 
lands, as it will help to fix shifting sand, and, with a little trouble at first, 
will make land available that otherwise would be useless ; having procured 
seed of this Elymus, I sowed it, and having read the statement of writers, 
that it was worthless as a herbage plant, was surprised to learn that the 
cattle and sheep had eaten it down, and this they have continued to do, _ 
whenever they have been allowed to get at it. Upon analysing it, I was 


403 Transactions.— Botany. 


astonished to find that it contained a considerable quantity of materials that 
the digestive organs would be able to convert into sugar and peptones, and 
that it would pass into their systems as nourishment, so that it is here not 
only a useful grass to fix sand, and grow where other grasses would not, but 
the conditions of this climate had made it a useful grass for live stock 
on places where other grasses would not live. 

Poa aquatica.—This strong-growing water-grass is another of the useful 
grasses for wet, damp lands where other grasses will not grow, and should 
be sown as a mixture upon such wet places, as its season of greatest 
growth differs from that of others here described. 

Poa aquatica of Australia.—This Australian water-grass is very different 
to the European Poa aquatica, but, having received the seed under this 
name and grown it, I found it a grass that, in damp situations, grew very 
fast in the hottest summer weather; it is therefore good to introduce it, as 
its season of strongest growth is different to the other water-grasses. It 
grows scarcely at all during cold weather in this colony. 

Fanicum longistylum.—This is a grass that should be introduced into 
permanent mixed pasture, as it grows during the autumn, when many other 
grasses are at rest, and continues here to throw up its singular seed-heads 
far on into the winter. 

Paspalum scrobiculatum is also another very useful Australian grass, | 
which grows well with me during the summer, and it would do well if intro- 
duced into permanent pasture; both stock and sheep like it. The Australian 
variety differs in several respects from the Paspalum scrobiculatum indi- 
genous to New Zealand. 

Phalaris bulbosa or P. minor.—This excellent perennial grass produces 
a large quantity of fine sweet foliage, very readily eaten by stock, and which 
quickly puts them in good condition. It keeps green far into the winter, 
even ripening its seed-heads in the late autumn. It is well worthy of 
introduction into permanent pastures, and its seeds, which are quite as 
large as the Phalaris canariensis, will, if this grass is made into hay, add to 
its nutritious qualities. 

Danthonia penicillata.—A narrow-leaved native grass of Queensland, that 
seems in this climate to have changed its habits, and grows well through 
the autumn and winter, during which seasons its fine green foliage is picked 
out from the other grasses and eaten readily by cattle and sheep, and is 
useful in mixed pasture from its growing during the season when the many 
other grasses are at rest. 

Festuca dimorpha is another of the grasses that it would be advisable to 
“introduce, from its habit of winter growth, which makes it of value when 
feed is less abundant, 


EDT EE ET TNNT RET ES WA AA UWA N WA 


Cvnr.—On Grasses and Fodder Plants. 409 


Festuca drymija.—This is also a grass that may be sown with advantage, 
as in the late summer rains, and in the autumn and winter, it disregards 
the frosts in these parts and goes on growing, sending up its leaves that 
supply a nutritive feed to the animals that are evidently glad to get it, and 
which thrive thereon. 

Bromus giganteus.—I received seed of this grass from two different 
sources, namely, Great Britain and Australia. They appear to possess 
somewhat different habits of growth, although their botanical characters 
are similar, the British variety growing better in the late winter, and the 
kind from Australia best in the autumn, but both throwing up large 
quantities of tender succulent feed, bearing feeding by cattle well, but must 
not be too closely cropped by sheep. When sown down in permanent 
pasture they add greatly to the quantity of hay, both to its bulk as well as 
its nutritious qualities, and can therefore with advantage be introduced into 
permanent pastures. 

There are several other bromes, and many other varieties of grasses that 
are suitable for the pastoralist to sow, and which I should like to mention, 
but must wait for another opportunity; and I will now pass on to those 
plants that will yield fodder to the farmer and others who may require 
them. 

The Symphytum asperrimum (prickly comfrey) has of late years again 
received considerable attention, and wishing to test its value in New 
Zealand, I obtained roots of the different kinds from England, France, 
Australia and other places, and having got them, subjected them to test 
culture. They have grown and thriven well, and I have no doubt that this 
climate and the conditions it will find here, will suit it very well. I believe 
it will be a very valuable plant for using as fodder for cows to increase their 
milk, for feeding bullocks, horses, and sheep. There are several varieties 
have been sent me, some are more vigorous growers than others, they can 
be easily brought hero in wardian, or such-like cases, with very few failures. 
My last consignment was a case containing one thousand small roots, they 
were four months before I could get them iu their case. I had them put 
in the ground by common labourers, and yet over cight hundred of them 
are now growing, they have had no watering during warm weather, or other 
artificial care, as I wanted to try what they would do if planted out and left 
to themselves, and the result has been that they stood the driest, hottest, 
coldest, and most windy weather, and grew through it all, so that, bearing 
this rough treatment without any digging, manuring, hoeing, or other 
cultivating, and yet growing vigorously, they must be regarded as able to 
stand unfavourable conditions well, and if, with this treatment, they prove 
that they can keep a large number of live stock to the area upon which 

A22 


410 Transactions.— Botany. 


they grow, and make them improve in condition quickly, they may then be 
regarded as a useful and good addition to our fodder plants, but as I never 
think much of any plaut until it has had five or six years testing, it is too 
soon yet to say much in favour of this plant. 

The Prosopis pubescens, or screw bean tree. As soon as I heard this 
plant was considered to be a useful one for fodder, I procured specimens 
and seed. The seeds vegetated, and the plants are growing slowly, so that 
in a few years we shall be able to learn whether it will grow freely in this 
country. I read of a strange test which was applied to try the use of this 
tree. A horse was given all he liked to eat of the pods with the seed in 
them, and he liked them so well that he ate about four pounds of the dry 
husks or screw pods. The result was what might have been expected. The 
horse was found dead the following morning. No doubt the same event 
would have occurred had the horse been fed with any other such dry 
material, and, although the horse’s death was attributed by the writer to 
the poisonous effect of the screw bean, I think it was rather to be ascribed 
to the large amount of dry husk swallowed, as a horse has often killed him- 
self by eating too treely wheat chaff, bran, or even whole wheat itself; so the 
death of this animal does not prove that the screw bean is poisonous, but 
that too large an amount of dry food becomes injurious to any animal 
partaking too freely of it. But there are better trees of this Prosopis genus 

. than the screw bean, and some of them are found most excellent fodder for 
horses, and other live stock where they grow, and I intend to get them as 
soon as possible and try them here. 

There are also among the plants that are worthy of culture as annuals 
by farmers for fodder to cut green, or to dry and make into hay, several 
of the millets that will do well here, and yield a large crop of herbage and 
seed, and that are readily eaten by horses, cattle, and sheep. 

A millet from Queensland I tried. It began to grow in the aina 
coming up very guickly; by the autumn it had ripened its seed; the herbage 
is tender, succulent, and relished by all stock; it grows about three feet 
high, shooting out thickly. 

A millet from France much resembles tho preceding, but bears 2 
larger and more abundant seed; it sends out branches from the joints, 
which also seed ; from the large quantity of seed and its succulent green 
stems and leaves, it proves itself a useful fodder-plant. 

Milium effusum is another plant that gives a large quantity of seed, and 
as it will grow under trees or bush, it might be sown there in the place of 
other kinds not suitable; it also does well if grown with tares or vetches, 
and when cut together can be used as a fodder with great advantage. 

Hungarian millet also does well here, and ripens its enormous heads of 


CurL,—0On Pituri, a new Vegetable Product, 411 


seeds, and although if left to ripen, its seed-stalks are dry, and not so 
nutritious as the Milium effusum, yet the very great quantity of seed and 
heavy crop produced to the acre, makes it a plant worthy of culturo for 
fodder in suitable places, and in rotation. 

A large variety of Vetches, some of which I obtained from Malta, have 
proved themselves more prolific and of greater forage value than cither the 
summer or winter vetches more usually grown, both for cutting when 
green and in the autumn cutting, and burying in pits or silos, as managed 
in France, and in the winter digging out and feeding stock on the farms. 
The farmers might greatly increase the numbers of live stock kept and 
fattened on the farm by adopting this plan. 

Chicklin vetches I have found abundant bearers of seed, and a useful 
forage plant that all live stock will eat whenever they can get them, and it 
would fatten them quickly. 

Having extended this paper to as great a length as I dare venture to 
trespass upon the Society’s time, although there are so many other plants 
that deserve to be noticed and introduced, yet a notice of them must await 
a future opportunity if the Society should desire it, 


Art. LIX.—On Pituri, a new Vegetable Product that deserves further Investi- 
gation. By 8. M. Curt, M.D. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 31st August, 1878.] 

Tae Wellington Philosophical Society being the recognised medium of 
bringing before the scientific and general public any scientific matter, I 
venture to urge upon its experimenting members the desirability of further 
investigating a peculiar vegetable substance called Pituri, that has lately 
been studied and investigated by myself and others. 

Pituri consists of the dried leaves and other parts of plants that contain 
organic elements, and when swallowed by individuals, appears to enable 
them to sustain a severer and more continued exertion than they would be 
able to bear without its use. 

It has been long known to those acquainted with the habits of the 
aboriginals of Australia, that they used a substance bearing in the different 
tribes different names ; that when they were going upon long journeys over 
desert tracks, where they would not be able to get food or water, or when 
they were about to undertake any unusual exertion, or when any question 
of moment to them would require more mental exertion than usual, or 


412 Transactions.—Botany. 


when in short they would be called upon to sustain any severe strain upon 
their mental or physical power, they would then take out of a bag, in which 
they carried it, some dried vegetable substance, and would chew or masticate 
small quantities of it, aud would at intervals during their desert travel 


masticate and swallow small portions of this substance, and they could thus: 


for days sustain themselves without food, until they could reach places 
where food, ete., was again procurable. 

It is further known that the individuals of the several tribes valued this 
material very highly, and that they obtained it from a distant tribe, paying 
for it by a kind of barter, and that the users did not know the plant from 
which it was gathered. 

The knowledge of these facts had caused various scientific persons in 
Australia—Baron von Müeller, Dr. Bancroft, and others—to be very 
desirous to learn more about this material, and to investigate its properties. 

When Mr. Gilmore upon one occasion was travelling, he came across a 
tribe who, being remarkable in other respects, claimed to have certain of 
their old men who knew where the Pituri was procured, and the plants from 
which it was obtained. Mr. Gilmore was afterwards fortunate enough to 
procure specimens of the dried Pituri, and gave portions to several scientific 
persons to experiment with. 

Dr. Bancroft made several very interesting experiments with this 
material, both in its dried state and also with an extract prepared from it, 

Baron von Miller, having received a portion and examined it 
microscopically and otherwise, believed that a considerable part of the dried 
substance was the leaf of a small tree or shrub, which he defined as Duboisia 
hopwoodii, which is indigenous in several of the warmer parts of Australia. 
Having procured, through the kindness of Mr. Barley, a supply of the 
dried Pituri, I was able to investigate it, and to confirm the results obtained 
by Dr. Bancroft to some extent, which results shall be as briefly as possible 
related hereunder, with a view to inducing all who have the means to 
further investigate this very curious, and as it appears, very important 
substance, which promises not only to be a very valuable medicinal remedy, 
but to be what it is claimed the coca of the Peruvians is (the dried leaves 
of the Erythorylon coca), a nervine and stimulant that sustains function, 
and retards tissue waste. 

Before giving the results of my experiments with Pituri, it will be well 
to see what Baron von Miieller and others say of it. 

“ The natives of Central Australia chew the leaves of Duboisia hopwoodit, 
just like the Peruvians, and Chilians masticate the leaves of the coca 
( Erythorylon coca) to invigorate themselves during their long foot-journeys 
through the desert. Iam not certain whether the aboriginals of all districts 


CurL.—On Pituri, a new Vegetable Product, 418 


in which the Pituri grows are really aware of its stimulating power. Those 
living near the Barcoo, travel many days’ journey to obtain this to them 
precious foliage, which is carried always about by them broken into small 
fragments and tied up in little bags. It is not impossible that a new and 
perhaps important medicinal plant is thus gained. The blacks use the 
Duboisia to excite their courage in warfare; a large dose infuriates them. 

| ** (Signed) Ferp. von MUELLER. 

“ 15th February, 1877.” 

Mr. W. O. Hodgkinson, writing to Dr. Bancroft on February 15, 1877, 
after giving a description of the localities where he found the plant, ete., 
says :—“ The resident natives carry on a considerable traffic in this plant, 
representatives of tribes from other quarters coming to procure it. It is 
used, after being sweated beneath a coating of fine sand, as a narcotic 
stimulant, strictly kept for the solace of the old men, or for occasions when 
long privations have to be endured, or some solemnity performed. * 

* * When used on the march, a portion is put into the mouth chewed, 
until it assumes the form and consistency of a sailor’s quid, passed round 
YA one of the party, the saliva promoted by its use being swallowed. * 

* * When with Burke and Wills’ expedition, subsequently with 
Mr. John McKinlay, and recently in the North West Expedition, I used 
Petchere, or Petury, or Pituri, habitually when procurable, in default of 
tobacco, and have very often chewed it both in its raw and prepared state." 

Dr. Bancroft tried experiments upon dogs, cats, rats, and frogs, and 
gives the results of its effects upon them :— 

* 1st. Period of preliminary excitement from apparent loss of inhibitory 
power of the eerebrum, attended with rapid respiration ; in cats and dogs 
with vomiting and profuse secretion of saliva ; in dogs there is retraction of 
the eye-ball. 

** 2nd. Irregular muscular action, followed by general convulsion. 

“ 8rd. Paralysis of respiratory function of medulla. 

* 4th, Death; or 

* 5th. Sighing inspirations at long intervals. 

* 6th. Rapid respiration, and returning consciousness. 

“7th. Normal respiration, and general torpidity, not unattended with 
danger to life. 

* Death is caused chiefly as in tetanus, by excessive contraction of the 
respiratory muscles and suffocation.  Pituri does not dilate the pupil when 
applied locally, though dilation is seen to some extent. When given by 
subcutaneous injection, the extreme retraction of the eye-ball in dogs is 
very remarkable." He goes on to say it! In small medicinal dosia a we 


d This was in a letter to the Editor of the Australian Medical Journal. 


414 Transactions.—Botany, 


may expect to find the period of excitement and the torpidity to be the only 
marked symptoms," And further he adds :—‘‘ Of the medicinal uses of 
Pituri little at present can be said. I have given it in some cases of 
extreme debility, but in doses much too small to enable me to speak of its 
value. I would expect it to be & tonic nervine, that could be used along 
with alcohol.” 

My experiments with Pituri were made with the leaves themselves, with 
the infusion, and with the extract of the leaves, and were performed upon 
domestic animals and myself. The results were somewhat similar to those 
of the gentlemen herein referred to; but as I had not a sufficiency of the 
Pituri for a very extensive series of experiments, I used up what I had, and 
am waiting for a further supply before continuing others. The results I 
have at present arrived at are: When the leaves are chewed by a man 
unaccustomed to its use, it excites increased flow of saliva; a slight dilation 
of the pupil; the heart’s action is accelerated, the beats being increased in 
number by from five to eight in the minute; a pain in the hind part of the 
head is felt ; the respirations are reduced in volume ; there is slight nausea. 

These symptoms pass off after a short time. Then is felt increased 
museular irritability ; a feeling of greater power; an inclination exists to 
move the museles in some vigorous manner; the heart beats stronger; the 
diaphragm acts more forcibly; respiration is performed slower; muscular 
exertion is more easily done, and greater exertion can be made without 
fatigue; a desire for muscular movement continues for a long time; partial 
anesthesia of the skin is felt for some hours; sense of touch is lessened ; 
no feeling of hunger or thirst is felt, if food or drink is not taken for twenty- 
four hours; the excretions are decreased in quantity, and chemical con- 
stituents altered ; there is less carbonic acid in the air expired than normal. 

If the extract or infusion is given to animals so that it enters their 
system by the digestive organs, much the same train of symptoms is 
observed; but if it is injected subcutaneously, then the symptoms more 
nearly approach those described from the observations of Dr. Bancroft. 

From such experiments as I have hitherto been able to make, I have 
no doubt that the active principles of the Pituri, acting as it does upon the 
great nerve eentres and ganglions, and also on the muscles, increasing the 
irritability of their muscular fibre elements, and while it is acting upon the 
nerves and muscles, the growth of cells is retarded, and thus tissue change 
is modified and lessened, the individual under its influence being thus able 
to undergo exertion without food, which without it, he could not sustain. 

It is, therefore, one of the few active agents that hereafter will be of 
considerable serviee to the physician and others, that when properly given 
or used, will prolong and preserve life, by carrying on the organie functions 


G. M. Tuomson.—On Cleistogamic Flowers of the Genus Viola. — 415 


over the crises of diseases, or enable exertion or effort to be sustained, when 
withoutit death or very severe disease would ensue. But it will be well 
here to insist that it be in all cases swallowed, and not used by sub- 
cutaneous injection, as it thus acts quite differently in some respects, and 
is modified in others, and would always be better given medicinally in that 
way, than when subcutaneously injected, as when swallowed it is mixed 
with the saliva and gastric fluids, which modify its action, whereas if 
injected under the skin it is absorbed, and acts in a differ ent, as well as a 
more sudden and violent manner. I am not now able to speak as to the 
doses that will be most beneficial, as my supply of Pituri is exhausted, but 
small and repeated doses of the leaves, or a powder thereof masticated, or 
mixed with some linctus, or in the form of lozenges, so that it will be well 
mixed with the saliva, are the best forms of using it. But as it can be more 
fully studied, no doubt other facts will reveal themselves with regard to it 
and to its uses and proper place in the materia medica. At all events, if 
these observations cause others to examine this important agent, and when 
it is better known, and health is gained or life is saved by this drug, my 
object in bringing this matter before the Society will be gained. 


Art. LX.— Notes on Cleistogamic Flowers of the Genus Viola. 
By Grorcr M. Tuomson. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 14th May, 1878.) 
Ir is a well-known fact that, owing to the poverty of insect life in these 
islands, the number of entomophilous plants, i.e., those requiring insect aid in 
securing fertilization, is small in comparison with most other parts of the 
world. Hence, also, the comparative want of gaily-coloured flowers, and the 
prevalence of white, green, and inconspicuous flowers. As every fact 
bearing on the question of fertilization of flowers gives us additional insight 
into the relations of the indigenous fauna and flora, I make no further 
apology for communicating the following notes to the Institute. 

There are many plants which produce two kinds of hermaphrodite 
flowers, viz., tolerably large and conspicuous flowers, fitted for cross-fertili- 
zation by means of insects, and small, closed ones, more or less depauperated, 
and sometimes produced underground, fitted only for self-fertilization. These 
last are known as Cleistogamic (Gr. kleistos, closed; gamos, union). In Dar- 
win's latest botanical work, “On Different Forms of Flowers," there is 
given & list of fifiy-fivo genera, certain species of which produce these 
flowers, Of the genus Viola, fifteen species are named, which produce, 


416 Transactions.— Botany. 


more or less completely, cleistozamie flowers. V. tricolor, the parent plant 
of our garden pansy, does not produce them, and we find in the above list 
a gradation in the amount of depauperation, which appears to reach its 
maximum in the Indian V. nana. This species, though producing perfect 
flowers in its native habitat in the Sikkim Terai, produced only cleistogamic 
flowers in Calcutta, and in Mr. Darwin’s greenhouse, and this for many 
successive seasons. 

Three species of Viola have been described as occurring in New Zealand. 
Of these I have not seen V. lyalli, but have examined the other two. The 
presence of cleistogamic flowers on these plants has long been known, but 
their structure has not been minutely deseribed, and most people take them 
for buds. 

Viola filicaulis, Hook. f. 

This species bears exceedingly variable flowers, some being only slightly 
depauperated, while others are completely closed. I am strongly inclined 
io think that those plants which grow in open, sunny spots, produce more 
of the conspieuous flowers than those growing in hidden and out-of-the-way 
corners. Clumps of the plant were in many cases gathered from deep 
clefts among rocks, and these were found in most cases to be covered with 
cleistogamie flowers, but to have few or none of the conspicuous ones. 

The ordinary flowers of this plant are produced on slender peduncles 
from three to six inches in length. 

The petals, which are about twice as long as the sepals, 
are white or pale blue, elegantly streaked with brown and 
yellow ; the lower one being furnished with a very short, 
obtuse spur. The stamens are well developed, with a 

_ thin, broad connective, which extends considerably above 
the anther lobes, and the two lower stamens are furnished 
with short, truncate spurs. The style is long and curved, 
and terminated by a quadrangular stigmatic aperture. 

The cleistogamie flowers are borne on curved peduncles, 
very close to the root, from 3 to 1 inch in length. The 
flowers themselves are very small, seldom exceeding a 
si agree of an inch in length. The sepals are similar in 
dun and development to those of the ordinary flowers. 
1h. The petals are shorter than and included in the sepals, 

La urred stamen and are all regular in shape. The stamens appear to be 

anche negem all represented, but none have the spur. The filaments 
caulis x 25. are narrow, not extended laterally, but prolonged shortly 

1, E ollen quor above the anthers to a short, acute hood. The anthers 

x 225, are applied closely to the pistil, and the pollen grains, 


G. M. Taomson.—Notes on Cleistogamie Flowers of the Genus Viola. 417 


while still in the anther cells, may be seen emitting their tubes to the 
stigma. The style is nearly as long as that of the conspicuous flowers, 
but in order to bring the stigma within reach of the 
pollen, it lies coiled and twisted on the summit of the 


ovary. In some of the flowers all the stamens were 
reduced to mere filaments except one; in others there 
occurs one stamen with both anthers; another with a 


single anther, the rest being represented by filaments ; 
while others again had the rudiments of anthers, but 

no pollen. The size of the pollen grains varied some- 

S9 what in the two kinds of flowers. In the large, con- 
> Q spicuous flowers, the grains appeared uniform in size and 

in shape, and averaged about byth of an inch in length; 
2, a. Si ves from in the cleistogamic flowers, the larger grains were similar 
ar. end X 36. in shape and length to those of the larger flowers, while 
2, b. Pollen grains the majority were rounder and thicker, and not more than 
uu WA | T tooth of an inch in length. 
Viola cunninghamii, Hook. f. 

This species, as a rule, flowers earlier than the preceding. When 
examined by me during the month of January, it bore abundance of cleisto- 
gamic flowers, while the empty valves of their capsules showed that the 
other flowers had already ripened and shed their seed. The ordinary 
flowers are very similar to those of V. filicaulis, and are produced on pedun- 
cles of similar length. The cleistogamic flowers are produced on very short 
peduneles, which lengthen in fruit to or 3 of an inch. All the parts 
in these flowers are very small. The sepals are all present, and of the 
normal form, but the petals are wanting; their disappearance seems to be 
complete, as there was no trace of their presence. 

The stamens are very feebly developed. Two of them have both 
their anthers developed, but these are very small and do not contain 
much pollen. The filament is narrow below, but has its 
upper part extended into a hood. These two stamens are 
placed on opposite sides of the pistil, and their hoods com- 
pletely overlap and enclose it, their anthers being in contact 
with the short, obtuse stigma. 

In all the flowers examined by me, there seemed no 
departure from this type of structure, nor was there the 
variability which I noticed in the cleistogamic flowers of V. 


f filicaulis. 
ab 
8, a. Hooded stamen from cleistogamic flower of V. cunninghamii x 25. 


9, b. Rudimentary stamen from the same x 26, 429 


418 Transactions.— Botany. 


Arr. LXI.—On the means of Fertilization among some New Zealand Orchids. 
By G. M. Tuomson. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 11th June, 1878.] 
Tre following notes drawn up from jottings made during the past spring 
and summer, are by no means exhaustive, but may rather be looked upon 
as a small contribution to our already existing information on this interest- 
ing subject. 

Of the eleven genera which are represented in this part of the island, I 
have made more or less lengthened observations on ten, viz.: Karina, Den- 
drobium, Corysanthes, Microtis, Caladenia, Pterostylis, Chiloglottis, Lyperan- 
thus, Thelymitra and Prasophyllum. I was not fortunate enough to obtain 
specimens of Gastrodia, which is a very readily overlooked plant. 

Some of my specimens were cultivated, and thus yielded more certain 
information than those which were examined in the wild state. 

One fact which has struck me during these investigations is, that I have 
hardly ever been able to capture insects carrying pollen on any part of their 
body. Only when examining beds of Corysanthes have I found insects with 
pollinia. It is possible that the general coldness of the past season, and 
the remarkable scarcity of all kinds of insects, have had a good deal to do 
with this. If this is the case, of course a disturbing element has been 
introduced to some extent into my observations. 

Tribe EPrpexpREZ. 
(1.) Earina autumnalis, 

I have had a large clump of this species in cultivation all summer, but 
owing probably to the want of warmth it only came into bloom towards 
the end of March. It produced abundance of flowers, however, having 
about 1100 on it when examined on 6th April. 

The flowers are only about 3 of an inch in diameter, white in colour, 
with a yellow centre, and with an almost over-poweringly sweet perfume. 
The labellum is 3-lobed, stands nearly erect in front of the column, and has 
its lateral lobes produced forward at right angles to it. It bears two 
strongly marked longitudinal ridges on its surface, which almost touch the 
sides of the column, and leave a minute nearly square passage to its base. 
There is no nectary, but the tissue at the base of the labellum is easily 
punctured, and exudes beads of moisture. The column is short and erect, 
the stigmatic surface very concave, with the viscid rostellum projecting 
prominently forward above it. The anther is termitial and deciduous, and 
encloses four pyriform pollinia attached in pairs to a short caudicle. 

From the position of the parts it appears to be impossible that self- 
fertilization could take place. The pollinia are remarkably coherent, and 


G, M. Taomson,—0On the Fertilization of some New Zealand Orchids. 419 


lie very closely ensconced in the anther case. For fertilization by insects, 
however, the parts are very simply fitted. The rostellum with the attached 
caudicle projects to a small point, and is viscid on the edge and under-surface. 
An insect visiting the flower would insert its head or proboscis into the 
small square aperture between the labellum and the column, and in with- 
drawing would inevitably touch the viscid surface. The slightest touch 
brings away the pollinia, usually all four, but sometimes only two. Were 
they to be withdrawn just as they lie on the summit of the column, they 
would hardly be in the position to strike the stigmatic surface of another 
flower; but in being withdrawn, the cap of the anther pulls them slightly 
downwards and depresses the caudicle considerably. I repeatedly imitated 
the action with the point of a pencil or needle, and found in every case that 
the pollinia came away readily, and were depressed considerably below a 
right-angle to the surface to which they adhered. In this position they 
were easily placed on the stigma of a second flower. I carefully examined 
91 flowers, and found that the pollinia had been removed from the anthers 
in 41 cases, and remained intact in 50; this too in bright, warm weather. 
Of course the plants were not in their native habitat, which might account 
partly for lack of the usual bush-frequenting insects. Those spikes pro- 
minently placed on the plant usually had the pollinia of their flowers more 
or less removed, while those which were buried among the leaves had not 
as a rule been visited, 
Tribe Maraáxr. 

(2.) Dendrobium cunninghamii, 

This beautiful orchid has its flowers evidently fitted for cross-fertiliza- 
tion. The upper sepal is lanceolate in form, and is the smallest in the 
whorl. The lateral sepals are broad at the base, and adnate to the 
produced base of the column. The lateral petals are linear oblong. 
The labellum is widely expanded above the middle, with two small lateral 
lobes, and bears on its face five elevated ridges or plates, It is attached 
to the base of the column by a short and very elastic claw. The column 
stands in the flower exactly like the letter J, being produced forward at the 
base, and terminated by a large green glandular swelling. en the 
flower is open, a small drop of nectar is always found at the base of 
this swelling. The erect portion or limb of the column is rather long. 
The anther is terminal, and encloses four narrow and flattish pollen 
masses, attached in pairs to a strap-shaped caudicle. The stigmatic 
surface is placed slightly below it, and is nearly square. When in the 
bud, the lower surface is hollowed into a deep pit, and on its summit, 
standing directly in front of the bases of the pollinia, is the rostellum, 
which at this early stage is membranous, As the flower opens, the cells 


420 -~ Transactions.— Botany. 


of the rostellum become converted into & milky and excessively viscid 
substance, while the whole surface of the stigma secretes abundantly a 
clear, viscid matter, and a drop of sweet fluid is secreted at the base of 
the column. 

The action of the parts is exceedingly simple. An insect alighting on 
the labellum weighs it down very easily, and thus gains access to the nectar 
at its base. The elasticity of the labellum, however, tends to keep it press- 
ing against the column, and thus compels the insect to brush against the 
viscid rostellum. The pollinia are very easily withdrawn by an upward 
movement, as can be seen by introducing a needle or pencil point, and 
touching the rostellum in withdrawing it, when one or more of the pollinia 
will be withdrawn with it. The lateral lobes of the labellum and the guiding 
ridges on its surface would prevent an insect reaching the nectar without 
touching the rostellum when leaving the flower; and any insect entering 
another flower with pollinia on its head, could not fail to leave these on the 
stigma. By inserting a fly, this action was easily seen, all four pollinia 
` being withdrawn, with their eaudicle glued over the insect's right eye. Out 
of twenty-two flowers examined, only five had their pollinia removed from 
the anther cases, but as the plant was growing on a veranda away from 
its native habitat, this was no criterion. I regret that I did not fertilize 
any of the flowers on this plant with their own pollen. Those fertilized by 
pollen from other flowers on the same plant produced fine capsules. 

Tribe ARETHUSEA. 
(8.) Corysanthes macrantha. 

Both this species and C. rivularis were examined by me, but the flowers 
are almost identical in structure, the difference not affecting the relations of 
the parts. They are very striking in appearance, owing to their lurid 
purple colour, and the long twisted sepals and petals, which give them an 
extraordinary resemblance to a large spider sitting on a leaf. The upper 
sepal is large, prominent, and helmet-shaped, and projects forward over the 
flower. The labellum is large and involute, almost semi-cylindrical, with 
its external margin fimbriated and expanded downwards into a longish tip. 
It is not attached continuously at its base. On each side of the flower, 
when in bud, a small slit is seen, which widens by an expansion of the 
margin (which is thus caused to arch slightly outwards) into a small circular 
aperture. By the contact of the in-turned edges of the labellum, and the 
overlapping of the upper sepal, a horizontal aperture is left in the mouth of 
the flower, which bends at right-angles a little way in, and opens into a 
tolerably large cavity. Placed quite at the bottom of this is the short, 
thick column, lying almost horizontally in C. rivularis, and somewhat more 
erect in C, macrantha, The stigmatic cavity is deep, and on its posterior 


G. M. Tuomsox.—On the Fertilization of some New Zealand Orchids. 491 


margin is the rostellum. This is formed of large cells, covered with a very 
delicate membrane. If this be touched with a bristle, it is almost instantly 
ruptured, and a small, very viscid drop of matter exudes, In withdrawing 
the bristle the pollinia are brought away with it. The anther is terminal 
(posterior), and has broad lateral projections. The pollinia are four in 
number, in two pairs, and in the form of plates. The flowers do not appear 
to secrete any nectar, but when the surface of the labellum is slightly 
punctured, a considerable amount of sweetish purple juice exudes, which is 
probably grateful to insects. From the shape of the flowers, it is necessary 
to cut them longitudinally to see the parts. Looking at the position of the 
anther and stigma, it appears to me almost impossible that self-fertilization 
can take place; at the same time it is somewhat difficult to suggest any 
satisfactory way in which an insect could accomplish either this or cross- 
fertilization. I presume that any insect entering the flower would have to 
back out again by the same way as it entered, and in doing so it would 
come in contact with the rostellum, and would remove the pollinia on its 
head. It is also probable that, in endeavouring to obtain from a second 
flower any of the sweet juices from the tissue at the base of the labellum, it 
would slightly advance its head, so as to bring the pollinia attached to it on 
to the stigma. Again, it is possible that self-fertilization might be secured 
by an insect thus getting the pollinia on its head, and then endeavouring to 
push its way down through the small lateral apertures. In doing so, it 
would almost certainly smear the stigma with pollen from the same flower, 
and I have sometimes been inclined to think that such did take place. At 
the same time, this would seem like putting an unnecessary difficulty in the 
way of what is usually a very simple process, and therefore no great value 
is to be attached to this idea. 

For a time I could not understand why spiders frequented these flowers 
so much, but I soon found a sufficient cause. The only insects capable of 
removing pollen which were found about the flowers were small Diptera— 
probably a species of Culex. In several cases these small flies had penetrated 
into the tube of the flower, and, in their eagerness after the sweet juices 
found there, brought their heads in contact with both rostellum and stigma, 
and partly owing to the viscidity of these parts, and partly to the narrowness 
and bending of the tube, were unable to withdraw backwards. In some 
flowers insects were thus found still alive, in others they were dead, while 
in many others only portions of them, such as legs, wings, etc., were left, 
the spiders having devoured the rest. In every case in which a captured 
insect was withdrawn from its trap, the pollinia were removed also, securely 
attached to the front of the head. ; 

I closely examined 143 flowers, and found that in 47 the pollinia were 


422 Transactions, —Botany. 


still in the anther cells; from 90 they had been removed, while in 6, dead 
or living insects were found glued to the stigma. Of the whole number 
examined, only a small proportion ultimately produced capsules, 

The flowers of this genus will well repay examination, 

(4.) Microtis porrifolia. 

In the flowers of this species the column is protected by a broad, flat 
hood, formed by the posterior sepal and the two lateral petals. The lateral 
sepals are completely reflexed, and lie back against the ovary. The 
labellum is large and pendulous, hanging out from the front of the flower 
like a tongue, It is rectangular in shape, rather longer than broad, with 
the margin crimped and curled, and bearing three glandular projections on 
its surface. Two of these are situated together near the base, and enclose 
& small depression or pit. This, from its position and appearance, I take 
to be a nectary, but I was unable to detect any liquid in it. The third 
gland is formed by an irregular wart-like mass of cells, and is situated near 
the apex of the labellum. I have not investigated its functions, nor do I 
know how its presence can be accounted for. The column is very short, 
and stands almost square, this appearance being caused by the wings or 
auricles which stand up on each side. Beneath these is the hooded anther, 
enclosing four pollinia, which lie very loosely in their cells. They present 
the appearance of two masses, but each is composed of a large outer and a 
smaller inner sheet, of a reniform shape, united by their threads to a short 
caudicle. In front of and somewhat below them is the viscid rostellum, 
towards the apex of which a minute white point is visible, which marks 
their point of attachment. The rostellum projects considerably outwards, 
so that the stigmatic surface is placed in a recess. The slightest touch on 
the viscid dise suffices to bring away one or both pollinia, the matter being 
excessively viseid. An insect alighting on the rostellum, and advancing its 
head to examine the glands at its base, would be certain to touch the 
rostellum and bring away the pollinia. These fall slightly by their own 
weight, so that on entering 2 second flower, they would be in such a posi- 
tion on the front of the insect’s head as to touch the stigma immediately 
underthe rostellum. In the first spike examined by me, 39 flowers were 
fully opened, and all but the top one had their pollinia removed. 

Even when not fertilized by insects however, these flowers are readily 
self-fertilized, and during the past season this appears to have been the 
case with the great majority. After a time, the pollinia appear withered 
and brown, and somewhat dragged forward from their anther cells, while 
the ovary begins to enlarge, showing that pollination has taken place. If 
such flowers are examined carefully, it will be found that the pollen grains 
have emitted a great mass of tubes, which penetrate the upper margin of 


G. M. Tuomson.—On the Fertilization of some New Zealand Orchids. 423 


the stigma, thus ensuring fertilization. I found this to be the case in 
several hundred flowers which I examined. The position of the labellum 
on the underside of this flower is caused by the usual twisting of the pedicel 
or ovary, which is so common in many orchids. But in young buds the 
posterior sepal is lowest and placed on the side farthest from the axis of the 
spike ; and it is during the gradual maturing of the flower that the twisting 
takes place, so that, by the time it opens, the labellum and posterior sepal 
have changed places. 

This species, as might be expected from its facilities for reproduction, is 
one of the commonest plants of the class. 

(5.) Caladenia bifolia. 
Chiloglottis traversii, Müeller. 

This is a most abundant orchid in upland districts at an elevation of 
1500 to 8000 feet. The flower is solitary on an erect scape, three to four 
inches in height. The upper sepal is obtuse, somewhat arched forward, and 
slightly keeled. The lateral sepals are placed under the labellum, and 
extend forward almost horizontally. The labellum is broad; on each side 
of the expanded portion is a yellow-coloured patch bearing two or three 
brownish spots, while extending from the middle to the base are two rows 
of yellow glands. The column is long and erect, slightly winged above, 
and bearing a terminal anther which encloses four pollinia. The stigma is 
rounded and slightly hollowed out, and is placed in close contiguity to the 
anther. The arrangement of the parts is so simple that an insect alighting 
on the labellum and advancing its head into the base of the flower could 
hardly fail to remove the pollinia; nor could one entering with pollen on 
its head fail to leave these on the stigma, for in withdrawing pollinia 
from a flower they are always slightly depressed by the cap of the anther. 
The pollen of this plant is very incoherent, and the lower surface of the 
stigma projects a little, so that I am inclined to think self-fertilization takes 
place in flowers which have not been visited by insects. The majority of 
the flowers appear to set good capsules, and flowers which I fertilized 
artificially, produced good full seed-vessels. I examined one sunny day 
twenty-two flowers growing in the open; of these only three had both 
pollinia removed; in one the pollinia were removed from one anther lobe; 
in five others the pollen masses appeared more or less disturbed; while in 
the remaining thirteen the anthers were untouched. 

(6.) Pterostylis banksii. 

The fertilization of the flowers of this genus has been so well described 
by Mr. Cheeseman, in the Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. V., p. 852, that I cannot 
well add to it, but my observations on them more than ever induce me to 
consider that there has been an unusual scarcity of iusect life during the 


424 Transactions.—Botany. 


past season. Out of all the flowers of the above species, and of P. graminea, 
examined, not one had the pollinia removed. The flowers are incapable of 
self-fertilization. Certain experiments made by me to test whether they 
were fertile with thcir own pollen were rendered useless by being conducted 
in the open, where the flowers were liable to be destroyed. 

The rostellum of this orchid, when examined in bud, lies in front of and 
between the bases of the pollinia, but quite separate from them. At this 
early stage it consists of an oblong, pearly-white body, composed of large 
rounded cells, filled with granular fluid. The pollinia stand in a small 
hollow on the top of the column, and at this stage are attached only by a 
small posterior ligament at their base. 

(7.) Chiloglottis cornuta. 

In this species the flower is solitary, on a short scape, which lengthens 
after flowering, and is partly covered by an acute, sheathing bract. When 
fully developed, all the parts stand nearly erect, and thus leave no landing 
place for insects. The labellum is acutely trowel-shaped, with one broad 
central, and several narrow, lateral, longitudinal, purple glands. The 
column is curved back at the base, and then ascends in front of the upper 
sepal. The stigmatic surface is large, almost circular, quite flat and exces- 
sively viscid, there being no distinct rostellum. The anther is terminal, 
and encloses four plate-like pollinia, which are coherent, and are attached 
by their bases to the upper margin of the stigma (rostellum). Before the 
flower is open, and while yet almost sessile, and sheathed by the bract, the 
stigmatic surface becomes excessively viscid, and smears all the portion of 
the labellum immediately opposite to it. I could not ascertain how the 
pollen got on to the stigma, but in the few flowers I was enabled to examine, 
all four pollinia were on the stigma, and the anther cells were empty. 

From the position of the flower when the parts are ripe for pollination, 
viz., low down between the two leaves, from its inconspicuous greenish 
colour, and the fact that viscidity is strongest in the unopened flowers, I am 
of opinion that this species is exclusively adapted for self-fertilization. The 
subsequent lengthening of the scaps is probably only to aid in the dispersion 
of the seed. 

(8.) Lyperanthus antarcticus. 

In this orehid the flowers are solitary, or two on a scape, partially 
covered by a relatively large concave bract, and of a green colour through- 
out. The posterior sepalis large and broad, arched forward, and covering 
the column like a hood. The labellum is flat, broadly ovate and acute, quite 
glabrous, with two lateral and four median ridges. The column is broad, 
somewhat arched forward, and terminated by the acute anther. The ros: 
tellum placed directly above the stigmatic chamber, impinges on the base 


G. M. Tromson. 


On the Fertilization of some New Zealand Orchids. 495 


of the anther, and is slightly viscid. The pollen-masses, four in number, 
are very incoherent. From their inconspicuous colour, the fact of their being 
very frequently closed, and the extreme incoherence of their pollen, I am 
inclined to think that the flowers of this plant are always self-fertilized. I 
examined 89 flowers, and found that the pollinia were present in all of 
them, but in the more advanced some of the pollen was scattered over the 
stigmas, and the ovaries appeared well-developed. 
Tribe Nrorrez. 

(9.) Thelymitra longifolia. 

The fertilization of this orchid is treated of in Fitzgerald’s “ Australian 
Orchids,” and quoted by Darwin. All the parts of the perianth, including 
the labellum, are similar in colour and shape. The column is nearly erect, 
and slightly hooded at the apex. On its front margin, and a little below 
the apex, a projection occurs on each side, bearing a tuft of exquisitely 
beautiful feathery hairs. These are the auricles or staminodia which 
represent two out of the three stamens of the inner whorl, the third being 
the only stamen fully developed. In this flower they form a very con- 
spicuous feature, but I do not know their function, if any. Placed quite in 
at the back and near the base of the column, are the two persistent anther 
lobes. In very young buds these contain the pollinia, but as they approach 
maturity they become attached to the back of the stigma, which stands 
forward a slight distance from the column. The pollinia are composed of 
four sheets or plates of white, powdery, very incoherent pollen. The 
rostellum is hardly viscid at all, nor would this be of any use to the plant, 
as itis seldom, if ever, visited by insects. The flowers are seldom found 
open, and as a rule are probably self-fertilized. I presume that the pollen 
grains emit their tubes to the upper surface of the stigma, but I never 
succeeded in detecting this, 

(10.) Prasophyllum colensoi. 

The flowers are small and greenish-brown in colour. The base of the 
ovary is sheathed by a short truncate bract; the very short pedicel is not 
twisted, so that, as in Thelymitra, the labellum appears in its normal position 
above the flower. All the parts of the perianth are similar in form and 
colour. The column is very short and erect, with the anther placed at tho 
back. At each side rises a small two-lobed appendage, representing 2 
staminodium or imperfect stamen about half the height of the column. 
The stigmatic surface is broadly triangular, and is protected in front by the 
labellum, and latterly by the staminodia. The pollen grains are usually 
found adhering to the back of the stigma, some on its upper edge. When 
examined under the microscope, some of these were found to havo 
emitted a mass of short tubes. The pollinia are two in number, and the 

A24 


426 Transactions.— Botany. 


pollen grains forming them are bound together into small wedge-shaped 
masses. The flowers are somewhat sweet-scented, and though dull-coloured 
are tolerably conspicuous, but there appears to be no trace of a nectary. 
Nor from the position of the parts is it very probable that an insect could 
remove the pollinia, so as to place the loose, incoherent grains on the 
stigma of another flower. The species is evidently well fitted for self- 
fertilization. In nine spikes examined by me, containing altogether 75 
open flowers, only four appeared to have the pollinia partially removed, 
and, even in these, pollen grains were adhering to the stigma and anthers. 

Imperfect as the foregoing notes are, they still point to the correctness 
of the general principle that where it is advantageous to a plant to have its 
flowers cross-fertilized by pollen from another plant, there we find agencies 
for attracting suitable insects. Thus Farina has conspicuous flowers, sweet 
scent, and succulent tissue at the base of the flower; Dendrobium has showy 
flowers and a tolerably perfect nectary ; while Corysanthes has conspicuous 
flowers and sweet juice. In all three, assistance from insects appears to be 
absolutely necessary. Again, Caladenia, which appears to be fitted for both 
means of fertilization, has tolerably conspicuous flowers, while Microtis, 
which is similarly favoured, has the rudiments of a nectary, but the former 
would seem to be more dependent on insect aid than the latter. In Ptero- 
stylis there seems to be nothing to attract insects, as the flowers are green, 
and, as pointed out by Mr. Cheeseman, do not appear to secrete any nectar, 
nor do they have any decided scent. Yet in none of the New Zealand 
orchids are the appliances to secure the desired end so perfect or so complex. 
In this plant only one species of insect appears adapted to each particular 
species of the genus. It would be interesting to discover whether this 
applies to other New Zealand genera. In those genera which are almost, 
if not altogether, exclusively self-fertilized, no special provision for attracting 
insects occurs, if we except the handsome perianth of TAelymitra. 


Art. LXII.—Description of a new Species of Coprosma, 
By D. Perrm, M.A. 
[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.] 
Coprosma virescens, Petrie. 

A compact shrub, six to ten feet high, with numerous interlaced, slender, 
tortuous branches and twigs and greenish glabrous bark; leaves glabrous, 
membranous, elliptico-spathulate, quarter of an inch long or less, in 
tichous fascicles on the twigs; stipules connate, forming a short two- 
lobed tube around the twigs, 


Buowanan.—-On a new Species of Celmisia, 497 


Male flowers terminal on the short lateral branchlets, in fascicles of 
three or sometimes more; each fascicle enclosed at its base by a cupular 
involucel, apparently formed of metamorphosed stipules ; calyx short, 
cupular, with four or fewer short blunt lobes; corolla bell-shaped, four- 
partite almost to base; stamens exserted ; the fascicles of male are often 
on twigs destitute of leaves. 

Female flowers terminal on the short lateral branches, usually solitary, 
but sometimes two or three together, with a four-lobed tubular more or less 
ciliated involucel enclosing the calyx ; calyx tubular, indistinctly four- 
lobed at the ciliated margin; corolla four-partite to base; the lobes narrow, 
oblong ; styles papillose, twice as long as the corolla lobes; drape not seen. 

Habitat: Dunedin, Water of Leith, Vauxhall, Saddle Hill, where it was 
first gathered by Mr. A. C. Purdie. 

The species belongs to the group with fascicled female flowers, and is 
very distinct and well marked in its characters. It appears to be closely 
allied to another undescribed species growing near Dunedin, and forming a 
link between it and C, rotundifolia, 


Arr. LXIII.—Deseription of a new Species of Celmisia. By J. BUCHANAN. 
Plate XVIII 


[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.) 
Celmisia cordatifolia, n.s. 
Leaves entire, with the petiole 6-8 inches long, 2 inches broad, obtuse or 
acute at tip, and cordate at the base, thickly covered below with rusty 
brown tomentum, glabrous and dull green above in old leaves, and in young 
leaves sprinkled with white silky hairs, which are more abundant at base 
and on midrib; petiole and petiolar sheath ribbed, covered and fringed with 
pale brown tomentum ; inner surface glabrous, purple. Scape 10-12 inches 
high, with long linear bracts, the whole covered with rusty brown 
tomentum, which often disappears on the bracts after flowering, leaving 
terminal tufts. Head 14 inches in diameter; involucral scales numerous, in 
two series, outer series with terminal tufts of rusty-brown tomentum; rays 
narrow, 3 inch long; pappus 1 inch long; achene large, glabrous. 
Collected by. Mr. A. McKay, January, 1879, on Mount Starvation, 
elson, : 


428 Transactions.—Botany. 


This species, in its general appearance, shows an evident relationship 
to Celmisia traversii, but the cordate leaves which present the first depar- 
ture from the normal leaf-form of Celmisia, is thought sufficient to constitute 
a new species, 


—— 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVIII. 
Plant two-thirds natural size; head past flowering. 
1. Female floret of ray. 
2. Hermaphrodite floret of disk, with achene and pappus. 
8. Pappus hair more magnified, 


Art. LXIV,—Notice of a new Species of Pomaderris (P. tainui.) 
By Dr. Hzcros. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.] 

Tar tree which I have to introduce to the Society was discovered during 
my recent visit to the Mokau district, under circumstances of some interest 
beyond the mere botanical importance of a new addition to the flora of the 
country. Itis a very local plant, being confined to about an acre of ground 
on à spur of the low sandy hills that extend along the coast, between tho 
Mokau and the Mohakatina rivers. 

The peeuliar habit of the treo first attracted my attention, having 2 
resemblance to a clump of apple trees, so that at first glance I thought it 
to be an old orchard or cultivation. I afterwards was much interested in 
hearing from the natives that a peculiar tree was growing on the spot where 
their ancestors first camped when they abandoned the Tainui canoe, in 
which they came from Hawaiki, and that this tree had sprung from the 
rollers or skids and the green boughs that were brought as flooring to the 
great canoe. On my doubting this, they offered to take me to the place, 
and if I could not recognise the tree as being found elsewhere in New 
Zealand, they would consider it as proof that the tradition was correct. 

To my surprise they took me to the clump of trees I had previously 
observed, and as it is certainly quite distinct from any plant hitherto 
described from New Zealand, the tradition receives a certain amount of 
confirmation ; and I need hardly point out that if it were true, and we 
could hereafter determine the original habitat of this ‘tree, it might give 
us a clue to the whereabouts of the mythical Hawaiki, or the place whence 
the Maori originally migrated to New Zealand, 


TRANS.N.Z.INSTITUTE, VOL. XLPLXVITE. 


CELMISIA CORDATIFOLIA, 7:8. 


CoLengo.—0On new Ferns, 429 


The following description of this plant indicates it to be closely allied 
to Pomaderris apetala, Labill., which is a native of Australia and Tasmania; 
but as it differs in its growing to a much larger size—that species being a 
mere shrub like the kumera-hau /P, elliptica) of New Zealand, whereas 
the tree now described grows to a height of 20 feet, with large stems 5 or 6 
inches in diameter—I have thought it better to distinguish it by a specific 
name, and have adopted that by which it is known to the Maoris. 

Pomaderris tainui, n.s. 

A small shrubby tree, 20 feet high, with numerous irregular branches; 
smooth brownish-grey bark; young branches and under side of leaves 
covered with white stellate tomentum ; leaves 2 to 8 inches long, elliptic- 
oblong, obtuse at both ends, irregularly crenulate, glabrous and dark 
green on the upper surface, with distant stellate bases on young leaves, 
principal veins very prominent, buff-eoloured. Flowers small in open thyr- 
soid panicles, leafy at the base, buds nearly globular; calyx about 1} lines 
long with stellate leaves, the tube being very short; petals 0; anthers tipped 
by a small gland; styles divided to the middle with club-shaped, almost 
capitate stigmas ; capsule not seen. 

Habitat: Sea Coast, south of Mokau River. In flower 5th Dec., 1878. 


Art. LXV.—A Description of two New Zealand Ferns, believed to be new to 
Science. By W. Couenso. 
(Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 14th October, 1878.) > 

. I. CYATHEA, 

Cyathea polyneuron, sp. nov. 

Trunk stout, 19-15 feet high (garden plant 12 years old, 6 feet high, 8 
feet in circumference under bases of fronds, and 2-6 at one foot above 
ground), densely covered with long black hairs, and marked with scars of 
fallen fronds. 

Fronds (garden plant), 10-12, ample, grass-green colour above, paler 
below, gracefully drooping, 10-12 feet long, 4 feet 6 inches broad (in 
middle), oblong-lanceolate, membranaceous when first expanded, afterwards 
sub-coriaceous, tripinnate, glabrous above, floccosely hairy and woolly on 
veins and veinlets below. ' 

Stipes stout, 12-15 inches long, 8-9 inches in girth at base, muricated, 
of a dark mahogany colour below and light yellow-green above, regularly 
marked with a light-coloured straight yet broken line ranning on both sides 


430 Transactions.—Botany, 


from pinna to pinna the whole length of the stipe and rachis, each mark or 
dash, 6-8 lines long, having an interval or break of 1-2 lines; densely 
covered with long brown shining linear scales 13-2 inches long and nearly 
1 line wide at the base, curved transparent acuminate and pointed, 
beautifully and regularly marked, with finely serrulate edges, and having 
beneath them a thick rough plush-like undergrowth of blackish-brown 
shining finely barbed or jagged hairs. 

Rachis and subrachis muricate, also densely covered with a thick coating 
of short dark plush-like hairs, which easily rub off; above, together with 
the coste and costules densely hirsute (dark) and woolly (light-coloured), 

Pinne alternate, 23-26 jugate, oblong-lanceolate, petiolate, (central) 
2 feet 6 inches long, 10-12 inches broad, 6-7 inches distant (lower 10 
inches) on rachis. 

Secondary divisions or pinnules alternate, 30-32 jugate, linear-oblong 
acuminate and sub-caudate, 5-6 inches long, 1-14 inches broad, petiolate, 
pinnate, thickly covered below with jagged acuminate shining silky light- 
coloured scales, each being curiously sprinkled with very long dark-brown 
hairs. 

Segments alternate, 80-32 jugate, close set, linear, sub-falcate, crenately- 
serrate, 9 lines long, 2-3 lines broad, widest at base, lowermost sub- 
pinnatifid petiolate and auricled downwards, barren ones broader, deeply 
serrate or sub-pinnatifid. 

Veins very numerous, conspicuous and translucent, bi-pinnately branched; 
venules 10-12 in each lower lobe, and running quite out into the margin. 

Sort numerous, crowded, 12-16 on a segment, one on each lobe; invo- 
lucre globose, transparent green and hyaline at first, afterwards light-brown, 

«splitting irregularly. 

This tree-fern is a fine and graceful species; one that at first sight, and 
without examination, may be easily mistaken for C. medullaris, which it 
much resembles,—but differs from that species in its general hairiness and 
and woolliness, in its larger size of frond (breadth, etc.) and richer appear- 
ance, in its pleasing grass-green colour, its truly pinnate segments, its 
peculiar hairy scales and its numerous pinnate veins,—these last two marks 
being its specifie characteristies, and its very numerous veins or venules in 
a lobe, the origin of its trivial name. 

I have known this fern for some 10-12 years at least. In 1865-6 I 
found a young plant growing here on my ground (Scinde Island, Napier) 
among the common fern ( Pteris esculenta), and removed it to my garden, 
where it has done exceedingly well, although last summer it suffered from 
the very long drought. At first, and for some years, I had supposed it to 
be Cyathea medullaris, but for the last four years, during which it has borne 
fruit abundantly, I have believed it to be a new and distinct species; having 


Corzxso.—On new Ferns. 481 


also obtained specimens of similar plants from the eastern slopes of the 
Ruahine Mountain forests, as well as from smaller woods near the sea on 
the east coast. 

In general appearance this species is by far the handsomest of our 
(known) New Zealand Tree-ferns, its ample fronds having much less 
rigidity than those of the other larger species. Of my garden-plant the 
fronds shoot early in spring, and grow remarkably fast, at the rate of about 
4} inches longitudinally per diem; the outer ones, however, die rather early 
in summer, owing, I believe, to the extreme dryness of the soil on the 
limestone hill where it is growing; and, in dying, their very large and thick 
stipes bend down abruptly at a few inches above their junction with the 
trunk, but not so as to bring the withered fronds near to the plant. 

II. HYMENOPHYLLUM. 
Hymenophyllum erecto-alatum, sp. nov. 

Plant terrestrial, sarmentose; rhizome glabrous; roots and rootlets densely 
villous with long dark-brown hairs. 

Frond membranous, bright grass-green colour, 3-4 inches long, 2-3 inches 
broad, mostly decurved or bent, somewhat ovate, tripennatifid ; main rachis, 
and also secondary rachises winged throughout; wings very much crisped and 
narrowly undulated and vertical, situated nearer to the upper surface and 
so giving a sulcated appearance. 

Stipes distant from each other on rhizome, cylindrical, stout, woody, 
wiry, irregular, bent and curved, 4-5 inches long, always longer than the 
frond, light coloured, slightly winged above, wings decreasing gradually 
downwards for 1-2 in. 

Segments pinnatifid ; lobes narrow, very close together, obtuse and entire. 

Involucres on lateral segments, rather large, sub-orbicular, open, free, ' 
lips toothed ; sori semi-exserted and coloured red. 

This fern is naturally allied to H. demissum (although that is a very 
much larger species), but in several respects it differs from it,—not even 
belonging to the same (artificial) section; of which Sir J. Hooker says :— 
“ Frond pinnate below, stipes not winged, rachis winged above only." 
(Handbook). In all which characters our fern widely differs; also, in its 
smaller size, colour, closeness of segments, involucres, clusters of sori, etc., 
etc. The peculiarity of its being almost vertically winged gives it a striking 
appearance, which, together with the bright light-green of its frond, and the 
red colour of its large clusters of prominent sori, catches the eye at first 
sight, in its fresh state. Fruitful fronds, however, are rather scarce. 

Hab: oe anei EP dien of eio dry forests near Norse« 


432 Transactions.—Botany. 


Art. LXVI.—On the Occurrence of the Australian Genus Poranthera in New 

Zealand. By T. F. Cuzzseman, F.L.S. 
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 10th June, 1878.) 
A rew months ago, while examining the vegetation of the upper part of 
the Maitai Valley, near Nelson, I observed in one or two localities a small 
Euphorbiaceous plant, which, on examination, proved to belong to the 
Australian genus Poranthera. On referring to Bentham’s “ Flora Austra- 
liensis,” it became evident that P. microphylla, Brong., the most widely- 
diffused species of the genus, approached in most of its characters to my 
plant; but asit, with all the other species, was described by Mr. Bentham 
as having the leaves alternate, while my specimens all had opposite leaves, 
I concluded tbat I had before me a new species of the genus. My friend 
Baron Müeller, however, who has done me the favour of examining a series 
of specimens, informs me that although all writers describe the leaves of 
Poranthera as alternate, P. microphylla “has not rarely some, and very 
seldom all the leaves opposite," and that he can find no characters to dis- 
tinguish the New Zealand plant from the Australian. In this opinion, after 
examining a number of Australian specimens kindly forwarded by Baron 
Müeller, I now concur. As some little interest is naturally attached to the 
addition of a new genns to the New Zealand flora, I subjoin the following 
short diagnosis :— 

Poranthera microphylla, Brong. in Duperry Voy. Coq. Bot. 218, t. 50 B; 

Bentham, Flora Australiensis, VI., 56. 

Perfectly glabrous; stems slender, branched, prostrate at the base, 
ascending towards the tips, 6-9 inches long; leaves opposite, or rarely the 
upper ones alternate, linear-obovate, obtuse, gradually narrowed into the 
rather long petiole, } to 1 inch long, margins usually slightly recurved. 
Inflorescence composed of terminal, short and dense bracteate racemes; 
bracts linear-subulate, lower ones longer than the flowers; flowers minute, 
white, monecious. Male flowers: calyx divided into 5 segments; petals 5, 
minute, linear-subulate, each with a large green gland at its base ; stamens 
5; rudimentary ovary composed of three clavate bodies. Female flowers 
rather larger and on longer pedicels; calyx and petals the same as in 
the males; stamens 0; ovary depressed, 6-lobed, 8-celled, each cell with 
two ovules; capsule separating into three 2-valved cocci, the whole falling 
away from the persistent axis; seeds granulate. 

Hab: Among clumps of Pimelea gnidia in the Fagus forest, Upper Maitai 
Valley, Nelson—J. Adams and T. F. Cheeseman. In Australia the species 
ranges from Port Darwin to the south of Tasmania, 

Had my specimens been gathered near to cultivation, or had they been 
found associated with naturalised plants, the species might have been looked 


CurrsEman.—On Juncus tenuis. 433 


at as an immigrant merely. As it is, the retired nature of the locality, and 
the absence of naturalized species, save one or two of early introduction and 
wide diffusion, are altogether against this view. I also searched in vain for 
the plant in the immediate vicinity of Nelson, where introduced species are 
so abundant. A further argument in favour of its being indigenous lies in 
the fact that in Australia opposite-leaved forms are decidedly rare, and 
would be by no means likely to be introduced. 

The Maitai Valley appears to be well worthy of a careful exploration. 
Among the plants noticed were Metrosideros colensoi, Myrtus ralphii, Myrsine 
montana, and Phyllocladus trichomanoides, I have been unable to find any 
previous record of the occurrence of these species in the South Island. 
Olearia forsteri occurs in the lower part of the valley. Pittosporum rigidum, 
Myrtus obcordata, Scutellaria nove-zealandie, Pimelea gnidia, are all not 
uncommon. Among ferns Aspidium oculatum and Botrychium ternatum 
var. dissectum deserve special mention. 


Art. LXVII.—Notice of the Occurrence of Juncus tenuis, Willd., in New 

Zealand. By T. F. Cuzzseuas, F.L.S. 
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 7th October, 1878.) 
Since the publication of the “ Handbook " several species of Juncus have 
been added to the New Zealand Flora—two of which, J. glaucus, L., and J. 
lamprocarpus, Ehr.—are well-known European plants. I have now to 
record the discovery of Juncus tenuis, Willd., also a common Central 
European and North American species. My specimens were collected in 
January, 1875, near Omano, about 25 miles above Kaihu, on the Northern 
Wairoa River. The plant was abundant in some marshy ground not far 
from the bank of the river; but curiously enough, during the hurried 
examination I was able to make of the Wairoa district, I did not observe it 
either higher up or lower down the river, although suitable localities are 
sufficiently abundant. 

So many European plants are becoming naturalized in the colony that 
additional evidence will be required before Juncus tenuis can be included in 
the list of our indigenous species. It certainly seems improbable that a 
plant with such a wide range in the northern hemisphere should be found in 
New Zealand alone in the southern; but too much stress cannot be placed 
on this argument, as a precisely similar case exists in Carex pyrenaica, which 
no one doubts being a true native of New Zealand. It must be borne in 
mind that our plant is not a native of any part of the British Islands, from 
whence the majority of our naturalized species are derived ; and the locality 

A25 


434 Transactions.—Botany. 


in which it was found cannot be said to be one in which new introductions 
would be sought for, or even expected. In any case, whether native or 
naturalized, its occurrence in New Zealand is remarkable. 

Juncus tenuis can be distinguished from any of the New Zealand species 
by its slender, wiry culms, 12-18 inches high, leafy at the base only; short, 
channelled, almost setaceous and flaccid leaves; open terminal panicles ; 
and lanceolate acute perianth segments, which are one-third longer than 
the broadly ovoid obtuse capsules. 


Agr. LXVIIL.—Notice of the Occurrence of the Genus Kyllinga in New 

Zealand. By T. F. Cuensemay, F.L.S. 
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 18th November, 1878.] 
Mz. Tuos. Barr, of Mongonui, bas kindly forwarded to me for determination 
some specimens of a sedge which I identify with Kyllinga monocephala, 
Rottb., a species of wide distribution in tropical regions, but not hitherto 
recorded from any part of New Zealand. Mr. Ball informs me that the 
plantis abundant in some marshy ground on the north side of Mongonui 
harbour, but has not been noticed by him elsewhere in the district. So far 
as I can judge from the information supplied to me, the plant appears to 
be truly indigenous ; indeed, it is precisely one of those species which might 
naturally be expected to occur in the northern extremity of the island, not 
yet completely explored in a botanical point of view. Its existence there 
is quite in harmony with what we know of plant distribution in New 
Zealand, there being several tropical forms confined to the distriet between 
Whangaroa and the North Cape, as Hibiscus diversifolius, Cassytha paniculata, 
and Zpomea tuberculata. 

Kyllinga ean be distinguished from the other genera of Cyperacee 
indigenous to New Zealand by the compressed one-flowered spikelets, 
densely clustered in globose, usually solitary heads, surrounded by a leafy 
involucre. The following description will enable the species to be recog- 
nised :— 

Kyllinga monocephala, Rottb. 

Rhizome creeping; culms erect, 8-12 inches high, leafy at the base 
only; leaves narrow linear, flat, scabrid towards the points; involucre 
8-4-leaved, spreading. Heads solitary, globose, pale; spikelets compressed, 
1-flowered ; two lower glumes minute, two upper nearly equal, ovate-lanceo- 
late, sharply keeled, mucronate, about 7-nerved; stamens 2; nut broadly 
ovate, finely punctate, much shorter than the glumes ; style 2-fid. 


WAWA AA AA WA 


Hamittox,—On Plants collected at Okarito, Westland. 435 


K. monocephala has a wide range, It is found in the warmer parts of 
Australia, and is abundant in the Fiji, Tongan, Samoan, and Society 
Islands, and elewhere in Polynesia, It also ranges through tropical Asia 
and Africa, and probably through a considerable portion of America, Iam 
not aware that it occurs in Europe, 


Art, LXIX.—List of Plants collected in the District of Okarito, Westland. 
By A. Hamrox, 
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.) 
Tus area over which the following plants were collected may be defined as 


- lying between the Waitaki and the Waiho rivers, and extending back to the 


foot of the ranges. I mnch regret that I was unable to devote any time to 
the Alpine flora, the highest point on which I collected being a short dis- 
tance up the Francis Joseph Glacier. Most of the specimens were collected 
on the shores of the lagoon, which extends from Commissioner’s Point to 
the town of Okarito, and round whieh are found many plants of interest, 
many of them apparently very local. The only place where I found Hymeno- 
phyllum minimum was on the rocks round Commissioner’s Point, and H, 
armstrongii, and Lycopodium ramulosum appeared confined to a small cluster 
of gullies at the back of the town. Ferns were most plentiful in the low 
damp bush at the head of lake Mapourika and on the line of the Okarito- 
Bowen Road, above the forks of the Okarito river, the most attractive being 
the magnificent Leptopteris superba. Although cattle have now been for 
some years in the bush, the general character of the vegetation is unaltered. 

Mr. Kirk has very kindly identified my specimens, a list of which is 
subjoined, and I trust that at some future day it may be supplemented with 
a more complete one, as I was compelled to leave the best parts of the 
district unvisited. The collection was made in 1877. 


RANUNCULACEX. 
Clematis peo A. Cunn., var. 
rilobat 
hex zaspala, DO. 
Ranunculus rivularis, Banks and Bol. 
uitans 

subscaposus, Hook. f. 
hirtus, Banks and 


Sol. 


CRUCIFERÆ. 
Cardamine hirsuta, L. 
Lepidium... 2 


TM vilicaulis, Hoo 

Melicytus ramiflorus, Forst. 
CaRYOPHYLLACE 

Spergularia rubra, Pirs., var. marina. 

* Silene poe 

* Cerastium visco 

* Polycarpon tetr ptu. L. 


PorTULACER. 
Montia pan, L, 


436 


Mar 
Forse bii A. Cunn, 
llii, Hook. f 


Tiura 
Eleocar, vis YE ianus, Raoul, 
Aristotelia colensoi, Ho 


GERANIACEE, 
Oxalis our L. 
OLACINER. 
Pennantia corymbosa, Forst, 
CorIARIER, 
Coriaria egoa. B Humb. 
aay 


Lecuminosz. 
II Volum minus, Sm. 
ophora tetraptera, Aiten. 
panel odor ate, Col. 


wajua 
Rubus australis, Forst, 
Potentilla anserina, L. 
Geum parviflorum, "Cunn. 
Acana sanguisorbe, Vahl. 


BAXIFRAGEJE. 
Weinmannia racemosa, Forst. 
Quintinia serrata, A, Cunn., var. fl. 


DrosERACER. 
Drosera oo Labill. 


athulata, Labill. 


Har m. 
Baa prene Hook. f. 
alata soot. 
micrar r 
Morem arsch ? Hook. f. 
unculatum, Hook. f. 
elatinoides, Gaudich. 
Gunnera 1e , Raou 
ens iflora, Hook. f. 
MxnraAcEz. 
Leptospermum mdr. Forst. 
Metrosideros scand 
lucida, ag rea 
Myrtus pedunculata, Hook. f. 


ONAGRARIER. 
Fuchsia excorticata, Lin. f. 
Epilobium e oM Forst. 
alsinoides, A. Cunn. 


nummularifolium, A. Cunn. 


melanocaulon, Hook. 
pallidiflorum, Sol, 


ens, Banks and Sol. 


Transactions, — Botany, 


UMBELLIFER 
Hydrocotyle Garten, Forst., var.— 
asiatica, 
-z a-sealandia, DC., var.— 
Crantzia Keith Nutta 
Eryngium vesiculosum, Lsbil. 
ngelica gingidiun, Hook, 
Apium filiforme, Hook, 


ARALIACER. 
Panaz "Te Forst. 
lensoi, Hook. f 
Pec yi, Hook. 1. (young) 
erassifolium, Dene and Planch, 
sp.—(young state), 


CORNES. 
Griselinia Ron Raoul, 


Rusrace 
Coprosma Tatidissima, xen 
a, Raou 
crew ae f, 
ucid set orst, 

p ora, Hook. f. 

Nertera depres Banks and Sol. 
ndrefolia, Hook. f, 

Asperula s "pes, Hook. f, 


Comp 
Olearia PEEP Hook, 
vin hem Hook. f. (var.) 
tida, Hook. f 
Celmisia. ingoa, Cas 
ellidioides, Hook. f. 
Lagenophora forsteri, DC., et var. 
Cotula iac tae olia 
usilla, Hook. 
Cranena fomir: lata, DC. 
Cassinia vauvilliersii, Hook. f. 
aoulia tenuicaulis, Hook. 
Gnaphalium luteo- album, A 
nvolucratum, Forst. 
bellidioides, Hook. f. 
Jilicaule, Hook. f. 
Senecio lautus, Forst. 
Taraxacum dens-leonis, Desf. 


CAMPANULACEA. 
Wakakaa sazicola, A. DC. 
Lobelia anceps, Thunberg. - 
Pratia angulata, Hook. f. 
Selliera radicans, Cav. 


Erceg. 
Gaultheria antipoda, Forst., v, 


Se E T AA 


Haurrrox.—On Plants collected at Okarito, Westland, 487 


CEJE.—continued. 
Cyathodes acerosa 
Leucopogon ipo A. Cunn. 
RIMULACE 
Samolus repens, Pane 
* Anagallis arvensis, Ti. 
APOCYNEJE. 
Parsonsia rosea, Raoul 
albiflora, Raoul. 
CONVOLVULACEÆ. 
Convolvulus parigi Forst. 
1, Linn. 
Cuscuta drS, "Hook. f. 


SorANEE. 
Solanum Z e Forst. 


SCROPHUL 
Glossostigma p a Benth.? 
oubtf ul identification i in the absence 
of flow wers or 
Veronica lyalli, Hook f. 
linifolia, Hook. f. 
vis, Benth. 
Mimulus repens, Br. 
Euphrasia revoluta, Hook. f. 


LENTIBULARIEÆ. 

Giaa monanthos, Hook. f. 
VERBENACEÆA. 

Myoporum latum, Forst. 
Lasn TEE. 

Mentha cunninghamii, Benth. 
PARONYCHIEX. 

Scleranthus biflorus, Hook. f. 
PoLYGONES. 

Muhlenbeckia complexa, Meisn. 

adpressa, Lab. 

Rumez acetosella, L. 
Lavurine&. 

Hedycarya dentata, Forst. 
THYMELE. 

ntm prostrata, Vahl. 


UPULIFERE. 
eh fusca, Hook. f. 
solandri, pore £ 


PrreRacEEÆ. 

Piper excelsum, Forst. 
CONIFERE. 

Podocarpus totara, ed Cunn. 


acrydium cupressinum, Bol. 
Phyllocladus alpinus, Hook. f, 


ORCHIDEÆ. 

Earina autumnalis, Hook, f. 

Dendrobium cunnin għami, Lindl, 

Bolbophyllum pygmaum, Lindl, 

Corysanthes rivularis, Hook. f, 
oblonga, Hook. f. 

Microtis porrifolia, Spreng. 

Prasophyllum song Hook. f, 

Pterostylis banksii, 

Spiranthes austr alis; Lindl, 

Thel ymitra pulchella, Hook. f, 


IRE. 

Libertia micrantha, A. Cunn, 
PANDANEE. 

F m banksii, A. Cunn, 


Nar 
Tr iglochin tr MD um, AN 
Ruppia maritima, Lin 
Zostera nana, Roth., var. müelleri 


LirrcEE. 
Rhipogonum scandens, Forst. 
Callivene parviflora, Hook. f. 
Cordyline banksii, Hook. f. 
Dianella intermedia, Endl. 
Astelia fa and is, Ho 
ninghami, Hook. f. 
dubia peer Somu 80, 
Phormium m Fors 


nsot, Hook: f 


JUNCER. 
Juncus pores Ln 
nifolius, Br. 
Luzula AA DC. 


REsTIACEE. 
Calorophus Kei Lab. 


CYPERA 
Cy ee stat, A. Rich. 


Sche xillaris, Hook. f. 


igi Hook. f. 
Scirpus triqueter, L. 
lacustris, 
Eleocharis acuta, Br., var. platylepis 
sphacelata, Br. 
Isolepis prolifer, B 


aria, Br. 
aucklandica, Hook. f. 
fluitans, Br. 
Desmoschenus spiralis, Hook. f. 


Cladium gunnit, 
Lose tetragona, Labill, 
cæspitosa, Boott. 


438 


CyprracE£.—continued. 
Uncinia pareot ersoon. 
EA Br., var. divaricata 
ksii, Boott. 
Carex Fic Boott. 


Boo 
gaudichaudiana, Kunth. (small 
sta 


lambertiana, Boott. 
sp. allied to C. testacea, Sol. 
Sp. nov. 


GRAMINE 
Zoysia pungens, Willd. 
Dichelachne erinita, Hook. f. 
Agrostis veh des 


adriseta, Br. 
Danthense cunningham Hook, f. 
mi-annularis, Br. 
var. 8. pilosa 
Deschampsia caspitosa, Palisot. 
Hierochloe redolens p Br 
alpina, Roem, and Sch. 
Poa breviglumis, Hook, f. 
mm aba orst. 
ar. B. foliosa 
aust ralis, var. levis, Br. 
Minn Hook. f. 
nsoi, Hook. f. 
F. a duriuseula, L. 
* Briza minor, L. 
* Holcus lanatus, L. 


* Festuca m yurus oe 

* Anthozanthum odoratum, L. 

* Dactylis glomerata, L 

“Lolium perenne, L. 
temulentum, L. 


FriricEs. 
Gleichenia aaa, wartz. 
snicnpAum, Heward. 
Cyathea Daliai, wart 


Hemitelia smithii, Hook. 
Dicksonia lanata, Col. 
Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, 8m. 

B i bà cupres- 


aiiai Willa. 


Transactions,— Botany, 


Finicrs.—continued, 
PNE ane vus. Br. 
pulcherrimum, s 


demissum, Swartz. 
scabrum, ich. 
flabellatum, Labill. 
@ruginosum,Carmich, 
rufescens, Kirk, ; 
Trichomanes reniforme, Forst. 
strictum, Menzies. 
colensoi, Hook. 
venosum, Br. 
lyallii , Hook. 
Davallia nova-zealandie, Col. 
Lindsea trichomanoides, Dryand. 
Pteris incisa, Thunb. 
scaberula, A. Rich. 
Ta L., var. esculenta 
Lomaria nigra, Col 
alpina, Spre s 
procera, nd 
vinor. 
fst, Spreng. 
, Will 


vulcanic 
Asplenium peerage Forst. 


s, Fo orst. 
fale catum, Lam. 
bulbiferum, bara 
ccidum, 
Aspidium Porro "iii 
var. iris Hook. 
se, Willd. 
Naked PRES Cunn. 
Polypodium australe, Mett. 


Leptopteris superba, 
pincel costatum, Br. 


Lxco CER. 
ampa Villardieré, Spreng. 
ramulosu i 


sum, Kirk, MS. 
magellanicum. 
um, Forst. 
le, Br. 


Tmesipteris et Endl, 


Maren racem. 


T. Kmx.—On Plants collected at Okarito. 439 


Art. LKK.— Notes on Mr. Hamilton’s Collection of Okarito Plants. 
By T. Kmx, F.L.S. 

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th January, 1879.] 
Dure a few months’ residence in Okarito, Mr. Hamilton made a collection 
of plants found in the immediate vicinity, and kindly placed it at my disposal 
for examination. The results show that his work is of great value, not 
only throwing light upon the botany of a district of which previously we 
were entirely ignorant, and adding one or two species to our flora, but 
especially in extending our knowledge of the geographical distribution of 
certain local species, and clearing up doubts entertained with regard to 
others. I gladly comply with his request to summarize the chief points of 
interest brought out by his labours, in order that they may accompany the 
useful catalogue of Okarito plants, which he has prepared for publication in 
our Transactions.* 

Mr. Hamilton informs me that the collection consists entirely of lowland 
plants, none of the specimens having been obtained at a greater altitude 
than 1,000 feet. In addition to alpine plants, many lowland species of 
general distribution are omitted from the collection ; amongst these are 
Podocarpus dacrydioides, P. ferruginea, P. spicata, Olearia cunninghamii, 
Convolvolus soldanella, C. sepium, Panax arboreum, Eleocarpus dentatus, 
E. tetragonum, Epilobium pubens, Ranunculus acaulis, and other common 
lowland forms ; also such forms as Dacrydium colensoi, Libocedrus bidwillii, 
and others of a subalpine character, which doubtless attain their lowest 
limit in the district at or below one thousand feet. Amongst genera not re- 
presented in the collection are Pittosporum, Colobanthus, Geranium, Aciphylla, 
Schefflera, Erechtites, Dracophyllum, Rumex, Chenopodium, Atherosperma, Pota- 
mogeton, Gahnia, Triticum, and Echinopogon, all of which must occur in the 
district, although at present'they have not been collected, while many large 
genera, as Ranunculus, Carmichalia, Epilobium, Coprosma, Olearia, Cotula, 
Pimelea, Juncus, are represented by not more than from one to three species. 
At present, therefore, no conclusions based upon the apparent absence of 
certain species would be trustworthy, and I can do little more than point 
out the most remarkable species, and indicate the additions made to our 
knowledge of the geographical distribution of others. 

Alectryon excelsum, DCand., and Quintinia serrata, Cunn., both of which 
may be expected to find their southern limit at or near Okarito, are not 
represented in Mr. Hamilton’s collection. 

Lepidium, sp. 

A fragment of an erect plant belonging to this genus is in the collection. 

The branches are long and somewhat spreading ; leaves half inch long, 


* Vide Art, LXIX: 


440 Transactions.— Botany. 


sessile, toothed ; flowers in terminal racemes. The specimen 1s in an imma- 
ture fruited condition. The habit of the plant is exactly that of Camelina 
dentata, Pers., which it closely resembles in general appearance. 

Viola filicaulis, Hook. f. 

Mr. Hamilton points out that the flowers are sometimes produced in 
pairs from the same axil. 
Panax simplex, Forst. 

À small specimen, not more than 3 inches in height, is doubtfully iden- 
tifed with the young state of this species. It has 5-foliolate, membranous 
leaves, with long slender petioles, and pinnate or pinnatifid leaflets; the 
segments sharply toothed. 

Panaz, sp. nov. ? 

Two specimens in the young state, 6-8 inches in height, appear widely 
different from any described New Zealand species. They are characterised 
by simple linear leaves, similar to those of P. crassifolium, but membranous, 
narrow, and not more than from 8 to 5 inches long, on slender petioles, 
with sharp distant teeth. One specimen has at the base deeply tripartite 
leaves, the middle segment being much the longest. The lowest leaf is 
trilobate, with short broad teeth, so that it closely resembles the leaf of the 
hawthorn. 

Celmisia bellidioides, Hook. f. 

Mr. Hamilton does not mention the precise locality where he collected 
this plant, probably in the vicinity of the lower part of the Francis Joseph 
Glacier, which would explain its occurrence at so low an elevation as 1,000 
feet or less. 

Cuscuta densiflora, Hook. f. 

The discovery of this remarkably local plant at Okarito shows a marked 
extension of its western range. Elsewhere it occurs in Nelson, Port Under- 
wood, and Otago, but appears to be confined to a single locality in each 
district. 

Euphrasia revoluta, Hook. f, 

Not previously observed at so low an altitude as 1,000 feet ; the remarks 
respecting Celmisia bellidioides apply to this plant also. 
Euphrasia longiflora, MS. 

I apply this name provisionally to a remarkable plant of which Mr. 
Hamilton’s specimens are scarcely sufficient to enable me to offer a com- 
plete description. It will be seen that in some respects it differs from 
Euphrasia, although perhaps not to a sufficient degree to warrant generic 
distinction. 

Stems weak, procumbent, matted, tetragonous, 2-4 inches long, and 
with the leaves sparingly covered with scattered retrorse hairs; leaves 


T. Kmx.—On Plants collected at Okarito. 441 


opposite or verticillate, quite entire, 1-3 inch long, shortly pctioled or sessile, 
lanceolate, acuminate, 8-nerved. Flowers on short curved peduncles, 
solitary, axillary, erect, calyx 4-toothed; corolla tube narrow, greatly 
elongated, 4-3 inch long, tip short, broad, bifid, projecting ; capsules oblong, 
slightly beaked, ovules solitary. 7 

This plant differs from all other Euphrasie in the entire leaves, greatly 
elongated corolla tube, and solitary ovules. A further supply of specimens 
is desirable in order to establish the permanence of the last character. 
Spiranthes australis, Linde. 

The Okarito specimens of this local plant mark a considerable extension 
of its western range. Specimens mixed with Microtis porrifulia, apparently 
collected on Banks’ Pevinsula some years back by Mr. Armstrong, junr., 
arein the herbarium of the Christchurch Museum; the credit of its first 
discovery in the South Island is therefore due to that gentleman. 

The other known localities for this species in New Zealand are Waikato, 
where it was originally discovered by Mr. Colenso ; St. John's Lake, Auck- 
land, whence I have a fino specimen collected by Mr. Cheeseman; and 
Kaitoke swamps on the Great Darrier Island, where I had the pleasure of 
collecting it some years past. 

Zostera nana, Roth., var. müelleri. 

This discovery marks a great extension of the southern range of our 
plant, and is the first instance of its having been observed in the South 
Island. 

Ruppia maritima, L. 

wo forms of this plant are represented, one with narrow slender sheaths, 
and elongated spirally coiled peduncles; the other is a more robust plant 
with much broader sheaths, and may be R. rostellata, Koch, but the 
specimens are not in flower or fruit. 
Astelia cunninghamii, Hook. f. 

The Okarito habitat for this species shows a marked extension of its 
southern range, 
Areca sapida, L. 

Mr. Hamilton informed me that the occurrence of one or more specimens 
of the nikau in the vicinity of Okarito is commonly asserted, but although 
he made enquiries from the diggers, he failed to find it, nor did he meet with 
anyone who had actually seen the palm growing in the distriet. I was 
assured that on the opening of the goldfield at Ross, the nikau occurred 
sparingly, but was soon destroyed; the most southern habitat known to mo 
on the West Coast is between Greymouth and Hokitika, in latitude 42° 30’, 
On the East Coast it is said to occur on Banks’ Peninsula; I did not 
Observe it at Akaroa, but have no reason to doubt its occurrence < tho 


442 Transactions.—Botany. 


north side of the peninsula, which would fix its extreme southern limit, on 
the main land, in latitude 48° 40’ $; and itis found on the Chatham Islands 
in latitude 43°46’ S. The latitude of Nice, the extreme limit of the northern 
palm, Chamerops humilis, is 48° 44’ N, so that the actual limits of palms in 
the northern and southern hemispheres are identical, instead of exhibiting a 
difference of five or six degrees, as stated in our botanical text books. 
Eleocharis sphacelata, Br. 

The discovery of this plant on the West Coast of the South Island 
renders its occurrence on Bluff Island more probable than I have hitherto 
deemed it.” Its apparent absence from the extensive district between the 
Taupo country and Okarito is most remarkable. 

Isolepis fluitans, Link. 

The identification of the Bluff plant referred to this species being doubt- 
ful, owing to the imperfect condition of the specimens, its occurrence at 
Okarito is of some interest, as showing the most southern station at present 
known. 

Carex, SP. 

Three small specimens of a form differing from any other described New 
Zealand species were picked from amongst grass; although in an imperfect 
condition, they may be thus characterized :— 

Tufted ; leaves almost filiform, keeled, erect; culms 2 to 3 inches high, 
equalling or shorter than the leaves ; the lowest bract overlapping the culms. 
Spikelets 2-8, the uppermost male; female 3-5-flowered; glumes ovate- 
acuminate with a stout nerve; stigmas 2; utricle ? 

Carex, sp. 

A doubtful plant, probably not uncommon in both islands; presents 
rather close affinities with C. testacea, but differs in the broader, spreading 
leaves, more slender culms, and in having all the spikelets, except the 
uppermost, on slender peduncles. 

Zoysia pungens, Willd. 

Okarito is the only locality at present known for this grass on the West 
Coast of the South Island. It will probably be found to attain its extreme 
southern limit on the West Coast, possibly at or near to Jackson’s Bay. 
Cyathea dealbata, Swartz. 

This species becomes very local on the West Coast, south of Greymouth, 
being absent from extensive areas. Its place is oceupied by Hemitelia 
smithii. Mr. Hamilton gives no information as to its occurrence at Okarito. 
Hymenophyllum minimum, Swartz. 

This species evinces a decided partiality for shaded rocks near the sea. 
It is easily distinguished from its New Zealand congeners by the solitary 


* See Transactions N.Z, Inst., Vol. X., p. 412. 


T, Kmx.—On Plants collected at Okarito, 443 


receptacle terminating the rachis, and by its pale green colour, In the 
North Island it appears to be confined to the vicinity of Cook Strait. 
Hymenophyllum cheesemanni, Baker, 

Mr. Hamilton is the first discoverer of this plant in the South Island. 
Recently it has been collected near Hokitika by Mr. Tipler. 

Hymenophyllum armstrongii, Kirk. 

This shows a considerable extension of its southern range. Mr. Hamil- 
ton’s specimens suggest the great probability of the identity of this and the 
preceding species, as many fronds are entirely destitute of the stout marginal 
nerve which forms the only prominent distinction between the two, The 
same rhizome sometimes exhibits fronds with the marginal nerve, arrested 
at different stages of development, from the typical condition of H. arm- 
strongit, in which the marginal nerve is fully developed, to that of H. cheese- 
manni, in which it is entirely wanting. The marginal nerve may even be 
developed on one side of a segment, as in H. armstrongii, while the other | 
side exhibits no trace of it, as in H. cheesemanni, Not unfrequently it is 
reduced to a slight thiekening at the base of each tooth. At present I am 
unable to satisfy myself whether its absence must be considered due to 
simple non-development or to absorption. 

Hymenophyllum villosum, Colenso. 

This habitat is at a lower altitude than is usually affected by the species, 
although I am not certain that it is the lowest yet observed. 
Hymenophyllum pulcherrimum, Col. 

Mr. Hamilton's specimens are the finest I have seen, some of them 
being twenty-seven inches long, but remarkably narrow in proportion. 
Hymenophylium rufescens, n.s. 

At present only known from this locality and from another in the North 
Island. See Art. LXXIV. 

Davallia nove-zealandig, Col. 

The fronds of this plant also are of unusual luxuriance, a solitary pair 
of pinne in the collection, measuring nineteen inches from tip to tip. 
Lomaria, sp. 

Two fragments of a plant which may be Lomaria attenuata, Willd., are 
comprised in the collection. They are about four or five inches in length; 
one specimen is the acute apex of a barren frond, the lowest segments of 
Which are apparently pinnate, with an aeute narrow sinus, and attached 
by very broad bases; segments acute, margins uneven. The other speci- 
men is the basal portion of a fertile frond, pinnules sessile, 14 inch long, 
With broad bases, acuminate, the two lowest deflexed. The specimens are 
too imperfect to admit of positive identification, but the plant certainly differs 
from all deseribed New Zealand forms. 


444 Transactions.— Botany, 


Polypodium grammitidis, Br. 

On the West Coast of the South Island this plant exhibits a greater 
range of variation than usual. Mature sporiferous specimens collected by 
Mr. J. D. Enys are from 2 to 3 inches long, and not more than 4 inch 
wide. The lower portion is cut into deltoid pinnules or lobes } of an inch 
long; the upper part is deeply toothed. In this state it closely resembles 
the Cingalese P. eucullatum, Nees, but the pinnules are broader at the base. 
Some of Mr. Hamilton's Okarito specimens have the pinnules lobed and 
Worked to an excessive degree, in others the fronds are 8 to 10 inches long, 
pinuatifid, with simple entire piunules. In others again the frond is 
similar, but the pinnules are slightly toothed. When in this state I am 
unable to distinguish this plant from P. subfalcatum, Blume, of the Malay 
Archipelago. 

Lycopodium ramulosum, Blume. 

Only known at present from this locality, and the vicinity of Hokitika. 
See Art. LXXIII. 

P.S.—Since the above was written, Mr. Hamilton has informed me that 
Celmisia bellidioides and Euphrasia revoluta were collected near the face of 
the glacier, at an clevation of between 700 and 800 fect, 


Art, LXXI.— Notes on the Botany of Waiheke, Rangitoto, and other Islands in 

the Hauraki Gulf. By T. Kırg, F.L.S. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 28th September, 1878.] 
Ix few localities is the importance of atmospheric moisture, as a factor in 
the distribution of vegetable life, more forcibly demonstrated than amongst 
the small islands in the lower part of the Hauraki Gulf. Most of these 
islands consist of sandstones, clays, and slates, and are watered by springs 
and small streams. In every case the islands of this class exhibit a luxu- 
riant vegetation, more or less copious in the number of species, according 
to the variety of soil, situation, and aspect. One or two of the smaller 
islands are composed of basaltic scoria, and are entirely destitute of water, 
except such as may be collected in rock-cavities during rainy weather, 
and are therefore entirely dependent upon atmospheric moisture for the 
maintenance of vegetable life. While both classes exhibit marked pecu- 
liarities in their botanical features, the most striking are those to be seen on 
islands of the latter class, destitute alike of surface soil and a perennial 
water supply, 


a 


T. Kmx.—On the Botany of Islands in the Hauraki Gulf. 446 


In this paper I purpose to offer a brief account of the chief characteristics 
of the vegetation of these islands, and to draw attention to those features 
which have been most strongly developed by their respective physical 
peculiarities, 

The largest island of the group is Waiheke, about thirteen miles in 
length, with a mean breadth of three and a-half miles, although in some 
places much wider, It is estimated to comprise 23,200 acres, of which 
1,500 are laid down in grass. It consists chiefly of stiff clays, sandstones, 
and slates, and in its altitude and general characteristics bears considerable 
resemblance to the island of Kawau. The hills are low, nowhere exceeding 
750 feet in altitude, the valleys are chiefly of an open character, and there 
are few deep ravines ; most of the coast line is rocky; in fact, there are 
only one or two short pieces of sandy beach on the entire coast, and there 
are no extensive swamps. Manganese crops out on the surface in several 
localities, and is now worked in one or two places, forming an article of 
export. At the present time, partly from actual clearing of forest land and 
laying down in grass, and partly from the destruction effected by the 
constant browsing of cattle, coupled with frequent burning of the fern and 
manuka in the open country, the relative proportion between different 
species has become greatly altered, but there is no reason to suppose that 
even a single species has been extirpated. 

The forest vegetation is usually of considerable luxuriance, although, as 
a rule, not remarkable for timber of large dimensions; to this however there 
are some notable exceptions. The kauri ( Dammara australis) was formerly 
plentiful in several localities, but has become extremely rare; as on tho 
Great Darrier Island, so on Waiheke, it specially affected soils derived from 
the older rocks. The tooth-leaved beech (Fagus fusca) occurs in con- 
siderable quantity at the sea level, occasionally of large size; the rimu 
(Dacrydium cupressinum ) also frequently attains large dimensions, but the 
totara ( Podocarpus totara) is rare and always small; the maire (P. ferruginea) 
is rather more plentiful, and the matai ( P. spicata) decidedly rare; I did 
not observe a single specimen of large size. The tawa ( Nesodaphne tawa) 
forms a large portion of the forest in many places, while the taraire ( N. 
taraire) is comparatively rare; the pukatea (Atherosperma nova-zealandig ), 
white pine (Podocarpus daerydioides;y, and tanekaha ( Phyllocladus tricho- 
manoides) are not infrequent; puriri /Vitev littoralis), rata (Metrosideros 
robusta), hinau ( Eleocarpus dentatus), kowhai / Sophora tetraptera), ma- 
ngiao (Tetranthera calicaris), kohe-kohe ( Dysoxylum spectabile ), titoki ( Alec- 
tryon excelsum), toro (Persoonia toro), tipau (Myrsine salicina), mapau 
( M. australis), and others affording useful woods are found in most forest 
districts, although nowhere abundant. Que of the most strongly marked 


446 Transaotions.—Botany, 


features in the sylvestral vegetation was the occurrence of large tracts 
of tea-tree forest (Leptospermum ericoides), these were so extensive and 
afforded such excellent firewood that for many years the chief portion 
of the Auckland firewood supply was derived from Waiheke. It is said 
that in addition to the supply from land in the possession of settlers, 
Government reserves wers illegally denuded of thousands of tons by 
squatters, who considered it a violation of first principles to pay any 
thing in the shape of royalty, or acknowledge the authority of a govern- 
ment that did not consider the assertion of its rights a matter of importance. 
The value of this tree for small piles and for fencing purposes tended 
largely to accelerate its destruction, so that notwithstanding its former 
abundance there is now very little to be seen in the island, and the trivial 
amount of firewood still exported is of inferior quality. | 

Amongst the ornamental trees and shrubs which abound on the island 
are Quintinia serrata, with its handsome peach-colouredblossom, Weinmannia 
silvicola, the flowers of which are much more showy than those of its 
southern ally, the ngaio, (Myoporum latum), Fuchsia excorticata, Olearia 
cunninghamii with its numerous corymbs of white flowers so well known 
throughout the colony; and O. furfuracea restricted to the north; Carmichalia 
australis, Metrosideros florida, Clematis indivisa, and many other species 
characteristic of the Northern forest. Two plants, however, require special 
notiee. Coprosma arborea, the largest species of the genus, forms a consider- 
able proportion of the less luxuriant forest growth in several localities, but 
as the wood of this tree gives off an unpleasant odour when burning, it is 
usually left standing by the firewood cutters, although occasionally sought 
after by the inlayer on account of its peculiar yellow colour. Alseuosmia 
macrophylla, so characteristic of the undergrowth of the Northern forest 
generally, is abundant in some parts of the island, its pendulous crimson 
flowers diffusing their grateful perfume over a considerable area. The so- 
called kauri grass (Astelia trinervia), is abundant in several of the forest 
districts. 

On the cliffs, and on the margin of forests by the sea, the splendid 
pohutnkawa (Me/rosideros tomentosa) attains a large size and is still plentiful, 
although often recklessly destroyed. Sapota costata occurs in a few sheltered 
bays, but itis rarely of large size, Pittosporum crassifolium is occasionally 
seen, but only near the beach; Hymenanthera tasmanica was observed on 
the Onitangi sands, and most of the ordinary maritime plants may be found 
by careful search. 

The open ground is covered with fern ( Pteris esculenta) or with scrubby 
manuka (Leptospermum scoparium), intermixed with a sparse growth of dwarf 
shrubs, grasses and other herbaceous plants: amongst the former, Poma- 


- 


T. Krex.—On the Botany of Islands in the Hauraki Gulf. 447 


derris phylicifolia is, perhaps, the most abundant; Dracophyllum squar- 
rosum, Leucopogon fasciculatum, L. frazert, Cyathodes acerosa, Gaultheria 
antipoda, Coriaria ruscifolia, etc., are common. The more frequent grasses 
and herbaceous plants are Sporobolus elongatus, Agrostis emula, A. quadriseta, 
Triticum multiflorum, Poa anceps, Dichelachne crinita, Microlena stipoides. 
Glyceria stricta was collected in a single locality on the coast. Geranium 
molle, G. microphyllum, G. dissectum, Oxalis corniculata, Pelargonium clandes- 
tinum, Acena sanguisorbe, Halorayis alata, H. diffusa, Epilobium pubens, F. 
junceum, E. rotundifolium, E. nummularifolium, — brachiatus, Gna- 
phalium collinum, G. luteo-album, G. involucratum, Wahl yia gracilis, etc., 
ete. In most places Cladium sinclairii, C. gunnii, Schenus tendo, S. tenax, 
etc., with a few orchids, of which the most frequent were Microtis porrifolia, 
Thelymitra longifolia, and Orthoceras solandri. Phormium tenax, with several 
species of Juncus, Carex, Gahnia and other sedges, occurred in marshy 
places, especially on the borders of forests, but, as a rule, paludal plants 
were poorly represented. | 

Arborescent ferns are represented by Cyathea medullaris, C. dealbata, 
Dicksonia squarrosa, and very rarely by Hemitelia smithii; none of the rarer 
kinds were observed. The ferns and allied plants generally were remark- 
ably few in number; besides the tree ferns, the most striking are Lomaria 
Jraseri, and Lygodium articulatum. 

I have already mentioned the general resemblanee between the chief 
physical features of the Kawau and Waiheke. Although the total number 
of ferns on the latter island is greatly below that of the Kawau, the resem- 
blance between the Phenogamic portion of the flora” of both is remarkably 
close. I can only enumerate three plants as occurring on Waiheke, which 
are not also found on Kawau: they are Hymenanthera tasmanica, Pimelea 
arenaria, and Melicytus micranthus; the first and second of these are 
extremely rare, the third occurs in several localities, and in all probability 
is to be found on Kawau, although not observed either by Mr. Buchanan or 
myself, 

The kauri and tooth-leaved beech, both of which are rare on Kawau, 
occur or rather have occurred on Waiheke in considerable quantity. 
Coprosma arborea is also more plentiful on the latter island than the former, 
and the same remark applies to Metrosideros robusta, of which only a single 
specimen is known in Kawau. The large tea-tree, although plentiful on 
that island, never occurred in such great abundance as on Waiheke. On 
the other hand, one of the most characteristic plants of the Kawau flora, 


* Of course excluding numerous species, such as e Jilicaule, Juncus nove- 
zealandie, Uncinia rubra, Eryngium vesiculosum, etc., etc., erroneously recorded as 
indigenous wau. See Trans. N.Z. Inst., IX., pp. 625-527, 


448 Transactions.—Dotany. 


Cordyline pumilio, is extremely rare on Waiheke. Sapota costata attains its 
greatest dimensions on Kawau, but is small on Waiheke; while Pittosporum 
tenuifolium, D. crassifulium, and other species are not nearly so frequent on 
Waiheke as on Kawau. | 

Waiheke may be considered to possess a moderately copious flora, 
exhibiting a great amount of luxuriance and vigour, although its most 
important species are far from attaining extreme dimensions, the greatest 
amount of variety as well as the most luxuriant growth being found in the 
deeper portions of the forest, or in sheltered bays by the sea. The least 
amount of variety is found on the open fern or tea-tree lands on the higher 
parts of the island. 

The other islands are of smaller size than Waiheke, the largest not 
comprising more than one-fourth of the acreage of that island. Ponui 
contains 4,726 acres, and presents similar geological features ; its flora is 
less copious than that of Waiheke, its most noticeable feature being the 
abundance of Brachyglottis and other low-growing shrubs. 

Motutapu has an area of 3,728 acres, more than half of which is laid 
down in excellent grass, most of the remainder being manuka or open fern 
land; yet, notwithstanding the unfavourable conditions which exist upon 
this little island, upwards of two hundred and forty species of phenogams 
and ferns were catalogued; about forty-five of these were naturalized plants, 
chiefly of agricultural introduction, the most noteworthy being Myosotis 
colina, Hoffm., which has not been observed elsewhere in the colony, so far 
as I am aware. Nothing in the shape of arboreal vegetation is to be found, 
except in sloping places on the cliffs, and in one or two bays, where magni- 
ficent specimens of the pohutukawa are still to be seen, rarely associated 
with Sapota costata and Corynocarpus lavigata. Ferns are extremely rare, 
and the bulk of the native vegetation is either littoral or ericetal in its 
character. Two native grasses, Trisetum antarcticum and Triticum multiflorum, 
are more plentiful than in other parts of the Auckland district. Motutapu 
consists of sandstones and clays, the former sometimes so regularly strati- 
fied as to present an artificial appearance. 

Motuihi contains about 460 acres, more than half of which is pastu- 
rage. The open, uncleared portion is chiefly covered with manuka or 
fern, and patches of large arboreal vegetation are to be found on the slopes, 
the most important member being the pohutukawa, which attains large 
dimensions. On a charming miniature sandy beach, Dichelachne stipoides, 
Pimelea arenaria, Paspalum distichum, and Sicyos angulatus are plentiful. 
The last-named has not been observed on any other of these islands. 

Of the vegetation of Little Motutapu (Rukino), containing only 450 
acres, and of Pakihi, containing 280 acres, nothing is known, 


T. Kmx.—On the Dotany of Islands in the Hauraki Gulf. 449 


Te Ratoroa contains 204 acres. Its fora is chiefly remarkable for the 
profusion of Entelea, associated with Brachyglottis, Coprosma, Veronica, and 
other small shrubs. The plants of Motuora are of a similar character. 

Motukorea, or Brown’s Island, has an area of 150 acres. It is chiefly 
voleanic, and contains one of the most perfect craters to be found iu tho 
Auckland system. With the exception of the lava field, which forms a 
large portion of the lower part of the island, the whole has been laid down 
in grass, and presents no botanical features of special interest. In a few 
places, where water accumulates in spaces amongst the blocks of lava, or 
percolates through them from the sea, Typha latifolia, Scirpus maritimus, 
and other uliginal plants are found in some quantity. In other parts of 
the lava field a dense growth of bushy shrubs attracts attention. Olearia 
furfuracea and Metrosideros tomentosa occur sparingly, but the latter is 
usually of small size. 

The volcanic island of Rangitoto, which forms so prominent a feature in 
the scenery of the Hauraki Gulf, possesses greater interest to the botanist 
than any other island in the group. This arises less from a copious flora 
although the number of species is comparatively large—than from the 
remarkable state of the ligneous vegetation, which exhibits the utmost 
luxuriance of foliage and flowers on the most diminutive specimens, and 
from the peculiar conditions of growth, most of the plants springing 
directly from the face of the rocks or from the crevices between them. A 
brief description of the island will enable us better to understand the pecu- 
liarities presented by its flora. 

Rangitoto is roughly circular in outline, with deep indentations; its 
greatest diameter is about four miles; its least two and a-half miles; it is 
estimated to contain 5,044 acres, and is next iu size to Waiheke. Its base 
consists of an irregular lava field, rising towards the ceutre at an angle of 
four or five degrees. From near the centre the scoria cone, which forms 
the crater, rises at an angle of about 85 degrees to the height of 980 feet. 
The cone is double, but the outer one has been carried away in places; the 
inner and more clevated cone forms the largest and best preserved crater 
to be found in the Auckland system. It is considered to be the latest 
manifestation of voleanie activity in the Waitemata district. Although 
ouly 200 feet higher than the highest point of Waiheke, its isolated peak is 
frequently surrounded by clouds, while the whole of the adjacent isthmus 
is suffering from want of rain. 

The lava fiell, which forms the chief portion of the island, is extremely 
rough aud difficult of examination, being broken up into chasms, ravines, 
and irregular depressions ; for the most part progress can only be made by 
leaping from one sharp-edged block of scoria to another, or by scrambling 

a27 


450 Transactions.—Dotany. 


up cne side of a ridge to descend on the other. The central cone, which 
forms but a small part of the whole, consists of loose cinders and ashes, into 
which the feet sink at every step of the ascent. The island may therefore 
be regarded as a huge filter, through which the rain percolates, so that a 
perennial stream or even a spring is an impossibility ; in fact, the island is 
entirely destitute of water, except the small quantity that during rainy 
weather accumulates in rock-cavities, and which is speedily evaporated. The 
formation of surface soil is impossible under such conditions, since the 
comminuted particles of rock or ash are washed into the interstices of the 
rocks by every shower, or blown away by every breeze. 

Yet under these antagonistic conditions, less favourable on the whole to 
vegetable life than even the pumice-covered plains of the Taupo district, we 
find a flora comprising fully one-seventh of the entire number of flowering 
plants and ferns indigenous to the colony always exhibiting extreme luxu- 
riance of foliage, although its larger members are greatly dwarfed in stature, 
and at certain periods of the year presenting an amount of floral splendour 
which finds no counterpart in the southern portions of the colony. 

In many places the chasms and depressions are occupied by a most 
luxuriant growth of Mosses, Hepatice, and Lichens, the most frequent of 
which are Hypnum furfurosum, Chandonanthus squarrosus, Dolyotus claviger, 
Trichocolea tomentella, Sendtnera flagellifera, Cladonia rangerifina, C. cornu- 
copoides, ete. On the dry exposed rocks, Racomitrium lanuyinoswn forms 
large patches, which become brittle during intervals of dry weather, but 
revive with the first showers : this is the only locality in which it descends to 
ihe sea-level in New Zealand. Growing amongst the cool mosses are several 
delicate ferns, Hymenophyllum sanguinolentum, H. rarum, H, multifidum, 
and especially Trichomanes reniforme. Other ferns of coarser growth are not 
uncommon, while Cheilanthes sieberi, a characteristic plant of the Auckland 
volcanic district, is plentiful on the driest rocks. One of the most interesting 
plants on the island is the tropical Psilotum triquetrum, which occurs in 
abundance, usually springing from the face of rocks. Dendrobium cunning- 
hamii produces its beautiful flowers in greater profusion and of larger size 
than I have seen them elsewhere, and the fragrant Karina mucronata i8 
abundant. There is a sprinkling of grasses comprising cight or ten species, 
with a few common herbaceous plants, but the most interesting feature of 
the flora is the occurrence of Metrosideros tomentosa, M. robusta, Griselinia 
lucida, Pittosporum crassifolium, Knightia excelsa, and other trees, often in a 
diminutive condition, but laden with glossy foliage of the greatest luxuriance, 
and flowers of deeper and brighter tints than are produced under ordinary 
conditions, 

On the clay cliffs of the adjacent islands, Metrosideros tomentosa attains 8 


AA AA nti ib 


MM AA Wa a 


T, Kirg,—On the Botany of Islands in the Hauraki Gulf. 451 


height of from fifty to eighty feot, with a trunk from two to three fect in 
diameter; in its natural condition it rarely flowers before attaining tho 
height of from twenty to thirty feet, but on Rangitoto compact charming 
specimens one to three feet high were covered with brilliant flowers; scarcely 
m plant was to be seen over twelve feet in height, but nearly all were 
splendidly in flower. Near the base of the cone I observed two specimens 
of a peculiar form of this species, with the leaves and flowers of smaller 
size than in the typical form; the leaves glabrous and coriaceous, closely 
approaching AM. polymorpha, Griselinia lucida exhibited a similar pheno. 
menon, specimens of the staminate plants being covered with panicles of 
yellow flowers, much more deeply coloured than I have seen them elsewhere, ` 
and forming a strong contrast with the fiery crimson of the pohutukawa, ` 
Metrosideros robusta was less common than its close ally, but occasionally 

attained a larger size, being only exceeded in height by Pittosporum crassi- 

folium, Other trees occurred in a similarly dwarfed condition, as Alectryon 

excelsum, Tetranthera calicaris, ete., but all were cast into the shade by tho 

bright flowers of the ratas and Griselinia. The vegetation of the cone itself 

is extremely meagre, diminutive specimens of Leptospermum scoparium and 

Pomaderris phylicifolia are mixed with species of Geranium, Gnaphalium, 

Epilobium, Erechtites, and especially with Vittadinia australis, a plant deci- 

dedly rare in the vicinity of Auckland, The whole presented but few 

points of interest. 

I append a list of the plants catalogued on this remarkable island, and 
with a few observations on the cause of the peculiar coudition of its ligneous 
vegetation will conclude this paper. 

It has been pointed out that while the plants of this section are 
depauperated as to size, yet in other particulars they exhibit the greatest 
possible luxuriance; pigmy specimens of pohutukawa, Griselinia and others, 
develope foliage and flowers of larger size and brighter colours than those 
Produced under the most favourable circumstances. 

This result can only be attributed to the joint operation of two causes : 
the large amount of moisture present in the atmosphere, and the extremcly 
comminuted condition of the small modieum of soil from which the plants 
extract their nourishment. The latter condition admits of a freer circulation 
of air, saturated with moisture, about the roots than is possible iu stiff 
soils, and facilitates the absorption of the mineral constituents which are 
requisite for the growth of the wood, while the limited quantity in which 
these elements are available, and the brief occasional checks to growth 
during periods of drought, have a direct relation to the reduced size of the 
plants. The influence of atmospheric moisture is shown in the luxuriant 
and glossy foliage, thus affording another proof, if such be wanting, of the 


452 Transactions. — Botany, 


absorbing powers of leaves, a fanction of late years overlooked, or altogether 
denied, by physiologists. 

The lava fields of the Auckland Isthmus afford proof of the correctness 
of these conclusions. Although not more than from six to ten miles 
distant in a straight line their ligneous plants do not exhibit the same 
peculiarities as those of Rangitoto. Owing to the longer interval that has 
elapsed since their formation, a much larger quantity of soil is found 
amongst the rocks, so that in many places the titoki, mangiao, kohe-kohe, 
rewa-rewa and other trees attain their average dimensions. The largest 
specimens of Griselinia lucida that I have met with grew amongst the rough 
scoria near Mount Eden, but owing to the comparatively small amount of 
atmospheric moisture the leaves present an ordinary appearance, and the 
extremely luxuriant foliage so characteristic of the woody vegetation of 
Rangitoto is not developed. 

Catalogue of Phenogamie Plants and Filices collected on Rangitoto Island. 

I have to express my indebtedness to Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, for my 
knowledge of several interesting plants not observed by mo, aud havo 
distinguished them by affixing his initials in cach case. 

* Naturalized plants are distinguished Ey an asterisk, 


DrcorvrEDoss. 
Clematis indivisa, Willd. T.F.C. Sophora tetraptera, Aitin. 
mae ene Br. iubus australis, Forst., B. and y. 
s, Banks and Sol. TE 

ar pier Banks and Sol. Acena sanquisorle, Vall. 
Cardamine hirsuta, * 4myudalus persica, L. 
Lepidium oleraceuu, Forst, Tillea verticilluris , DC. 
Melicytus ramiflorus, Forst. Drosera auriculata, Backh. T.F.C. 


Pittosporum crassifolium, Banks and | Halorayis TA. 


aeq. 
Sy Labill., 6. dif- 
Stellaria pers “Banks and Sol. 
T.F 


.C. Leptospermum web Forst. 
* Silene guingueruluera, L. ericoides, A, Rich 
Playianthus divaricatus, Forst. : Metrosideros florida, Sm 
Linum monogynum, Forst. robusta, A. Cu n. 
Geranium dissectum, L., var. caroli- tomentosa, A. re 
nianum, a. and s ar. 
Pelargonium australe, L., var. elandes- scandens, Danke: and Sol. 
tinum. Fuchsia excorticata, Là 
Melicope ternata, Forst. Epilobium mimmularifolium, X Cunn. 
Dysoxylum spectabile, Hook. f. tetragonum, L. 
Fomaderris phylicifolia, Ladd. junceum, Forst, 
Dodonga viscosa, Forst. pubens, A. Rich. 
Alectryon excelsum, DC. Mesembryanthemum australe, Sol. 
Corynocarpus lariyata, Forst. Tetrayonia expansa, Murray. 
Coriaria ruscifolia, L. Hydrocotyle akilia; ii GE. e 
Carmichelia austr E Hook. f, Apium australe, Thouars, 


T. Kmx.—Catalogue of Plants collected on Rangitoto Island, 


Dicorytepons—continueid. 


Apium filiforme, Hook. 
Daucus brachiatus, Sieber, 
Panax 


Coprosma robusta, Raoul, 
lucida, Forst. 
ueriana, Endl, 
Galium umbrosum, Forst. 
Olearia haa ea, "n f, 

V Hook, f 
occ, seid A. Rich. 
Layenophora forsteri, DC, 

Bidens pilosa, L 
Cassinia leptophylla, Br. 
foetal hu album, L. 
solusi, Forst. 
collinum. Labill. 
Senecio glastifulius, Hook, f. T.F.C. 
US, 


au 
Erechtites aryuta, DC. 


Brachyglottis Shea Forst. 
Sonchus oleraceus, L., B. asper 
x , Hehmimhia ec tae, Gert. 


Lobelia anceps, 

Selliera radicans, Cav. 
Gaultheria antipodo, bos 
Cyathodes ac 


kaa | 
Leucopogon jore A. Rich. 


453 
Myrsine urvillei, A.DC. 
Samolus repens, Pers. 
* Anagallis arvensis, L. 
Parsonsia albiflora, Raoul. T.F.C, 


Geniostoma ete ifolium, A. Cunn, 
zrythrea centaurium, 
Convolvolus sepium, L. 
tugquriorum, Forst, 
soldar 
Dichondra repens, ta faina 
Solanum ores, Forst. 


p^ 


yrum, L, 

* Physalis pisk uviana, L, 
eronica salicifolia, Forst. 

Vitex littoralis, " Cunn, 

Avicennia officinalis, L. 

Myoporum letum, ca 

Chenopodium ylaucum, L., var, ambig- 


FEC, 


uum 
Sueda maritima, Dumortier, 
Salicornia australis, Soland, 
Scleranthus biflorus, Hook. f. 
Muhlenbeckia adpressa, Labill. 
complexa, Meisn, 
* Rumex viridis, Sibthorp. 
Tetranthera calicaris, Hook. f, 
Hedycarya dentata, Forst. 
Knightia excelsa, Br. 
Pimelea prostrata. ahl. 
virgata, Vahl. 
Euphorbia glauca, Forst. 
Parietaria debilis, Forst. 
Peperomia urrilleana, A. Rich. 
Piper excelsum, Forst. 


T.F.C. 


MoxsocoTYLEDONS. 


Farina mucronata, Lindl. 
Dendrobium cunninghamii, i 
Dolboyhyllum pygmaum, uu 

irii, He 


rst. 
Prasophyllum eurem d t 
single specimen 


0 
Orthoceras SER ME i, Lindl. 
Ti ochin triandr um, Mich. 
Zostera 
Cordy vitae australis, Hook. f. 
Dianella intermedia, Endl. 


Asielia cunninghamii, Hook. f. 


A 


sE Vey 


TEC. 


Astelia pei i, A. Cunn, 
sii, A. Cunn 
eec irk, 
Phormium ces, Forst. 
Luzula campestris, DC. 
Cyperus ustulatus, 4. Rich. 
Isolepis nodusa, 
Gahnia pee Steudel. 
enaria, Hook. f. 
Carex lucida, Boott. 
brerirulmis, Br. 
éáoalii: Boott. 
dissita, Soland. 


TPC. 
lambertiana, Boott. 
Paspalyin tit ava L. T.F.Q. 


454 Transactions,—DBotany, 


MonocoryLepons—continued. 


Panicum imbecille, Trin 
* Juthovanthum od. sehen, L 
* Phalaris canariensis, L. 
Dichelachne stipoides, Hook. f.: 
crinita, Hook. f. 
sciurea, Hook. f. 
Agrostis emula, Br. 
in c "i Br. 
Arundo ae 
Danthonia ndi Br. 


E chinopoyon ovatus, Palisot. 
“Uynodon dactylon, L. 
* Dactylis glomeraia, L. 
Doa imbecilla, Br. 
Apc F orst. 
a minor, 
"Evo sterii, Ji 
arenarius. 
* Festuca myurus, L. 


ütoralis, Dr. 


CRYPTOGAMIA. 


Hymenophyllum multifidum, Swartz. 
rarum, Dr. 
polyanthos, Bwa 


artz, 
. sanguinolentum 


demissum, Swartz. 
Trichomanes reniforme, Forst. 
humile, Forst. T EO. 
Adiantum ‘ies Wild. T.F.C. 
Cheilanthes sieberi, Hote, 
Pellea rotundifolia, For 
"teris equite, L., var. geared 
a, Br. 
epar. poss À. Cunn. 
Doodia media, ar 
wwa 
Asplentum ‘text, Porat, 
lucidum, Forst. 


Asplenium flabellifolium, Cav. 
alcatum, Lam. 
bulbiferum, Forst.  T.F.C. 
Jlaccidum, Forst. 
pA edu richardi, 
Nephrodium ylabellum, Dunt: 
l 'ulypodium grammitidis, Br. 
serpens, For 
cunninghamii, " Hook. 
pustulatum, Forst, 
illardieri, Dr. 
Nothochlena distans, Br. T.F.C. 
Botrychium ternatum, Swartz. T.F.C. 
Lycopodium billardieri, Spring. 
T'nesipteris forsteri, 
Psilotum triquetrum, Swartz. 


un 
et 


Arr. LXXII.—On the | eee of Fungus from New Zealand, 
By T. King, F.L.8. 

{Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.) 
In several striking characteristics Fungi bear a similar relation to all other 
plants to that borne by Insecta to all other animals. A larger number of 
plants 1s included in Fungi (regarded as a single order) than in any other 
group of similar value.* The largest number of similar animals is com- 
prised under Insecta. Each group exhibits a large amount of polymorphism 
and parasitism. Each contains many species injurious to man, aud but 
few from which he derives direct benefit. While other large groups of 


* This assertion is at variance with the comparative estimates of the number of 

mprised under different natural orders as stated in Botanical Text Books, but 

i warranted by the known results in countries where Fungi have been investigated with 

gome approach to completeness. In Great Britain, for instance, over 3,000 species of 

Fungi are known, considerably more than twice the number of Phænogams and Filicales 
put together. 


T. Kire.—0n the Export of Fungus from New Zealand. 455 


animals and plants are constantly yielding additions to the catalogue of 
organic substances directly or indirectly utilized by man, Fungi and 
Insecta, notwithstanding their vast numbers, but rarely assist to swell the 
roll Any addition to the useful species of either is therefore of special 
interest, and on this, as well as other grounds, it is desirable to draw atten- 
tion to the export of Fungus from this colony. It is practically restricted 
to a single species—Hirneola polytricha, Mont.,—which is plentiful on 
decaying timber in all our forest districts. 

Prior to 1872, it was exported only in small quantities, but in that year 
the amount declared at the various ports in the colony was 57 tons 14 cwt., 
valued at £1,927 ; in 1877 it had increased to 220 tons 5 cwt., valued at 
£11,318; the total amount exported during the seven years ending 1878 
being 838 tons, valued at £37,812. Its gradual increase will be seen from 
the following return, for which I am indebted to the Collector of Customs. 
Fractions are omitted for convenience :— 


Year Tons. Value, 

1872 58 £1,927 
1873 95 1,195 
1874 : 118 6,226 
1875 112 : ia 5,744 
1876 iis ds 122 “4 " 6,224 
1877 yA ie 220 á nx ee 


1878 “a S 103 ER a 

From this it will be seen that the declared value is about £44 per ton, 

or more than four and a-half times the nominal price of one penny per 
pound paid by the merchant to the collector. As the fungus does not 
require to undergo any process to prepare it for market, the actual outlay 
connected with it is confined to the cost of collection and spreading in the 
open air or in sheds for a few days to get rid of moisture. This, however, 
is rarely necessary in the summer. At any rate, we have, in round num- 
bers, the sum of £8,000 to represent the actual remuneration of the 
collectors, while the merchants’ profit is represented by the disproportionate 
figure of £29,000. China is the sole market for our fungus. In 1878, at 
the suggestion of Mr. Seed, Commissioner of Customs, the Colonial Secre- 
tary made enquiry as to the purposes to which it was applied by the 
Chinese. The Colonial Secretary at Hong Kong stated in reply that it was 
“much prized by the Chinese community as a medicine, administered in 
the shape of a decoction to purify the blood, and ‘was also used on fast 
days, with a mixture of vermicelli and bean-curd, instead of animal food.” 
Later information shows that it is largely used in soups as ordinary food. 
It was farther stated that it was sold retail at about 10}d. per lb. As tho 
price paid to tho collector in New Zealand doos not exceed 1d, per Ib., it ia 


456 Transactions.—Zvology, 


clear that a high rate of profit must be realized by the merchant and retailer 
alike. 

Specimens of our plant, from Christchurch and Wellington, were exhi- 
bited at the Vienna Exhibition under the name of Jew's-ear Fungus, 
Hirneola auricula-jude, an allied species which occurs in the colony, but 
which is decidedly rare when compared with H. polytricha. The two plants 
may be easily distinguished, H. polytricha being greyish or cinereous, while 
H. auricula-jude is usually of a pinkish tint. 

Another species of Hirneola is collected in Tahiti for export to China, 
and a larger species, found in Northern China, is said to be extensively 
collected for home use. 

We have thus before us the singular phenomenon of a product, utterly 
useless in the countries where it is found, being utilized by one of the least 
progressive people on the face of the earth, thus reversing the ordinary 
condition in which the civilized race utilizes the natural products of others 
less favoured. 


Arr. EXXIIL--Decriptton of a new Species of Lycopodium. 
By T. King, F.L.S. 
Plate XIX., fig. B. 
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.) 
Lycopodium ramulosum, n. s. 

A PnocuxszNT plant forming compact masses; stems 2-4 inches long, 
rather stout, repeatedly dichotomously branched; leaves crowded all round 
the stem, imbricated or spreading 1-l inch long, narrow subwiate, coria- 
ceous above, acute or pungent; spikes numerous, terminal J-2 iuch long, 
bracts small, sessile, ovate, abruptly acuminate, slightly tdothed. 

Hab.—South Island: Hokitika, W. Tipler! Okarito, 4. Hamilton! 

This plant differs trom all other New Zealand species in its dense, com- 
pact habit; in some respects it closely approaches L. laterale, B. diffusum, 
but that form is always erect, or sub-erect, and never grows in compact 
masses; moreover, it is but sparingly branched, and never has terminal 
spikes. In all these points our plant is strongly marked, and may easily be 
recognized at sight. It was originally discovered near Hokitika by Mr. 
Tipler, and subsequently at Okarito by Mr. Hamilton. I am indebted to 
both gentlemen for a supply of specimens. 

The spikes of our plant differ but little from those of L. laterale, Br., 
except in their greater number and smaller size. In the young state 


TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE, VOL ALPL AIR. 


Wy VA 
Nop X) 


YA 
YA 
MY 
y 
We 
| A 4 MY 
^ ph T N m 
NA^ a = YN 7 T. 
ha a 3S Y = 
ty / Ag w SY ^ 
TUI Y 4 V À 
Y Yu M S udi 
‘4 4 7 f Wy bv | y N j ur 
UNA NM 7 A Ni S > WA 
WY E "n VA MW es RANG (b 
<A V. yY Wwe OY d 
ARAA aa ARN s an f, [^ Ny di 
= SSS = M 7j y UA AA OOL LALA WA "A » V7 A. $ 
= Wt glo S n HN AN is 
> ^. y E 


B. LYCOPODIUM PAMULOSUM, Kirk. 


T. Kirz.—On a new Species of Hymenophyllum. 407 


catkins are closely appressed, and ascending, but when the sporangia dis- 
charge their contents the tips of the scales become patent or even reflexed. 
The points of the young shoots are often of a reddis colour, and when 
growing in exposed situations the leaves become harsh and pungent. 

Not unfrequently two spikes are produced from the apex of a branch, 
and rarely the fertile branch is overtopped by a luxuriant “ usurping shoot,” 
so that the spike appears to be lateral, showing its close affinity with 
L. laterale, which is still further strengthened by the fact that in that species 
the spikes are not invariably sessile, Lut occasionally are developed on very 
short leafy peduncles. 

It is worthy of noto that in L. laterale the spikes are frequently confined 
to one side of the stem. 

Our plant has affinities also with L. clavatum, ¢ magellanicum. 

L. laterale and L. divulsum are considered distinct by Bentham, in Flora 
Australiensis (Vol. VIL, p. 675.] In New Zealand the latter form is not 
confined to alpine districts, but occasionally occurs in peaty bogs, from tho 
sea level upwards, and notwithstanding its rigid appearance passes by 
insensible gradations into the typical form of L. laterale. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIX., Tig. D. 
Lycopodium ramulosum, n. 8. 
Old spike, with empty sporangia, enlarged. 
2. Bract, outer face, magnified. 
8. Bract, inner face with sporangium, magnified. 
4, Spores, highly magnified. 


Ant, LXXIV.—Deseription of a new Species of Hymenophyllum., 
Kier, F.L.8. 
Plate XIX., fig. A 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, Ilth January, 1879. 
Hymenophyllum rufescens, n.s. 
Rarzoxme creeping slender; stipes, costa and veins when young 
sparingly clothed with deciduous curved hairs; stipes, very slender, 1-2 
inches long, longer than the frond; frond 1-1} inches long, deltoid, 
sometimes cunoato at tho base, pinnate, rachis winged abovo the second 


458 Transactions.— Dotany. 


pair of pinne; pinne twice pinnatifid, unequally rhomboid, the lowest 
pair divided nearly to the mid-rib; the basal pinnules spreading; capsules, 
terminal, small, half immersed, divided nearly to the base, hairy when 
young, margins entire or erose. 

Hab: North Island—near the source of the Orua, Ruahine Mountains; 
2,000 to 3,000 feet, H. Field, junr.! South Island—Okarito, A. Hamilton. 

The affinities of this fern are with H. eruginosun, Carm. (H. subtilissi- 
mum, Kunze), and with H. flabellatum, Swartz. From the former it differs 
in the deltoid frond, in the form of the pinnae, in the long and slender 
stipes, as well as in the delicate texture and partial hairiness. It resembles 
the latter in the shape of the pinnules, but differs in the stipes being longer 
than the frond, which is never ovate or linear, and the pinnules are never 
crowded. In habit our plant differs widely from both; in texture and 
colour it resembles Trichomanes lyallii. 

The stipes, rachis, costa, veins and involucres are usually hairy, at 
least when young; but hairs are rarely produced from the surface of the 
frond ; in H. eruginosum they are developed from both surfaces, and from 
the margins of the frond as well as from the veins; they are usually 
straight, and never deciduous as in our plant, my oldest specimens of 
which have very few hairs. The valves of the capsule are minutely erose 
in my young specimens from the Ruahine mountains, but this character is 
not developed in the mature specimens from Okarito. 

This species was originally discovered by Mr. Field in the Ruahine 
mountains, and I was indebted to Mr. H. C. Field of Wanganui for a single 
young frond as far back as the early part of 1877, but it was not until the 
receipt of a supply of specimens from Mr. Hamilton, that I was able to 
satisfy myself of its specific validity. 

ESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIX., Fig. A. 
Hymenophyllum rufescens, nat. size. 
1, 1. Pinna with capsule from old frond, enlarged. 
2, 2. Pinna and capsule from young frond, enlarged. 


- Art. LXX V.— Notes and Suggestions on the Utilization of certain neglected New 
Zealand Timbers. By T. Kg, F.L.S. 

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 9th November, 1878.] 
Tuere is probably no other British colony in which the vegetable products 
are wasted to so great an extent as in New Zealand. I do not now refer to 
the wanton destruction which, in the North Island especially, accompanies 


T, Kmz.—On the Utilization of New Zealand Timbers. 459 


the utilization of timber, and for which the next and succeeding generations 
will suffer, nor yet to that necessary destruction over areas in process of 
settlement, so much as to the general neglect to utilize timbers which would 
command aconstant market at remunerative prices in Britain, and in the 
common use, in the Northern districts at least, of best timber for purposes 
that would be equally well served by timber of an inferior quality, In the 
former case the evil is the result of ignorance; in the latter of wantonnesss, 

The magnificent kauri forests of Auckland have often enabled that 
district to pass through periods of difficulties, with comparative ease, by 
finding employment for numbers who would otherwise have been destitute. 
But at the present increasing rate of consumption, this source of wealth 
will have become exhausted within thirty years; the export of kauri will 
have ceased long before the expiration of that period, and there is no 
timber in the colony by which it can be replaced. The suggestion of any 
means by which this period can be retarded is therefore a matter of general 
interest, and from this point of view the utilization of certain neglected 
timbers, which, although inferior to kauri, are still valuable for general 
purposes, is one of considerable importance. 

Again, there are many neglected timbers of great value for general 
cabinet work, marquetry, or other special purposes, which might assist to 
swell our catalogue of exports, and for which a constant market might be 
secured, In most cases these timbers have been neglected from simple 
ignorance of their value, but the excessive cost of land or water carriage to 
the port of shipment has too often proved an insuperable obstacle; this, 
however, thanks to the public works policy of the last few years, is 
being diminished almost month by month. The high cost of labour has 
also contributed towards perpetuating the neglect. The owner of a saw- 
mill, after clearing his bush of kauri or other marketable timber, has not 
cared to incur the cost and risk of converting timber of unknown qualities 
and comparatively small dimensions for an uncertain market. Some of 
these timbers when growing are of solitary habit, which to the ordinary 
timber merchant would present an increased difficulty. 

Although no class in a community can derive benefit from the extension 
of an industry without the community at large benefiting to a greater or 
less extent; yet it must be admitted that the small settlers in forest, 
districts would benefit more largely than any other class by the utilization 
. 0f these neglected timbers. Commencing with little or no capital, our settlers 
would gladly weleome the opportunity of converting a large portion of their 
timber into hard cash instead of ashes, and would thus be enabled to tide 
over the first years on their land with less difficulty than at present, 


400 Transactions,—Dotany, 


Let us suppose the caso of a forest settler on tho lower flanks of tho 
Rimutaka, or in many parts of tho Wairarapa, the Kaipara, ete. In 
clearing his land he finds trees of honeysuckle or rewa-rewa (Knightia 
excelsa), the timber of which is almost useless for out-of-doors work, on 
account of its perishable nature, while, as it is difficult of combustion, it is 
worthless for firewood; yet, placed in the English market it would fetch a 
much higher price for cabinet work than tho so-called American Birch, 
which is retailed by the timber merchant at from 6d. to 12d. per superficial 
foot of inch thickness, The timber should be prepared by cutting into from 
10 to 14 feet lengths, so as to be easily moved to a rough saw-pit, when it 
could be reduced to planking, say from three to six inches thick; or, if in 
the vicinity of a saw-mill it might be converted at a still lower rate, or 
perhaps sold in the log, When converted it should be “perched” or 
* stripped " in such a way that no two planks would be in contact, and a 
constant circulation of air should be maintained between them. In this 
condition it could be sold to local eabinet-makers or consigned to a merchant 
or agent for export. But itis necessary to offer a word of caution with regard 
to two points of considerable importance, for the neglect of either would lead 
to loss and disappointment. First, the timber should not be sent on board 
ship until it is thoroughly dry, or it will inevitably become foxey and tainted. 
Secondly, it is imperative that the consignee in England should be someone 
thoroughly acquainted with the timber trade, for it is certain that many 
valuable timbers and other products endure continuous neglect simply from 
their not finding their way into the proper channels of distribution in 
Britain. Dr. Hector informed me that the object most admired in tho 
New Zealand Court of the American Centennial Exhibition, was a cabinet, 
constructed chiefly of rewa-rewa, which, after lying in the London docks 
for an indefinite period, had been picked up by a cabinet-maker, who 
recognized its value for his purposes, but who had been unable to learn from 
what country it had been brought, although striving to procure a further 
supply. 

It is not casy to form an exact idea of the cost of conversion and delivery 
at the port of shipment, so much depends upon situation; the following 
may be taken as a sufficiently liberal estimate :— 

Falling, 1d. per cubic foot, 


s [Nh pie 

Cartage, 3d. 

Railway charges, ad 
Say tenpence per cubi: foot, or saven skiltings per 100 superficial feet. 
The settler would th»reforo obtain not morely romaaration for his labour, 


but a direct profi; by solliog tha p'aniking at so low a rat» as one shilling 


” 


ical ii c Gn natant e 


T. Kme, On the Utilization of New Zealend Timbers. 461 


per cubic foot, and might expect to obtain from one shilling and sixpenco 
to two shillings per foot cube. Freight to England would cost another 
shilling, so that while yielding a handsome profit to the settler, the rewa- 
rewa could be sold in London at rates equally low with those of other 
woods of similar or even inferior quality, Buta still higher rate of profit 
might occasionally be obtained; in all ornamental woods exceptionally 
figured planks fetch higher prices than the ordinary forms, and this would 
often be the case with rewa-rewa, and timbers of a similar quality. There 
can be no question that, in a large number of cases, timbers of this kind 
would defray the first cost of the land and leave a considerable surplus, 
instead of being simply a source of expense as at present. 

I would venture to suggest that some of our leading merchants might 
render good service to the community, at little or no risk to themselves, by 
shipping a marketable parcel of rewa-rewa and similar woods to London; 
doubtless, many persons could be found who would gladly supply planks at 
a much less price than I have named; for example, the Karori settlers 
engaged in cutting firewood, either leave rewa-rewa on the ground to perish, 
or deteriorate their general sample of firewood by mixing rewa-rewa with it, 
and selling the whole at about sixteen shillings the half-cord, or threepenco 
per cubic foot. An offer to purchase all the planking they could bring, at 
about one shilling per cubic foot, would ensure a sufficient supply to enable 
the market to be tested with but little risk to the shippers. Possibly, a few 
settlers might combine to prepare a parcel for shipment, and divide the 
profits; but in either case it would be advisable to have the parcel, on its 
arrival in London, submitted at a minimum price to some well-known 
wholesale furniture manufacturer, or have it offered at one of the large 
periodical timber sales, taking care to have the qualities and uses of the 
woods clearly stated. 

It is unnecessary to offer a complete listof the various local timbers 
adapted for furniture work or other special purposes, as particulars may be 
found in the report on the durability of native timbers published by the 
Public Works Department, as well as in Captain J. Campbell Walker’s 
report on the organization of a forest department for New Zealand. I 
would, however, especially draw attention to the toro, tipau, mapau, and 
ngaio as valuable timbers, plentiful in certain districts, but at present only 
utilized for firewood. 

But we have vast quantities of timber which do not possess sufficient 
durability to allow their being used for out-of-door work, although capable of 
being saturated with some preservative solution at a small cost, and thus 
made available for general purposes. Conspicuous amongst timbers of this 
class are the kahikatea and the tawa, The former is common throughout the 


462 Transactions.—Botany, 


colony, attains large dimensions, and, under the name of white pine, is used 
in the southern part of the colony for inside work and other purposes where 
great durability is not required, but by no means to an extent commensurate 
with its actual merits. Unfortunately, in the converted state it is liable to 
the ravages of a small boring beetle. The tawa forms fully one-fifth of the 
entire forest of the North Island, but can scarcely be said to be utilized in 
any way except for firewood. i 

It would be difficult to over-estimate the advantages to be derived from 
the utilization of so large a quantity of neglected material; and with this 
view of the importance of the subject, I venture to suggest the desirability 
of experiments in this direction being undertaken by the Publie Works 
Department, the more especially that they may be made at small cost, A 
cistern containing a solution of chloride of zinc, pyrolignite of iron, chloride 
of lime or kreosote, all of which are suecessfully employed in Europe, might 
be elevated some eighteen or twenty feet above the ground, The logs to be 
operated upon should be placed in front, and a cap firmly attached to the 
end of each, the cap being connected by a pipe with the tank above, when 
the pressure of the solution from the higher level would be sufficient to 
drive out any sap that might remain in the timber, which would then 
become charged with the preserving agent. 

Our white pine is greatly superior to the American spruce, and would 
successfully compete with the best Baltic white deal in the English market, 
if it could be supplied at a low rate, say to sell retail, at from 12s. 0d. 
to 13s. per 100 superficial feet. It should be shipped in the form of 23 
by 7, 8 by 7, 8 by 9, or 8 by 11-inch planking, or in bulk. Wider 
planks, say 14 to 20 inch, would fetch proportionately higher prices. It 
would, however, be impossible to pay the present high rate of freight, but 
as ships not unfrequently leave our ports in ballast, it is possible that lower 
rates might occasionally be óbtained. A gentleman engaged in supplying 
the Kaipara mills with kauri, informed me that he should be glad to deliver 
kahikatea logs at 1s. 6d. per 100 feet superficial; so that, allowing for 
waste and cost of conversion, the planking might be turned out at the mill 
at 4s. 61. per 100 feet, but even this would require a very low rate of freight 
to allow of a fair profit to the consignee. 

I may be permitted to mention a singular instance in which the develop- 
ment of our railway system has promoted the utilization of our neglected 
resources. In all parts of the colony, except Auckland, the rimu, or red 
pine, has long formed the chief timber used in the manufacture of furni- 

‘ture, but in most parts of the Auckland district it has been completely 
neglected. Even within twenty or thirty miles of the city of Auckland, 
hundreds of noble trunks, from forty to sixty feet in length, and of large 


Sie chek IUE E NIS IURATI ICE EA Ku EMT IUDICEM o RS 


T. Kinx.—Deseriptions of New Plants. 463 


diameter, have been destroyed by fire every year in the process of clearing. 
This has arisen from the difficulty of conveying the timber by land, water- 
carriage not being available as in the case of the kauri; so that rimu, tho 
cheap timber of the south, could only be obtained in Auckland at a higher 
rate than kauri, and as kauri has the advantage of being more easily worked 
than rimu, the latter has been rarely used by the cabinet-maker, notwith- 
standing the advantage it possesses in colour and “figure.” But, since the 
construction ef the Waikato Railway, I am assured that a change has taken 
place in this respect. Rimu is abundant at Drury, Pukekohe, Pokenoe, 
and other places along the line, and the settlers have taken advantage of 
the facilities for carriage placed at their disposal—they have converted their 
rimu into boards instead of burning it, and rimu furniture is much more 
common in the workshops of the Auckland cabinet-makers than was the 
case prior to the formation of the railways. We may fairly expect that 
similar results will take place with regard to other neglected products. 


Art. LXXVI.— Descriptions of New Plants. By T. Kx, F.L.S. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 1st March, 1879.] 
ComposiTz. 
Olearia oleifolia. 
A wvcH branched shrub 5 to 8 feet high; branchlets crowded, strict, 
ascending, angular, clothed with short velvetty pubescence; leaves 2" to 9" 
long, 4" to 4” wide, coriaceous, shortly petioled, narrow lanceolate, acute, 
erect, minutely reticulated above, white beneath with matted appressed 
hairs forming an even surface, veins obscure; corymbs on slender pedun- 
cles twice as long as the leaves; heads numerous on slender pedicels, 
involucre narrow, 1" to 1" long, cylindrical, scales few, inner membranous, 
linear, ciliated, pubescent; florets 4-5, two or three with a broad obovate 
ray; pappus hairs white, scabrid at the tip; achene furrowed silky. 

Hab: South Island—Ashburton, T. H. Potts!  Bangitata, 4,000- 
5,000 feet, J. F. Armstrong! Preservation Inlet, Otago, J. D. Enys! 

For my first knowledge of this plant, Iam indebted to Mr. Potts, who 
showed me specimens under cultivation several years ago, and expressed his 
belief in its specific distinctness, although he had not seen flowers. A 
living plant kindly given me by Mr. Armstrong in 1873 flowered for the 
first time in February, 1878, Its affinities are with O. avicenniafolia and 
0. albida, from both of which it is distinguished at sight by its strict habit, 


464 Transactions.—Dotany. 


excessively crowded branchlets, and narrow leaves. In the inflorescence it 
approaches most closely to the former, but differs in the narrow involucral 
scales with green tips, and the longer involucres. The leaves are less 
evidently reticulate on both surfaces. 

Raoulia apice-ni7rc. 

A small densely-tufted plant, forming compact masses, 2-5 inches in 
height. Leaves densely imbricated, ovate spathulate, obtuse, covered with 
snow-white loosely appressed hairs. Heads l'-1'long; involucral scales 
linear with scarious margins and black tips. Pappus hairs white, scabrid 
near the tip, but more thickened. Achenes glabrous, 

Hab: South Island—Mount Monro, Awatere, 5-600 feet, P. McRae 
and T. Kirk. Ben Lomond, Otago, 5,500, D. Petrie. 

A singular plant: immediately before flowering the heads are black and 
glossy, presenting a marked contrast to the snow-white leaves. It is most 
closely allied to R. australis, from which it is distinguished by tho black- 
lipped involucral leaves. 

ScRoPHULARINEZ. 
Veronica armstrongit. 

A dwarf much-branched shrub, 1-8 feet high. Leaves minute, dimor- 
phic. 1, linear, patent, or sub-patent ,!;’-1” long, acute. 2, closely ap- 
pressed, tumid and coriaceous, adnate with the branch for half their length, 
broadly ovate, sub-acute, margins faintly ciliated. Flowers in terminal 3-8- 
flowered heads, sessile ; sepals ovate-lanceolate with a strong median nervo 
ciliated. Corolla tube short, limb }"-}" in diameter, whitish. Capsulo 
ovate acuminate, longer than the sepals, slightly tumid and notched at the 
apex. 

Hab: South Island—Nelson, Upper Wairau and Amuri 8-4,500 feet, 
T. Kirk. Source of the Rangitata, 4-6,000 feet, J. F. and J. D. Armstrong. 

Our plant presents the appearance of a hybrid between V. salicornioides 
and V. hectori, and must, I think, be considered of doubtful specific validity. 
In its robust habit and subacute appressed leaves, it resembles V. hector? ; 
it is more closely allied to V. salicornivides by the inflorescence and capsule, 
as well as by the arrangement of the appressed leaves, the upper portion 
being free and widened out, so that cach pair of leaves forms a minuto 
funnel-shaped cup surrounding the branch, and presenting a curious articu- 
lated appearance resembling some corallines. 

The appressed leaves are not constantly ciliated in any of tho forms 
belonging to this section, and in this respect vary greatly even on the samo 
branch. The same remark applies to the glandular dotting of the leaves, 
which is characteristic of V. hectori, V. armstrongii, and V. salicornioides—at 
least I do not find tho leaves truly connato in eithor plant, although in closo 
contact for the length of their baso, 


EIU E OE 


T. Kmx.— Descriptions of New Plants. 465 


All the Otago specimens of Veronica hectori that I have seen are more 
robust than those from the Canterbury and Nelson mountains; the length 
of the capsule varies considerably. 

Notwithstanding the doubts I entertain of the claims of our plant to 
specific honours, I have great pleasure in describing it under the name by 
which it has become known to hortieulturists. As it adapts itself to 
artificial conditions more readily than any other species belonging to the 
section (except perhaps V. cupressoides), and is easily recognized by its 
flabellate branches, it will probably retain its name even if it should ulti- 
mately be considered a form of V. salicornioides ; but it would have afforded 
me greater pleasure to have attached the name of its discoverer to some 
form more likely to prove of permanent specific value. 

The dimorphism in the foliage of all the species characterized by 
appressed leaves has not received the attention it merits, The spreading 
leaves are easily produced under cultivation ; if the plants are kept in a 
cool, shaded situation, they will be developed from the tips of branches 
bearing appressed leaves as well as from all newly formed branches. In 
V. cupressoides the free leaves are ovate, lobulate or nearly pinnatifid. There 
can be little doubt that the free leaves are equally characteristie of the 
seedling state of the plant, although I have been unable to find them in a 
wild condition. 

Many of the New Zealand species of Veronica comprise a series of forms 
capable of being recognized by the eye, especially when their minute 
differences are exaggerated under the luxuriant growth induced by cultiva- 
tion, but they pass into ’each other by insensible gradations, and are not 
capable of rigid definition. In this respect they resemble Rosa canina, 
Rubus fruticosus, and Salix repens of Northern Europe; and the trivial 
varieties and sub-varieties of our Veronicas are no more worthy of being 
elevated to specific rank than the varieties and sub-varieties of these 
variable European plants. 

PLANTAGINEE. 
Plantago hamiltoni. 

Stem very short. Leaves rosulate, }'-1}" long, more or less clothed with 
scattered jointed hairs, linear lanceolate, toothed or nearly entire, narrowed 
into a broad petiole, with shaggy hairs at the base. Scapes 1-flowered, 
crowded amongst the leaves, at first very short 44'—,, long (always ?) 
elongating as the fruit matures; sepals short, broad, obtuse; corolla tube 
narrow, lobes acute, spreading, ovary large, ovate. Capsule (always ?) 
when ripe on an elongated scape 3'-1' long, very large, fully $’~'5’ broad, 
ovate, apiculate, glabrous, imperfectly 4-celled, cells 2-seeded. 

A29 


466 Transactions.— Botany. 


Hab: South Island—mouth of the Grey River, A. Hamilion. Stewart 
Island (specimens not in flower, and identification therefore uncertain), 
D. Petrie. 

The nearest ally of our plant is Plantago uniflora of the Ruahine 
Mountains, which at present has only been collected by its discoverer, Mr. 
Colenso. P. hamilioni is distinguished by the ovate, obtuse sepals, pro- 
minent midrib, the flowers on abbreviated scapes which elongate as the 
capsule approaches maturity, and especially by the capsule, which is the 
largest in the genus. 

Mr. Petrie’s specimens, from marshes on Stewart Island, are less 
hairy than those from the Grey, and the leaves are not so strongly toothed ; 
but these characters vary greatly in all species of Plantago, and in this case 
are partly due to difference of habitat, Mr. Hamilton’s plants having been 
collected on shingle. 

I have great pleasure in associating the name of its enthusiastic dis- 
coverer with this interesting species. 


Art. LXXVII.—Notice of the Discovery of Calceolaria repens, Hook. f., 
and other Plants in the Wellington District. By Harry Borrer Kirk. 
Communicated by Mr. T. Kins, F.L.S. 

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 1st March, 1879.) 

Dure a walking excursion from Wellington to the Wairarapa, returning 

by the coast, I was fortunate enough to find in a small gully on the Rimu- 

taka mountains, several plants of Calceolaria repens, hitherto, I believe, 

unknown in this district. The plants grew on the side of the gully, on a 

mass of loose, crumbling rock, covered with dead leaves and rotten twigs. 

C. repens is a small, creeping plant, with slender stems and alternate, 
ovate, deeply serrate leaves, the whole slightly pubescent. The flowers 
are distant and borne in three- to six-flowered panicles. They are small 
and white, with a few purple spots on the throat. The two lobes of the 
corolla are nearly equal. 

The plant was first discovered by Mr. Colenso, in the Ruahine moun- 
tains. My father’s herbarium contains specimens from the East Cape, 
collected by the Venerable Archdeacon Williams. It has, I believe, been 
collected at Mount Egmont by Mr. J. Buchanan, but is not mentioned in 
his list of Taranaki plants. As these were its only known habitats, its 
occurrence in the Rimutaka range shows a great extension of its limit 
southward, 


LI 


H. B. Kmx.—Occurrenee of certain Plants in Wellington, 467 


During the excursion several other plants were collected, which appear 
to have escaped Mr. Buchanan’s notice, as they are not Mankanya i in his 
list of South Wellington plants. The following are the most kable ;— 
Ranunculus hirtus, Banks and Sol. Mungaroa. 

Oreomyrrhis colensoi, Hook, Mungaroa. This plant occurs also on Mount 
Victoria. 

Loranthus tetrapetalus, Forst. Mungaroa. 

i decussatus, Kirk. Mungaroa. 

Nertera ‘cunninghamii, Hook. Wairarapa Lake. Occurs also on Mount 
Victoria. 

Haloragis micrantha, Br. Mungaroa. Found also close to Wellington. 

Olea montana, Hook. Pakuratahi. 

» n.s. Mungaroa. 

Urtica incisa, Poiret. Maungaroa; common, 

Gunnera monoica, Raoul. Mungaroa. 

Rumex flexuosus, Forst. Wairarapa Lake. The absence of this plant from 
the immediate vicinity of Wellington is not easily accounted 
for. 

Tillga moschata, DO. 

» debilis, Col. 

Cassinia retorta, A, Cunn.  Mungaroa. 

Raoulia glabra, Hook. Rimutaka. 

Chiloglottis cornuta, Hook.  Wainui-o-mata. 

Corysanthes oblonga, Hook. Mungaroa. 

is macrantha, Hook. Okiwi. 
Pterostylis trullifolia, Hook. Okiwi. 
Carex breviculmis, Br. Mungaroa; common. 
»  lambertiana, Boott. Mungaroa. 

Gahnia hectori, Kirk. Mungaroa ; common. 

Cladium gunnii, Hook. Mungaroa. 

Uncinia ferruginea, Boott. Mungaroa. 

Cyperus buchanani, Kirk. Waiwetu. 


| Palliser Bay ; also at Miramar. 


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IV.—CHEMISTRY. 


Art, LXXVIIT.— Preliminary Note on the Presence of one or more Hydro- 
carbons of the Benzol Series in the American Petroleum, also in our 
Petroleuns. By Waua Srey, Analyst to the Geological Survey 
Department, 

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.) 


Ir is generally supposed that the benzol series of hydro-carbons is not 
represented by any constituent of American petroleum, nor even as far as I 
know in any true petroleum at all Any way, so far as the American oil 
is concerned, we have it reported in the special report on the Petroleum of 
Pennsylvania by the Geological Survey there that Dr. Genth “believes 
that the series of hydro-carbons characteristic of those which furnish 
aniline, etc., do not exist in our American oils.” And, again, Dana informs 
us in his latest edition of System of Mineralogy that “none of this series 
were detected by Pelonze and Cahours in the Pennsylvania petroleum." 

However, some time ago I had, on behalf of the Customs authorities 
here, to examine some of our so-termed benzine for what is chemically 
known as benzol—hydro-carbon ; and for this I employed the test recom- 
mended by Prof. Hoffman—a test which is based upon the fact that benzol 
loses a portion of its hydrogen when warmed with nitric acid; the re- 
mainder combines with a portion of decomposed acid to form intro-benzol, 
and this product, when placed in contact with nascent hydrogen, is by 
the loss of oxygen transformed into the alkaloid aniline—a substance 
which is by certain easy oxidizing processes converted to others which 
are remarkable for their intensity and variety of colour, forming the well- 
known coal-tar colours. 

The results of his test were, that I entirely failed to get any colour 
reaction; but I obtained a quantity of nitro-oils, from which I succeeded in 
separating one which by deoxidation yielded a substance which exhibited 
all the general properties of an alkaloid ; thus it is soluble in water, com- 
bines with acids, and, when dissolved in either, gives precipitates with tannic 
acid, mercuro-iodide of potassium, and sulpho-cyanide of zine. It is an oil, 
at common temperatures, possessing a dark brown colour, and, like aniline, 
it gives an intense yellow colour to pine-wood. 


470 Transactions.—Chemistry. 


As this substance, though clearly an alkaloid, does not yield any colour 
reaction with oxidizing agents (such as chloride of lime), it is neither aniline 
nor naphtha-aniline, and therefore is not derived from either benzol or 
naphthaline, and so does not indicate the presence of these hydro-carbons in 
the oil tested. The alternative is, then, that it is derived from a hydro- 
carbon or some hydro-carbons of the series which benzol heads and typifies, 
and which is in all probability either touluole or xylole, or a mixture of 
the two. 

Having obtained this result I extended my researches, and so have 
ascertained that all the brands of American kerosenes which we have here, 
together with the so-termed benzols, also contain hydro-carbons, which are 
capable of yielding alkaloids to the process I have described (the aniline 
process), but still give no colour reaction to oxidizing agents. 

Our own petroleums, both the heavy (Taranaki), and the light one 
(Poverty Bay), as well as their distillates light and heavy, also behave in 
this respect like the American oils. 

In the case of the Taranaki crude petroleum in particular, this series of 
hydro-carbons is well represented—that is, quantitatively. 

The nitro-oil of this petroleum (the first product of the process employed), 
when cleansed from the unaltered oil by repeated solutions in aleohol and 
precipitations by water, has a sweet and powerful odour much resembling 
that of nitro-benzol. 

The facts detailed above lead me to suspect that every petroleum contains 
one or more representatives of the benzol series of hydro-carbons. Which 
particular member of this group (or which members, if more than one) 
is present in the several oils I have cited, I eannot inform you until I have 
ascertained the composition of their respective alkaloids, a labour of so 
tedious a kind, that I cannot promise to perform it for some time to come. 


Art. LXXIX.—On a Property possessed by Essential Oils of whitening the 


Precipitate produced by mixing a Solution of Mereuro-iodide with one of . 


Mercuric-chloride. By Winuiaw Srey, Analyst to the Geological Survey 
of New Zealand. 
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.] 
Ix article 88 of the last volume of our Transactions,* I showed that 
solutions of certain alkaloids and albumenoids, made so weak that they will 
not give any precipitates with mercuro-iodide of potassium, will give them 
immediately that a little mereuric-chloride is mixed therewith, in addition 
* Trans. N.Z.IL., IX., p. 553, 


Sxzy.—On the Production of Alkaloids from Fixed Oils. 471 


to the first-named mercuric salt, and that such precipitates are of a pale 
yellow colour, which is in striking contrast to the full red colour which the 
precipitate would exhibit were neither of these organic substances present, 
since this precipitate would be iodide of mercury alone. 

Continuing my researches in this field, I have ascertained that there is 
another class of organic bodies, besides alkaloids and albumenoids, which 
determine a yellow colour to the precipitate, which is formed when aqueous 
solutions of mercuro-iodide of potassium and mercuric-chloride are mixed, 
and this is that of the essential oils. I therefore hasten to inform you of 
this fact, and to acquaint you with a knowledge of the means which I find 
may be used to discriminate, for toxicological purposes especially, the 
mercurial precipitates so coloured, from those which are coloured by the 
presence therein of an alkaloid or an albumenoid. 

The yellow mereurial precipitates, which are formed by this means in 
presence of these oils, volatilize entirely when gently heated, and their 
sublimates preserve their yellow colour, even when kept cool a long time. 
This reaction distinguishes such precipitates from those which are formed in 
part of a fixed alkaloid, also of an albumenoid; while from those formed in 
part of a volatile alkaloid they are distinguished by not reddening when 
treated with mercurie-chloride. 

I find that a very minnte quantity of any of these oils is effective for 
the production of the phenomena I have described; for instance, one part 
of lemon oil to 10,000 parts of water will produce it. 

The nitro-oils behave in this ease in the same way as the essential oils. 
The nature of the mercuro-precipitate, which is thus formed in presence 
of an essential oil, I am unable as yet to determine for lack of time.. 


Art. LXX X.— Preliminary Note on the Production of one or more Alkaloids 
from Fixed Oils, by the Aniline Process. By Wurm Brey, Analyst to 
the Geologieal Survey of New Zealand. 

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th and 31st August, 1878.) 

Mx late suecessful production of alkaloids from our petroleums* induced me 

to apply the same process I used in that instance to the fixed oils, that is 

the process I name in the title of this paper, for brevity, the ‘Aniline 

Process;" one which, I may remind you, eonsists in first warming the 

petroleum, etc., to be treated, with nitric acid, by which numerous nitro 

compounds are produced; and, in the second place, deoxidizing these by 
nascent hydrogen, by which any hydro-carbons of the benzol series present 
* Vide supra, Art. LXXVIIL, 


472 Transactions.—Chemistry. 


have a portion of their hydrogen replaced by the elements of nitrous acid, 
and subsequently, a portion of the oxygen of this acid removed, the ulti- 
mate result being that a nitrogenous substance is produced which is a true 
alkaloid, in fact an amide, that is, a substance constructed upon the 
ammonia type, and which, in case of those produced from petroleum, has 
one equivalent of hydrogen of ammonia substituted by a hydro-carbon. 

Now, so far as I know, this process has not been applied with any 
success to a fixed oil or fat, if applied at all; every constituent of such 
substances is indeed held to be constructed so differently to the petroleums 
and their allies, that we should not expect results upon them at all similar 
to those we get by the same means as applied to the petroleums. 

However, by employing this process very carefully upon the purest olive 
oil I could get, I obtained as a resultant a liquid which manifested, to all 
the tests I could apply, the reaction of one containing an alkaloid. 

By employing Stras’s process to this liquid I separated an oily body 
which was in great part dissolved by weak acetic acid; the solution in this 
acid afforded dense precipitates with tannin, mercuro-iodide of potassium, 
sulpho-cyanide of potassium and zinc, a reddish precipitate with free iodine, 
and when evaporated with platino-chloride of potassium a granular yellow 
precipitate ; this precipitate, when washed well with alcohol to dissolve any 
oil present in a free state, partially fused when gently heated, and then 
blackened, and as the heat was raised the black matter was consumed, and 
a grey mass of platina left. 

These results clearly show that an alkaloid had been obtained from the 
oil used. 

Several other vegetable oils gave similar results to these, and among 
the animal oils, cod-liver oil and sperm oil. The former oil was obtained 
from the fish by steam, so that the alkaloid produced is not to be referred 
to any product of decomposition made by securing the oil. That this 
alkaloid is not to be referred to the glycerine of these oils is proved by my 
inability to obtain an alkaloid in this way from glycerine itself; and further 
by the fact that Price’s stearine, as sold in his candles, also affords me this 
alkaloidal substance. These candles do not contain glycerine, and are the 
best representation of a pure fat which I can at present get. 

These facts open up a very interesting field for research, as they show 
one of two things, viz. :—First, that there are one or more hydro-carbons of 
the benzol or naphthaline series in our fixed oils and fats :—second, or that 
the acids of these substances are in part capable of furnishing alkaloids to 
the aniline process. 

Whichever way it may prove to be, the matter is of an equal interest, 
for that there should be pure hydro-carbons mixed with the fixed vegetable 
and animal oils named, would be just as important a fact to know, as that 


Sery.—0n the Movements of Camphor on Water. 473 


our oxygenated oils yield alkaloids to a process which hitherto has been 
considered applicable to hydro-carbon oils alone, and even of these but 
very few. 

I should inform you that none of the oils, etc., cited above, when tested 
for alkaloidal matter gave any indication of its presence, although I operated 
in each case upon the same quantity of oil as that I used for the aniline 
process. 

The constitution and precise character of the alkaloid or alkaloids I 
have thus formed I cannot at present describe to you, as I have not yet the 
leisure to prosecute this investigation to the end. I hope to take up this 
subject on some future day, but in the meantime I shall be glad to hear of 
any one continuing the research, as it can hardly fail to give results of 
great interest. 

Posrscnrer.—I have further pursued my investigations of this subject, 
and of the two alternatives I have submitted to you in respect to the 
derivation of the alkaloid I produce by this process, I accept that which 
assumes it to be a product of some hydro-carbon or hydro-carbons present 
in the oil or fat employed. I have produced alkaloids by this process from 
well-washed butter, the purest’ sperm, and olive oils; and I now make the 
general statement that there is present in all the fixed oils or fats, whether 
of vegetable or animal origin, whether in the organism or removed from it, 
a small quantity of one or more hydro-carbon oils, and that these, or at 
least some of them, are homologous with benzol. 


Art. LXXXI.—On the Cause of the Movements of Camphor when placed upon 
the Surface of Water. By Wmm Srey. 
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 31st August, 1878.) 
Ir has long since been known that camphor in small pieces describes rapid 
and very eccentric movements when placed upon water, the surface of 
which is free of oily matter. This phenomenon is so singular,* and is, 
besides, so striking to him who for the first time witnesses it, that such an 
one can hardly help feeling anxious to become acquainted with its cause, 


* I have since discovered that the liquid bi-sulphide of camphor behaves in this 
respect like camphor. If the water used with it is quite clear from greasy matter, it 
spreads in various directions by a series of explosive efforts; but if the water contains a 
minute quantity of grease (as it will do if especial precautions are not taken), the sulphide 
of camphor, after a little while, rotates slowly round its centre, then rotating progressively 

aster, it at last strikes off in a straight line, leaving a greasy narrow streak behind, 
which is permanent.  - 


a80 


474 Transactions.—Chemistry. 


and the more so when, on enquiring into this, he learns that no one has yet 
published anything in explanation of this phenomenon which is backed 
either with any kind of authority or, what is more, by a weight of evidence 
sufficient to recommend it for his unqualified belief. 

It was just under these incentives to research that, a little while ago, I 
commenced investigating this phenomenon, and with the additional one of 
ultimately finding something in common between it and that of the motion 
of minute particles in certain liquids—one known by the appellation of 
“ Browinian movements "—the Pedetic movements of Prof. Jevons. 

After I had made a great number of experiments with camphor, how- 
ever, I could find nothing which gave any proof in favour of a common origin 
for the two phenomena. Neither could I find anything in support of the 
theory popularly assigned for the explanation of that exhibited by camphor, 
but instead, evidence of a very decided character, pointing, as I think, 
very clearly to quite a different origin for it than that which is assigned 

y the theory in question. This I now ask leave to submit to your 
inspection, and, if you will allow me, I will do this in the same order, or 
nearly so, in which it was educed. 

First, I will remind you what this theory is, which is thus endorsed by 
popular opinion. Itis based upon the fact that camphor gives off vapour 
at common temperatures, and it is to the unequal impingement of this 
vapour upon the water around it that the movements in question are 
ascribed, the camphor being held, as I suppose, to move in the direction of 
least evaporation. 

Now this does, I allow, appear at first thought quite explanatory to 
anyone who will observe the effect which camphor vapour, or vapours, 
generally have upon water, the surface of which is prepared so as to 
indicate any modification it thereby undergoes. Such a surface, in the case 
of water, is easily got by dredging a little very finely-powdered resin evenly 
upon it.” 

Camphor suspended close to a surface of this kind produces, as you see, 
an instantaneous recession of the resinous particles from the point imme- 
diately under it; the same effect is also produced by those substances 
generally which give off vapour in suitable quantity at the temperature at 
which they are used; for instance, alcohol or ether. 

It does, indeed, appear from this, that the popular theory which we are 
attacking is, after all, correct. One sees the resin quickly dashed away from 
the camphor, etc., and in consequence conclude that, as action and reaction 


* This surface so well indicates (by the displacement of resin) the presence of oily 
matters that these can readily be detected, as they escape from the finger applied thereto, 
pyen immediately after a thorough wash. 


Srey.—On the Movements of Camphor on Water, 475 


are equal, each of the substances whose vapours we are operating with, is 
at such times subjected on all sides to a force tending to drive it in, that is, 
towards its centre; a force which, as it cannot be persistently equal around 
it, will certainly move it from its normal position. 

This is, I allow, a conclusion which one is at first inclined to tdm; but 
I wil now show to you an extension of this experiment yielding results 
which will, I think, at once prevent anyone previously so inclined from this 
conclusion, : 

The camphor is now only one-sixth of an inch above the water, and the 
diameter of the cleared space below it is about half an inch; I now lower 
it to within one-fortieth of an inch of the water, but you observe that the 
area of cleared space is not perceptibly increased, thereby showing that 
this is very closely upon the maximum of that which can be got by placing 
the camphor at an infinitesimal distance from the water. I now allow it 
the slightest contact with the water which I possibly can, and you observe 
that there is instantly a very large increase of cleared space, whose 
diameter is certainly not less than four inches, representing, therefore, an 
area no less than sixty-four times that which we had before. 

Here, then we have, in one moment, an accession to our knowledge of a 
kind which teaches us that, whatever the direct radiation of camphor vapour 
may have to do with the production of the cleared space last got, there is 
some reaction of camphor with water of quite a different nature which has 
very much more to do with it; so great, indeed, is the effect produced by 
the merest contact as compared with that obtained by suspension in the most 
favourable position, that it really becomes a moot point whether any space 
at all is cleared by the direct impingement of this vapour on the water 
surface. 

To settle this point by a demonstration I now reproduce certain experi- 
ments of mine :—This small sphere of camphor I suspend over water (pre- 
pared as above) within one-sixth of an inch of its surface, and across 
the cleared space produced, close to the camphor and closer to the water 
than the camphor is, I place this thin bar; now this clearing should have 
its shape materially altered, and its area much curtailed if it has been 
produced by the mere impingement of vapour on water; but you cannot see 
that any variation occurs whether in shape or area. 

Again, I place a small piece of camphor on this prepared surface, 
and puta wide bar close to one side of it and very near to the water; 
now, action and reaction being equal there should occur a marked 
recession of the camphor from the bar if the evaporation theory is correct, 
for in the direction of this bar is the greatest resistance to the escaping 
vapour; but you cannot observe that anything of this kind happens, 


476 Transactions.—Chemistry, 


Evidence of this sort, indeed, is to be had in every exhibition of these 
movements of camphor, for whenever the camphor gets to the vessel's 
side, it remains there motionless, whereas it should (according to the theory 
we are gxamining) rebound therefrom, with great force. 

But apart from and independent of these results, it is, as I conceive, 
very questionable whether any vapour emanating from a substance which is 
of the same temperature as its environment, and in presence of air, has & 
direct repellent effect thereon, However, this is a question of so general a 
character that I cannot well extend the scope of this paper so far as to 
take it into consideration now, but if you will allow me I will trench upon 
it so much as to inform you of a few very interesting facts which are con- 
nected with it, and also in an especial manner with the particular phenomena 
we are considering. 

Experiments.—Two pieces of camphor swung in air in close contiguity, 
at the ends of very fine and long threads, do not manifest any repellent effect 
in regard to each other, while, if placed upon water, though at first there is 
an appearance of a mutually repellent force in action, there is, after a short 
time has elapsed, an appearance of a mutually attractive force—they actually, 
as you see, move toward each other and close together. Now, you will allow 
that these results are not consistent with the theory which credits vapour 
with direct repulsive effects. The case of turpentine is something similar 
to the above. It is a substance which gives off vapour more freely 
than camphor, yet when one sprinkles fine particles of cork upon it and 
applies its vapour thereto, one cannot observe that the cork is at all 
affected thereby. But not only this, one can get the very reverse of 
repulsion during the emission of vapour; thus, upon either turpentine or 
kerosene a small piece of cork is placed, and a rod moistened with ammonia 
is then brought to within about half an inch of it, when the cork may 
be observed to positively rush to the rod and follow it about as obediently 
as a needle can respond to the movements of a magnet.* 

Taken as a whole, the results which I have just described or exhibited 
to you, do, as I conceive, indisputably show that this recession of particles 
under the influence of camphor is, appearances notwithstanding, not due to 
the direct impingement of vapour on them, but rather to some effect follow- 
ing thereupon ; and it seems therefore necessarily to follow that the move- 
ments of this substance (camphor) on water, are also not the direct result of 
impingement, but the result of something which follows it. 

And now, with the popular theory thus disproved before you, it may 
occur to some one here, as it did to me, that possibly these movements of 


* Volatile acids, also water, applied in this way have the reverse effect, while tur- 
pentine is neutral. The rod alone, if warm, has also an apparent repulsive effect on 
the cork, 


Sxzv,— On the Movements of Camphor on Water, 477 


camphor are the effect of electrical reactions, but that this is not so appears 
from the fact that neither of the poles of a six-pair Grove battery, in full 
action and in good working order, at all effects these movements when 
applied close to the camphor. The poles were pointed in order to be i in the 
most favourable condition for effect. 

The ground being thus cleared, it remains for me to tender for your 
approval a theory which, in my opinion, explains the phenomena in 
question. This I will do, and along with it I will describe or demonstrate, 
as the case admits, the experimental results upon which, in conjunction 
with those related above, this theory is based. 

You will perhaps remember that in the introductory part of this paper 
Is tated to you the well-known fact that, for the exhibition of the movements, 
which I now desire to explain, it is necessary to have the water-surface free 
from oily matters. Now a knowledge of this is highly suggestive ; it is as 
you will find the key to the question before us. A drop of oil (as you 
observe) stops in a peremptory manner all camphor movements, and it 
is now our proper course to enquire how it effects this. It can only, so 
far as I see, effect this in two ways, either by enfilmning the camphor 
and so preventing evaporation, or it is not as a suspensive medium favour- 
able to the continuance of such movements; that this last is the case is 
shown by the following experiment. 

I float a small piece of cork upon turpentine, on this cork I place 
camphor, and you observe that we get no camphorie movement.” Clearly 
then it appears that whether we are to get the phenomena or not 
depends upon the nature of the surface of the liquid which we use for 
flotation, and this independent of any effect it may have upon the solid 
camphor in preventing its evaporation. The knowledge of the fact that 
oils generally are, in this particular respect, antagonistic to camphor- 
movements I sought to amplify, and in this I have succeeded. Thus I 
find that besides them alcohol, ether, bi-sulphide of carbon and ammonia, 
applied even as vapours, and only in minute quantities, arrest camphoric 
movements very quickly. I further find that such movements are very 
much less rapid and prolonged if the water used is charged heavily with 
either acids or salts. 

Being thus acquainted with the fact that so many and such diverse sub- 
stances as those just above cited, render water unfavourable for camphoric 


* This fact, by the way, is corroborative of the correctness of the opinion I have 
ventured above, viz., that camphor movements are not caused directly by the impinge- 
ment of its vapour upon the liquid which floats it. 

t I have since found that, in singular opposition to these vapours, etc., gasoline not 
only refuses to stop or retard camphorie movements, but even starts them in case of 
camphor rendered stationary in this way. 


478 Transactions.—Chemistry, 


movement, it occurred to me to try camphor itself. I placed a large piece of 
it upon water in a vessel closed from the air, and found, after the lapse of 
about four hours, that it was stationary, and that fresh pieces put therein 
would not move. I then took out the camphor and exposed the water 
freely'to the air for a short time, when I found that camphor would then 
describe very lively movements upon it. The same kind of effects are not 
produced if the camphor is kept wholly immersed in the water, not even if 
the time of contact is prolonged to a week. I further found that a water- 
surface, which has been rendered unfavourable for these movements by 
camphor, is also in a very unfavourable condition for the spread of oils 
thereon, so much so that some of them, when so placed, that is, of course, 
when used in small quantity, keep nearly to the drop form, 

The very pertinent facts are, then, now distinctly shown, that many 
vapours are obstructive to camphoric movements when condensed within or 
upon the upper stratum of any water on which camphor is moving, and 
that among these substances is camphor itself. Now we have already seen 
that all the substances just named above (and this includes camphor) are 
capable under certain circumstances of giving very decided and rapid move- 
ments to solid particles when they occupy a water-surface; and we have 
also seen that these vapours do not effect this directly by what I may here 
designate vapour force, but rather by surface modification. The conclusion, 
therefore, which one is led to by a consideration of all this is, that the 
movements of camphor in question are the effect of surface modification and 
modification which it produces itself. 

The analogy is, I hold, complete between resin upon water moving away 
from that which has been modified by vapour, and camphor upon water 
moving away from the water it has modified, except that we have one sub- 
stance less in the latter than in the former case—thus, camphor placed 
upon water gives up a part of its substance to the upper stratum thereof ; 
this part represents the vapours, whether of alcohol, ether, or camphor, 
which are resident in the clearing they have made amongst the particles of 
resin with which the water has been laden ; the remaining part of the 
camphor represents the resin which has been removed to make this clearing. 

Such is the theory which I submit to you as explanatory of the pheno- 
mena we have been observing. Ithink you will readily allow that it is at all 
events the most probable of any which you have now had for this purpose, 
and now it only remains for me to state to you what I conceive to be— 

1. The precise nature of the surface modification which I have 
eredited camphor with producing. 

2. The manner in which a surfaee so modified forces camphor to 
move. 


Sxey.—On the Movements of Camphor on Water. 479 


First then in regard to the nature of this modification. Camphor, I 
should remind you, has properties affecting this question as follows :—It is 
soluble in water, and so without doubt combines with it; it is not decom- 
posed by water, even in conjunction with air that is at common temperatures, 
and it is a resin slowly volatile at such temperatures. 

Now camphor, as we have seen, modifies a very much larger extent of 
surface when placed in contact with water than when suspended over it. 
We may, therefore, be certain that the modification in question is not 
occasioned simply by a deposit of condensed camphor vapour upon the 
water surface, but rather by some combination of it with water. This 
combination, however, is not that which is obtained by saturating water 
with camphor in the ordinary way (a compound containing one part of 
camphor to one thousand parts of water), as is shown by the fact I have 
already stated to you, that a saturated solution of camphor in water allows 
camphor to describe movements upon its surface; this compound, therefore, 
is one new to us, it can only exist as a thin surface film, and is therefore 
doubtless one far richer in camphor than that which we already know of, 
a compound indeed so highly camphoretted that it, in all probability, 
partakes in an eminent degree of the characters of an oil.* However, it is 
impossible for me as yet to obtain direct evidence as to the nature of a film 
so exceedingly thin as this. We must therefore for the present rest content 
with the indirect evidence which we now have. 

Granted, then, that the modification effected upon a surface of water by 
camphor is owing to a combination of the two for the production of a highly 
camphoretted oil, I have only now to show the precise manner in which 
this compound induces camphor to move. 

For this purpose I will refer you to the effect which a drop of oil has 
when placed upon water laden with an indicatory substance, such as clay 
in fine particles; the oil spreads quickly and regularly around, and in the 
act urges the clay to the side of the containing vessel, where it becomes 
stationary. Now the clay and the oil here are, I hold, fairly representative 
of the camphor and its oily compound; there is this difference, however, in 
the movement of the oils, and it is an important one, it is a difference upon 
which all camphor movement depends,—the spread of oil in the case of 
camphor is not even around it, as is that of the other oil; were it so there 
would be no such phenomenon as that we are investigating. Regularity of 
spread is in this case impossible, because the production is irregular, owing 
to the highly crystalline nature of camphor, and its great fragility, whereby 

* I have lately observed that water thus modified, when compared side by side 
with pure water, exhibits a higher lustre than the pure water does, a fact greatly in 
favour of this view, 


480 Transactions.— Chemistry. 


one cannot obtain a homogeneous sphere of it for use, or if one could it 
would at once lose its character and shape. The oil then being of necessity 
produced irregularly around the camphor spreads unequally from it, and in 
the act urges it in a direction which is away from that side on which there 
is the greatest output of oil; thus the camphor breaks through the oily 
film at its weakest part, and sets itself upon the edge thereof, which posi- 
tion it retains so long as there is motion produced. The movements of cam- 
phor are, in short, the joint results of the outward spread of oil along the 
water surface—the inertia or adhesiveness of this oil as regards what 
surface it thus occupies—and, lastly, the antipathy, as it were, which exists 
between the two, the camphor and its oil, whereby they refuse to associate. 

But the questions will now without doubt present themselves to you— 
Why should the oil spread so determinately over the water and retain the 
position thus gained so obstinately? and why should it appear to repel 
camphor? Unto such questions I might with propriety reply, that to 
entertain them here is not incumbent upon me, as I have now completed 
the task I set myself in this paper, by showing that camphor moves, as we 
have seen, upon water, for the same reason that solid particles occupying a 
water-surface move when oil is added. To treat such questions is really to 
take up another subject, and one which includes within its scope the 
behaviour of oils generally with water when in presence of it—a subject, 
moreover, which I had reserved for a further communication to you; but 
rather than leave the matter in hand in a state which may to some appear 
unfinished, I will trench upon these subjects so far as to make a few general 
observations thereupon in elucidation of these questions. It is, however, 
proper that I should premise these observations with a short statement of 
the prevailing opinion as to the reason of the extensive spread of even 
minute quantities of oil upon water under favourable circumstances, and 
their refusal to mix under other circumstances. 

According to these opinions, and these are both the popular and scien- 
tific ones, the spread of oil upon water is simply the result of gravitation in 
conflict with the cohesiveness of the oil, and the apparent antipathy which 
they manifest towards each other, is the result of an exertion of a repul- 
sive property innate in one or the other, or in both. Thus it seems to me 
that the possibility of chemical reactions being concerned in each of these 
operations has not been contemplated, and so, as I am persuaded, an 
important factor in both these problems has been left out of consideration. 
In opposition, then, to such opinions, I will maintain here that both the 
spread of oil upon water in thin films, and the apparent repulsion which 
may be seen to occur between the two, are brought about mainly through 
the satisfaction of chemical affinity, 


a anneal 


Sxry.—On the Movements of Camphor on Water. 481 


I will only now take to task, in a direct way, the idea that oil and water 
mutually repel each other. 

If any one will put a slender stick of some solid fat into water and 
then remove it so that the lowermost point thereof is about one-twelfth of 
an inch above the water-line, he will upon due examination find that a 
portion of water adheres to the fat and joins it to the remaining water. 
Some fats may be lifted out of water to a much greater distance than this 
before connection therewith is broken. Now, you will perceive that these 
effects are quite incompatible with this idea of repulsion ; could fats repel 
water, they would rather depress water when applied thereto than raise it. 

A cohesiveness so strong as this can, as I believe, only be explained* by 
assuming that a chemical combination has taken place between the fat and 
the water, a combination not of masses but of surfaces, because of the 
insoluble nature of the product in relation to both the substances furnish- 
ing it. 

What is true here of fat will undoubtedly be true of the oil it furnishes. 

Allowing, then, that oil and water have affinities for each other, these 
will certainly come into play to a very great extent as regards the oil when 
a very thin film of it has contact with water, such as obtains when a drop 
of oil is suffered to extend itself upon water unchecked, and the fact that 
oils. thin out in this way, and so rapidly as they do, upon water, I would 
attribute in largest measure to successful exertion on their part to satisfy 
this affinity. Corroborative of the truth of this opinion is the fact which 
I have ascertained that oils spread far more rapidly and extensively upon 
water than upon mercury, a substance which as far as we know has not 
any affinity for them; and in further corroboration of this, oil, as we have 
already seen, does not spread at all when applied in small quantity to 
water which is covered with hydrated camphor; still, each of these sur- 
faces—the metallic and the camphoretted—may appear to us as smooth as 
that of the purest water. 

And now applying the knowledge of these results and the deductions 
they seem to allow us to make to the elucidation of the questions which 
I have proposed on your behalf, I would maintain that this camphor oil, 
though in part composed of water, has still an unsatisfied affinity for water 
by which it is urged to extend itself around in search of it; it occupies 
firmly the surface it has thus overrun by reason of its internal cohesiveness, 
its inertia, and its affinity for water. 

It forces the parent piece of camphor into movement, because being 
saturated with camphor there is no unsatisfied affinity existing between 

* That this effect is not produced by atmospheric pressure is certain from the fact 
that the whole of the portion wetted may be open to the air, idi 


482 Transactions.— Chemistry. 


them, so each of them— that is, the oil and eamphor—ean only respond to 
their affinities for water; to the water therefore they both keep, for its 
possession they fight. It is a running fight, in which the oil having a 
motion of its own communieates a part of this to the camphor, and so 
appears as the pursuer. 

Summarizing, now, all that we have here arrived at, by way of 
emphasizing the points I consider as fundamental to the theory I have 
proposed, you perceive that I have maintained upon evidence, much of which 
has been experimentally demonstrated, that the movements described by 
camphor occupying a surface of pure water, are neither due to the direct 
impingement of vapour upon such surface, nor yet to any electrical effect, 
but to the production of a compound of camphor with water, which, being 
of an oily nature, spreads upon the surface of the water, and, in the act, 
forces the camphor to describe the movements in question, precisely in the 
same manner that oils generaly, in their flow along the same kind of 
surface, can urge away from them any solid particles resident thereon. In 
the actual process, directly that the camphor touches the water there is 2 
considerable but unequal output of this oil therefrom, and as this does not 
dissolve in the water, nor volatilize, at nearly the speed at which it is 
formed, it spreads principally upon the water, and retaining for the time 
possession of all it thus overruns, it urges and keeps the solid camphor 
away. 

As I have already stated, were the production of this compound equal 
around the camphor, we should not see the camphor move as we have done; 
but this is in the nature of things impossible, as there is certain to be more 
of it made at the instant of immersion upon one side of the camphor than 
upon any other of equal extent, and so an initial movement and direction is 
given to the camphor. When this direction changes, as it frequently does, 
the output of oil has become greater upon a different side, or the cam- 
phor, in its course, has got into contact with its trail; when all movement 
ceases, the whole surface of the water, or at least that within a considerable 
distance of the camphor, has got enfilmed with the oily compound, and the 
camphor thus becomes oil-bound. 

As to the reason why the oil of camphor when in motion, or, indeed, 
any oil in motion, should thus urge camphor about, I have attempted to 
show that this is due to the fact that they have no affinity for each otlier, 
but that each has an affinity for water, and so they have both a tendency to 
keep in contact with it—in fact, they are adhesive in relation to the water, 
but neutral in regard to each other, hence the appearance of direct repulsive 
effect—a kind of effect, which by-the-way, I believe to be always due to 
secondary action, 


Sxey,—On the Movements of Camphor on Water, 483 


Now, if the conclusions stated above are in the main correct, any 
substance floating upon a clear surface of water and discharging oil thereon, 
should describe motion, and motion of the same character as that which you 
have seen camphor make, Well, this is, I find, precisely what does happen 
when the experiment is performed, 

I rub this small piece of cork with a very little turpentine oil; it has 
now absorbed this oil, and appears but little different from another piece of 
cork I have here, which has not been oiled, I place both upon water, and 
now you can see that while the clean piece of cork remains stationary 
thereon, the oiled piece moves about in a very vigorous and eccentric 
manner, imitating the motion of camphor so closely that, except for the 
difference which exists between the colour of the two (the camphor and the 
cork), one would take them as they move for the same thing, 

Like effects follow when any non-volatile oil is used in place of turpen- 
tine. These experiments are surely crucial tests as regards the correctness 
or otherwise of the theory I have proposed to you. 

I will only add to this by stating that, should further research prove 
that the several deductions I have here made to you are correct, a decisive 
blow has been given to the popular theory that vapours are directly repellent, 
as they are emitted in presence of air, from substances at the same tem- 
perature and pressure as that of their surroundings*; and also, as I believe, 
to the theory that a repulsive property is innate in our oils, and that it is, as 
it were, developed into action whenever water is placed nearly in contact 
with them. I say nearly in contact, for the contact which ensues on collision 
of bodies may also cause repulsion, but not repulsion in the sense I use it 
here, viz., that in which it is used and to which it is limited by physicists 
when they deal with this particular matter. 

In this connection I cannot refrain from stating to you my belief that 
repulsion and its correlative attraction, whether in reference to electricity, 
magnetism, or the movements of masses in relation to each other, are not 
direct results indicating the action of two properties, but are secondary ones 
brought about by and indicating modification of matter. 

Postscript. 

I have lately been successful in getting results which, in the first place, 
demonstrate that the surface of water is chemically affected by camphor, and, 
in the second place, I got results which completely explodes the current idea 
that vapours in their emission drive solids away from them, as per se. 

I. Water which has had camphor moving over its surface a long time, 
refuses to gyrate camphor; its surface acquires a somewhat 
resinous lustre, being, in fact, more refractive of light than 


* Vapours, of course, are always in a repellent condition as they rush into a vacuum, 


. 484 : Transactions, —Chemistry, 


before, as I think (this is, however, for measurement), and such 
surface will not allow kerosene or turpentine to flow over it; i.e. a 
drop of either put on keeps in nearly the drop form; in pure 
water they would flow over instantaneously. I have got the 
surface to refuse olive oil even, a very searching oil though a 
slow mover. This shows that such surface is a combination 
of camphor with water; and I am now enabled to fill up a 
break you would observe in the continuity of my paper. I 
now show how camphor forms some compound with water, 
which will not allow oil to flow over it. This compound 
is not camphor, because camphor is soluble in oil. I think it 
is probably the hydrate. If it is the hydrate, the surface should, 
by continued exposure, again rotate camphor, or allow oil to flow 
over it; and I find that two hours’ exposure of a non-rotating 
surface does restore to it the property of rotation. 

That vapour does not necessarily repel, seems shown by the fact 
that cork, on turpentine, or kerosene, is attracted by ammonia 
vapour. Now, ammonia is a substance which, being rapidly 
evolved—far more so than camphor—should repel cork on tur- 
pentine strongly. (Camphor, I may say, and ether, and alcohol, 
do repel cork on this liquid). 

Again: Turpentine vapour does not repel cork on turpentine, 
but it repels cork on water; and water offers more resistance to 
the movements of substances swimming on it than to substances 
swimming on turpentine. 

Clearly the idea that vapour in transit (molecular movement) 
can move masses of matter visibly to us, does not receive any 
support from such results as these. 

I am led to hold by researches here, and by thought on the matter, that 
the generally received idea that vapour exercises a direct repellent force, is 
entirely erroneous ; it appears to do so, but it in reality forms a compound 
with the liquid it appears to repel. A compound being lighter, or having - 
greater diffusive power than the normal liquid, rolls like a wave away from 
the supply, and carries any dust mechanically with it, giving the apparent 
repulsive effect observed. 

Repulsion by direet force of vapour is, I hold, an optical illusion, and 
one whieh physieists should long since have exploded by force of pure 
mathematical formule, and not left it as a job for chemists. 

I shall in a future paper take the larger subject, that no kind of matter 
can be visibly repelled while intercepting vapour in transit so long as a 
common temperature is observed and the pressure is not notably irregular. 


t 
E 


Sxey.—Osomose, as the Cause of Suspension of Clay in Water, 485 


Lastly: I get a decided attraction (apparently) of camphor for camphor 
when this substance occupies the surface of water upon which it 
has rotated for a time sufficient to give a surface about half 
charged with the camphor compound, 


Art. LXXXII.—On Osomose, as the Cause of the persistent Suspension of 
Clay in Water. By Winam Srey, Analyst to the Geological Survey 
of New Zealand. 

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 9th November, 1878.) 

Tuar certain waters can and do persistently suspend clay is a fact which 
has been known from time immemorial, and the fact has also been known 
for a time nearly as long that when alum is added to water thus employed, 
the clay thereof is first coagulated, then precipitated, leaving the bulk of 
the water quite clear. This effect of alum has always been attributed to 
the fact that in a relatively large quantity of water it partially decomposes, 
producing a nearly insoluble basic salt which, as it precipitates, carries the 
clay down with it, entangled therewith, an effect which is therefore simply a 
mechanical one. In the year 1868, however, I showed* that the same 
effect could be produced chemically. I then brought under public notice 
the fact “that several neutral salts having their component parts so strongly 
combined among themselves as to render their decomposition by clay-water 
impossible, are individually capable of precipitating clay from suspension in 
water.” I further showed that such precipitates re-acquire a property of 
persistent diffusion, if well washed in pure water;+ and I then main- 
tained, and do still maintain, that these salts thus affect clay so suspended 
solely by the exercise of their affinities for water, by which means the clay 
is partially de-hydrated, and so has its density increased to such an extent 
that gravity soon markedly asserts its influence, causing the observed 
coagulation. 


* London Chemical News, No. 435. 

+ My claim as the discoverer of this effect of neutral salts has, to use a digger's 
phrase, been * jumped” by several investigators working independently of each other, 
but all, of course, in happy ignorance of the fact, that it was already properly “ pegged 
out.” One of these (Dr. Sterry Hunt, formerly of the Geological Survey of Canada), has 
even unconsciously followed me so closely and so far as to make the same damus of 
vus seem d this property of "h salts as I Pa ue to the explanation of 


tah 
viU VYA Facta Wee a a eA 


486 Transactions.—Chemistry. 


This theory has been combated by eminent scientists, as will shortly 
appear ; but whether it be true or not, it is certain that the mode of action 
of such salts is quite different to that by which alum is always supposed to 
operate, although they have been, for want of due consideration, undis- 
tinguished from each other. It is, moreover, certain that clay, so coagu- 
lated, is de-hydrated, and the knowledge of the two cognate facts— 
simultaneous coagulation and dehydration of clay under such circumstances 
—is, as will shortly be seen, one step towards the solution of the question 
before us (the cause of the persistent suspension of clay in certain water), 
as it is thereby shown that clay must be hydrated to an extent at about its 
maximum in order to manifest this property. 

Induced by a knowledge of this fact, I ventured (in the communication 
referred to) in explanation of this persistent suspension, the opinion that 
clay can hydrate to an indefinite extent, so that it can even take up in a 
combined form the whole of the water in which it may be diffused, making 
a kind of jelly with it, very weak but still having enough consistence to 
retain in a comparatively fixed state the clay particles of which it is in part 
composed. But having lately taken careful cognizance of the remarkable 
fact that particles of clay when persistently in suspension are as persistently 
in motion (describing the so-named Browinian movements), I have now 
perceived that hydration of clay never does occur to this extent; these 
movements of such particles proving the presence of free water in their 
neighbourhood, which, of course, is against the theory of indefinite hydra- 
tion, and so left the question as to this persistent suspension of clay still to 
me unsolved. 

Upon casting about in our scientific works and periodicals for a solution 
of this phenomenon, I came across various theories professing to account for 
it. Notably, one by Prof. Jevons, ascribing it to electricity; one by Dr. 
Hunt, ascribing it to the viscidity or cohesiveness of pure water; and 
another by Mr. Dancer, who attributes it to the effect of heat unevenly 
distributed. Upon mature deliberation I concluded that each of these 
theories is as unsound as the one which I had discarded, and it then 
occurred to me that in the action of Osomose we have the solution sought 
for, i.e., the cause of the persistent suspension of clay, and after a careful 
consideration of this view of the case, I am so impressed with the idea of 
its accuracy that I now venture to submit it for your criticism. 

In order to present this view to you in as favourable and clear a light as 
possible, I will first briefly state the principles of Osomose. 

Any colloid (that is, a substance which cannot be crystallized, and 
which, though insoluble in water, is capable of largely combining with 
it) has the property of allowing water to pass through it, and crystalloids 


aa 


Sxey.— Osomose, as the Cause of Suspension of Clay in Water. 487 


also, but to a less extent than water, that is, for equal times of contact 
therewith. 

When, therefore, a colloid, say of albumen, is formed into a stiff dia- 
phragm, with water on the one side and an aqueous solution of a crystalloid 
upon the other side, having about the same height as that of the water, the 
level of the liquids is altered by their unequal diffusion through the dia- 
phragm, that of the water is gradually lowered, while that of the saline 
solution is raised, until after the lapse of a day or two a very marked 
change of level is observable. 

These effects are far greater in the case of weak saline solutions than 
strong ones, and for alkalies and acids than for salts. It is the mechanical, 
the lifting effect observable in the apparatus described, that I have noted 
for the elucidation of the phenomenon of clay suspension. 

I make the application as follows :—Exchange the fixed diaphragm of 
albumen for a highly elastic one of the same material, and for the change of 
level before observed in the two liquids there is a change in the position of 
the diaphragm. The albumen will move in a mass transversely away from 
the saline solution. 

Hence we may be certain that were a fragment of this diaphragm, 
especially a minute one, placed in a liquid containing some salt unevenly 
distributed, such fragment would also move, and move in the same direc- 
tion as the diaphragm itself should. 

Again, we may be equally certain that we should obtain similar move- 
ments by charging the all fragment with a salt unequally, and placing 
it in water, pure or nearly so. Lastly, movements of a similar nature, 
but not so rapid, would ensue, were these fragments charged with the salt 
equally throughout, as some part of their exterior could scarcely fail to be 
of more angular construction or to be more porous than the remaining 
parts, and so would take up water at a greater speed than the other parts, 
thereby causing a recession of the fragments from the liquid at such points 
of contact, precisely in the same way that I have shown the movements of 
camphor upon water are produced.” 

Thus by progressive changes in the common form of dialytic apparatus, 
we have at last an apparatus of this kind consisting of a vessel of pure 
water in which are minute homogeneous fragments of albumen, evenly 
charged with a salt, one by which all the motion produced by dialysis thereby 
is communicated to the dialyzing material itself, that is to the minute 
albuminous fragments. The same result would of course follow were the 
albumen pure and the water saline. 

MEE “Vide supra, Art. LXXXI. 


488 Transactions.—Chemistry. 


It is therefore quite certain that any substance capable of dialyzing will, 
when swung clear of all attachments in pure water, describe movements 
of great persistency which are due to osomose, and in order to complete 
the evidence which is yet required to show that osomose is the cause of 
the persistent suspension of clay in water, it only remains to be shown 
that this substance (clay) is capable of dialyzing. 

For this purpose I adduce Prof. Graham’s opinion of the mode in which 
osomose is effected (an opinion in which I fully concur). This able chemist 
(the discoverer, by the way, of osomose) attributes it entirely to the exertion 
of chemical affinity. Any dialyzing diaphragm having water on the one 
side and saline water on the other, is, he holds, constantly absorbing, that 
is combining with water towards the side which is in contact with water 
alone, and giving it up to the other side, that is, to the saline solution there. 

Thus it appears that any substance which, while insoluble, or nearly so, 
in water, can still weakly combine with it, and in various proportions, is 
competent to dialyze. 

Now, clay is most certainly such a substance; it hydrates readily, and 
is as readily de-hydrated, that is in part, and the proportion in which it 
hydrates manifestly varies, and under the very conditions it is necessary 
that it should do so for my argument, that is, as placed in pure water and 
saline water, as is manifest to the eye even when clay in water is coagulated 
by salt. 

Indeed, Prof. Graham has shown that porous earthenware dialyzes; he, 
however, attributed this property to the alumina present therein; but I fail 
to see how alumina could be liberated from the earthenware in his experi- 
ment. I should rather attribute the effect he observed to that portion of 
the ware which had been hydrated to clay. | 

It is therefore, I think, now clearly shown that clay is capable of 
dialyzing, and so is competent, under conditions already named, to describe 
movements due to osomose. ; 

The principal cause, then, if not indeed the sole cause, of the persistent 
suspension of clay in water, is undoubtedly motion communicated to it by 
osomose ; and as osomose is the more rapidly produced in saline solutions 
the weaker they are, and further, as the motion thereby derivable should be 
applied with greater effect to clay particles the more hydrated and, con- 
sequently, the lighter they are, it follows that suspension of clay in water 
will be the more persistent the less saline the water is—a fact which, as 
you may remember, I have long since demonstrated. 

In water saline to a certain extent, clay particles by de-hydration acquire 
& density too great to allow of their remaining sensitive to the motion proper 
to osomose; they therefore coalesce, and gravity soon asserts itself, 


Sxry.—Osomose, as the Cause of Suspension of Clay in Water. 489 


There is, perhaps, one point in respect to this, about which you may 
require further information ere you would be prepared to give an opinion 
respecting the accuracy of my theory. It may be asked whether, in all 
instances of persistent clay diffusion, there is sufficient soluble saline matter 
present of such a nature, and which is, besides, so unevenly distributed, as 
to enable dialysis to be carried on to the necessary extent ? 

In regard to this, I would reiterate the statement which I have made, 
that dialysis is best produced by very weak saline solution, and I would, 
besides, remind you that by far the most effective solutions for this purpose 
are those of the alkalies, and it is precisely matter of this kind, which, as it 
happens, is certain to be present and unequally distributed in any clay 
water we may ever prepare. 

In all clay, as you are aware, some alkaline matter is present, and in 
such a form that it gradually passes into solution. Again, ammonia 
can, as we know, scarcely be excluded from the water through which clay 
may be diffused, and it signifies not where the alkalies are, whether with 
the clay or the water, so long as they are not equally diffused throughout 
both. 


In this connection it is proper to note the fact which has been recently 
discovered * :— That the power which water possesses of sustaining clay in 
suspension is increased by the addition of small quantities of the alkalies or 
their carbonates,” and that water, whose power of sustaining clay had been 
destroyed by an acid, had this power restored in great measure by any of 
the alkalies. Now precisely the same kind of thing would happen in the 
case of albumen, and conversely salts in large quantity retard or prevent 
the alkalies acting in this manner. The analogy therefore between clay and 
albumen in respect to my subject, is obviously of so wide and general a 
character that we may safely assume them to be alike capable of assisting 
in osomotic action and its results. 

In conclusion, I would state that I have thus singled out the persistent 
suspension of clay for explanation in place of the persistent suspension of 
substances of a like nature generally, because the question of clay suspen- 
sion is to me of particular interest as being one I have had in my mind for 
a long time past, and I obtained by experiment results thereon which I am 
persuaded are of some value in regard to its settlement. 

Granted, however, that this attempt of mine at the explanation of the 
persistent suspension of clay is a successful one, the principle thus involved 
„is so easy to make a general application of, to the explanation of those 


* Suspension of Clay in Water, by William Durham, F.R.S.E. Read before the 
Physical Society of Edinburgh, 28th January, 1874. F^ 


490 Transactions.— Chemistry. 


numerous cases which are analogous to the present one, that I need not do 
more than point out to you the fact that such a kind of application would 
then be both right and necessary to make. 


Arr, LXXXIII.—On the Nature and Cause of Tomlinson's Cohesion Figures. 
By Winzuw Sxey. 
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 9th November, 1878.) 
Ir has long since been known that when any oil is suffered to flow on water 
in very thin films a beautiful play of colours is produced ; but it was not 
till the year 1868 that it was observed certain figures were at the same time 
formed at a rate and of a pattern varying according to the kind of oil used. 

These figures are made up of small annular spaces, set in a ground of a 
different shade, and are known as Tomlinson's cohesion figures, after Prof. 
Tomlinson, the discoverer of them. They are employed by Dr. Moffat, 
lecturer on chemistry, at Glasgow, to base thereon a system of olegraphy 
(that is, one by which oil may be identified), and it is their precise nature 
and more immediate cause which I now wish to discuss before you, as I 
have been led by recent investigations of mine upon oils, to believe that 
neither the one nor the other have been heretofore in the least apprehended, 
and this, because the possibility of chemical reactions being involved in the 
production of these figures has not been contemplated. 

Thus, as far as I can gather from the statements of Prof. Tomlinson 
and Dr. Moffat (the only scientists who have, within my knowledge, inves- 
tigated this subject), the annular spaces are “ perforations ” or “holes,” 
bottoming, as it necessarily follows, upon the water-surface used, and set in 
a ground which is presumedly formed of oil. Now I think the annexed 
account of observations made by me, will show to you very clearly that all 
this is directly opposed to the facts of the case. 

First, then, in regard to the annular spaces (the so-termed “ perfora- 
tions" or “ holes”). A careful inspection of them showed me that the 
surface in these parts is not at all depressed as compared with that of the 
rest of the patterns, but is, on the contrary, raised, either in flat or round- 
topped hills according as these spaces are of large or small extent. I 
further found that the liquid occupying these parts—that is, the hills— 
burns completely away, and without the least spluttering, showing that it 
is an oil, 


Sxzv,—On Tomlinson’s Cohesion Figures. 491 


Secondly, as to the ground of these figures, i.e., the part in which these 
annular spaces or markings are set. I found that when a small quantity of 
any oil is gently placed thereon it does not spread to any notable extent, 
but keeps nearly to the drop form; and it was further manifested to me 
that this part breaks into angular fragments, which are possessed of such 
rigidity that they keep to a tabular form no matter how they are dashed 
about. Now, as oils indiscriminately flow over oils, and as none of them 
can indurate to such an extent as would determine angular shapes to their 
fragments, it is clearly demonstrated that this part, ie., the ground of the 
pattern, is not an oil, 

The current idea, then, as to the nature of this di of the figure, being 
fallacious, it is necessary that we should adopt another. 

What this ought to be, a full consideration of the case will, I think, 
clearly show. Thus, owing to the great proneness of oils generally to oxidize 
to substances of a resinous nature when exposed to air, it is certain that in 
no instance do we, for the production of these figures, operate with an oil 
that is not, to a small extent, charged with such matters; and further, it is 
also as certain that the quantity of resinous matter therein must be very 
largely increased by the time that any cohesion figure made with it has 
passed to its final form. It being, therefore, undeniable that resinous 
matter forms one of the principal constituents of the cohesion figure in its 
ultimate condition, the conclusion forces itself upon us that of such matters 
is the material of their ground alone composed. This is really the only 
alternative, as it is one which meets all the requirements of the case. So 
attenuated, indeed, and so exposed are the thinner portions of these figures, 
and so rapidly is the kind of change indicated wrought upon oil under these 
conditions, that it is only reasonable to conclude that these portions are 
wholly composed of resin, to the exclusion consequently of any trace of oil. 

As being corroborative of the truth of the supposition that the presence 
of resin in the cohesion figures plays an important part in their production, 
I would inform you that the addition of about ten per cent. of resin to a 
good oil very much quiekens the production of cohesion figures, and also 
passes them through their various phases to the ultimate figure with & 
speed which is far greater than is to be observed in the case of the oil. 

And now I think the foregoing statements of facts and observations may 
be fairly held to demonstrate— 

1st. That the annular spaces or markings of Tomlinson’s cohesion 

figures are not depressions but protuberances, not holes but hillocks, 
and are not composed of water, but of oil. 

2nd. That the plane part of these figures the ground às it were of the 

pattern, is not oil (as heretofore quiescently allowed), but either a 


492 Transactions.— Chemistry. 


highly resinoid substance or a pure resin according to the time 
it has been exposed to the air. 

It only remains for us now to discuss the subject of the cause of the 
production of the figures in question, and for this I need not do more than 
point out to you, that if the nature of these figures is as I have just 
described, their cause—that is of course their more immediate cause—can be 
no other than the oxidation of a portion of the oil employed to produce 
them, and the aggregation of the remainder into annular patches to form 
the markings which characterize them. 

How oil and resinous matters do thus dissociate, is a question which is 
scarcely within the scope of this paper to discuss. It is, however, one of 
such interest, and is moreover so intimately connected with my subject, that 
I cannot refrain from doing this in a brief manner, although to do so some- 
what trenches upon a subject which I intend soon to treat of in a further 
communication to you. 

According to ideas now in vogue, one word wala be sufficient to name in 
answer to this question. Why do these two substances dissociate? And 
that word is repulsion. The resinous parts of these figures would be held in 
accordance with these ideas to repel the oily part. 

But from several observations I have recently made, I have reason for 
asserting that this appearance of repulsion is at bottom due to the effects 
of cohesion. One of these observations is that greasy matters generally, 
contrary to present scientific and popular opinion, instead of repelling water, 
adhere thereto when placed in juxtaposition with it.* 

The phenomenon of dissociation then has, I consider, to be explained by 
a hypothesis in which the property of cohesion only has to be taken into 
account, and I would form it as follows:—Oil has a certain degree of 
cohesion for itself, also for water; but the products arising from its oxidation 
have a greater cohesion both as among themselves and for water, and 
it is in direct proportion to the degree in which they are chemically 
removed from the oil which furnishes them; until, as the final products of 
this process are reached, a notable affinity for water (that is an intense 
cohesion) developes ; but this great cohesion for water on the part of such 
products is attained only by a corresponding loss of cohesion between them 
and the oil, that is the unaltered or less altered oil. These products 
therefore have a constant tendency to monopolize the surface of the water 
upon which they are formed, and the unaltered or but slightly altered oil, 


* If solid grease is placed in contact with water, the water-surface in the immediate 
vicinity of the grease is not depressed below the general surface of the water; and if the 
grease is lifted just above this surface, the water in its vicinity is also lifted moore it, 
showing very clearly that the two substances cohere, 


Sxry.—On Tomlinson's Cohesion Figures. 493 


in consequence of this, exercises the property of adhesion to the greatest 
extent in respect to its own parts, hence it coalesces in those annular 
elevations which form the principal feature in the cohesion figures of Prof. 
Tomlinson. 

I will conclude this paper by informing you that I consider this change 
of oil into resinoid substances helps largely to produce those rapid changes 
of colour which oil exhibits when exposed to the air upon a surface of water ; 
indeed, it appears to me that the effect of those chemical changes which 
must take place in certain liquids when exposed to the air or brought into 
contact with each other, has been ignored by.those persons who have 
hitherto investigated the subject of the flow of liquids upon each other. 


V.—GEO LOGY. 


Art. LXXXIV.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula, being an 
Address by Prof. Jutrus von Haast, PH.D., F.R.S., President of the 
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Tth March, 1878.) 
GENTLEMEN, —Being called again by your vote to the honourable position of 
presiding at your meetings, the agreeable duty devolves upon me to address 
you to-night at the opening of the session 1878. It has been the custom of 
your newly elected President either to offer you a review of the progress of 
science in New Zealand, to treat of some special branch of scientific 
research, or to lay before you the results of his own investigations into the 
zoology, geology, or ethnology of these interesting islands. 

With your permission, I shall follow the latter course, and venture to 
offer you some remarks upon the geological features disclosed to us by the 
piercing of the Christchurch and Lyttelton Railway Tunnel, a gigantic 
work, ever creditable to the energy and forethought of the Provincial 
Government of Canterbury in those days when only a small population had 
settled here, and the work to be undertaken was looked upon by many as 
far beyond our means. I shall preface the description of the tunnel, of 
which a section on a scale of one inch to twenty feet hangs at the wall, by 
some observations on the genetic history of Banks Peninsula, and upon the 
remarkable system of dykes, by which the older caldera walls have been 
intersected. 

When standing on the Canterbury plains the most striking feature in 
the landscape is Banks Peninsula, rising so remarkably above the sea 
horizon, that its regular form at once attracts our attention. First we 
observe a series of mountains, of which the summits are all nearly of the 
same altitude, which, as it appears to us, as far as our eye can follow their 
outlines, form nearly a circle, from which a great number of ridges slope 
with a nearly uniform gradient towards south, west, and north. Above 
them, in the centre, stands conspicuously a higher truncated mountain with 
precipitous escarpments, assuming, according to the position of the traveller, 
a different aspect. The rim of the lower mountains in front rises to an 
average height of 1,600 feet, whilst the central system attains an altitude of 
8,050 feet, On reaching Banks Peninsula from the sea, we find that several 


496 Transactions.—Geology. 


deep indentations, forming splendid harbours, enter far into the outer rim 
of the mountains, passing for a considerable distance along the higher 
central range. Similar indentations are also found to exist towards the 
Canterbury plains, but they have either been already filled by alluvial 
deposits forming fertile valleys, such as the Kaituna valley, or they appear 
in the form of a lake (Lake Forsyth). In examining the nature of the rocks 
of which the system under consideration is composed, we find that, with 
the exception of a small zone at the head of Lyttelton Harbour, the whole 
is composed of volcanic rocks ; that the deep indentations are ancient crater 
walls, so-called calderas, into which a channel with precipitous walls, the 
barranco, leads; and that they consist of a series of lava streams, with 
agglomerates consisting of scoriæ, lapilli, ashes, and tufas interstratified 
with them. These beds have alla qua-qua versal dip, that is to say, they 
all incline outwards from the centre of the cavity. The higher mountains 
in the centre consist also of voleanie rocks of a similar composition, which 
appear either horizontal or, when the direction of the lava-streams com- 
posing them can be ascertained, are found to flow into the calderas 
previously formed, from which we can at once conclude that they are of 
younger origin. Finally, we find mostly in or near the centre of these deep 
cavities, or calderas, either a small island or a peninsula stretching so far 
into these harbours. They consist also of voleanie rocks, having been 
preserved above the last centre of eruption. This last sign of vuleanicity is 
on a smaller scale than the previous ones. The whole of Banks Peninsula, 
measuring along its longest axis from north-west to south-east, has a length 
of 31 miles, with a greatest breadth of 20 miles, and if we do not take the 
numerous indentations into account, it has a circumference of 88 miles, 
which corresponds closely with that of the base of Mount Etna. 

Having thus given an outline of the general features of the volcanic 
system under consideration, I shall now proceed to offer a short history of 
its origin. 

The oldest rocks in Banks Peninsula form a small zone of paleozoic 
sedimentary strata, possessing a slightly altered structure, many of them 
forming beds of chert, others, peculiar light-coloured brecciated schists ; 
however, sandstones and dark clay-slates are also represented. This zone 
has a north and south direction, and reaches to the southern watershed of 
McQueen’s Pass, which leads from the head of Lyttelton Harbour to Lake 
Ellesmere. Near this pass, slates appear as high as 600 feet above the 
sea-level. On the western slopes of Castle Hill, the south-western cotinua- 
tion of Mount Herbert, 2,900 feet high, which rises so conspicuously above 
Lyttelton Harbour, they reach an altitude of nearly 1,000 feet, where they 
are overlaid by the older lavas, forming the Lyttelton Harbour caldera, 


NL ML V MM RL ie or ca eR EI Mari ca 


RR bene Carer Se re ee ee D d 


Haast.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula. 497 


Thus a sub-marine hill stood here in the young mesozcic sea, of which 
portions of the summits and the slopes were gradually covered by agglo- 
merates and brecciated beds. These beds were formed during and after the 
eruption of quartziferous porphyries, of which here and there portions of 
the coulées have been preserved. Some of these quartziferous porphyries 
resemble in every respect those from the Malvern Hills and Mount Somers. 
They are also accompanied by pitchstones, porphyritic from the presence of 
numerous well-formed crystals of sanidine or glassy felspar, and occasionally 
of garnets. Other portions of the quartziferous porphyries, as for instance, 
the whole coulée of which Manson's Peninsula is formed, have a rougher, 
more trachytic matrix. They are full of grains and small crystals of white 
greyish or smoky quartz. The brecciated beds have a hard felsitic matrix, 
and the angular fragments of rock enclosed in them belong to a variety of 
eruptive rocks of many colours, and of different texture, often forming a 
rock of striking character. They appear conspicuously on the summit of 
Gebbie’s Pass, having been washed into cliffs of picturesque forms, and 
covering the paleozoic sedimentary beds from one side of the pass to the 
other. After the formation of the brecciated agglomerates, new eruptions 
of acidic rocks took place, now in the form of rhyolites, the highly liquid 
matter reaching the surface through broad channels, of which one has been 
preserved as a large dyke, forming a beautiful section on the northern side 
of Gebbie’s Pass, not far from the summit. The dyke is here about 100 
feet thick, half of which is formed by the central portion, consisting of a 
whitish rhyolite with a fine laminated structure, breaking in prismatic 
blocks; the rest on both sides, where in contact with the agglomerates, has 
cooled more rapidly, and has assumed the character of an obsidian. This 
obsidian is greenish or brownish-black, very brittle, and imperfect crystals 
of sanidine are enclosed in it. This dyke can be traced for a considerable 
distance upwards. Where overflowing and covering the agglomerates it 
forms the highest peak on the western side of Gebbie’s Pass, well visible 
from Lyttelton Harbour. The rock here is divided into small pentagonal 
columns, with a vertical arrangement; lower down the pass, the same 
coulée has a tabular structure. 

The oldest crater, of which the principal boundaries can be traced at the 
present time, is the Lyttelton Harbour caldera, having a general diameter 
of about two miles, the centre of which is situated a little to the south of 
Quail Island. . The general structure of this crater, even before the Christ- 
church and Lyttelton Railway tunnel was entirely pierced through, could 
easily be made out by studying the numerous sections exposed in many 
directions, and by ascending the steep escarpments of the caldera wall, 
where a succession of streams of stony or scoriaceous lava, interstratified 

4883 


498 Transactions.—G cology. 


with beds of agglomerates, ashes, tufas, and laterites can be traced to the 
very summit. Still clearer sections are open to our inspection if we follow 
the barranco or entrance into the harbour, forming sometimes vertical 
cliffs of considerable altitude, and where the whole series of beds can easily 
be followed. However, the most interesting and complete insight was 
obtained in the railway tunnel passing through the caldera wall, and of 
which, as the work gradually advanced, I prepared a careful section. The 
succession and dip of the lava streams and the intervening beds can also be 
made out by following the slopes of the ridges between the deep valleys 
washed out on the outer side of the crater wall, where it will be found that 
the lava streams forming the lip of the crater have generally a slighter 
inclination than those lower down, the dip of the upper ones being only nine 
degrees on the average. In the tunnel the dip is greater, an inclination of 
twenty degrees not being uncommon. It is evident that the building up of 
such a huge system during numerous eruptions, often of great magnitude, 
could not be accomplished without a great destruction of portions of the 
beds previously formed taking place, the point of eruption in the crater 
shifting continuously about the centre. If, at the same time, we examine 
the lava streams and the interstratified agglomerate and ash beds along the 
water’s edge, we have to come to the conclusion that all the eruptions by 
which the caldera wall was formed from summit to bottom, occurred under 
the same physical conditions. 

Examining into the formation of the Lyttelton caldera, and beginning 
our observations in the harbour, we find that many lava streams have been 
preserved which have cooled in their ascent; others lie horizontal for a 
short distance, and are then seen to descend, conforming to the gradient of 
the underlying lava streams or agglomerate beds. In many instances we 
have also clear evidence that considerable destruction of the beds previously 
formed had taken place before new streams flowed over the lip of the crater, 
or before beds of ashes, scorie and lapilli, were deposited anew. The 
tunnel section in this respect is also very instructive. Thus, in course of 
time, the great crater wall was formed, rising to an altitude of nearly 2,000 
feet, and having a diameter of more than five miles at its crest. It is clear 
that close to the vent, from which scorie and ashes were thrown out in 
large quantities, the greatest thickness of the agglomerate beds ought to be 
formed, and this, in fact, is the case, as the largest beds, having sometimes 
a thickness of several hundred feet, are situated within the inner side of the 
caldera wall. The lava-streams here between these agglomerates are irre- 
gular in their direction, and mostly of small dimensions. The more we 
advance towards the outer slopes of the caldera wall, the less frequent 
become these agglomeratic or tufaceous layers, whilst the lava-streams, 


Haast,—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula, 499 


which towards the centre have the greatest bulk, and are very stony and 
compact, become now gradually more and more numerous, but of smaller 
size and more porphyritic or scoriaceous, according to the laws by which 
the flow, dimensions and cooling of the lava-streams are regulated. It is, 
moreover, evident that many of them, owing to want of material, scarcely 
reach half way down the slopes of the caldera wall, that others rapidly thin 
out, and that many which, for some distance after flowing over the lip of 
the crater, had been of large dimensions and stony, become, long before its 
outer edge is reached, thin and scoriaceous, so that here streams of five feet 
in thickness are not uncommon. Although the tunnel does not offer us the 
necessary data to judge of the breadth of the lava-streams, we have for that 
purpose ample evidence in Godley Heads, the sea-wall near Sumner, and 
many other localities. There are streams which are 500 feet broad, others 
only 30 to 40, but all without exception are somewhat scoriaceous on the 
bottom, where the lava flowing over cold ground cooled more rapidly. In 
many instances this is well exhibited by the existence of a small bed of 
laterite, a brick-red coloured rock, sometimes only a few inches thick, which 
doubtless was a layer of soil on the decomposed upper portion of the lava- 
stream or agglomerate bed exposed for a considerable time to atmospheric 
action before the new eruption took place. The lava in the larger streams, 
and in its central portion principally, very stony and of a blackish colour, 
gradually becomes, as we approach the surface, more porphyritic, with a 
more open texture, and assumes pinkish or lilac tints, till it changes into 
scorie. The decomposition or alteration is here often so great that it is 
impossible to trace the top of the line of contact between the surface of the 
stream and the bottom of the overlying bed, both forming a layer of coarse 
agglomerate. In other instances the rough, uneven scoriaceous surface of 
the lava-streams has been well preserved, the hollow spaces being filled up 
by ashes and ejecta, in which case they resemble many of the recent lava- 
streams which I examined in Mount Vesuvius and Mount Etna shortly 
after they had issued from the crater. 

The lava of which the caldera wall under consideration has been built 
up, consists of basic rocks, changing from a dolerite to a fine-grained basalt. 
Some of the lava-streams, however, as previously pointed out, show also a 
remarkable difference in the structure of the rock of which they are com- 
posed, the central portion being a compact basalt with a few crystals of 
augite, basaltic hornblende, labradorite, whilst the upper portion consists 
of a lighter coloured porphyritic dolerite, sometimes so replete with good 
sized crystals of labradorite that the greater portion of the rock is formed 
of that mineral, 


500 Transactions, == Geology. 


Returning to the orifice or orifices from which the material for the for- 
mation of the caldera wall was ejected, and to which also the numerous dykes, 
mostly having a vertical position, intersecting it, can be traced, it appears 
that the principal focus of eruption was situated a little to the south-wést of 
Quail Island, as the greatest portion of the dykes radiate from here, and 
tho eastern and southern sides of Quail Island, and the shores near 
Charteris Bay, are formed of tufaceous agglomeratie and brecciated beds, in 
which a number of angular blocks of rock are enclosed, having all a very 
bleached appearance. 

It would go beyond the limits of this address were I to follow the further 
genetic history of Banks Peninsula in all its details. I can, therefore, only 
indicate here in a few words how the whole, in course of time, has been 
built up. Simultaneously with, or shortly after, the Lyttelton caldera, the 
Little River caldera, of which only a small portion remains, was formed in 
the same manner. The formation of the largest of the whole series, the 
Akaroa caldera, is next in age, which, with the exception of a small portion 
of its northern rim, is perfectly well preserved. After their formation, new 
eruptions, and of a different form, took place south of the Lyttelton caldera 
and north of the Little River and Akaroa calderas, during which the highest 
portion of Banks Peninsula was built up—Mount Herbert, 8,050; Castle- 
hill, 2,900 ; and Mount Sinclair, 2,800 feet; only portions of the craters of 
these younger systems are still affi but easily recognized when 
standing on the summits of these mountains. The southernmost portion 
of the Lyttelton caldera was partly destroyed or covered by lava-streams 
belonging to the Mount Herbert system, also of a basic (basaltic) nature, of 
which a whole series flowed into it, now forming the huge spurs descending 
from the summit of Mount Herbert into the harbour between Charteris 
and Rhodes Bays. The last eruption, of a submarine character, took 
place in the centre of the Lyttelton caldera, by which Quail Island was 
formed. 

I shall now proceed to offer you some observations on the system of 
dykes, which are so well developed in the Lyttelton caldera. The most strik- 
ing facts in connection ud wA system of dykes of the caldera, and to 
which I have devoted id ttention, are their size, longitudinal extent, 
and constancy in direction. From the Wi of numerous observers, 
it has been proved that all the dykes of Mount Vesuvius and Mount Etna 
do not extend much beyond the centres of eruption, so that they advance 
only a short distance, and, rapidly thinning out, soon disappear, a fact 
which my own observations along the crater walls of both mountains have 
amply confirmed. However, I have no doubt that other volcanoes similar 
in construction to Banks Peninsula, and differing as considerably from 


Haast,—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula, 501 


these two European voleanie mountains, will be found to possess their 
systems of dykes developed in the same manner. During a number of 
years, it has been well ascertained by me that the dykes radiating from the 
several centres of eruption situated not far from each other, continue in 
many instances without notable interruption from the former mouth of the 
erater to the outer slopes of the caldera, where they disappear below the 
sea, or under the deposits now forming the Canterbury plains, Very often 
the principal dykes rise nearly 2,000 feet above the sea level. They are 
well visible from the harbour to the summit of the rim of the caldera wall, 
above which, in some instances, they stand prominently as a wall, often six 
or eight feet high. Where proper measurements of the same dyke can be 
obtained for a long distance, it has been found that generally, as it advances 
towards the outer circle, it diminishes in breadth; however, in other 
instances this is not the case, as repeatedly I have found some which, after 
narrowing on their outward course, considerably enlarge again before 
reaching the foot of the caldera. Thus to give a few examples, the large 
dyke of trachyte, which is crossed in the railway tunnel, about 29 chains 
from the Heathcote end, is first seen west of the town of Lyttelton, near 
Naval Point, where it is nearly 40 feet thick. On the summit of the 
caldera wall, not far from the top of the Bridlepath, it has narrowed to 23 
feet 9 inches, after which it gradually gains in proportion, so that in Thomp- ` 
son’s quarry it has enlarged to 26 feet, a breadth which it still has in the 
tunnel, A mile beyond the quarry the spur along which its course can be 
followed runs out in the Heathcote valley, where it disappears below the 
Loess. 

Two remarkable dykes, reaching the summit of Dyke Hill, about 2,000 
feet high, west-south-west of Castle-hill, are very conspicuous. They both 
project boldly from the mountain, with a space of 35 feet between them. 
The eastern one is 18 feet, and the western 12 feet broad. Two similar 
dykes exist on the opposite side, and run up the caldera wall behind Rau- 
paki. To mention a few others, there are some important dykes south of 
Dyer’s Pass, which, after crossing Manson’s Peninsula, are again met with at 
Ohinitahi (Governor’s Bay), and of which several, after ascending to the very 
summit of the caldera, reach to the foot of the peninsula near Cashmere, 
being extensively quarried in different localities along their course. These 
dykes, like many others which cross the caldera wall towards the Canter- 
bury plains, mostly all radiate from a point lying in the centre of the bay, 
formed by Manson’s Peninsula on the one side, and Potts’ Peninsula on the 
other, both of which consist of quartziferous porphyries, and between which 
this newer focus has been formed after the greatest portion of the caldera 
wall had already been built up. There is also the large dyke which crosses 


502 Transactions,—Geology, 


the Lyttelton-Sumner road at right-angles, on the very summit of Evans 
Pass, and which is repeatedly passed by the road winding in and out of the 
different bays before reaching that pass. It can be followed to Taylor’s 
Mistake. Everywhere along the sea cliffs at and near the entrance of 
Lyttelton Harbour, numerous dykes, mostly all in a vertical position, can 
be seen pointing towards the centre of that harbour. A few, however, 
stand in a slanting position, and others have a tortuous course, As one of 
the remarkable changes which some of the dykes have undergone since their 
formation, I may also mention one which is well exposed in the sea cliffs at 
Ohinitahi, Governor's Bay ; here a dyke of domite, about nine feet broad, 
crosses in a nearly vertical position the so-called trachyte sandstone de- 
posited on the slopes of the quartziferous porphyry. After its solidifica- 
tion, a new fissure, about three feet broad, has been formed parallel to its 
direction, and running along its centre, which has been injected from below 
by domitie matter, but slightly different from the former ; however, instead 
of continuing to the top of the cliff, about twelve feet above the sea level, the 
dyke is seen to turn from its vertieal to a nearly horizontal position, and to 
thin out considerably at the same time, disappearing altogether when it 
touches the side wall of the bed-rock. The older dyke, above this change 
of direction, is considerably shattered and broken. 

Before proceeding, it wil perhaps be useful if I offer a few remarks on 
the eauses which led to the formation of these remarkable dykes. I con- 
sider this the more important, as nowhere, as far as I am aware, do they 
exist in such great numbers, nor do they possess such a large longitudinal 
extent, as in the volcanic system under consideration. It appears to me 
that the immediate cause of the formation of a radiating system of dykes 
may be traced to the choked-up vent or chimney of a volcano, the mouth 
of which, after an eruption of considerable dimensions, is thoroughly filled 
up, either by its sides falling in, by the cooling of ascending lava-streams, or 
by both causes combined. When, from abyssological origination, masses of 
steam and gases have collected below this vent, and new matter is ready to 
be erupted, an enormous effort of nature will be necessary to clear out the 
old, or form a new chimney, which cannot be accomplished without a series 
of violent earthquakes, succeeded by an enormous explosion, by which the 
mouth of the voleano is cleared out or newly formed, and of the magnitude 
of which we can scarcely form a conception. A similar effect, on a gigantic 
scale, must have been produced repeatedly by the compressed masses of 
gases and steam during the formation of the Lyttelton caldera wall, when 
the upper portion of the closed-up voleano was not only removed, but vast 
quantities of ashes, scorie, and lapilli were thrown out, together with lava- 
streams which flowed in various directions. Before, or during these 


Haast.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula. 503 


eruptions, molten matter in a high state of fusion generally rushed up in 
the fissures which had been formed at the time, radiating from the focus 
like the spokes of a wheel. An examination of these dyke rocks will show 
at a glance that most of them are quite different in composition and 
character from those of which the lava-streams have been formed. The 
latter, as already explained, with one notable exception,* all consist of true 
basic rocks—basalts often assuming a doleritic texture, the dyke rocks 
being generally acidie, having either the composition of a trachyte or 
domite. We are able to judge of the more or less high state of fusion in 
which the molten matter ascended the open fissures from the effect pro- 
duced on the walls on both sides. The trachytic matter forming the dykes, 
which are principally developed on the eastern side of the caldera wall, has 
evidently been in such a condition that it could exercise a most powerful 
effect on both walls of the fissure, the rocks often, for several inches, being 
changed to tachylite, a peculiar basic voleanie glass, quite distinct from 
obsidian. This change in the character of the rock is most observable 
when the dykes pass along tufaceous or agglomeratic beds. Here the 
reddish orlight purple rocks have been altered to a black vitreous mass, 
containing small crystals of felspar. The domitic dykes, mostly confined 
to the western half of the caldera wall, seem not to have exercised such a 
great influence as the former, as in most instances the walls on both sides 
of the dykes are only slightly hardened. However, there is no constant 
rule; large dykes, as for instance the huge domitic dyke at Governor's 
Bay, running for a considerable distance parallel to the coast, and forming 
such a conspicuous object along the picturesque beach road lately con- 
structed, have scarcely made any alteration on either side, whilst smaller 
dykes of the same rock, only a few feet in thickness, are sometimes 
accompanied by a well-defined selvage of tachylite. The same may be said 
of the basaltic dykes, of which, however, by far the greatest part has caused 
no visible alteration along the walls on either side. The trachytic varieties, 


* This exception consists of a trachytic lava-stream of considerable size, and having 
an average thickness of eighty feet, which is interstratified between two others of a basic 
character. This peculiar stream occurs between Lyttelton and the pass to Sumner. It 
is the only trachyte lava known to me as having flowed from any of the different centres 
of eruption of Banks Peninsula, all the other acidic rocks, as I shall show in the sequel, 
having been ejected into fissures of more recent date. This lava-stream consists of a . 
white vesicular trachyte rich in quartz, resembling closely some of the domites of the 
Auvergne, from which, however, it is distinguished by its larger amount of silica, 
although it approaches it again in its considerable percentage of potash. A vertical 
dyke, about eight feet thick, of a peculiar flaky silky trachyte, passes through this lava- 
stream, narrowing, however, in its upper portion. Although this acidic lava is rather 
soft and friable in small pieces, it has nevertheless resisted the disintegrating agencies at 
work far better than the hard basaltic lavas and agglomerates in its neighbourhood, 


504 Transactions.— Geology. 


of which most of the dykes on the eastern side of the Lyttelton Harbour 
consist, are formed generally of a peculiarly lustrous and flaky rock, some- 
times vesicular, with small crystals of sanidine. This rock has a light 
greyish colour, and its small cavities are lined by spherosiderite. On both 
sides of the dyke the rock is generally tabular—parallel to the direction of 
the flow, and is massive in the centre with polyhedrie joints, of which the 
principal ones appear at right angles to the flow. There are also a few 
trachytic dykes, principally small ones, where the sides, for half an inch to 
one inch, consist of a rather brittle obsidian, doubtless the effect of rapid 
cooling. Some very thin thread-like dykes, about one to two inches thick, 
consist entirely of that peculiar form of acidic voleanic rock 
In studying the position of the dykes it becomes manifest that they have 
been formed at different times; however, the altitude of their uppermost 
portion does not indicate their age. I have no doubt that many of them, 
which scarcely reach above high water-mark, are not older than others of 
ihe same petrological nature, which reach to the very summit of the caldera 
wall In the present state of our knowledge it is impossible to solve this 
interesting question in all its bearings, and I can therefore only suggest 
that dykes containing rocks of exactly the same lithological character 
have most probably been formed during the same eruption. It is also 
evident that a number of dykes were formed long before the whole of the 
caldera wall was built up, and that they were partly destroyed during one 
of the next eruptions. One clear instance of the occurrence of such older 
dykes is to be found near Cliffs Cove in Lyttelton Harbour, where several 
irachy-doleritie dykes were injected when the rest of the caldera wall was at 
least 1,000 feet lower than at present. They pass through a basaltic lava- 
` stream, which latter was afterwards partly destroyed along with them, the 
whole possessing now nearly a straight surface, upon which a large bed of 
agglomerate has been deposited. However, what is of the greatest interest 
in the history of the voleanie systems under consideration is the predomi- 
nating acidic character of the dykes when compared with the basic lava- 
streams. In Vesuvius and Hina all the dykes are formed by the same kind 
of rock as the lava-streams are composed of, but they are generally more 
compact, having, as Lyell suggests, cooled and consolidated under greater 
pressure. It is evident that they owe their existence to the same subter- 
ranean efforts by which the lava-streams were ejected from the mouth of 
the crater, the fissures in which they were formed being evidently filled up 
from the same focus, and about the same time as the eruption of the lava- 
streams took place. But such a simple process cannot be admitted for the 
greater portion of the dykes of Banks Peninsula, which must owe their 
existence to paroxysmal perturbations in the earth’s crust, distinct from 


Haast.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula. 505 


those during which the caldera walls were built up. It is evident that a 
great portion of the lava-streams and agglomeratic beds which once formed 
the crater of the volcanic system of Lyttelton Harbour, must have been 
blown away, or at least removed during one of those violent outbursts of 
subterranean forces necessary to clear the choked vent of the volcano, 
similar to those by which in recent times the upper portions of active 
voleanoes have repeatedly been destroyed under the eyes of the trembling 
population in the neighbourhood. 
For an explanation we might go back to Durocher’s views, that all 
igneous rocks, even the most modern lavas, are derived from two distinct 
magmas which co-exist below the solid crust of the globe, each of them 
occupying a well-defined position. According to this distinguished French 
chemist, the uppermost portion is occupied by the acidic magma, which, be- 
sides being of lighter specific gravity, possesses a larger amount of silica 
and less iron oxyde than the other or basic magma. From the upper layer 
the granites, porphyries, and trachytes, according to his views, are derived, 
he zone of contact producing rocks of an intermediate character, such as 
trachydolerites. If this theory is correct, we have to admit that not only 
the dyke rocks were injected in rents formed during earthquakes, or imme- 
diately before volcanic eruptions had taken place from the opened chimney of 
the volcano, but thatin each case the molten matter was furnished both from 
the upper and lower stratum of incandescent matter below the hard crust of 
the globe. There is, however, one great difficulty which crops up here, and 
which I wish to point out, and that is the presence of dykes of basic rocks 
and of others of an intermediate character. If all the radiating fissures 
without exception had been filled up by acidic rocks, this would go far to 
prove the existence of such an upper acidic incandescent magma; in which 
case we should be forced to the conclusion that the chimney of the voleano 
reached lower down to the lower or basic layer, But it is difficult to under- 
stand how all the radiating fissures over an area of 12 miles in diameter 
could pass through the solid crust of the earth and through the fluid acidic 
magma, and how the lower basic rocks could be injected into them from 
below without disturbing the acidic magma, which certainly should havo 
been forced up before. This difficulty might, however, be met by the sug- 
gestion that the radiating fissures in this instance did not reach so far down 
as the fluid acidic magma, and that the material for the formation of the 
dykes had been furnished from the crater itself, but it is scarcely conceivable 
that for a distance of six miles and for an altitude of several thousand feet the 
molten matter would have been forced in all directions from the central axis 
of eruption along these fissures, often only a few feet wide. Mr. R. Mallet,» | 


* Transactions of the Royal Society. Phil. Trans. 1873. 


* 


506 Transactions.—Geology. 


has proposed another theory, namely, that the principal cause of vulcanicity 
is to be sought in the compressing and crushing action taking place beneath 
the crust of the earth, and by which such a great amount of heat is 
generated that a fusion of rocks, often on a large scale, is easily produced. 
This theory would so far explain very well the difference in the composition 
of the rocks varying according to the depth where the crushing action was 
actually taking place; thus, if the same action were to act upon granites, 
trachytes, and other acidic rocks, the result would be the production of 
trachytes, whilst if basic rocks were fused, basalts would ascend towards or 
to the surface. Here, however, another great difficulty presents itself in the 
fact that, although the number of volcanic eruptions during which the 
caldera walls were built up must have been very great, no trachytic lava 
streams, with one single exception, have made their appearance, the whole 
series being of a basic, whilst most of the principal dykes are of an acidic 
nature. In such a case, the crushing of acidic rocks would have exclusively 
taken place when the dykes were being formed, and never when lava-streams 
issued from the crater’s mouth, which is altogether improbable. 

Although I have carefully read every work accessible to me in English, 
German, French, and Italian, treating on vulcanicity, I have not been able 
to find either any account of the existence of dykes in other volcanic regions 
converging so regularly to a few centres close to each other, or continuing 
over such a large area (always keeping the general direction with which 
they set out), as do those of the Lyttelton caldera; or again, offering an 
explanation for the difference in the composition of the dyke rocks when 
compared with the lava-streams or agglomeratic beds through which they 
pass. Mr. R. Mallet’s excellent paper on the “ Mechanism of Production 
of Volcanic Dykes,"* and of those of Mount Somma, in which an 
exhaustive account of the physical features of the dykes in the old caldera 
wall of Mount Vesuvius is given, unfortunately does not contain any 
physical theory to account for the mode by which fissures are produced, 
forming, when filled, voleanic dykes. If we take the heterogeneous nature 
of the material of which the caldera wall has been built up into account, it 
is astonishing that the dykes show such a remarkable regularity, always 
starting from a few points not far from each other, from which they radiate 
in all directions. It is still more remarkable to observe that all dykes 
which are cut by the Christchurch and Lyttelton railway tunnel have such 
8, constant direction that they all, with one or two exceptions, appear to 
converge to one single axis behind Quail Island, a fact worthy of note if we 
consider the distance, which is more than four miles, measured to the most 
distant dyke in that tunnel. The only dyke with which I am acquainted, 


= * Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, No. 128, Nov., 1870. 


Haast,—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula, 507 


showing some remarkable irregularity, is the one in which the so-called 
Ellis Quarry is situated.. This dyke, which strikes nearly east and west, 
goes out about 400 feet below the summit, where a saddle intersects the 
spur. Shortly above its lower termination it sends off a smaller branch in 
a south-west direction, also ceasing after a short course. Whilst the main 
dyke does not appear any more above the surface, the smaller south-western 
branch crops up again on the other side of the depression, now gradually 
changing its direction, so that, in its lower course, about 800 feet above the 
plains, it crosses the spur in a south-east and north-west direction. The 
whole system of dykes in the Lyttelton caldera wall is thus very different 
from the dykes of Mount Somma, of which, in his paper, Mr. R. Mallet 
gives us such a lucid and suggestive account, and of which many are 
fractured, displaced, and crushed, and have at the same time a wedge- 
shaped form. We can, therefore, assume that the fissures and dykes in the 
Lyttelton caldera were only formed after the latter had been so thoroughly 
consolidated that, after the formation of the fissures and their filling up by 
the principal dykes, no more changes of any importance took place in them ; 
and that, moreover, the forces by which the walls of the volcano were 
starred from top to bottom, must have been far deeper-seated and more 
effective than the agencies by which Mount Somma was rent, 

In conclusion, I wish to lay before you a few notes on the geological 
features of the Lyttelton and Christchurch railway tunnel, of which I made 
a careful survey during a number of years, as the work of the miner 
advanced. I watched this interesting and instructive work with great 
attention, this being the first time that a caldera wall of a large extinct 
voleano was to be pierced through. I prepared at the time a section on a 
scale of lin. to 20ft., which I have great pleasure in laying before you. 

The direction of the tunnel is N. 14° W. The first trial shaft was 
commenced in January, 1860, and the permanent works under contract 
with Messrs. Holmes and Co., began in July, 1861. The tunnel was laid 
out, and its execution solely superintended by Mr. Edward Dobson, C.E., 
Provincial Engineer. It was brought to a successful termination on May 
25, 1866, when both adits met near the centre. The opening for railway 
traffic took place on December 9, 1867. The total length of the tunnel is 
8,598 feet, and if we deduct from this 365 feet on the northern or outer 
side, and 105 feet on the southern or inner side, formed by slope deposits 
and loess, there remains 8,128 feet of rock of voleanic origin, of w. 
caldera wall has been built up. Classifying the rocks according to their 
lithological character, we find that the crater above the present waterline 


61 lava- , haying the character of a stony compact c or me T 
Miro fuss p 


508 Transactions.— Geology. 


54 lava-streams formed of a scoriaceous basaltic and doleritic lava, 
some of them changing so gradually into agglomeratic beds 
that the line between them cannot be clearly defined. 

89 beds of agglomerates, a few of them changing into scoriaceous 
lava, but most of them consisting of scoriæ, lapilli, and other 
ejecta, imbedded in ashes, A few of them have a brecciated 
appearance. 

19 beds of laterite, clays, and slope deposits, partly or wholly burnt 
by overlying lava-streams, and 

1 small layer of bolus—together 174. 

These beds are intersected by 82 dykes, 18 consisting of trachyte lava 
(of which five do not reach to the roof of the tunnel), and 14 of a basic 
nature (five of them being intermediate in character, trachy-dolerites). One 
of them comes from the top of the tunnel. 

Beginning at the southern or Lyttelton side of the tunnel, we observe 
that a large bed of loam has been deposited upon the volcanic rocks, being 
thickest on the lowest third of the caldera wall. This peculiar rock, which, 
when in small pieces, is easily pulverized between the fingers, has a re- 
markable consistency and solidity when in large masses, and is of sub- 
aerial origin. It may be designated as loess, an expression now extensively 
usedin Europe for similar deposits. It owes its origin to various processes, 
of which rain, wind, and vegetation are the principal factors. This bed of 
loess, which in some localities is more than 100 feet thick, changes 
gradually before we reach the volcanic rock to a true slope deposit, 
consisting of fragments of rock more or less rounded, the lines of junction 
being often impossible to trace, owing to the decomposition of the volcanic 
rocks immediately below the slope deposits. The greatest amount of 
agglomerate, consisting of scoriæ, lapilli, and ashes is, as might be ex- 
pected, congregated on the inner side of the caldera wall, not far from the 
focus of eruption. These more or less incoherent beds, of which each was 
probably formed during one eruption, have generally an inward as well as 
an outward dip, of which the beds 282 to 241 close to the entrance of the 
tunnel at Lyttelton form a notable instance. They were without doubt 
deposited on the lip of the crater. Near the Lyttelton end they are much 
disturbed. Two stony lava-streams cross these agglomerate beds, and we 
have to assume that after No. 231 was formed, the lava-stream 233, 
ascending from the mouth of the crater, had consolidated over it, being in 
its turn covered by a new talus of ejecta sloping inwards to the crater's 
mouth. After these latter beds 234 and 2344 were formed, a new stony 
lava-stream, No. 237, ascended, in which case Nos. 231, 234, and 238 to 
241 were three distinct agglomerate beds, covered and preserved on their 


Haasr.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula. 509 


inner slope by stony lava-streams, consolidated during their ascent. Or, 
to offer another explanation, we might regard these two stony lava-streams, 
233 and 237, as having broken through the huge accumulations of ejecta 
which were heaped up all round the craters mouth—a phenomenon 
frequently observed during violent volcanic eruptions, when a huge cinder 
cone is formed in a short time. A similar occurrence seems to have taken 
place more towards the centre of the tunnel, about 60 chains from the 
Lyttelton side, where a large stony lava-stream, No. 167, is seen to ascend 
through the agglomerate bed or beds, Nos. 166 to 168. The lava-stream, 
163, in close proximity, might be considered to be the continuation of the 
former, which here flows down the steep side of the cinder cone. Gradually, 
as we retreat from the focus of eruption, the agglomerate beds decrease in 
number and size, but they still are occasionally present even close to the 
mouth of the tunnel near to the Heathcote entrance. Some of them con- 
sist in their lower portion of fine ashes, or lava d’aqua, and above of scorie 
and lapilli, so as to suggest that first fine ashes had been thrown out or 
had been brought down the side in the form of a mud stream, on the top 
of which large ejecta were afterwards deposited. Another agglomerate bed 
having an anticlinal or saddle arrangement is 224, 17 to 20 chains from the 
Lyttelton end; it was evidently deposited on the rim of the crater, of 
which the uneven surface is well visible in its lower portion. After its 
formation, two more agglomerate beds were deposited over it, 216 and 227, 
and 211 and 228 in the section, each being separated from the other by a 
bed of laterite. Moreover, it is clear that, whatever may have been its origin, 
the lowest portion of this and several other agglomerate beds must have 
been deposited when in a state of high temperature, as the argillaceous bed 
below it has been burnt red, so as to take all the characteristics of a laterite. 
All round Banks Peninsula agglomerate and ash beds are visible in the 
cliffs, but they are like the lava-streams of small vertical extent only, and 
we have to approach more towards the centre of eruption when we wish 
to see them in their greatest dimensions. 

The largest and most numerous stony lava-streams are met with towards 
the centre of the tunnel, where the basalt of which they are composed 
possesses the greatest hardness and crystalline texture. More towards the 
boundaries of the volcanic system, the lava-streams are much thinner and 
at the same time more porphyritie, amygdaloidal or scoriaceous, and it is 
very instructive to follow some of the lava-streams which form clear sections 
in the deep valleys radiating round the peninsula, from the summit of the 
caldera wall to their termination at its foot, and to note the gradual change 
in their size, and in the texture of the rocks of which they are composed. I 
have already alluded to the lava-stream 237, nine chains from the Lyttelton - 


510 Transactions,—Geology. 


end, but in connection with it I may here mention that the first shaft sunk 
by Messrs. Smith and Knight, the English contractors, unfortunately 
reached it soon below the surface of the ground, and continued all the way 
through it to the roof of the tunnel. This was one of the principal causes 
that the firm, being unacquainted with the formation of the crater wall, 
abandoned the contract so soon. ‘The first stony lava in the tunnel, flowing 
down the slopes of the crater wall,is a smail stream, No. 214, about 22 
chains from the Lyttelton end. Several others of similar dimensions follow, 
till we reach stream 206, which might be the continuation of No. 237, 114 
chains from the Lyttelton end. This stream throws a great deal of light by 
its configuration on the manner of the flow of liquidlava. After flowing 
down the slopes, we see it shortly afterwards ascend again (No. 202) over a 
bed of agglomerate, and, after having reached the apex of the latter, 
descend again (No. 200), diminishing rapidly in size, the rock now becoming 
highly porphyritic and lighter in colour. The largest stony lava-stream of 
the whole series begins about 41 chains from the Lyttelton end, and con- 
tinues without interruption to 52} chains. Consequently, taking its angle of 
dip into account, itis more than 500 feet thick. More or less porphyritie on 
both sides, the whole central portion consists of a very hard basaltic rock, 
ringing to the hammer, irregularly jointed, with here and there a tendency 
towards spheroidal structure. This huge stream gains an additional interest 
from the existence of three caves in its centre, which, however, have partly 
been filled up with thin plates of basalt of the same texture as the lava- 
stream, and which lie more or less horizontal. They are coated over and 
often cemented together by spherosiderite. Sometimes they lie in such 
regular order, and so loosely upon each other, as if they had been artificially 
placed in that position. The open space, or cave proper, is always on the 
southern side of each cavity. The only explanation I can offer as to their 
formation is that gases have been enclosed in this portion of the lava 
stream, which in course of time were absorbed, and that liquid matter 
from the upper portion of the stream found access to the cavities, gradually 
filling them up, but that the channels of commnnication were stopped before 
the whole of the gases still dues in the southern parts of each had 
been absorbed. 

Another stream of large dimensions is No. 14, beginning 20 chains from 
the Heathcote end. It is over 100 feet thick, has a jointed structure, the 
central portion being spheroidal, with concentric layers. All the stony 
streams in the tunnel above the latter are very thin, but it is possible that 
the scoriaceous basaliie lava (the violet beds of the section) which overlie 
them, are only their upper portion, the bottom of the streams, owing to 
their thinness and to the distance from the centre of eruption, not having 


Haast.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula. 511 


been able to cool to the stony compact form. I may, however, observe 
that the boundary line between both kinds of rock is, in many instances, 
very distinct and clearly defined. These scoriaceous beds occur throughout 
the tunnel; they are sometimes of considerable dimensions, some of them 
being over 100 feet thick. In speaking of the formation of the Lyttelton 
caldera, I have already pointed out that it has been built up by volcanic 
rocks belonging to two distinct divisions, of which the basic rocks have 
furnished all the material for the lava-streams, agglomeratic and tufaceous 
beds, whilst the principal portion of the dykes owe their origin to the acidic 
division. As might be anticipated, the dykes are most numerous near the 
focus of eruption; thus we find the greater portion of them near the Lyt- 


. telton side, several of them not reaching to the roof of the tunnel. Of these 


dykes, No. 29 is the most important. It consists of a soft flaky and 


‘lustrous trachyte, and possesses, like most of the other acidic dykes, the 


characteristic feature that it is accompanied on both sides by a selvage of 
tachylite, sometimes two or three inches thick. This change in the charac- 
ter of the bed rock is especially visible when the dykes pass through 
agglomeratic or tufaceous beds. It shows clearly that the voleanic matter 
ascending by these fissures was in such an intense state of fusion that it 
was able to alter the rocks on both sides so thoroughly for such a distance. 
In some instances the dyke rocks themselves have a selvage of tachylite, the 
bed rock being unaltered. It is worthy of notice that the basaltic dykes 
have not produced the same effect, the rocks on both sides being generally 
unaltered. Large beds of loess, similar to those deposited on the inner 
side of the caldera wall, have also been passed through on the Heathcote 
side. Of minerals of secondary origin found in the tunnel, the most diffuse 
is spherosiderite, which usually coats the pores and cavities of scoriaceous 
lavas. Of others, calcareous spar and aragonite are the most conspicuous. 
The latter is younger than the former, having often been deposited on the 
surface of the calcareous spar coating the small geodes. In a few localities, 
hyalite fills small clefts, or is found in a stalactitic form. 

I shall close this address by offering a few observations on some other 
physical features of the beds through which the tunnel has been excavated, 
and as I noted them on the large section during the survey. Forty chains 
from the Heathcote end, a scoriaceous lava-stream, fifteen feet thick, and 
accompanied on both sides by beds of laterite and agglomerate, was passed, 
which was so loose and full of water that the ground had at once to be 
heavily timbered. All the cavities in the lava are lined with spherosiderite, 
on which crystals of calcareous spar have been deposited. At 403 chains 
on the same side, in a bed of laterite, four feet above the floor of the tunnel, - 


n small spring was struck, drying up a few months after; 353 chains from : pu 


512 Transactions.—Geology. 


the Lyttelton end, the lava-streams, when first passed through, were so wet 
that the workmen could scarcely continue the work. In these streams all 
the cellular cavities were either lined with spherosiderite or filled with calcite. 
Sixteen chains from the Lyttelton entrance, in the agglomerate bed No. 
228, and from a fissure reaching from the roof of the tunnel, a copious 
spring flows Which has a constant temperature of 65-20 degrees Fahrenheit, 
consequently 12-20 degrees above the mean temperature of Christehurch— 
about 53 degrees. Several eels have been caught near this spring in the 
drain which runs from here to the mouth of the tunnel. There being no 
conneetion with any other watercourse, these eels must have ascended by 
the spring; they belong to the species Anguilla aucklandii, Rich., and have 
properly developed eyes. During the construction of the tunnel it was 
frequently observed in the north, or Heathcote end, that the water rose in 
the floor before a south-west gale, and subsided before the gale lulled; no 
observations could be made to ascertain whether the state of the tide had 
anything to do with this. The height to which the water rose was some- 
what under halfan inch. After the earthquake of August 17, 1868, this 
spring in the tunnel increased to such an extent that it laid the rails slightly 
under water; after a few days it decreased again to its former volume. 


Art. LXXXV.—Notes on a Salt Spring near Hokianga. By J. A. Pond. 
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 9th September, 1878.) 

Ix looking over the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, just to 
hand, I read with pleasure the paper by W. Skey, on the Mineral Waters of 
New Zealand, in which he gives the analyses and description of waters from 
all known springs in the Colony. As we might expect, the North Island, 
and partieularly this district, has supplied the large majority of samples; 
but though much has been done in this respect there are very many springs 
containing mineral salts, and having medicinal properties, which still remain 
unexamined, and leave a rich field for those having the will and capacity to 
bring them to light, or rather to the Transactions. 

Some months 'ago, Judge Monro first mentioned the existence of a salt 
spring to me, and on a later occasion kindly placed a few ounces of the 
water at my disposal, too small an amount to make a complete analysis of, 
but as its especial characteristic was its saline nature, I have made a partial 
quantitative analysis, which I give below. 


UA Kaa AA etm 


Pond.—Notes on a Salt Spring near Hokianga. 518 


The spring in question is situated in dense bush, on the dividing range 
between the Wangape and Waihou rivers, the latter of which runs into 
Hokianga Harbour. The distance from the sea in a direct line is about 
nine or ten miles, and is at a considerable elevation above sea level; hence 
the presence in large quantity of chloride of sodium is highly interesting, 
showing, as it does, that there must be in the locality a deposit of salt, 
probably some distance below the surface, which I should judge from the 
fact of its not being more highly impregnated. As will be seen by the 
analysis, this water contains about the same percentage of chloride of 
sodium as ordinary sea water, but differs therefrom in the absence of sul- 
phates. The following gives the chief constituents, so far as the small 
quantity of the sample at my disposal would permit :— 

The solid matter equals 2937-558 grains per gallon, composed of— 


Organic matter su P 51:115 
Soluble silica uis iv vs ba 49:562 
Carbonate of Magnesia ae ES be 18'710 
Chloride of Potassium we eh ae 1:9 

3 Sodium m S .. 27914 
Lime and Iron a ya P .. traces 
Mss Acid 
Los 18- 871 


The sample was MEN Ce. k a very eR amount of fine sedimentary 
deposit, which proved to be silicate of alumina, with a trace of iron and 
lime. After standing some days the water was opalescent, acid reaction 
and strong saline taste. From the appearance of the deposit, and a few 
fragments of gravel brought separately, I should judge the locality from 
whence the water was taken to be of a clay-slate formation ; but during the 
coming summer I hope to make an examination of the place in which this 
spring is situated, and a further one of the water. Spectroscopically I could 
not detect lithia. As I have already mentioned, this spring ranks higher 
than any other in this Colony, so far as records show, in regard to the 
amount of alkaline chlorides present. 

While speaking with respect to springs not included in Mr. Skey's 
report, I will add some information respecting two other mineral waters 
from our district which have been analyzed. The first is located near 
Whangarei, and is highly charged with carbonic acid gas. The springs 
are surrounded with a vitreous-looking silica, and in places with large 
quantities of a very light porous rock, presumed by the residents at first 
to be meerschaum, but this I find on examination to be incorrect, the 
chemical tests showing it to be a silicate of alumina, and the microscope 


resolving it into an infusorial earth, well worthy the consideration of our 


A90 


514 Transactions.—Geology. 


microscopists. Mr. Cheeseman, to whom I am indebted for the samples 
just alluded to, forwarded some of the water to Mr. Skey, of Wellington, 
whose report, just received, I will now read. 

The other sample I have now to mention is a hot spring at Motuhora 
(Whale Island), in the Bay of Plenty. Here the water flows out of a valley 
in large quantities into the sea, the heat being so great as to cause volumes 
of steam to rise as the water flows over the sand. The temperature of this 
spring, where it rises from the ground, is 198? Fahr., the taste being 
extremely acid, and the water very clear. Tam indebted to Mr. Tunny for 
the analysis, which is as follows — 

Sulphate of Soda .. és à 17:60 grains per gallon. 
$5 Lime * 7:52 ay 


à Manus A «x OO j » 
Alumina 


si Iron . wA b 
Sulphuric Acid, free oe tr - 190:02 
Silica.. rH 2d «i x S100 "7, 


Art. LXXXVI.—Notes of a Traditional Change in the Coast line at Manukau 
Heads. By S. Percy Surrg. 
[.Read before the Auckland Institute, 18th November, 1878.] 
Some thirteen years ago, when encamped one night with a party of natives 
on the long beach which extends from Manukau to Waikato Heads, the 
conversation over the camp fire turned upon some old tribal boundaries, 
one of which ended at a place said by Aihepene Raihau, the narrator (who 
was then living at Waiuku, but who now, having married the Princess 
Sophia, resides in the King's country), to be now covered by the sea. Upon 
enquiring further of him as to this particular place, he informed me that 
many generations ago the coast-line extended much further seaward than it 
does at present, projecting in 2 curved line from Manukau Heads to the 
aikato River. This point he described as a low, sandy country, with 
numerous sand-dunes, fresh-water lakes, with clumps of tall manuka trees 
scattered over its surface. 
The lakes were much resorted to by the natives in those days, on 
account of the great number of eels found in them. 
He further stated that it was a three days’ journey at that time for a 
man following the beach from Manukau to Waikato Heads, whereas the 
present coastline is a very nearly straight line, and the distance may be 


AA Wa aa AA eS 


Smrru,—On Traditional Change in the Coast-line at Manukau Heads. 515 


walked by an ordinary pedestrian easily in one day, being only about 
twenty-five miles, 

Aihepene also told me that the Manukau bar, even within the memory 
of those living, was dry land ; and that he himself, when a boy, had accom- 
panied his parents to the bank on which H.M.8. ** Orpheus" was wrecked, for 
the purpose of fishing and collecting birds' eggs. The natives did not, as I 
understood him, live upon these banks, but used to make periodical visits to 
them in their canoes, for a few days at a time for fishing purposes, living in 
houses which they had constructed there. 

I much regret that I did not at the time make further enquiries of the 
old natives living at Waiuku and its neighbourhood, with a view of getting 
corroborative evidence of these changes. With respect to that part of the 
story, however, which relates to Manukau bar, I think there could be no 
mistake, as my informant said he had himself visited the place, and I can 
conceive of no possible reason for his imposing on me, especially as the 
information was volunteered. That such changes do take place in the 
coast-lines of various countries, without the aid of submergence or elevation, 
is well known, as, for instance, on the east coast of England, where, within 


"the historical period, vast changes have taken place; villages, the names 


only of which are now preserved in old records, have entirely disappeared— 
swallowed up by the ever-encroaching waves. 

As for any evidence remaining of such a low, sandy country having once 
existed, I think we could scarcely expect much. The Admiralty chart of 
that part of the coast is very bare of soundings, and those given do not differ 
much from soundings at the same distance from the shore for many miles 
both north and south, until the great “ bottomless pit” is reached, north of 
Kaipara Heads. The present coast is an almost continuous line of steep 
cliffs, with, at their bases, in some few places, a small strip of sandy flats, 
generally covered with high manuka ; but even these are fast disappearing, 
as I learn from a settler resident in that locality. These cliffs are covered 
on top by a range of sand-dunes, which extend uninterruptedly from 
Manukau to Waikato, and are the source from whence is derived the strip 
of fertile land lying immediately to the east of them. The origin of these 
sand-hills, occurring as they do on top of perpendicular cliffs, is often 
obscure, for we cannot suppose the sand to have been blown perpendicularly 
upwards from the beach, in direct opposition to gravity, although in the few 
gaps or gullies breaking through the cliffs down to the beach, the sand 
undoubtedly gradually is forced upwards by the strong westerly winds, and 
then accumulates in dunes on top. But on the supposition of the existence 
of the submerged country as described, occupying a position at the foot of 
an older coastline now represented by the present cliffs, a probable origin 
is suggested, thus :— 


616 Transactions,—Geology. 


In a low sandy country exposed to the full force of the westerly winds, 
the light materials would continually be driven easterly until brought up 
by the cliffs, against which they would be piled until a sufficient slope was 
formed to allow of their finally mounting the top, and then forming the 
sand-dunes we now see. Those who are acquainted with the strip of 
country lying on the South Kaipara head, and extending thence to Muriwai, : 
will at once recognize that the above supposition is applicable as a descrip- 
tion of that part of the country. Here the cliffs are present at from one to 
three miles from the beach, but generally hidden by a sloping bank of sand, 
partially covered with vegetation, with a line of sand-dunes forming the 
highest parts of the range. Even the traditional lagoons, forming a long 
interrupted line of fresh water, and celebrated for their eels, are also there, 
completing the similarity between this country and that described by 
Aihepene. The north head of Kaipara furnishes perhaps a better illustra- 
tion than even the south head, for here we have in close conjunction the low 
sandy tract with its moving sand-dunes, lagoons, and scattered thickets of 
manuka, with the inland line of hills, covered by sand; and to the north, a 
few miles, the same line of hills rising perpendicularly from the beach with 
the long and broken range of sand-hills capping the cliffs. 

The natives of Kaipara have a tradition that the banks at the bar of 
that harbour were once dry land upon which their forefathers lived and 
cultivated; but this must have been at a much earlier age than that in 
which part of the Manukau Bar was dry, for here we find that this tradition 
is mixed up with one of their old myths, inasmuch as this is given as the 
locality in which Tinirau’s pet whale, Tutunui, was killed by Kae as related 
in Sir George Grey’s “ Mythology and Traditions of the New Zealanders.” 

We need not seek far for sufficient causes for these alterations in the 
coast-line. The known alternations in the level of the sea-line, caused by 
elevation or depression of the land giving rise to and altering the 
directions of currents, is ample to account for the disappearance of such a 
strip of land as is described in Aihepene Raihau’s tradition as above. 


} 
i 
j 
| 


Aa alla 


WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 


First Mzerine. 18th July, 1878. 
A. K. Newman, M.B., Vice-president, in the chair. 
New Members.—D. Climie, C. E. Macklin, T. _W. Kirk, T. King, E. P. 
Field, Herbert Rawson. 


Attention was called to several additions to the Museum and library, which were 
placed on the table for the inspection of members. 

1. “ On some of the Terms used in Political Economy," by John Car- 
ruthers, M. Inst. C.E. (Transactions, p. 3.) 

Mr. Maxwell said that as regards Mill's definition of wealth, that “it is anything 
useful or agreeable which possesses exchangeable value," he concurred with Mr. Car- 
ruthers that the word ‘ exchange " should be omitted, because if we regard the community 
in the world as a whole, sinee there is no one without the world with whom this com- 
munity can exchange its possessions, it would follow from Mill’s definition that iba 
community as a whole possesses no wealth, and this is manifestly absurd. Regarding 
the divisions proposed by Mr. Carruthers of wealth into direct wealth and im iain 
he did not think a distinct line of demarcation can be drawn. It is impossible to define 
the point at which bread, for instance, may be described as useful for its own sake, 
although bread is stated to be an article which is direct wealth; the whole of the com- 
binations of circumstances and things which go to produce bread, from the plough to the 
process of digestion, are so involved that it seems almost impossible to state at what 
particular period the bread is useful or not useful for its own sake. A chair may be direct 
wealth while occupied for rest, ages if its use be made subservient to the purpose of 
listening it becomes an implemen 

Mr. Martin Chapman ea that the controversy was principally owing to the 
ambiguity of our common language. Few people know how ambiguous our ordinary 
language is. Lawyers know it, and are always trying to guard against it, with very 
indifferent success. That this does not cause trouble is pare owing to the fact that 
we usually converse with persons whose minds have been train a manner somewhat 
similar to our own. When this is not the case trouble ensues, as, aa instance, when a 
soldier and a sailor converse they soon think each other fools, because one talks pipeclay, 
the other pitch. The present difference may be due to a similar reason, viz., that the 
critic and the criticized do not look at the matter from the same standpoint. This 
oo appeared in the paper; it did not appear at ali clearly what Mr. Carruthers 

ant by a “man;” was it the individual, the family, community y, or all mankind, 
Mau to each of these a different test would have to be applied? The stone which a 
lunatic thinks will transmute gold cannot be called sig eed ss ihe posson giver him 
comfort, So the torpedoes used by 
the happiness of one nation, Pu pichably nd of the whole world; yet they would be 


520 Proceedings. 


probably called wealth by most. Again, it did not clearly appear in what sense Mr. 
Carruthers used the words “ wealth of the world” as different from simply wealth. Mr. 
Carruthers spoke also of “ capital” and “ capital of the country.” Mr. Chapman wished 
to know the difference between capital of the country and wealth of the country. 

Mr. Carruthers, in reply, said it was not necessary to go into metaphysical nicety in 
definitions of political economy; that it certainly was impossible, as remarked by Mr 
Maxwell, to strictly define the boundary between implements and wealth which is useful 
for its own sake. Bread might be said to be an implement for satisfying hunger, and the 
satisfaction of hunger an implement for procuring happiness. But the division which he 
had suggested of wealth was useful, and quite accurate enough for the purposes of the 
science. He said, in reply to Mr. Chapman, that by man he meant any one man, and 
that the stone which pleased a lunatic was wealth as fully as the diamond which pleased 
people who were not lunatics. A torpedo was wealth, because it was useful to the user ; 
he did not recognize any algebraical minus sign which would make the discomfort which 
the torpedo caused to the person against whom it was used neutralize the advantage 
which it gave to the user; The wealth of the world meant the sum total of useful things 
at any time in existence. He said he did not use the word capital as meaning wealth at all; 
he considered it a word which should be altogether given up by the political economist, 
as being too likely to suggest meanings different from the definition. 

The Chairman proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Carruthers, not only for his present 
paper, but for the great assistance he had always rendered to the society. He regretted 
that the society should lose such a valuable member, and he had hoped to see Mr. 
Carruthers one day president, as he had no doubt he would have been had he remained in 
Wellington. 

The vote of thanks was carried by acclamation, and Mr. Carruthers briefly returned 
thanks for the good wishes of the society towards him. 


Second Mrzrmo. 8rd August, 1878. 
T. Kirk, F.L.S., President, in the chair. 
New Members.—Rev. Father Sauzeau of Blenheim, A. P. Stuart, J. G. Fox. 
In opening the proceedings, the President remarked that the Society had entered 
upon the second decade of its existence as a society affiliated to the New Zealand Insti- 
tute. Looking back to the close of the first volume of Transactions, he found that the 
number of members had increased from 102 to 225, and that the total of affiliated 
societies had increased from four to seven, numbering considerably over 1,100 members, a 
fact which was exceedingly gratifying, as showing that the taste for scientific pursuits 
was widely diffused through the colony. The ten volumes of Transactions had been con- 
tributed by about 200 workers, and contained a vast amount of information of great value 
on the zoology, botany, and geology of the country, but not in a shape fully available for 
the general public. It was therefore advisable that a united effort should be made by the 
various societies to provide funds for the publication of a Fauna of New Zealand as 
complete as the present miaka our knowledge would allow. He referred to the recently 
rcu parts of Mr. Buch: 's work on the indigenous grasses of New Zealand as a 
in this direction, and characterized the plates as creditable alike to the author, the 
edid Survey Department, and the colony, and expressed his regret that the plan of 
the work had not been so extended as to admit of its being brought fully abreast of the 
botanical knowledge of the day. 


AE 


"vem 


SER WE nee eR SE a OE ae REIN RE eee 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 521 


1. “How New Zealand may continue to grow Wheat and other Cereals,” 
by J. C. Crawford, F.G.S. (Transactions, p. 149.) 


Kirk considered the remarks in the paper regarding the sterile nature of the 
Auckland soil required modification. He had seen very fair crops grown in that locality 
with little or no manure. 

Dr. Hector agreed with the author that a good deal of potash was taken out of the 
colony in the grease of wool, and he knew that this potash grease is saved in England, 
and used in the after manufacture of wool. With regard to the Auckland soil, he con- 
sidered it was inferior in some places chiefly owing to the want of drainage or breaking up, 
Soluble silica is the constituent most essential, and therefore a clay soil is, on the whole, 
the best, as it retains manure longer. Altogether he thought Mr. Crawford’s remarks 
were valuable 

Dr. Newman considered that possibly a time would come when it would be difficult 
to procure sufficient food of the ordinary kind, and the wisest plan would be to manufac- 
ture the various constituents mentioned directly into food for consumption. He did not 
see why they could not be as easily manufactured into food themselves as used to assist 
in producing food from other sources. 

Young thought with Mr. Crawford that much could be done with the assistance 
of chemistry in keeping up the quality of the soil. The most economical and best agent 
to employ would be phosphatic guano, which he thought could be procured in large 
quantities from numerous islands. 

Dr. Buller pointed out that, in the neighbourhood of the hot springs, there was 
a quantity of nice, soft mud, sometimes eaten by the natives, which might serve the 
purpose indicated by Dr. Newman 

Mr. Kirk said that the sulphur works at Auckland would supply sulphuric acid, which 
would be most useful for our soils. He stated that nitrogen only formed a very small 
proportion of the dried plant, frequently less than 1 per cent., and rarely so much as 3 per 
cent., and therefore could be more easily supplied. 


2. “ Additions to List of Species, and Notices of rare Occurrences, since 
the publication of ‘The Birds of New Zealand,'" by Walter L. Buller 
C.M.G., Se.D. (Transactions, p. 861.) 

9. * Remarks on the Long-tailed Cuckoo ( Eudynamis taitensis)," b 
Walter L. Buller. (Transactions, p. 853.) 

4. “On the specific Value of Prion banksii, by Walter L. Buller. 
(Transactions, p. 351.) 

5. “Further Notes on the Habits of the Tuatara Lizard," by Walter L. 
Buller. (Transactions, p. 849.) 

Dr. Hector considered Dr. Buller's papers were most interesting, and no doubt some 
new species would yet be added to the birds of New Zealand—instancing a red wattle-bird 
in the western pipe of van he had a With regard to the tuatara, he 
agreed with Dr. Bull itum and S. guntheri—would 
hold good. As Aa their feeding habita, he found that thay would cat almost anything - 
that mov 

'The President :3 234 24b. Pa oos da 2H tkt, yh ba accoun ated for by 


differen Att we nk WA 4 Gee LAN Y i 


oY? biana A w 


522 | Proceedings. 


Dr. Newman remarked that few reptiles cared to devour any object that was 
stationary, they require to see it move. He did not agree in thinking that so slight 
a difference as indicated by Dr. Buller in regard to the birds mentioned could make 
a distinct species. 

Dr. Buller, in reply, pointed out that the great test as regards species was to ascertain 
whether the differences were constant. As naturalists understood the term he considered 
his examples were distinct species. 


6. ““ Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Katipo (Latrodectus katipo )," 
by C. H. Robson. (Transactions, p. 891.) 


Dr. Buller called attention to his paper, in Vol. III. of the Transactions, on this 
spider, which gave a good deal of information regarding its habits. A professor in Sweden 
had since pointed out that the Katipo was the representative of an entirely new genus; 
and Dr. Smith, a celebrated homceopathist, considered the extract from the spider in 
question would produce a most valuable drug in homeopathy. He had requested him 
(Dr. Buller) to forward a quantity to England for experiment. 

The President said that it was strange that this was the only poi imal in New 
Zealand, and also that only two plants were known to be poisonous. 


Tarp Meeting. 17th August, 1878. 
T. Kirk, F.L.S., President, in the chair. 
New Member.—W. G. Rutherfurd. 


1. “On the Deflection of Shingle-bearing Currents and Protection of 
anks by Douslin's Floating Log Dams," by H. P. Macklin. (Trans- 
aho. p. 144.) 
Mr. Maxwell said that this plan had been successfully carried out in many places 
He did not think there was anything new to engineering in the paper. 
Dr. Hector explained that the author did not give this as a new invention, but 
merely wished to point out how successfully the plan had worked as applied to the Opawa 
River, in protecting the town of Blenheim. 


2. “ Remarks on a Species of Lestris inhabiting our Seas," by Walter L. 
Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D., etc. (Transactions, p. 855.) 

The author exhibited specimens in illustration. 

Dr. Hector pointed out the difficulty of obtaining many of the oceanic birds, 
naturalists having to depend on stray specimens cast ashore by the waves or blown 
inland by a storm, and he expressed a hope that members of the society would never lose 
an opportunity of securing such specimens and forwarding them to the Museum for 
critical examination. He mentioned another larger species of Lestris known as the sea- 
hen, of which he obiained some examples in Otago soon after he came to the colony. 

The President said that Dr. Buller’s paper would form a valuable contribution to the 
Transactions. The sealing parties visiting the various islands might be arranged with to 
collect such specimens. y 


8. “ Further Observations upon certain Grasses and Fodder Plants," by 
S. M. Curl, M.D. (Transactions, p. 403.) 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 523 


The President remarked that persons engaged in testing the properties of plants 
adapted for feeding stock in this colony were engaged in work beneficial to the whole 
community, and therefore he welcomed the paper now contributed by Dr. Curl. At the 
time he observed with regret that no mention was made of the condition under which Dr. 
Curl’s experiments were performed, such as quality of soil, time requisite for the matura- 
tion of the plant, mode in which fed off, and other elements necessary in order to form a 
correct opinion of the value of each kind. Not more than two or three of the species 
mentioned in the paper were adapted for mixed pasturage, although most would doubtless 
be found of value as fodder. He remarked that Agrostis solandri, recommended by Dr. 
Curl, was a collective species, chiefly consisting of two New Zealand grasses, Agrostis 
emula and A. billardieri. Poa aquatica was merely a synonym for Glyceria aquatica, 
although the two are given by the author as distinct plants. Glyceria fluitans was a grass 
of undoubted value, as was proved by the condition of horses and cattle feeding upon it, 
wherever naturalized in the colony. Referring to Dr. Curl’s use of the term ‘“acclima- 
tized,” he stated that a fallacy was involved in the popular acceptation of the term, as 
there was no evidence to show that plants or animals possessed the power of gradual 
adaptation to peculiarities of climate or soil other than those for which they were originally 

tted. This was generally recognized by scientific men, who used the term naturalize 
ou of acclimatized 


4. ** Preliminary Note on the Presence of one or more Hydro-carbons of 
the Benzol Series in the American Petroleum, also in our Petroleums," by 
W. Skey. (Transactions, p. 469.) 


5. “ On a Property possessed by Essential Oils of whitening the Preci- 
pitate produced by mixing a Solution of Mercuro-iodide with one of Mer- 
curie-chloride," by W. Skey. (Transactions, p. 470.) 


6. ** Preliminary Note on the Production of one or more Alkaloids from . 
Fixed Oils, by the Aniline Process," by W. Skey. (Transactions, p. 471.) 

7. “On the Production of Platino-iodides of the Alkaloids,” by W. 
Skey. 

8. “On a further Occurrence of the Australian Tree Swallow 
( Hylochelidon nigricans) in New Zealand," by Walter L. Buller, C.M.G., 
D. Se. (Transactions, p. 860.) 

The author remarked on the extraordinary fact of such a bird performing a journey on 
the wing of upwards of a thousand miles without a break or rest. 

Dr. Hector wished to be informed whether this bird was gregarious in its native 
country, and whether it had come over singly or in flocks ? 

Mr. Martin Chapman gave some interesting partieulars of the breeding habits of the 
tree swallow, as observed by him in Australia, where it is not gregarious like the €— 
He advocated its introduction and naturalization in this country. 

Dr. Buller stated that a flight of these swallows had been seen at Wakapuaka, near 
Nelson, in 1856, when specimens were obtained by Mr. ln one of which is now in the 
ncs useum. 

The President said that he believed the bird waa of more frequent occurrence ia New 


Tana 4h atan 


shot at Auckland some time ago. WA pA olds annes ima 


524 Proceedings. 


swallow, he doubted very much whether, if brought here, it could be induced to remain 
with us, the migratory instinct being very powerful. 

9. Dr. Hector exhibited a telephone and two forms of the microphone, made by Mr. 
John Kebbell, and explained the principles of their construction, The microphones were 
placed on the lecture table, and connected by wire laid to different parts of the Museum 
with several telephones in circuit; the marvellous transmission of faint sounds was readily 
illustrated. The experiments performed were to some extent marred by the extreme sensi- 
tiveness of Mie aaa as the irregular noises produced by the rustling movements 

t 


ly overpowered the sounds that were intended to be transmitted, 
is sounds of iex voice, wt tuning forks, and slight friction of the sounding boards of the 
microphones were, however, rendered distinctly audible throughout the complete circuit. 

A cordial vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Kebbell for his kindness in exhibiting to 
ihe Society these interesting inventions. 


FovnarH Merrine. 31st August, 1878. 
T. Kirk, F.L.S., President, in the chair. 

New Members.—G. Morton, J. R. W. Cook, William Berry. 

Additions to the library were laid on the table, and Dr. Hector drew attention to the 
following fishes lately added to the Museum collection, viz., Holocanthus arcuatus, Mono- 
canthus hippocrepis, and Serranus trutta (the latter being a new species) from Fiji, 
colleeted and presented by Lord Hervey Phipps; also, Ceratodus forsteri, from Queens- 
land, presented by Sir C. Wyville Thompson. 

1. ** On some of the Causes which operate in Shingle-bearing Rivers in 
the Determination of their Courses and in the Formation of Plains," by 
J. P. Maxwell, A.I.C.E. 


ABSTRACT. 


The author contended that the Canterbury Plains were formed by the 
action of the rivers in conveying shingle from the ranges and depositing it 
in their lower courses and at their mouths; that continual changes in the 
courses of the streams were effected by these deposits, thus giving rise to 
the distribution of material over extended areas; that this process was still 
going on, and that the elevation and extension of the plains would pro- 
ceed while the supply of detritus from the ranges continued; that the features 
were largely modified by the action of the sea in distributing the shingle 
along the coast-line; that examination of the river beds showed that they 
are sometimes elevated along the middle lines of their length, and that 
streams flowed on either side, cutting notch-like channels in the older plain 
formation ; that the evidence of these channels on both sides of the river 
beds is a sufficient. refutation of the theory of the supposed effect of the 
influence of the earth’s rotation in causing erosion on one side only. 

Dr. Hector said he agreed with the views of the author as far as they went, but he 
thought that the formation of the great fan-like deposits of shingle that go to make up 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 525 


the surface at least of the Canterbury plains was not so simple a process as stated. As 
stated, it might suit the conditions of a small deposit, but these fans were twenty to 
thirty miles m diameter, and could only have been built up by successive changes in the 
courses of rivers as they gradually raised their beds and then broke away from them. 
The resulting fan was made up of many river beds, radiating from one point or gorge. A 
most important feature not mentioned by the author was the formation of secondary fans 
in front of those earlier ones formed by the gradual erosion and deepening of the notch or 
gorge in the rocky bed through which the river was finally liberated from the mountains. 
As this notch was lowered the river became confined to a deep terraced valley excavated 
in the shingle of the earlier fans, the shingle removed going to raise the bed in a lower 
part of its course. This, in his Mr cun gave rise to the apparent coneave surface of the 
plains in the author's section. 

Mr. Travers pointed out that the essential point in the fan-like arrangement of 
detritus was the diminished velocity of the river after escaping from the upper part of its 
course whence the detritus was derived. He described the prodigious effects of the great 
flood of 1867 on the valley deposits of the Wairau River, high level terraces of gravel 
having been completely swept away by lateral tributaries, leaving shelves of bare rock, 
while the rocky and previously impassable bed of the main river was converted into a 
smooth surface or plain for miles. That was the effect of one short flood, and he 
thought that it was evidence that no flood of similar magnitude had occurred since the 
terrace skirting the valley had been formed. 

. Hector stated that the amount of detritus carried out to sea on that occasion had 
added ten chains width to the beach for miles along the coast, so that the fences running 
out on the shore had to be lengthened 

Mr. Maxwell, in reply, considered the remarks made did not conflict with the 
views expressed in this paper, but only extended their application. His object was to 
refute the idea that the changes in the direction of such rivers could be controlled by the 
rotation of the earth, as suggested by Dr. Haast and Mr. Baines in the last volume of 
** Transactions." 

2. “Some Notes on the D'Urville Island Copper Mine," by S. H. 
Cox, F.C.8., F.G.S., Assistant Geologist, 

ABSTRACT. 

The mine is situated at the southern end of D'Urville Island, the copper 
occurring in a belt of serpentine, which may be traced from the Dun Moun- 
tain, at Nelson, to the Croixelles, and again throughout the length of 
D'Urville Island. This belt of serpentine is in contact with certain coarse- 
grained green sandstones and banded slates of the Maitai series, in which 
veins of quartz with nests of pyrites occur, the strike of the slates being 
about N.N.E. 

Outerops of cuprite, coated with malachite and azurite, have been traced 
at intervals over a distance of 900 yards, or thereabouts, in a N.E. and 
S.W. direction, these outcrops generally occurring on a bare ridge of 
serpentine, which is about the centre line of the piece of ground which has 
been leased from the Maoris for mining operations, and four small shafts 
have been sunk to prove the ore at different points, These shafts do not 


526 Proceedings. 


appear to be in the same band of ore, but on at least three different ones, 
and the author thinks it probable that there is yet another. 

The surface prospecting has been attended with exceptionally good 
results, rich deposits of ore having being traced for a considerable distance ; 
and on visiting the mine, the author could not but form a favourable opinion of 
the mineral wealth occurring on D'Urville Island. At the present time the 
prospects of the mine look most encouraging, and had it not been that a 
tunnel had been put in to intersect the ore-band, and had failed to cut it, 
one might have been led to form a most extravagant idea of the wealth 
which would accrue to the shareholders in the speculation ; but this tunnel 
proves, what has frequently been demonstrated elsewhere, that ore deposits 
in serpentine are not as continuous and well-defined as the poorer lodes 
which occur in sedimentary deposits. This fact points to the necessity of 
keeping exploratory workings well ahead, and even closer attention will 
have to be paid to this class of work here than in ordinary metalliferous 
mines. 

Dr. Hector remarked that Mr. Cox had not specified the value of the ore. When pure, 
cuprite contained about 89 per cent. of metallic copper, and copper glance about 79 per 
cent.; but the value of the ore raised at D’Urville Island at present was about £11 per 
ton. He pointed out that the serpentine belt could be traced at intervals from D’Urville 
Island to Nelson, and thence through the ranges to Jackson’s Bay, where Mr. Macfarlane 
had noticed its occurrence, and from this point it split into two belts. He also referred 
to the occurrence of copper ore in the North Island, and said that the copper of Great 
Barrier Island was probably not in the same formation, but that the relations at this point 
are more obscured by newer formations than in the South. 

Mr. Travers said that he unfortunately had considerable experience of the patchy 
character of ore deposits in serpentine, having been one of those who worked the Dun 
Mountain ore. His advice was to take all the copper which could easily be found, and 
not to sink any large amount of capital in trying to open up regular mines in such uncer- 
tain deposits, as the ore occurred merely in bunches, which were disconnected, and which 
appeared only to occur on the surface. 

Mr. Waterhouse was glad to have the information conveyed in Mr. Cox’s paper. He 
had some experience on the subject in South Australia, and quite agreed with Mr. Travers’ 
remarks, and he would be surprised if the D’Urville Island copper mine paid in the long run. 
He did not consider that the fact of rich specimens of copper being obtained from the 
mine in any way guaranteed the success of the undertaking, for there were innumerable 
instances in South Australia where quite as rich specimens were obtained, but no induce- 
ments offered to open up mines with reasonable prospect of success, as where the ore was 
patchy, and the country hard, these deposits never turned out well. He stated that 
copper which would pay to work in England would not do so in the colonies, but that to 
prove a success here the following were necessary :—1st. The ore must be near the sea. 
2nd. It must be in very large quantity. 3rd. It must be in soft country, where it could be” 
worked with comparative ease. He pointed out that the only mines in South Australia 
which have paid have been those which have been started without any capital, instancing 
the Bulla Bulla and Moonta mines, &e., which yielded large quantities of ore from the 
very first, and were in soft ground, and stated that all the other mines which were in hard 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 527 


ground did not pay.. He referred to the South African mines, where large deposits of ore 
had been found recently, yielding as much as £60,000 worth of copper in six months. He 
advised caution in opening up the D’Urville Island mine, and said that only those who 
could afford to lose the money which they invested should take shares in this mine. 

Mr. Kirk said that we were indebted to the speakers for very valuable remarks on this 
subject. He thought that the Great Barrier copper had been worked and abandoned, but 
that very probably there was yet much ore to be extracted from the mine. 

Mr. Cox, in reply, said that the colonial mines were generally extravagantly worked, 
and that although, in Cornwall, ore yielding as little as 3 to 4 per cent. of copper could 
be worked, the miners there were content to make £3 per month, with the chance of a 
good month’s pay now and then, in consequence of rich deposits being found, all the 
mining there being let to tributers; but that at D’Urville Island the miners were getting 
as much as £3 a week. Also, the ore in Cornwall is in well-defined lodes, whereas here 
it is in irregular deposits, and, as he had pointed out in his paper, it would be necessary 
to follow the ore very carefully, and ensure a considerable output before sinking capital 
in tramways to get the ore away, or smelting works to reduce it. 

3. “On Additions to the Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand,” by T. 
W. Kirk. (Transactions p. 392.) 

Dr. Hector pointed out the value of such papers, and hoped the society would have 
many others from the author of equal interest. 

- * On the Cause of the Movements of Camphor when placed upon 
the Surface of Water," by W. Skey. (Transactions, p. 473.) 

This paper was illustrated by experiments to show that the true cause for this 
movement is not that hitherto stated, but is due to the solution of the camphor and the 
formation of a hydrated oil, which is rapidly absorbed. The motion is due to the 
tendency of the particles of camphor to slide off the elevated surface of the pellicle of oil 
that forms on the surface of the water. It was shown that small fragments of cork or 
other light substance moistened with oil, either a fixed oil or an essential oil, or a drop 
of bisulphide of carbon, exhibit the same phenomena, and that it is therefore not due to 
the property which camphor possesses of giving off vapour in the solid state. The 
experiments exhibited by Dr. Hector to demonstrate this view were extremely interesting 
and beautiful. 

Mr. Travers stated that he remembered to have observed the same phenomena when 
a drop of iodized collodion was accidentally dropped on the surface of water. 

Dr. Hector said that Mr. Skey wished him to state with reference to his discovery 
mentioned at last meeting, that hydro-carbons exist in many fats and oils not hitherto 
supposed to contain them, and that they can be transformed into alkaloids by the aniline 
process ; that in pursuing his investigation he had obtained an alkaloid from butter, 
thus ae the general statement that both animal and vegetable fats contain = 

0-carbons 


Firts Mezerrine. "UB Da aai 1878. 
A. K. Newman, M.B., Vice-president, in the chair. 
New Members.—Dominick Browne, Rev. Philip Walsh, of Waitara. 
1. “Memorandum of the Kea,” by the Hon. Dr. Menzies, MLO. 
(Transactions, p. 376.) 


528 Proceedings. 


Mr. Travers said that the first report of this proclivity in the Keá was from the head 
of Lake Wanaka, but it was discredited. He had been aware of the fact himself, and 
it was now beyond a doubt. The kaka also fed on flesh, but never attacked the living 
animal. 

Dr. Newman remarked that it was strange that these birds should prey upon such large 
animals, when it was considered that before the introduction of sheep they had not pro- 
gu seen anything larger than a rat. 


** On Pituri, a new Vegetable Product that deserves further Investi- 
Du " by S. M. Curl, M.D. (Transactions, p. 411.) 

Dr. Newman said that very little was known as to the real merit of this plant. Ii 
was no doubt, to a certain extent, à stimulant, but he thought a great deal was due to 
imagination. He could not agree with many of the author's statements as to the power 
of this product, especially in critical cases of disease. 

Mr. Kirk explained that Dr. Curl only suggested that the plant might prove useful in 
critical cases, not that it had done so. If what the author said was correct, it would be 
a most valuable drug to travellers and explorers in New Zealand. 

` Mr. Field would like to have the Chairman's opinion as to whether the experiments 
on animals referred to could be attributed to imagination. 

Dr. Newman said that no doubt the plant had an effect on animals, as it was an 
unusual food for them. It was only in the case of experiments on human beings that 
at all reliable results had been obtained, and these latter were to him unsatisfactory. 


8. “Some Remarks on Dr. Curl’s “Notes on Grasses and Fodder " 


Plants, suitable for Introduction to New Zealand,'" by Henry Blundell. 
ABSTRACT. 

The author paid a high compliment to Dr. Curl for his work. He 
thought that though rye and clover were often selected as the best known 
grasses for the cultivator, the pasture grown from them is mixed with other 
grasses, owing to the difficulty of getting pure seed. Several grasses thus 
get root in the ground, and in course of time the pasture, though nominally 
of one or two varieties, is actually composed of many. The author thinks a 
variety of food for cattle is most beneficial, if not essential, and says the 
effect of their food is especially noticeable in dairy produce. In this country 
Phormium has a great influence in the flavour of milk, and is largely chewed 
by cattle, especially the lower end of the leaf. The author has known acres 
of swamp land to be cleared of Phormium by cattle tearing off the leaves. 
He says “there is one exotic plant which I think is deserving of more 
than the passing notice it receives at Dr. Curl’s hands in his paper 
published in Vol. IX. of the Transactions. I allude to the burnet, 
which grows luxuriantly in swampy soil, and thrives well in soil of 
a much drier description. Some of it was sown at the rear of the 
homestead, on a run where it throve wonderfully, but never spread, 
for the simple reason that the sheep never gave it the chance, for though 
naturally wild and timid they would brave a good deal to get a taste of the 


DOE eh EAE ee REY RON Se a, Sy aie Re aS Oe ee RED E 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 529 


burnet. Having grown some in a garden, I was anxious to introduce it 
among the native grasses in a low-lying paddock, which had never been 
ploughed, and was never likely to be, on account of the floods which peri- 
odically submerged it, and with that object I transplanted a few roots to 
different spots, and also sowed some of the seed in small patches, which 
were carefully marked. The roots struck readily, and the seed soon sprang 
up, and I congratulated myself on the success attending the experiment ; 
but I failed of my object in substituting burnet for inferior plants through 
the sheep feeding it down close to the ground so that it could not seed. 
The author concludes with a suggestion to the Society to publish a pamph- 
let on such exotic grasses as have been proved suitable for specified soils 
and climates. 

Mr. Travers remarked that Mr. Blundell could get a great deal of the information he 
mentioned as to grasses, etc., from the catalogues published in England. What we 
wanted here was the feeding value of grasses and character of soil. As to the disap- 
pearance of flax, he considered that the opening up of the swamps where it grows, by 
cattle, and the introduction of other plants, did more to make it disappear than merely 
the cattle eating it. It was, no doubt, eaten for the pleasant bitter it contained 

Mr. Kirk remarked that some confusion existed with regard to the burnet; there are 
two plants well known to agriculturists under the names of the greater and the lesser 
burnet respectively. The former flourishes best in cool and rather moist soils, the latter 
in those of a dry character; and he had observed the latter in a naturalized condition 
near Castle-rock and in other parts of the colony. Both plants are of great value. He 
considered the consolidation of the surface of swampy ground by cattle, and the conse- 
quent establishment of exotic weeds, to be more destructive to Phormium and other 
swamp plants than the direct injury caused by cattle in feeding, etc. He regretted that 
he could not agree with the author in his estimate of the value of Dr. Curl's writings. 
His statements were for the most part wanting in the necessary data for testing their 
value. He trusted Dr. Curl would furnish the results of the analysis to which he referred, 
with particulars as to the nature of soil in which the grasses were growing, course of 
culture, and quantity of food furnished by each, in precise terms, at some future time. 

ewman agreed with Mr. Kirk that the information contained in Dr. Curl’s 
papers on these subjects was scarcely full or complete enough to be of much practical 
value. 

Mr. Blundell, in reply, said he did not think it necessary for him to defend Dr. Curl 
He still thought he was right in what he said about the disappearance of the Phormium. 

4. “Notes on the Botany of Waiheke, Rangitoto, and other Islands in 
the Hauraki Gulf," by T. Kirk, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 444.) 

Mr. Travers said that it would be impossible not to remark the peculiar vegetation of 
Rangitoto as described by Mr, Kirk. The cause of the luxuriance of growth is no doubt 
due to the moisture of the climate. 

Mr. drew attention to a paper by Professor Houghton, of Dublin, on 
“ Physical Geology," lately published in Nature, which bore out certain remarks made in 
a paper on the same subject written by him (Mr. Travers) last year, and eh) in 
Vol. X. of the Transactions. ' 


el 


530 Proceedings. 


Sixrg Meeting. — 9th November, 1878. 
John Carruthers, M. Inst. C.E., Vice-president, in the Chair. 

Dr. W. L. Buller, C.M.G., was chosen to vote in the election of the Board of 
Governors for the ensuing year, in accordance with clause 7 of “ The New Zealand Insti- 
tute Act." 

The nomination for the election of honorary members of the New Zealand Institute 
was made in accordance with statute IV. 

1. “An Account of Improvements on Miramar Peninsula," by J. C. 
Crawford, F.G.S. 
ABSTRACT, 

The author stated that in 1840 the Peninsula was covered by a thick 
vegetation of fern, flax, toitoi, and shrubs, a few patches of bush being still 
on the ground. Burnham Water was then asheet of water about 200 acres 
in extent. 

In 1846 he decided to drain Burnham Water, and in 1847 accepted a 
tender to drive a tunnel through the ridge between Evans Bay and the 
Lagoon, since any drain made towards Lyall Bay would have been liable to 
be choked by blown sands during southerly weather. When the tunnel was 
completed drains were cut through the swamp. 

The land when drained was very sour at first, and the sandy parts 
required time to gather vegetation before further operations could be carried 
on to advantage; but as the drainage proceeded, grass-seed was sown, and 
a good sward has now been obtained in most places. He estimates the cost 
of drainage, from first to last, at £3,000. 

With regard to fixing the sands, the author states that he sowed seeds of 
Ammophila arundinacea and Elymus arenarius, and for several years believed 
the experiment to have been a failure; he, however, eventually found a 
few plants of Ammophila, and by continual planting succeeded in fixing a 
good deal of the sand. He states that the Elymus which he sowed was a 
failure, but that some plants subsequently procured were in some respects 
superior to the Ammophila for fixing blown sands. 

Mr. Martin Chapman said that no doubt the drainage would in time be of great use, 
but at present he had noticed that in dry weather there was a thick deposit of salt on the 
land 


: The Chairman remarked that several drainage schemes of a similar kind had been 
undertaken in New Zealand, but few had succeeded. He only hoped Mr. Crawford would 
be more fortunate. : 

Mr. Kirk considered that the information given regarding the fixing of the sand would 
be most useful. Mr. Crawford had paid partieular attention to the planting with a view 
to its spreading. If he could now sow wheat or some other plant between the grass a 

thick sward would in time form. He thought the salt deposit mentioned only occurred in 
that portion where the lake had been. He was of opinion that the work performed would 
be highly remunerative. 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 531 


2. “Further Contributions to the Ornithology of New Zealand,” by 
Walter L. Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D. (Transactions, p. 366.) 

Dr. Newman said he would like to be informed whether the New Zealaud harrier was 
in the habit of catching fish. Dr. Buller had referred to its repugnance to water; but he 
wished to state that in Hawke Bay District he had frequently found this hawk devouring 
large eels in the neighbourhood of the swamps. Others had observed the same, and it 
was evident that this bird, which was constantly hovering about the swamp vegetation, 
was in the habit of catching eels, As to the kingfisher, he was surprised to hear that 
Captain Hutton had ever contended that this bird did not feed on fish. Everyone who 
had observed its habits would agree that it was most active in pursuit of small fish. 

Mr. Martin Chapman said that in regard to the kakas which perished in their 
passage across the Strait, he believed it would be found that it was the lean-conditioned 
bird, and not the fat one, that succumbed. He instanced the case of wild turkeys in 
America. They were known sometimes to cross rivers on the wing, and on these occa- 
sions the thin emaciated birds often fell into the water and were drowned. As to the 
piscivorous habits of our kingfisher mentioned by Dr. Buller, he could aver from personal 
observation that the New Zealand bird was an undoubted fish-hunter. He had actually 
seen one, after dropping a fish that it had captured, return and pick it up again. 

Dr. Buller, in reply, stated that the harrier, like many other birds, is very averse to 
wetting its plumage, and never hunts in the water. But, being a carrion-feeder, it may 
constantly be seen hovering over the sea-beach, and devouring the dead bodies of cast up 
fish, ete. Eels are known to travel considerable distances overland in search of new 
ponds, and during such migrations would, of course, be exposed to the attacks of the 
hawk. He thought that the circumstance mentioned by Dr. Newman might be accounted 
for in that manner, for the helpless eels on dry ground would be very apt to fall a prey to 
this ever-vigilant hawk. As to the kakas cast ashore in Golden Bay, he could state on 
the authority of his informant that in every case the birds picked up were excessively fat, 
and it was a well-known fact that at certain seasons of the year the kakas became so 
incommoded with fat as to be scarcely capable of flight. A correspondent informed him 
that on one of these occasions he actually caught with his hands in the course of a single 
day eight of these over-fed kakas, as they were positively unable to fly at all. 

Dr. Newman said that his experience of eels was that they only travelled when their 
pools became dry, and in the district to which he referred the lagoons were always full of 
water. He thought one of the most interesting facts in New Zealand ornithology, brought 
out in Dr. Buller’s papers, was the frequent recurrence of albinoes. Almost every species 
showed a tendency in some degree to albinism, and this was certainly a very remarkable 
and inexplicable thing. 

8. “On Osomose as the Cause of the persistent Suspension of Clay in 
Water,” by W. Skey, Analyst to the Geological Survey Department. 
Comm p. 485.) 

4. “ On the Nature and Cause of Tomlinson' s Cohesion Figures," by 

b P ae: (Transactions, p. 490.) 
* On some New Zealand Aphrodite, with Descriptions of supposed 
new pode by T. W. Kirk, Assistant in the Colonial Museum. ro 


actions, p. 897.) 

Ms Fit wit to know wher s ond clou utaoa vus per 
after death; and th »xhibited o i Le prove 
het 4k hd d NA uh edad CT Tio 


BUBU they ained to a great extent, 


532 Proceedings. 


Dr. Buller said that it was gratifying to find one of the members taking up this 
branch of zoology, and he hoped the author would continue his useful work. 


6. ** Notes and Suggestions on the Utilization of certain neglected New 
Zealand Timbers,” by T. Kirk, F.L.5. (Transactions, p. 458.) 

Mr. Field was glad that attention had been drawn to this subject. He had been 
assured by a French gentleman now preparing a work on the subject, that a ready market 
could be found for these ornamental timbers in Paris. 

Mr. J. T. Thomson considered that great difficulty would be experienced in preserving 
our timbers. The settlers do not care about moving in the matter, and if done at all it 
must be done by Government. It would, he thought, be difficult to utilize these timbers 
to the extent pointed out. He did not think the destruction to our forests was so great 
as was supposed; the blue gum would in a great measure replace them 

Dr. Buller gathered from the paper that what the author particularly wished to 
advocate was the establishment of a trade in ornamental timbers between New Zealand 
and Europe; and from his experience he thought there would be no difficulty whatever 
in carrying this out. The conservation of the forests would follow as a matter of course 

Mr. Knorpp stated that he had been enabled to bring these timbers prominently 
before the continental people, as he had exhibited a piece of work at the Paris Exhibition, 
made by Mr. Seuffert, of Auckland, and he understood that it had been so much admired 
that it had been awarded a medal. He had a considerable quantity of rewarewa and 
totara knots now in Wellington, which he would gladly give up to anyone who woul 

ertake to send them either to Paris or London as an experiment, and he would assist 
them in any way he could in opening up a trade in this direction 

R. E. Brown asked if the white pine cut fresh here, and sent away, would 
still be subject to the destructive insect ; and the author explained that he was of opinion 
that the insect only attacked white pine that was cut out of season. Mr. Kirk further 
stated in reply that he did not think any amount of planting we could do should prevent 
us from conserving our forests. 


There were no forests of blue gum that he knew of to 
make up for the destruction. 


No opposition on the part of settlers should prevent the 
forests being protected. It must be done sooner or later, and the sooner the better for 
all concerned. 

The aE admitted that the destruction was great, but agreed with Mr. 
Thom the difficulty of stopping it. An able report had been made on 
the sack by aroi Campbell-Walker, but nothing had come of it. If it were looked 
at as the property of the whole colony, then something might be done. He did not think 
dry rot could be stopped, unless the timber were floated; he found that answer in 
None of the plans for preserving timber mentioned would, he thought, be Peseres 
except the applieation of creosote, and that was too expensive. The beauty of New 
Zealand timber had been exaggerated. None P it could compare with mahogany, walnut, 
and several others. He did not think so much of the kauri as others did. The high rate 
of interest is against the establishment of a timber trade, as proposed, between this and 
other countries. 

e Chairman drew attention to casts of 2 Maori idol, procured from the natives in 
the North by Sir George Grey, which was very interesting owing to its bearing such & 
resemblance to idols found in other islands far from New Zealand. 

Mr. John Kebbell also explained the working of a gas-lamp which he had constructed 
with a view to enabling one uniform temperature to be kept up in any room. 

The lamp in question had been prepared for the clockroom at the Observatory. = 

ee 


crt araa 


am ner 


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Wellington Philosophical Society. 583 


Sevento Meerine. 80th November, 1879. 
J. Carruthers, M. Inst. C.E., Vice-president, in the chair. 


1. “On the Cleansing of Towns," by J. Turnbull Thomson, O.E., 
F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A., Surveyor-General of New Zealand. (Transactions, 
p. 38.) 

Mr. Field thought that credit was due to Mr. Thomson for bringing before the New 
Zealand public in a concise and handy form the opinions of Sir John Bazalgette and 
other eminent English engineers. He regretted, however, that the Surveyor-General had 
not made any allusion to the sewage farm and irrigation works of Bedford, a town 
which in point of size as well as in many other particulars closely resembled the 
City of Wellington. As was well known, Mr. Climie had, in his report, recommended 
that the sewage of the whole city should be ciegos on the low land at the south-west 
corner of Evans Bay. Mr. Clark also had, in general terms, agreed in this opinion. But 
various objections were raised, and hitherto nothing had been done. He remembered, 
when he was last in Bedford, in the autumn of 1876, carefully going over the sewage 
farm, and being much pleased with the excellent system of drainage in that town. 
Previous to the year 1868 the beautiful river Ouse had been poisoned by imperfect drains ; 
but for the last eight or nine years a complete system of water, sewerage, and irrigation 
works had been in existence, with highly satisfactory results. Through the centre of the 
town ran one main sewer, receiving in its course the discharge of the lateral drains, and 
emptying the whole into a tank 17 feet deép, from which it was pumped up and distributed 
by pipes over the irrigation farm. This farm of 180 acres was rented by the Corporation 
at the high rate of £1,000 (about) per annum, but this charge was more than repaid by 
the produce, which, on the lowest average, would sell at more than £1,500, in addition 
io which some grass land was sublet for £200, thus bringing the total annual receipts to 
£1,700 odd. Italian rye grass and roots of various descriptions formed the principal 
crops, and grew with a remarkable luxuriance. As to what had been said with regard to 
the stench arising from sewage farms, he could from personal observation assert that Mr. 
Thomson was entirely mistaken, and that, except in very rare instances, no offensive 
odour could at any time be detected l 

Mr. O’Neill considered the paper a very valuable one, but hoped there would be an 
opportunity afforded of renewing the discussion ; the subject was a very wide one, and 
he was not prepared to enter upon it on the present occasion. 

Dr. Newman said that very little real progress had been made in the last ten years 
in our sanitary knowledge. A great deal was talked and written about the subject, but 
no fresh light had been thrown on the matter for some years past. He thought the 
subject was talked threadbare. All our experience had taught us was that there were 
only two systems—the wet and the dry. In the Sahara and similar districts the wet 
system was impossible, but where, as in Wellington, there was abundance of water and 
good outlet, there was no question but that the only way was to cast it into the sea. A 
sewage farm had never yet been made to pay. It was a great error to suppose that 
sewage was very profitable; it was really almost valueless, and the products of precipi- 
tation not worth the cost of carting. Food, such as bread and meat, ete., if buried, might 


sewage was almost worthless. One modern improvement was the use of ement pipe 
instead of earthenware pipes. 


534 Proceedings. 


Mr. J. P. Maxwell asked if the cost of the sewage farm at Croydon, which was stated 
to be about £1,000 per annum, included interest on the outlay incurred in carrying out the 
drainage of the town? He thought it did not, but that it was in addition to interest. 
It was important to make this doubtful point clear. The table attached to the paper 
gave the cost of irrigation at Banbury, a town of 12,000 inhabitants, at about £150 
per annum. This of course could not include interest. 

The Hon, Mr. Waterhouse thought Mr. Thomson’s paper of great value. In spite of 
Dr. Newman's P seas he believed the time was not far distant when people would look 
back with surprise at the present extravagant and wasteful system of dealing with 
sewage. He thought the chief objection to sewage farms was the small scale on which 
they were managed. Not being large enough, they very soon became “ manure sick," and 
consequently proved a failure. 

The Chairman said he thought it could not be said there were two systems of sewage, 
the wet andthedry. There is a certain quantity of water brought into a town clean, and 
nearly the same quantity goes away foul; it is necessary to have a system of sewers to 
carry it. As the water-closet ejecta only constitute one per cent. of the nastiness of 
sewage, there is no advantage in having a separate dry system for the sake of it, and if 
there is one it does not lessen the need of having a wet system too. All the dry systems are 
objectionable on account of smells, and should be as much as possible avoided. The 
value of sewage for agricultural purposes was nearly nil, and none of the chemical pro- 
cesses, and not even the irrigation process, d get what there was out of it. The 
effluent water was quite as valuable as the s He therefore recommended when 
possible to throw sewage into the sea. As regards the sewage of Wellington, he thougbt it 
would be waste of money to incur cad expense in taking it to the sea, as it would not 
create a sensible nuisance in the harbou 

Mr. J. Thomson, in reply, gels that the subject could not be done with, but 
would call for continuous attention. With regard to excreta as a manure he could bring 
forward 17 years' experience in support of its value, as he had seen it used and applied by 
the Chinese in Eastern Asia. He could not agree that no improvement had taken place 
during these-last ten years in sanitary science, the better condition of cities being the 
proof to the contrary. He had indicated where the separate systems were applicable, 
and held a different estimate of the value of the labours of the Glasgow deputa- 
tion to what one of the speakers did. Even that gentleman had supported their deduc- 
lions in reference to the utilization of sewage. The evidence was that the poorer classes 
of Europe could not be brought to use the water system; it conld therefore not be 
universal. At Crossness he found the water of the Thames very filthy. He agreed with 
Mr. Carruthers in his report as to the outfalls for Wellington, viz., that they should be at 
points in the harbour not over one mile from the outskirts. But in his paper he purposely 
avoided bringing in local topics, as tending to deteriorate from an unbiassed position. 


Eigara Meetme. 11th January, 1879. 
A. K. Newman, M.B., Vice-president, in the chair. 
New Members.—J. Brown, W. France, G. J. Binns, George Ashcroft. 
1. “ List of Plants collected in the District of Okarita, Westland,” by 
A. Hamilton. (Transactions, p. 485.) 


2. “Notes on Mr. Hamilton’s Collection of Okarita Plants," by T, Kirk, 


= 2 F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 489.) 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 535 


3. “Note on a curious Duplication of Tusks in the common wild Pig 
(Sus scrofa)," by A. Hamilton. 

My attention was drawn the other day to a curious jaw, with double 
tusks, of a pig that had been killed at the Waipapa Creek, near Mohaka. 
As will be seen by the accompanying sketch the development has not been 
symmetrieal, the two tusks on the left side being of normal shape, and 
measuring from tip to insertion, three inches, and total length seven and 
three-quarter inches. 

On the right side the lower tusk is only two inches from point to 
insertion, but the basal portion has been displaced and turned inwards by a 
most peculiarly shaped tusk, which turns inwards and upwards till the 
point is as far as the central line of jaw. The end has been worn down to 
the shape of a finger nail by the roof of the mouth, and, judging by the 
rounded surface of the incision, the animal must have been unable to close 
its mouth properly. 

Unfortunately the upper jaw was not preserved; it must have been 
curious, as the lower molars are very irregular and worn entirely on the 
inner side. 

There is a small supplementary tooth under the second incisor on the 
right side. 

Dr. Newman thought more notice should be taken of such monstrosities. Evolution 
taught us that such monstrosities were nearly all reversions to some old type, showed the 
ancestry of the animal, e.g., children who breathed through their necks, branchial elefts, 

like Ane amphibious ancestors. Everyone at a certain time of life had two sets of 
teeth in his or her jaw, and one specimen in the Hunterian museum had three sets. 
p odd, useless structure had never been explained, viz., the corn on the inside of a 
horse's forelegs 

Mr. T. Kirk pointed out that the monstrosity described by Mr. Hamilton was an 
instance of duplication combined with distortion, and could hardly be explained by the 
supposition that it was an instance of reversion to a remote ancestral type—a theory 
which was now being pushed to extreme lengths. 

4. “On the Export of Fungus from New Zealand," by T. Kirk, F.L.S. 
(Transactions, p. 454.) 

. “Description of a new Species of Lycopodium,” by T. Kirk, F.L.8. 
(Transactions, p. 456.) 

6. “ Description of a new Species of Hymenophyllum,” by T. Kirk, F.L.S. 
(Transactions, p. 457.) 

Specimens illustrating these papers were exhibited. 

7. * Note on Mr. Howard Saunders’ Review of the Larine or G 
by W. L. Buller, C.M.G. (Transactions, p. 859.) 

8. * Notes on a new Species of Pomaderris po tainui)," by Dr. Hector. 
(Transactions, p. 428.) 


536 Proceedings. 


Mr. Kirk spoke of the discovery as being of great interest, but was inclined to believe 

- plant would prove identical with an Australian species, notwithstanding its larger 

size. In other parts of New Zealand the natives had traditions that certain trees were 
the paddles or canoe poles which had been fixed in the ground on landing, and had 
taken root; and as the genus Pomaderris was restricted to Australia and New Zealand, 
he feared that we could not expect to find the plant discovered by Dr. Hector in other 
countries. 

Mr. Buchanan thought that if the plant was a new species we were as much in the 
dark as ever, and that if it proved to be identical with the Australian species, it would 
upset many pet theories with respect to the “ Whence of the Maori.” 

9. ** Notes on some New Zealand Crustaceans,” by T. W. Kirk, Assistant 
in the Colonial Museum. (Transactions, p. 401.) 

10. “ Description of a new Species of Celmisia,” by J. Buchanan, F.L.S. 
(Transactions, p. 427.) 

11. **On the Fossil Flora of New Zealand," by Dr. Hector, Director of 
the Geological Survey. 

ABSTRACT. 

This paper gave a prodromus of a work on the fossil flora of New Zea- 
land, containing descriptions and figures of about a hundred species. The 
earliest traces of plants found in the New Zealand rocks are in the upper 
Silurian formation, but these and also the plant remains found in the 
Devonian and lower Carboniferous strata are very obscure, and no structural 
features have yet been identified. 

The earliest recognized forms are Glossopteris and Schizoneura, which 
occur about the middle of the Kaihiku formation, overlying marine fossils 
that have a mixed Carboniferous and Permian facies. 

In the Wairoa formation of Triassic age, fragmentary plant remains are 
abundant. Dammara occurs, the wood having been identified from its 
peculiar structure by Prof. Unger*; also, fronds that are referred to—Zamites 
and Neuropteris. 

The next horizon with plants is in the Flag Hill series, which is the 
lower of the three divisions of the Jurassic, and the following forms indicate 
an extension of the Indian flora of the same period far into southern 
latitudes. Macrotenopteris lata, Paleozamia mataurienis, Oleandridum vittatum, 
var., Alethopteris (two species), Pecopteris (three species), Neuropteris stricta, 
Camptopteris nove-zealandia, Cycadites, and Echinostrobus. A closely-allied 
flora to this re-appears in the Mataura series, which is the upper member 
of the Jurassic formation. 

The Neocomian strata (or Amuri series) which are so rich in the remains 
of fossil reptilia, are interesting from their affording the earliest specimens 
of a true Dicotyledonous leaf, associated with the foliage of Dammara and 


Araucaria. 


* Hochstetter’s New Zealand, p 57. 


BA ron Laici 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 587 


In the Cretaceous formation occur the great coal deposits in New Zea- 
land. The associated flora, which is very rich in forms, has a large 
preponderance of Dicotyledonous plants some of which have been referred to 
generic representatives of the existing flora of this country, forty different 
species being distinguished. 

The upper Cretaceous and Eocene formations (Cretaceo-tertiary) are 
blended and continuous in sequence and altogether of marine origin ; but in 
some distriets the sections are incomplete in their lower sub-divisions, and 
the eoal series, if present, is overlaid immediately by one of the upper 
sub-divisions, indicating a probable continuity of land surface in some parts 
of the area throughout the entire period. 

In the Miocene there is again evidence of wide-spread land surfaces in 
the South Island, at the base of the great gravel deposits that represent all 
the subsequent formations in that area; but in the North Island the 
Miocene and lower Pliocene formations are marine, the upper Pliocene 
being a lignitiferous series, associated with pumice sands. The flora of the 
tertiary period is badly preserved, and the collections are scanty ; but as far 
as yet studied, it bears a very close affinity to the recent flora of the 
country. 

12. “ On the Fossil Brachiopoda of New Zealand," by Dr. Hector. 

ABSTRACT. 

The lower, secondary, and upper Paleozoic formations of New Zealand, 
afford a remarkable abundance of Brachiopoda belonging to the family 
Spiriferide, and the examination of them has led to the discovery of several. 
forms, possessing characters hitherto undescribed, and has, besides, proved 
that several well-known genera have a much greater vertical range than has 
hitherto been assigned to them. 

Thus the peculiar sub-genus of Terebratula represented by the typical 
Epithyris elongata, which has previously been recorded only from Permian 
and Carboniferous strata, is abundant in the Liassic (Bastion) series, and 
extends downwards to the upper Silurian formation. 

In dealing with those Spiriferide distinguished by the possession of a 
punctate shell structure and a strong mesial septum in the ventral valve, it 
has been found convenient to restrict the genus Spiriferina to the middle 
secondary forms, having rounded cardinal angles, and a moderately extended 
hinge-line as in Spiriferina walcoti, and S. rostratus, while Professor Kónig's 
name of T'rigonotreta has been revived for the Permian species, in which 
the hinge-line is greatly produced, and forms acute processes, as the New 
Zealand forms clearly support the generic distinctions relied on in Professor 
King's monograph on the Permian Fossils of England. Thus, while the — 
general form is that of Spirifera, the shell shows a distinctly punctato ——— 

ABB uds 


538 Proceedings. 


structure, and the internal casts show that a strong septum divided the 
prominent ventral beak into two cavities. 

A third form related to Spiriferina in having a punctate shell-structure, 
differs so essentially as to require separation as a genus, to which the 


name Rastelligera has been applied, from the peculiar character of the. 


hinge-line, which is enormously long in proportion to the height of 
the shell, and along the hinge-margin both valves are minutely denti- 
culate, with rake-like teeth that appeared to interlock. The proper 
dental processes are only feebly developed, if not altogether absent, 
. and both valves are nearly equally convex. The genus Rastelligera, of 
which there are several species, is limited to the Wairoa series (Triassic), 
and the Otapiri series (Rhetic). 

The next form, which is like Spiriferina in general outline, although 
in different species it varies greatly in the extension of the hinge-line, 
has a marked peculiarity in the arrangement of the dental plates, 
which spring from the sides of the mesial septum, so that a horizontal 
section of the beak, or the fissures seen in the natural internal cast, show 
the interior processes to have been arranged like the Greek character V, 
from which the name Psioidea has been given to the genus. Some of 
the species are remarkable for the great development of a concave triangular 
area, overhung by a strongly projecting dorsal umbo. This genus has been 
discovered in the Silurian formation, and finally disappears in the upper 
part of the Rhetic beds. 

Besides the above, which are all allied to Spiriferina, true forms of 
Athyris (Spirigera) are not uncommon from the Triassic formation down- 
wards; but in the same formation, and in the overlying Rhetic (Otapiri) 
series, Athyris is only represented by an allied genus, having also a 
lamenellate shell-structure, but possessing characters that have required 
its separation under the generic name of Clavigera. 

This form agrees with Athyris in having the ventral beak foraminate 
and in the apices of the spire-cones being central and directed to the 
middle of the lateral margins, and not to the cardinal angles as in 
Spirifera. But it differs in the possession of a distinct area and fissure 
under the beak, and a long, straight hinge-line, in which respect it 
resembles the Spirifera. Its most obvious peculiarity is that both valves 
are almost equally convex, and that both are suleate in the median line, 
and that both a foramen and a fissure are present in the ventral valve, which 
is a most exceptional character among Spiriferide. The name has been 
given on account of the strong stud-shaped cardinal boss, which in the 
cast gives rise to a singular hood-like process, owing to the matrix that 
lodged between the interior surface of the dental-plates and the boss having 
been preserved after the shell has weathered out. 


NS see ee 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 539 


The genus Spirifera proper is met with in the lower Carboniferous 
(Maitai) series and downwards, but its description does not fall within the 
scope of this paper. 

These two papers will appear in full in the reports of the Geological Survey Depart- 
ment, now in the press. 

13. ‘Catalogue of the hitherto-described Worms of New Zealand,” by 
Professor F. W. Hutton, C.M.Z.S. (Transactions, p. 814.) 


ANNUAL GENERAL MzxrIiNG. 1st March, 1879. 
T. Kirk, F.L.S., President, in the chair. 

Minutes of last Annual General Meeting read and confirmed. 

New Members.—D. M. Luckie, G. Beetham, M.H.R., W. Kemp, M.R.C.8., 
W. H. Triggs, 

ABSTRACT REPORT OF COUNCIL. 

During the year nine general meetings were held, at which 43 papers were read. 

Two conversaziones were held, at each of which about 400 visitors were present, and: 
the Council acknowledge the assistance of many gentlemen who lent objects of interest, 
and especially the Governors and Manager of the New Zealand Institute for lending the 
colonial museum. 

The total number of members is 252, of whom 31 were elected during the year. 

Eighty volumes have been added to the library. 

It is with regret that the Council record the death of Mr. W. Lyon, F.G.S., and Mr. 
John Kebbell, both very old and valued members of the society. The late Mr. Lyon 
contributed largely to the library by donations, and until lately took an active part in the 
work of the society. The late Mr. J. Kebbell has been a frequent exhibitor of ingenious 
adaptations of scientific apparatus, and during the past year brought before the members 
several modifications of the telephone and microphone, and an excellent arrangement for 
T regulating the temperature of vapour pictae 8. 

The statement of accounts showed tl pts of the year were £314 7s. 2d., 
and that there is a balance in hand d £103 5s. 9d., while a sum of £35 17s. 6d. (being one- 
sixth of the nett income) has been handed to the New Zealand Institute in compliance 
with the statute. 

ErzcrroN or Orricers ror 1879.— President—A. K. Newman, M.B., 
M.R.C.P.; Vice-presidents—Dr. Hector, Martin Chapman; Council—W. L. 
Buller, C.M. G., Sc.D., etc., C. R. Marten, F. W. Frankland, S. H. Cox, 
F.C.S., F.G.S., Hon. G. Randall Johnson, W. T. L. Travers, F.G.S., 
T. Kirk, F.L.S.; Auditor—Arthur Baker; Secretary and Treasurer—R. B. 
Gore. 

The retiring President then delivered the following Anniversary 

ADDRESS. 

It is expected that your President, on the expiry of his term of office, 
shall lay before you some account of the scientific work effected by the 
members of the society during the past year. Unhappily, circumstances, 
over which Ihad no control, prevented my attendance at several maling, 


540 Proceedings. 


so that I am not in a position even to form an opinion on several papers. 
Moreover, amongst the titles of those papers, simply taken as read, are one 
or two which doubtless belong to the most valuable portion of the year's 
work. I refer more particularly to those on Fossil Brachiopoda, and on 
the Fossil Botany of New Zealand, by the Director of the Geologieal Survey 
Department ; for these and other reasons Ishall request your permission to 
depart from the usual course, and to occupy a portion of the evening with a 
few remarks on a single subject—the connection between the Floras of 
New Zealand and Australia. 
On the Relationship between the Floras of New Zealand and Australia. 
The vast difference between the area of these two countries necessarily 
involves a great disproportion between the number of species in their 
respective floras, so that no great amount of surprise is experienced on 
finding the attention at first arrested by the series of strong contrasts which 
they present rather than by prominent proofs of affinity. Nearly three- 
fourths of the Australian forest consists of Eucalypti, of which there are 
fully 140 species, comprising the loftiest trees in the world, but the genus 
is not even represented in New Zealand. Again, 600 species of Proteaceous 
plants, Banksia, Grevillea, Hakea, Isopogon, Persoonia etc., impart a pecu- 
liar character to the scenery of many Australian districts, but only two 
species of the order are known in New Zealand. Australia possesses nearly 
1,000 species of Leguminosse, which contribute largely to the physiognomical 
character of its landscapes, or add to its floral beauty. New Zealand has 
only some thirteen species, none of which are important. On the other 
hand, the characteristic genera of the New Zealand flora are either absent 
or but sparingly represented in Australia, so that they do not form pro- 
minent features in its flora. The extensive forests of Nesodaphne, Fagus, 
and Podocarpus, so characteristic of this colony, are rarely met with in 
Australia, and none of the species are identical. Coprosma, which forms so 
large a portion of the undergrowth throughout the colony, and comprises 
some twenty-five species, is but sparingly represented in Australia, where 
the genus is limited to five species, its place there being partly occupied by 
Opercularia, Dacrydium, which is more highly developed in New Zealand 
than in any other country, and ranges from the sea-level to the extreme 
limit of ligneous vegetation, is restricted to a single species in Australia, the 
famous Huon pine of Tasmania. Celmisia, a remarkable genus of Asters 


comprising some thirty species, distributed from the North Cape to the 


Bluff, and ascending from the sea-level to the highest limits of vegetable 
growth, is represented in Australia by a single species common to both 
countries, Metrosideros, which, in one form or other, is an important factor 
in all forest vegetation, is limited to a single species of no great importance 
in Australia, 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 541 


This contrast might be carried much further, but my object is to show 
the relationship between the two floras rather than their dissimilarity. Before 
proceeding with this subject, however, it will be convenient to state two 
facts which it is desirable to keep in mind. The superficial area of New 
Zealand is rather less than 100,000 square miles; that of Australia, in- 
cluding Tasmania, is upwards of 3,000,000 square miles. No part of New 
Zealand extends north of the thirty-fourth parallel of latitude, while fully 
two-fifths of Australia are within the tropic of Capricorn. Further, it 
cannot be doubted that a much larger proportion of new species remains to 
be added to the flora of Australia than to that of New Zealand, and it is 
chiefly among the species yet to be discovered in this colony that we must 
expect to find further indications of an ancient connection between the two 
floras. 

Both assemblages of plants now under consideration have one broad 
feature in common. The great majority of species in each is endemic, and 
consists of plants that have originated within the geographical limits of 
either New Zealand or Australia, as the case may be; but notwithstanding 
this there is a direct relationship between them. Not only are many plants 
common to both, but others plentiful in one country are represented by 
closely-allied species in the other. 

The number of species known to be common to both countries is—Dico- 
tyledons, 143, belonging to 92 genera; Monocotyledons, 95, belonging to 60 
genera; Filicales, 87, under 80 genera. Of these 120 species are not known 
to occur elsewhere. ; 

If, however, we look at the total number of genera common to both 
countries, we shall see that the relationship is much closer than it appears 
to be from a simple consideration of the number of species common to both. 
Here we find :— 


Dicotyledons. E dons. Filicales. 
169 . 33 


Gen 

Bo that in addition to the 181 genera Red species common to both 
countries, there are 96 genera represented in each country by different 
Species. Leaving the Filicales out of consideration for the present, nearly 
five-sixths of the Phenogamic genera of New Zealand are common to both 
countries. I do not at present draw attention to those genera in one 
eountry which take the place of closely-allied genera in the other, but will 
simply state that all the natural orders represented in the New Zealand flora 
are also represented in Australia, with the exception of Coriariee and 
Chloranthacee. 

It would, however, as was long since pointed out by Sir Joseph Hooker, 
be wrong to infer from this that the flora of this colony is little more than 
an offshoot from that of Australia, since there is no other instance za iach T 


542 Proceedings. 


two contiguous countries exhibit such wide differences between their respec- 
tive floras. Many of the characteristic genera of Australia are represented 
in New Zealand by one, or perhaps two, species common to both countries, 
but not found elsewhere ; but exactly the same phenomenon is exhibited in 
Australia by characteristic New Zealand genera. Amongst the former may 
be named Pomaderris elliptica, Leucopogon richet, Leptospermum scoparium, 
Poranthera microphylla ; amongst the latter Coprosma pumila, Celmisia longi- 
folia, Senecio lautus, Pimelea longifolia. It is evident, therefore, that a 
portion of the Australian flora has been derived directly from this country. 

It will be advisable to indicate the chief points of interest connected 
with the species and genera common to both countries without going into 
detail to any great extent. 

Ranunculaces.—Clematis is common to both countries, but the species of 
each are endemic. In Myosurus, a genus of two species, it is worthy of note 
that the European form is found in Australia ; the American form in New 
Zealand. Ranunculus is represented by twenty-six species in New Zealand 
and eleven in Australia, of which five are common to both countries. Three 
of these are not found elsewhere. Caltha is represented by a single endemic 
species in each country. The larger order Crucifere which is sparingly 
represented in this colony, contains three species common to both countries, 
but of wide distribution, and a fourth not found elsewhere. One of our 
violets extends to Tasmania, and Hymenanthera is represented by a single 
species in each country. Pittosporee, an order of which all the genera, 
except Pittosporum, are restricted to Australia, is represented in New Zea- 
land by sixteen species of Pittosporum, all of which are endemic. Caryophyllee 
comprises three genera and four species common to both countries. In 
Malvacee, Plagianthus is restricted to these countries, but has no species 
common to both. Both countries possess two species of Hibiscus of wide 
distribution. 

In Lines, Linum marginale is the only common species, and does not 
occur elsewhere. Geraniacee has three species of Geranium, one of Pelar- 
gonium and two of Oxalis, common to both countries. In Rutacesm all our 
species are endemic, but belong to Australian genera.  Meliaces is repre- 
sented m both countries by a single endemic species of Dysoxylum, and 
Olacineæ by one of Pennantia. 

In Rhamnes, Pomaderris, a genus restricted to Australia and New 
Zealand, and specially abundant in cool regions of the former, is represented 
here by five species, three of which are common to both countries. Discaria 
has a single species in each country. Of Sapindacem only a single species 
of Dodonea is common to both countries. The genus is more largely 
developed in Australia than elsewhere, but the New Zealand species is the 
most widely distributed of all, 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 543 


Looking at the points of contact bétween the two floras afforded by 
Leguminose alone, the relationship appears but slender. This order, 
which stands second only to Composite amongst flowering plants in the 
number of species it contains, includes more than one-eighth of the 
Phanerogamia of Australia, where it comprises nearly as many species as 
are found in the entire Phanerogamic flora of New Zealand; yet, amongst 
the thousand Australian forms not one is common to both countries, a fact 
which is the more remarkable as the seeds of most plants of this order 
suffer less than others when drifted by marine currents. The seeds of 
Entada scandens are drifted from the shores of Northern Australia to the 
coast of New Zealand, and have been picked up even on the East Coast as 
far south as Tauranga. It is certainly matter for remark that no sea-borne 
seeds of Acacia or other large Australian genera appear to have germinated 
on the New Zealand coasts. 

Three genera of this order, however, are common to both countries, and 
the first two are not found elsewhere. Clianthus, of which a single species 
is endemic in the extreme northern portion of New Zealand, and another in 
Australia, the first being a glabrous undershrub, the second a pilose herb. 
Swainsonia, which is represented here by a single species confined to the 
Southern Alps, and by numerous species in Australia. Sophora has two 
species in Australia and another in this colony, but belonging to a different 
section of the genus. Carmichelia and Notospartium, the only additional 
genera in New Zealand, are endemic, and have no near allies in Australia. 

Both countries are characterized by a great paucity of Rosacem. In 
New Zealand we find four genera and thirteen species; in Australia, seven 
genera and seventeen species; four genera and four species being common 
to both. 

In Saxifragezm, the relationship is generic only. Quintinia and Ackama 
not being found elsewhere, and Weinmannia having a wider distribution. 

Drosera is largely developed in Australia, where it comprises forty-one 
Species, five of which extend to New Zealand, but with the possible excep- 
tion of D. spathulata, are not found in other countries. In Haloragesm, four 
genera and eight species are common to both countries. 

Myrtaces ranks next to Leguminoss, in the extent to which it imparts 
2 peculiar character to the Australian flora, but has only a single species 
common to both countries. Metrosideros, Myrtus, and Eugenia are repre- 
sented by different species in each country. 

Epilobium, a genus developed in New Zealand to a remarkable extent, 
has six species common to both countries, four of which are not known to 
occur elsewhere. 

Of umbelliferous plants, eight genera and six species are common to 
both countries. The trimorphic araliads of New Zealand have nothing to 
represent them in Australia. 


544 Proceedings. 


Coprosma, which forms so large a portion of the shrubby vegetation of 
this colony is but sparingly represented in Australia, two species are 
common to both countries, one of them however only occurring in Lord 
Howe's Island, on the Australian side. A species of Nertera is common to 
both countries. 

Composite, the largest order of Phenogams, is less developed in Australia 
than might be expected; it comprises over five hundred species ; in New 
Zealand it contains one hundred and fifty-five—nineteen genera and twenty 
species only are common to both countries; one-third of these are plants of 
wide distribution, and ten are not found elsewhere. Celmisia, a fine genus 
of mountain asters containing about thirty species, is restricted to New 
Zealand, with the exception of C. longifolia, which extends to the Australian 
mountains. Olearia, another large genus restricted to Australia and New 
Zealand, contains sixty-five species in the former country, and nearly thirty 
in the latter, but no form is common to both. Brachycome is restricted to 
these countries, but has no common species, and is most highly developed 
in Australia. The important genus Senecio, which is largely developed in 
both countries, has only one common species. 

The remarkable Australian genus Stylidium is not represented in New 
Zealand. Donatia nove-zealandig is common to both countries, and Forstera 
is represented in each by endemic species. 

Of Heaths and Epacrids, eight genera and seven species, none of which 
are found elsewhere, are common to both countries. 

A single olive is found in Australia, but does not belong to the section of 
the genus which comprises the New Zealand species. 

* Of Scrophularinee, Australia has thirty genera and over one hundred 
species. New Zealand has ten genera and sixty species, eight genera and 
nine species being common to both countries, but not found elsewhere. 
Veronica is represented by fifteen species in Australia, and forty-eight 
here ; one of the Australian species belongs to the section with appressed 
imbricating leaves. 

Nesodaphne, which enters so largely into the composition of the northern 
forests in this colony, is represented in tropical Australia by a single endemic 
species. 

Tetranthera, Atherosperma and Hedycarya, are represented in both coun- 
tries, but have no common species. 

Proteacew stand next to Myrtacee with regard to their influence on the 
Australian flora; but of the six hundred species known to occur there, not 


* I should perhaps mention the recent discovery in this colony of Liparophyllum, a 
monotypic genus of Mengantheg, hitherto supposed to be restricted to alpine lakes in 
Tasmania, but the iden rests at present upon fruited specimens only. 


WAA Wa WA WA AA AA AA Aa Wa wa aa Aa WA Aa AA AA an 


Wellington Philosophical Society. 545 


one is indigenous to New Zealand, which, however, possesses two endemic 
species, one representing the nucumentaceous section of the order, the other 
the folliculaceous section ; the former belongs to Persoonia, a genus largely 
developed in Australia, but not known elsewhere ; the latter to Knightia, of 
which one other species is known in New Caledonia. The large genus 
Pimelea, restricted to New Zealand and Australia, comprises nearly seventy 
species in the latter country and ten in the former, but except P. longifolia, 
which extends from this colony to Lord Howe’s Island on the Australian 
coast, no species is common to both floras. 

Fagus, which forms so large a part of the mountain forests in New 
Zealand, is represented in Australia by three species, all of which are 
endemic. 

In Conifers there is no species common to both countries; the common 
genera Dammara, Podocarpus, Phyllocladus, and Dacrydium; except Podocar- 
pus, each is represented by a single genus in Australia, but Phyllocladus and 
Dacrydium are especially characteristic of New Zealand, the first having 
three species, one or other of which is found scattered throughout the colony 
except in the driest districts; the other contains seven species, some of 
which occur in all districts. In this, as in many similar cases, the Australian 
flora has been influenced by that of New Zealand rather than the reverse. 

A much larger proportion of Monocotyledons is common to both countries, 
chiefly owing to the wide distribution of many species of Cyperacew and 
Graminez. 

In Orchidaces there is a close generic relationship, no fewer than sixteen 
genera being common to both countries, but not more than six species, two 
alone of which are found elsewhere ; the restricted distribution of the species 
of this order is strongly marked all over the world. 

Astelia, a liliaceous genus largely developed in New Zealand, is repre- 
sented in Australia by a single endemic species. Juncem has eight species 
common to both countries, six of which are found nowhere else. 

Twelve genera of Cyperacez, and thirty-two species, are common to both 
floras; many of the species exhibit a wide distribution, and not more than 
twelve are restricted to Australia and New Zealand. 

In Graminew the relationship is still more strongly marked, more than 
half the New Zealand species, and twenty-five genera out of twenty-seven, 
being common to both countries; only ten of the species are restricted to 
these countries, many of them having a wide distribution. 

In ferns and allied plants, the proportion of species common to both 
countries is still larger. Australia exhibits two hundred and thirty-two 
Species, comprised under forty-seven genera; New Zealand has thirty- 
nine genera and one hundred and fifty-three species. ga me genera 


546 Proceedings. 


and eighty-seven species are common to both countries. All the genera are 
represented by identical species, with the exception of Lygodium, Isoétes and 
Pilularia, but only twenty-one species out of the eighty-seven are restricted 
to the two countries. No endemic genus is found in Australia, but in New 
Zealand the beautiful Lozsoma is limited to the country north of the Hauraki 
Gulf. Hymenophyllacee are sparingly distributed in Australia, but owing to 
the humid climate of New Zealand, are abundant and luxuriant. 

I purposely avoid going into detail on the various matters of debate 
raised by the statement now made, but wil briefly summarize the chief 
conclusions to be drawn :— 

1. That the New Zealand flora is more closely related to the Australian 
than to any other.. Five-sixths of the genera, one-fourth of the species of 
Phanerogamia, and more than one-half of the ferns being identical. 

2. That few or no Australian species have been added to the New Zea- 
land flora, by means of aerial or marine currents. 

9. The direct connection between Australia and New Zealand must have 
ceased (as stated by Professor Hutton from considerations based upon the 
distribution of Animalia), not later than the cretaceous period, or a larger 
proportion of Myrtaces, Proteaces, and other Australian types, would be 
found in the New Zealand flora. 

4. The paucity of Rosaces and Labiate in both countries affords proof 
of the ancient isolation of both floras. 

5. The occurrence of single species of the characteristie genera of either 
country in the other :—e.g., of Celmisia longifolia in Australia :—of Epacris 
purpurascens in New Zealand—affords direct proof of the great antiquity of 
the species, and of its having attained a maximum of stability under the © 
conditions which existed before the disruption of the connection between the 
two countries. | 

Dr. Newman, the President elect, thanked the meeting for the honourable position 
in which it had placed him, and assured the members that the new office-bearers would 
endeavour to do their best for the society during the coming year. 

1. “On Barat or Barata Fossil Words," by J. Turnbull Thomson, 
F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A. (Transactions, p. 157.) 


2. “ Notice of the Discovery of Calceolaria repens, Hook. f., and other 
Plants in the Wellington District," by Harry Borrer Kirk; communicated 
by Mr. T. Kirk. (Transactions, p. 466.) 


9. “ Descriptions of new Plants,’ by T. Kirk, F.L.S. (Transactions, 
p. 468.) 


AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. 


First Meeting. 10th June, 1878. 
The Rey. Dr. Purchas, in the chair, 

New Members.—P. Dufaur, R. Horne, J. Horne, ©. A. Robertson, G. 
Smith. 

1. “On the Histeride of New Zealand," by Captain T. Broun. 

According to the author, New Zealand possesses at least eight representatives of 
this family of Coleoptera, of which all, with one exception, differ from their congeners in 
other parts of the world in not being coprophagous in their habits. 

2. “Notice of the occurrence of the Australian Genus Poranthera in 
New Zealand,” by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.8. (Transactions, p. 482.) 

3. “The Maori Canoe,” by R. C. Barstow. (Transactions, p. 71.) 


Second Merete. 15th July, 1878. 
His Honour Mr. Justice Gillies, in the chair. 

New Member.—S. M. Herapath. 

The Secretary read the list of donations to the Library and Museum since the last 
meeting. 

1. “The New Zealand Anthribide,” by Captain T. Broun. 

The author gave a list of the species known to occur in New Zealand, and also some 
information respecting the geographical range of the family. 

2. “ The British Arctic Expedition of 1875-76,” by F. G. Ewington. 

This was a short history of the expedition, together with a summary of the principal 

results obtained. 


8. “ Education as a Science.” Part I., by C. A. Robertson. 


Tump Meretine. 12th August, 1878. 
The Rey. Dr. Purchas, in the chair. 

m Member.—T. Cooper. 

1. * The Cossonide of New Zealand," by Captain T. fron: 

2. “ Education as a Science.” Part IL, by C. A. Robertson. 

Mr. Ewington spoke at some length on this paper. He objected to the author 
borrowing so largely from an article by Prof. Bain, in “ Mind," without acknowledgment. 

8. ** Æolus Vinctus,” by J. Adams, B.A. 

This paper pointed out the serious faults existing in the present system of female 
education. In the opinion of the author, the course of study now adopted led to an 
undue cultivation of the emotional part of woman's nature, the intellect being com- 
paratively neglected, ; 


——— 


548 Proceedings. 


Fourta MrzrmG. 9th September, 1878. 
* TT. Heale, President, in the chair. 
New Members, —Rev. S. Edgar, E. A. Plumley. 


1. Mr. Robertson made a lengthy defence of his paper, ‘‘ Education as a Science,” 
read at the last two meetings. 


2. Mr. Heale spoke on Mr. Adams’ paper on Female Bava read before the 
previous meeting. In a boy’s education, the training should be al purely intellectual. 
It is likely to be necessary for the success in life of every boy that he should be quick 
and apt at figures, that he should speak and write his own language with reasonable 
facility and correctness ; and if his education is to be carried beyond mere rudiments 
it is obviously necessary that he should have a grounding in mathematics, and in the 
elements of literature, which is necessarily based on classics; and also, some initiation 
into the elements of Physical Science. But with girls this sharp limitation of school 
teaching, to purely intellectual knowledge, has not been adopted. It has apparently been 
felt that the development of a moral character, and the cultivation of the esthetic 
faculties, are generally of more importance to the well-being of a girl than the hardening 
and bracing of her reasoning powers; that elegance of language and demeanour, a nice 
tact in the avoidance of all that is base and sordid, a quick appreciation of and relish for 
what is beautiful—in short “accomplishments,” even if of a somewhat flimsy and 
mechanical charaeter,—are likely to be more appreciated by those she will associate 
with in her career, and therefore be more useful to her, than proficiency in classics or 
mathematics. Nature appears to have clearly assigned to the sexes distinctive mental, 
quite as much as physical characteristics, to have cast the intellectual powers of men 
and women not in the same mould, but rather in their counterparts; to have framed 
each with qualities imperfect by themselves, and only capable of becoming complete by 
being supplemented and modified by the opposite ones; and it follows as a corollary that 
the faculties of each should be cultivated so as to supply the defects of the other—the 
one perfected in his hard matter of fact, logical and working pursuits—the other in the 
elegancies of life and literature. 


Mr. Adams explained that he would by no means banish the emotional from a girl's 
training, but simply give a greater amount of time to the intellectual 

8. “ The New Zealand Anobiide," by Captain T. Broun. 

According to the author, this group possesses ten representatives in New Zealand, 
nine of which had been recently discovered by himself. 


4. “Notes on a Salt Spring near Hokianga,” by J. A. Pond. (Trans- 
actions, p. 512.) 


5. Dr. Purchas then proceeded to exhibit a number of Telephones and Microphones, 
giving a full account of their construction and mode of action 


Frrrg Meetine. Tth October, 1878. 
T. Heale, President, in the chair. 
New Member.—D. Hearn. 


The Secretary read the list of donations to the Library and Museum since the last 
meeting, 


Auckland Institute. 549 


The President informed the meeting that advices had been received of an intended 
presentation to the Museum of an extensive series of casts from the gems of antique 
sculpture, the donor being Mr. T. Russell, C.M.G. In order that this handsome gift may 
be rendered fully available, their townsman, Dr. Campbell, had liberally arranged to 
defray the expenses attendant on the establishment of a School of Design within the 
Museum Buildings. Dr. Campbell had also taken upon himself all expenses relative to 
the placing of the statuary in the Museum. 

A vote of thanks to Mr. Russell and Dr. Campbell was unanimously agreed to. 

1. “The Dascillide of New Zealand,” by Captain T. Broun. 

2. “Notice of the Occurrence of Juncus tenuis, Willd., in New Zealand,” 
by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 488.) 

Mr. Heale said that considering that the plant had been found in a remote portion of 
the Northern Wairoa, a district which had no foreign trade save with Australia, of which 
Mr. Cheeseman informed them Juncus tenuis was not a native, he should certainly be in 
favour of considering it truly indigenous. 

8. “High Schools for Girls," by J. Adams, B.A. 

In this paper the author endeavoured to lay down certain rules that should be 
adhered to in the establishment of girls' schools, and in the adoption of the curriculum 
for them. 


Sista Mzetine. 18th November, 1878. 
J. Adams, B.A., in the chair. 

New Members.—W. Berry, J. M. Brigham, H. T. Pycroft, S. J. Williams. 

1. On the Telephoride of New Zealand,” by Captain T. Broun. 

2. “ Notice of the Occurrence of the Genus Kyllinga in New Zealand," 
by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 434.) 

3. “Note on Traditional Changes of the Coast-line at the Manukau 
Heads," by S. Perey Smith. (Transactions, p. 514.) 

4. ** Notes on the Rising Generation," by D. C. Wilson. 

ABSTRACT. 

The author remarks on the small number of Maori children, and thinks 
that the Maori population is dying out. He gives a short description of 
their former mode of life, which he considers to have been better adapted to 
prolong life than their present semi-European habits. He thinks the only 
chance of preserving the Maori race is intermarriage with Europeans; and 
cites as a remarkable fact that when half-eastes and Maoris intermarry, 
their offspring are numerous, and that even the smallest trace of European 
blood seems to have a good effect on the stamina of the children. 

With regard to white children, he considers that the climate is in their 
favour, and that they will be perhaps an improvement on their fathers. He 
thinks that emigrants to the colony live longer than if they remained at 
home, and cites as an instance a community of Highland birth and descent, 


Lad 


550 Proceedings. 


who came to this colony en masse from North America, and now reside in 
the vicinity of Waipu and Whangarei, numbering with children about 1,000 
souls. Out of this small population two have died at the age of 96, and in 
addition to a considerable number who reached various ages between 80 
and 90, three have died within the present year at the ages of 90, 88, and 
86. There are other five men and women with whom the author is well 
acquainted, now alive and in good health, at the ages of 92, 89, 87, 85, 
and 83. The number of those living and dead, who have reached fourscore, 
is also considerable; in fact, it is with them a common age, and calls 
forth but little comment. 


Annuat GENERAL Meeting. 17th February, 1879. 
R. C. Barstow in the chair. 
New Members.—J. L. Bagnall, W. C. Breakell, C.E., W. Burton, A. D. 
L. Hammond, T. Lindesay, J. MeColl, S. Vaile. 
The Secretary read the minutes of the last annual meeting, held 18th February, 1878. 


ANNUAL REPORT, 

The Couneil of the Auckland Institute, in presenting their report for the past year, 
have again to congratulate the members on the steady progress made by the society, and 
on the increasing interest manifested by the publie in its operations. Twenty-five new 
members have been elected during the year. The Council regret to have to record the 
death of five members. There have also been a few withdrawals, principally caused by 
removals to other parts of the colony. The total number on the register is now 281. Six 
meetings have been held during the winter session. The attendance on the whole was 
satisfactory, although there is room for improvement in this direction. 

It is satisfactory to be able to state that the additions and donations to the Museum 
have been far greater than in any previous year. The Council have especial pleasure in 
irme attention to the truly magnificent donation made by Mr. T. Russell, C.M.G., of 
a series of full-size KUOA from the most celebrated statues of antiguity. The 
importance of this can hardly be over-estimated; not only is it valuable from the 
beauty of the figures themselves, but more especially from affording to art-students an 
opportunity—hitherto entirely wanting—of studying and working from accurate copies of 
the unegualled productions of ancient Greece and Rome. The number of full-sized 
figures is twenty-two, of busts eleven. In addition to these, Mr. Russell has forwarded 
terra-cotta busts of the Prince and Princess of Wales, modelled by the well-known 
sculptor Count Gleichen. Mr. Russell’s communications were, in the first instance, made 
through Dr. Campbell. This gentleman, well aware that the funds at the disposal of the 
Institute are little more than sufficient to meet current expenditure, most kindly offered 
to defray all expenses connected with the preparation of the pedestals and the unpacking 
of the casts and their erection in the Museum. Thanks to this timely and welcome 
liberality, bin whole consignment has been visócd d in the Museum without any expense to 
the Institu 

It also Don to Dr. Campbell that the advent of Mr. Russell's presentation might 
Buen orbe ien quin amos: ot dig, He , addressed 


Auckland Institute, 551 


the Council on the subject, offering, on his part, to provide a competent instructor and to 
bear all the expenses of the school if the Institute would grant the use of their lecture- 
room for the purpose. This proposal was accepted by the Council, and the school has 
now been in operation for some time. From twenty to thirty students have been in - 
attendance, and the results promise to be in every way satisfactory. 

A complete list of all additions to the Museum will be found appended, so that it will 
only be necessary to mention here those of special importance in the different classes. 

1. Mammalia.—The only additions in this class are an interesting collection of bats, 
made by Mr. Parsons in the Friendly Islands, tps some eis specimens of Ornitho- 
ares and a few Marsupials, presented by Mr. H. A. H. Monr 

. Birds.—Four hundred and thirty-five ibis have been SA during the year. 
Of re about 200 are of New Zealand species, collected partly to supply deficiencies in 
the type collection, and partly for exchanges with foreign museums. From the Australian 
Museum, Sydney, 103 skins have been forwarded, principally of Australian species. A 


` collection of 60 European species has also come to hand from the Geneva Museum. Mr. 


Parsons has presented 61 skins, all obtained on the island of Vavau, one of the Samoan 
Group. Under the head of Oology should be mentioned a series of European birds’ eggs, 
forwarded in exchange by the Geneva Museum, and some of New Zealand species contri- 
buted by Mr. T. H. Potts, of Canterbury. 

3. Fishes and Reptiles.—The most noteworthy addition is from Mr. Parsons, of 
Vavau, and is especially valuable, not only from the number of species, but also from the 
large number of duplicate specimens which will be useful for exchanges. The Institute 
is also indebted to Captain Fairchild, of the s.s. Hinemoa, for a number of Tuatara 
lizards (Sphenodon), obtained on Karewa Island, near Tauranga. 

4. Invertebrata.—The collection of New Zealand Mollusca in the Museum has been 
largely inereased during the year, and a few small parcels of foreign species have also 
been received, principally from the Polynesian Islands. A series of Swiss Coleoptera, 
also of Crustacea from the south of Europe and the Mauritius, are among the exchanges 
received from the Geneva Museum. An excellent collection of butterflies from New 
Britain and New Ireland, forwarded by the society's old friend, the Rev. G. Brown, must 
also not be overlooked. 

5. Ethnology.—A set of plaster casts of the heads of Polynesians of different races, 
taken from models obtained during the expedition of Dumont D’Urville, has been received 
from the Paris Museum of Natura] History. From Mr. H. N. Rust, of Chicago, U.S., 
comes a very interesting collection, including crania of the Flat-head Indians, also of the 
ancient Mound-builders of the Mississippi Valley, with specimens of their peculiar 
pottery, stone adzes, flint arrow-heads, etc. 

6. Geology and Mineralogy.—A type sotiestion of 400 specimens of rocks, purchased 
in London from the well-known mineralogist, Mr. I. R. Gregory, has been received, but 
still remains unpacked, there being no cases available in which to place it. Several 
small contributions of New Zealand rocks and minerals have been made, but nothing 
calling for special mention, 

New Fittings.—Additional accommodation for stuffed birds and mammals has been 
obtained by the erection of a large show-ease along the south side of the Museum Hall. 
The cost—£106—has been liberally defrayed by a friend of the Institute, who, however, 
desires that his name should not be made publie, About 300 birds and 30 mammals 
have been mounted and placed on exhibition during the year, but nearly all the skins 
received during the past twelve months still remain packed up in cases, the funds of the 


552 Proceedings. 


Institute not being sufficient to keep a tazidermist continuously at work. The most 
urgent requirements in the Museum are now table cases, through the want of which the 
greater portion of the mineralogical collection has to be stowed awayin bozes. A large 
show-case for the collection of New Zealand birds is much needed, as also fittings for 
packing away duplicates, specimens selected for ezchanges, etc. 

Library.—The Council have to acknowledge the receipt of a grant of £95, under the 
Public Libraries Subsidies Act. This amount has been expended in the purchase of 
standard scientific works, and the books are now on their way from London. The Pro- 
vincial Library still continues under the care of the Institute, under the very unsatisfactory 
arrangement first made with the Government, as mentioned in the last report. The 
number of readers has been large, and is still increasing. 

No action has been taken by the Government in reference to the endowment of the 
Museum. The Council very much regret that this is the case, for they cannot conceal 
the fact that the revenue of the Institute—always much too small for the proper fulfil- 
ment of its duties—does not increase in nearly the same proportion as the demands upon 
it. There can be no doubt that if Auckland is to possess a public museum and library 
worthy of the name, an assured and stable income must be granted for its support, and 
that in no case should either the museum or library depend entirely for its existence 
upon the precarious and fluctuating revenue derived from annual subscriptions. The 
Council trust that the Auckland members of Parliament will, during its next session, 
endeavour to obtain some permanent source of revenue for the institution. 

The annual balance-sheet showed the receipts to be £525 17s. 2d, (including the 
balance of £74 16s. 8d. carried from last year’s accounts). The expenditure amounted to 
£496 8s. 1d., leaving a balance of £29 9s. 1d. 

Erection or Orricers ror 1879 :—President—Rev. A. G. Purchas, 
M.R.C.S.E.; Council—R. C. Barstow, Rev. J. Bates, J. L. Campbell, M.D., 
J. C. Firth, His Honour Mr. Justice Gillies, T. Heale, Hon. Col. Haultain, 
G. M. Mitford, J. Stewart, M. Inst. C.E., T. F. 8. Tinne, F. Whitaker ; 
Auditor—T. Macffarlane ; Secretary and Treasurer—T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.8. 

On the motion of Mr. Ewington, seconded by Col. Haultain, it was resolved — 

“That the thanks of this meeting be accorded to those gentlemen, whose generosity 
to the Institute during the past year has enabled the Council to lay before it such a 
gratifying report." 


| 
| 


PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. 


First Meetine. Tth March, 1878. 
Professor von Haast, F.R.S., President, in the chair. 


The President read his opening address. (Transactions, p. 495.) 


Second MzzriNG. 4th April, 1878. 
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair. 

New Members.—G. L. Mellish, W. Kitson, A. Lean, N. K. Cherill, C. W. 
Adams. 

1. “Further Observations on Banks Peninsula,” by Professor von 
Haast, F.R.S. (Transactions, p. 495.) 

2. “On the Rock Paintings in the Weka Pass," by A. Mackenzie 
Cameron, Interpreter of Oriental Languages to the Government of New 
South Wales; communicated by Professor J. von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S. 
(Transactions, p. 154.) ; 

8. * Remarks on Mr. Mackenzie Cameron’s Theory respecting the Kahui 
Tipua," by J. W. Stack. 


Tump Meeting. 2nd May, 1878. 
The Rev. J. W. Stack, Vice-president, in the chair. 
New Members.—Henry Sealy, H. M. Lund. 


Fourra Meeting. 6th June, 1878. 
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair. 
New Member.—J. Broham. 


1. “On some Coccide in New Zealand," by W. M. Maskell. (Trans- 
actions, p. 187.) 


Firta Meeting. 4th July, 1878. 
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair. 
New Member.—W. E. Ivey. 
1. “On some Coccide in New Zealand" (second paper), by W. M. 


Maskell. (Transactions, p. 187.) A40 


554 Proceedings. 


2. “On a Hymenopterous Insect parasitic on Coccide," by W. M. 
Maskell. (Transactions, p. 228.) 

8. * On Temporary and Variable Stars," by Prof. A. W. Bickerton, 
F.C.S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines, London. (Transactions, 
p. 118.) 


SixrH MEETING., 1st August, 1878. 
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair. 

New Members.—G. Grey, G. Wilkinson, J. W. Bruce. 

1. “On some Coccide in New Zealand" (third paper), by W. M. 
Maskell. (Transactions, p. 187.) 

2. *Partial Impact: a possible Explanation of the Origin of the 
Solar System, Comets, and other Phenomena of the Universe," by Prof. 
A. W. Bickerton. (Transactions, p. 125.) 

SEvENTH MzzTING. 12th September, 1878. 
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair. 

New Members.—Dr. Doyle, Dr. Ellis, W. P. Cowlishaw, A. Reischik. 

1. * On the Calculation of Distances by Means of Reciprocal Vertical. 
Angles," by C. W. Adams. (Transactions, p. 182.) 


Eicurg Mretinc. 8rd October, 1878. 
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair. 


New Members.—J. von Tunzleman, A. D. Dobson, G. McIntyre. 


ANNUAL GENERAL MxzgrING. Tth November, 1878. 
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair. 


Exection or Orricers ror 1879 :— President—Professor Bickerton ; Vice- 
presidents—J. Inglis, R. W. Fereday ; Council—Rev. J. W. Stack, Professor 
Cook, Dr. Powell, Professor von Haast, Dr. Coward, G. W. Hall; Auditors— 
W. D. Carruthers, C. R. Blakiston; Hon. Treasurer—W. M. Maskell; Hon. 
Secretary—J. S. Guthrie. 

ABSTRACT OF ANNUAL REPORT. 

The Council congratulate the Institute on the increase of their numbers, nineteen 
new members having joined during the session, The Council have had under their con- 
sideration the propriety of establishing monthly popular lectures in connection with the 
Institute, but were unable to make any arrangements for the past session. They, how- 
ever, strongly urge upon their successors the desirableness of making some definite 
arrangements for such lectures during the next session. 


Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 555 


The microscopical section has held thirteen meetings during the year, and the attend- 
ance has been most satisfactory. As this has been the first year's work of the section, it 
could hardly be expected that more than preliminary work could be done. A large 
number of preparations—nearly 200—have been exhibited at the meetings, and the 
members have been assiduous also in private work. The work of the different meetings 
has embraced marine and fresh-water Alge, anatomical and botanical specimens, in great 
variety. Original research in entomology has been undertaken by one member, and four 
papers resulting therefrom have been read before the Institute. 

e Council, feeling that one of the great aims of this Institute is the encouragement 
of Art, and the spread of its knowledge amongst the people of this district, have decided 
to obtain the principal publications of the Arundel Society. 

The Treasurer’s report shows a balance in hand of £136 2s. 7d. 


1. * On Desis robsoni, a Marine Spider from Cape Campbell,” by 
Llewellyn Powell, M.D. (Transactions, p. 263.) 


OTAGO INSTITUTE. 


First Meeting, 14ih May, 1878. 
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair. 


New Members.—Prof. Ulrich, J. H. Pope, A. Y. Smith, F. Howlett, Jno. 
Allan, J. D. Walker, J. Galloway. 


1. Prof. Hutton exhibited specimens of Graptolites fruticosus, Hall, and (apparently) 
G. gracilis, Hall, from the Nelson District, which had been presented to the Museum by 
Prof. Ulrich. Both these species occur in lower silurian rocks in Australia and North 
America. 

Prof. Hutton also exhibited a specimen of the rare six-wired Bird of Paradise (Parotia 
sefilata) from North New Guinea. 


2. “On Antarctic Exploration," by C. W. Purnell. 
p. 81.) 


8. “ Notes on Cleistogamic Flowers of the Genus Viola,” by Geo. M. 
Thomson. (Transactions, p. 415.) 


(Transactions, 


Second Meeting. 28th May, 1878. 
W. Arthur, Vice-president, in the chair. 
New Member.—M. H. Aikman-Gray. 
Mr. Petrie, M.A., gave a lecture on “ The Science of the Weather." 


Tamb Meeting. 11th June, 1878. 
W. Arthur, Vice-president, in the chair. 
New Members.—Maxwell Bury, P. G. Pryde. 


1. “The Sea Anemones of New Zealand," by Prof. Hutton. 


(Trans- 
actions, p. 908.) 


2. “ On the Means of Fertilization among some New Zealand Orchids,” 
by Geo. M. Thomson. (Transactions, p. 418.) 


FovarH MzrrmG. 25th June, 1878. 
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair. 
New Member.—A. Buechler. 


Prof. Hutton gave a lecture on ** The Fauna of New Zealand." 


Otago Institute, 557 


Frrrg Mertinc. 9th July, 1878. 
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair. 
New Members.—Dr. Ferguson, F. Jeffcoat, junr., J. Morrison, R. 
Sparrow, J. Cormack. 
1. * On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago,” by W. Arthur, C.E., 
(Transactions, p. 271.) 


— —— 


Srxta Meeting. 15th July, 1878. 
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair. 
The Hon. Robert Stout, Attorney-General, gave a lecture entitled “ A 
Plea for the Study of Politics.” 


Sevento Meeting. 18th August, 1878. 
Prof. Hutton, Vice-president, in the chair. 

New Members.—R. H. Leary, Wm. Taylor, J. Forsyth, Jas. Arkle. 

1. “Our Fish Supply," by P. Thomson. (Transactions, p. 880.) 

2. ** A Description of inexpensive Apparatus for measuring the Angles 
of Position and Distances of Double Stars, and the Method of using it," by 
James H. Pope. (Transactions, p. 141.) 

3. "New Zealand Crustacea, with Descriptions of new Species,” by 
George M. Thomson. (Transactions, p. 230.) 

4. “ Descriptions of two new Crabs," by Prof. Hutton. 

5. “ Notes on the New Zealand Shells in the ‘ Voyage au Pôle Sud', "' 
by Prof. Hutton. 


Ersmru Mrerine. 10th September, 1878. 
W. Arthur, Vice-president, in the chair. 
New Members.—R. Peattie, A. Herdman. 
Prof. Hutton exhibited two eggs of the Nelly or Stink-pot (Ossifraga gigantea) from 
Macquarie Islands, which had been presented to the Museum by Mr. John Cormack 
1. “On a new Species of Millepora (M. undulosa), from Foveaux 
Strait,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, of Sydney; communicated by 
Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 345.) 
2. * Notes on a Collection from the Auckland Islands and Campbell 
Island," by Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 337.) 
8. “On Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Gmelin,” by Prof. Hutton. (Trans- 
actions, p. 882.) 


558 Proceedings. 


4. “ Description of a new Crustacean from the Auckland Islands,” by 
George M. Thomson. (Transactions, p. 249.) 


Ninto Meetine. 24th September, 1878. 
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair. 
New Members.—C. H. Robson, A. Moritzson. 


The Rev. A. R. Fitchett gave a lecture on “Domestic Aisthetics, and 
the Higher Education of Women.” 


Trento Meeting. 8th October, 1878. 
Prof. Hutton, Vice-president, in the chair. 
New Members.—Mrs. Edwards, Miss V. Edwards, W. G. Jenkins. 
1. ** On Magnetic Dip," by A. H. Ross. 
ABSTRACT. 

After describing the nature of magnetic dip and the circumstances that 
led to its discovery, the author proceeds to state that “the first magnetical 
observation taken on the shores of New Zealand of which I can find any 
record was taken by Captain Cook at Dusky Bay in May, 1773, one hun- 
dred and five years ago. He then found by three different needles the 
variation or declination to be 18° 49’ E., and the dip or inclination 70° 5’ 45". 
The next observation, in the same place, was taken by Captain Stokes in 
1851, the declination then being 15? 34' E., and the inclination 69? 47', the 
decrease in the angle of inclination having been 18' 45” in seventy-eight 
years. lt is not at all improbable, however, that the inclination was 
inereasing in 1778, and having attained its maximum at some period of 
which we have no record, had decreased to the amount observed by Captain 
Stokes in 1851. 

** The inclination of the needle is also subject to diurnal variation, being 
in the morning of each day 4' greater than in the afternoon ; it also changes 
when the needle is elevated to considerable heights. 

“I have made these few remarks in reference to the inclination with a 
view of compensating for the dryness of what is really my paper of to- 
night, and which consists solely of a tabulated statement of observations 
made by me during a recent voyage from England, chiefly with the object 
of ascertaining the position in reference to the geographical equator of the 
point in the magnetic equator over which our vessel passed, and which is 
shown to have been situated in latitude 8? 80' S. and longitude 25? 30' W. 
The observations were taken whenever practicable by means of an instru- 
ment specially constructed for the purpose by Mr. Casella, of London. At 
the commencement of the voyage, the case containing my instruments was 


Otago Institute, 559 


unfortunately by mistake placed in the hold, so that about a fortnight 
elapsed after starting before any observation could be taken. It was also 
impracticable, through stress of weather, to take observations for several 
consecutive days, during which the southern dip had increased from 85° 
to 569." 
OBSERVATIONS or THE DIP or THE Macnetic NEEDLE, TAKEN DURING VOYAGE FROM 
ENGLAND to NEW ZEALAND. 


Moy Long. Dip pcr Long. Dip. M Long. E.| Dip. 
30? 19' 19° 41’ W. | 63° 30/| 21° 55’ 30? 21’ 19° || 44° 26’ | 52° 30'| 69° 
7 15 21 30 62 26 94 32 38 0 || 44 16 | 54 02| 6 
23 50 er 60 30|| 30 35 31 34 3 | 44 25 | 57 23| 70 
20 46 23 56 57 00) 33 32 27 b5 0-1 44 63 95 ) 
18 46 25 32 55 00| 34 98 22 46 31 44 : 68 30 ) 
15 33 25 43 51 00 37 20 : 44 20 | 74 07 ) 
14 50 25 48 49 30|| 36 22 16 : 43! 79 17 ) 
10 42 25 00 32 0| 39 24 0 98 W. 45 ( 15 
8 08 28 14 26 0| 39 35 2 05 E. 44 18 |107 40| 1 
61540" | 21 59 22 30| 39 49 > 20 45 22 |117 59 ) 
4 19 19 18 21 0) 40 37 3 05 46 19 |194 30 
2 52 19 34 10 Oj 41 16 06 46 130 181 82 
0 3 20 45 0| 42 12 30 > | 47 09 |137 00 ) 
7318 22 47 0| 42 26 22 30 46 143 30 
6 02 24 58 N. || 42 8 27 00 46 56 |150 30 
8 3 25 30 Nil 49 4 81 £ ( 46 28 |155 € 
94 25 47 43 4 86 41 64 45 ] 158 4 f 
18 13 27 33 0) 42 5 39 03 69 45 10 |160 3 ; 
15 10 27 46 0|| 41 4 40 36 66 | 47 12 |164 12] 1 
16 16 27 42 10 0) 42 29 44 1 68 || 48 30 |167 30| 80 
18 22 98 19 17 0| 43 0 48 0 68 = — 


2. ““ Notes on the Life History of Charagia virescens,” by the Rev. C. H. 
Gossett; communicated by Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 347.) 

3. “ Description of a new Species of Coprosma,” by D. Petrie, M.A. 
(Transactions, p. 426.) 

4. ““ List of the New Zealand Cirripedia in the Otago Museum,” by 
Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 328.) 

b. ** Notes on some New Zealand Echinodermata, with Descriptions of 
new Species,” by Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 305.) 

6. “On a new Infusorian parasitic on Patella argentea," by Prof. 
Hutton. (Transactions, p. 880.) 


ErzvgxrH Meeting. 22nd October, 1878. 
W. Arthur, Vice-president, in the chair. 


The Hon. Robert Stout, M.H.R., was chosen to vote in the election of the Board 
of Governors for the ensuing year in accordance with clause 7 of * The New Zealand 


Institute Act." 


560 Proceedings. 
The nomination for the election of honorary members of the New Zealand Institute 
was made in accordance with Statute IV. 


Prof. Scott gave a lecture on “ The Mechanism of Voice and Speech.” 


Tweurtu Meetinc. 26th November, 1878. 
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair. 
1. ** On the Scientific Form of Harbours," by W. G. Jenkins. 
2. ** Note accompanying Specimens of the Black Rat ( Mus rattus, L.),” 
by Taylor White; communicated by Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 948.) 
. * Descriptions of some new Slugs,” by Prof. Hutton. (Trans- 
actions, p. 331.) 
4. “ Description of a new Species of Isopodous Crustacean (Idotea)," 
by George M. Thomson. (Transactions, p. 250.) 
. “On the New Zealand Zntomostraca,' by George M. Thomson. 
(Transactions, p. 251.) 


ANNUAL GENERAL Meeting. 5th February, 1879. 
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair. 
New Members.—T. B. Low, — Williams, of Shag Point. 
The Report of the Council was read and adopted. 


ANNUAL REPORT. 

The Council has much pleasure in presenting its Annual Report to the members of 
this Institute, and in congratulating them on the progress made. 

During the last session, thirteen General Meetings have been held. At five of 
these, lectures were delivered to large and appreciative audiences, and the Council 
would take this opportunity of recommending the continuance of these popular lectures, 
as tending to foster a more general interest in the success of the Institute. The other 
eight meetings were devoted to the reading of papers, and were fairly attended. At 
these, twenty-five papers were read by twelve authors, of whom two are resident in the 
North Island, and one in Sydney. This is the largest number of papers yet read in one 
year before the Institute, the numbers for 1875, 1876, and 1877 being respectively = =. 
and 16. Of these papers, sixteen relate to Zoology, three to Botany, and six 
cellaneous subjects. 

Since the last Annual Meeting, 29 new members have joined the Institute. Against 
this addition, however, 41 names have been removed from the list, of members who have 
died, retired, or left the district, leaving a total membership of 212. One member has 
become a life-member 

e balance- alesis shows that the receipts for the year amounted to £264 2s. 11d. 
(including a balance from last year of £64 2s. 11d.), while the expenditure was £205 
15s. 9d., leaving a balance in the Treasurer’s hands of £58 7s. 2d. There is also a sum 
of £79 8s. 5d. in the Government Savings Bank to the credit of the Institute. 


Otago Institute, 561 


ELECTION or OFFICERS ror 1879 :—President—Prof. Hutton; Vice- 
presidents—W. N. Blair, C.E., Prof. Scott; Council—W. Arthur, C.E., 
Robert Gillies, F.L.S., Dr. Hocken, A. Montgomery, D. Petrie, J. C. 
Thomson, Prof, Ulrich; Hon. Secretary—Geo. M. Thomson; Hon, 
Treasurer—H. Skey ; Auditor—J. S. Webb. 

The retiring President read the following 


ADDRESS; 

It has become the custom for the retiring President to address you on the work of 
the session, the aims and prospects of the Institute, or the prominent scientific topics of 
the day. I cannot do better than follow in the same strain, but instead of confining 
myself to one of these subjects, I shall glance shortly at all of them in succession. So 
far as the last head is concerned, anything of a general character that I can say on 
current scientific questions must be second-hand. You can get it in a more attractive 
form in the thousand-and-one addresses and articles that flow annually from the scientific 
press throughout the world. I shall therefore only consider it in so far as it applies to 
the material progress of the colony. 

The Otago Institute has now entered on the tenth year of its existence. Its career 
can scarcely be characterized as brilliant; it has not brought to light wonderful dis- 
coveries in science, nor propounded strange doctrines in philosophy; still its progress has 
been steady, and it has done useful work in promoting the cause of science and th 
general well-being of the state. 

The work during the last session has been up to the average of previous years. 
Twenty-five papers were read at the ordinary meetings, and five lectures were delivered at 
what are called the popular meetings. Of the twenty-five papers nineteen were on subjects 
of Natural History, nine of them having been contributed by Professor Hutton, and six by 
Mr. G. M. Thomson. Those of us who heard these papers read or commented on, could 
not help being struck by the scientific skill and care displayed by their authors, in investi- 
gating the subjects under consideration, and the exactness with which every minutia of 
form and organism was delineated and described. I have no doubt many of the facts thus 
recorded will be highly prized by the scientists of the old world. Specialists here and 
there will perchance find among them the clue to some great truth that otherwise might 


never be revealed. 
The ERE Jl bjects. My absence from Dunedin 


srs. Pope and Ross but I 


prevented me hearing the two relating to Navigation by Mes 
understand they formed a valuable contribution to the literature of Nautical Science. 

Mr. Purnell’s paper on Antarctic Exploration opens up a world of speculation as to 
the direction in which the adventurous spirit of the New Zealander of the future will find 
an outlet. Doubtless the discovery of the South Pole will some day become as much an 
object of ambition to the Briton of the South as the North Pole now is to his elder 
brother. 

Two interesting and valuable papers on kindred subjects—acclimatized and native 
fish—were read by Messrs. Arthur and Thomson; the former described the steps that have 
from time to time been taken to stock the Otago streams with brown trout and the success 
that has been achieved. We trust that Mr. Arthur will supplement his contribution of 
this year by a similar treatise on the other acclimatized wild animals. Mr. Thomson’s 
labours, in having for three successive years taken a daily note of genes 4 fish in 


562 Proceedings. 


the market, in ume io emi e mem oach kind is in season, deserve great praise. 
What are now llington and Auckland. A comparison 
of the results at the three places would give data cae which could be deduced a tolerably 
correct idea of the habits and peeuliarities of the common native fishes. 

Thelast of the miscellaneous papers is by Mr. Jenkins, on the scientific form of 
harbours. Although some of the conclusions may not be considered orthodox from 
an engineering point of view, it contains much valuable information on a subject of 
popular interest, consequently the paper is well deserving of a place among our records. 

The five publie lectures given on the alternate fortnights during the session were well 
attended. They are useful adjuncts to our means of disseminating information, and tend 
to popularize the Institute. The lectures were all of a high class, interesting and instruc- 
tive, and elevating in tone and character. The ^A who delivered them have 
earned our best thanks for the trouble they took in the matter 

In looking back on the career of the Otago Institute, * am interested in comparing its 
actual work with what I expected from it. Although I had no immediate share in estab- 
lishing the Institute, I claim to have at an early date suggested its formation. In 
September, 1866, a year before the New Zealand Institute Act was passed, and three years 
before the Otago branch was established, the ** Daily Times" published a letter of mine 
on the subject. This letter defined what I considered should be the objects of such an 
association in a new country, and the means by which they were likely to be attained. 
Briefly the objects were to be :—The investigation of the natural resources of the country 
from an industrial point of view, and their fitness to our everyday wants; the develop- 
ment of manufactures; the” encouragement of the construction of labour-saving 
machinery; and the consideration of engineering works Mec in their application to 
the requirements of the eountry. 

The means suggested for attaining these objeets were what are now followed in the 
papers, discussions and Transactions of the Institute, together with the establishment of 
an Industrial Museum 

Thirteen years have passed away since the above ideas were crudely expressed, but 
they have brought no material change in my opinions. As shown by Sir George Bowen, 
in his opening address to the parent society in Wellington in 1868, I hold that the 
Principal object in the establishment of the New Zealand Institute is to facilitate the 
practical work of colonization 

I do not for one moment deprecate the efforts of those who devote all their energies 
to the investigation of purely scientific subjects; New Zealand, from its geographical 
position at the extreme end of the habitable globe, its peculiarities in Natural History, 
and its newness in almost every sense, will long remain an object of the greatest interest 
to scientific men. What I regret is that practical science should occupy far less of our 
deliberations than its theoretical confrere, whereas their positions should, in my opinion, 
be reversed. I would not, however, like to see the number of scientifie men reduced. 
What is wanted is, that a somewhat more practical bias should be given to their studies— 
a great increase in the number of workers in applied science, and increased enthusiasm 
amongst the few that do exist. If half the energy that is sometimes displayed in con- 
sidering the microscopic distinction between two species of animaleules was only applied 
to the investigation of our mineral resources, the result would be an inealeulable benefit 
to the whole community. 

The present state of things is probably caused by the fact that the prizes in the arena 
of pure science are greater than in the more praetiealfield. A comparatively unimportant 


Otago Institute. 568 


discovery at once brings the theoretical searcher into communication with the whole world 
of science, but the practical worker may spend a lifetime in developing the resources of 
the country and promoting the interests of his fellow-colonists, without being known or 
recognized outside the narrow sphere of his labo 

Instead of occupying his time in the study of abstruse theories which may well be 
left to the master minds of the old world, I think the labours of our scientific men of all 
kinds should be confined to the recording of observed facts in pure science, and the fuller 
investigation of such subjects as have a direct bearing on the practical work of coloniza- 
tion. Instead of speculating on the causes of earthquakes, the oscillations of land and 
sea, and the age of the moa, geologists, if they do not actually search for our minerals 
themselves, should at least define the age, extent and direction of the various geological 
formations, so as to indicate the localities in which minerals are likely to be found. 
Instead of investigating the peculiarities of some minute lichen found only on Mount Cook 
or Mount Egmont, our botanists should first exhaust the study of the forest trees, their 
rate of growth, general habits, and facility of reproduction. 

We might in this way run round the “circle of the sciences,” giving the positive 
and negative duties in each case, but it will be better ifI simply refer to what has already 
been done in the cause of industrial science throughout the colony and what remains to 
be done within the jurisdiction of our Institute. 

The New Zealand Exhibition of 1865 was the first and only systematic attempt made 
to investigate our resources. Considering it was collated at such an early stage of our 
history, and in a comparatively short time, the information contained in the jurors’ reports 
is wonderfully complete and correct. The collection of 1865 has never undergone a 
general revision. Several of the subjects have been taken up individually by subsequent 
observers and the information amplified, but the results are diffused through so many 
varied publications, and so mixed up with extraneous matter, that they are scarcely 
available. To this day the reports, as they originally stood, form the only compendium 
we have of the resources and industries of the colony. Nearly all the important additions 
that have lately been made to our information on these subjects have been contributed by 
the Native Industry Committee of Parliament, and by Dr. Hector, Professor Hutton, Mr. 
Kirk, and the staff of the Colonial Museum; there are few amateurs in the field of practical 
Science. 

The prineipal subjects that have received special attention are :—Deposits of gold 
and coal; conservation of forests; qualities of soils; properties of native grasses ; edible 
fishes; cultivation of Phormium, together with a few others of less importance. Dr. 
Hector’s assistants—Messrs. Skey and Buchanan—haye each in his own department done 
great’ service to the cause of science, theoretically and practically. Mr. Skey’s original 
researches in the chemistry of our native products deserve more than the passing notice I 
can give, Each successive volume of the Transactions bears testimony to his untiring 
application. 

What is now wanted is that the information already obtained on each subject should 
be collected and arranged in a systematic form, so as to be readily ayailable to all. 
Blanks should be filled up where possible, and when this cannot be done, their existence 
should be pointed out, so that future observers may explore new groun nd. 

In Geology much yet remains to be done ; the Government geologists fip the 
colony have accomplished as much as could reasonably be expected of the ti 
and with the means at their disposal. But it amounts to little more cue a general 
indication of the locale of ihe different formations; the details of strike, inclination, 


564 Proceedings. 


faults, mineral veins, and the hundred other particulars that constitute a complete survey 
are still wanting. It will be many years before the State can supply them. Why should 
the work not be done, to a great extent, by amateurs, for its own sake? It seems to me 
as interesting as fern-hunting, or the other botanical pursuits that are so popular. There 
are few districts in New Zealand that present greater inducements to geological research 
than the one immediately surrounding Dunedin. Every square mile speaks a volume, 
still there is not one page written. It is difficult to enumerate specifically the subjects in 
economic geology, about which information is most wanted, as there are so few about 
which our knowledge is in any way complete. Professors Hutton and Ulrich have given a 
concise summary of the present information in the ** Geology of Otago,” but it is mainly 
useful in showing that the field is practically unexplored. 

The labours of Dr. Hector, Mr. Kirk, Capt. Campbell Walker and Mr. Buchanan, 
have thrown great light on economie botany so far as Phormium, timber-trees, and grasses 
are concerned, but the subject is by no means exhausted. We are still in the dark as to 
the habits, age, growth, habitat in relation to soil, elevation and climate, reproduction and 
eultivation, and numerous other partieulars regarding the useful plants of the colony. 

e chemistry of our native produets is perhaps less known than any other of their 
attributes, As already stated, Mr. Skey's incessant labours have determined the consti- 
tuents and properties of many of them, and Professor Black has also done good service in 
the same direction. But the field is so extensive, and the labourers are so few, that we 
ean only consider the study as begun. The work already done bears about the same 
proportion to what is required as the meridian lines do to the other markings on a 
map. We want to ascertain the constituents of almost every product of the three natural 
kingdoms before they are utilized. It is chemists that tell us if our ores are payable; if 
our soils are productive; if our building stones are durable ; if our mortars are tenacious ; 
and if our food is wholesome. Without the information they can furnish, our material 
progress would be slow indeed, a mere groping in the dark. 

In addition to the service he can render in analysing raw materials, the chemist in a 
new country has a wider field for original research than his compeer at home. He has 
before him every day substances to which chemical tests have never been applied, conse- 
quently his chances of being a discoverer are greatly increased. This alone should be an 
incentive to perseverance in every student of chemistry. 

ublication in a systematic form of the analyses of native products, made at the 
various kisii throughout the ecg would be a great boon to all who are interested 
in the promotion of applied scien 

Turning now from natural science to the sciences that affect our interests as com- 
munities, we have numerous subjects worthy of a place in our deliberations. For instance, 
the sanitary condition of our towns; water supply; drainage and cleanliness in general. 
Intereommunication—postal, telegraph—and by means of roads, railways and steamers ; 
the construction of harbours, and devastation by flood. All of these subjects are of vital 
importance to the community, and their consideration comes fairly within the functions 
of the Institute, still they are seldom discussed. 

The development of manufactures is one of the most important, intricate and uncer- 
tain of the many subjects with which a new country has to deal; so much is it dependent 
on Free Trade and the other considerations of political economy. The all-important 
question ‘ will it pay” comes in at every step, and each case is influenced by surrounding 
circumstance, consequently it must be settled on its merits. No general rule can be laid 
down on the subject. For these reasons the question of establishing manufactures is 


Otago Institute. - 565 


one that can legitimately be discussed by the Institute. Many of the failures that have 
taken place might have been averted and thousands of pounds saved, had the matters 
been fully investigated beforehand; for example, the Taranaki iron-sand. It is well- 
known among scientific and practical men that, although repeatedly tried in other places, 
these sands have never been profitably reduced to metal in large quantities. If the 
existence of this fact had been generally known throughout New Zealand, the chances are 
that the great Taranaki experiment had not been made—an experiment that has caused 
much heart-burning and loss to the shareholders of the company, and brought discredit 
on the whole colony in the eyes of the scientific world. 

There are negative benefits that would be conferred by the discussion of questions 
relating to manufactures. On the other hand such diseussions would confer positive 
benefits on the community by indicating the channels into which these industries could 
be turned. There are many articles of manufacture which could be profitably produced 
in New Zealand with native materials, now lying dormant, and nothing but a full know- 
ledge of the case is wanted to establish the trade. 

To summarize the position, a wide and intelligent investigation and discussion of the 
question, such as an Institute of this kind should be capable of bestowing on it, is sufficient 
to make or mar any scheme of colonial manufacture that is proposed. 

In connection with this part of the subject, Tam often struck by the comparison 
between my ideas of manufactures in 1866, already referred to, and what the realization 
is in 1879. I then talked of, as in the future—manufactures to produce the necessaries of 
life— flour, beer, leather, and woollen goods.” We have long passed that stage; we 
produce more of them than we can consume, consequently they are becoming articles of 
export. If our progress in this direction for the next thirteen years is in proportion to 
the past, the question of manufactures will become of vital interest to the colony at large. 

One of the most powerful aids in the development of our resources, and their utiliza- 
tion in the arts, is the establishment of an Industrial Museum in Dunedin. The one we 
have is practically a Natural History Museum. As such it is an invaluable and necessary 
adjunct to the machinery of the University; consequently the one I suggest does not 
come into competition with it, their objects being quite distinct. An Industrial Museum 
in New Zealand should constitute a complete compendium of our information on the 
economic resources and manufacturing progress of the colony, inscribed not only in 
written records, but in a systematic arrangement of specimens and samples of all kinds 
and from every locality; and in order to facilitate comparison, each class should be 
accompanied by types from other countries. 

In addition to the information usually given, such as analysis, weight, strength, nna 
other inherent properties, the extent of supply and cost of production, as compared w 
the imported type, should be shown on each article. 

An objection may be raised to such a museum on the ground that it might degenerate 
into an advertising medium. Possibly it would be used by producers and manufacturers 
as such, but that isa minor evil. While the community is benefited to however small 
an extent, the question of personal profit may be disregarded. And if we analyse critieally 
the moving power in the great exhibitions of all nations in older countries, it will be 
found that advertising and individual preferment generally are the main springs in those 
grand machines whose pulsations vibrate through every artery in the industrial world. 

In addition to raw materials and ordinary manufactures, the museum would contain 
models and drawings of mines, machinery, and engineering works. 

One great drawback hitherto to the establishment of an Industrial Museum in 
Dunedin was the want of a director, but that want has lately been supplied in Professor 


566 Proceedings. 


Ulrich. I have no doubt the seed will now be planted, and his skilful care and guidance 
will train it into a goodly tree whose fruit is knowledge and wealth to the community at 
large. 

I have taken up so much of your time in the consideration of the two first heads of 
my subject that a passing reference only can be made to the last—the state of applied 
science in the colony. It might have been interesting to trace our material progress in 
intereommunieation within the last few years, the facilities that now exist for the 
exchange not only of commodities, but of ideas, as compared with what they were when 
the Institute was founded. And to speculate as to what the future will bring forth. The 
astounding discoveries made every day in practical electricity alone are sufficient to enlarge 
our expectations to the verge of the impossible. Already the heavenly bodies are rivalled 
in the brilliancy of artificial light, and I believe the day is not far distant when man can 
convey his thoughts to his fellows through a thousand miles of ocean without the inter- 
vention of his senses by the mere force of volition conveyed along the electric wire, or 
perchance even without that medium. 

onclusion, I would impress on all the members of the Otago Institute the desira- 
bility of observing and recording whatsoever may seem to them new facts, no matter how 
trivial they appear. Considering the opportunities we enjoy as residents in a new country 
we are woefully remiss in this duty, and no class is so culpable as my own professional 
brethren—engineers and surveyors. Much of this apathy is probably due to a want of 
confidence in our own knowledge or judgment. The amateur is afraid of appearing 
ignorant in the eyes of the expert. What he considers new and unique may turn out to 
be old and commonplace. In the old world, where every path of scientific knowledge is 
trodden bare by ages of research, such a danger exists, but it is not the case here. All 
the recorded observations on any particular subject can be mastered in a few days, so the 
remainder of the field is equally free and open to all comers. 

By exercising their observant faculties to a moderate extent, embracing the oppor- 
tunities they have of observing and afterwards recording the result in a systematic 
manner, the members of the Otago Institute would gain credit to themselves, and confer 
an inestimable benefit on all their fellow-colonists. 


HAWKE BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. 


First Meeting, 13th May, 1878. 
S. Locke in the chair. 


1. “A Memorandum of my First Journey to the Ruahine Mountain 
Range, and of the Flora of that Region " (Part I.), by W. Colenso, F.L.S. 


ANNUAL GENERAL Meeting, 8rd June, 1878. 
J. G. Kinross in the chair. 

New Members.—The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu, Dr. Wood, Dr. 
De Lisle, Mr. W. J. Miller, Mr. J. W. Thomson. 

ELECTION or OFFICERS ror 1878-9 :— President —The Hon. J. D. Ormond, 
M.H.R.; Vice-president— The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu ; Council— 
Messrs. Colenso, Kinross, Locke, Miller, Smith, Spencer, and Sturm; 
Hon. Secretary and Treasurer—W. Colenso ; Auditor—T. K. Newton. 


Resolved—That for the future the annual meeting shall be held in February instead 


of June 
ABSTRACT OF ANNUAL REPORT 


During the past year three ordinary meetings have been held, at which five papers by 
members were read. 

Of the sixty-nine members whose names were printed in our last year's report, one 
has since died (our former esteemed vice-president, the late Bishop of Waiapu, Dr. 
Williams, whose death the Council regrets to have to record) and five have removed from 
Hawke Bay, leaving sixty. three on the roll. To these will have to be added the names of 
five new members lately admitted, making a present total of sixty-eight. 

The books for the library, mentioned in last year's report, were duly sent out per 
*Queen Bee, which ship, however, was totally lost in Cook Strait. Those books were 
insured, and were re-ordered, and have subsequently been received here. An additional 
lot, to the amount of £65, has also been selected and ordered by the Council. 

During the past year a few desirable objects and botanieal speeimens have been 
collected by a few members for the Museum. 

The statement of accounts shows a balance of £120 15s. 5d. to the credit of the 
Institute, besides the sum of £100 placed in the Bank of New Zealand as a fixed deposit. 


Second MEETING. 10th June, 1878. 
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu, Vice-president, in the chair. 
1. “ Notes on the Metamorphosis of one of our largest Moths, Dasypodia 
selenophora,” by W. Colenso, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 300.) 
The reared moth was also shown. 


, 


568 Proceedings. 


2. ** On the Moa (Dinornis, sp.)," by W. Colenso, F.L.S. 

This was part I. of the author's paper on that extinct genus, comprising (1) the 
original paper written by him in 1841-42, and published in * The Tasmanian Journal of 
Natural Science,” Vol. IL, and (2) illustrative notes. 

Several very fine specimens of Bones of the Moa from Poverty Bay, in excellent 
preservation, were also exhibited, and a considerable discussion followed. 


Tum» Meerine. 8th July, 1878. 


Owing to the severity of the weather, very few members were present, and so the 
meeting was adjourned for a week. 


FovgTH.MxxrING. 15th July, 1878. 


There being but a very few members present no papers were read; but new Scientific 
Books, Plates, and Specimens were examined. 


Firra MzzrING. 12th August, 1878. 
T. K. Newton in the chair. 


1. * Notes on the Genus Callorhynchus, with a Description of an 
undescribed New Zealand Species," by W. Colenso, F.L.S. (Transactions, 
p. 298.) 

2. ‘Contributions towards a better Knowledge of the Maori Race," by 
W. Colenso, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 77.) 

This paper was illustrated by many ancient Maori specimens; and by the plates in 
Cook's Voyages (original 4to edition), by plates in Parkinson's Journal, and also by 
sketches taken by Mr. Colenso when travelling on the East Coast of the North Island 
in 1837-38 

BixrH Meeting. 9th September, 1878. 
S. Carnell in the chair. 

1. “On the beneficial Raising of Trees suited for Timber and Firewood,” 
by F. W. C. Sturm. 

I beg to make a few remarks on the production of a most necessary 
article of daily want, that is, Firewood and Timber, both of which this 
part of New Zealand at least will feel the want of in a few years, as our 
indigenous forests, such as are easily approachable, are rapidly disappearing. 
It is therefore necessary that provision should be made to guard against 
such a want; itis of course the duty of a Government, or those to whom 
the management of a State is entrusted, to provide not only for the present, 
but likewise for future generations’ wants. It may be no easy task for the 
present Government to find blocks of land suitable, and of easy access, near 
the centres of population for such purposes, as nearly all, if not all the 
land in such localities is in the possession of private parties; if, therefore, 
our large land-owners would assist the Government, and set aside a few 


Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 569 


acres for forest plantations on their lands, it would greatly enhance 
the value of their estates, and benefit both the present and a future 
generation. The expense of planting a few acres would not be great, and 
the benefit thereof would no doubt be very remunerative, 

I will now point out a few varieties of such trees as are of rapid 
growth, and suitable for this part of the country, I will say from the sea 
coast to the foot of our mountain ranges, both North and South, from 
Napier (on hills), either under grass or slightly covered with fern,—the 
various sorts of pines, of which the seed could be sown where they should 
remain, without transplanting, such as Pinus austriaca, or Austrian pine, 
Pinus halepensis, Aleppo pine, P. maritima, P. lariceo, pinea, jeffreyi, 
insignis, sabiniana, torreyana, and ponderosa; various sorts of Gums, as 
Eucalyptus globulus or Tasmanian Blue Gum, Stringy Bark, etc., Robinia 
pseudo-acacia (the thorny acacia), a tree of rapid growth; the timber is 
very strong and durable, particularly suited for fencing-posts. Of the 
following varieties the seeds should be sown in nursery beds, and when one 
or two years old, transplanted; this would be more expensive than when 
the seed can be sown where the trees are to remain, but as these are of 
slow growth for the first year or two, the labour of keeping them clear of 
weeds in open plantations would be too expensive. The following would 
be suitable, and are of rapid growth after the first two years :—Abies 
douglasii, menziesii, and excelsa, Californian and European Spruce, Laria 
or Larch Pine, Ash, and Mountain Ash. The seeds of all those mentioned 
are cheap and easily obtainable. Cuttings of the Elm, Plane, and Poplar, 
which grow very freely, should be planted. The Alder, Almus glutinosa, is 
likewise of rapid growth and makes good timber, and is particularly suited 
for wet or swampy grounds, A mixed plantation of the various trees 
mentioned would yield a good return in twenty or twenty-five years. 

I will now give the size and age of a few varieties of some trees in my 
grounds near Clive. All the trees are measured two feet above the surface 
of the ground, the seeds of all were sown by myself; dates taken from my 
diary, 

Thuja knightii, 80 inches in circumference, or 10 inches in diameter; 
about 20 feet high ; age, 8 years and 11 months. 

Cupressus macrocarpa, 68 inches in circumference, or 21 inches in 
diameter ; about 30 feet high; 10 years old. 

Pinus maritima, 87 inches in circumference, or 12 inches in diameter; 
26 feet high ; 7 years old. 

Pinus austriaca, 88 inches in circumference, or 11 inches in diameter ; 
18 feet high ; 7 years old. | 

Pinus insignis, 46 inches in circumference, or 15 inches in diameter; 
about 40 feet high ; 8 years and 11 months old. " 9e - 


570 Proceedings. 


Cryptomeria japonica, 29 inches in circumference, or 9 inches im 
diameter; 24 feet high ; 7 years old. 

Wellingtonia gigantea, 30 feet in circumference, or 10 inches in diameter ; 
16 feet high; 4 years old. 

Eucalyptus globulus, Blue Gum, 8 feet 10 inches in circumference, or 1 
foot 8 inches in diameter; about 60 feet high ; 6 years old. 

Platanus orientalis, Plane, 21 inches in circumference, or 7 inches in 
diameter; 3 years 10 months old. 

Poplus dilatata, or Lombardy Poplar, 3 feet 7 inches in circumference, 
or 1 foot 2 inches in diameter; about 50 feet high ; 9 years old. 

The last two sorts were grown out of cuttings. In the measurement of 
the various trees I have omitted fractions. 


. * On the Ignorance of the Ancient New Zealanders of the Use of 
Projectile Weapons," by W. Colenso, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 106.) 

Mr. Sturm remarked that he personally knew of the first introduction in (the East 
Coast of) New Zealand of the very toy-arrow described by Mr. C. Phillips in his paper, 
which took place at Poverty Bay in 1850, where Mr. Sturm was then (and for some time 
previous) a resident. In that year a young man," who had been a great voyager and 
traveller, and who spoke several languages," joined Captain Harris’ whaling station party 
in Poverty Bay, and he first made there this toy-arrow forthe Maori lads, and taught 
them its use—as a plaything. The idle Maoris took to the novelty (as they mostly do) 
and made many. Mr. Sturm had not yet seen Mr. Phillips’ description of the toy-arrow, 
but fully described the same and its manner of use, offering, indeed, to make some of 
them, and his whole account closely agreed with the description given by Mr. Phillips, 
with one exception, that Mr. Sturm never knew of any set mark having been struck 
by it 

8. “ Further Notes? on Danais berenice.” In a letter from Mr. F. W. 
O. Sturm to the Honorary Secretary, Hawke Bay Philosophieal Institute. 
(Transactions, p. 805.) 


Sevents Mretinc. 14th October, 1878. 

The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu, Vice-president, in the chair. 

1. “Memoranda of a Journey in which he succeeded in crossing the 
Ruahine Mountain Range, with Notes on the local Botany and Topography 
of that District," (Part IL.) by W. Colenso, F.L.S. 

At the close, Dr. Spencer proposed, and Mr. J. A. Smith seconded, a unanimous vote 
of thanks to Mr. Colenso for his very interesting paper, which was also earnestly 
supported by the Right Rev. Chairman, and warmly accorded by the meeting, with & 
further particular wish, that the same should be recorded. 

2. “On certain New Zealand and Australian Barks useful for Tanning 
Purposes," by J. A. Smith. 

* See Trans. N.Z.L, Vol. X., p. 276. 


Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 571 


With regard to tanning barks in New Zealand, I beg to remark on the 
indigenous trees, and also the imported, the cultivation of which would 
prove highly remunerative, a desirable industry for the Colony, and a good 
export, 

The native trees which contain tannin are (1) the Tawero, synonymous 
with Towai (Weinmannia racemosa, Forst). (2) Whinau, (8) Toatoa, (4) 
Tawai, (5) Makomako, Yellow Kowai, and others. 

The tannin in our New Zealand Trees certainly does not abound, but 
it is amply made up for by the introduction of the numerous varieties of 
the Acacia from Australia. 

The whole tribe of Acacia medicinally contains a valuable astringent, 
consequently tannin more or less in the various species of which now more 
than 300 sorts are known to science. Those of which the bark for 
tanning is used in Australia are but few sorts, such as are large growing 
trees, and of easy access. The undermentioned are commonly used in 
different parts of Australia and New Zealand, and exported in considerable 
quantities to England :— 

The first is generally known as the Silver Wattle (dealbata), now so 
plentiful in the North Island; also the falcata, the melanoxylon, or black- 
wood, and the mollissima, woolly-leaved. All these are to be seen in 
Napier gardens. 

I am informed that in Victoria, the Silver Wattle seed is sown there as 
a speculation; that in three years the trees are worth £5 per acre—the 
bark for tanning purposes, the wood for fuel. The great advantages of 
these trees is, that when the seed is once sown, it does not require renewal, 
as it is supplied in the future by suckers from the roots and falling seed. 

The value of Acacia bark for tanning purposes in New Zealand is 
&bout £8 per ton. 

If these trees were planted along our railway lines where they are 
fenced, it would no doubt be a large source of revenue, and amply repay 
the outlay ; they would also prove shelter from the sun, the wind, and the 
dust. The Acacia has already been tried with advantage in Algeria, and the 
Home authorities intend cultivating it in the island of Cyprus. 


at the Bay of Islands, and often travelling in that district. This was the first place in New 
Zealand where hides were tanned for leather, the whole process was particularly primi- 
tive. Extracts of those several barks there used, with specimens of the trees producing 
them, he had sent to Sir W. J. Hooker, the Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew, long 
before New Zealand became a British Colony. 


572 Proceedings. 


9. * A Description of two New Zealand Ferns, believed to be new to 
Science (Cyathea polyneuron, and Hymenophyllum erecto-alatum)," by W. 
Colenso, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 429.) 


4. Several novel and curious specimens, both Zoological and Botanical, and all 
indigenous, were then shown by Mr. Colenso, and minutely examined. Among them 
were (1) the peculiar long flat aquatic worms (Gordius aquaticus, Gml.), obtained from the. 
waters of the “ Forty-Mile Bush,” which, when living, were very elastic ; collected by Mr. 
Thomson. (2) A small sea-fish, C. sprattus, var. antipodarum, Hector, (* Edible Fishes 
of New Zealand," p. 133), obtained on the south shore of Hawke Bay, at a time when they 
were observed to bein large shoals; collected by Mr. W. J. Miller. (3) A Marine Spider, 
from the Bay of Islands, captured by the exhibitor (Mr. Colenso) in 1836, in deep water, 
and believed to differ from the one recorded at p. 299, Transactions, Vol. X 
(4) Specimens of several elegant Ferns, among them were those of the two new 
ones (C. polyneuron and H. erecto-alatum) to illustrate the paper read. 


Counc, Meeting. 22nd November. 
The Hon. J. D. Ormond, M.H.R., President, in the chair. 
New Members.—Miss J. Herbert, Sir Thomas Tancred, Bart., Rev. F. E. 
T. Simeox, E. H. Bold, H. Campbell, W. Heslop. 
on. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S., of Wellington, was chosen to vote in the 


election of the Board of Governors for the ensuing year, in accordance with clause 7 of 
the New Zealand Institute Act ; 


The nomination for the election of an honorary member of the New Zealand 
Institute was made in accordance with Statute IV. 


WHE TLAND INSTITUTE 


First Meeting. 16th July, 1878. 
R. C. Reid, Vice-president, in the chair. ` 

1. “On Beach Protection,” by W. D. Campbell, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. 
C.E. (Transactions, p. 146.) 

This paper was accompanied by diagrams. ; 

2. “Notice of a Tadpole found in a Drain in Hokitika,” by F. E. Clarke. 

The embryo amphibian was found in a small pool of water left in the 
bottom of the drain, after being cleared of rubbish, ete., by the Corporation 
labourers. 

It had suffered considerable injury, either from being trodden on or 
from being cut by the shovel of the labourer, its bowels protruding through 
the wound. Although alive when captured, this soon caused its death. 

From its appearance, it would be about three weeks old, the lungs and 
hind-legs being well developed, but the fore-legs were merely rudimentary. 
From its size it seemed to be the tadpole of a very large frog. 

No frogs or frog-spawn having been introduced nearer to the West Coast 
of New Zealand than Nelson or Christchurch (in both of which places, 
I understand, the “musical amphibians " are rapidly increasing), it is 
puzzling to conjecture in what manner the little stranger arrived in a terri- 
tory having a climate so thoroughly congenial to its kith and kin. 

No others have been discovered since, although the drains and creeks 
have been many times carefully examined, 

Total length, 2:3 inches; length, from head to hind legs, 85 inches ; 
diameter of eye, ‘1 inch; width of mouth, :15 inch. 

3. ** On some new Fishes,” by F. E. Clarke. (Transactions, p. 291.) 

This paper was accompanied by drawings of the fishes described. 

4. * The District of Okarita, Westland,” by A. Hamilton. — (Transac- 
tions, p. 886.) 

Mr. Clarke stated that moa bones had been found in several places in Westland, and 
in one instance in large quantities. 


Second Meeting, 8th January, 1879, 
His Honcur Judge Weston, President, in the chair, 
1. * On a new Fish,” by W. D, Campbell, C,E,, F.G.8. (Transactions, 
p. 297.) 


574 Proceedings. 
2. “ On a new Fish found at Hokitika,” by F. E. Clarke. (Transactions, 
p. 295.) 


3. Mr. W. D. Campbell gave a short account of the discovery of moa 
bones near Marsden. 


ÁNNUAL GENERAL Meeting. 13th December, 1878. 
R. C. Reid, Vice-president, in the chair. 

ELection or Orricers ror 1879.— President —His Honour Judge Weston 
Vice-president —R. C. Reid; Committee—Dr. James, Dr. Giles, James Pear- 
son, R. W. Wade, E. B. Dixon, John Nicholson, H. L. Robinson, D. 
MeDonald, W. D. Campbell, Robert Walker, A. H. King, T. O. W. Croft 
Treasurer—W. A. Spence ; Secretary—John Anderson. 

ABSTRACT OF ANNUAL REPORT. 

The Committee held eleven ordinary and three special meetings during the year. 

Nearly 200 volumes of standard works have been added to the library, and the 
Committee acknowledge numerous donations to the library and museum. 

At the last annual meeting the liabilities amounted to £74 7s, 2d.; now, however, a 
small credit balance is shown. Among the receipts was a sum of £96, being part of the 
sum voted by Parliament for public libraries. 


NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. 


NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. 


Tenth Annuat Report, 1877-78. 

Meetings of the Board have been held during the past year on 29th of 
August, and 8th September, 1877; and 2nd January, 29th of May, and 
28th June, 1878. 

In accordance with the Act, the following members retired from the 
Board :—Mr. W. T. L. Travers, the Hon. Mr. Waterhouse and the Hon, 
Mr. Stafford. The two former gentlemen were re-appointed, and Mr. 
Thomas Mason was appointed in the room of the Hon. Mr. Stafford. 

In compliance with clause 7 of the Act, the Incorporated Societies 
elected the following gentlemen as Governors of the Institute :—Mr. J. C. 
Crawford, F.G.S., Mr. Thomas Kirk, F.L.8., and the Bishop of Nelson. 

The honorary members elected under Statute IV. of the rules of the 
Institute, are :—His Excellency Governor F. A. Weld, C.M.G., Tasmania ; 
Professor Spencer Baird, U.S.A.; and Dr. D. Sharp, Scotland. 

The following is a list of members now on the roll of the Institute, 
showing an increase of 113 during the past year :— 


Honorary Members vis ie YA fs um LL ME 

Ordinary Members : 
Auckland Institute e. m v» ATO 
Hawke Bay Philosophical fube sii iv DIE 
Wellington Philosophical Ma WA ». Mae 
Nelson Association ... seh zai 0 
Westland Institute ... («s s+ LI 
Canterbury Philosophical LI. JA .. 99 
Otago Institute Vet "3 = ose son, eer 
Total "n sé ..1,148 ,143 


Volume X. is now being issued * sinas and also i the various 
Libraries, Societies, and persons mentioned in the list appended. 
The publication of the yolume was commenced on the 2nd January, and 
the first copies were received from the publisher towards the end of May. 
The large accession of members to the affiliated Societies, not having . 
been notified to the Manager at a sufficiently early date, the number of 
copies of Volume X. was not increased, so that the edition will be at once 
exhausted, and no spare copies of this volume will remain on hand. 
a43 


578 Proceedings. 


Volume X. contains 78 articles besides several short notices which appear 
in the Proceedings, 28 plates, and 629 pages of letter-press. 

The following is a comparison of the sections of the work, with last 
year's volume :— 


1878. 1877. 
Miscellaneous... YA ... 190 pages 316 pages. 
Zoology E IM HB gee 
Botany .. zio xp Gi 2 
Chemistry m M EM goca I 
Geology ae ie al A a 
Proceedings he ves "E 63 4, 0. 
Appendix ao cua E oO 3 S0 

629 ,, rr RA 


The number of Volumes of Transactions now on hand, is as follows :— 

Volume I., 2nd edition, 448; Volume IL, none; Volume III., 10; 
Volume IV., 8; Volume V., 74; Volume VL, 80; Volume VII., 169; 
Volume VIIL, 86; Volume IX., 177; Volume X., 80. 

The appended statement of accounts shows a balance to the credit of 
the Board of £37 1s. 10d. 

The annual reports of the various departments attached to the Institute, 
are also appended, together with a list of the additions to the Library. 

James Hector, Manager. 

Approved by the Board, 4th September, 1878. - 

W. B. D. Maxrgrr, Chairman. 
Museum. 

The number of names entered in the Visitors’ book at the Museum 
during the past year has been 15,000. 

Since the 7th July the Museum has been opened to the public for two 
hours on Sunday afternoons, and the large attendance, varying from 800 to 
800 persons, indicates that there are many who are glad to take advantage 
of the opportunity thus afforded for examining the collections. 

There have been 9,880 specimens added to the collections during the 
past year ; 7,519 of which are mineral and fossil specimens obtained during 
the geological survey of the colony which is in progress, and 185 specimens 
deposited on loan. 

. . Herbarium.—The collections in this department have received only 

inconsiderable additions, and the arrangements for the thorough preserva- 
tion of the dried plants are quite insufficient. It has, therefore, been con- 
sidered inadvisable to unpack the large herbarium of foreign plants until 


New Zealand Institute. 579 


proper cabinets have been provided for their reception, so that this special 
gift from the Trustees of the British Museum, which numbers 28,000 species 
of plants for reference, is still inaccessible to students. 

Natural History Collections —The detailed study and classification of the 
collection is rapidly advancing, and arrangements have been made with the 
Education Department to secure the services of a wood engraver, so that 
the illustrations for the new editions of the Natural History Catalogues, 
which are now out of print, may be obtained in a form that will admit of 
their being also used for the illustration of elementary text-books for the 
use of schools. 

Mammalia.—The classification of the New Zealand Cetacea has under- 
gone revision, and the results, so far as they relate to the larger forms, have 
been published in the Transactions of the Institute (“On the Whales of the 
New Zealand Seas,” by Dr. Hector. Vol. X., p. 331). 

The most important addition to the collection of this section has been a 
fine skeleton of the Whale-killer (Orca pacifica), presented by the Royal 
Bociety of Tasmania. 

Birds.—' The principal additions to the collection of birds during the 
year, was obtained by exchange from the private Museum of Mr. Macleay, 
F.L.S., at Sydney. 

Fishes.—Very extensive additions have been made to the alcoholic col- 
lections in this department, 860 specimens having been received, including 
a typical collection of the Australian sea and river fishes; a small collection 
of Polynesian fish made by Lord Hervey Phipps; and a series of the fishes 
of the Atlantie Coast of the United States, contributed by the Smithsonian 
Institute. 

The collection of New Zealand fishes has been greatly extended and 
improved by the substitution of fresh preparations. 

Invertebrata, —' The additions in this section number 887, and consist 
chiefly of Australian Crustacea, Echinodermata, and Mollusca, and a large 
series of preparations of the New Zealand Mollusca to facilitate the study of 
the soft parts of the animals. 

Mention has also to be made of a valuable collection of New Zealand 
Insects, 87 in number, collected and presented by the Rev. Father Sauzeau, 
of Blenheim. 

Ethnological.—The only important addition has been a collection of the 
weapons of the Isle of Paris (New Caledonia) natives, the most interesting 
of which are sling-stones made of steatite, which are projected from a sling 
made of cloth spun from the hair of the flying fox. 

Minerals.—In addition to the various mineral and rock specimens 
obtained by the Geologieal Survey, a very valuable series, n ing 400 


580 Proceedings. 


specimens, illustrating the geology of Canada, from Mr. A. R. C. Selwyn, 
F.R.S., the Director of the Geological Survey of the Province, have been 
added, and a few ores of interest, collected in Cornwall, have been received 
from Mr. J. D. Enys, F.G.S. 

The collection of New Zealand minerals and ores has been re-arranged 
and catalogued, and the volcanic and metamorphic rocks are now under- 
going a more thorough chemical and microscopical examination than they 
have hitherto received, while, at the same time, duplicate specimens are 
being selected for exchange. 

Palaontology.—The most important collection of foreign fossils added to 
the Museum during the past year, is a series illustrating the carboniferous 
rocks of New South Wales and Tasmania, obtained by the Director during 
a visit to Australia. This series has proved of great service in comparing 
the equivalent formations in New Zealand. 

Geological Survey Collections.—These have been very ample and im- 
portant in their bearing on the geology of the Islands, and especially in 
relation to the Lower Mesozoic rocks, which have, until now, been very 
imperfectly understood. 

The chief field-work of the year was the detailed survey of the Hokanui 
range in Southland, which has, for many years, been known to present the 
most typical development of the formations from Jurassic to Permian. 

The results obtained are fully detailed in the Geological Reports for the 
year, but it may be stated here, that the above formations form a strati- 
graphical sequence, but were divided into 76 well-defined beds, the outcrops 
of which were traced and studied in section, over an area of 82 square miles 

_ The fossils, which number over 5,000 specimens, were collected from 
twenty-five distinct horizons, and form a very large and important addition 
to the paleontological data now in the Museum, which are only partially 
arranged and worked out :— 


The total thickness of the strata represented in the sections is 21,000 
feet, viz. :— 


Upper Oolite ... ds ss ke TS ... 8,500 
Middle Oolite 850 
Lower Oolite TT zi ve os es OO 
Lias and Rhetic wa "e see bad 2. A D00 
Permian Triassic iN T "n idi oo SAO 
Permian Carboniferous.. ih GO 


The most remarkable baies is the Pen icd of our Infra- 
Triassie Marine formation, characterized by a great profusion of Brachio- 
poda, several of these forms being generically distinct from any hitherto 
described, while there is a total absence of any true Spirifera. It is thus 


New Zealand Institute, 581 


rendered probable that we have in the New Zealand area, developments of 
Lower Mesozoic strata, representing gaps in the record elsewhere. 

A further examination of the Mount Potts Spirifer beds, during the past 
year, has afforded a large number of fossils and proved the existence of 
three marked horizons in that locality,—the Upper Plant beds; the Spirifer 
beds (although no true Spirifer is present) corresponding to the Lower 
Triassic of the Hokanui section ; and at the base, beds containing Glossop- 
teris, which is a characteristic fossil of the New South Wales Coal Fields. 

A thickness of 2,000 feet separates the Glossopteris from the Spirifer 
beds. From the bone beds associated with the latter, a good series of the 
Saurian bones was also collected, some of the vertebral centra having 
enormous proportions, being 18 inches in diameter, and 33 inches in length. 
Besides vertebrs, rib and limb bones were also obtained, and what appear 
to have been dermal plates; but the large blocks in which these interesting 
remains are embedded are not yet worked out sufficiently. 

A further discovery of great interest, is the determination by Mr. McKay 
of the age of the Maitai calcareous slates near Nelson. These underlie 
unconformably the whole of the beds that are developed in the Hokanui 
section, and contain the true Spirifer bisulcatus and Productus punctatus of 
the Middle Coal-measures of New South Wales. 

The discovery of Graptolites in the strata of the Collingwood district 
during the past year, is also an important advance in New Zealand paleon- 
tology. 

In Upper Mesozoic formations, the most interesting novelty is the 
discovery by Mr. Cox of an extension of the West Coast Coal-measures 
towards the limit of Te Anau lake, while the heavy bedded grits and 
conglomerates enter into the structure of lofty mountain ranges. 

The additions to the tertiary fossils have chiefly been from the East 
Coast of Wellington, while the evidence of the relative position of the 
Greensands and Chalk marls to the Miocene strata of the Taipos and the 
Pliocene Tertiaries of the Wairarapa, have received support by ample 
collections. 

The New Zealand Fossils now accumulated in the course of the 
Geological Survey, represent collections from 450 different localities, and 
comprise about 6,200 trays, which have been thoroughly classified, and 
1,200 specific types withdrawn into a separate collection for publication. A 
large number of types have been figured and their publication will be 
proceeded with as rapidly as the other work of the Department will permit. 

Publications.—The volume of Geological Reports for the past year, is 
now in the press and will contain the progress reports of the Survey, 
and in addition descriptions and figures of the most imporsi of the 
Lower Mesozoic fossils, 


582 Proceedings. 


METEOROLOGY. 

The number of Meteorological Stations is now 14, namely ;—Mongonui, 
Auckland, Taranaki, Napier, Wanganui, Wellington, Nelson, Cape Camp- 
bell, Christchurch, Bealey, Hokitika, Dunedin, Queenstown, Southland. 

The returns made by the Observers are published in the usual form, but 
it is very desirable that the re-organization of this branch should be effected, 
with the view of reducing the present number of stations, and substituting 
a few thoroughly equipped observatories, and a large number of stations 
where only rainfall, direction of wind, and temperature would be observed. 
By this means the same expenditure would give more valuable results. 

TimE-BALL OBSERVATORY. _ 

The necessity for certain additions and repairs to the Observatory have 
been represented to Government, and, in particular, the desirability of 
having a second rating clock, as at present, when the single astronomical 
clock is under adjustment, intervals occur during which the time-ball 
cannot be dropped with accuracy. 

LABORATORY. 

The following is a summary of analyses performed in the Colonial 

Laboratory during the past year :— 


1. Coals i ds xs esis 
2. Rocks and Murals ZA a He azi 
3. Metals and Ores i ai iad PB 
4. Examination for Gold and Silver ee Tit 
5. Waters v T de iit wort 92 
6. Miscellaneous T Tr T ME Bh 


Total 
À full account of these analyses will be kud: in F xn Report on 
the work performed in the Laboratory, published separately. 


Accounts or New ZEALAND Institute, 1877-8. 


REcEIPTs. EXPENDITURE. 

S x p d 

Balance in hand, 23rd August Expenses "i Printing] pee: 

1877 a bs 123 9 4 s s ol. IX., of Index, 
Vote for 1877-8 zi ^e Wo 9 0 ng 91 16 11 
ontribution from Wellington arse ot Printing Vol. X. 510 8 1 

Philosophical Society .. 31 10 0 | Miscellaneous Items .. 21 1 

Sale of Volumes re eia 8 ES 37 1 10 
£601 5 4 £601 5 4 


3 ARTHUR STOCK, 
Hou. Treasurer, 
September 4th, 1878. 


APPENDIX. 


= TET E MERE er e TET EN 


THE CLIMATE OE NEW ZEALAND. 


METEOROLOGICAL STATISTICS. 


The following Tables, etc., are published in anticipation of the Report of 
the Inspector of Meteorological Stations for 1878. 


TABLE IL-— TrwPERATURE of the Arr, in shade, recorded at the Chief 
Towns in the Norra and Sourm Israwps of New ZEALAND, for the 


year 1878. 
Mean Mea: Mean Mean Aes Extreme | 
Mean | Temp. for Temp. Yos Tena. d for Temp f for i — | 
PLACE Annual) (SPRING) oan (AUTUMN) | (WINTER) Fp of 

Temp. |Sept., Oct.,| Dec., Jan.,|Mar, Apl, June, ee for Temp. me 

OU E b. May. July, Aug. yea | 

| 

Nortu Isuanp. Degs. | Degrees. | Degrees. | Degrees. | Degrees. | Degrees. | Degrees, 
Mongonui . | 615] 61-0 68:1 62:3 54-7 17:8 53-0 
Auckland oe | 588 57:9 65:2 60:7 51:6 13:8 46:8 
Taranaki.. 56: 55-7 62:5 T9 50-0 15-4 50:0 
Napier 597| 61:0 65-9 60-6 51:4 15:1 54:0 
Wanganui 555 | 558 62-4 55-4 48:3 20-4 61:0 
Wellington 55:1 54:7 60:9 56:9 47:8 13-0 48:2 
Means, eto, for)! k^ 8| 57-6 641 58-9 50-6 159 | 610 
North Island 
SovurH ISLAND. 
Nelson 54:2 55:8 60:8 547 45:7 21:9. 52-0 
Cape Campbell 56:3 6:4 61:5 57:8 49-3 10-4 41:8 
Christchurch ., 2-8 54:8 59:6 53:6 43-2 19-4 66:5 
Hokitika .. ‘ 51:6 51:6 57:9 52-9 44-2 11:9 43:2 
edin . .. | 49:9 51:9 544 51:0 41: 14-4 60:0 
Queenstown sv OOI 50:2 BIA 55:2 39:0 16:7 62-4 
Southland 4 4 489 51:0 5 49:6 40:6 17:3 60-0 
4 fou] ; . 5 43:4 16:0 66-5 
Means, etc. 
North an ed 548 55:3 61:0 56:2 47-0 15:9 66:5 
Islan 


* For 11 months only. 


xxii : Appendix, 


TABLE I[.—BAROMETRICAL OssERvATIoNS.—hArINFALL, etc., recorded for 
the year 1878. 


Mean Range Mea Mean Mean 
PLACE. Barometer of Elastic | Force Degree of Total Amount 
reading | Barometer| of Vap Moisture for} Rainfall. of 
for year, for year. for year. year. Cloud. 
NonrH ISLAND Inches Inches. Inches Sat.—100. Inches 0 to 10 
Mongonui E 29-961 1317 419 40:140 6:0 
ckland » 95 1:291 :889 78 37:160 6 
an 5 29-952 1:430 -886 79 56:780 69 
Napier .. «|. 29:890 1:587 :354 69 21:100 2:6 
Wanganui xs 30:002 1:500 :810 69 40-920 5:3 
Wellington ..| 29:873 1:775 ‘851 80 54:602 54 
Means for North * F 
ae } 29945 | 1483 368 . 75 41-775 | 54 
Souta ISLAND. 
elson .. .» | 29-826 1:357 816 74 51:900 51 
pe p <. | 29:964 1:630 844 75 16-480 57 
Christchurch .. 9-804 :919 280 69 13:54 56:7 
29:876 1:382 337 86 154:446 JA 
edin +t. 29:080 1-685 262 72 45:23 6:0 
Queenstown .. | 29-713 1:760 :243 66 60-020 6:1 
Southland oo | 29:726 1:960 :293 83 54-020 70 
Means for South 
seis } 29-798 | 1670 296 75 56520 | 61 
"Booth lands] 29-871 | 1576 332 75 49147 | 57 


TABLE IIL—Wixp for 1878.—Force and Direction. 


i Number of Days it blew from each point, 


Miles, | NM. | NE | E. | SE. | 8 | S.w.| W. | N.W. |Calm*. 


Monyonui 153 22 35 28 17 32 56 63 23 
d 299 29 34 18 12 84 | 118 84 41 0 

Taranaki 239 47 28 18 50 6 | 130 47 39 0 

Napier ai 20 77 14 13 56 63 60 9 

Wanganui ..| 263 3 8 0 27 1 53 70 | 147 56 

Wellingt 243 1 40 2 84 1 6 5 | 224 

SovTH ISLAND 

N 0 60 65 8 87 122 3 


elson GT LIT 9 61 0 
Cape Campbell 479 8 2 1 47 46 8 52- | 167 34 
Christchurch 6 0 
Wa 232 103 28 9 23 15 26 26 90 


ealey 

Hokitika .. — TE 32 67 7 Tf 145 41 49 
Dunedin ..| 170 8 65 15 6 18 | 113 28 8 | 109 
Queenstown..| — 5 15 2 8 5 59 89 | 156 
Southlan: 244 23 41 23 19 6 90—1 193 40 


hours, and only show t 


fer to the particular time of observation, and not to the whole twenty-four 


Meteorological Statistics, , ' xxiii 


TABLE IV.—Beatey (Interior of Canterbury), at 2,104 feet above the sea. 
1878 


| 
Mean Extreme| Mean | Range Me: 

Mean Daily Range} Range agi of Ela atio Fere of Peers 
Annual o of ing | Barome- | Force = Moisture | p Total moves 
Temp, | Temp.for |Temp. for or ter for wabo for Ratau, one d. 

year, year, yea. year. ge year. h 
F j ! 
Degs. Degs, Degs. Inches. Inches, | Inches. |Sat.—100.| Inches. 0—10. 
45:7 13:8 78:0 29°621* 1:849 :203 64 155:891 9 


* Reduced to sea level, 


TABLE V.—EanrHqQvuakEs reported in New Zzarnawxp during 1878. 


| 
| : els 
E poe ieee 2 
PLACE E g aN | £|8 8 E s j 
B > > = o » 5 + [] o 
AESESERIEIEHEIEIEIESEHSIHIE 
sim |e | E E selina lal nal}olasiata 
| 
| | 
Taranaki | ant | 8 ; 1 
: | 5* | 
Napier { ae es | 23 YA ds 9 
aei scc lere 4 | 28*| 20"| 8° 21 ar 
donus A 2j AA Cotas E A R 4 iat SA E qus ; 1 
Fi 
Wellington { ge eg Se ee eee ae et 12 | 10 
91* : 
Cape Campbell { ix] vw tS ae Be 14* = "pus we Eg 
Blenheim ; sac posd Fon HIT. UA KANALI 1 
Kaikoura . : : $* A ore o [MEL AI 
Nelson : wl. ] ee s.e LISSI" 14 
Westport : . efa "Aet 4451-3 
Hokitika : Bes E b io $ Zo Id s] 3 
Lyttelton  . > .. o [14 Mop WA 
hristch : í 3 oo 14 1.21 c1» 
angio: oe t. . .. B A 0 .. LE .. i 
Lawrence x " YA 3 s .. |24 í ae Oe D. 
ow : Su «bos es licec MEME wx Y wes dri 
Queenstown ..|15|12] ..|25*] .. |e. | e+ fogs] -- 21 — mii 
Wallace-town xcd LA ee os AAA l1 


The figures denote the days of the month on which one or more shocks were felt. 
Those with an asterisk affixed were described as smart; those with a dagger as severe 
shocks. The remainder were only slight tremours, and no doubt escaped record at most 
stations, there being no instrumental means employed. for their detection. This table is 
therefore not reliable so far as indicating the distribution of the shocks, 


i 
L] 


1 


Append 


xi 


"puo sujuow OT f» 


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'SxwoÁ 6 SHOTARIA $ 


'8$xuvoÁ G SnOTAOXq , 


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A = = OSE | 109-18 99 yro. -— we = — |709 — 0F8.60: | S1ÁgSnopAexq 
T-9 ae ET: 991 | 060-09 99 Sero. — Lu T.69 L-9T | T-09 092-1 | E1463 | °°. umogsuoon® 
a = — O9T | 260.F€ PL 08%: — — — — | €09g — 28.65 exh PI SNOM 
0-9 Av 91—099 OLI LGT | S66. GT oh C96. 0:10 |O-GFI 0-09 FFL | 6-6F 689-T | 089.66 urpeun(q 
e m == 881 | A60.9II 98 OFS. - — cm — | 9.89 — 086,66 sik GI 8nopAo1q 
TA Ya FEM 696 | 9FF-PST 98 LES. 0:PG | O-LFT GSP 6:11 | 9-198 6989.1 | 948-66 | °° "N3UD[H 
S 1 = — TAL | #9986 LL 93. — — — — | FF — 968.06 s14 OT 8nOIAOXq 
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E : 5 — SIL | 61486 94 PES. on € wa — | 8.89 zm 88.06 M PI S8norAonq 
LG AON 91—PS¢ LOT FOL | OFG-ST 69 086 §-IT | 6-6ST 9.99 FOI | 809 616-T | FO8-66 | °° omppu 
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n T — 88 949.59 TL T96. — — -— — | $89 — 868-65 PI SnorAexq 
TS Lew 91—96F OLT TOT | 006-T¢ T4 918: OFT 0-69 6-16 | 79 L88.I | 968-66 *'uos[oN 
1 ‘aNVIST HLAOg 
amy ae Zu LST 999.19 e C88. wa EE —- (os 8.79 — 900.66 SIA pl ShOIAOX,T 
py. Lew $1—008 EPZ SLT | 30979 08 Tege. | 086 |O-9»T| z8r | OST | [99 | SLLT | 8248:63 | '* , uojgurgeA, 
= E — cep | 6017 Gh EZE- — — — — | gg -— 680.08 SIA 9 SNOMAIA 
eg Amr T6£— 869 €96 ELT | 066-07 69 ore. 10:86 ogr] O9 | 706 | 999 | 00€. T | 200-08 |", — muvausM 
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m m Am TOT | C9P.99 Plex TLG 4% Te mx v — | 848 e 0F6.63 | SIA pp SNOTAOTT 
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- : om zx Sst | S&P 6L 607. a = — — | 869 — P6.65 | SIA PT SNOTACIG 
y.9 9ny 66—£0. 666 ZIG | 091-28 8, 688: $.96 | F-19T 8-9F 8-EL | 8-89 I6ZI | 966.666 |`’ pueppny 
n. x DE 991 869.99 948 PEPS mm Ps = ya 9.09 € 6F6.66 SIA GT SNOMAOIJ 
0-9 ‘uve J—TE9 est | e9r | OFLOP | 94 61F — | — | oes? | BLT | 9-19 | LIE£T | 196-62 | °° — muoB3uopq 
‘ANVIST HIUON 
'equq ez | TR ‘(001= 8014) -modes "sk ‘dura, |. 
roo] AA [moe] BERS | Laos AA 
may COLS AE uroodogp| uo Treat jo mira "duon, US osue pr "duon | omose] uwepy 
Á3To0[0A tünurxv]y AE by T9301, TM uso | "X | 'xey | TOTEE] unon wR ‘SNOLLV.LS 
: *KTenorA0dd SInoy pg 105 BUTUIOW UT 
— ONIM = eck aa puoi 'suouransuT ntaorstiorites wi04p| — "H3LGXOuUvq 


‘savoX snonexd pus GLET 10; LOVULSAV WHALLVUVdWOO- IA S'IGViL 


NOTES ON THE. WEATHER DURING 1878. 


— 


JANUARY.—The weather throughout for this month has been unusually cold, wet, and 
boisterous for the time of year; frequent S.W. gales of violence have occurred, accom- 
panied with thunder and hail, and the temperature has been considerably lower than the 
average, generally 4° and 5° below; altogether it was a very unseasonable month, Earth- 
quake at Queenstown on 15th, at 8:45 p.m., slight. 

FrsnvaAnY.—Fine weather generally throughout, with small rainfall at most places ; 
strong winds were experienced at some of the stations, but no very violent gales; high 
barometer readings prevailed, but temperature below the average. Earthquake reported 
by Observer at Queenstown on 12th, at 3 a.m., slight. 

Marcu.—Except at the Southern stations, the rainfall was much below the average, 
and fine weather experienced; in the South, however, it was at times severe, and 
excessively wet and stormy. An earthquake was reported at Hokitika on 11th, at 9:35 
p.m., slight. 

Aprit.—The weather was exceedingly fine during this period, except at Bealey, where 
the rain was in excess, with strong westerly winds; also at Hokitika very wet, but win 
moderate; and in the extreme South the rain was over the average, with cold stormy 
westerly weather. Earthquakes occurred at Wanganui on the 4th, at 12:50 a.m.; at 
Wellington on 28th, at 6:25 p.m., lasting six seconds, N. and S., very slight; at Cape 
Campbell on 11th, at 9 a.m., sei: and Blenheim 11th, at 8:55 a.m., sharp, N. to E. ; 
at Pario on the 25th, at 3:30 a.m., smart. A meteor was observed at Ora 
on 27th, in 

May.—On the whole, rain rather below the average; the temperature was lower 
than usual for time of year ; very cold stormy weather experienced at most of the stations, 
with snow, and a good deal of thunder. A meteor seen in South on 7th, very brilliant. 

June.—A very cold, wet, and severe month throughout. The rainfall at nearly all 
places in excess, and frequent thunder storms, with hail and snow, and prevailing S.W. 
winds; very low atmospheric pressure throughout. Earthquakes at Napier on 5th, at 
11:15 p.m., sharp, and on 23rd at 3:15 p.m., not so marked ; at Wellington on 23rd, at 
7:38 am., slight, direction S.E.; at Wanganui on 23rd, at 4:50 a.m., strong shake; at 
Nelson on 24th, at 8:30 a.m. ; at Cape Campbell on 3rd, at 12-15 a.m., smart. 

Jury.— Tolerably fine weather for time of year, though heavy rain at some of the 
stations, with strong us chiefly from westward; very heavy snow-storms, with hail 
and severe frosts, occurre the South. Earthquakes occurred on 5th at Wellington, 
at 10-18 p.m., slight; at Pork 10-20 p.m., sharp, with loud noise; at Greytown, 10.17 
p.m., smart, with noise; on 20th, at Wellington, 11:39 p.m., very slight; and at Wanga- 
nui, at midnight, smart, and on 21st a lighter shock at 3 a.m. ; at Hokitika, 29th, at 12 
a.m., slight. | 

August.—The weather was generally wet and stormy, principally from S.W.; fre- 
quent gales occurred, also snow and storms; low atmospheric pressure preria, 
and temperature below the average for same month in previous years. Earthquakes— 
Taranaki, 8th, at 8 a.m.; at Wellington, on Sth, at 7:53 a.m., slight double mee. caf 


XXVI Appendix. 


nui, on 8th, at 8:10 am., heavy; at Lawrence and Arrow, on 24th, rather severe; at 
Queenstown, on 23rd, at 7°35 p.m., slight, and a heavy shock on 24th, at 2°38 p.m.; at 
uthland, a sharp shock on 25th, at 2:40 p.m. 

SzPrEwBER.— Very high barometer readings throughout, and high temperature; in 
the North rain rather below the average, but in the South in excess, which, combined 
with the flooding of the snow rivers, owing to the hot N.W. winds and warm rain, caused 
considerable damage to several districts in the South. Earthquakes—On the 14th, at 
Wellington, 5 a.m., slight; Kaikoura, 4:45 a.m., smart; Nelson, same time, smart; 
Westport, 4:40 a.m., smart ; Lyttelton, at 4:50 a.m., also smart ; Cape Campbell, at 4:30 
a.m., smart; Christchurch, at 4°30 a.m., S. to N.; also on the 30th, felt at Rangiora, 
from E, to W. 

Ocrosrn.— Wet, stormy S.W. and N.W. weather generally prevailed throughout 
this month.  Earthquakes— Wellington, on 21st, at 10-55 p.m., sharp, followed by 
lighter shocks; at Wanganui, on 21st, at 11 p.m., slight rumble; at Nelson, on 21st, 
sharp shock, at 10°55 p.m., also at 11:45 p.m. another movement; Cape Campbell, on 
21st, at 11-15 p.m., sharp, and on 27th, at 3:30 a.m., slight; Christchurch, on 21st, at 
11 p.m.; Hokitika, on 21st, at 11 p.m., slight; Queenstown, at midnight, slight. 
Meteors observed at Mongonui on 31st, and at Christchurch on 30th. 

NovgwBER.—Rather a wet stormy month, wind generally from S.W. and westerly; 
temperature on the whole about the average; frequent thunder storms occurred. Earth- 
quakes reported at Queenstown on 8th, at 3:20 a.m.; on 14th, at 12:8 p.m., smart; and 
on 27th, at 6:40 a.m. 

Drcrwsrz.—Generally fine, dry, warm weather at Northern stations, but in the 
South excessive rain and frequently stormy cold weather experienced for time of year. 
Earthquakes felt at Wellington on 6th, at 9 p.m., slight; on 7th, at 5 a.m., slight; on 
12th, at 11:39 a.m., slight, followed by a smarter shock. Meteors observed in North 
on 15th, and in South on 20th and 25th. 


+ 


Record of Papers on N.Z. Natural History. xxvii 


Norz.—It is intended that a complete record of the titles of scientific papers pub- 
lished during each year, which have reference to New Zealand, shall be issued with 
future volumes of Transactions. The following list for the past year, which has been 
kindly compiled by Professor Hutton, will be of some use to students in the section of 
Natural History. 

RECORD OF PAPERS ON NEW ZEALAND NATURAL HISTORY, 1878-9. 
ices australiensis compared with Balena biscayensis. M. F. Gasco. Ann. Nat. 

eries 5, Vol. 2, p. 495. 
On the Genus p em W. H. Flower. Trans. Zool. Soc. of London, X., p. 415. 
Cyanoramphus nove-zealandie distinct from C. saisseti. E. Layard. Ibis, 1879, p. 110. 
Anas gibberifrons probably identical with A. castanea. E. P. Ramsay. P.L.S. of N.S.W. 
ILL, p : 
On the Larine. Howard Saunders, P.Z.S. of London, 1878, p. 155. 
Number of cervical Vertebre in Dinornis. F. W. Hutton. Ann. Nat. Hist. 5, 1, 407, and 


Two new Fishes from New Zealand. F. W. Hutton. Ann. Nat. Hist., 5, 8, 53. 

The Dascillide of New Zealand. D. Sharp. Ann. Nat. Hist. 5, 2, 40. 

Additions to the Geodephagous Fauna of New Zealand. H. W. Bates. Ent. Month. Mag., 
XIV., p. 191; and XV., pp. 22, 57. 

New Species of Coleoptera from New Zealand. D. Sharp. Ent. Month. Mag., XIV., pp. 
7, 39; and XV., pp. 47, 81 

List of the Hemiptera of New Zealand. F. Buchanan White. Ent. Month. Mag., XIV., 
p. 274; and XV., pp. 31, 73, 130, 159, 213. 

New Crustacea from New Zealand. T. W. Kirk. Ann. Nat. Hist., 5, 2, 465. 

Notes on the Structure of Peripatus nove-zealandie. F. W. Hutton. Ann. N.H., 5,1, 


On Spirula australis. T. Owen. Ann. Nat. Hist., 5, 3, 1. 
On some Fresh-water Shells from New Zealand. Rev. J. Tenison-Woods. P.L.S. of 
N.S.W 35 


The Genus Lymneus in Australia. A. Brown. Ann. Nat. Hist., 5, 2, 493. 
New € of WA Mollusca from New Zealand, T. F. Cheeseman. P.Z.8. 
275. 


London, 1878, p 
Revision des Coquilles de la Nouvelle-Zélande. F. W. Hutton. Journal de Conchyliologie 
1878, p. 1. 


Pentagonaster dilatatus and Asterina nove-zealandie, Perrier. New Species from New 
Zealand. Arct. Zool. Exper., V., pp. 33 and 228 

Nematoid Worm from Campbell Island. J. Chatin. Ann. Nat. Hist., 5, 2, 40. 

New Hydroids from Australia and New Zealand. D'Arcy W. Thompson. Ann. Nat. 
Hist., 5, 3, 95, 


xxviii Appendiz. 


NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. 


HONORARY 


MEMBERS. 


1870. 


Drury, Rr.-Admiral Byron, R.N. 

Finsa, Otto, Ph.D., of Bremen 

Flower, W. H., F. R. 8- FRCS. 

Hoolistetter, Dr. Ferdinand von 

Hooker, Bir J, D, K.C.S.L, O.B., 
MD PRS. 


Mueller, Baron Ferdinand von, 
C. M. Gi, SFRB. 


Owen, Richard, C. É. D.C.L., F.R.8. 
Richards, Vice-Admiral Sir f: H., 
C.B., ERS, 


1871. 


Darwin, Charles, M.A., F.R.S. 


Grey, Sir George, K.C.B., D.C.L. 


| Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S.E. 
1872. 


Huxley, Thomas H., LL.D., F.R.S. 


Stokes, Vice- Admiral J. L. 
1873. 


Bowen, Sir Geo. Ferguson, G.C.M.G. 
Cambridge, The Rev. O. Pickard, 
M.A., C.M.Z.8. 


Günther, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D. 
F.R.S. 


1874. 


McLachlan, Robert, F.L.S. | 


Thomson, Sir Me 


Filhol, Dr. 


Etheridge, Prof. Robert, F.R.S. 


Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G. 
Sha 


rn. Alfred, F.R.S. 
i e, F.R.S. 


olleston, G., DLM., F.R.S. 
F.B.S. 


ae R 
Sclater, Philip wai M.A., Ph. D., 
1876. 
| Berggren, Dr. 8. 
1877 


| ‘Bard Prof. Spencer F. 
rp, Dr. D. 


1878. 


Müller, Prof. Max., F.R.S. | 


Tenison-Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S. 
F.R.8. 


Garrod, Prof. A. H., 


ORDINARY MEMBERS. 
[* Life Members.] 
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 


1878-79, 
Allan, J. À., Masterton Baker, C. A 
Allen, F. Baker, Ebenezer 
Andrew, Rev. J. C., Wairarapa Baker 


Asheroft, G. 

Baillie, Hon. W. D. H. 
Baird, J. D., C.E. 
Baker, Arthur 


Ballance, Hon. John, M.H.R. 

Bannatyne, W. M. 

Barleyman, John, New Plymouth 
arron, C. C. N. 


Io mae RI 
Ru cR C UE E UU es 


List of Members. XX1X 


Barton, Elliot L’Estrange 
me A 


Beetham, d M.H. 
Beetham, W. ., 8EN., Hutt 
Bell, H. D 

Benzoni, X T. 

AR Wm. 


t, W. 
Betts, F, a , Wanganui 
Bidwili, C. R Wide 


s, G. 
Blackett, J., CE 
Blundell, Henry, Treasury 
Bold, E. H., C.E., Napier 


Brown, Major C., Taranaki 
Brown, W. R. E. 
Browne, Dominick 
Bruce, J., senior, Turakina 
Buchanan, John, F.L.S. 
Buchanan, 
Bull, Frederick 
Ball, James, Rangitikei 
Buller, J. W., Wanganui 
Buller, W. L. , C.M.G., D.8o., F.L.8., 
F.G. 8. 
Burgess, W. T. 
Burne, J. 
eee Hugh, Wanganui 
mpbell, W. D., C.E., F.G.S. 
Cárkeek, Morgan 
Carruthers, dokn, M. Inst. C.E. 
Chapman, 
Chaytor, rd "Tunstall 
J 


Climie, Daniel, E: E. 

Colenso, W., F.L.S., Napier 
Coleridge, J obn Newton, C.E. 
Collins, A. S., Nelson 

Cook, J. R.-W., Blenheim 
Cowie, G. 

Gas $. Herbert, F.G.8., F.C.8. 
Crawford, J. C., 


F.G. 
Crompton, W.M ., New Plymouth 


, 5. M; M. D. Rargiskel 


Denis. George H 


iver, 


Dobso =a C.E. 

Dransficld, 7, 

Drew, 8. H., Wanganui 

ee di, Wang ganui 

Edwin, R. A. , Commander, R.N. 
Pad B. A., Napie 

Field, H. C., Wangaiai 

Field, E. P. 


Feilding, Hon. Col. Wm., Londen 
FitzGerald, William 

Fitzherbert, n. A 

Fox, E. 

Fox, J. G. 

Fox, Hon. Willia 

France, Charles, M. R.C.S.E. 
France, W. 


Frankland, F. W. 
Fraser, Hon. Capt., F.R.G.S., Dune- 


Herbert 
Garland, A. J., M.R.C.S.E. 
eorge, J. R., 
Osborne Gibbes, ‘Sir E., Bart. 


Gould, George, Christehurch 

Govett, R. 

Gower, J. W., Rangitikei 

Grace, Hon . M. 5., M.D. 
raham, C. 

Gudgeon, Captain, Napier 

Halcombe, W. F., Feilding 


C. 


C. 
Higginson, H. P., M t. C.E. 
Hodge, Matthew Vere, I Wai 
Holdsworth, J. G. 


Hutchison, W. 

Inwood, D., Canterbury 

Irvine, C. Dopp ing, BA À., e 
J ackson, HL, i RG. S, H 


XXX Appendix. 


Jebson, John, Canterbury 
*Johnson, Hon. G. Randall 
. John 


Jones, W. Haskayne, Nelson 
Eu Iu h 


Kenny, Ca pt. Courtenay, M.H.R. 
Kur TAE F.R.G.8. 
Kin 


Kirk. Thomas, F.L.S. 
Kirk, T. W. 


Kitchen, J. 
Knight, Charles, F.R.C.S. 
ight 


mbe EB. 
Leckie, Colonel 
EE en 


fen 

eae a Napier 
Logan, H. F. 

Lomax, = A., Wanganui 
Lowe, E. W. 


Ed 


cKay, Alexander 
MacKellar, H. S. 


McTavish, A. 

Maginnity, AST MSP. 
antell, Hon WB. D. , F.G.8. 

Marchant, J. W. A. 

Marchan 


t, 
Marten, C. Rous, F.R.G.S., EMS. 


Martin, J. 

Mason, Thomas, Hutt 
Mazweli, JP: , A.LC.E. 
Mills, 

Mir xe Dr. E von 
Monteit th, J 

M F. 


y, 
Müller, S. Lh. M.D., Blenheim 
Nairn, C. d., Hawke Bay 
Nancarrow, 
Nathan, J. E. 
Nation, George Michell 


Nelson; F., Napier 
Newman, À. E MLB., M.B.C.F. 
Nicholas, i» 


Nicholl, Charle 
Noakes, E. Thorley, Marlborough 
Ollivier, F. M. 
O'Neill, Charles, C.E. 
Park, R. G. 
Parsons, W. F. 
Posi Frank Bailey, C.E. 
Pearce 
Pharazyn, i > PAIHEADE 
Gb 


F.R.G.8., Wanganui 
F.L.8., Lyttelton 


20. P. 
Prendergast, His Honour J., Chief 
ust 
een T. E 
mE HEF. 


, W. S. 
Riemenschneider, F. W. 
Richardso 
Hishinond: s indus Mr. Justice 


: ya M.R.C.S.E., 
an Francisco 
Sauzeau, Ter. À A. M. J., Blenheim 
Sawers, J ohn 
Saxby, Gordon, ate Bay 


Seymour, A. P., M.H.R., Picton 

Sherwood, G. F., Eie 

e en „ M.D. , F.R.C.S.E. 
y, W. 


Smith, Allison = , Christchurch 
Smith, Benjam 

mith, bs  Wanganui 
SE h, C. W 


Stafford, ae 
Stewart, J. T., Manawatu 
Stuart, A. P 
Thomson, J.T., C.E., F.R.G.8. 
Tod, Andrew, Wanganui 
Toomath, Edw ard 

J; 


PH. H. 
Travers, W TL RLE 
s, W. H. 


commen: F. H. 
Tuckey, H. E., B.A, 


_ List of Members, 


Williams, r Watkin 
Turnbull, 

cd 

Waite H. W., Palmer 

Walker, Capt. Campbell, F.R.G. B. 
Wallace, Howar 

Walsh, Rev. Philip, Waitara 


Waterhouse, Hon. G. M., F.R.G.S. 


r 
Wicksteed, Arthur, Wanganui 
Wilcox, H. 


nee Major W. J. 

Wilmer, H. 

Wilson, "Kenneth; B.A. 
L. HL B. 


Wilson, 

Wink, Geo M., C.E. 

wWaodhunss: P Alfred James, London 
oodwar s 

Woon, R. W., Wanganui 

Wrigg, H. C. W. 


Young, T. W. 


AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. 


—— J.; B.A. 


Aick n, G. 

Aitken’ Si C.E., Grahamstown 
Aitken 

Allwright, *. C.E. 


Arney, Sir G. A., London 
Atkin, W. 

Atkin, W., Tamaki 
Baber, d$. 


Ju 
£8 
d 
S 
7M 
E 


Bartley, ee i (€ nport 


Bates, Rev. J., Devonport 
Batger, 

Beere, D. M., C.E. 

Beere, G. B., Hamilton 


Bennett, T., Rotorua 
Berry, W. 

Biss, 8. B. 

Black, G., Grahamstown 
Boylan 


zE F. 
Boitel. W. C., C. E., Hamilton 
ret 
Brigham, J. M. 
Brock, A. 
sm qd. cec s 
., Whangarei Heads 


Buckland, W. F. 


*Burton, Capi., London 
Burton, W. 


Butt, W. A., Maketu 
R. 


Cameron, 


Cameron, W. 

Campbell, J. L., M.D. 
R. 

Chapman 


ark, J. M. 
Clarke, Ven. Archdn. E. B., Waimate 
Cooke, C. E. 
Cochrane, W. S., Devonport 

Te Pahi 


Colbeck, W. H., 
Cooper, Th. 
Cosgrave, J 
Cotton, H. E. 
Cowie, Right Rev. W. G., D.D., 
Bishop of Auckland 
ade T., Parnell 
Crook, T., .M.8. 
Cruickshank, D. B. 
Daldy, W. C. 
Darby, P. 
Daveney, P B. 
Dawson, F. E., M.R.O.8.E. 
Day, R., 
Dickson, 
Dignan, P., 
Douglas, Sir R., Bart, M.H.R., 
Whan 
Dowden, W. 
ur. 


Ewington, F. G. 

Fairburn, J., Otahuhu 

Fallon, D. 

Farmer, J., London 

Felkin, W., F.R:G.S. 

Fenton, F. D. 

Fergusson, H. A. C., Cambridge 
Firth, J. C. 


Floy d, W. H., Tauranga 
G. 


Gillies, His Hoover Mr. Justice 
Gittos, B. 
Goldsboro', C. F., M.D. 


ear W. P., Papakura 
e, W. 


rg G. S. 

Graham, W. K., London 
Green, Major 

Grey, a. 


Grey, W. 
Breet vat J. H., Russell 
Hammond, A. de L. 


Hardie, J. 
Harding, S., C.E 
Harrison, f. 


-N 
Hassard, Rev. R R. B., M.A. 
Haultain, Hon. Co l; 
D. 


, W. 
Hobbs, R. . M. H.R., Pokeno 
Holdship, 
Bend J. l. E, M.R.C.S.E. 
Horn 


Appendix, 


Howard, J. 

Howden, G. 

Hughes, S. E. 

Hunt, R. R., Ngaruawahia 
Hunter, A A3 


| Kinder, 3. J., D.D., St. John's 


College 

*Kirk, T., F.L.S., Wellington 
Kissling, G. S. 

issling, T 
Kitchen, G. 
Lamb, c pirates 
Larkins, ., Remuera 
Larkworthy, F. te ed 
Lavers, G. H. 
* Leaf, C. J., F.L.S., London 
Lee, W., M. D. 
Lennox, T M. 


po W., E 

Lodge, W. F. 

Luke, S., Otahuhu 

Lusk, 

MacCormick, J. C. 

Maedonald, A. V., C.E. 

Macfarland, R. J., C.E., Grahams- 


Mus T. 
MacLaughlin, W., ede 
Maclean, E., Ca mbrid 

illan e C. 
Mair, Capt. G- Fl. NE Rotorua 
Mair, R. , Whangare 


Maunsell, Yen. Archdeacon W. 
*Meinertzhagen, F. M., Napier 
T rket 


G. M. 
Moat, W. P. » Mahurangi 
Morton, H. B. : 


List of Members. xxxiii 


Morrin, T. 
Montgomery, T., Hamilton 


Nation, Col. 
Ne ison, een: C. M., M.A. 
Newm 
O’Rorke, G. M., M.H.R., Onehunga 
O’Sullivan, R. 1 
Cb B 


ey, E. A. 
Pollen, Hon. D., M.D., Wellington 
Pollen, H. 


Pond, 3. À. 
Pounds, J. d. 
Purchas, o A. G., M.R.C.S.E., 


Pycroft, H. T., Ponsonby 

Rattray, W. 

Rayner, G., Coromandel 
d,J: 


Robertson, J Mangare 
ose 


, 3 


‘Rubery, A., New 


Runciman, 3 as., Gambcides 
J - 


Russell, T., “6. M.G., London 
Rye, Lewis, Otamatea 
Scott, W., Paterangi 


Sheath 

Sinclair, rm Churchill 

Slatte 

males, Rev. G., East Tamaki 
Smith, G., Ponsonby 

Smith. aa 


em T., Grahamstown 
icer, 

Stephens, Ingham, Remuera 

Stew ).H. 

mma art, E M., Melbourne 

Stockwell, Wa 'M.R.C.S.E. 

Ston 


Symons, J., Devonport 
Taylor, C. Fis London 
Te aylor, J. 
Thomas, Capt. 
omson, on Mahanga 
Thorne, G. ju 
E Lieut. T. o., R.N., Remuera 
inne, H., Tamahere 
Tinne, T. F. 8. 
Tomlinson, Rev. A. R., M.A., One- 


r, E. K. 
nde out A. T., Karaka 
aile, S. 

Tokas s, S. 

Waddington, E., M.D., Hamilton 
Wade, H. G. 

Waller, G. 

Wallis, “Rev. J., M.H.R. 

W 


er, D, 


Waymouth, J. 
e, E 


Williams, H., Bay of Islands 

Williams, J. W., M.H.R., Bay of 
Islands 

Williams, S. J. 

Williama, Ven. Archdeacon W. L., 


Wilson, D. C., Maungakaramea 
Wilson, J. I., Whangarei 
Wi 


inks, J. 
Wright, F. W., L.M.B. Toronto 
Worthington, H. 

Young, W. S., Kaipara 


PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. 


Anderson, John 
Aynsley, H. P. M, 


Anderson, John, jun. 
Armson, W. B, 


xxxiv 


Adams, C. W. 


Blakiston, x. F. N. 
Bowen, C. C. 

. Buckley, Hon. G. 
Bickerton, Professor 


Gould, George. 
e thrio r4. ph 


y, G. 

Hall. "Hon. Folin 

Hall, GW; 

Harper, Bishop 

Hew S. 

Harper, Leonard 
anmer, 

Haast, Profossor von 

Hart, George 

Hennah, H 


* 


Appendix, 


Hall, T. W. 


Habens, Ber. W.J 
Holloway, John 
Hart: J; T, 
Inglis, John - 
Inwood, A. R. 
Jollie, Edward 
Johnston, HB. 
Jackson, Rev. BR. B. 
Ivev W. E. 
Kitson, Walter 
H. W. 


Lee, 
Lean , Alex 
sand, . M. 


E E 
Parker, Robert 
Penny, Rev. E. G. 
Rolleston, W. 


Veil, J. ibai 

We bb DEHE 

Williams, Mr. Justice 
ES ue F. E. 

Wilk LR 
Wakefield. C. M. 
Wason, Cathcart 


Worthy, E. A. 
Wilkinson, J. R, 


+ 


List of Members. 


Abel, H. J., Lawrence 
Arthur, W., C.E. 
Alexander, Dr. E. W. 
Allan, Jno., Greytown 
Arkle, Jas., Palmerston 
Armstrong, Alex. 
Banks, R. 
Bannerman, Rev. W., Clutha 
I., C.E. 


chelor, 
Bathgate, Judge J. 
Bathgate, A: d. 


Brent, 8. 
Brown, G. : 
Brown, Tho 

Brown, J. E, Milton 
Brown, 

Brown, Dr. W., Palmerston 
Buchanan, N. i 

Buckland, J. C., Waikouaiti 
Bur, Mrs. 
B 


Jg 


XXXV 


OTAGO INSTITUTE. 


Douglas, J., Palmerston 
Du , C.E 


Fergusson, Dr. 

Ferrier, G. 

Fish, H. §., jun. 

Forrester, T., Oama aru 

Forsyth, i. Caversham 
V 


CE 
ipud J., R.M., West Taieri 
Gallow y; J. 
Gibbs, T J., London 
SE 


Harvey, Judge G. 
T zd |o 


J effcoat, F., jun., Fairfield 
Jenkins W. G. 

J ennings, E. 

*Joachim, G. 


Low, T. B 
Lubecki, A. D. 
Macassey, J. 


' Xxxvi 


Macgregor, Prof. D. 
Rev. L. 
Memo G. 


MoKerrow, J Wellington 
McLare 


0’ Meche. J., Oam 

Orbell, McL. C., Waikouaiti 
Pa ulin, 

Peattie, R. , M.A., Oamaru 
*Petrie, D., M M.A. 


Petre, F. W 

Pope, H. J. 

Prentice, N., Invercargill 
Prosser, E. 


eynolà s, Hon. W. H. 


BD Moe 
Rolland, " Waa Hill 
menn v Dr. 


LH 
Boss Rev. C. H., Anderson's Bay 
Ross, D. 


Appendix. 


Sale, Prof. 
Scott, Prof. 
Shand, Prof. 
Shaw, 


Shrimpton, ‘J. G., Albertown 


Simpson, 
Sinclair, J. R. 
Sise, G. L 
Skey, H. 
Smith, A. W 
Smith, A. Y 
mith, J 
Smith, C 
Sparrow, R. S 
Spence, J, 
Squires L., Lawrence 


es, H. 
Stanford, Rev. R. L., Orakanui 
Stevenson, G., Palmerston 
Stevenson, T 


Wilkins, Dr. 

*Wi lliams, His Honour Mr. Justice 
Williams, —, Palmerston 

Wilson, A. M. À 

Wilson, J. 

*Wohlers, Rey. J. F. H., Ruapuke 
Young, G. 

Young, W. A. 


; 
3 
ud 
a 

D 

5 
ya 


List of Members. - 


xxxvii 
F1 


NELSON ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROMS TION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 


Atkinson, A. 8. 
Blundell, F. 
Bamford, 


E. 
Boor, Leonard, M.R.C.S. 


Broad, Charles 

Brown, Alexander 
Brown, C. Hunte 

Carter, ogg W airau 
Catley, T. 


Dobson A. D., 
Farrelle, W. K. GR 
Fell, C. Y. 

Gabb, C. P. 

Grant, A 


C.E., Westport 
C.S.E. 


Greenwood, J. D., M.D., Motueka | 8 
Giles, Joseph, M. D., Westport | 


Huddleston, F 


Allen, Thos. 
Atkinson, Jas 
Anderson, Gideon 


WESTLAND 


ig d 
Lowe, J. T. 
Mackay, A. 
M Jo Joseph 
Mackay, Thomas, C.E. 


Sealey, W. B., M.D. 


Bishop of Nelson 
Tatton, J. W. 
Thorpe, The Ven. Archdeacon R. J., 
Webb, Joseph 

ells, William 
Williams, George, M.D. 
INSTITUTE. 


a45 


xxxviii E Appendix. 


Harris, Saml. Paterson, Thos. 
Hawkins, J. G. Paul, Robt. 
Horgan, C. 2 
Hansen, J. H. E Plaisted, Jno 
Hendersen, W. Pearson, Jas. 
Harker, Geo. Perry, W. 
Hankins, J. H. Peake, J. 
olly, J. Price, M. 
Johnston, W. G. Pizzy, Samuel 
ames, Purkiss, W ] 
James, Dr Potts, Thos 
Kenny, Patrick, Miss 
teen, W. C. J. Parkhill, Jno 
Kellock, J. Park, Jas 
ing, A. H. Robinson, E. T 
, Alex. Robinson, H. L 
King, A. edgrave, A 
Kerr, U. B Rae, H. R 
Learmonth, F. A, Reynolds, W 
Learmont, Thos. Roberts, G. J 
uemming, Geo. Stennard, — 
uange, Jno. South, T. M 
Martin, Rev. — South, M. F 
Morris, Rey. — Sammons, E. B 
Mueller, G | Somerville, A 
Manson, Jno | Spence, W. A 
Malfro Smith, Jno 
Maunders, J Spence, Alex 
] wc Scott, Arch 
) t En Henry 
Mainwaring, J. . undy, R. 
McDonald, D. bei Leslie 
McBeth, Jas. Smith, Rev. Jno 
McRae, Alex. Strachan, Jno 
McGregor, D. Turnbull, Capt 
McKenzie, W. S Virtue, 
McFarlane, D. Williams, Joseph 
Nicholson, Jno Walker, Ro 
Northeroft, L. Weston, Judge 
Ouimette, Geo. Williams, W 
O'Connor, C. Y. Wade, Robt. W. 
Paterson, J. A. 
HAWKE BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. 
Balfour, D. P., Mangawhare Chambers, W., Poverty Bay 
Birch, A. S., Patea | oiio , W. 
Birch, W. J., Stoneycroft CA R. L., England 
Bold, E. n Colenso, W., junr., Englan 
Brandon, 8 -Q De Lisle, F. a 
— H., Poukawa Doa, 3. , Springfield 
Carlile, J. W. Ferris, C. P., Poverty Bay 
Carnell, 8. Frood.-J - N., Waipukurau 


Carter, "E. Wairoa Gannon, M. J., Pove Bay 
Chambers, J., Te Mata Gibbes, J. M., Hay d 


List of Members. 


Gollan, D. 

Gollan, K., Tarawera 

Gosnel Mrs. L., Wairoa 
ng, R. Mo ant Vernon 

Ha irm 8. W., Cliv 

Hekk Miss, Wabakaji 

Heslop, W., Chesterhope 

itchi T. 


9, 4. UN 
peed A., West Clive 
Levy, A. , Norsewood 


ngla 
Macleod, A., Hampden 
McLean, R. D. Douglas 
Maney, R. D., Wairoa 
May, Mis. C. 


y» 
Meinertzhagen, F.H., Waimarama 
M. R. 


airn, H., Pourerere 
Nairn, J. C., Pourerere 


XXXİX 


Nairn, J., Pourerere 

bee 

Newton, 

Oliver, E A Puketapu 
d, J.D 


ae s 
tpi Å. , England 
L W. R,, yua SIA 
., Porangahau 


., Porangah 


Tanner, T., Riverslea 


r OB 
Williams, J. N, Frimley 
Willis, G. 
Witty, J. W., Wairoa 


LIST OF PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS AND INDIVIDUALS 


Appendix, 


THIS VOLUME IS PRESENTED BY THE GOVERNORS OF THE 
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. 


His Excellency the Governor, President of the Institute. 
Governors of the Institute (eleven). 

Honorary Members (thirty). 

The Prime Minister. 

The Colonial Treasurer. 

The Native Minister. 

The Under-Secretary for the Colony. 

The Legislative Council. 

The House of Representatives. 

The Colonial Office, London. 

The Agent-General, London. 

Messrs. Trübner & Co. (Agents), 57, Ludgate Hill, London. 
British Museum, London. 

Linnean Society, London. 

Royal Society, London. 

Royal Geographical Society, Longs: 

Royal Asiatic Society, London. 

Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom. 
Royal Colonial Institute, London. 

Geological Society, London. 

Zoological Society, London. 

Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London. 
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London. 
Geological Magazine, London. 

Geological Record, London, 

Zoological Record, London. 

Philosophical Society of Leeds, England. 

Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool, England. 
Literary Institute, Norwich, England. 

University Library, Oxford, England. 

University Library, Cambridge, England. 

School Library Committee, Eton, England. 

School Library Committee, Harrow, England. r 
School Library Committee, Rugby, England, 


List of Free Coptes. xli 


Natural History Society, Marlborough College, England. 
Royal Society, Edinburgh. : 

Royal Botanie Garden Library, Edinburgh. 

Geological Society, Edinburgh. 

University Library, Edinburgh. 

Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 

Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. 

Royal Society, Dublin. 

Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. 

Geological Survey of India, Caleutta. 

Geological Survey of Canada, Montreal. 

Canadian Institute, Toronto. 

Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, Canada East. 
Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney. 

Linnean Society of New South Wales, Sydney. 

Public Library, Sydney. 

University Library, Sydney. 

Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne. 

Public Library, Melbourne. 

University Library, Melbourne. 

Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne. 

Legislative Library, Adelaide. 

South Australian Institute, Adelaide. 

Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart Town. 

Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart Town. 

Free Public Library, Capetown. 

Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D.C. 

Geological Survey of U.S. Territory, Washinglon, D.C. 
American Geographical Society, New York. 

American Philosophieal Society, Philadelphia. 
Ameriean Institute of Mining Engineers, Philadelphia. 
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. 

Academy of Natural Sciences Library, Philadelphia. 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo. 

Academy of Natural Sciences, San Francisco. 
Academy of Natural Sciences, Davenport, Iowa. 
Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass. 

Royal Society of Literature and Arts of Belgium, Brussels. 


Royal Imperial Institute for Meteorology and Earth Magnetism, 


Hohe-Warte, Vienna. 


Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-koniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt, » E 


Vienna. 


feda 


Appendix. 


Imperial German Academy of Naturalists, Dresden. 
Physico-economie Society of xa hates E. Prussia. 
Abhandlungen, Bremen. 
R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome. 
Imperial Museum of Florence. 
Royal Geographical Society of Italy, Florence. 
Tuscan Natural Science Society, Pisa. - 
Editor of Cosmos, Turin. 
Royal Academy of Science, Stockholm. 

Libraries and Societies in New Zealand. 
Library, Auckland Institute. 
Library, Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute. 
Library, Wellington Philosophical Society. 
Library, Nelson Association. 
Library, Westland Institute. 
Library, Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 
Library, Otago Institute. 


General Assembly Library. 
Library, New Zealand Institute. 
Publishing Branch. 
Editor. 
-Assistant Editor. 
aftsman (two copies). 

Lithographer. 

Government Printer. 

Photo-lithographer. 


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LYON AND BLAIR, PRINTERS, LAMBTON QUAY, WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND,