BOTANICAL MUSEUM LEAFLETS HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRINTED AND PUBLISHED AT THE BOTANICAL MUSEUM CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS BOTANICAL MUSEUM LEAFLETS HARVARD UNIVERSITY VOLUME XXI BOTANICAL MUSEUM CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 1965-1967 TABLE OF CONTENTS NuMBER 1 (June 11, 1965) The ‘Mushroom Madness’ of the Kuma By Rocer HEIM anv R. Gorpon Wasson. . . 1 NuMBER 2 (October 29, 1965) Identification of the Pollen of Maize, Teosinte and Tripsacum by Phase Contrast Microscopy By Henry [Irwin ann Exso S. BARGHOORN . . 37 Ethnobotanical Notes on Simaba in Central Brazil BY Joan B,. TURNER... « « eo ow a ve & gx. oO Noumser 3 (December 29, 1965) Baccaurea and its Uses By Dsasa D. Sogsarro .......... . 65 Number 4 (December 31, 1965) Karly Archaeological Maize from Venezuela By Pau. C. MANGELSDORF AND Mario SanovwaQ. ....... +... «+105 Numser 5 (March 9, 1966) The Psychotropic Banisteriopsis among the Sibundoy of Colombia By Metvin L. BristoL .......... 118 Number 6 (April 6, 1966) Natural and Artificial Hybrid Generic Names of Orchids 1887-1965 By Lesuiz A. Garay AND HERMAN R. SwEET 141 Lv] NuMBER 7 (September 2, 1966) Boston Pollen Survey—1965 Preliminary Report By Arruro Corso aND MaNueL Lopez . . . 218 Number 8 (December 80, 1966) Notes on the Species of Tree Daturas By Mervin L. Brisron . . .. . . . . . . 229 NuMBER 9 (April 28, 1967) Studies in American Orchids VI By Lesuir A. GaRay.......... . 249 De Plantis Toxicariis e Mundo Novo Tropicale Commentationes I By Ricuarp Evans Scuuurrs ..... . . 265 Tripsacum in Peru By ALEXANDER GROBMAN ..... . . . .) 285 NuMBER 10 (July 19, 1967) Mangrove Pollen at the Depositional Site of Oligo- Miocene Amber from Chiapas, Mexico By Jean H. Lancenunem, Berry L. HackNner AND ALEXANDRA BarRrLetr . .. . . . . 289 INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE @oenber-beds. ..<.. ¢h 2s « 4s « « +» SRV Ambrosia pollen seasonal variation. . . . . XXXVI Archaeological maize from Venezuela... . XVI Aristolochia medicinalis R.H#.Schult. . . . . XXX Baccaurea dulcis (Jack) Muell.-Arg. . . X, XI, XIV Baccaurea Motleyana Muell.-Arg. IX, X XI, XII Baccaurea racemosa Muell.-Arg. . IX, X, XI, XIII Baccaurea sapida Muell.-Arg. . ....... XV Betula pollen seasonal variation . . .... . XXII Boletus manicus Heim ............ .T11 Datura candida (Pers.) Safff . . XXVII, XXVIII Datura sanguinea Ruiz & Pav. . . XXVIII, XXITX Datura suaveolens H. & B. ew Willd. . . . XXVII Fossil pollen types associated with Rhizophora XLII Fossil 'Tripsacum and maize pollen. . . . . . . VII Gramineae pollen seasonal variation ..... XXV Hymenaea Courbaril LZ. . ......... =XLI Juniperus pollen seasonal variation ..... XXI Map of Mexican amber sites ...... XXXIX { vii | Map of pollen collection stations in the Boston AUER cc hee A Ke eee ee Map of Western Highlands of Australia New GWINGS- « kw oe eae EEK See E ow eee a ST Maize pollen .............. IV, V, VI Ormosia amazonica Duchke var. venenifera R.E.Schult. . 2... 2...) . XXXII, XXXII Ormosia coccinea (Aubl.) Jackson var. subsimplex (Spr. ex Benth.) Rudd NXXIITI Ormosia isthmensis Stand... 2. . 2. 2. . XXXIV Ormosia lignivalvis Rudd . . 2... . . XXXV Ormosia macrophylla Benth. . . . .. . .XXXVI Pernettya prostrata (Cav.) Sleumer . . . XXXVII Pinus pollen seasonal variation . . . .. . XXIV Preparation of biawi. . . 2... 2... XVIOL Quercus pollen seasonal variation . . . . . XNXIII Rhizophora Mangle lL. . . . 2... . . SC UXLI Rhizophora pollen types, modern and fossil . . . XL Sibundoy medicine man ......... XVIII SIIMOE She an eo wee tte we « VIET Teosinte pollen... ..........2.iIV,V Tripsacum dactyloides pollen... ..... . Jil Ulmus pollen seasonal variation . . . . . . . . XX [ vill | INDEX TO GENERA AND SPECIES ACER, 217,218 ACROSTICHUM aureuni, 307 ADENOSTEMMA viscosum, 101 ADENANTHERA colubrina var. Cebil (Griseb. ) v. Peis, 116 peregrina (L.) Speg., 116 agahuasca, 115 AGARICACEAR, 26 aguardiente, 132 ALNUS, 218 ALTERNANTHERA Lehmannii Hieron., 114 AMANITA muscaria, 33 AMARANTHACEAE, 114 amaron voracéra, 135 amaron ‘waska, 120 amber, 289,290-296,311,319- 321 ambiwasta, 120 AMBROSIA, 217,218,227 ambugl inosh, 27,29 ANISOPHYLLEA disticha, 71 ANNONACEAR, 317 ANTIDESMA Bunius, 100 APOCYNACEAR, 92,114 APOROSA microcalyx, 100 ARCTITIS binturong, 88 ARISTOLOCHIA acutifolia Duchir., 269 medicinalis R. E.Schult., 266— 269 melastoma Manso, 268 ARISTOLOCHIACEAE, 266 ARMILLARIELLA, 28 AVICENNIA, 304, 307,311,321 aya, 120 ayahuasca, 113-115,121 ayam, 71 ayawdska, 120,121 [ ix ] BACCAUREA, 65-69,72,84, 86,88,92,96,99, 101 bracteata, 71,96 brevipes, 71,101 cauliflora, 69 dasystachya, 71,96 dulcis (Jack) Muell.-Arg.,71, 77,79,82,83,89,96 Griffithii, 66,72,96 javanica, 71,96 Kingii, 71,97 lanceolata, 71,97 macrocarpa, 71 macrophylla, 71,97 malayana, 71,72,96,97 minahassae, 101 minor, 71,98 Motleyana Muell.-Arg., 66, bidxa, 120,121,129,130 71-73,75,77,79,81,83-86, biaxti, 120-127,129-135 90,94,97,101 multiflora, 71 Nanihua, 71 parviflora, 68,71,98 biazxii futman kwastém, 132 biaxti pormayd, 123 biaxit wabwandi tambo, 125,126 polyneura, 71,98 biaxit wabwanayd, 126 pubera, 71 bakna binjia, 132 pyriformis, 71 batu, 71 racemosa (Reinw.) Muell.- Arg., 66,71,74,75,77,79, 81-83,86,87,90,98-101 ramiflora, 69,71 bentjay, 82 berraip nonda, 28 bicémia, 120 reticulata, 71,98 BIFRENARIA sapida Muell.-Arg., 69,71,72, Wageneri, Rchb.f., 256 835,86,91,94,98,101 BISCHOFIA Seortechinii, 71 javanica, 100 sumatrana, 71,99 Blimbing Buloh, 95 symplocoides, 71,99 BOLETUS velutina, 71 ; near nigerrimus Heim, 28 Wallichii, 71,99 Wrayi, 71,99 BOLETUS (Tubiporus) bachang, 94,95 kumaeus Heim, 29 bacnenaisd, 132 manicus fleim, 29,31 nigerrimus Heim, 29 banana, 94,95 BANISTERIA, 113 longialata Ruiz ex Ndzs., 114 BANISTERIOPSIS, 114,116, 118,119,135,136 Caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) nigroviolaceus Heim, 29 Reayi Heim, 27 BOLLEA Schroederiana Sander, 257 BomBAcaAcEAR, 317 Mort., 113-116,120-122, boracéra, 181,138 126,129 botsacsad, 125 inebrians Mort., 114,115,122, BRIDELIA 126,129 minutiflora, 100 muricata (Cav.) Cuatr., 114 BRUGMANSIA quitensis (Ndz.) Mort., 114 paspyana (Ndz.) Mort., 114, aurea Lagerh., 236 116,120-123,126,129 bicolor Pers., 233 BETULA, 217,218,223 candida Pers., 236 BrETULACEAE, 217 sanguinea D.Don, 233 [x ] arborea Lagerh, 286,238 buah rambai, 65 buah kapundung, 65 bunglei, 69 burung, 71 caapl, 113 CABI paraensis Ducke, 114,115 pariea, 115 CAESALPINIA coriaria, 106 cagrupanga, 120,121,126,129, 130 catruro, 272 CAMARIDIUM, 260 compactum Schltr., 258 lamprochlamys Schltr., 257 campo cerrado, 59 CAPANEMIA superflua (Rchb.f. ) Garay, 261 uliginosa Barb.-Rodr., 261 capi, 113 CARYA, 217,218 CASSIFOUREA, 304 CASTANOPSIS acuminatissima ( Bl.) Hack & Camus, 12,27 chabai, 100 chahra, 120 CHLORAEA sobraloides Krzl., 249 chocho, 272 cocho, 278 CHONDRORHYNCHA Jjimbriata Rehb.f., 256 flaveola (Linden & Rehb,f.) Garay, 256 CLEISTANTHUS sumatranus, 100 coca, 119 COCCOMELIA racemosa Reinw., 74 COCHLEANTHES, 257 picta (Rchb.f.) Garay, 256 coconut, 94,95 cohoba, 116 COLOCASIA esculenta Schott, 129 CONOCARPUS, 304,321 CONOCYBE, 26 contraceptives, 60,63,64 CRESCENTIA Cujete L., 132 cumu, 133 CYCLOSTEMON longifolius, 100 da-koo-to-me, 269 DATURA, 134,229-233,245, 246 affinis Saff., 236,238,243 arborea L., 230,232,238,242, 243 arborea Ruiz & Pav., 236,238 aurea Lagerh., 236,238 candida (Pers.) Saff., 131, 135,230-233, 235-238, 240-246 cornigera Hook., 232,242,244 dolichocarpa (Lagerh.) Saff., 242 ferox L., 245 Gardneri Hook., 240 inoxia Mill., 245 longifolia (Lagerh.) Saff., 242,245 mollis Saff., 243 Pittieri Saff., 236,238 Rosei Saff., 234,236 [ xx ] rubella Saff., 243 sanguinea Ruiz & Pav., 230, 231,233-236, 239-244, 246 B flava Dunal, 234 ev. flava, 234 ev. Sangra, 236 sect. Brugmansia Pers., 229, 233,245 sp., 114 Stramonium L., 245 suaveolens H. & B. ex Willd., 230,232,233,235,240-244. B macrocalyx Sendtner, 240 versicolor Saff., 240 vulcanicola 4.S. Barclay, 229, 231,241 daun, 71 DENDROBIUM ramosum Pers., 259 DIPTERANTHUS Bradei Schitr., 263 DipreRocaRPACEAR, 71 DISCHIDIA nummularia, 92 DRYMOGLOSSUM piloselloides, 92 durian, 93-95 DURIO Zibethinus, 93,94 ee-ti/-a, 276 ENGELHARDTIA, 314-319 Spackmanii, 317 epend, 115,116 EPIDENDRUM colonense Ames, 254 Jloryugum Barb.-Rodr., 254 Jenischianum Rehb.f., 254 roseum Gerard, 254 sculptum Rehb f., 254 [xii] | var. Arevaloi Schlitr., 254 var. lineartfolium Rehb.f., 254 Ericackar, 278 ERYTHRODES serripetala Garay, 250 Evupuorstaceak, 65,72 FLacourTIAckak, 71 FLAMMULA, 28 FRACTIUNGUIS reflexa Schltr., 255 GALEARIA affinis, 72 GARCINIA Mangostana, 94 gegwants, 27 GLOCHIDION capitatum, 100 rubrum, 100 GRAMINEAR, 217,218,226 hallucinogens, 113-117,119, 122,130 hanpi, 120 HEIMIELLA, 28 anguiformis Heim, 29 retispora (Pat. & Baker) Boedijn, 24,28 HEXADESMIA bicornis Lindl., 255 HEXISEA, 256 aurea Dressler, 255 reflera Rehb.f., 255 HUEBNERIA yauaperyensis auct. non Schlecht., 291 HUMBOLDTIA chloidophylla O.Ktze., 253 hypnicola O. Ktze., 252 misera (),Ktze., 251 hutan, 71 HYMENAEA, 292 Candolleana HBK., 292 Courbaril L., 133,292,293, 308, 309,311,322 intermedia Ducke, 292 ibu kungit, 101 idjon, 93 jack fruit, 94,95 Jering, 95 Jintek-jiniek, 88 JUNIPERUS, 217,218,222 kaimukum, 27 kanazo, 2,83,84 kané, 63 kapundurg, 65,66,71,72,74,75, 77,81,83,88,90,92-94,96 kawang, 12,27 KEFERSTEINIA flaveola Schitr., 256 kelangkrang, 93 keduh, 69 kera, 71 kerengga, 93 kermaikip, 25 kirin, 13 komugl, 15 komugl iat, 15-20,27,29,34 kopal, 1338 kosgagl. 26 kukrut-hané, 63 kwastém, 132 LAGUNCULARIA, 304,321 racemosa, 308 langsat, 93-95 LANSIUM domesticum, 93,94 latka, 83 LrGuMINOSAE, 116,269,292 LEPANTHES Wawreana Barb.-Rodr., 252 leteku, 72 LONCHOCARPUS sp., 64 LoRANTHACEAR, 92 LORANTHUS, 92 lutko, 83 lutqua, 72,83 ma-hi'-ke, 278 macha-macha, 279,280 magl miru, 2& maize, 37,38,40,42—-45,48-55, 106-108, 111 fossil, 43,44,56,57 archaeological, 105-109,111 malaire, 182,133 MALOUVETIA Tamaquarina 4.DC., 114 Ma piGuiackAk, 113,114,115 MANGIFERA sp., 94 mango, 94,95 mangosteen, 94,95 MASDEVALLIA amethystina Rehb.f., 251 carpophora Kral., 251 sect. Echidna, 252 Xipheres Rehb.f., 252 MASCAGNIA psilophylla (Juss.) Griseb. var. antifebrilis (wiz & Pav.) Ndz., 114 Mata Kuching, 95 [ xiii ] MAXILLARIA, 260 earinulata Rchb.f, 257 Caucae Garay, 258 exigua Regel, 258 ignea Hort. ex Rehb.f., 258 nubigena (Rchb.f. ) C. Schweinf. , 257,258 parviflora (Poepp. & Endl.) Garay, 258 parvula Hook., 258 parvula Schltr., 258 pendula C.Schweinf., 259 purpurea var. parviflora C.Schweinf., 259 ramosa Ruiz & Pav., 259,260 ruberrima ( Lindl.) Garay, 260 scurrilis Hort. ex Rolfe, 260, 261 speciosa Rchb f., 260,261 surinamensis Focke ex Rehb.f., 258 Tafallae C.Schweinf., 259 variabilis Batem., 258 mbogl, 27 mborr'lbé, 29 me-kra-ket-dja, 60,63 medida, 132 menteng, 81,82 meroyan tahi, 100 METHYSTICODENDRON Amesianum R. EF. Schult., 230, 242,244,245 MIMOSA hostilis Benth., 116 MIMUSOPS elengi, 101 miru, 28 miru nonda, 27,28 moridera, 279 mosong kumu, 26 mu-sa, 276 mushroom madness, 1,2,5,6,9, 10, 12-23, 25,27,28-80,33-36 mushrooms, 1,2,5-10,12-15, 17-20, 22-30, 33-386 MYRICA, 217 MyristicackAk, 115,116 ndaadl, 15-17,19,21,25, 27,29, 33,34 ndop kir, 27 NEPHELIUM lappaceum, 93,94 ngam-ngam, 25 ngamp-kindjkants, 25 ngimbigi, 27 nonda, 5,6,34 nonda bingi, 24 nonda bingi wam, 24 nonda gegwants ngimbigl, 27,29 nonda kermapip, 27,29 nonda mbogl rongal, 27,28 nonda mbolbe, 28,29 nonda mbopukl tongakl, 28 nonda mosh, 24,27,29 nonda mosh wam, 24 nonda ngam-ngam, 26,29 nonda ngamp-kindjants, 26,29 nonda oboley1, 27,28 nonda to/kangi, 27,28 nonda tua-rua, 27,29 nonda tuburam, 12,17,27,28 nondo, 7 nondo bingi, 24 nondo bolbe, 25 nondo galwans, 25 [ xiv ] nondo napkins gant, 25 nondo ngamngam, 25,26 OAKES-AMESIA, 264 cryptantha C.Schweinf. & P.H.Allen, 264 OCTOMERIA, 254 chloidcphylla (Rchb.f. ) Garay, 253 Dusenii Schltr., 253 Juergensii Schlitr., 253,254 sagittata (Rehb,f.) Garay, 253 OECOPHYLLA smaragdena, 93 ONCIDIUM superfiuum Rehb.t., 261 orchid hybrids generic names, 141-212 ORMOSIA, 269,270,271 amazonica Ducke, 272 var. venenifera R. EF. Schullt., 271,273,275 coccinea (4ubl.) Jackson var. subsimplex (Spr. ex Benth.) Rudd, 276,277 discolor Spr. ex Benth., 271 isthmensis Stand/, 276,281 lignivalvis Rudd, 276,278,282 macrophylla Benth., 278,283 monosperma, 270 Williamsii Rudd, 271 ORNITHIDIUM, 260 chloroieucum Barb.-Rodr., 258,259 compactum Schltr., 258 dichotomum Schltr., 259 nubigenum Rchb.f., 257,258 parvifiorum Rehb.f., 258 penduium Cogn., 259 ruberrimum Rehb.f., 260 Tafaliae Rehb.f., 259 virescens Schltr., 259 ORNITHOCEPHALUS longilabris Schltr., 263 stenoglottis Rchbf., 263 oronge, 25 ORTHAULAX, 293 ontr miru, 27 PACHIRA (Bombax) aquatica, 307,315,317 PACHYPHYLLUM pamplonense Kral., 258 padang, 71 PANDANUS, 12 p ankka, 120 parica, 115 pasar, 65 PEGANUM Harmala L., 115 PELLICIERA, 821 rhizophorae Pl. & Tr., 303, 313,315 peonia, 278 PERNETTYA, 280 prostrata (Cav.) Sleumer, 278, 279,284 var. Pentlandia (DC. ) Sleumer, 279 var. purpurea (D. Don) Sleumer, 279 PESCATORIA euglossa [ichb.f., 257 Schroederiana Rolfe, 257 PETALOCENTRUM, 262 angustifolium Schltr., 262,263 bicornutum Schltr., 262 pusillum Sehltr., 262 PHILODENDRON, 278 [ xv ] PHYLLANTHUS emblica, 100 indicus, 100 pi-aria, 63 pi-djo-rara, 63 picdnga, 132 PIERARDIA dulcis Jack, 82 Motleyana Muell.-Arg., 73 racemosa Bl., 74 sapida Roxb., 83 sapota, 84 pineapple, 95 PINUS, 217,218,225,319, 322 pionia montanera, 270 PIPTADENIA macrocarpa Benth., 116 peregrina L., 116 PLATYSTELE microtantha (Schiltr.) Garay, 251 misera (Lindl. ) Garay, 251 PLECTROPHORA alata (Rolfe) Garay, 261 PLEUROTHALLIS chloidophylla Rehb.f., 253 cuneifolia Cogn., 252 hypnicola Lindl., 252 microtantha Schltr., 251 misera Lindl., 251 nittiorhyncha Lindl., 253 parva Rolfe, 252,258 perparva Standl. & L.O.Wms., 251 sagittata Rchb.f., 253,254 sonderanoides Hoehne, 252, 253 PODOCARPUS, 315,318 pollen, 37-45,48-57,213-218, 221-227 ,289,291,294, 296— 301,303-305,311-313 pollen, fossil, 42-44,56,57,297, 300,301, 304-306, 311,313- 315,318-320 Engelhardtia-type, 314,315, 317-319 Pachira-type, 315 Pelliciera-type, 313-315 Podocarpus-type, 315 Rhizophora-type, 298,305, 314,317-320 R. aff. uncertain-type, 305, 312-314,320 R. brevistyla-type, 300 R. Harrisonii-type, 303,312 R. Mangle-type, 291,301, 303,305,312-314,317,318 R. racemosa-type, 301,303, 312 R. samoensis-type, 300,303 R. spp.-type, 301,305,312- 314,320 pomelo, 95 POPULUS, 217,218 PORROGLOSSUM amethystinum (Rchb.f. ) Garay, 251,252 colombianum Schlitr., 251,252 Xipheres (Rchb f.) Garay,252 PRESTOEA sp., 125 PRESTONIA amazonica, 115 PSALLIOTA aurantioviolacea Heim, 28 PSEUDOMAXILLARIA chloroleuca Hoehne, 259 PSILOCYBE, 26 [ xvi ] psychotropic drugs, 113,114, 117-119,127 PTEROCARPUS officinalis, 307 pupor, 72,83,84,94 PUTRANJIVA Roxburghii, 100 QUERCUS, 217,218,224 rambai, 65,66,71-75,77,81,84, 88,90,92-95,100,101 rambai ayam, 71 rambat pontianak, 72 rambeh, 83 rambutan, 93-95 REICHENBACHANTHUS emarginatus Garay, 255 reflerus (Lindl.) Brade, 255 remedio, 120,121 rempah ratus, 100 resin, 290-293, 308,311,317, 319 Restrepia, 252 nittiorhyncha (Lindl.) Garay, 253 Schlimu Rebb.f., 253 RHIZOPHORA, 281,291,297- 301, 303-308, 311-314, 317- 321 brevistyla Salvosa, 298,300 Harrisonii Leechm., 298-300, 308,307,312 Mangle L., 297-301,3083, 306,308,309,312-314,317, 318 racemosa G.F.W.Mey., 298- 301, 303,307,312 samoensis (Hochr.) Salvosa, 297-300,303,314,317,318 RODRIGUEZIA anomala Rolfe, 261 secunda, 60,63 uliginosa Cogn., 261 rongal, 27 Rusiaceak, 72 RUSSULA, 6 nondorbingi Sing., 24,25 cf. delica Fr., 29 RYPAROSA fasciculata, 71 sacawaska, 120,121 sach'a, 120 salaman boracéra, 134,135 SALIX, 218 SCAPHOSEPALUM amethystinum Schltr., 252 carpophorum (Krszil.) Garay, 251 Endresianum Krzl., 251 Xipheres Schltr., 252 SCAPHYGLOTTIS, 259 aurea Foldats, 255 bicornis (Lindl.) Garay, 255 genychila Schltr., 255 parviflora Poepp. & Endl., 258,259 pendula Poepp. & Endl., 259, 260 reflexa Lindl,, 255 ruberrima Lindl., 260 var. aurea Rehb.f., 255 Tafallae Rchb.f., 259,260 setambun, 68,100 sikse tomakéfio, 129 SIMABA sp., 59,61,63,64 SIMARUBACEAR, 59 [ xvii ] SOBRALIA D’Orbignyana Rehb.f., 249, 250 Kalbreyeri Schltr., 249,250 parviflora L.O.Wms., 249, 250 semperflorens Krzl., 249 sokan, 123 SoLANACEAR, 114,230 SOPHRONITIS ochroleuca Hort. ex Regel, 258 SPECKLINIA graminea Poepp. & Endl., 262 SPHYRASTYLIS, 264 cryptantha (C. Schweinf. & P.H. Allen) Garay, 264 Escobariana Garay, 263 Hoppii Schitr., 264 SPIRANTHES cernua (L.) L.C. Rich., 250 coccinea Garay, 250 corymbosa KArzl., 250 spores, fern, 319 fungal, 312-314,318,319 STENIA Jimbriata Linden & Rehb.f., 256 STENORHYNCHUS cernuus Lindl., 250 STIGMATOSTALIX, 262 bicornuta Rolfe, 267 graminea (Poepp. & Endl. ) Rehb f., 262 peruviana Rolfe, 262 pusilla Schltr., 262 STROPHARIA, 26 SyMPLOCACEAR, 72 ’ SYMPLOCOS rigida, 72 rubiginosa, 72 tai, 15,22 tambun tahi, 101 tampoi, 66,72 tamun, 68,69 tatmbwa, 123 tchuru-tchuru, 64 teb-gande, 64 teosinte, 37-45,48-55 tep-kané, 63 TETRAGAMESTUS aureus Rehb.f., 255 TETRAPTERYS methystica R. FE. Schult., 114 TEUSCHERIA venesuelana Garay, 256 Wageneri (Ichb.f.) Garay. timbd, 64 TIMONIUS Wallichianus, 72 tyupa, 77,82,83 tobacco, 119 tomu, 27 tongark, 28 TRICHOCENTRUM alatum Rolfe, 261 Tripsacum, 37-45,48,49,285— 287 australe, 285-287 dactyloides, 39-41,48,49,56 fossil, 56,57 tuadwa, 25 tuak tampoi, 66 TUBIPORUS appendiculatus, 17 [ xviii ] ULMUS, 217,218,221 yahi, 120 VACCINIUM yaxe, 120 floribundum HBK, var. ramosissimum (D. Don) Sleumer, 280 vilea, 116 yopo, 116 ZEA, 43,44 Mays, 39,41 ; ZYGOPHYLLACEAE, 116 vinho de Jurumena, 116 : . ZYGOPETALUM ene Mace euglossum Rehb.f., 257 VOCHYSIA Jlaveolum Linden & Rehb.f., ferruginea Mart., 278 256 wa-ira-cinga, 132 Roeslii var. euglossum Rehb.f., WARSCEWICZELLA om picta Rchb.f., 256,257 ZYGOSTATES Bradei (Schltr.) Garay, 263 waskha, 120 ; : rotundiglossa Pabst, 262 yageé, 113,115,119,120,122 [ xix ] ERRATA page 27, line 33 for Castinopsis read Castanopsis page 81, line 32 for Fruiticulture read Fruitculture page 102, line 9 for 1980 read 1930 page 106, line 13 for Apollo read Pollo page 251, line | for microtantha read microtatantha page 251, line 2 for mirotantha read microtatantha page 258, line 9 for Camaridium read Ornithidium page 258, line 12 for Maxillae read Maxillaria page 276, line 1 for (Spr. ex Benth. Rudd) read (Spr. ex Benth.) Rudd Issued June 21, 1968 Vot-2hy No.1 THE ‘MUSHROOM MADNESS’ OF THE KUMA BY RoGcer Hem! ann R. Gorpon Wasson? Few have heard of the ‘mushroom madness’ that strikes at irregular intervals some of the natives of the Wahgi Valley in New Guinea. Even in New Guinea itself those of European race are often not informed about this puz- zling behavior. But for us who had long been studying the role of wild mushrooms in primitive cultures, the first intimation of the mushroom madness to reach us, early in 1958, arrested our attention: we seized on it and both from published sources and by private correspond- ence tried to inform ourselves about it. The more we learned, the more we were baffled. At last cireumstances permitted us to visit the Wahgi: in 1963, accompanied by Dr. Marie Reay, anthropologist of the Australian National University, we spent about three weeks on the scene. Mount Hagen and the Wahgi River are in that por- tion of New Guinea administered by Australia under mandate from the United Nations. They are in the Western Highlands. The river flows eastward through ‘Member of Académie des Sciences, Paris; Director of the Muséum National d’ Histoire Naturelle, Paris; Director of its Laboratoire de Cryptogamie; Editor of the Revue de Mycologie. * Research Fellow, Botanical Museum of Harvard University. [1] a broad valley the altitude of which above sea-level is about one mile. The length of the valley is some fifty miles, the breadth from eight to 14 miles. The valley is bounded on the west by Mount Hagen, on the east by the Chimbu massif, on the north by the lofty Bismarck range with Mount Wilhelm towering 15,400 feet high, and on the south by Mount Kubor, 14,000 feet high, and its abutments. Lying five or six degrees south of the equator and enjoying an abundant rainfall, it basks in eternal summer. How inviting must have been the pros- pect, when European eyes first viewed this valley from the ground, with its luxuriant vegetation and its riot of strange wild flowers, hardly more than 80 years ago, in 1933! The Australian party headed by the Leahy broth- ers that first penetrated this valley could have experienced the awe of discovery that attends the first view of a green and enchanting land—the first view, that is, by persons of the modern world. They found the valley inhabited by a farming population, perhaps some 30,000 in num- ber, ranging in color from deep copper to black, their hair crinkly, normal in stature and of good physique, all speaking the same language with dialectal differences. At least one group of these people called their speech Yuw, by which in their language they meant ‘real speech’, to distinguish it from all the other languages and dialects. All the languages were unwritten, of course. We know now that the language of the Wahgi is closely related to Medlpa, spoken by the Mount Hagen tribes. Presumably in the not distant past one people speaking a single tongue split up, and in isolation each developed out of the original stock its own language. Their remoter origins are not yet known. ‘The ‘mushroom madness’ is a feature of both cultures, although it seems to be dying out among the MedIpa speakers. When the Australians arrived on the scene thirty years [2] . Vallée Wo Jim Division ae Wap eo ah... Y~ Sepiz —— ae / ABIAMP® ts KUNDIAWA Mo, fs —_ /f U M Kubor km . ies “ann Map of the region visited by Roger Heim and R. G. Wasson in the Western Highlands of Australian New Guinea in August and September 1963. ] aLVIg ago, the Wahgi people were living in the stone age un- contaminated by the modern world. They knew no metals, no cereals. ‘They bred no beasts of burden to help them in their work. Of course they had no wheel, neither wind-mill nor water-wheel. They possessed no grinding-stone, no mortar-and-pestle. They made no pottery, nor did they acquire pottery from others by trade. ‘They knew no alcoholic drink. They spun no yarn, weaved no cloth, wore no clothes. The women wore a cache-sexe of strings, fore and aft, suspended around the hips by a cord. ‘The men wore a double layer of netting in front, suspended from a plaited belt, and behind a bustle of leaves, the stems of the leaves being stuck fast inside the same belt. But it was in the adorn- ment of their own persons that the culture of the Wahgi Valley ran riot. They would rub their bodies in the fat of pigs, until their bodies shone like metal. They would daub their bodies with colored earths, in the ease of recent widows a ghastly white from head to foot. They would tattoo themselves in asymmetrical patterns. They would wear plaited arm bands and ankle bands. There was a recognized hierarchy, according to beauty and rarity, of shells and tusks that they wore through the nasal septum, around the neck, or encircling the jaw bone. On ceremonial occasions the men would don the most stupendous head-dresses made up of plumes of rare birds, especially birds of paradise, which are the conspicuous feature of the bird life of New Guinea. The substance of native life has not changed to this day: the sing-songs and courting practices continue as before, and the exchange of bride and _ bride-price, and the ceremonial pig-feasting. But the din of the modern world, with its conveniences, is mingling most incon- gruously with the ancient ways, and change is setting in under the influence of administrative penetration and of [ 4] the religious schools. Few if any natives of the Wahgi have been taught English. Only the missionaries and Dr. Reay have set out to learn the language of the Wahgi valley, and they are modest in speaking of their attainments. The peoples of the two races meet on com- mon ground in Pidgin, a language that filters out all that is distinctive and most that is of value in both cultures. Only now, at last, since Don and Janet Phillips of the Summer School of Linguistics have taken up residence at Tomoil, outside of Minj, is a start being made to- ward a deeper understanding of the native tongue. In the first ethnographic document ever published about the Mount Hagen natives, by Father William A. Ross, S$. V.D., there is already a reference to the ‘mush- room madness’. Written in 1934, the year after the Leahy brothers penetrated into the area on the first patrol, I’ather Ross’s account has this to say: ‘The wild mushroom called nonda makes the user temporarily in- sane. He flies into a fit of frenzy. Death is even known to have resulted from its use. It is used before going out to kill another native, or in times of great excitement, anger or sorrow.’ Father Ross wrote this statement after he had been in the country only ashort time. Inevitably it is inaccurate, but it shows the initial impact on an in- telligen: observer of a peculiar cultural manifestation, and it served to draw the attention of the learned world to the problem. ' Rev. Wm. Ross: ‘Ethnological Notes on Mt. Hagen Tribes’, Anthropos, 31, 341-363 (351), 1986. In a footnote Father Ross ex- plains thet he composed his notes on the basis of ethnographic and linguistic observations of the Rev. Fr. J. Kirschbaum and Dr. Cbr. von Firer-Haimendorf. Of the following references the first three reflect Father Ross’s observations. (a) Gitlow, Benjamin L.: Economics of the Mount Hagen Tribes, New Guinea. Amer. Ethnological Soc., Monograph XII, 1947. (The [5 ] author repeats what Father Ross says almost verbatim, but forgets to mention his source. ) (b) Vicedom, G.P., and H. Tischner: Die Mbowamb. Die Kultur der Hagenberg-Stimme in Ostlichen Zentral-Neuguinea. Private English translation by F. E. Rheinstein and E. Klestadt, Vol. 2, 496-7. (c) Wasson, V.P., and R.G. Wasson: Mushrooms Russia & History, Pantheon Books, N.Y., 1957. (The authors cite Gitlow, not knowing that he was quoting Father Ross.) Up to now the only serious research into the mushroom madness has been that done by an anthropologist : (d) Reay, Marie: The Kuma; Freedom and Conformity in the New Guinea Highlands, Melbourne University Press, 1959, pp. 188-196. (e) Reay, Marie: ‘‘‘Mushroom Madness’’ in the New Guinea Highlands’, Oceania, Vol. XXXI, No. 2, Dec. 1960; 137-139. In addition, Roger Heim in his Champignons Toxiques et Hallucino- genes (Boubée ed., Paris, 1963, pp. 195-201, 289) summarizes our knowledge of the mushroom madness up to 1962, and poses the vari- ous problems presented by this manifestation. Dr. Rolf Singer, on his part, published a note ona Russula that was put forward as a cause of the mushroom madness: “A Russula provok- ing hysteria in New Guinea’, Mycopath. et Mycol. Applicata, 9 (4) pp. 275-278, 1958. But, as a result of our latest observations of ma- terial, it seems that the Russula used by the Kuma is very similar to, but not identical with, the species sent to Dr. Singer. We should add that for years the Australian administrators of the Western Highlands have been concerned with the medical and legal aspects of ‘mushroom madness’. The relevant correspondence has been concentrated largely in the hands of Dr. Dorothy E. Shaw, Principal Plant Pathologist, Department of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries, Port Moresby. We are grateful to her and to Mr. Stanley Christian, Research Officer of the Malaria Control School, Kundiawa, for their cordial collaboration. Dr. Shaw’s activities have so far led to the publication of a bibliographical note on p. 12 of the Annotated List of References to Plant Pathogens and Miscellaneous Fungi in West New Guinea, Research Bulletin No. 1, 1963, Department of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries, of which Dr. Shaw is the author. Thanks to him, for the first time the native word nonda entered into the consciousness of anthropologists. It is used in the Wahgi Valley and apparently around Mount Hagen as a general term for all mushrooms. Don Phil- lips pointed out to us that ronda” means also ‘he will ’ Mr. Phillips tell us that the word nonda should be written nonde, [ 6 | eat’, and nondo, ‘he can eat’, words derived from the stem non, ‘eat’. He thinks the word used for ‘mush- room’ is a homonym and unrelated to non. We may accept his opinion in the present state of our knowledge of the native language, but if as a result of his further studies he should change his mind, we should (as we were tempted to do in the first place) be presented with proof of an association of ideas that would have considerable ethnomvcological meaning. The fact is that the food gathering stage of culture is not far distant in the Wahgi Valley, and many species of mushrooms are still an im- portant source of nourishment for the Kuma, as for other New Guinea ethnic groups such as the Gadsup.* Before the introduction of the sweet potato and the taro, it is possible, even probable, that mushrooms played a still more important part in the lives of these primitive peoples. In this tropical land where rain is not lacking, mushrooms are gathered during most of the year, and it would not be surprising if the word expressing the act of eating were applied in a secondary sense to the daily nourishment brought back from the bush and the deep forest. We remained in the Wahgi from the 27th of August until the middle of September, most of the time in Kon- dambi, a native village where we were the only out- siders. In the middle 50’s Marie Reay had spent 15 months =here: she was now returning for the first time. The villagers greeted her with noisy manifestations of affection, and her introduction was invaluable to us. We but it seeras to us that usage has already expressed its preference for the former. Our stay in New Guinea was too short to satisfy us that we had obtained an accurate method of phonetic transcription of the na- tive names, but we believe that our transcriptions will be recognizable. ° Vide Heim, Roger: ‘Les Champignons alimentaires des Gadsup’, Cahiers du Pacifique, Paris, fasc. 6, p. 12, June 1964. [7] took up residence in the house of the Luluai Wamdi.‘ It was an oval hut, its internal dimensions being about 14 feet by 10. The dirt floor was covered with dry grass, the thatched roof was supported by two poles and a cross beam, with many struts running from the central beam to the outer walls. The door was so low that we had to bend double to enter, and there were no windows. The Luluai asked us gently to remove our shoes on entering : he never wore any. Soil was piled up around the house, built of course of wood, sealing it from wind and rain. At night a wood fire was built in a hollow on the floor. As there was no way out for the smoke—the door was always closed—the atmosphere became for us Europeans intolerable, except when we lay close to the ground in our sleeping bags. At intervals during the night we would awaken and see Wamadi stirring the fire. His big, spare, dark frame as he knelt in the smoke over the flam- ing embers, his prognathous jaw, his contemplative ex- pression, seemed to speak for countless generations of stone-age men, as they tended their fires in rising wisps of smoke, in smoke-filled huts. One or another of his children always slept in our house—his wives had each her own house—, and it was moving to watch silently the gestures of tenderness between father and child. This, including the smell of smoke, was home for the stone-age man. Heim spent his days receiving deliveries of mushrooms from the villagers, identifying them, describing them in his note-book, painting them, and going out on forays to see where they grew. Wasson, on the other hand, **Tuluai’ is a government appointed village headman. The term was introduced by the Germans during their occupation of the New Guinea coast before World War I. It is not a word native to Yuwi, the language of the Kuma. All ‘Luluais’ have lately been superseded by elected Councillors, but the former Luluai usually continues to enjoy his old prestige. [38] went about the countryside, as far as Mount Hagen, gathering testimony as to the mushroom madness. We saw no signs of mushroom madness during the period of our stay. At the end of our stay and after we left, Marie Reay, who had remained in Min}, assembled information including native names of vital importance for us. The data that we gathered fell into three parts: 1. The attitude of Europeans toward the mushroom madness. 2. The quite different attitude of the natives. 3. The species of mushrooms held responsible by the natives for the outbursts. 1. The attitude of the Europeans toward the ‘mushroom madness’. All the Europeans who have been long in the valley know the recurring outbreaks of mushroom madness, and in vary ng degrees they are frightened by it. Here for example is a vivid account, in full, that Don and Janet Phillips sent recently to their friends: . We had been aware of these wild men of the Wahgi even be- fore we came to settle here, having met up with one of them while doing the survey out here. At that time the thought had crossed our mind, ‘Was it demon possession or something else?’ But when just the other day yells and screams came from higher up the mountain and then everybody scattered and hid while a young man holding a spear at the ready rushed down the track, these wild men began to become part of our lives. About six of these men rushed around on that first day striking fear into everybody’s hearts and causing them to rush for cover. Some actually chased some of the people, intend- ing, so it seemed, to do away with them by the arrows or spears that they held. We were standing by a pig feast when the second one came. We could hear him coming by his queer shouts and whistling. As he came around the corner of the nearby house so everybody fled, but we were determined to find out whether he was just playing, or was he really serious? So we stood our ground, being ready however for anything. Though keeping up his whistling he seemed to notice [9 ] us, turned around, and went chasing off in the other direction. Our first encounter seemed to prove that he wasn’t serious. A little later the first man came chasing back up the mountain, then turned off the track and went after a man bigger than himself who ran away. (While writing to you I can hear the screams and yells from down the moun- tain where there is evidently another one of these cases.) As this young fellow came running back up the mountain, I stepped out to meet him. He seemed to be about 17 years of age. I called out to him and walked towards him; however, he didn’t seem to notice me and went racing off. These fits of madness come on when the people begin eating what they call mushrooms, but which to us are more like toadstools. They say that at some unpredictable time their eyes begin to swim, they go deaf and crazy and begin this chasing up and down the mountain. They seem to have an amazing amount of energy, as this proves. Young people as well as men and women are affected, the women danc- ing around, whistling and singing. The whistling is both in and out with every breath, they also giggle and laugh and let out snorts and loud yells. After dinner another one came by our house: he was a full-grown man. He seemed to slow up by our house and so I walked over to him calling out to him. Everybody else had fled. As I drew near so he turned to look at me. I’ve never seen crazy maniacal eyes before, but I’m sure that I saw them then. All of a sudden I got an uneasy feeling in my stomach. I realized that only as I was in the Lord and under His blood was I safe. However, trying not to show my feel- ings, | went right up to him. My dog Rex, his hair standing on end, growled at my side. Coming up to him I tried to take his spear and bow from him. He struggled a little and his glassy eyes kept swim- ming around in his head. After a while I let him go and he went off down the mountain, shortly to be followed by another of his kind. All of these men we know personally. Well, the question remained, “Is this demon possession or not?’ Actually the continual state of tension that these chaps were keeping us in was beginning to get on our nerves, so that we determined not to go out and look at just every wild man that rushed by my house but let things take their normal path. The fit seemed to last only a few hours, then the person concerned recovered and acted normally, that is as far as the men were concerned. The women would be affected with a type of drunkenness that lasted for a couple of days. Saturday afternoon a patrol officer from Minj, a Christian, came out to see us, and leaving Janet we went up the mountain to do some shooting. (Our game was ‘hawks’ which were killing all the fowls around here.) We returned at about 5:30 in time for tea. On return- [ 10 | ing Janet told us that while we were away another six of these men had been tearing around our house, while she remained inside with our two dogs. We let the people know that we were quite annoyed at this and determined in ourselves that we would investigate this matter some more. It was that night as our guest was preparing to depart that we heard the yells of one of these men coming down a nearby mountain track. The path on which he was coming led right by our house, and so by the light of the moon we waited for him — he was covered in a white mud and looked real ghostly. Normally Rex, our dog, won’t attack a person, but now he and the other dog realized that something was very wrong, and down the path they went. The yell that this fellow let out when he saw the dogs coming was tremendous, he lifted his spear high in the air and then tried to bring it clown on Rex, but missed. He then began to make his way back along the path with the dogs driving him. He went up on the gardens and then after about ten minutes of yelling and groaning with dogs harrassing him, though not biting, he collapsed out of sheer exhaustion. We went up to him and knelt over him and tried to talk to him. He kept up his groaning and snorting and twisting and turn- ing. We.l, was he serious? Yes, we believe that he was. Well, what had caused it? We decided that it was a mixture of three things. First, he desired to have attention paid him; secondly, the mush- rooms giving a reasonable excuse to cause a scene, he then worked himself up into a passive state and gave himself over to the devil, and in this state he went racing off around the country terrifying everybocy. Soas we waited beside him there we challenged the evil spirit in «he name of the Lord Jesus Christ. Gradually his eyes began to clear, and though he kept upa form of groaning, most of the vehe- mence had gone out of him. We soon had him on his feet and led him back to our house where quite a large group had gathered. They told this chap off and then we let him go, and he went quietly off down the mountain. He wasn’t one of the men from our clan, but had run for miles across the mountains... . At the beginning of April 1968, Frank Porter and Harry Lake, two public officials, were seated at a patrol table in Minj. A crowd of natives were opposite, facing them. Suddenly arrows struck the table top in front of them. The crowd took to their heels. The two officials ran for their lives, in opposite directions, one of them seizing a bicycle that a bewildered native was riding, to hasten his get-away. They swear that the native assail- ant meant business. [11 ] Jeff Broomhead, twelve miles from Mount Hagen down the valley, said that two years ago Manga, a former Luluai, came brandishing a spear. Everyone ran away. When they returned with a gun, the man was normal. In the Chimbu area the nut of a species of Pandanus is also taken, it seems, with identical results. We were told that the nut is not from native trees; traders get it from the Jimi Valley, and the species has not yet been determined. Some white people assume that the panda- nus nut ferments before it can have an effect, but we could find not the slightest justification for this facile surmise. In the Banz area a tree known to natives as kawang (Castanopsis acuminatissima (Bl) Hack & Camus, Fagaceae), yields seed that, when steamed and eaten in quantity, has the same effect as the mushrooms. (This is, incidentally, the tree that many mushrooms grow under, especially the ronda tuburam.) The Rev. W. F. White, head of the Church of the Nazarene at Kudjip, 10 miles from Minj, one day met a man armed with an axe rushing down the path, obvi- ously mad with mushrooms. Mr. White was knocked down, but a native friend came out and attacked the as- sailant, who fled. Mr. White suffered no injury. Back in 1949 the Rev. Herman Mansur, Lutheran missionary at Banz, returned home to find his wife terror-stricken by the threatening behavior of a mushroom-mad native. Mr. Mansur jumped on his horse and chased the culprit up hill and down dale. He never returned. In February 1968 a local man in Banz chased people with a spade. He was held down by several other natives, escaped, and in the scuffle hit one boy rather hard with the spade. The others, furious, ‘worked him over’; then they dis- covered that he had been fooling all the time. He jerked out of it. As a peace offering they held a pig feast at which they all sat down together. [ 12 ] In September 1968 a man was charged in Min) with arson. He had burnt down two houses and was con- victed. His defense was that he was under the influence of mushrooms and therefore not responsible for his be- havior. [t seemed likely that that was an excuse. In any case the white man’s courts do not exonerate a man for offences committed while under the mushroom influence. In fact, ‘arson’ seems an excessive charge when speak- ing of the natives: a native dwelling can be built in two days. We visited Father William A. Ross, S.V.D., of the Catholic Mission of the Holy Trinity at Mount Hagen. He was the first missionary to enter the area, having come in 1984, the year after the initial penetration. (We have already quoted from his report, written at that time.) After our visit he sent us a letter in which he gave his considered opinion that imagination plays a large part in bringing on the effects of the mushrooms, and that large quantities of the mushrooms must in any case be eaten, mixed with other foods. He said that ‘mush- room madness’ had virtually died out in the Mount Hagen area, though large quantities of the same mush- rooms continue to be consumed by the natives. Father John Sheerin, S.V.D., of the Mingende Mission that lies beyond the other end of the valley, when we ques- tioned him, did not know of the mushroom madness, but on inquiring of the natives attached to his mission, discovered that they knew all about it. Whether the Wahgi Valley natives have influenced this area, or whether the phenomenon is indigenous in the Chimbu we do not know. The area of diffusion of ‘mushroom madness’ has never been defined. It is certain that the madness is known among the Sina-Sina people, ten miles east of Kundiawa on the road to Goroka, where a mush- room causing the outburst is called Awzrin. Our informant [13 ] is Charles Turner, the local member of the Summer In- stitute of Linguistics). This carries the limits well be- yond where it has previously been reported and into an area of a distinct linguistic family. Many Europeans at the upper end of the Wahgi Valley told us that you could predict the coming of the madness: it always started, they said, at the lower end of the valley, and moved up from clan to clan, about two days to the clan. They did not know what prompted the start and could not pre- dict it. We will conclude this section of our report with a quotation from a letter received since we left Wahgi Valley, written by the Rev. Rudolf Wenger, whom we will have occasion to mention again. Written on May 22, 1964, in French, its tenor supports our skepticism as to the active role of mushrooms in the ‘madness’ : May I tell you about an instance of the madness? It took place one Sunday morning, about 9 o’clock. We had left the church when a native, about 50 years old, suddenly appeared armed with lance and knife. He stopped on the road at the entrance to our compound. He returned to his first position and started to cry in a loud voice: ‘Come and tie me up!’ Noticing other people, he ran after them. Finally he came back with the two cords in his hands, dropped his arms, and called to me in song, begging me to tie him up with those cords. I came up to him, brought him to the house, and gave him some ba- nanas, which he ate rapidly. I called on Jesus, and about a half hour later he had recovered, hearing and talking as he would do naturally. I observed that when we had prayed, he collapsed immediately, as if be were released or if a power were leaving him. He assured us that he had not eaten mushrooms and that the crisis had come over him suddenly. 2. The attidude of the natives to ‘mushroom madness’ . Here, as we have already said, Miss Reay is our first and foremost source. We are indebted to her not only for her publications but also for personal communications concerning the Kuma, inhabitants of the Wahgi Valley who live to the south of the river, around Kondambi. [ 14 ] The Kuma employ a special term, komugil tai, for the madness caused by the mushrooms. The original mean- ing of komugl is ‘ear’, but it can also mean deafness, and it also means all kind of madness, either permanent or temporary. An imbecile is komugl, the term being ex- plained by the fact that though he may not be deaf, he acts as though he might be. A person who is crazy is also komugls for he does not respond normally to what is said to him or in his presence. Komugil tai is a specific kind of madness, the one linked with the consumption of certain species of mushrooms.’ A man is struck with komugl tai when his madness is accompanied by shiver- ing. Yet taz by itself does not denote shivering. It is the name in Yuwi of the Raggiana, one of the most spectacu- lar of the birds of paradise. Miss Reay has raised with us the question whether tac might mean the way the Raggiana shakes his feathers when he takes part in his courtship dance, when he ‘displays’. Her suggestion is promis ng, and in fact it could hold the key to the prob- lem of the pretended madness caused by the mushrooms. Miss Reay gives examples of old women who developed madness, but not the madness caused by mushrooms; they were considered komugl but never komugi tai. In fact it is only the men who are afflicted with homugl tai through the power of the mushrooms. Women be- come ndaad/ from mushrooms, never komugl tat. They become delirious and irresponsible, begin to dance and sing, and order their husbands or sons to decorate them with their best feathers. Their men folk do so and give them weapons to hold. The women find at this time their only chance to dance in formation as the men and unmarried girls do. After this kind of quadrille they relax inside their houses while others gather to watch them. >The term komugl tai is also used for the madness that seized the Kuma during the ‘cargo cult’ of 1949, according to Miss Reay. [ 15 ] The women giggle, flirting with their husbands’ clans- men and boasting of real or imaginary sexual adventures. At least one woman’s boasting appeared to be genuinely delusional, and several of them seemed to have momen- tary delusions that they were still unmarried. Men who are komugl tai behave quite differently. They bedeck themselves with their most extraordinary orna- ments, seize their arms, and terrorize the community. They attack the men of their own clan and their families ; some go to the neighboring communities and there frighten their relatives. They are tense, excited, and afflicted with shivering in the extremities of their fingers. They say they see double and they seem to suffer from intermittent aphasia. Minor injuries are sometimes in- flicted but Miss Reay knows of no serious wounds. The men attack fellow clansmen only when spectators are present, so that the attackers are restrained in case of need. Those afflicted with the madness ignore each other and threaten only those who are normal. ‘T'wo men’s attempts to set fire to houses belonging to other men of their sub-subclans were promptly thwarted. Women and youths deliberately encouraged the men to be aggressive, emerging from behind houses and trees at a safe distance and withdrawing quickly with excited shrieks and gig- gles when a madman caught sight of them and lunged forward with spear poised or bow drawn. For people not affected, it is an exciting diversion; for the chief actors, it is a departure from the normal to be joked about in retrospect.’ Neither prestige nor stigma accrues to the person affected. ‘The Kuma consider that the heros in this drama are not responsible for their acts. One subject to attacks of ndaadl or komugl tai knows when a crisis is coming and can escape by plunging in the near-by river. A woman who had been ndaadl before said she was now too old to make an exhibit of herself [ 16 | and so when she felt an attack approaching, she bathed to free herself of the fungal influence.°® The mushrooms that are considered the cause of this madness grow all year around. Young and old, men and women, eat them in all seasons, generally mixed with other vegetables. Of the species that may cause the mad- ness, there is only one that is eaten raw, nonda tuburam, extremely close to T'ubiporus appendiculatus of Kurope. (Our informants, unlike Miss Reay’s, were categorical that nonda tuburam never caused ‘mushroom madness’. ) The madness occurs once or twice a year, without prior ritual. "Che mushrooms can be roasted or cooked with other vegetables. Different species are often mixed in the same receptacle, which may partly explain the dis- crepancies in the testimony of the natives as to the spe- cies causing the madness. Although children eat the mushrooms, they are never komugl tat or ndaadl, but from the age of 17 until 70 certain members of the community are taken by this affliction and they are always the same ones, though not all those subject to it are homugl tai at the same time. Miss Reay observes that in 1954 about 30 persons of the Kugika clan were seized by the madness out of 313 that made up the community. To these 80 must be added another eight who were known to be subject to this mad- ness but who on this occasion had escaped its effects. According to the natives, it is a question of heredity, ® Muka, one of our informants, told us he had been subject to re- peated crises of madness caused by the mushrooms during his whole adult life, until about two years before, when he had rid himself of the afHiction by plunging six times running in a pool of cold water. We spoke with Muka in the house of the Rev. Rudolf Wenger of the Swiss Evangelical Mission. It is not irrelevant to mention that sub- sequently Muka was elected Counsellor. His ‘cure’ coincides with his entry into the new order of affairs created by the social and politi- cal development in this part of New Guinea. [17 | L a person being subject to the madness if one of his par- ents, or both, were similarly afflicted. But Miss Reay remarked in 1954 that certain individuals were homugl tai who ought not to have been. In those cases one said that either the father or mother was subject to the mad- ness without that fact being commonly known, or else that the individuals were pretending. Only one offspring in a susceptible family is susceptible. After we left the Wahgi Valley in 1968, Miss Reay picked up a remarkable story of which the hero is Tun- amp, an adolescent of 16 years, son of Kanant, the woman who had been subject to the madness but who had freed herself by bathing in the river. ‘Tunamp, though only 16, is already subject to attacks of mushroom madness. This came about more or less as follows. Ombun, an aging man closely linked clan-wise with Tunamp, de- cided he should pass on his ‘madness’ to Tunamp. Om- bun told Tunamp that henceforth he, Tunamp, could go homugl tai instead of Ombun himself. Tunamp, remem- bering what Ombun said, ate the mushrooms in the ex- pectation that he would go homugl tat. He ate them with Nggoi, a man about 80 years old, who had fre- quently experienced the madness, and they both smoked the same cigar together. Nggoi’s ability to go hAmogul fai was communicated to Tunamp by contagion. They both rushed around breaking up bamboo and destroying gardens and fences. ‘lo what Miss Reay says we can add little, though that little may be important. In Banz, which is in Danga country north of the Wahgi, not far from the Kuma but distinguishable from them by dialect and customs, Wilham Meuser, agricultural expert of the Lutheran Mission, presented us to Kondi, Medical Assistant, and Ginga (pronounced as in ‘gingham’), the native school teacher. Commenting on the hereditary aspect of the [ 18 | mushroom madness, Konda said that it passed from par- ent to offspring, but only to one child in the family, usually tne eldest, or if not, then the second or third but never the last of a long line of children. He said that mushroom madness is transmitted from parent to off- spring,—-the rdaad/ manifestation in women and related behavior in men; but that Amogul tai was different : when mushroom madness took someone who did not come by it through heredity, then it assumed the form of komugl tat, and the man ran around with an axe, or bow and arrow, or spear, threatening everyone on his path with sudden cleath. Ginga added a significant thing: not only are children never subject to mushroom madness, but moreover when the time comes for the madness to strike, those ordained to succumb to it will succumb whether they eat the mush- rooms or not, whether they eat the nut of the Castanopsis tree or not. Europeans have been living in the Wahgi Valley and around Mount Hagen for 30 years, and all old-timers know many stories that hinge on the ‘mushroom mad- ness’ of the natives. We find no report of a death caused by these ‘madmen’, no report of even a serious personal injury. Such serious material damage and minor injuries as have occurred seem to have been accidents due to misunderstandings of Europeans. This absence of serious injury and damage after decades of experience is a start- ling fact. After all, maniacs do not always miss their aim. We think that one of the keys to the mystery has found its lock opening the door to the explanation. In summing up the testimony of our European infor- mants, we recall that on five occasions our missionary and his wife met natives in the crisis stage and suffered no injury. On another occasion, when dogs had been let loose against a manin a state of komugl tai, he ran away [ 19 ] howling and finally collapsed on the trail from fright and fatigue. Frank Porter and one of his colleagues were conversing with a group of natives when the arrows of a madman hit the top of the table, but no one was touched. Jeff Broomhead, Mr. White, and Mrs. Mansur were frightened by natives possessed by this madness, yet none of them was wounded. One day, finally, a person was injured, slightly, in the course of an episode at Banz; but in this case the aggressor admitted that he had been pretending all along, and a feast of pig meat restored peace among all concerned. In the writings of Miss Reay and Stanley Christian,’ asin those of the missionaries, it is frequently stated that the natives, in certain particu- lar circumstances, have simulated the mushroom mad- ness. ‘These are probably cases where the individuals were actors acting without conviction. A man accused of having set fire to a hut suggests a more interesting situation. If, having eaten the mushrooms, he had been genuinely struck with komugl tai, he was not, according to native custom, responsible for his actions, and there- fore merited no punishment. According to the white man’s law, he was on the contrary responsible and liable to punishment. It is probable that he had done his deed expecting the adults who were looking at him to inter- vene in time to prevent all damage. It is to be noted that if Europeans were involved, ignorant of the role they were supposed to play in this little drama, that ignorance would relieve them of any responsibility. But if the man was not in astate of homugl tai, and if no one was present to stop him in case of need, his guilt becomes positive and his method of defense is only a device, and, by the same token, a deceit. One can see the difficulties 7 Letter of Stanley Christian to Dr. Dorothy E. Shaw dated De- cember 10, 1957 included in the compilation forwarded by Dr. Shaw to Roger Heim with her letter of August 20, 19638. [ 20 ] facing the Australian magistrates in handling these cases, where subtle nuances in tribal customs must be taken into account. Little by little we begin to see clear: Miss Reay dis- cerned the truth when she wrote that the ‘mushroom madness’ had become institutionalized and that it served as a social catharsis. Is it possible that we are dealing here with a primitive phase in the evolution of the drama, a drama without stage or audience, in which the whole village takes part, the lead roles being assigned by he- redity to a few families, one to a family, the other roles falling into place as the simple drama unfolds? There is a tacit understanding on everyone’s part to make-believe, the ‘madmen’ that they are mad, whistling and roaring in maniacal fury, tearing up and down the mountain trails; others including the children running as if for their lives and hiding and peering out and pretending to taunt the maniacs, with a posse of men on hand, in ac- cordance with the prior tacit agreement, to stop the mad- men from the consequences of their act. Meanwhile the women who are ndaad/ dance in formations correspond- ing to their husband’s sub-clans, directly contrary to the rules that govern their behavior in normal times. The women wear their husbands’ finery, the best plumes and spears, a startling instance of transvestism in this primi- tive community. These married women boast of sexual adventures and irregularities in their own past, some of which at least are not true. Have these tales the elements of extempore verse about them? We are not told. Whaet torpid dolts and killjoys the Europeans must seem to the natives, when they fail to play the game according to the conventional rules! But how are two cultures, separated by millennia and yet co-existing, to communicate with each other? The fact is that the Kuropean cannot judge the whole [ 21 ] pattern of native behavior of which the ‘mushroom mad- ness’ is a culminating point unless he will see that he is in the presence of men and of a civilization intimately associated with Nature. They are a part of Nature just as the animal species are, and the behavior of the fauna actually influences the human behavior. Among the liv- ing creatures of the forest, the birds of paradise, by reason of their astonishing dress and also doubtless because of their equally astonishing courtship practices, offer a source of tempting inspiration. Their courtship dances present, as an aspect of the birds” emotional reaction, a shivering phase, the physiological mechanism of which is known, that is particularly spectacular. It is not sur- prising therefore that the word faz is linked with the name of the ‘madness’, since it is the name of one of the birds of paradise, the Raggiana, that exhibits this kind of agitation in its love-ballet. In our opinion it is not a question of the kinds of mushrooms that this bird eats— such a thing is highly improbable—but the obsessive simulation that the Kuma have achieved, in their own shivering, by observing the birds. The mimetic instinct of the Wahgi natives finds here an exceptional opportu- nity to introduce into their own theater a dramatic scene from Nature’s comedy. We can readily conceive that this interpretation, to which we will revert later, will meet resistance among the Europeans in contact with the Wahgi Valley natives, whose culture is impregnated with values distinct from our own, but values that are perhaps as defensible and even as solid as ours. Rare must be those missionaries, administrators, travellers, planters, merchants, who are ready for a comprehension so close to realities, who pos- sess the humility, the conscience, the breadth of spirit that is needed in judging these Wahgi Valley natives but that is seldom met with among those of advanced 22 civilization. Perhaps the episode is true that tells of a Catholic priest who faced an oncoming mushroom maniac, raving and whistling and snorting, axe poised in hand, his eyes glassy and not seeing, obviously one possessed of a demon. Hastily making the sign of a cross with his crucifix and ready for instant martyrdom, our priest cried out ina loud voice, in Latin, ‘Adjuro te, ut desistas, in nomine Domini Nostri Jesu Christi’—‘I ad- jure thee, stay thy hand, inthe name of Our Lord Jesus Christ’. Lo, a miracle was wrought: the wretch lowered his axe and went slinking off down a path to his left, in the direction where souls were traditionally consigned to the eternal fires of hell. Wher talking over these things with William Barclay, a perceptive Control Officer, he stressed to us the amount of play-acting that goes on in the lives of the natives. A woman Is taken in adultery. Her husband puts on a first- class performance. Every shading of his grievance is fully exploited. But once he receives his compensation, his act ends; from then on it would seem that he could not care less. A native who is party to an action in court plays his role with devasting effect; but in the intervals when the proceedings are suspended he forgets his emo- tion and talks calmly about the daily round of minutiae. The Kuma are remarkable comedians, as well as gay companions. 3. The mushrooms responsible for the ‘madness’. The appropriate Australian authorities have lately made some efforts to identify the mushrooms alleged to cause the madness. Dr. Dorothy E. Shaw, Principal Plant Pathologist, was the focus of these activities. Dif- ficulties in the field, linguistic difficulties in coping with native names, unfamiliarity with the proper methods of handling and shipping mushrooms for subsequent study [ 23 ] —all these factors led to delay and confusion. Miss Shaw made five shipments to the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew between August 1957 and the end of 1962. Kew was able to identify only one species, and that one with doubt: Derek Reed linked the material under study with Heimiella retispora (Pat. & Baker) Boedijn sensu Boedijn, a genus separated off from the Boletellus by Boedijn and named in honor of one of us. There is nothing in the papers published about this species to indicate that it might have psychotropic properties. In 1957, Kew for- ~ warded some of the specimens to Dr. Rolf Singer at Ann Arbor, Michigan, where, following in our steps, he was collaborating at the moment with Dr. Alexander Smith on astudy of the hallucinogenic mushrooms of Mexico. “fe proceeded to describe a new species, Russula Non- dorbingt Sing., to which he attributed hallucinogenic ‘properties. The collectors who had sent him the inexact indigenous name of nondorbingi later proposed to replace it by rondo bingi,*’ but Dr. Singer had already published an article on ‘A Russula Provoking Hysteria in New Guinea’ (Mycopathologia et Mycologia Applicata, 9, 4: pp. 275-8), and given it the erroneous name. Here the documentation prior to our inquiries ends. On several occasions we have encountered two Russulas called locally nonda bingi and nonda bingi wam (‘false bingi’). Neither tallies with the description of Dr. Singer, and this is confirmed by the sporal differentiations among the three. The Kuma brought us repeatedly the two kinds, the true and the false nonda bingi, the first edible, the second never eaten. But they also brought us on several occasions two species of white Russulas of which one is called nonda mosh and the other nonda mosh wam, or ‘false nonda mosh’. ‘Throughout the Wahgi the former * Vide letters from Stanley Christian to Dr. Shaw dated Dec. 10, 1957, and Oct. 24, 1962. [ 24 ] is used to incite in the women ndaad/ madness.” All of our information leads us to believe that nonda mosh, quite different from R. Nondorbiugi [sic] Singer, is held respon- sible for much of the psychic disturbance attributed to mushrooms among the women of the Wahgi. The speci- tic epithet Nondorbingi carries no meaning in the Yuwi language. The description of this Russula, as well as other neigh- boring ones that we have just mentioned, will appear elsewhere shortly. We shall stress the fact that such con- fusions stem from difficulties of communication with the natives. Stanley Christian and Dr. Dorothy Shaw de- serve nothing but praise for their persistent efforts to identify the mushrooms at the root of the ‘madness’. We shall refrain from using the word ‘hysteria’, as it is quite clear that hysteria does not fit the case. Until now there have existed two lists of vernacular names tor the mushrooms considered by the natives as responsible for the ‘madness’, one in the article already cited by Marie Reay, published in Oceania, the other compiled by Mrs. Danga Goy (born in the Wahgi Val- ley) and sent by Stanley Christian to Dr. Shaw in his letter dated February 14, 1960. Names proposed by Marie Reay Danga Goi 1. ngam-ngam nondo ngamngam 2. ngamp-kindjkants nondo napkins gant (or gent) 3. kermaikip nondo bolbe 4. tuadwa nondo galwans The descriptive indications accompanying these terms are, mycologically speaking, useless. The first two names 9 ‘ 7 : =r . A recent collection (February 1964) made by Miss Reay permits us to expand our documentation on these Russula species. [ 25 | in both lists seem to be the same; this means that there are six different names in all, We now come to our own list of the mushrooms that the natives say may cause ‘mushroom madness.” The problems in assembling this list were quite different from our difficulties in Mexico, where the identity of the sacred mushrooms was a secret (albeit shared among many natives), to be ferreted out with patience and deli- ‘racy. In Mexico these mushrooms all belonged to three closely related genera of Agaricaceae,— Psilocy be, Stro- pharia, and Conocybe, of which one—the first —covered “most of the species, which reached a dozen in all. The whole subject was instinet with religious feeling and awe. In the Wahgi everyone was ready to be an informant, and it was the abundance of informants that became a danger, the testimony of each witness having to be carefully assayed. In other words, each sought to outdo the others. Thus a man named Wapi, in the home of the Phillipses at Tombil, said that every edible mush- room could cause madness. The others, more selective, offered lists that differed one from another. We shall cite the names of eleven species that appeared (with one ex- ception) in response to many of our inquiries made in the Valley. The notes in quotation marks are from a memorandum of Miss Reay’s drawn up in the course of our joint visit in the region of Min). 1. Nonda ngam-ngam. (No. | in above list) ‘When four or five fungi come up on one stem both men and women are atHicted with mad- ness after eating it. This is the ordinary mushroom madness, the men aggressive, the women with delusions ; common to both sexes are shivering and staring. ‘This mushroom can be cooked in the steampit or in ashes. The leaf of the fosgag/ shrub (in Pidgin, mosong kumu) is cooked with it.’ 2. Nonda ngamp kindjkants. (No. 2 in above list.) “This grows among the pit-pit reeds where the bush has grown after the pigs have been walking about.’ [ 26 ] 10. 11. Nonda gegwants ngimbigl. (No. 4 in Danga’s list). ‘Gegwants =left-handed; ngimbigl]= penis. The form of the stipe reminds one of the human penis. The Kuma believe the mushroom must be picked with the left hand. If picked with the right hand, the person eating it finds that his tongue stings unbearably, he is apt to faint, and ina little while he goes mad. Men and women are equally affected.’ Muka told us in Tsigmel that this was the most powerful kind in provoking mushroom madness. Nonda kermaipip. (No. 3 in Dr. Reay’s list.) “Kermaipip is an edible mushroom that induces madness in both men and women. The jirst syllable, ker-, derives from kir, in ndop kir, the local method of making fire by pulling a strip of bamboo back and forth around a cleft stick and over some dry waste.’ Nonda tua-rua. (No. 4 in Dr. Reay’s list.) ‘This causes madness at the proper times.’ . Miru nonda. ‘This grows on rotting logs, when it is called ontr miru, and on the ground, when it is called magi miru.’ Nonda obolyei. “This name is derived from ‘obo’, bow, in the extended sense of warfare. This is an edible mushroom, black or deep blue in color, growing in the ground. It may make both men and women mad when they eat it. The name is derived from the general word for warfare because of the similarity between the black pigment of the mushroom and the mixture of charcoal and jrrease that is actually smeared on the skin before entering battle.’ Nonda mosh. ‘This mushroom is named after ambugl mosh, a marriageable girl. Everyone eats it but it affects women only, making them ndaad/. Women enjoy eating it, though afterwards they often regret it.’ Nonda tuburam. Among all mushrooms this one ranks first for taste. It can be eaten either raw or cooked,—the only one that is eaten raw. ‘Eating it afflicts both men and women with mad- ness. It grows near the base of either the kawang tree (Castinopsis acuminatissima) or the tomu tree. The mushroom is yellow inside.’ Nonda to’kangi. ‘An edible mushroom, sometimes white, some- times yellow. It causes ndaad/ in women but does not send men komugl tat. When a man eats plenty of these he cannot sleep; he walks about at night and is exposed to bush demons. The mush- room has strange effects on men, but afflicts only women with mushroom madness.’ The mushroom is preferred when it is still in the egg; it is then called katmukum. Nonda mbogl rongal. Mbogl means ‘bed’; rongal means ‘I shall strike.’ [27 ] a Concerning this list we now point out certain discrep- ancies that one of us (Heim) noted in the course of his inquiries in the village of Kondambi. To begin with, No. 6—miru nonda—seems to be not one but two species, neither of which appears to answer to the description made above: the term muiru refers to fleshy and woody agarics: a Mlammula and an Armil- lariella (the latter bearing a synonym berraip nonda). The term seems to be a collective. We are not certain of having collected nonda obolyei, whose scientific iden- tity escapes us, although we can say that it is a Boletus near to B. nigerrimus Heim. The nonda tuburam, ex- ceedingly common, is the ‘‘cépe’’ that is most eaten, both raw and cooked, and it plays no role in the madness. Similarly, the ronda to/hangi is an excellent Caesar’s amanita (in French: oronge), a choice dish among the Kkuma, without psychotropic action, real or pretended, according to our own experience. As for the nonda mbogl rongal, it might be the nonda mbopukhl tongahl or tongark, which is none other than the Psalliota aurantio- violacea Heim, an African and New Guinea species, con- sidered very toxic, even lethal. On the other hand we add without hesitation to Miss Reay’s new list the name of a Heimiella that is of fairly frequent occurrence in the Wahgi, known as nonda mbolbe, No. 8 in Danga’s list, whose testimony we confirmed at Kondambi. We should add that it is not a question of Heimiella retispora, which the investigators of Kew suspected among the specimens sent to them, but of a very different species already de- scribed by Heim. In conclusion here is the list of the seven species linked to the ‘madness’ that Heim noted and described at Kon- dambi and later examined and definitively characterized in Paris." 10 mr . . . . . . hese lines were written when there arrived in Paris a shipment [ 28 | Our Lust of Species Acknowledged as Responsible for homugl tai and ndaadl Name Action on men: M Sctentific Name on women: W 1. Nonda ngam-ngam M -W Boletus (Tubiporus) Reayi Heim 2. Nondangamp-kindj kants M — W Boletus ( Tubiporus) kumaeus Heim 38. Nonda gegwants ngimbigl M — W Boletus (Tubiporus) mani- cus Heim 4. Nonda kermaipip M —- W Boletus ( Tubiporus) niger- rimus Heim 5. Nonda tua-rua M - W Boletus ( Tubiporus) nigro- violaceus Heim 6. Nonda mosh (ambugl mosh W Russula cf. delica Fr. 7. Nonda mbolbe (mborr/lbé) M - W Heimiella angutformis Heim The definition of the six new species in the above list appeared in the Revue de Mycologie, Dec. 15, 1968, Vol. XXVILI, Fase. 3-4. CONCLUSIONS 1. The manifestations of ‘mushroom madness’ (or komugl tai and ndaadl in the native language Yuwi) that have often frightened Europeans in the Wahgi Valley must be viewed as part of a larger event in the life of the native community, and to which every native is a party. This phenomenon extends beyond the Wahgi Valley to neighboring communities, in at least one instance belong- ing toa distinct linguistic family. We are persuaded that in the behavior of these natives there is room for a most of mushrooms from Miss Marie Reay gathered on her recent trip to the Middle cof Wahgi at the end of February 1964, and forwarded to us by Miss Dorothy Shaw, along with notes that are highly pertinent. The problem of the species of Rossula in the mosh group is discussed in Heim’s descriptive article recently published in Cahiers du Pacifi- que, No. 7 (March 1965). [ 29 ] interesting kind of drama that endangers no one. We are led to this conclusion partly by the fact that in dec- ades of experience we can find no record of a fatality, or even of a serious injury, resulting from these menacing men. In the light of these findings the Europeans may take a more detached view of these manifestations that spring from an ancient culture. Among them may be some who will even study the event in all its aspects, as a remarkable survival into our own times of primitive activity that may well shed light on the origins of insti- tutions in our own society. If it is known that the world takes an interest in the ‘mushroom madness’, the regard in which it is held by the local Europeans may be con- siderably enhanced. 2. The mushrooms—or at least most of them—do not seem to cause physiological effects leading to the mad- ness. ‘The cryptogams held responsible for the madness belong to two large categories that include six genera and two orders (or families): Boletales and Asterospo- rales: or, stated simply, at least six bolets and one russula. Furthermore, one would have to believe that these mushrooms worked only on certain individuals, chosen by heredity, one to a family; that they brought about different behavior in men and women; that most of the time they caused no disturbance but that at irregular in- tervals, ina progress up the Wahgi Valley, with a couple of days between the clans, they acquired a pharmaco- logical potency with respect to those individuals and thereupon drove them mad, with consequences known to all; and finally that the visitation could be put off or even permanently exorcised by simply dunking the in- dividual in cold water. This is not mycology but my- thology. We found among the Europeans of the Wahgi [ 30 ] Boletus manicus Heim vis I] Valley a singular ignorance of the mushroom world, a lack of curiosity about it, an unwillingness to explore it, even a certain repugnance for the whole subject. The Europeans are mostly of English-speaking stock. They present the perfect syndrome of mycophobia as diag- nosed by the Wassons in Mushrooms Russia & History.” 3. It is natural to seek a parallel between the mush- room madness of the Kuma and the two regions of the world where psychotropic mushrooms are deliberately consumed for their inebriating effect. In the Wahgi Valley there is general agreement that the feats of en- durance performed during the attacks of ‘madness’ by the ‘wild men’ of the Kuma surpass any normal physical activity. For hours they rush up and down the moun- tain trails brandishing weapons and shouting at the top of their lungs. In Siberia, among the Koriaki and the Chukchi, similar reports of extreme feats of endurance circulate about the men who have taken Amanita mus- caria. The erotic aspect of the ndaad/ condition among the Kuma women also has its parallel in Siberia and per- haps in Mexico. But the deep religious experience of the Mexican Indians who consume the sacred mushrooms has no parallel in the Wahgi Valley, although the sha- manistie performances of Siberia provide us with many parallels for the holy communion celebrated at night with mushrooms in the remote valleys of Oaxaca. A detailed comparison of the three areas in their mushroom activi- ties remains to be done, and we propose to give this further study. Whereas the Siberian and Mexican na- tives use psychotropic mushrooms, in the Wahgi Valley we found none in use, though the natives attributed their extraordinary behavior to mushrooms. " Pantheon Books, New York, 1957. [ 33 ] 4, But if we have crossed the main hurdle of the mush- room madness, there remain three problems we have not solved. Why do the natives suppose, or affect to believe, that mushrooms inspire such frenzies?’ Why do they at- tribute this behavior to certain species of mushrooms, and only to those, although there is no agreement among them as to which those species are’ Why do we find again here a magic role for the mushroom, such as we have found already in Mexico and such as we read about in Siberia, but in New Guinea without supporting evi- dence in the mushrooms themselves! To this three-fold question we shall try to respond later, but in any case when research workers such as Miss Marie Reay and the Phillipses will have explored more deeply the recesses of the language spoken in the Wahgi Valley, when others will have listened to the testimony of alert informants, when the area of diffusion of this mushroom manifesta- tion will have been accurately delimited, when finally most of the dialects spoken in this area will have been mastered and comparative studies made, we shall perhaps be able to arrive at assured conclusions. But one certainty seems already safe: during the pre-history of the Wahgi Valley—and this period ended here only 30 years ago —mushrooms played a role not only as food (which they still do) but also cultural and magical, a role that sur- vives to this day. These circumstances lead us to hope that our investigations will be able to advance a few steps in the near future.” Paris and Tokyo November 1968 "Since this’ paper was written contributions to the study of the mushroom madness of the Kuma have been published: (1) Roger Heim, Diagnoses latines des espéces de champignons ou nonda as- sociés a la folie du komugl tai et du ndaadl. Rev. de Mycol., XXVIII, pp. 277-283, December 1963; (2) Roger Heim and R. Gordon Was- p34 ADDENDA Since writing the foregoing paper we have come across a somewhat older text about a similar madness to which the peoples of New Guinea are subject. We wish to add it to the sources already quoted. It is by a German cap- tain, H. Detzner, in his book, Moeurs et Coutumes des Papous. Quatre ans chez les Cannibales de Nouvelle Guinée (1914-1918), published in French by Payot in 1935. The events of August 1914 took the author by surprise in the course of an exploratory trip through the interior of the German colony in New Guinea, and he remained there under difficult conditions with a small escort during the four years that the war lasted. This work gives us a rather personal narrative without great precision, but not lacking in interest. It is hard to piece together the itinerary of this officer from his often vague topographical indications. It would seem that he must have approached the valley of the Wahgi, but we are not sure of this and cannot even assert it as a proba- bility. However that may be, this travel book supplies us with the following passage (p. 198) pertinent to our inquiry. The scene is in a Houbé village, near Finsch- hafen, in a mountainous region near the limits of the Markham Valley, therefore far to the east of the Middle Wahgi. The manifestation of madness is similar to what we know already, although Captain Detzner attributes it apparently to abuse of betel nuts and does not men- tion mushrooms. son, Note préliminaire sur la folie fongique des Kuma. Comptes ren- dus Ac. des Sciences, 258, pp. 1593-1598, Feb. 3, 1964; (3) Roger Heim, Hier champignons associés 4 la folie des Kuma. Etude de- scriptive et iconographie. Cahiers du Pacifique, vol. 7, avec 6 pl. col. is 14 pl. phot., fig., mars 1965. [ 85 | At Kilongo, a Houbé village of average importance numbering about 200 souls, we found the inhabitants prey toa great agitation. Armed men were posted at every fork and crossroad leading into the village, and they were on watch over the environs. Not a woman, not a child, was in the fields, although it was the best moment for planting taro. And yet this village was known among the Houbé for their diligence and progressive spirit. Indeed had they not for a long time realized the absurdity of wars and renounced the pastime of fighting with their neighbors? “Master, there is a madman in the vicinity. He runs stark naked. He is not one of us. He is a member of the river tribe of Sang. If we let him act freely, he would kill all our men, women, and child- ren, for he is mad and has completely lost his reason.’ That was the explanation supplied to me by the inhabitants to ex- plain their curious behavior, when I expressed my amazement that they had not come to meet me, as it was their custom to do. Madness is a frequent phenomenon among the Melanesians and Pa- pous of the Pacific regions. A fine lad, until now calm and inoffensive, is suddenly seized with madness, most often from an abuse of betel, and becomes a menace to everyone. Armed with an axe or other dangerous tool, he flees his home, reaches first the nearest forest, then takes to running across the fields and through villages, and this he does for days on end, seized with veritable fury, attacking and killing every human being he meets. Persuaded that the poor fellow is possessed and urged on by the spirit of a dead relative, the super- stitious natives do not dare to disarm him. Although the sentiment of pity is unknown to them, they do no more than prevent the incur- sion of the madman into their village. They do not try to overpower him. The access of madness does not last long. At the end of a cer- tain time the madman becomes calm again, returns home, and resumes peacefully his work and habitual chores. Wishing to preventa tragedy, I ordered the victim to be seized and bound, and to be brought before me. But my orders could not be executed, for he disappeared from the neighborhood of Kilongko as quickly as he had appeared. Other neighboring villages saw him run through the fields, possessed by a veritable fury, still others reported rumors of him, but he himself was nowhere to be found. [ 36 | OFS Ss ca SCE SS < f *porshoat MUSEUM LEAFLETS AL NE HARVARD UNIVERSITY CamprinGr, Massacuusetts, Ocroper 29, 1965 Vou. 21, No, IDENTIFICATION OF THE POLLEN OF MAIZE, TEOSINTE AND TRIPSACUM BY PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPY BY Henry [rRw1n anp Etso 8S. BaARGHOORN In early studies, Firbas (1987) measured the long axis of grass pollen grains from domestic and wild types in Kurope and established 85 as a division between the two, those larger being considered domestic. Subsequent studies, both in Kurope and America, often showed this dividing line to be invalid. In an effort to distinguish between the pollen of maize, teosinte and Tvipsacum, Barghoorn, Wolfe, and Clisby (1954), investigated the pore-axis relationship in these grasses. A ratio of 5.7 or greater appeared to separate maize from the other two. Measurement of the pore in- cluded the annulus. However, this ratio has been criti- cized by Kurtz, Tucker, and Liverman (1960), who demonstrated that, under certain eet the pore- axis ratio of maize dropped well below 5.7. Their choice of a peculiar type of maize, Bikini sien probably prejudiced their findings. Further work suggesting that the pore-axis ratio is sometimes invalid as a distinguishing criterion was carried out by James Langham and Donald Whitehead of Williams College. They also investigated simple axis measurements, summarized in Text Figure 1.* A further complication of measurement results from size changes induced by various sedimentary environ- ments and various preparatory techniques (Anderson, 1960). The exine itself, except for the pore, consists of an endexine, an ektexine tegillum supported by columellae, and simple spinules projecting from this tegillum and corresponding in arrangement to the columellae. With ordinary light microscopy, this exine appears smooth, while, with phase-contrast, the spinules appear as a pat- tern of dark dots. Using phase-contrast microscopy, Grohne (1957) investigated the pollen of ‘*wild™” and cereal type grasses in Europe and suggested that dis- crimination between the two was possible on the basis of certain phase changes in this exine pattern (see also Erdtman and Praglowski, 1959). An explanation of these phase changes was offered by Rowley (1960). He found that grasses of the ‘‘wild type’’ have three levels of phase retardation. The lowest is that resulting from depressions between the spinules. These depressions form an incised reticulum that may have one to several spinule per lacuna. This reticulum under phase appears as a dark network. The two other regions of phase retardation are the level ektexine sur- face (non-incised interspine regions) and the spinules themselves. Grasses of the cultivated type have only two areas of phase retardation, the level ektexine, and that of the surmounting spinules. Rowley’s investiga- tions were aided by the use of an electron microscope. The present paper presents results of observations of the exine, using phase-contrast light, in the New World plants maize, teosinte, and T'ripsacum. The latter two * The data presented in this figure were drawn from the measure- ments of James Langham and Professor Donald Whitehead. Used by permission of Dr. Whitehead. [ 38 | TRIPSACUM Tripsacum dactyloides 2n a Tripsacum dactyloides 4n —_}+—_ TEOSINTE Durango eg San Antonio Huixta y Nobogame —<——SS— Honduras ——— Perennial ——_+—— Santa Ana Huixta —_+—__ El Valle ——— $+ -— Arcelia —+- Xochimilco —_1——_ Jutiapa t ZEA MAYS Chapalote, Sinaloa + Zapalote Chico a Bolita, Queretero —___+__ Tuxpeno —— $}- Cacahuacintle Tt Tehua, Chiapas - —a— Harinoso de Ocho —+— lL AYNOMW LXAL Chalquefio : { Jala, Nayarit ——— Tabloncillo % eer eee Yucatan Nal-Tel * Gana SUSE 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 K inadequate sample size in microns DISTRIBUTION OF POLLEN SIZE OF TRIPSACUM, TEOSINTE, & MAIZE are the only New World grasses so far investigated which ‘cannot be distinguished from maize by a simple measure- ment i.e. > 45 for the long axis, and >5.7p for the pore- axis ratio. We believe that 777psacum conforms to Rowley’s first type in possessing three levels of phase retardation ; maize to the second type. ‘Teosinte in some varieties appears to have a faintly incised reticulum and hence is intermediate in this optical characteristic. In this study, pollen grains were prepared from a num- ber of races of maize, teosinte, and two genotypes of Tripsacum. A list of these is found in ‘Table IT. In all ‘ases, several anthers, selected from more than one tas- sel and more than one plant if specimens were available, were utilized in order to avoid the influence of an unusual genetic constitution in a single anther or single plant. All available varieties of teosinte in the Botanical Mu- seum of Harvard University were examined. An attempt was made to choose examples from a number of groups of maize from diverse geographic sources. A > muaize- Tripsacum hybrid (WM'T maize X T. dactyloides) and two varieties of maize bearing one or more known teo- sinte chromosomes were studied. In addition, several grains trom the fossil record were examined. All preparations were made by the use of standard acetolysis treatment, followed by bleaching, and the grains were mounted in glycerine jelly. Photographs were taken with a Zeiss Opton W > microscope, employ- ing phase objectives on both 85 mm. and 4X5” high contrast film (Microfile and Contrast Process Pan). The 2” 2" photographs in Plates ILI-VII were made on 4X5" negatives. As these photographs indicate, 7'ipsacum can be dis- tinguished from maize and teosinte by use of phase op- tics. In Toipsacum, the spinules are distributed irregu- (40 | [ IF | Zea mays TaBie I ryY ig T'ripsacum POLLEN TYPES STUDIED Teosinte Hybrid and Inbred Strains Ancient Indigenous * Nal Tel Chapalote, Sinaloa Pre-Columbian Exotic * Harinoso de Ocho Cacahuacintle Pre-historic Mestizos * Tehua, Chiapas Jala, Nayarit Tuxpeno Conico Zapalote Chico Modern Incipient * Chalquefio Bolita Other Races Huesillo Puno Confite Morocho Texas 4R3 Strawberry Popcorn Longfellow Flint Minnesota A158 T. dactyloides 2n T. dactyloides 4n San Antonio Huixta Perennial Nobogame E] Valle Jutiapa Durango Chaleo Arcelia Honduras Xochimilco Santa Ana Huixta * Classification according to Wellhausen et a/., 1952. Maize-Tripsacum hybrid Minnesota Alo’ with Florida teosinte chromosome 1, 3, 4, 9: and 3,4, &9 Texas 4R3 with Florida teosinte chromosome 4, 3,&9 Nobogame teosinte chromosome 3& 4, 3 New teosinte chromosome 4&9 larly on the ektexine. Dark areas embracing several spinules can be seen, no doubt due to phase retardation of an incised reticulum, as suggested by Rowley (1960). Our sample of a maize- 7’ripsacum hybrid exhibits this pattern. In a large number of the races of maize, the spinules are located very regularly, 1.e., the spacing between each spinule being almost equal. With most varieties of teo- sinte, the spacing of spinules appears less regular, and in some they are rather closely aggregated, appearing as clumps. The spinules of maize appear to produce more phase change than those of teosinte. The spinules appear stronger and darker. In teosinte, at the level of the spinules, only small areas can be brought into sharp focus. In addition, within an area so focussed, there are numerous slightly obscured or darkened regions. These may be due to one or more of the following factors: 1) teosinte may have a faintly incised reticulum: 2) the exine of most varieties of teosinte may be thinner and more easily deformed (thus thrown out of focus): 8) the spinules or columellae of maize may be slightly longer than those of teosinte. Fossil grass grains were studied in preparation of sedi- ment samples from the Bellas Artes core in Mexico City. On the basis of the pore-axis ratio, Barghoorn, Wolfe, and Clisby (1954) identified certain grains from the lower reaches of this core as maize. The precise age of these sediments is not known, but it is beyond reasonable doubt that they antedate man’s entrance into the New World. We re-examined grass pollen grains from the Bellas Artes sediments which, on the basis of size meas- urements, appeared to be either maize, teosinte, or T'7ip- sacum, Then, using the optical criteria described earlier in this paper, some of the grains were identified as maize, [ 42 | others as T'ripsacum. None of the intermediate or teo- sinte type have so far been located. This lends support to the thesis that wild maize existed in the Valley of Mexico during late Pleistocene time (Mangelsdorf 1958). In addition, our investigations have led to the follow- ing conclusions. 1. Observations on the general similarity of maize and teosinte pollen supports the thesis that teosinte is a race of maize derived from hybridization with Tripsacum (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939). 2. The more primitive races of maize (Puno, Chapa- lote, etc.) show the strongest, most regular pattern. 3. Inbred maize strains, Minnesota A158, and Texas 4R3, have a regular strong pattern, while the introduc- tion of teosinte germ plasm causes them to lose the strength and regularity of the pattern, Plate VI. 4. Fossil maize from Bat Cave, New Mexico, shows a well defined, strong and regular pattern. ‘This maize pollen dates from about 5000 years ago. 5. Several grass pollen grains, with size measurements in the Zea range were isolated from sediments from Lake Petenxil in Guatemala. Those were present in the lowest sample of aseries of cores taken for Harvard University by Dr. George Cowgill (now of Brandeis University). This core was radiocarbon dated by the Humble Oil geochemical laboratory at 8,950+ 130 years ago. The strength and regularity of the exine pattern suggest that these grains are maize. Present archaeological knowledge indicates that maize may have been grown in Guatemala at this date. The grains, however, could represent possi- bly wild maize types at that time still extant in the Lake Petenxil area. 43 ] 6. In areas where teosinte does not grow wild (north of Mexico, for instance), it should prove relatively easy to establish the presence of maize in the pollen record. In these same areas, there is no present evidence of wild maize in the archaeological or palynological record. Theretore, where maize pollen is present in these areas, we can presume that the plant was cultivated. How early this occurs in the United States and where it occurs are important archaeological problems as yet unsolved. In conclusion, in identifying gramineous pollen as maize, size measurements of large grains should first be made. ‘Those grains which fall in the maize- 7ripsacum range should then be examined by means of phase- contrast optics. Positive discrimination can then be made between Zea (maize and teosinte) and T'ripsacum. Fol- lowing certain observations outlined in this paper, maize grains can be separated from teosinte with reasonable reliability. In certain geographic areas, such as the United States, grains in the Zea size range with Zea rn pattern may be presumed to be maize. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are indebted to the following individuals for aid in the project: Professor P. C. Mangelsdort: Protessor W. C. Galinat, University of Massachusetts, for much help, criticism and for providing access to the resources of the Botanical Museum of Harvard Univer- sity ; Professor Donald R. Whitehead, Williams College, for critical evaluation and for the data presented in Text Figure 1. Both Professor Galinat and Professor Mangels- dort have read the manuscript and offered suggestions, while the latter has been particularly helpful in deserib- ing the relative evolutionary position of the various races of maize and teosinte studied. [ 44 ABSTRACT Pollen of the Gramineae are spheroidal in shape and monoporate. The pore is surrounded by a thickened area, the annulus. Size characteristics, both of total pol- len diameter and the relation of this diameter to the pore width have been used in the past to separate the pollen of maize from teosinte and T'ripsacum. Use of measure- ment alone causes several difficulties, the most important being that large numbers of grains are necessary for posi- tive identification. Morphological characteristics of the exine, studied under phase-contrast light, give more con- clusive discrimination even when dealing with few grains. Maize and teosinte can easily be separated from Tripsa- cum. Primitive maize and primitive teosinte can also be separated, When dealing with hybrid races of maize of teosinte, discrimination appears to depend largely on how much germ plasm each plant has absorbed from the other. Thus, the pollen of teosinte Chalco, that grows commoenly around maize fields in Mexico and frequently crosses with maize, is very difficult to tell from that of a very tripsacoid maize like Huesillo. That this pollen morphology is genetically controlled is supported by observations on pollen of derivatives of maize-teosinte hybrids. Suggestions for dealing with apparent maize pollen in the archaeological record are made. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, 8. I. 1960. Silicone Oil as a Mounting Medium for Pollen Grains. Danmarks Geol. Unders. IV, Rk. 4 Nr. 1, pp. 1-24. Barghoorn, E.S., M.K. Wolfe, and K.H.Clisby. 1954. Fossil Maize from the Valley of Mexico. Bot. Mus. Leaflets Harvard Univ. 16: pp. 229-240. Erdtman, G. and J. R. Praglowski. 1959. Six Notes on Pollen Mor- phology and Pollenmorphological Techniques. Bot. Not., 112: Fase. 2, pp. 195-184. Firbas, F. 1937. Der Pollenanalytische Nachweis des Getreidebaus. Eschr. Botan., No. 31, p. 447. Grohne, Udelgard. 1957. The Importance of Phase-Contrast Micro- scopy in Pollen-analysis, Demonstrated on Corn-type Gramineae Pollen. Photograph. Forsch., 7: No. 8, pp. 237-249. Kurtz, EK. B., J. L. Liverman, and H. Tucker. 1960. Some Problems Concerning Fossil and Modern Corn Pollen. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 87: pp. 85-94. MacNeish, R.S. 1962. Second Annual Report of the Tehuacan Archaeo- logical- Botanical Project. R.S. Peabody Foundation, Mangelsdorf, P. C. 1958. Ancestor of Corn. Science, 128: pp. 13138- 1320. Mangelsdorf, P. C., R.S. MacNeish, and W. C. Galinat. 1964. Do- mestication of Corn. Science, 143: pp. 538-545. Mangelsdorf, P. C. and R. G. Reeves. 1939. The Origin of Indian Corn and its Relatives. 7exas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulle- ting No. 574. Rowley, J. R. 1960, The Exine Structure of ‘‘Cereal’’ and ‘‘Wild”’ Type Grass Pollen. Grana Palynologica, 2: No. 2, pp. 9-15. Ting, Y. C. 1964, Chromosomes of Maize-Teosinte Hybrids. Bussey Institution, Harvard University. Wellhausen, E. J., L. M. Roberts, and KE. Hernandez in collaboration with P. C. Mangelsdorf. 1952. Races of Maize in Mexico. Their Origin, Characteristics and Distribution. Bussey Institution, Har- vard University. [ +6 ] EXPLANATIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN PLates III-VII All photographs were taken through a phase-contrast microscope system. The 1X1” photographs are at a magnification of 1550. Se oD The 2”X2” photographs are at a magnification of 4500; they are not enlargement of the smaller ones, but are of different grains, except for the fossil specimens. EXPLANATION OF THE ILLUSTRATION Prare Il A. Tripsacum dactyloides 2n (Kansas clone) B. Maize (Nal Tel) C. ‘Teosinte (San Antonio Huixta) LD. Maize-Tripsacum hybrid (WMT maize “ T'ripsacum dactyloides) Explanation ry : ee . ss . A. These two photographs show a typical wild’’ exine pattern, as described by Rowley. The spinules appear clumped and are often visually merged together. In the small photograph, a faintly incised reticulum can be discerned (seen as a greyish network). B. Typical pure maize pattern. The spinules are evenly distributed. There are only two levels of phase retardation — the spinules them- selves (dark) and the ektexine surface (light). C. Typical primitive teosinte pattern. In the small photograph, the spinules appear clumped, with patches of light and dark areas visible. The large photograph shows the spinules to be rather evenly distrib- uted, but adjacent spinules often appear connected, so that it is difh- cult to isolate individuals. D. In this hybrid, some features of both maize and 7'ripsacum are apparent. The spinules are unevenly distributed and clumped, leav- ing lacunae larger than those associated with either maize or teosinte, but less pronounced than those of Tripsacum. [ 48 | Il] PLATE EXPLANATION OF THE ILLUSTRATION Prare IV A. Maize (Chapalote, Sinaloa) B. Maize (Confite Morocho) C. Teosinte (Chalco) D. Teosinte (El Valle) Explanation Both A and B show relatively pure maize patterns. In comparing these photographs with those of two teosinte races on the right, a second feature of maize-teosinte exine difference can be seen. The spinules of the maize grains are darker and thus more distinct. This suggests the spinules (and supporting columellae) of the maize-type exine are longer, causing more phase retardation than those of teo- sinte. One practical result is that larger areas of the exine of maize ‘an be brought into sharp focus (with grains of the same size). Cor- responding photographs were taken and printed under virtually iden- tical conditions. C and D differ in significant ways. D is a primitive teosinte (that is, with little maize contamination). C isa teosinte with a high amount of maize germ plasm. The only observable difference between the latter and typical maize is the amount of phase retardation of the spinules, discussed above. ‘Teosinte Chalco is also one of the most maize-like of modern teosintes in other aspects of plant morphology. IV PLATE EXPLANATION OF THE ILLUSTRATION Prater V A. Teosinte (Xochimilco) 3. Maize (Puno) — C. Teosinte (Jutiapa ) D. Maize (Huesillo) kx planation A. Another Mexican teosinte, showing considerable maize influence, according to genetic studies. The exine pattern is rather regular, the phase retardation rather strong. B. Probably the most nearly pure maize. The spinule distribution is very regular (most clearly shown in the large photograph), and the phase retardation of the spinules pronounced (seen best in the small illustration ). C. Primitive teosinte, showing the same characteristics as Kl Valle teosinte shown in Plate IV (D). D. A tripsacoid maize showing a pattern similar to maize-like teo- sintes (as teosinte Chalco, Plate IV, C). The spinules are pale and frequently clumped. PLATE V EXPLANATION OF THE ILLUSTRATION Plate VI Evidences of genetic influences. A. Maize (Minnesota A158-inbred) B. Maize (Minnesota A158 with chromosome 1 of Florida teosinte) C. Maize (Minnesota A158 with chromosome 8 of Florida teosinte) D1. Maize (Texas 4R3-inbred ) D2. Maize (Texas 4R3 with chromosomes 3 and 4 of Nobogame teosinte ) Explanation B shows no pronounced changes from A except for some increased clumping. Greater changes are shown between C and A, in the direc- tion of teosinte: lacunae are more distinct and the contrast is poorer. D1 is an inbred maize. D2 shows a teosinte pattern in clumping of the spinules. VI PLATE EXPLANATION OF THE [ILLUSTRATION Piare VII A. Fossil © 7'ripsacum*’’ (Mexico City Belles Artes Core, depth 74 meters ) B. Fossil “‘maize’’ (Mexico City Belles Artes Core, depth 70 meters) C. Fossil ‘‘maize’’ (New Mexico, Bat Cave, level VI, age ca. 5000 years ago D. Fossil ‘maize’? (Guatemala, Lake Petenxil, age 3950+ years ago. Explanation A. Compare with Tripsacum dactyloides, Plate II] (A). B. Primitive maize pattern, compare with Nal Tel (a relatively pure type), Plate III(B). Both specimens A and B are in slightly eroded condition due to post-depositional processes. C. The specimen had a maize pattern with good contrast, but with some clumping of spinules. D. The specimen is like C, but with slightly greater clumping. Vii PLATE ETHNOBOTANICAL NOTES ON SIMABA IN CENTRAL BRAZIL BY Joan B. TURNER Dvunrine the course of ethnographic studies among the Northern Cayapo6 (Gé) Indians of central Brazil, some new information was discovered concerning the uses of a species of Simaba of the Simarubaceae. The specific identification of the plant cannot be made until more complete botanical material is collected. The plant in question is an inhabitant of the open grassland country commonly referred to as campo cerrado in cen- tral Brazil. It is a xerophytic shrub characteristic of this type of vegetation. It has thick, broad leaves and roots which extend to ground water many meters below a hard surface of lateritic soil. The Simaba samples were collected from the campo cerrado area close to the Cayapo villages of Gorotire on the Rio Fresco, a tributary of the Xingu, and Kuben- kranken on the Riozinho, a tributary of the Fresco, both in the state of Para. In September, at the end of each dry season, this area is often unintentionally burned over by Cayapo who set fires to clear the old vegetation from their s ashed garden-plots in the surrounding forest. The Simaba, with its extensive root system, is adapted to survive the annual fires and the poor quality of the later- itic soil. [ 59 ] Despite our inability to offer a specific determination of the plant at the present time, we feel that the data set forth below are sufficiently interesting and the cer- tainty of the generic identification firm enough to war- rant publishing these ethnobotanical notes. The ethnographic literature on the Gé Indians of cen- tral Brazil contains several references to the use of plants as contraceptives (Nimuendaju 1939, 1942; Banner 1961 ; Dreyfus 1963). Two of these groups, the Sherente (Ni- muendaji 1942: 87) are reported to take substances oral- ly to prevent pregnancy. Dreyfus, who spent five and a half months with the Cayap6o where Banner also worked and where we conducted twelve months of field research in 1962-68, found only * niques in practice. The native term which Banner re- ‘external’ contraceptive tech- corded for those plants believed by the Cayapo to prevent conception is identical to that published by Dreyfus (1968: 58), and confirmed by our own work. It is me- hra-het-dja, which translates literally as ‘the child-not thing.” Since neither of the authors identified the plants botanically, all the information that we have from their published reports is that the leaf, root, or vine of certain plants are chewed or made into a brew which must be drunk or rubbed over the body of a woman who wishes to avoid pregnancy. I collected specimens of two plants to which the In- dians attribute contraceptive properties. One of these, an orchid, Rodriguezia secunda, is used only externally. To produce the desired effects, the pseudobulb is crushed and rubbed over the woman’s body. It is not known universally to the Cayap6é but is the private lore of a shaman, or curer, Who may demand an exhorbitant fee for his knowledge and services. The preferred payment today is in civilized goods: beads, blankets, knives, and other hardware. r [ GO ] PLaTE VIII Simaba sp., Rio Fresco, Para, Brazil. The general term for orchid in Cayap6o is pi-aria, *‘the plant which grows on wood,’ thus distinguishing orchids from other blossoming plants (pi-dj6-rara), As a con- traceptive agent, Rodriguezia secunda is known also as a me-hra-het-dja. The ozher plant, the Simaba, is more widely known to the Cayap6 as a contraceptive agent. It is taken orally. Several informants, both men and women, have reported its efhcacy. Although I have never seen it done, shav- ings from the root of the Simaba plant are infused in hot water, like a ‘‘tea’’, which is given to women to drink and to rub over their bodies. The effects of this remedy are said to be anti-menstrual as well as contraceptive. In recognition of its multiple properties, Cayapo designate the Simaba by several names. .We-hra-het-dja reters to the contraceptive aspect, whereas huhrut-hané, or “*tapir sickness-medicine’” (hané is a word which can mean a sickness as well as its cure) denotes its anti-menstrual character. The Cayapo do not look upon menstruation as anormal organic function but rather as adisease. As one woman explained, after solicit- ing medicine from me, ‘‘A long time ago the tapir pierced my liver and now I bleed every month.*” In fact, menstruation does seem to be quite irregular, for many women pass months without a period. I was told that, if a woman takes the root infusion at the onset of her menstrual period, her bleeding will stop by sundown of the tollowing day, and she will not conceive for one month, calculated by the waning and waxing of the moon. Cayapo know the Simaba also as a fish poisoning agent, tep-hané (‘‘fish medicine’’). The root is beaten into the water to stun, not kill, the fish which come floating to the surface where they may be shot easily by Cayapo using bow and arrow, or simply caught up by hand. Simaba [ 63 | is one of several kinds of fish poison: the most common of these is timbdé (Lonchocarpus sp.).. Nimuendajti, in a brief discussion of contraceptives and abortifacients used by Apinayé women, mentioned the successful use of “the root of a plant called feb-gande (fish medicine), ”” but only for abortion (1989: 98). Yet a fourth name given to this Simaba is tehuru- tchuru. It is also the Cayapo name fora very large green grasshopper. | have no translation for fehuru-tehuru, which may simply be imitative of the grasshopper’s song, nor can | offer any reason why both plant and insect share the same name unless, as is sometimes true of Cayapo terminology, the particular species of grasshop- per is known to preter a diet of the Simaba. I wish to thank Dr. Richard Evans Schultes and Dr. Arthur Cronquist for assistance in botanical aspects of this work. A voucher specimen of the Simaba is pre- served in the Economic Herbarium of Oakes Ames in the Botanical Museum of Harvard University. Field work was supported by a National Institute of Mental Health Research Grant No. MH-6087 awarded to my husband, ‘Terence S. ‘Turner, whose help and ad- vice | gratefully acknowledge. REFERENCES CITED Banner, Horace. 1961. O indio Kayapo em seu acampamento. Bo- Q letim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, ns, Antropologia No. 138. Dreyfus, Simone. 1963. Les Kayapo du nord, état de Para-Brésil: Contribution a l’étude des Indiens Gé. Paris, Mouton & Co. Nimuendaji, Curt. 1939. The Apinayé. The Catholic University of America Anthropological Series No. 8, Washington, D.C. 1942. The Serente. Publications of the Frederick Webb Hodge Anniversary Publication Fund, IV. Los Angeles, The Southwest Museum. [ G4 | L BOTANICAL MUSEUM LEAFLETS HARVARD UNIVERSITY CamprR1 DGE, MassacuuseTts, DecemBer 29, 1965 Voi. 2h f BACCAUREA AND ITS USES * BY Daasa D. Sorsarro INTRODUCTION I don’t know any better way to become acquainted with a new tree than to grow it where you can see it every day. You cannot learn so very much through reading and, while you may get a faint idea of it by seeing its photograph, still, the texture of its leaves, the odor of its flowers, the taste of its fruits — which after all are very important characters — cannot be conveyed to you except in a very general way by the printed word or by the halftone. (David Fairchild) In the Old World tropics there is one little known group of plants that has been of economic importance to the natives since early times. It comprises several species of the euphorbiaceous genus Baccaurea. The words buah rambat (the rambai fruit) in the Malay Peninsula and buah kapundung (the kapundung fruit) in Java are common names when the season for those fruits is about to begin. In the market place (where it is called pasar), in the streets and in many other places, we may see bunches of fresh, shining, green or yellowish brown, appetizing fruits being sold in abundance (Plate LX). Since the price is low, most people can buy and enjoy them. These bunches are from 20 to 30 cm. long, and sometimes may attain even 60cm. The individual fruits are globose, about 3 to 4 cm. long and 2 to 3 em. in * 4 term paper for ‘‘Plants and Human Affairs,’’ Harvard Univer- sity, Spring term of 1963. [ 65 ] diameter and have asmooth rind. Inside, there are from three to one (sometimes more) green seeds enclosed in a fleshy, white or pink, edible juicy aril. There is consider- able variation among the wild fruits, but generally they are sour; those of the cultivated trees, however, are sweet and very palatable. The rambai and hapundung are obtained from different species of Baccaurea, a large genus of evergreen trees occurring from India to the Pacific, but chiefly in West- ern Malesia. ‘There are more than 60 species of the genus which have been legitimately published: at least 20 have edible fruit, but most of these are found only wild. So far, no more than four species have been recorded as under cultivation, including the rambai and kapundung. In this paper, the name rambai, if it is used without qualifications, always refers to Baccaureca Motleyana, and hapundung to Baccaurea racemosa. The rambai fruit has gained increasing popularity in Malaya, and today it is one of the principal fruits. Olds (1933) places it among the ‘“‘ten most popular fruits in Malaya.’* Nevertheless, very few experiments have been ‘arried on, either in Malaya or in Java, to improve its quality. The ripe fruits are eaten usually raw, but they are also suitable for cooking and may be fermented and made into liquor. Onocceasions of wedding ceremonies, certain races of the Malay Peninsula consume large quantities of this fermented beverage (Skeat & Blagden, 1906). In Kalimantan (Borneo), there is another species of Bac- caurea, the tampot (B. Griffithii) which is also used to make a kind of liquor called twak tampoi (tuak means alcoholic beverage) (Burkill, 1935). THe Genus BaccaurgEa Loureiro (Latin: bacea=berry; aurea= golden) The members of the genus are mostly small to large «66 | sized trees, often with buttresses, usually with a dense crown; branchlets often sympodial. The leaves are sim- ple, arranged spirally along the branchlets, but mostly crowded near the apex, and generally with long petioles with a rather distinct swelling at both ends; the leaf venation is penninerved, the margin of the leaves entire or slightly sinuous, sometimes crenate-serrulate. At the base of the petiole, where it merges into the branchlet, two intrapetiolar stipules are present, but they are cadu- cous and observable only when young. The inflorescences are long, slender, more or less drooping, unbranched spikes or racemes, borne in groups along the branches or on the trunk, in some species in the leaf axils. Staminate and pistillate flowers are borne in separate inflorescences; the male and female inflorescences are found usually on different trees. The flowers are very small, without pet- als, but with usually yellowish green sepals. The stami- nate flowers, much smaller and more numerous than the female, have four to five (rarely up to eight), very small, and mostly unequal sepals, arranged imbricately in the buds. A glandular disk is present. The glands are very small, almost obsolete, and arranged interstaminally. The stamens are four to eight in number, with short and free filaments, terminating in four-loculed anthers that dehisce longitudinally. ‘The rudimentary ovary, usually shield-shaped, may be seen distinctly at the centre of the flower. The female flowers bear four to six caducous sepals, generally longer than the ovary and hairy on both the outer and inner surfaces. Unlike the staminate flow- er, the pistillate has no disk. The ovary usually has two to three locules, very seldom four to five, with a very short s:yle, terminated by bifid, plumose or papillose stigmas. Hach ovary cell contains two to three, rarely four to five ovules. The fruit is a berry or a capsule (berry here is a loose term, given to the species with [ 67 | indehiscent fruit), globose to ovoid or obovoid, tipped by tiny, sessile, persistent stigmas. Inside, there are six to one large, oblong green seeds, each surrounded by a juicy or creamy pulp, enclosed in a transparent skin; the pericarp is usually fleshy, but sometimes it is suberized or lignified. The seed consists of a thick and fleshy al- bumen, an incurved embryo, and large and foliaceous cotyledons. A species of Baccaurea is usually easy to recognize from the strings of small, yellowish green flowers (with a sour, lemon-like scent) which are developed on burs on the old wood (Plate IX); and the strings of fruits on the female trees; together with the spirally arranged leaves. Another characteristic feature of the genus is the thin- ness of the bark, which is, according to Corner (1952), no thicker than a piece of paper, so that a cut with a pen-knife immediately penetrates the wood. It is unusual, but pleasing, to see a Baccaurea tree, with dense and abundantly flowered strings borne along the branches or on the trunk, sometimes so low that they touch the ground. This peculiar feature has, indeed, long attracted the attention of botanists, and it has been recorded that this character plays a part in native cere- monies. Skeat and Blagden (1906) mention that the pagan races of the Malay Peninsula used the sticks or dibbles made from the saplings of a special hardwood tree called tamun (Malayan: setambun—a local name for B. parviflora: cf. Corner, 1952) in planting rice. In this ceremony, a magician sets out at sunrise for the fields, accompanied by all the men, women, and children who are going to take part in the sowing. Upon arriving at the first available space near the middle of the field, the magician draws a circle around himself with a specially made staff, which, like the other dibbles, is made of tamun wood, the planting sticks are then heaped up in- | 68 | side the circle. The whole company sits outside the circle in a wide ring, forming what is called the rice-bin or hepuh. Inthe centre, a bungele: plant (a poisonous forest tree which also has a meaning in this ceremony) is planted in the ground, and near it a branch of the tamun tree. The sowing, which is led by the magician, follows after this ceremony. The purpose of choosing the tamun tree is that the rice, by sympathy, will flower in a dense inflo- rescence near the ground, as does the tamun tree, instead of growing long, rank, and weedy. This interesting cere- mony is evidence of the people's familiarity with the Baccaurea trees trom early times. The genus Baccaurea was first described by Loureiro in 1790, with three species, based on herbarium speci- mens collected from Indo-China. 2B. ramiflora, one of the three species, has recently been designated by Mer- rill as the type ofthe genus; he likewise enlarged the concept of the species (1985) by reducing two other species, B. cauliflora and B. sapida, to synonymy. In this paper, however, B. sapida is retained. In 1866, the first monograph of the genus (Mueller-Argoviensis 7 DC., Prodr.) appeared, in which 88 species are described. Pax, in 1922, in collaboration with NKithe Hoffmann, extended his earlier work (1896) by describing 61 species in the genus, and I am of the opinion that this mono- graph is still the most complete and the best work on the genus. Actually, the number of legitimately pub- lished species at this time is not definite (in the Wealth of India, 100 species are mentioned), since during the last three decades new species have been added and taxo- nomic changes have taken place within the genus. How- ever, an up-to-date monograph has not as yet been written. Indeed, Baccaurea is a very difficult genus to deal with. Joseph Dalton Hooker says: **The species of this | 69 | genus are most difficult of discrimination, owing to the necessity of having for this purpose flowers of both sexes and also ripe fruit, and because in foliage very different species resemble one another. The male inflorescence appears to me to afford the best sectional characters, but it may have to yield to carpological ones, when the fruits are better known. The male flowers of individual species are very inconstant as to the number and form of sepals, and number of stamens. The disk-glands when present are too minute and, I think, variable as to presence or absence, to afford aid in Indian species; nor do I find the anthers truly extrorse in any, the slits being more or less lateral when not truly introrse. As mentioned betore, while at least 20 species of the genus have edible fruits, only four are known to be in cultivation to any considerable extent. Two other spe- cies have been mentioned (Duct. sci. nat., 1816) as being cultivated; the rest are still wild, even though the fruits of some of them are collected and sold in the markets and, in some cases, even surpass in quality those of the cultivated species. Besides being sought for their fruits, the trees yield a good timber, and it has often been re- corded that it is used for building houses and boats, for posts, and other light constructions. Other parts of the plant, such as the leaves, the bark, and the roots, have likewise been employed in native medicines, for dyeing and even as vegetables. A brief discussion of these uses will be given at the end of the paper. All the species which thus far have been recorded as of economic value are presented in Table 1. The following discussion will be restricted only to the four cultivated species men- tioned above. Betore proceeding with the species discussion, how- ever, it may be helpful to consider the vernacular names of the species. In this case, we have a chaotic, though [ 70 ] more interesting, situation. As mentioned at the begin- ning of the paper, the name rambaz is used here for B. Motleyana, and kapundung tor B. racemosa. Rambai, widely used in Malaya, refers also to B. Motleyana, while Aapundung is widely used in Sumatra, Java, and Bah for B. racemosa. Addition of the words hutan (forest), ayam (hen), burung (bird), daun (leat), hera TABLE I Species of economic value Wild Cultivated With edible fruits; incl. as a fruit tree those which have been Yield good timbers recorded to yield good timbers B. dulcis (Tjupa) B. bracteata B. javanica B. Motleyana (Rambai) B. brevipes B. Kingii B. racemosa (Kapundung) | B.dasystachya B. lanceolata B. sapida (Pupor or Lutqua) B. Griffithii B. Nanihua B. macrocarpa B. reticulata | B. macrophylla | B.sumatrana B. malayana * | | B. multiflora | B. minor | B. parviflora | B. polyneura B. pubera B. pyriformis B. ramiflora ** B. Scortechinii | B. velutina B. symplocoides * Has been recorded in cultivation (c.f. Ridley, Fl. Mal. Penins.) ** Has been recorded in cultivation (c.f. Dict. Sci. Nat.) (monkey), batw (stone or rock), and padang (field or pas- ture) to the word rambai will completely alter the species and even genus. Thus, we have rambai ayam, which may mean B. brevipes, B. Wallichii, Ryparosa fasciculata (Flacourtiaceae), or Anisophyllea disticha (Dipterocarpa- [71 J cene), while rambat pontianakh may mean Galearta affinis (Euphorbiaceae), Syplocos rubiginosa or Symplocos ri- gida (Symplocaceae), or Timontus Wallichianus (Rubia- cene), all of which have no connection whatever with Baceaurea. However, this point further indicates that the name rambai (B. Motleyana) is the most popular and well known, therefore the most reliable one, because it forms the basic word, while the other species are so named because of association with the rambar fruit. The name hapundung, on the other hand, is more constant and is rarely used in compounds, Vampor is another name, second in popularity in Malaya. Although gener- ally it means B. Griffithu, still, we should be careful, because it may also mean J. malayana or B.sapida. Like rambai, tampot is otten used in compounds. B. sapida in India is known as /etehu, in South China as l/utgua, in Burma as Aanazo, and in Malaya as pupor. In this case, it is difficult to ascertain just which name should be used properly, since the wider the distribution of a species, the more varied are its common names. There are still many other names used locally in different places for various species, but it is beyond the scope of this paper to deal with all of them. Readers who are interested should consult references listed in the bibliography (Bur- kill, 1985; Corner, 1952; De Clerq., 1909; Heyne, 1927: Jack, 1825: Marsden, 1811; Meyer, 1985; Newbold, 1839; Ochse, 1981: Smith ez Koorders & Valeton, 1910; Watson, 1928). In the discussion of the species that fol- low, the common names have been simplified by choos- ing the most widely used ones. So far, no mention has been made of the family to which the genus belongs. Baccaurea is a member of the Kuphorbiaceae, a large family of flowering plants, in- cluding herbs, shrubs, and trees of the most varied as- pects. Members of this family are found in nearly all [72 ] parts of the world, save only the Arcticand Antarctic re- gions and a few alpine heights. Economically important members of the family are represented both in the Old and the New World. THe Cuirivatep SPECIES * 1. Baccaurea Motleyana Muell.-Arg. in DC., Prodr., 15(2): 461. 1866. Synonym: Prerardia Motleyana Muell.-Arg.in Flora, 47: 516. 1854. Common name: Rambai. Plates IX, X, XI, XII. A medium-sized tree, up to 25 m. tall, 40 em. in diameter, with rather low, round, bushy, large-leafed crown, with the trunk generally fluted at the base (Plate XI). ‘The bark is whitish or fawn-brown, finely fissured and sealy with small, thin, oblong pieces. The twigs. petioles, and the undersides of the leaves are velvety. The leat-blades (Plate NII) are 20-35 cm. long, 8-17 em. broad, slightly obovate-lanceolate to elliptic, aeumi- nate, basally heart-shaped to obtuse, sometimes retuse, the margin entire to slightly uneven and sinuate; lateral nerves twelve to sixteen pairs. The petioles are 8-10 em. long, subtended by 6-8 mm. long, lanceolate, acuminate stipules. The male racemes (Plate X) are 13-20 cm. long, clustered in bunches along the branches, with minute yellow flowers borne in fascicles of two to five, with very short pedicels. The four to five sepals are oblong, acute, and tomentose on both surfaces. The disk glands are very small, the stamens four to eight, the rudimentary ovary cylindrical, with a concave apex. The female racemes (Plates IX, X, NII) are 25-60 cm. long, also often borne in clusters, with four- to six-sepaled flowers, about 1 cm. * The taxonomic treatment of the following four species has been based upon Pax & Hoffmann, 1922. [73 ] in diameter, the ovary pubescent, the styles very short. The fruits, produced in great abundance, are about 2-4 cm. in diameter, buff-colored, with a smooth and thin rind, indehiscent. Within there are three to one green seeds enclosed in a translucent white pulp. The rambai is widely cultivated throughout the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Kalimantan (Borneo), Java, and Bali. The species is native to the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra: the dates of its introduction to Java and Bah are uncertain. According to Macmillan (1949), 1t was introduced to Ceylon in 1888. The rambai, besides being planted as a fruit tree, is a favorite ornamental due to its bushy and symmetrical shape, which, when planted ina lawn or garden, offers a bold and pleasing outline. As in the other cultivated species, there is a considerable variation in the quality of the fruit, from rather acid to sweet and very palatable. ». Baccaurea racemosa (Reinw.) Muell.-Arg. in DC., Prodr., 15(2): 461. 1866. Synonym: Cocecomelia racemosa Reinw., Catal. Gew. Buitenzorg: 110. 1828: Prerardia racemosa Bl., Bijdr. Fl. Ned.-Indié: 579. 1825. Common name: Napundung. Plates IX, X, XI, XIII. A medium-sized tree, 15-25 m. tall, 25-70 em. in diameter, with the trunk rather straight, often with but- tresses, and its crown dense and irregular (Plate NI). The twigs, petioles, the undersides of the leaves, and outer part of stipules are covered with very short, ap- pressed hairs when young, but they are soon glabrescent or glabrous. The leat-blades are 7-18.5 cm. long, 8-7.5 cm. broad, ovate-oblong or obovate (Plate NIITT), acu- minate to obtuse, and basally broadly or narrowly cune- ate, the margin quite entire, often provided with many [ 74 ] a a “en in _# (Top) Baccaurea Motleyana Muell.-Arg. (rambai), heavy with inflorescences of various stages. (Lower left) Kapundung fruits sold at roadside near the gate of the Bogor Botanic Gardens. (Lower right) Baccaurea racemosa Muell.-Arg. (kapundung), clusters of racemes on burs on trunk of a male tree. (Top) A fruiting branch of Baccaurea dulcis (Jack) Muell.-Arg. (tjupa). (Lower left) A fruiting branch of Baccaurea racemosa Muell.-Arg. (kapundung). (Lower right) Baccaurea Motleyana Muell.-Arg. (rambai), the vertical branch belongs to a male tree, the horizontal to a female tree. y e “ * = “» age At gel a hal een! be (Left) A male tree of Baccaurea racemosa Muell. -Arg., in flower (Bogor Botanic Gardens). (Centre) Baccaurea Motleyana Muell.-Arg. (the two foreground trees, both with fluted trunks) (Bogor Botanic Gardens). (Right) A female tree of Baccaurea dulcis (Jack) Muell.-Arg. (fluted trunk in the foreground) (Bogor Botanic Gardens). ALT ] IX glands which are distinct at the lower surface; lateral nerves in six to twelve pairs. The petioles are 0.5-4.5 em. long, shallowly furrowed on the anterior side, sub- tended by more or less triangular, acute, concave, 3-6 mm. long: and ca. 2 mm. broad stipules. The male ra- cemes (Plate IX) are 5-13 cm. long, fascicled along old branches or burs on the trunk, many-flowered, composed of numerous, short, three-flowered cymes, densely hairy ; at the base of each cyme there are three bracts, the central one the largest. The individual flowers are very small, about 1-15 mm. in diameter, sepals four to five, unequal, hairy on both surfaces, stamens four to eight, about 1 mm. long, arising from the small cavities at the base of the thick, subangular rudimentary ovary. The female racemes are 10-20 cm. long, solitary or fascicled on old branches, the flowers are rather large, 0.5-0.8 cm. in di- ameter, sepals mostly five, unequal, incurved for about the upper 4 their length, puberulous on both surfaces. The three- to four-loculed ovary is puberulous, the stig- mas sessile. The fruiting racemes are pendulous, 15-20 em. long, pedicels 1-1.5 cm. long, the yellowish green individual fruits are 2-2.4 em. in diameter, indehiscent, three to one-seeded, the seeds enclosed within a trans- lucent white to pink pulp. This species is widely cultivated in Java as a fruit tree as well as a shade tree in the villages. It is also abundant in Sumatra and Bali, and it has been introduced into Bali. According to Pax & Hoffmann (1922), this species has also been introduced into the Malay Peninsula. There are many vernacular names for the fruit, among which are hapundung and menteng. However, the former is the more commonly used. In Ochse’s Fruits and Fruiticul- ture (1931), there is confusion between the common name ramba: (for B. Motleyana), and khapundung (for B. racemosa). [ 81 ] There are two varieties: one with white flesh, the true menteng,; the other with red flesh, the so-called bentjqj (Sudanese); both of these have sour and sweet fruits. The sweet fruits are much in demand in the markets, although they are not yet considered as a table fruit. The tree thrives only below an altitude of 500 m., but in Javait has been recorded that wild trees can grow in an altitude range of 700-1000 m. 3. Baccaurea dulcis (Jack) Muell.-Arg. in DC., Prodr., 15(2): 460. 1866. Synonym: Prerardia dulcis Jack. in Trans. Linn. Soce., 14: 120. 1823. Common name: 7yupa. Plates X, XI, XIV. A small to medium-sized tree, 12-15 m. tall, up to 50 cm. in diameter, with a strongly fluted trunk and an irregular crown, the leaves are crowded at the end of the glabrous branches (Plate XI). The leaf-blades are 14-18 cm. long, 8-18 cm. broad, glabrous, obovate to elliptic obovate, rounded with a slightly acuminate apicule, basally cuneate, the margin entire; lateral nerves six to ten pairs. The petioles are 3-4 cm. long, subtended by ovate stipules. This species differs from the former two by being monoecious. The male and female inflorescences are separated from each other by old, naked branches. The male racemes are 6-11 cm. long (Plate XIV), farinaceous-pilose throughout, bearing yellowish, fra- grant flowers. The sepals are mostly four, the stamens six, very short, the rudimentary ovary is concave. The female racemes are 5-14 cm. long, bearing four- to five- sepaled flowers. The ovary is three-loculed, with three papillose, almost sessile stigmas. The fruits are larger than those of B. racemosa, measuring 3.5—4 cm. in diameter. The species is cultivated only locally in Sumatra(Lam- [ 82] pung and Bangkahulu), and in a few parts of western Java, where it is often confused with B. racemosa, the kapundung (Heyne, 1927; Ochse, 1931; Smith in Koorders & Valeton, 1910). In south Sumatra, it is very common; the fruits are offered for sale in the markets of Palembang. In Sturtevant’s Notes on Edible Plants (Hedrick, 1919), a confusion occurs between this fruit and the rambeh, which is B. Motleyana, while Jack (1825), clue to lack of information, is of the opinion that the tjupa and the rambeh are different varieties of B. dulcis. Again, in Sturtevant’s Notes, B. dulcis is men- tioned as being cultivated in China. This is incorrect: what Royle, from whose book the statement was cited, referred to is B. sapida. 4. Baccaurea sapida Muell.-Arg. in DC., Prodr., 15 (2): 459. 1866. Synonym: Prerardia sapida Roxb., Fl. Ind., 2: 254. 1882. Common names: Luthko or latha (India), lutqua (China), Aanazo (Burma), pupor (Malaya). Plate XV. A medium-sized tree, up to 25 m. tall, young branches densely hairy, later glabrescent. The leaf-blades are 10— 20 cm. long, 4-9 cm. broad, glabrous, ovate to ovate- lanceolate, obtuse, tapering to cuneate at the base, the margin subdentate to entire; lateral nerves six to eleven pairs. The petioles are 1.5-8 cm. long, subtended by 6 mm. long, lanceolate, fimbriate stipules. This species is dioecious. The male racemes are 2.5-7.5 em. long, borne usually on the branches or on the trunk, the female ones are about 14 ecm. long, lower on the trunk; both inflores- cences are tomentose. The male flowers are fascicled on very short lateral rhachises, the pedicels are ca. 1 mm. long, the unequal sepals are four to five, the stamens [ 83 ] four to eight, and the rudimentary ovary is cylindrical. The female flowers are solitary on the rhachis, the pedi- cels ca. 1 mm. long, the sepals 5-6 mm. long, the hairy ovary is two to three-loculed tipped by papillose, two- lobed, sessile stigmas. The fruits, are 2.5-8 cm. in diame- ter, glabrous, cream white, ripening yellowish, pinkish buff or bright red, in strings 15-80 cm. long. The seeds are enclosed inaratheropaque, cream-white pulp(Plate XV). The kanazo, referred to Pierardia sapota by Pickering (1879), has been known by the Burmese since 1539 B.C., when the country was first inhabited. Mason describes the fruit as ‘‘one of the best and most plentiful of the jungle fruits, and the bunches resemble large grapes. ”’ The distribution of this tree is the most extensive of the cultivated species of Baccaurea. It occurs wild as well as under cultivation in Nepal, India, Burma, south- ern China, Indo-China, Thailand, the Andaman Islands, and the Malay Peninsula. In India (Pax, 1922) and in Malaya (Corner, 1952), it is the most commonly culti- vated species. Corner reported (1952) that pupor seems to be the only kind of Baccaurea, other than the ubiqui- tous rambai, that is cultivated in Malaya. In Rangoon, the fruits are plentiful (Watt, 1899). The fruits vary considerably in the color of the rind when ripe, and ap- parently there are some varieties with yellow fruits and rose-pink pulp around the seeds. The pupor is distin- guished from the ramba: by its smaller glabrous leaves which are basally tapering. ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION There is no serious problem as to the origin and dis- tribution of the species of Baccaurea. The area of distri- bution of the genus extends from India to the Pacific through Ceylon, the Andaman Islands, south China, Indo-China, Burma, Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, the | 84 | PuatTeE XII Baccaurea Motleyana Muell.-Arg. 1, a branch with leaves (2/5 » ). 2, female inflorescence (2/5). 3,a female flower, styles dropped off (1 3/5). 4, a young fruit, cross section (41/5). 5, a male flower (2). 6,a male flower with two sepals removed. 7, a raceme with fruits. (1-6 drawn from a living specimen at the Bogor Botanic Gar- dens, label no. III.F.60A; 7 drawn from Enderst’s collection, no. 93-EP-758, Sumatra, Palembang). Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea, Fiji, and Tahiti. The centre of distribution is western Malesia; twenty two species occur in the Malay Peninsula, twenty in Sumatra and adjacent islands, fourteen in Kalimantan (Borneo), five in the Philippines, and five in Java. Thirteen species are endemic to the Malay Peninsula, seven to Sumatra, five to the Philippines, six to Kalimantan, and one to Java. The cultivated species, which have been mentioned in the preceding pages, also occur in the wild state: B. Motleyana — in the lowland forests of the Malay Penin- sula; B. racemosa — in the forests of Java, Sumatra, and probably Kalimantan; B. sapida — in the forests of India, at the base of the Himalayas, in Burma, and in Thailand. According to Charles Pickering (1879), B. sapida has been cultivated for a long time, from at least 1000 B.C. Yet, it cannot be regarded as highly domes- ticated. So far as I know the dates of the first domesti- cation of the other species have not been recorded. Studies on the variation and cytogenetics of the species of the genus have not been carried on, or at least very little, if anything, has been done in this respect. When we speak of the distribution of a species, natu- rally the question always arises — how does it spread? Roughly, but not strictly, the fruits of Baccaurea can be differentiated into two types: a capsule, which splits open when dry; and a berry, which does not. In both types, the seeds are enclosed by an aril. Whether this is a “‘true arillus’” or just an ‘‘arillode’’ (a false arillus) is still doubtful. Ridley suggested that the aril in Bac- caurea is but a modification of the testa. The actual origin of the aril, however, is comparatively unimportant, although it is a point of interest in the evolution of the species. Regardless of whether or not it be a true or a false aril, it plays an important role as the agent of dis- ' 86 | J PLatE XIII Baccaurea racemosa (Reinw.) Muell.-Arg. 1, a branch with leaves (3/7). 2, a fruiting raceme (3/7X). 3, a fruit, dissected to show the seeds which are still enclosed within an arill (6/7 * ). (All drawn from Forman 425, Kalimantan, Gunung Sahari. ) persal. In the berry-type species, monkeys, bear-cats (Arctitis binturong), squirrels, lemurs and even birds eat the fruits, because they are attracted by the color or the smell (Ridley, 1980: 844,352, 8376; Marsden, 1811: 101); they pass the seeds through their digestive tracts un- harmed. Thus, the seeds are distributed to places far from the mother plants. Bats, the night wanderers, which are common in Indonesia, are undoubtedly very important in dispersing the seeds of Baccaurea. In the splitting- type fruit, which is called yinteh-jntek or ‘‘flick-flick’’— from the fact that it gives a flicking sound when it splits (Burkill, 1985)—the seeds are thrown out to an appre- ciable distance, so that the seedlings can grow to maturity without severe competition in obtaining food from the mother plants. Man, of course, is animportant agent of plant dispersal, and this is true also for the cultivated species of Baccaurea. CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION Generally, no special care nor labor is necessary in cultivating the rambai or khapundung; the method of planting is still very primitive and is usually of a hap- hazard nature. In a few instances, new plantings receive some care during the early stages of growth; but, as soon as the plant reaches a mature state and begins flowering and fruiting, it will be left by itself, while at the same time the fruits are continuously picked. Manuring or any other attempt to help the plant grow and yield more fruit is rarely practiced. ‘The same is true in regard to the improvement in quality of the fruit, such as by selection or hybridization, a result, primarily, to lack of knowl- edge and appreciation. The rambai and kapundung are readily raised from seed and grow well in most soils, but the rambaz prefers alluvial soils near rivers or places where water is readily [ 88 | PLATE XIV Baccaurea dulcis (Jack) Muell.-Arg. 1, a branch with leaves (3/7 X ). 2, female inflorescences (3/7 *). 3, male inflorescences (3/7 X ). 4-6, fruits, in 5 the rind has been removed to expose the seeds which are still enclosed within an aril (all 3/7 *). (1 and 2 drawn from Dumas s.n., Sumatra, Palembang; 3 drawn from Grashoff 608, Sumatra, Pal- embany; 4-6 drawn from C.N.A. Voogd 498, Sumatra, Palembang.) available (Malayan Agric. J., 1985). Seedlings should be set out 8-10 m. apart, so that when the plants mature, the dense crowns are not crowded together. An experiment to propagate the rambai and hapun- dung by the ‘‘budding method” at the Ragunan Ex- periment Station, Pasar Minggu, Djakarta, Indonesia, was carried out in 1988. A modification of the Forkert method was used and can be summarized as follows: On the stock plant, a transverse incision is made in the bark as deep as the cambium, after which a flap of the bark, 4 cm. long and 1 em. wide, is pulled down, either in one plece or else in several small strips. From the strips of the bark torn loose, two-thirds are cut off and the end trimmed. A shield-shaped bud, the scion, with no wood adhering, 1s then inserted and bound up with raffia. In the original Forkert method, the bark is not pulled down but is cut loose. This method has also been used, but it proved to be unsatisfactory. In the modified method, there is an advantage, because, if the bark fails to peel properly or tear off in small pieces, it indicates that the cambium is inactive and in an unsuitable condi- tion for budding. Thus, it is possible to ascertain whether the stock is fit or not before commencing further bud- ding operations. About three weeks after budding, the raffia is re- moved, and the scion commences to grow. For best results, this budding operation should be carried out during the rainy season. With this method, attempts have been made to use non-petiolate, one-year-old budwood of Baccaurea Mot- leyana as the scion, while fourteen-month-old B. Motley- ana and B. racemosa have been used as the stock. With both stocks, the results were 50% successful. It should then be possible to improve the quality of the fruit. If this method be extended to the villages, where the most ( 90 | L PLatTeE XV Bacccurea sapida Muell.-Arg. 1, a branch with leaves. 2, a dis- sected fruit. 3-7, fruiting racemes. 8, male inflorescences. (All 3/7 <.) (1-3 drawn from M. Nur 11123, Malay Peninsula, Pahang; 4—7 drawn from Pcilane 1271, Indo-China; 8 drawn from L. Pierre 395, collected from the Bogor Botanic Gardens. ) haphazard plantings are carried on, the future of the rambai and khapundung fruit will be promising. So far as | am aware, no breeding experiments have been reported. But it is hoped that plant breeders who happen to read this paper may be encouraged to consider the problem and its potentialities, so that, in the near future, we will have Baccaurea fruits of a larger size, sweeter and more palatable taste and smaller seeds and that they may be made available with other canned fruits every where. Pests AND DISEASES Since the rambai and hapundung are not yet commer- cially important, little attention has been directed to a study of the diseases and damages suffered by the plant and its fruits. Consequently, our knowledge of those aspects of the problem is very meagre. Naturally, like other fruit trees, the rambai and hapun- dung are liable to damage from parasitic and epiphytic plants. he former are the more harmful, for they send sucking roots, haustoria, into the vascular system. The most injurious of all the parasites, and the most common in the cultivated areas, are several species of Loranthus (Loranthaceae), the centre of distribution of which, co- incidentally, is likewise in western Malesia. These para- sitic mistletoes seldom kill their host plants outright, but they do considerable damage to the branches on which they grow. The only way to combat them is by cutting off the branches that are badly affected below the part on which the parasites have taken hold. The majority of the epiphytes, such as ferns and certain apocynaceous species, do little damage. The most injurious are Dry- moglossum piloselloides and Dischidia nummularia (Grist, 1936). Insects, especially caterpillars and scale insects, are [ 92 ] often troublesome, though not seriously injurious. Red ants (herengga or kelanghrang), Oecophylla smaragdina (Grist, l.c.), are probably the greatest pests. They make their nests among the branches by drawing a number of leaves together. The only way to destroy these insects is by burning their nests. Fungous diseases, which infect the leaves or fruits and other microorganisms living in the roots and which may cause the death of the plants have not as yet been studied. MARKETING OF RAMBAI AND KAPUNDUNG The rambai and hapundung fruits are produced mostly in villages, valleys, and foothills, localities relatively far from the markets. In season, the fruits are produced in great abundance. The rambai season in Malaya falls be- tween August and September (Macmillan, 1949); in Java, tne hapundung season is between January and March (Ochse, 1931). The fruits are collected before they are completely ripe on the tree—that is, when they turn yellowish or brownish. They are picked from the tree in bunches, put into baskets and taken directly by the owner to market for sale. In this case, the price is usually low. But very often the fruits are disposed of at roadside to traveling dealers or sold directly to the cus- tomers. Selling the fruits while they are still on the tree, a practice known as 7zdjon, as with durian (Durio Zibeth- inus), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), and langsat (Lansium domesticum), is very rarely or never practiced with rambai and kapundung. Since there is no attempt to increase yield of the fruit, the unit of production is too small to allow good prices to be obtained; but in the case of roadside sales, this factor is sometimes overcome by the owners’ arranging to take their produce to a defi- nite place on a particular date, thereby obviating the necessity for a dealer to visit several places before ob- [ 93 ] taining a sufficient supply to meet his requirements. Marketing facilities of both rambaiin Malaya and hapun- dung in Java are very poor, and the producer is entirely at the mercy of the buyer. In Malaya, rambai is becoming increasingly popular, as shown by the results of two surveys of fruit produc- tion: one by Olds in the Malacca Territory in 19338 (Table IL); the other by Jolly in Pahang in 1982 (Table IIL). The popularity of rambai fruit is shown in the two tables. Even so, rambaz is still far inferior to rambutan and durian. TABLE II The ten commonest fruits in Malacca ; | No. of holdings on which Name of Fruit represented Coconut 153 Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) 156 Durian (Durio Zibethinus) 123 Banana 116 Mangosteen (Garcinia Mangostana) 112 Jack fruit 97 Langsat (Lansium domesticum) 93 Bachang (Mangifera sp.) 82 Rambai (Baccaurea Motleyana) 79 Mango 67 NutrItioNaAL VALUE OF THE FRUIT Although it has been stated that eating hapundung in large quantities causes vomiting (Parkinson, 1928) and that the fruit of pupor (Baccaurea sapida) should be eaten with caution (Parkinson, |.c.), no toxie properties due to alkaloids or similar chemical constituents have been recorded for these fruits. Vomiting caused by eat- ing too much of the fruit is due probably to high acid [ 94 | TABLE III Order of Popularity of Fruits as amongst Districts and Percentage of the Total Holdings on which Individual Fruits are Planted. LIPIS Jo | Coconut 94 | Langsat 91 Durian 87 Rambutan 82 Jack Fruit 78 Mangosteen 75 Bachang 64 Mata Kuching 64 Mango 63 Pomelo 60 Jering 53 Blimbing Buloh 52 Rambai 51 Banana 50 Pineapple 25 Rambutan Durian Banana Coconut Langsat Mangosteen Bachang Mata Kuching Jack Fruit Rambai B. Buloh Jering Pomelo Mango Pineapple BENTONG Sane . Banana 91 Jack Fruit 91 Coconut 83 Rambutan 83 Durian Mango 75 Mangosteen 66 Pineapple 66 Bachang 66 Jering 66 Langsat 58 Rambai 58 B. Bulon 50 Pomelo 50 Mata Kuching 33 TEMERLOH KUANTAN 7 - Coconut 100 | Mango Jack Fruit 78 | Rambutan Rambutan 75 | Durian Mango 68 | Rambai Banana 66 | Coconut Mata Kuching 56 | Mangosteen Langsat 53 | Jack Fruit Durian 50 | Bachang Bachang 46 | Langsat Mangosteen 41 — Rambai 41 aa Pomelo 33 — B. Buloh 33 — Jering 21 — Pineapple 16 — PEKAN % Coconut 96 Mango 83 Jack Fruit 76 Rambutan 71 Mangosteen 68 Banana 68 Rambai 66 Jering 56 Bachang 53 Durian 50 Pineapple 33 Pomelo 31 B. Buloh 20 Langsat 10 Mata Kuching 6 concentration. So far, only Aapundung fruit has been analyzed chemically. The fruit consists of 5.5 g. of fleshy rind, 12 g. of pulp, and 1.5 g. of seeds. Analysis of the pulp shows that it is composed of: H2O, 82.82% ; pro- tein, 0.36% ; raw fibres, 0.21% ; raw ashes, 0.48% ; car- bohydrate, 0% ; saccharose, 7.47 %.* Orner Economic ASPECTS OF THE GENUS WOOD The wood of most species of Baccaurea is strong and durable. Various uses of the timber by the natives have been recorded, but it is still commercially neglected. Data in the following discussion have been compiled from Burkill (1935), Heyne (1927), Ridley (1902, 1903), and Smith (77 Koorders & Valeton, 1910). 1. B. bracteata (Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan) Wood very similar to B. malayana (see below), but the transverse bars are finer and the color is darker. Weight 78 Ibs. 12 oz. per cubic foot (all weight of the wood that follows is measured in cubic feet). 2. B. dasystachya (Sumatra) ‘he timber is used in house construction, for posts and roof beams. The wood is easily worked and durable. 3. B. dulcis (Sumatra) The wood is very durable but rarely used for ground construction. 4. B. Griffith: (Malay Peninsula) ‘The timber is reported to be strong (Burkill), but no further information is given. 5. B. javanica (Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java, Sulawesi or Celebes) *(Data from: Konig, J. Chemie der Menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, suppl. 2, ed. 4, 2: 380. 1923). [ 96 | The wood is very strong and durable, and it is used for posts in house construction in Java. In Nusakamban- gan (an island in the southern part of Central Java), it is used as the principal piles in the harbor. Most of the posts measure between 35-40 m. in length, with a di- ameter of 55-66 cm. In Palembang (Sumatra) and Mina- hasa (Sulawesi), the timber is also used for the same pur- pose. At Menes (Java), it has been reported that the wood is used for carving. 6. B. Kingu (India, Malay Peninsula) According to Alvins (quoted by Burkill), the wood is very durable and serviceable for house beams. 7. B. lanceolata (Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Kaliman- tan, Java) The timber is very durable and is used for house build- ing (Alvins, n.v.; Heyne). 8. B, macrophylla (Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan) The wood is very durable and is employed in various ways, such as for house beams, posts, planks, ete., and, due to its toughness, it is often used for the beams of carts. 9, B. malayana (Sumatra) A well known fruit tree, 15-20 m. tall. The wood is light brown in color, with tolerably distinct rings and numerous moderate size pores; the rays are mixed be- tween the fine and the broad ones, and there are fine transverse bars running across. Weight 54 lbs. It is a durable wood but is apt to split. It is useful for beams and posts. 10. B. Motleyana (Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan, Sumatra) ‘The wood is rather soft and light colored, similar to ash wood, and the rays are thick and the pores large. [ 97 ] The weight is 38 lbs. 12 oz. to 87 Ibs. 2 oz. Heyne re- ports that the timber is used for posts, but it seems to be of poor quality. It is a good fire wood. 11. B. minor (Malay Peninsula) The wood is light, reddish fawn in color; weight 46 Ibs. 12. B. parviflora (Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Kali- mantan) W ood compact and hard, often used to make clubs by the Malay. Light fawn or yellow in color, with large and fine rays mixed and connected with very small trans- verse bars. Weight 23 lbs. Probably of use for work in which box-wood is commonly used (Ridley). 13. B. polyneura (Malay Peninsula) The wood is very durable and good for house posts. 14. B. racemosa (Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan /) The timber is good for house building, boat and other construction. It is particularly strong, fine and hand- some, and it is often used as furniture (Hasskarl, quoted by Heyne). The physical character of the wood has been discussed extensively by Janssonius in his Mikrographie des Holzes. 15. B. reticulata (Malay Peninsula, Sumatra) Maingay described the timber as of a dull red color, fairly hard, and stated that it does not split on drying: weight 52 lbs. 6 oz. 16. B. sapida (Nepal, India, Indo-China, Burma, Malay Peninsula) Wood grayish brown, soft, with transverse lines of wood parenchyma very numerous, pores small, in short, radial lines; pith rays moderately broad to broad, the distance between the rays being from one to three times the transverse diameter of the pores. Easily worked and fairly durable. [ 98 ] 17. B. sumatrana (Sumatra) Durable to insect attacks, and, therefore, valuable for beams in houses. 18. 4£. symplocoides (Malay Peninsula) W ood with close grains, light fawn in color, with dis- tinct rings, rays rather distant and broad, pores small and few. 19. B. Wallichti (Malay Peninsula) Trunk 12-20 m. tall; wood red, suitable for beams. because it is durable. 20. 2. Wrayt (Malay Peninsula) According to Burkill, the timber is good for house posts. An extensive study of the wood structure of Baccaurea has been carried on by Janssonius (1929, 1984); a sum- mary of the results follows: 1. Most of the wood con- sists of non-septate libriform fibres with very thick walls and a minute cavity. 2. Metatracheal parenchyma abun- dant, sometimes as nearly the same mass as the libriform fibres. 3. Vessel perforations in part to exclusively scala- riform, often varying within the genus. These characters are very important taxonomically (Janssonius, 1929). A new and promising prospect has also been brought out by Janssonius’ study: that the wood of 2. racemosa (quite probably also the other species) is suitable for paper pulp. The technical properties of a good pulp wood, i.e., great length of fibre, minimum content of gum and resin, ease of pulping and bleaching, light color—these are well met by 2B. racemosa. The time needed for macerating the wood is also short (one sixth of the time usually re- quired for other woods); the color disappears quickly and completely; and the fibre walls are readily de-lignified. Further details of this process are given in V'ropical Woods, 18: 1-8, and in Mikrographie des Holzes. In [ 99 | Table [V, a comparison between various species of Ku- phorbiaceae investigated as to fibre length and time re- quired for maceration relative to that for other woods is presented (from T'ropical Woods, 18: 1-8). TABLE IV Size of Fibers and Relative Time Required for Maceration Rela- ee ee Length Diameter Wall tive ae B M time Antidesma Bunius ...... 1.5-3.0 25-32 x 28-35 4-5 1/5 Aporosa microcalyx 1.8-2.5 15-28 x 15-25 7-14 1/6 Baccaurea racemosa .... . 2.0-3.3 20-28 x 20-25 9-10 1/6 Bischofia javanica ...... 1.5-2.6 15-45 x 30-45 5-7 1/5 Bridelia minutiflora roe 1.3-1.7 15-20 x 18-20 3 1/6 Cleistanthus sumatranus .. . 1.4-2.0 10-25 x 15-20 5-7 1/6 Cyclostemon longifolius. . . . 2.0-2.7 10-17 x 12-18 | 6-7 4/10 Glochidion capitatum. ... . | 1.0-2.0 25-40 x 22-40 3-7 1/25 Glochidion rubrum . . 12-17 | ....... 1/20 Phyllanthusemblica .....;.....)....... Say 1/4 Phyllanthus indicus 0.9-1.8 8-18 x 12-20 4 1/20 Putranjiva Roxburghii 2.1-3.2 15-20 8-9 1/10 BARK, LEAVES, ROOTS The medicinal properties of the genus as part of native medicine have long been recorded. The bark of rambai has been mentioned by Skeat (1909) as forming one of the ingredients of the rempah ratus (the hundred herbs), a mixture concocted from all kinds of herbs, roots, and spices, and given to mothers after confinement. The in- gredients are put into a large vessel of water and left to soak; a portion of the liquor is strained off and given to the patient as a potion every morning. An extract is applied to the patient’s waist, and a set of fresh ingredi- ents replaces the old ones. Diarrhea (called meroyan taht) following child-birth is cured by drinking the extract of boiled roots of setambun, along with cloves, bruised nut- megs, seven fruits of chabai Java (Java long pepper) and [ 100 | ibu kunyit (a finger of a fresh turmeric rhizome), while the ground leaves and husked rice is rubbed over the whole body in the night time (Burkill & Haniff, 1980: 400-401). An extract of the leaves of B. brevipes may be used to regulate menstruation (de Clerq, 1909). The pounded bark of the rambai tree, sometimes mixed with the leaves of Adenostemma viscosum and Mimusops elengi, is used to cure “‘sore eyes’’ (Burkill & Haniff, 1930: 248). There is also mention of the use of an unidentified species of Baccaurea, tambun tahi, as an elephant medicine, the Juice being given internally (Maxwell, 1906). According to Burkill (1985: 278), the leaves of B. racemosa contain an alkaloid. The dyeing properties of the bark and the leaves have also been reported. The dyers of Pekan (Malay Penin- sula) use the bark of B. Motleyana; those of Sulawesi get a yellow color from the bark of B. minahassae (Bur- kill, 1935); and those of eastern Java employ the bark of B. racemosa for a mauve color (Smith iz Koorders & Valeton, 1910). As has been mentioned previously, the leaves of B. sapida in northern Benghal and Assam are used for dyeing (green/), while the bark is used as a mor- dant in dyeing with madder and lac. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I acknowledge with thanks several suggestions relat- ing to content and language received from Dr. A. F. Hill. My thanks are also due to Dr. Richard Evans Schultes, whose encouragement made this publication possible. To Mr. I. Nengah Wirawan of the Bogor Herbarium, Bogor, Indonesia, I also wish to express my thanks for supplying me with the photographs used in this paper. Messrs. Damhuri and Anwar, both of the Bogor Her- barium, prepared all the drawings. [ 101 ] BIBLIOGRAPHY Bois, D. 1929. Les plantes alimentaires (Chez tous les peuples et a travers les Ages, histoire, utilisation, culture), 2: 463-464. Burkill, 1.H. 1917. The food-crops of the Malay Peninsula and some thoughts arising out of a review of them. Agric. Bull. F.M.S., 5: 418. —— 1935. Economic products of the Malay Peninsula, 1: 277-282. S., —— ®& Haniff. 1930. Malayan village medicines. Gard. Bull. S. 6: 248-249, 305. ——— ~—— 1980. The medical book of Malayan medicines. Gard. Bull. 8.S., 6: 400-401. Corner, E.J.H. 1939. Notes on the systematy and distribution of Malayan Phanerogams III. Gard. Bull. $.S., 10(2): 288-291. —— 1952. Wayside trees of the Malay Peninsula, 2: 238. de Clerq, F.S.A. 1909. Nieuw plantkundig woordenboek voor Neder- landsch-Indié: 177-178. Dragendorff, G. 1898. Die Heilpflanzen: 374-375. Foxworthy, F.W. 1909. The Indo-Malayan woods. Philip. J. Sci. C, Bot., 4: 484. Gamble, J.S. 1921. Flora of the presidency of Madras, 2: 1310. Grist, D.H. 1936. An outline of Malayan agriculture. Planting man- ual, 2: 235. Hedrick, U.P. 1919. Sturtevant’s notes on edible plants: 80. Henderson, M.R. 1928. The flowering plants of Kuala Lumpur in the Malay Peninsula. Gard. Bull. S.S., 4: 823. Heyne, K. 1927. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indié, ed. 1, 2: 912-915, Holland, J.H. 1919. Food and fodder plants. Kew Bull.: 71. Hooker, J.D. 1887. Flora of British India, 5: 367-376. Jack, W. 1825. Account of the Lansium and some other genera of Malay plants. Trans. Linn. Soc., 14: 118-120. Janssonius, H.H. 1929. On the suitability of certain euphorbiaceous woods for paper pulp. Trop. Woods, 18: 1-3. [ 102 ] —— 1929, A contribution to the natural classification of the Euphor- biaceae. Trop. Woods, 19: 8-10. ~—— 1934, Mikrographie des Holzes der auf Java vorkommenden Baumarten, 5: 616-626. Jolly, J.W. 1934. Survey of cultivated fruits in Pahang 1933. Ma- layan Agric. J., 22(6): 270-275. Konig, J. 1923. Chemie der menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genuss- mittel, suppl. 2, ed. 4, 2: 380. Loureiro, J. 1790. Flora cochinchinensis, 2: 813. Macmillan, H.F. 1949. Tropical gardening and planting, ed. 3: 255; ed. 5: 251. Marsden, W. 1811. History of Sumatra: 101, t. 8 & 19. Maxwell, W. G. 1906. Mantra gadjah. J. Roy. Asiatic Soc. Str. Branch, 45: 32, 52. Merrill, K.D. 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, 2: 411--412, —— 1985. Loureiro’s flora cochinchinensis. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., 24: 232-233. Meyer, H. 1935. Buch der Holznamen, 4(1): 453. Milsum, .J.N. 1918. Catalogue of fruits suitable for cultivation in the Malay Peninsula. Agric. Bull. F.M.S., 6: 358. —— 1919. Fruit culture in Malaya. Dept. Agric. S.S. & F.M.S. Bull. No. 29 (old series). —— 1934. Fruit cultivation in Java. Malayan Agric. J. Dept. Agric. 5.5. & F.M.S,, 22: $21, Mueller Argoviensis, J. 1864. Neue Euphorbiaceen des Herbarium Hooker in Kew. Flora, 47: 516. in DC. 1866. Prodromus, 15(2): 456-466. Newbold, T.J. 1839. British settlements in Malacca, 2: 407. Ochse, J.J. (in collaboration with R.C. Backhuizen y.d. Brink). 1931. Fruits and fruiteculture in the Dutch East Indies: 45-46. Olds, G.D.P. 1933. A survey of fruit production in the Malacca ter- ritory. Malayan Agric. J., 21(2): 56-65. Parkinson, C. 1923. Forest flora of the Andaman Islands: 239. [ 103 ] Pax, F. in Engler and Prantl. 1896. Die natirlichen Pflanzenfam- ilien, 3(5): 30. & K. Hoffmann in Engler. 1922. Das Pflanzenreich, IV.147. XV, Heft 81: 45-72. —— —— in Engler & Prantl. 1931. Die natirlichen Pflanzenfam- ilien, ed. 2, 19¢: 50-51. Pickering, Ch. 1879. Chronological history of plants: 112. Ridley, H.N. 1902. Timbers of the Malay Peninsula. Agric. Bull. Str. & F.M.S., 1: 251-252. — 1903. De Malaische timmerhoutsoorten. Bull. Kolon. Mus. Haarlem, 27: 93. —— 1924. Flora of the Malay Peninsula, 3: 242-251. ——— 1930. Dispersal of plants throughout the world: 344, 352, 376, 423-424, 427. Roxburgh, W. 1832. Flora Indica, 2: 254. Royle, J.F. 1839. Illustrations of the botany of the Himalayan moun- tains, 1: 136. Skeat, W.W. 1900. Malayan magic: 347. — -& Blagden. 1906. Pagan races of the Malay Peninsula, 2: 640, 689. Smith, A. 1870. Treasury of botany, 2: 887. Smith, J.J. im Koorders & Valeton. 1910. Bijdrage no. 12 tot de kennis der boomsorten op Java. Mededeel. Dept. Landb., 10: 245-258. Strasbourg, F.G.L., ed. 1816. Dictionnaires des sciences naturelles, 3: 386. Watson, J.G. 1928. Malayan plant names. Malayan For. Records, 5: 115, 133, 139. Watt, G. 1889. A dictionary of the economic products of India, 1: 362. Wright, R. 1852. Icones plantarum: 5, t. 1912 and 1913. Malayan fruits, original article. Malayan Agric. J., 23: 110-133. 1935. The wealth of India (raw materials), 1: 142-143. 1948. [ 104 | ee . 1 ALS suc BOTANICAL MUSEUM LEAFLETS ome 8 ———- HARVARD UNIVERSITY CAMBRIDGE, Massacuusetts, DecemBer 31, 1965 VoL. 21, No. 4 EARLY ARCHAEOLOGICAL MAIZE FROM VENEZUELA BY Pau. C. ManGELSpoRF AND Mario Sanosa O.* DvRING the field work season of 1968 in the valley of Quibor, State of Lara, Venezuela, excavation of a site, under the direction of Mario Sanoja O., uncovered sev- eral maize cobs at the bottom of a cut. The valley, lo- ‘cated in the vicinity of the city of Barquisimeto at an altitude of about 500 meters, is a dry region with a xero- phytic vegetation. It has a long archaeological sequence beginning at least 200 B.C. and lasting until post- Conquest times. This area is one of the key points of the Andean Archaeological Project under the auspices of the Universidad de los Andes. The last aboriginal settlement of the valley, known as the Guadalupe phase, was characterized by mound dwell- ings associated with polychrome pottery, bone artifacts, and zoological and botanical remains. The most impor- tant mound complex is the FE] Tiestal site designated as L-1. Hlere mounds are arranged in a more or less cireu- lar fashion with a central plaza and two smaller mounds externally placed on an axis corresponding to the diame- ter of the circle. It was in one of these, designated E-1, * Head, Departamento de Antropologia, Universidad de los Andes, Merida, Venezuela, and Director of the University’s Andean Archae- ological Project. [ 105 ] that a cut was excavated. The first two levels (40 em.) produced a substantial number of sherds. Below this the clay used to build the mound was almost sterile, except for several thin layers of ash and charcoal con- taining a few sherds. Below the sterile clay at level 6 (120 cm.), there appeared a thick deposit of ash and charcoal from which seventeen charred maize cobs and a charred mass of ears were recovered. Also present in this layer were sherds, seeds of Caesalpinia coriaria, an un- Tansie [. Comparison in various ear characteristics of the prehistoric corn from El] Tiestal site, Venezuela, with those of the modern race Pollo. Characteristic Prehistoric A pollo* Diameter mm. ear 22.0 29,3 7 cob 13.0 14.3 . rachis 3.0 8.1 Length mm. rachilla 2.0 1.4 - glumes 5.0 3.1 Kernels, length mm. 13 8.54 : width °° 6.3 7.94. “ thickness mm. 4.1 4,96 as row number 8 10 * Data from Roberts ef a/., 1957. identified palm nut, charred wood, deer, rabbit, bird and snake bones, and a large number of insect larval cells. Beneath the ash deposit was a completely sterile gravel layer of undetermined depth. The maize cobs found at this site may be the oldest prehistoric maize yet found from sites in northern South America. It appears to be an early form of the primitive Colombian popcorn race, Pollo, described by Roberts et al. (1957). Especially convincing are the ears which occurred in the charred mass. One of these proved to be quite well preserved and furnished the data on the vari- ous dimensions set forth in Table |, where they are com- [ 106 | pared with the corresponding dimensions of modern Pollo. In all of its ear characteristics, this specimen is similar to modern Pollo except that it is smaller in most of its parts. [t is more primitive than modern Pollo in having a lower kernel-row number, a more slender rachis, and longer rachillae and glumes. As in Pollo, the kernels are rounded, Tasie [I. Characteristics of cob fragments from E] Tiestal site, Venezuela. Cob Row Diam. Length Kernel Kernel No. No. Rachis mim. Spaces Thickness 2 8 6 28 10 2.8 8 8 ) 15 6 2.5 5 8 9 22 6 3.7 6 8 } 22 6 3.1 7 10 6 2 4 8 3.0 8 8 6 7 .) 3.4 9 10 5 22 7 3.1 11 8 6 12 4 5.0 12 8 4 17 6 2.8 13 8 bs 18 6 3.0 14 8 i 24 6 3.0 15 8 3 15 3 3.0 16 10 3 17 5 3.4 17 8 3 15 9 3.0 18 10 3 9 3 3.0 19 8 -— 12 3 1.0 2] 10 $ 9 8 3.0 Average 8.6 4.6 17.5 535 3.2 A photograph of this cob (with its ear cross-section diagram) is shown in Plate XVI. Measurements were made also on the seventeen cob fragments, and these are set forth in Table II. The length of the fragment divided by the number of spaces once occupied by kernels shows the average amount of space | 107 | available for the kernels. This is approximately the equivalent of kernel thickness. The average dimensions of the seventeen fragments are slightly higher than those of the single well preserved ‘aur but, like it, they are lower than those of modern Pollo. Although the fragments are quite uniform with re- spect to kernel-row number and space per kernel, they are rather variable in the shape and hairiness of their cu- pules. This indicates that the plant is not a wild corn; it may represent acorn inan early stage of domestication. The race Pollo, which occurs on the eastern slopes of the eastern cordillera in the Departments of Cundina- marea and Boyaca in Colombia at elevations of 1600 to 2160 meters, is regarded by Roberts et a/. as the most primitive race of maize in Colombia. It has the smallest plants and shortest ears and one of the most limited dis- tributions of any of the Colombian races. It has all of the aspects of a relict race. These authors also point out that Pollo may be related to the primitive popcorn race of Peru, Confite Morocho, which is also a maize culti- vated at high altitudes (cf) Grobman ct a/., 1961). If so, Pollo may represent the earliest introduction of maize from Peru into Colombia and from there to Venezuela. Grant ef a/. (1963) in “Races of Maize in Venezuela’ report the occurrence of Pollo at altitudes of 1800-2400 meters in the states of Tachira, Merida, and Trujillo. It is most abundant in ‘Tachira adjacent to the general re- gion where it occurs in Colombia. ‘These authors call attention to the resemblance of Pollo to several highland races of Guatemala, especially Serrano and Nal-Tel Tierra Alta (Wellhausen ef a/., 1957). Nal-Tel in turn is appar- ently a direct descendant of the prehistoric wild corn found in the caves of Tehuacian (cf. Mangelsdorf ef a/., 1964). [ 108 | PLuaTE XVI Charred cob from El Tiestal site, Venezuela, with its ear cross-section diagram. Actual size. [ 109 ] A third possibility is that Pollo represents the domes- ticated form of a wild maize which once grew in Colom- bia and Venezuela. As the result of their genetic studies of the tunicate locus in maize, Mangelsdorf and Galinat (1964) have concluded that there were once at least two races of wild maize in Mexico. There may well have been additional wild races elsewhere in America, of which one was the ancestor of Pollo. The archaeological specimens from the El Tiestal site do not distinguish between the three above possibilities: (1) an early introduction of the race Confite Morocho from Peru, (2) an early introduction of the race, Nal-Tel trom middle America, (8) an independent domestication of an indigenous wild corn. They show only that there was cultivation of maize in Venezuela at an earlier date than had previously been reported. [111 ] LITERATURE CITED Grant, U.J., W.H. Hatheway, D.H. Timothy, C. Cassalett D., and L.M. Roberts, 1963. Races of Maize in Venezuela, Nat. Acad. Sci.-Nat. Res. Council Publ. No. 1136, Grobman, A., W. Wilfredo Salhuana, and R. Sevilla in collaboration with P.C, Mangelsdorf, 1961. Races of Maize in Peru. Nat. Acad. Sci.-Nat. Res. Council Publ. No. 915. Mangelsdorf, P.C. and W.C. Galinat, 1964. The tunicate locus in maize dissected and reconstituted. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sei. 51: 147- 150. Mangelsdorf, P.C., R.S. MacNeish, and W.C. Galinat, 1964. Do- mestication of corn, Science 143: 538-545. Roberts, L.M., U.J. Grant, R. Ramirez E., W.H. Hatheway, and D.L. Smith in collaboration with P.C. Mangelsdorf, 1957. Races of Maize in Colombia. Nat. Acad. Sci.-Nat. Res. Council Publ. No.510. Wellhausen, E.J., A. Fuentes O., and A.H. Corzo in collaboration with P.C. Mangelsdorf, 1957. Races of maize in Central America. Nat. Acad. Sci.-Nat. Res. Council Publ. No. 511. [ 112 } OTANICAL MUSEUM LEAFLETS HARVARD UNIVERSITY CampripGe, Massacnusetts, Marcu 9, 1966 Vou, 21, No.5 THE PSYCHOTROPIC BANISTERIOPSIS AMONG THE SIBUNDOY OF COLOMBIA BY MELVIN L. BristTou I THE malpighiaceous psychotropic drugs of northwestern Amazomia have long fascinated numerous native peoples of that region, but it was not until about a century ago that their existence became more widely known. Villa- vicencio (44) wrote of the Zaparo in eastern Ecuador, in 1858, saying, ‘‘They take a vine called Aya huasca (death or soul vine) from which they make a light decoction and the Indian drinks it. . . and ina few moments it begins to produce the strangest phenomena’’. Spruce (47) col- lected botanical specimens in 1852-53 of large forest lianas in the Rio Uaupés drainage in Brazil which were used by the Tukano to alter consciousness during festive communal dances. He named the lianas as a new species of the genus Banisteria of the Malpighiaceae; Morton (24) transferred them to an allied genus, and today they are known as Banisteriopsis Caapi (Spruce ex Griseb. ) Mort. During the century following the early discoveries, many other travellers in the Amazon basin recorded their experiences and observations of the hallucinogens vari- ously known as caapi (e.g., capt; 10), yagé, ayahuasca, etc., but the literature that accumulated was extremely [113 ] scattered, often fragmentary, and not always reliable. In 1957, Schultes (38) published athorough and detailed review of the botanical aspects of this chaotic literature and presented, for the first time,a clear view of our know]- edge of the identity of the malpighiaceous psychotropic drugs of the northwest Amazon. Rios (35) has compiled a review of ethnographic, linguistic, botanical and chemi- cal aspects of ayahuasca. ‘Today, as our knowledge rapidly increases, many new problems arise. II Schultes (38) concluded that the drugs are, ‘‘made basically from the same or closely related plants of the Malpighiaceae’’, that is, Banisteriopsis Caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) Mort. (syn.: B. quitensis (Ndz.) Mort. ; 8), B. inebrians Mort., B. Rusbyana (Ndz.) Mort. and Tet- trapterys methystica R. E. Schultes. Several other plants have been reliably reported as occasional admixtures with Banisteriopsis(38,39): Alternanthera Lehmannu Hieron. (Amaranthaceae), Banisteria longialata Ruiz ex Ndz. (Malpighiaceae), and Datura sp. (Solanaceae). Other species which may be involved are Malouetia Tama- guarina A. DC. (Apocynaceae) and Mascagnia psilo- phylla ( Juss.) Griseb. var. antifebrilis (Ruiz & Pav.) Ndz. (Malpighiaceae). Siqueira-Jaccoud (40)mentions that another malpighi- aceous, harmine-containing liana, Cabi paraensis Ducke, is used in the same way as its close relative, Banisteriop- sis Caapi, near the mouth of the Amazon, although Ducke (9) had denied any narcotic use of the plant. Rios (35) believed the ayahuasca of the Ucayali River in Peru to be the same species, but did not mention herbarium material to support his belief. Herbarium collections of Banistertopsis muricata (Cav.) Cuatr. giving the vernacular names aya-huasca [ 114 ] (Herrera 672, Woytkowshi 5588) and agahuasca (Woyt- hkowshi 5332) suggest that this species may one day be shown to be an ingredient of the drug ayahuasca in Peru. [Il Fischer (72) isolated an alkaloid from yagé which EI- ger (1/1) showed to be harmine, long known from the seeds of a Near Eastern perennial shrub, Peganum Har- mala 1.., of the Zygophyllaceae. Chen and Chen (7) confirmed the presence of harmine in Banisteriopsis Caapi, and O’Connell and Lynn (26) isolated it from stems of B. inebrians. Hochstein and Paradies (16) demonstrated the presence of two other B-carboline de- rivatives, harmaline and d-tetrahydroharmine, as well as harmine, in B. Caapi stems. However, O’Connell and Lynn (26) had reported the absence of harmaline in the stems of B. inebrians. Harrnine has been found also in the Amazonian mal- pighiaceous lianas Cabi paraensis (22) and paricd (3), the latter containing harmaline and tetrahydroharmine as well. Parica is the name employed by the Tukano for the hallucinogenic snuffs that they prepare from myristica- ceous trees of the genus Virola (37a) and, reportedly, from malpighiaceous lanas as well (3), although her- barium specimens to support this interesting report are apparently lacking. The snuff called epend by the Surara, also of northwestern Brazil, contains harmine and tetra- hydroharmine (2a). Other harman alkaloids have been found in seven plant genera in six families (4). Hochstein and Paradies (76) isolated N,N-dimethy]- tryptamine from leaves said to be employed in Peru along with B. Caapi in preparing a narcotic beverage. In the absence of herbarium specimens, the common name had suggested Prestonia amazonica as the identity of the leaves, but Schultes and Raffauf (39) have shown this [ 115 ] identification to be in error. On the other hand, the ad- dition of leaves of Banisteriopsis Rusbyana to the bark and wood of B. Caapi is a well known practice (38), and this species ranges from Colombia to Bolivia, including the region in Peru from which Hochstein and Paradies obtained their materials. It is wholly possible, then, that this indole analogue of serotonin is present in B. Rus- byana. Dimethyltryptamine is known to have psycho- tropic action in man (37). N, N-dimethyltryptamine has been isolated also from the seeds of the mimosoid legumes Anadenanthera pere- grina(L.) Speg. (syn. : Piptadenia peregrina L. ; 2) and A.colubrina var. Cebil (Griseb.) v. Reis (syn. : P. macro- carpa Benth. ; 2), from which the narcotic snuff cohoba, vilca or yopo is prepared over a wide area in South Amer- ica (13, 34). Pachter et al. (27) recovered the same tryp- tamine from another related legume, Mimosa hostilis Benth., used by the Pancurt of northeastern Brazil to prepare their psychotropic drink, vinho de Jurumena. Holmstedt (77) finds this alkaloid, as well as two of its analogues, in epend, an intoxicating snuff used by the Waica in northwestern Brazil. The wood anatomy of this drug source indicates a species of Virola (Myristi- caceae). IV Recent biochemical and pharmacological studies of the harmala alkaloids bring us toward an understanding of Banisteriopsis intoxication. Udenfriend et al. (42) showed harmaline to be one of the most potent, but re- versible, inhibitors of monoamine oxidase (M AQ) activ- ity, and Pletscher et al. (37) extended this finding to the other methoxy-harmanes, harmine and tetrahydrohar- mine, using murine brain in vivo. Harmaline’s inhibition of MAO in rat brain was seen to last for from twelve to [ 116 | sixteen hours, while that of harmine disappeared in about eight nours (78). The enzyme MAO functions in the breakdown of serotonin, a biologically highly active sub- stance found in various tissues, including the central ner- vous system; and in the breakdown of norepinephrine, a possible neurohumor of the central nervous system and known neurotransmitter in the sympathetic nervous sys- tem (2). Antidepressant drugs known to inhibit MAO have produced a variety of systemic and_ psychoto- mimetic effects, but there is little agreement about the mechanism underlying these actions (18). Pletscher et al. (22) and Zirkle and Kaiser (46) have recently prepared extensive reviews on monoamine oxi- dase inhibitors. Harmine and harmaline cause hypoten- sion and bradycardia when administered intravenously, but prevent or reverse the hypotensive and sedative ef- fects of reserpine. Small dosages of harmine can slightly increase blood pressure. Although harmine blocks or depresses ganglionic and myoneural transmission, it stimulates intestinal contractions in intact animals. Both harmine and harmaline promote uterine contractions. Antihelmintic action on parasitic ascarid worms by harmine and harmaline has been observed, and various harman derivatives are also active against Protozoa (trypanosomes, amoebae) in vitro (32). V The psychotropic effects of the malpighiaceous drugs are many and varied, and depend upon the species em- ployed, upon the method of preparing the drugs, upon the social and physical environment in which they are taken, and upon the age, health, personality, expecta- tions and mental state of those who take them. I do not intend here to summarize these effects, but attention is called to the report of Pennes and Hoch (29) on the [ 117 ] effects of harmine on thirty-two schizophrenic subjects. They wrote, ‘‘ Diffuse alterations usually occurred in many realms—autonomic, motor, perceptual, emotional, intellectual, and behavioral.” Some of the effects of harmine were: nausea and vomiting; slow, coarse, spontaneous tremor of the extremities of an ‘extrapyramidal’ appearance; humming and buzzing noises (no voices); ‘waviness’ of the environment; ‘sinking’ sensations of the body ; subjective sense of body vibra- tion; and subject numbness, accompanied by objective evidence of reduced sensitivity to light touch and pinprick. Bradycardia and hypotension were very marked. They observed a ‘‘semidelirioid or confusional state’’, with drowsiness and some amnesia, accompanied by a shallow euphoria and visual hallucinations. Gershon and Lang (/4) suggest that ‘‘The chief cen- tral effects of [harmine] are an anxiety type response in normal man and an activation of psychotic processes in schizophrenic subjects. This distinction is of the utmost theoretical importance in that [harmine] may fall into a very special group of psychotomimetic agents. ”” Naranjo (25) experimented with harmaline on thirty- two Chilean subjects, nearly all of whom found it hallu- cinogenic. Visions of serpents, tigers and birds, and of negroes, and experiences of flying, of death, and espe- cially an acute awareness of a human soul separated from its body, were common themes. Experiments with rats have shown harmaline to nulli- fy aconditioned avoidance-escape behavioral reflex (27). VI The following account presents some of the details concerning the preparation and use of Banisteriopsis by Sibundoy medicine-men in diagnosing and treating so- matic disease and in discovering therapeutic agents. The [118 ] rich variety of hallucinations experienced by natives dur- ing intoxication will be reported elsewhere. No attempt is made here to discuss the drug’s implications for psy- chosomatic therapy, for the treatment or investigation of mental disorders or for psychedelic use. The Sibundoy are one of the few native peoples of highland South America known to employ Banisteriop- sis. The tribe inhabits the northeast side of a small basin lying at 2200 meters elevation and isolated on the east- ern side of the Andean Cordillera in southern Colombia. At present, they share the basin, or the Valle de Sibun- doy, with some 38500-4000 Santiagueno Indians and about 9000 blancos of predominantly Spanish ancestry. In 1961. the Sibundoy numbered about 2180, having increased very rapidly during the present century. The bilingual Sibundoy have been schooled by Catholic missionaries, but, excepting the exigencies of the new religion, they adhere to their traditional cultural pat- terns. While their cultural origins remain enigmatic, their agricultural practices exclude them entirely from the cultural context of highland southern Colombia. It is likely that they were once a tropical forest people, but they may have ascended to the Valley of Sibundoy in the remote past (4, 6). Pérez de Quesada found them well established there in 1542 (7). Apart from Uscdtegui’s (43) belief that ‘‘Yagé, coca and tobacco are doubtlessly present as imported curi- osities in the bundles of magic-elements of Sibundoy medicine-men, but none of these narcotics is used widely by the Kamsa people’’, there has been no mention of the Sibundoy use of yagé. (Coca and tobacco—excepting occasional commercial cigarettes—are absent among the Sibundoy.) Rocha’s account (36) ina Bogota newspaper (the original of which I have not seen) erroneously equates the Mocoa and Ingano with the ‘‘Sebondoy’’, and seems [119 ] to be confined to the use of yagé in the Putumayo low- lands, thus excluding the Sibundoy (ef. 33). Yepes (44) discussed the use of yagé by the neighboring, Inga- speaking Santiagueno in his published interview with a travelling medicine-man in Popayan. Vil The Sibundoy eall the drug biavt * in their native lan- guage Kamsa, but frequently use the widespread yagé as well. Table I lists and explains all those words used by the Sibundoy to designate the drug or its compo- TaBsL_e I Terms employed by the Sibundoy for the drug and its source plants. Term Etymology Ref. Application , , a! . , ‘ ‘ . Amaron waska Spanish amarron boa constrictor’ B.Caapi ’ Pp 7 ‘ ‘ 2 from amarrar ‘to tie’; and Que- (6) , ‘6 4). chua wiskha ‘cord’ [hence ‘liana’ }. (20) Ambiwaska Quechua hdnpi ‘medicine’ and (20) B.Caapi, wdskha ‘liana’. drug Ayawaska Quechua dya ‘cadaver’ and (20) B.Caapi, wiskha ‘liana’. drug Bidxva Kams4: sometimes ‘climbing (6) B.Caapi plant’, but usually restricted to this use. (Related to yavé?). Biaxii Kamsa: from bidza. (19) drug Bicémia Kamsa: ‘climbing plant’. B.Caapi Cagrupanga Quechua chdhra “planted area, (20) B. Rusbyana garden’; and p/dnkka ‘corn (28) shuck’, hence ‘leaf’. Remedio, Spanish: ‘remedy’. drug El remedio Sacawdska Quechua sdch’a ‘shrub, tree’ (20) B.Caapi, [hence ‘woodland’]; and waskha (28) drug ‘liana’. Yaxé Tukano yahi “sorcerer, sorcerer’s (33) B.Caapi, plant’. drug * The notation of Kamsa conforms with Juajibioy (79) who follows the Institut d’Ethnologie and the Societé de Linguistique of Paris. An English approximation of biaxii is byah-hee-ee. [ 120 ] nents. ‘The presence of non-Kamsaé names among the Sibundoy is occasioned by their frequent acquisition of plant materials through natives speaking one of the Que- chuan languages. Sometimes the drug is accorded a position of preeminence with the Spanish epithet e/ remedio (‘the remedy’), a term employed even when speaking Kamsa. The names sacawdska ‘woodland liana’ and cagrupangs ‘garden leaf’ imply that B. Caapi is considered wild, while B. Rusbyana is thought of as domesticated, or at least ruderal. As yet, however, we have no botanical evidence to support such an interpre- tation. A Siona Indian in the nearby lowlands says, ‘*The plant is cultivated and lasts forever.” (2/a). He seems to refer to the liana the bark of which is employed, B.Caapi. The widespread term ayawdska, or ayahuasca, seems especially pertinent in regard to Naranjo’s finding (25) that many of his harmaline-treated subjects in Chile experienced feelings of death and of the separation of soul and body. VItl The botanical identities of the crude drugs bidwa and cagrupynga, from which biawti is prepared, are based upon seven sterile and three partly fertile specimens from the adjacent eastern lowlands, whence the Sibundoy ob- tain the plant materials. Bristol 759 (bidwa) from the garden of Salvador Chindoy in the Valley of Sibundoy represents Banisteriopsis Caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) Mort. Chindoy planted it there from a cutting that he obtained near Mocoa about ten years ago, but he will be unable to use it for biawtt for years to come because it grows slowly in the cool climate of the high valley. Bristol 325-A7 (cagrupangoa) consists of four leaves of B. Rusbyana (Ndz.) Mort. brought by the same medicine- man from the same area. 121] Bristol 759 is equivalent to the five sterile specimens of B. Caapi from the Mocoa-Umbria region of the east- ern lowlands, but it likewise resembles Klug 1964, the type of B. inebrians Mort., also from Umbria. Bristol 325-A7 is similar to two sterile and two semi-fertile col- lections of B. Rusbyana from the same region. Specimens examined from the region where the Sibundoy collect materials for preparing biaxil. Banisteriopsis Caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) Mort. Cotoms1aA, Comisaria de] Putumayo: Valle de Sibundoy, alt. 2200 m., 1.5 km. s. Sibundoy.—Twining, woody, 3 m. “‘Biaj’’. Narcotic. Planted as cutting brought from near Mocoa. Bark to be used for hallucinogen, ‘‘biajii’’. Indian garden, very infreq. [sterile]. 13-1V- 1963, Bristol 759 (ECON). Regién de Mocoa, alt. 550-800 m., camino viejo Mocoa-Pepino.—(sterile]. 28-VIII-1963, Chindoy* 256a (ECON).—‘‘Bichemia’’ (‘bejuco’), “‘Amarrén huasea’’ (‘bejuco de boa’). Enredadero 5-6 m.; flor morada. [sterile]. 28-VIII-1963, Chindoy 279 (ECON, GH, US). Riberas del rio Rumiyacu, entre las poblaciones de El Pepino y Mocoa, alt. ca. 600 m.— Nombre vernaculo 2399 ‘*Yajé’’, Bejuco trepador de unos 7 m. Tallos cilindricos. Cultivado por los indios Inganos en campo abierto y poco sombreado. [sterile ]. 28-VII-1960, Ferndndes-Pérez & Schultes 5704 (KCON). Umbria, alt. 325 m.— ‘Yagé’’ vine. Forest clearing. [sterile]. I/II-1931, Klug 1934(A, GH). Alta cuenca del Rio Uchupayaco, al suroeste de Puerto Limon. —‘“‘Yajé’’. Narcotic. Liana. [sterile]. 27/28-II-1942, Schultes 3346 (ECON). Banisteriopsis inebrians Mort. Cotompia. Comisaria del Putumayo: Umbria, alt. 325 m.—‘‘Yagé del monte’’. Strong narcotic. Indians make a brew of this and have ‘*visions’’. From root to tip, more than 30 meters long. It takes 6 men to drag the lower half when cut. I estimate that this weighs more than 500 kg. Forest. [fruiting]. I/II-1931, Klug 1964 (Type; A, ECON, GH). * Pedro Juajibioy Chindoy, brother of the ethnographer and lin- guist Alberto Juajibioy Chindoy; not related to the medicine-man Salvador Chindoy. [ 122 ] Klug 1964 may be the only fertile collection extant of this species (8). Banisteriopsis Rusbyana (Ndz.) Mort. Cotomata. Comisaria del Putumayo: (Valle de Sibundoy ). —Obtained from Salvador Chindoy, a Sibundoy who collected these near Mocoa, alt. 550-800 m. “‘Chagrupanga’’. Narcotic. For preparing the hal- lucinogen ‘‘biajii’’. [4 leaves]. Bristol 325-A7 (ECON). Region de Mocoa, ait. 550-800 m.—‘‘Amarr6n chagrupanga’’. [sterile]. 28- VIII-1963, Chindoy 280a (ECON ).—‘‘Chagropanga’’. 2.5 m. Se dice que no tiene flor. [sterile]. 28-VIII-1963, Chindoy 281 (ECON, US). Umbria, alt. 325 m.—‘‘Chagropanga’’ “‘oco yagé’’. Vine. Forest. [stem, leaves, 1 perianth]. I/II-1931, Klug 1971 (A, GH). [X The Sibundoy avail themselves of biawvi in two ways. First: they may purchase a bottle of prepared biawit from a Sibundoy or Santiagueno medicine-man in the Valley of Sibundoy. Several natives of the valley who know where to gather the plant materials in the eastern low- lands arid how to prepare the drug engage in this com- merce. They sell it by the liter for five to ten pesos. Second: in cases of severe or prolonged illness, one of these medicine-men (tatmbwa, biaxtt pormayd) is paid, usually in kind or in labor, to diagnose the disease (sokan) while intoxicated with dravit. On these occasions, mem- bers of the patient’s family and one or more friends of the medicine-man may also take the drink. Thus, while the uses of biawti by medicine-men to diagnose disease and ‘“*to study medicine’ are considered the more important by the ‘Sibundoy and are the central subject of this re- port, a majority of the men and many of the women have also taken Jiavii several times in their lives and for other purposes. Biaxn intoxication is sought for a variety of reasons outside of the medical sphere. A Sibundoy separated from his family while travelling may take it to relieve his loneliness and, as he says, transport himself to their [ 123 ] midst. Or he may be anxious to know who is gossiping about him during his absence. The location of a lost ob- ject, he believes, can be revealed by intoxication. It would appear that anxiety states can be better defined, or even resolved, with b’awn. Of great importance is its use para conocer, ‘to perceive, to experience, to know through familiarity, to learn’, the native’s way of ex- pressing in Spanish the drug’s ability to ‘‘expand con- sciousness’, especially in the visual realm. In this con- nection, and perhaps in other ways as well, dbiaxiz helps the Sibundoy ‘‘to learn how to live’’. Therapeutically, the Sibundoy medicine-man employs biaxti for its unfailing purgative action, perhaps due to harmine’s ability to increase intestinal motility (62). As an emetic, the drug is notorious. These secondary actions, while deliberately prescribed at times, also affirm the medicine-man’s control over the body, for the drug 1s taken usually by the patient undergoing diagnosis as well. A strong purge is always assumed to be beneficial, a reasonable assumption in an environment where intes- tinal parasites are common. The antiparasitic actions of the harmala alkaloids have already been noted (32). Re- gardless of the ensuing diagnosis, the patient justifiably feels that some improvement has been attained. X We now proceed to an examination of my observa- tions on the preparation of biavwii and its use in diagnos- ing disease and in ‘‘studying medicine’ by a Sibundoy medicine-man and close friend, Salvador Chindoy. I have been able to discuss the utilization and especially the intoxication from biaxvt with many Sibundoy, but rather than present a composite and generalized picture of its use, it seems preferable to recount a specific in- stance, the one I observed most fully. [124 | prepares biazii. A meter stick indicates its size. The roofing is made from fronds of the very common palm, botsacsa (Prestoea sp.), seen at the upper right and in Plate XVIII. A bunch of dried cornstalks suggests a wall. ALV Tg] IIAX On this occasion, Chindoy prepared the drug with the bark of Banisteriopsis Caapi (or possibly B. inebrians) and the leaves of B. Rusbyana that he had recently gath- ered inthe Mocoaregion of the adjacent eastern lowlands, The preparation of biavi is reserved to a small hut, biaxt wabwandi tambo, (biavti ‘cooking shelter’), which women are expected never to approach (see Plate X VII). It is believed that, should a pregnant woman come too near the hut, thunder and lightning will appear, and both the woman and the medicine-man will be killed instantly. Among other things, this taboo serves to prevent women’s learning how to prepare diavwi and thus intoxi- ‘ate themselves when their husbands are travelling. While women can and do take diavi, they must never do so in the absence of their husbands. Furthermore, harmine and harmaline promote uterine contractions (3.2) and may cause abortion. If the women are aware of this possibility, the taboo discourages their using diawi as an abortifacient without the consent of their husbands. Whether or not pregnant women ever take biavu tor any purpose was not ascertained. The details of preparing (:avu vary somewhat, espe- cially between the ideal and the actual practice. Chindoy explained the procedure as follows: Beginning in the morning, boil forty liters of water, add a pile of bark scrapings to the boiling water, and stuff the pot full of cagrupenga leaves. At noon, throw out both the scrapings and the leaves and add the same amounts of fresh scrapings and leaves, continuing to boil for another three or four hours. Again remove the scrapings and leaves, but this time, add only twelve pairs of cagrupanga (24 leaves), boiling them for two additional hours. When they are taken out, the pot is cooled and the biaxit readied for use. As I had the opportunity to observe the complete preparation of biavwti by Chindoy, it seems worthwhile to record his actual procedures here. * n, 7 ro , * ie ; Late in the afternoon the biaxii wabwanayd (biaxii ‘cook’) started [ 126 | i : Be, enor ore nae Po tito a oe 4 os : : = oo aS ails : x We Se A Sibundoy medicine-man, Salvador Chindoy, demonstrating the adornments he uses while prac- ticing medicine under the influence of the psychotropic drug biawi/. (See text. ) TLV Id IIAN i 2. 3. a fire in the biaxii cooking hut, about fifty meters from the house ina secluded spot. A cauldron with several liters of water was set to boil, and twenty-four cagrupanga leaves were added. This was left and he returned to the house to chat with his family and eat a light supper. About 7:00 P.M., Chindoy returned to the hut with several enor- mous leaf blades of sikse tomakéio (Colocasia esculenta Schott) and two liters of biaxii remaining from a previous occasion. Behind the hut, he dug up ‘four pairs’ (eight sections about 4 25 em.) of the bidxa liana. These had been buried for three weeks, to keep them fresher, he said. The sections were carefully scraped to remove all dirt from the bark, an operation which took twenty-five minutes. During this time, the fire subsided, but, when the cleaning was finished, he revived it to continue the boiling for about forty-five minutes, Now the medicine-man began scraping the bark from the sections of liana with a knife. This tiring process lasted about half an hour, during which time six sections were scraped down to the wood. He decided that it would be too much work to scrape the bark from the remaining two, and further decided against mashing up the wood as he had previously intended. About one and a half liters of scrap- ings from the liana were accumulated. A flat stone was placed on the Colocasia leaves, and the bark scrapings were pounded on this with a smaller round stone, collected on the leaves and dumped into a large enamel bowl. The scrapings appeared to be reduced to one liter in volume. The two bottles of previously prepared biazii were then shaken, producing a froth in the bottles. Their contents, about one and a half liters, were emptied into the bow] of fresh bark scrapings, and about one-half of the simmering cagrupanga infusion (one liter) was also adced to the bowl. Chindoy washed his hands and proceeded to knead, rub and squeeze the scrapings in the bowl for several minutes. Then the scrapings were thrown into the cauldron of cagrupanga leaves and the cauldron taken off the fire. The liquid in the bowl, consisting of previously prepared biaati (1.5 liters) and an infusion of cagrupanga leaves (1 liter) in which about 1 liter of mashed bidra bark scrapings had been kneaded and squeezed, was ready for consumption as soon as cooled. In brief, the ingredients of biawti were: 24 leaves of B. Rusbyana. Bark from a stem of B. Caapi (or possibly B. inebri- ans) about 1.5 meters long and 4 cm. in diameter. 1.5 liters of previously prepared biawit. (129 ] The leaves were boiled in several liters of water, but only half of the resulting infusion, or one liter, was used on this occasion. This simmering infusion was added to the cold drink previously prepared, and the sap and small particles from the shredded and pounded bark completed the luke-warm mixture. The two bottles of brawn left from another occasion could have been taken alone, but Chindoy advised that ‘‘it is better to refine the biawit’’. He said the chagruponga leaves had to be included, ‘‘in order to see pictures”’, for the biava bark alone is not hallucinogenic. The re- maining liter of cagruponga infusion, the squeezed bark scrapings, the wood of the six sections already scraped, as well as the two untouched sections, were saved to prepare more (iawii at a later date. If all these materials are, in fact, used in making the next brawii, its prepara- tion will conform neither to the stated ideal, nor to the procedure just described. Presumably, some (rawii left over from the present batch would serve as the basis for the next. Although women are never allowed in or near the hut, once the preparation is complete, the draat can be taken to the house, for ‘‘the women can no longer harm it’’. XI It was then about 8:30 P.M., and Chindoy’s wife and the three visitors had gone to bed on reed mats on the floor in the main room. The medicine-man arranged his blankets on the raised wooden bed, and I slept on the floor ona mat. It is common for friends of the medicine- man to spend the night at his house at such opportunities to take biavii, and I was not in an awkward atmosphere. The drink was to be taken around midnight. The stated purpose of taking biawi on this occasion was twofold. First: a young couple with an ailing infant [ 130 ] wanted to have its disease diagnosed and cured. The child was said to be thirteen months old, but it was obviously stunted. Several native remedies had been tried by the parents to no avail during the past few months. Second: Chindoy wanted to examine some branches of a peculiar boracéra (Datura candida( Pers.) Saff.) closely resembling several of the more important medicinal plants known to him. I had located the small tree in the garden of an older, well known Sibundoy along a much frequented trail, but it had never been seen by Chindoy who rarely had occasion to travel that section of the trail. As he had said that it would ke very unwise for him to inspect the other man’s tree, I had brought several branches from it. Intoxicated with dbiavit, he would ‘‘examine’’ the branches to determine whether the plant was ‘‘poison or remedy, and, if not a poison, what it would be good for and how it should be used’’. The medicine-man, the young couple and I awoke at about 1:30 A.M. The medicine-man adorned himself for the ceremonial preparation of the diawt with a neck- lace of large puma canine-teeth, a great many small- beaded necklaces of several colors, two longer necklaces of palm fruit rattles, a chain necklace with a crucifix, two long, tightly wound wrist cords, two red parrot tail feathers in his pierced ear lobes, and a narrow crown with erect, red and blue parrot tail feathers at the rear and a long train of green parrot tail feathers and black-yellow- red toucan tails hanging behind (see Plate XVIII). Ex- cepting for the multicolored porcelain bead necklaces, all these adornments are used by Chindoy exclusively for practicing medicine while influenced by drawn. He ac- quired all but the beads and crucifix in the eastern low- lands among the Mocoa and Ingano who fashioned them from locally available materials and who use them for similar purposes. [ 131 | Chindoy sat on a stool facing the large enamel bowl of biaxvti and the wall; the young woman and child re- mained on their mat on the floor; and the young man and I sat on stools around the now dead fire. A ceremony was performed over the bowl of biavt before any was taken. The medicine-man alternately chanted, hummed and whistled a tune of three or four staceato notes for about ten minutes. The chanting was solely of the syllables bia-wi-bia-avi-bia-wi-t-bia-xi-bia-wi-i .... There was no pause in the chanting, humming and whistling. This was accompanied by rattling a brush, bacnenaisd (bdena ‘priest’, wnaisd ?), made of dried leaves known as wa-tra-cinga or picdnga. This is a ‘‘broom to sweep away bakna binjia or malaire’’, an airborne disease- causing spirit. The oblong-lanceolate leaves are from a low, unidentified grass of the eastern lowlands. After the initial ceremony over the large bow] of biawtt was complete, Chindoy put some of the drug into a braavit ftman kwastém, or medida, a ‘measure’ of about 150 ce. This kwastém (‘little bowl’) is a small, very hard bow], made probably from a small-fruited variety of the cala- bash tree, Crescentia Cujete L. With the measure of biavti held in the hand, the chanting and humming was repeated. He dipped a crucifix from one of his necklaces into the drink and then crossed himself with it. He com- pleted the ceremony by repeating the sign of the cross over the measure of brawit. He drank the biavtt quickly, spitting and shaking his head because of the disagreeable bitterness. He followed it with half ajigger (20-25 cc.) of aguardiente (‘whiskey’) to wash his mouth, but then he swallowed it, too. With similar ceremony, the medicine-man offered me a meas- ure of biaxvti which I drank quickly and followed with the more pleasant taste of a few drops of rum which he had advised me to bring for this purpose. A third measure [ 132 ] was given to the young father of the sick infant, and half as much was given also to its mother ina small glass bowl. After considerable spitting on the dirt floor, Chindoy vomited lightly over the bench next to the wall, beside the head of his sleeping wife. Suddenly, the young man leaped from his stool and vomited lustily across the floor, to everyone’s amusement; outside the door, he continued retching for several minutes. About forty-five minutes after taking the drug, no one had noticed any psychic effects, and the three men present each took another half measure. Shortly thereafter, nausea overcame me, and I was obliged to withdraw and vomit up the infusion. Before long, Chindoy announced, ‘*The cvima (‘narco- sis’) has seized me’’, but instead of sharing any feelings and insights, and perhaps because the drug made him drowsy, he retired quickly to bed. He had seemed to take no notice of either the ailing child or the unknown boracéra branches. With no signs of inebriation, the rest of us socn followed suit. All of the Sibundoy agree that to ‘‘see things’” most people must take bawti on several occasions and that neo- phytes rarely succeed. Chindoy, who takes biawit every few weeks and sometimes more often, invariably has visions and says that he ‘‘learns’’ something each time. My own failure to respond to biaxvtti was not unusual; indeed, it was anticipated by Chindoy. But I remem- bered also the abbreviated procedures in preparing the drink and wondered if a longer boiling of larger quanti- ties of leaves and bark would have been more likely to produce psychic effects. Juajibioy (pers. comm.) informs me that sometimes the participants bathe in the nearest stream the following dawn and then are ritually fumigated with kopal (resin from Hymenaea Courbaril L.; 30) to expel malaire. We arose leisurely at about 6:00 A.M. and rolled up [ 133 ] our sleeping mats. I felt nothing unusual. Presently, I asked the medicine-man, “‘Did you see anything last night?’* and he gave three answers. First: he had seen that my parents in the United States were disturbed over my long absence (fifteen months) and were anxious for me to return home. They felt that I was being very irresponsible in neglecting them forso long. Second: he informed us that nothing could be done to save the stunted child. Some time ago microbios had entered the body between the toes and had crept up through the legs into the torso and now suffused the whole body except for the heart. As soon as they reached the heart —he repeated this—the infant would die. Third: the unusual Datura was identified as sala- main boracéra, a small tree cultivated by Chindoy and used for various medicinal and occasionally narcotic pur- poses. He would plant the cuttings in his garden, he said, and use the leaves as he does those of the salaman boracéra. Here ends this instance of the use of biawt by the Sibundoy, but several comments on its results may be worthwhile. XII The observation of my parents’ anxiety over my long absence may imply that Chindoy was disturbed, even during normal consciousness, by what he sensed as care- less irresponsibility on my part. Certainly among the Sibundoy, filial responsibilities are greater than in Ameri- can society. It appears likely that valuable insight on Sibundoy cultural values could be gained from an analy- sis of the content of natives’ psychic experiences during biawu intoxication. Of greater interest is the medicine-man’s finding that nothing could save his patient from approaching death, [134 ] for ten days later the child died. With this event, the predictive value of diawit intoxication was dramatically confirmed for all those Sibundoy involved. Regardless of whether the draw actually contained psychotropic methoxy-harmanes that might somehow facilitate prog- nosis, several occurrences of this sequence—intoxication, prediction of an event, realization of the event—might be sufficient to establish the general use of the drug for prognostication. We may postulate that such a stimulus- response-reward phenomenon occurred repeatedly among not only the Sibundoy, but especially among tribes of the western Amazon long ago when the use of Banisteriopsis was in its initial and experimental stages. The finial observation of the medicine-man on the iden- tity of an unusual plant was as unexpected as it was illu- minating. Chindoy’s identification of the leaves as those of salaman boracéra was manifestly incorrect, as he con- ceded at a later date when comparing leaves of the two plants. ‘he misidentification is all the more surprising in view of Chindoy’s exceptional interest in the medici- nal and narcotic uses of the Datura candida clones and in the fact that he cultivates all of them in his garden, unlike any other Sibundoy contacted. The plant in ques- tion was a variant of the amarén boracéra growing beside Chindoy’s house, but for which he knows no use. In this determination through Banisteriopsis intoxica- tion of the medicinal uses of a previously unknown plant, we see a most interesting mechanism for the expansion of the Sibundoy materia medica. Not only are new plant drugs thus introduced, but there can be little certainty that the use of new drugs will be restricted to situations for which drugs are already available. Through chance, operating within the superstitious nature of Sibundoy beliefs, it is entirely possible that a new drug would be- come associated with disease symptoms previously un- [ 185 ] treatable. This role of narcosis in expanding the native pharmacopoeia neither leads to the conclusion that most of the Sibundoy drugs were discovered in this way, nor does it suggest that any drugs so discovered are likely to have less therapeutic value than drugs discovered in other ways by other primitive peoples. Nevertheless, it would seem that a substantial increase in the number of medi- cinal plants available to a culture implies at least a slight increase in that small number which are therapeutically effective. The use of Banisteriopsis by Sibundoy medi- cine-men, not only as an emetic and purge, but even more generally to investigate medicine and disease, may be seen as leading ultimately to an improvement of tribal health. XIII I gratefully acknowledge several suggestions from I. M. Cooke, Claudio Naranjo and R. E. Schultes which have improved the foregoing presentation. The ethnogra- pher and linguist, Alberto Juajibioy, a Kamsa speaking Sibundoy, has contributed to the native terminology reported. Finally, the field work upon which this report is based was supported by a Public Health Service Research Grant (MH 06941-01), by Harvard University, and by the American Anthropological Association. The report has been written during the tenure of a Public Health Service Fellowship (1-F2-G M-24,938-01). Aid given by officers of these institutions was essential and is sincerely appreciated. [ 186 ] or ~ 10. ll. 12, 13. LITERATURE CITED Aguado, P. P. de, 1906. Recopilacién Historial. Bogota. 242-248 (Book 4, Chap. 12). 16th C. Mss. . Altschul, S. von Reis, 1964. A taxonomic study of the genus Anadenanthera. Contrib. Gray Herb., Harvard Univ., No. 193: 3-65. . Bernauer, K., 1964. Notiz uber die Isolierung von Harmin und (++)-1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-harmin aus einer indianischen Schnupf- droge. Helv. Chim. Acta 47: 1075-1077. . Bioeca, E., C. Galefi, KE. G. Montalvo and G. B. Marini-Bettolo, 1964. Sulle sostanze allucinogene impiegate in Amazonia. Nota I: Osservazione sul Parica dei Tukano e Tariana del bacino del Rio Usupés. Ann. Chim. (Rome) 54: 1175-1178. Boit, H. G., 1961. Ergebnisse der Alkaloid-Chemie Bis 1960. Berlin. 491-494. . Bristol, M. L., 1964. Philoglossa —a cultivar of the Sibundoy of Colombia. Bot. Mus. Leafl. Harvard Univ. 20: 325-333. . —, 1965. Sibundoy ethnobotany. Doct. dissert., Harvard Univ., Cambridge. 361 pp. . Chen, A. L. and kK, K. Chen, 1939. Harmine, the alkaloid of caapi. Quart. Journ. Pharm. & Pharmacol. 12: 30-38. Cuatrecasas, J., 1958. Prima flora colombiana. 2. Malpighiaceae. Webbia 13: 343-664. Ducke, A., 1943. O cabi do Parad. Arquiv. Serv. Florestal 2: 13-15. , 1957. Capi, caapi, cabi, cayahuasca e yagé. Rev. Bras. Farm. 38(12): 283-284. Elger, F., 1928. Uber das Vorkommen von Harmin in einer stidamerikanischen Liane (Yagé). Helv. Chim. Acta 11 : 162-166. Fischer C., G., 1923. Estudio sobre el principio activo del Yagé. Dissert., Univ. Nacional, Bogota. Fish, M.S., N.M. Johnson and E. C. Horning, 1955. Piptadenia alkaloids. Indole bases of P. peregrina (L.) Benth. and related species. Journ. Amer, Chem. Soc. 77: 5892-5895. [187 } 14, 15. 16, we 18. 19. Gershon, S. and W. J. Lang, 1962. A psychopharmacological study of some indole alkaloids. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. 135: 31-56. Giarman, N. J. and D. X. Freedman, 1965. Biochemical aspects of the actions of psychotomimetic drugs. Pharmacol. Rev. 17: 1-25, Hochstein, F. A. and A. M. Paradies, 1957. Alkaloids of Bani- sleria caapi and Prestonia amagonicum. Journ. Amer. Chem, Soc, 79: 5735-57 36. Holmstedt, B., 1965. Tryptamine derivatives in epend, an in- toxicating snuff used by some South American Indian tribes. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. 156?: 321-341. Horita, A. and C. Chinn, 1964. An analysis of the interaction of reversible and irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Bio- chem. Pharmacol. 13: 371-378. Juajibioy Ch., A., 1962. Breve estudio preliminar del grupo aborigen de Sibundoy y su lengua Kamsa en el sur de Colombia. Bol. Inst. Antropol. (Medellin) 2: 3-33. Lira, J. A., 1944. Diccionario Kkéchuwa-Espafiol. Tucumin. 1199 pp. Mclsaac, W. P., P. A. Khairallah and I. H. Page, 1961. 10- methoxyharmalan, a potent serotonin antagonist which affects conditioned behavior. Science 134: 674-675. 21a. Mallol de Recasens, M. R., 1965. Cuatro representaciones de 22. 25. las imagenes alucinatorias originadas por la toma del yagé. Rev. Colomb. Folelor 3 (8): 61-81 (2a. Epoca, 1963). Maupin, B., 1960. [Serotonin: determination, metabolism, phar- macology, some biological aspects. | La Biologie 49 : 75-164. Eng. trans.: Psychopharm. Serv. Cent, Bull. 1(15): 15-57. (Dee. 1961). . Mors, W. B. and P. Zaltzman, 1954. Sdbre o alcaléide da Banis- teria caapi Spruce e do Cabi paraensis Ducke. Bol. Inst. Quim. Agricola, No. 34: 17-27. Morton, C. V., 1931. Notes on yagé, a drug plant of southeastern Colombia. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 21: 485-488. Naranjo, C., 1965. Psychological aspects of the yagé experience in an experimental setting. Paper presented at the Annual Meet- ing of the Kroeber Anthropological Society, May 1965. (Mimeo. ) [ 138 ] 26. a ie 30. SL, 32. 33, 34, 87a. O’Connell, F. D. and E. V. Lynn, 1953. The alkaloid of Banis- teriopsis inebrians Morton. Journ. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 42: 753. Pachter, I. J., D. E. Zacharias and O. Ribeiro, 1959. Indole al- kaloids of Acer saccharinum (the Silver Maple), Dictyoloma incanes- cens, Piptadenia colubrina, and Mimosa hostilis. Journ. Organ. Chem. 24: 1285-1287. Pazos, A., 1961. Glosario de quechuismos colombianos. Pasto. 101 pp. Pennes, H. H. and P. H. Hoch, 1957. Psychotomimetics, clini- eal and theoretical considerations: harmine, Win-2299 and nal- line. Amer. Journ. Psychiat. 113: 887-892. Pérez-Arbeliez, E., 1956. Plantas titiles de Colombia. 3 ed. Mad- rid. 881 pp. Pletscher, A., H. Besendorf, H. P. Bachtold and K. F. Gey, 1959. Uber pharmakologische Beeinflussung des Zentralnerven- systems durch kurzwirkende Monoaminoxydasehemmer aus der Gruppe der Harmala-Alkaloide. Helv. Physiol. Acta 17: 202- 214. —., K.F. Gey and P. Zeller, 1960. Monoaminoxydase-Hemmer: Chemie, Biochemie, Pharmakologie, Klinik. /n Fortschritte der Arzneimittelforschung 2: 417-590. Reinberg, P., 1921. Contribution a l’étude des boissons toxiques des indiens du nord-ouest de 1’ Amazone: l’ayahuasca, le yagé, le huanto. Etude comparative toxico-physiologique d’une experience personelle. Journ. Soc. Americanistes Paris 13: 25-54, 197-216. von Reis, S.S. P., 1961. The genus Anadenanthera: a taxonomic and ethnobotanical study. Doct. dissert., Radcliffe College, Cam- bridge. 882 pp. Rios, O., 1962. Aspectos preliminares al estudio farmacopsiquiat- rico del ayahuasca y su principio activo. Anales Fac. Med., Univ. Nac. Mayor San Marcos, Lima 45(1-2): 22-66. Rocha, J., 1905. Memorandum de viaje (regiones amazénicas). El Mercurio [newspaper; date?]. Bogota. p. 43. . St. Szdra, 1956. Dimethyltryptamin: its metabolism in man; the relation of its psychotic effect to the serotonin metabolism. Ex- perienatia 12: 441-442, Schultes, R. E., 1954. A new narcotic snuff from the northwest Amazon. Bot. Mus. Leafl. Harvard Univ. 16: 241-260. [ 139 ] 38. 39. 40, 41. 43. 44, 45, 46, Schultes, R. E., 1957. The identity of the malpighiaceous nar- cotiecs of South America. Ibid. 18: 1-56. and R. F. Raffauf, 1960. Prestonia: an Amazon narcotic or not? Ibid. 19: 109-122. de Siqueira-Jaccoud, R. J., 1959. Contribuigao para o estudo farmacognostico do Cabi paraensis Ducke. I. Rev. Brasil. Farm. 40: 75-91. Spruce, R., 1908. Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes. Ed. A. R. Wallace. 2 vols. London. 1050 pp. 414-425. . Udenfriend, S., B. Witkop, B.G. Redfield and H. Weissbach, 1958. Studies with reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase: harmaline and related compounds. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1: 160- 165. Useditegui M., N., 1959. The present distribution of narcotics and stimulants amongst the Indian tribes of Colombia. Bot. Mus. Leafl. Harvard Univ. 18: 273-304. Villavicencio, M., 1858. Geografia de la Republica del Ecuador. New York. 505 pp. 371-378. Yepes A., S., 1953. Introducci6n a la etnobotanica colombiana. Publ. Soc. Colomb. Etnol., No. 1. 40 pp. 25-7. Zirkle, C. L. and C. Kaiser, 1964. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (nonhydrazines). Jn Psychopharmacological Agents, vol. 1. New York. 445-5538. [ 140 ] CamBRIDGE, N Pook. | BOTANICAL MUSEUM LEAFLETS HARVARD UNIVERSITY ASSACHUSETTS, APRIL 6, 1966 VoL. 21, No. 6 NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL HYBRID GENERIC NAMES OF ORCHIDS 1887-1965 BY LesntiE A. Garay AND HERMAN R. SWEET Tuis compendium of orchid hybrid generic names from 1887 through 1965 is prepared to further the stabili- zation of orchid hybrid generic names through correct nomenclature. It may safely be said that no other plant family pos- sesses such a large number of hybrids, both natural and artificial, as the Orchidaceae. Since the time that Dominy flowered his first artificial cross — Calanthe Dominyi — in 1856, the number of man-made hybrids now well ex- ceeds that of the described species. Shortly after this date, it was recognized that in the orchid family crosses between species of different genera often resulted in fer- tile offspring, a phenomenon that necessitated a change in nomenclatorial procedures. In 1887, Rolfe, in the Journal of the Linnean Society, proposed that the precedent established by Masters in 1872 (The Gardeners’ Chronicle, p. 358, 1872) should be followed. Accordingly, hybrid generic names are compounded from those of parent genera. In following this principle, Rolfe established the first seven bigeneric hybrid names: Phaiocalanthe (Phaius X Calanthe), Laeliocattleya (Laelia * Cattleya), Sophrocattleya [ 141 ] (Sophronitis < Cattleya), Zygocolax (Zygopetalum X Colaw), Anoectomaria (Anoectochilus X Haemaria), Macomaria (Macodes < Haemaria) and Dossinimaria (Dossinia < Haemaria). He again employed this same principle in ‘‘The Orchid Stud-Book’’, published in 1909, in which names of trigeneric origin are also included. In 1910, during the International Horticultural Con- gress in Bruxelles, much attention was paid to the prob- lem of orchid hybrid nomenclature. It was resolved that bi- and trigeneric names were to be compounded from the parental generic names, while quadrigeneric names were to be named for some person distinguished in either botany or horticulture, and that the suffix ‘‘-ara’’ be at- tached to the name of the person so honored. Further- more, it was resolved that ‘‘-ara’’ ending may be applied also to trigeneric hybrids. Kxamples given were ADAM- ARA (Brassavola X Laelia X Cattleya * Epidendrum) and LINNEARA (Diacrium < Cattleya X Brassavola X Laelia). Due to the increased numbers of hybrids, F. Sander published, in 1901, his first *‘Sander’s Orchid Guide’’, in which all species as well as natural and artificial hy- brids known in cultivation up to that date were listed. This book was superceded in 1915 by Sander and Sons’ ‘‘Orchid Hybrids’’, which has seen several revised edi- tions as well as supplementary volumes. Following San- der’s publication, lists of new orchid hybrids were issued periodically in ‘‘The Gardners’ Chronicle”’ until 1922, but since that date such lists have been printed monthly in ‘‘The Orchid Review”. The registration of new hybrids was first privately undertaken by Sander’s Company, and in 1960, during the Third World Orchid Conference, this responsibility was transferred to the Royal Horticultural Society. [ 142 ] One of the major shortcomings of all of these publica- tions, with the exception of ‘‘The Orchid Stud-Book”’, is that they are merely compilations of names without any reference to the places of publication. Moreover, since the inception of hybrid registration, the registra- tion authorities have neglected to catalog the hybrids published in various botanical and horticultural journals. These deficiencies precipitated the publication of syno- nyms and homonyms. In addition to these problems, the nomenclature of orchid hvbrids has been, and to a great extent, still is confused by practices that run contrary to the rules and regulations of both the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomencla- ture of Cultivated Plants. This statement does not mean that orchidists and orchidologists willfully engage in practices that are contrary to the Codes, but rather that neither of the Codes has taken into consideration the practices established in the past hundred years of orchid hybridization. Recently, however, significant steps have been taken to accomodate the nomenclatorial problems of orchid hybrids within the framework of the existing Codes. The 1961 edition of the Horticultural Code makes allowances for the special application of collective names of orchids of hybrid origin, since the registration of orchid hybrids takes place at the grew level and not at the cul- tivar level, asin other plant families. The current Hor- ticultural Code, however, has no provisions for grex registration. More significant is the decision reached at the Tenth International Botanical Congress in Edin- burgh in 1964. The Committee for Hybrids of the Nomenclatorial Section completely redrafted the word- ing of Articles 40, H.8 and H.4 of the Botanical Code. These reworded articles embody the following new [ 143 ] principles: ‘‘that (1) ‘generic names’ of hybrid genera should be regarded as condensed formulae and should be validly published by an accompanying statement of their parentage, without any Latin diagnosis or other description, and (2) that as a consequence, such ‘generic names’ should be applicable only to the plants which are accepted taxonomically as derived from the parent genera named.’”’ (From the Report of the Committee for Hy- brids, p. 2.) To clarify the meaning and because of the application of these new principles to hybrid generic names of orchids, we are quoting here the full text of Article 40, as presented to the Committee, voted on and accepted by the Nomenclatorial Section on July 80, 1964. Exam- ples are omitted. ‘*Article 40.— For purposes of valid publication, the name of ahybrid group of generic, subgeneric or sectional rank, which is a condensed formula or equivalent to a condensed formula (see H.3 and H.4), must be published with astatement of the names of the parent genera, sub- genera, or sections respectively, but a Latin diagnosis or other description is not necessary... . ‘*For purposes of valid publication, names of hybrids of specific or lower rank with Latin epithets are subject to the same rules as are those of non-hybrid taxa of the same rank... . ‘*For purposes of priority, names and epithets in Latin form given to hybrids are subject to the same rules as are those of non-hybrid taxa of corresponding rank... .”’ Notwithstanding the rather unorthodox wording of this article (it represents a new biological phenomenon in proposing hybridization solely among names) it vali- dates the several hundreds of orchid hybrid generic names which up to the present time, have had no legal status under the Codes due to a lack of any kind of description. This is a relief, since it has occasionally been the practice, [ 144 | especially by the Royal Horticultural Society, to estab- lish and to publish hybrid generic names prior to actual registration of hybrid epithets. We find, for example, the names Colmanara (Miltonia X Odontoglossum X Oncidium) and Miltonidium (Miltonia * Oncidium) pro- posed in ‘“The Gardeners’ Chronicle’ in 1986; however, the first hybrids, Miltonidium Aristocrat and Colmanara Sir Jeremiah, were not registered and published until 1940 and 1963 respectively. Although Article 40 shows clearly the necessity of the strict observance of priority, priority has not always been followed. As a matter of fact, the current hybrid list is plagued with inconsistencies. For example, both Doritaenopsis (Doritis & Phalaenopsis) and Vandae- nopsis (/”anda * Phalaenopsis), published in 1935, have been accepted by the registration authorities, but Vanda- chostylis (Vanda & Rhynchostylis), which appears in the same publication, is ignored. In 1958, Vanda X Rhyn- chostylis was published again, but this time with a new hybrid generic name of Rhynchovanda. Finally, we must call attention to another deficiency and inconsistency in the current horticultural practices, i.e., the lack of application of the results of research in orchid taxonomy. Quite possibly many hybridizers are not aware of the amount of research and effort made by taxonomists to establish the correct identity of the spe- cies employed in their hybridizing programs. This failure is responsible, to some extent, for the current confusion in the nomenclature of hybrid orchids. Yet, we believe, that nomenclatorial aspects should receive at least as much attention as do current cultural techniques, such as potting media and meristem culture. To remedy these deficiencies, we have searched the world’s botanical and horticultural literature for known hybrid generic names of orchids, together with the origi- [145 ] nal places of publication. We have updated the taxono- my of the hybrid generic names, and, where necessary, new hybrid generic names have been proposed. For ex- ample, when the hybrid Trichovanda Ulaula was first published, its parentage was givenas T'’richoglottis brachi- ata X Vanda Sanderiana. Thus, Trichovanda is a con- densed formula, made from the names 7T'richoglottis and Vanda. The correct name, however, for Vanda Sanderi- ana, according to Holttum, is Muanthe Sanderiana. Since Antheglottis is the condensed formula for /wanthe x Trichoglottis, the hybrid Trichovanda Ulaula_ be- comes Antheglottis Ulaula. For convenience, we are presenting here a list of no- menclatorial changes incorporated in this compendium of hybrid generic names. ‘The column on the left repre- sents those names which are currently used in horticul- tural literature, while the column on the right gives their correct botanical equivalents. Agaisia lepida I Otostylis alba Angraecum falcaltum = Neofinetia falcata Angraecum sesquipedale = Macroplectrum sesquipedale Arachnis Clarkei = Esmeralda Clarket Arachnis Sulingi = Armodorum Sulingi Chondrorhyncha discolor = Cochleanthes discolor Cochlioda sanguinea Symphyglossum sanguineum I Cymbidium elegans Cyperorchis elegans Habenaria Susannae = Pecteilis Susannae Haemaria discolor = Ludisia discolor Lycaste Skinnert = Lycaste virginalis Phaius Humblotiu = Gastrorchis Humblotii Phatus simulans = Gastrorchis simulans Phaius tuberculosus = Gastrorchis tuberculosa Phalaenopsis Denevei = Paraphalaenopsis Denevet Phalaenopsis Laycocki = Paraphalaenopsis Laycockt Phalaenopsis serpentilingua = Paraphalaenopsis serpentilingua Renanthera histrionica = Renantherella histrionica Rhyncholaelia Digbyana = Brassavola Digbyana [ 146 | Rhyncholaelia glauca = Brassavola glauca Saccolabium giganteum = Rhynchostylis gigantea Sophronitis violacea = Sophronitella violacea Stauropsis fasciata = Trichoglottis fasciata Vanda Sanderiana = Kuanthe Sanderiana Zygopetalum Jorisianum = Mendoncella Jorisiana Mendadenium labiosum I Zygopetalum rostratum ACKNOWLEDGMENT We wish to express our sincere thanks and apprecia- tion to Mrs. Lazella Schwarten, Librarian of the Gray Herbarium and of the Arnold Arboretum, for her ever ready assistance in securing for us books and periodicals not represented in the extensive Oakes Ames Orchid Library. Parr | List of hybrid generic names Aceraherminium in Camus, Ic. Orch. Europ. 2: 366, 1929 Aceras * Herminium Ist. hybr. : unnamed Parentage: Aceras anthropophora * Herminium monorchis Syn.: Aceras-Herminium in Gremli, Neue Beitr. 3: 35, 1883 Aceras-Herminium in Gremli, Neue Beitr. 3: 35, 1883 Observation: See Aceraherminium Adaglossum in Orch. Rev. 21: 298, 1913 Ada X Odontoglossum Ist hybr.: d. Juno Parentage: Ada aurantiaca * Odontoglossum Edwardit Adamara in Bull. Roy. Soc. Bot. Belg. 47: 402, 1911 Brassavolc. X Cattleya X Laelia X Epidendrum Ist hybr.: A. Fuchsia (as Yamadara Fuchsia) Parentage: Brassolaeliocattleya Eudetta X Epidendrum Mariae Syn.: Yamadara in Orch. Rev. 68: 404, 1960 Adioda in Orch. Rev. 19: 258, 1911 Ada X Cochlioda Ist hybr.: A. St. Fuscien Parentage: Ada aurantiaca X Cochlioda Noesliana [ 147 ] Aeridachnis in The Orch. Journ. 3: 165, 1954 Aerides X Arachnis Ist hybr.: 4. Bogor Parentage: Arachnis Hookeriana X Aerides odoratum Ill.: in The Orch. Journ. 3: 166, f. 2, 1954 Aeridanthe nom. hybr. gen. nov. Aerides X Euanthe Ist hybr.: 4. Tsuruko Iwasaki (as Aeridovanda Tsuruko Iwasaki) Parentage: Aerides Lawrenciae X Euanthe Sanderiana Aeridofinetia in Orch. Rev. 69: 267, 1961 Aerides X Neofinetia Ist hybr.: 4A. Pink Pearl Parentage: Aerides Jarckianum * Neofinetia falcata Aeridoglossum in Orch. Rev. 71: September, 1963 Aerides X Ascoglossum Ist hybr.: 4. Peach Blossom Parentage: Aerides Lawrenciue < Ascoglossum calopterum Aeridolabium in Orch. Rev. 67: 329, 1959 Aerides X Saccolabium Ist hybr.: not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Aeridolabium Springtime see Aerido- stylis. Aeridopsis in Orch. Rev. 46: 200, 1988 Aerides X Phalaenopsis Ist hybr.: 4. Shinjiku Parentage: derides japonicum X Phalaenopsis Leda Aeridostylis in Hawkes, Orchids 242, 1961 Aerides X Rhynchostylis Ist hybr.: 4. Springtime (as Aeridolabium Springtime) Parentage: Aerides Lawrenciae X Rhynchostylis gigantea Ill.: in Na Pua Okika o Hawaii Nei 9: 92, 1959 Syn. : Rhynchorides in Orch. Rev. 70: October, 1962 Aeridovanda in Gard. Chron. ser. 8, 63: 93, 1918 Aerides X Vanda Ist hybr.: 4. Mundyi Parentage: Aerides vandarum X Vanda teres [ll.: in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 63: 93, f. 43, 1918 Observation: For the hybrid Aeridovanda Elizabeth Young see Van- dantherides. [ 148 | Syn.: Aerovanda in Sander, List Orch. Hybr. Add. 319, 1949-51 Aeriovanda in Gartenfl. 86: 252, 1937 Aeriovanda in Gartenfl. 86: 252, 1937 Observation: See Aeridovanda. Aerovanda in Sander, List. Orch. Hybr. Add. 319, 1949-51 Observation: See Aeridovanda. Aliceara in Orch. Rev. 72: July, 1964 Brassia X Oncidium X Miltonia Ist hybr.: A. Pacesetter Parentage: Brassidium Coronet X Miltonidium Lustre Ill.: in Orch. Rev. 73: 332, f. 128, 1965 Amesara nom. hybr. gen. nov. Renanthera X Vanda X Euanthe Ist hybr.: 4. Donald McIntyre (as Renantanda Donald McIntyre) Parentage: Vandanthe Clara Shipman Fisher X Renanthera Storiei Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 25: 257, 1956 Anacamptiplatanthera in Fourn., Brev. Bot. 512, 1927 Anacampltis X Platanthera Ist hybr.: A. Payoti Parentage: Anacamptis pyramidalis X Platanthera bjfolia Anacamptorchis in Journ. Bot. Fr. 6: 113, 1892 Anacamptis X Orchis Ist hybr.: 4. Duquesnei (as Aceras Duquesnei, 1851) Parentage: Anacamptis pyramidalis X Orchis palustris Ill. : in Re.xchenb. Fl. Germ. et Helv. 13-14: t. 162, f. II, 1, 4, 1851 Syn.: Orchidanacamptis in Guétrot, Pl. Hybr. Fr. I], 51, 1926 Angulocaste in Rev. Hort. Belg. 32: 172, 1906 Anguloa X Lycaste Ist hybr.: A. Biévreana Parentage: Lycaste virginalis X Anguloa Rueckeri Ill.: in La Tribune Hortic. 2: t. 57, 1907 Anoectogoodyera in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 1: 646, 1887 Anoectochilus * Goodyera Ist hybr.: not yet reported Anoectomaria in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 24: 170, 1887 Observation: See Ludochilus including the hybrid Anoectomaria Dominyi. Haemaria is a synonym of Ludisia. [149 J Antheglottis nom. hybr. gen. nov. Euanthe X Trichoglottis Ist hybr.: 4. Ulaula (as Trichovanda Ulaula) Parentage: T'richoglottis brachiata < Euanthe Sanderiana Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 34: 927, f., 1965 Antheranthe nom. hybr. gen. nov. Renanthera X Euanthe ist hybr.: 4. Titan (as Renantanda Titan) Parentage: Renanthera Imshootiana * Euanthe Sanderiana Ill.: in Orch. Rev. 43: 105, f., 1935 Arachnoglottis in Orch. Rev. 66: 86, 1958 Observation: See Trichachnis including the hybrid Arachnoglottis Brown Bars. Arachnopsis in Anggrek Boelan 1: 83, 1939 Arachnis X Phalaenopsis Ist hybr.: 4. Rosea Parentage: Phalaenopsis Schilleriana X Arachnis Maingayi lll.: in Anggrek Boelan 1: 82, 1939 Observation: For the hybrid Arachnopsis Eric Holttum see Para- rachnis. Aranda in Orchideen 4: 70, 1937 Arachnis X Vanda Ist hybr.: A. Jacoba Louisa Parentage: Arachnis Maingayi X Vanda Miss Joaquim Ill.: in Orchideen 4: 71, f., 1937 Syn.: Vandachnanthe in Anggrek Boelan 1: 67, 1939 Vandarachnis in Orchideen 6: 107, 1939 Arandanthe in Malay. Orch. Rev. 5: 13, 1957 Arachnis * Vanda * Euanthe Ist hybr.: 4. Wendy Scott Parentage: Arachnis Hookeriana * Vandanthe Rothschildiana Ill.: in Malay. Orch. Rev. 5: 13, f., 1957 Aranthera in Malay. Orch. Rev. 2: 109, 1936 Arachnis X Renanthera Ist hybr.: 4. Mohamed Haniff Parentage: Arachnis Hookeriana * Renanthera coccinea [ll.: in Malay. Orch. Rev. 2: 108, 1936 Observation: For the hybrid Aranthera Star Orange see Renarado- rum. [ 150 ] Arizara in Orch. Rev. 73: October, 1965 Epidendrum X Domingoa X Cattleya Ist hybr.: 4. Luis Parentage: Epigoa Olivine X Cattleya guttata Armodachnis in Na Pua Okika o Hawaii Nei 7: 154, 1957 Armodorum X Arachnis Ist hybr.: 4. Catherine (as drachnis Catherine) Parentage: Armodorum Sulingi X Arachnis Hookeriana var. luteola Ill.: in Henders. & Addis., Malay. Orch. Hybr. 53, 1956 Ascocenda in Orch. Rev. 57: 172, 1949 Ascocentrum X Vanda Ist hybr.: A. Portia Doolittle Parentage: Ascocentrum curvifolium X Vanda lamellata Observation: For the hybrid Ascocenda Meda Arnold see Schlecht- erara. Ascofinetia in Orch. Rev. 69: 32, 1961 Ascocentrum X Neofinetia Ist hybr.: 4. Twinkle Parentage: Neofinetia falcata X Ascocentrum mintatum Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 32: 455, f., 1963 Ascorella nom. hybr. gen. nov. Ascocentrum X Renantherella Ist hybr.: 4. Curvionica (as Renancentrum Curvionica) Parentage: Renantherella histrionica X Ascocentrum curvifolium Aspasium in Orch. Rev. 66: 161, 1958 Observation: See Oncidasia including the hybrid Aspasium Regal. Aspoglossum in Orch. Rev. 70: September, 1962 Aspasia X Odontoglossum Ist hybr.: 4. Nuuanu Parentage: Aspasia principissa X Odontoglossum cordatum Athertonara in Orch. Rev. 56: 26, 1948 Observation: See Renanopsis including the hybrid Athertonara Lena Rowold. Bardendrum in Orch. Rev. 70: September, 1962 Barkeria X Epidendram Ist hybr.: B. Elvena Parentage: Barkeria Lindleyana * Epidendrum Schomburghkii Syn.: Barkidendrum in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull, 31: 667, 1962 [ 151 ] Barkidendrum in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 31: 667, 1962 Observation: See Bardendrum. Barlaceras in Riviera Scientif. 11: 62, 1924 Barlia * Aceras Ist hybr.: B. Terracctanot Parentage: Aceras anthropophora X Barlia longibracteata Beaumontara in Orch. Rev. 69: 198, 1961 Observation: See Recchara including the hybrid Beaumontara Herb. Benthamara nom. hybr. gen. nov. Arachnis X Paraphalaenopsis * Euanthe Ist hybr.: B. Manoa (as Trevorara Manoa) Parentage: Pararachnis Eric Holttum X Euanthe Sanderiana Bolleo-Chondrorhyncha in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 32: 243, 1902 Observation: See Chondrobollea. Bradriguezia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Rodriguezia * Brassia Ist hybr.: B. Angellitos (as Rodrassia Angellitos) Parentage: Brassia Gireoudiana X Rodriguezia venusta Syn.: Rodrassia in Orch. Rev. 68: 404, 1960 Brapasia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Aspasia X Brassia Ist hybr.: B. Panama Parentage: Aspasia principissa X Brassia longissima Brassidium in Orch. Rev. 56: 186, 1948 Brassia X Oncidium Ist hybr.: B. Coronet Parentage: Oncidium anthocrene X Brassia brachiata Brassocatlaelia in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 21: 438, 1897 Observation: See Brassolaeliocattleya. Brassocattleya in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 5: 438, 1889 Brassavola Cattleya Ist hybr.: B. Lindleyana (as Cattleya Lindleyana, 1857) Parentage: Brassavola tuberculata X Cattleya intermedia Ill.: in Bot. Mag. 90: t. 5449, 1864 Syn.: Brassoleya in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 81, 1895 Correvonia in Jardin 240, 1898 Cattleyovola in Proc. 3rd World Orch. Conf. 323, 1960 [ 152 ] Brasso-Cattleya-Laelia in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 41: 259, 1907 Observation: See Brassolaeliocattleya. Brassodiacrium in Orchid World 6: 62, 1915 Brassavola X Diacrium Ist hybr.: B. Colmaniae Parentage: Diacrium bicornutum X Brassavola nodosa ) Brassoepidendrum in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 40: 298, 1906 Brassavola * Epidendrum Ist hybr.: B. Stamfordiense Parentage: Brassavola glauca X Epidendrum Parkinsonianum Syn.: Epivola in Orch. Rev. 16: 83, 1908 Epibrassavola in Roanele Manor Coll. Orch. 38, 1926 Brassolaelia in Orch. Rev. 10: 85, 1902 Brassavola X* Laelia Ist hybr.: B. Veitchii (as Laelia Digbyano-purpurata) Parentage: Laelia purpurata < Brassavola Dighyana Ill.: in Gartenw. 16: 415, f., 1912 Syn.: Brassavolaelia in Proc. 3rd World Orch. Conf. 325, 1960 Laeliavola in Proc. 38rd World Orch. Conf. 325, 1960 Brassolaeliocattleya in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 40: 201, 1906 Brassavola X Laelia X Cattleya Ist hybr.: B. Lawrencei (as Brassocatlaelia Lindleyano-elegans) Parentage: Brassocattleya Lindleyana X Laeliocattleya elegans Syn.: Brassocatlaelia in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 21: 438, 1897 Luelio-Brasso-Cattleya in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 39: 254, 906 Brasso-Cattleya-Laelia in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 41: 259, 1907 Brassoleya in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 81, 1895 Observation: See Brassocattleya. Brassonotis in Orch. Rev. 70: December, 1962 Observation : See Sophrovola including the hybrid Brassonotis Edna. Brassophronitis in Die Orchidee 5: 41, 1954 Observation: See Sophrovola including the hybrid Brassophronitis Waipuna., Brassosophrolaeliocattleya in Bol. Circ. Paul. Orch, 1: 191, 1944 Observation: See Potinara. [ 153 ] Brassotonia in Orch. Rev. 68: 223, 1960 Brassavola X Broughtonia Ist hybr.: B. John H. Miller Parentage: Brassovola nodosa * Broughtonia sanguinea Brassovolaelia in Proc. 3rd World Orch. Conf. 325, 1960 Observation: See Brassolaelia. Bratonia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Miltonia X Brassia Ist hybr.: B. Premier (as Miltassia Premier) Parentage: Miltonia spectabilis < Brassia caudata Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 30: 480, f., 1961 Syn.: Miltassia in Orch. Rev. 66: 255, 1958 Broughtopsis in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Broughtonia X Laeliopsis Ist hybr.: B. Kingston (as Lioponia Kingston) Parentage: Broughtonia sanguinea X Laeliopsis domingensis Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 32: 198, f., 1963 Syn.: Lioponia in Orch. Rev. 67: 259, 1959 Burrageara in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 81: 309, 1927 Cochlioda X Miltonia * Odontoglossum X Oncidium Ist hybr.: B. Windsor Parentage: Odontonia Firminii X Oncidioda Cooksoniae Ill. : in Orch. Rev. 35: 179, f., 1927 Calanthidio-preptanthe in Kerchov, Le Liv. Orch. 465, 1894 Observation: See Calanthe. Calanthophaius in Plauszew., Orch. Pl. Serr. t. 11, 1899 Observation: See Phaiocalanthe. Carrara nom. hybr. gen. nov. Vanda X Euanthe X Ascocentrum * Rhynchostylis Ist hybr.: C. Blue Fairy (as Vascostylis Blue Fairy) Parentage: Schlechterara Meda Arnold X Rhynchostylis coelestis Catlaelia in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 85, 1895 Observation: See Laeliocattleya. Catlaenitis in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 100, 1895 Observation: See Sophrolaeliocattleya. Cattleyodendrum in Chron, Orch. 1: 115, 1898 Observation: See Epicattleya. [ 154 ] Cattleyovola in Proc. 3rd World Orch. Conf. 323, 1960 Observation: See Brassocattleya. Cattleytonia in Orch. Rev. 67: 69, 1959. Cattleya X Broughtonia Ist hybr.: C. Rosy Jewel (as Cattleytonia Rosy Gem) Parentage: Broughtonia sanguinea X Cattleya Bowringiana Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soe. Bull. 31: 351, f., 1962 Cephalepipactis in Camus, Monogr. Orch. Europ. 424, 1908 Observation : See Cephalopactis. Cephalopactis in Asch. & Grebn., Syn. 3: 883, 1907 Cephalanthera * Epipactis Ist hybr.: C. speciosa (as Epipactis speciosa, 1889) Parentage: Cephalanthera alba X Epipactis rubiginosa Ill.: in Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr. 39: t. 3, 1889 Syn.: Cephalepipactis in Camus, Monogr. Orch. Europ. 424, 1908 Charlesworthara in Orch, Rev. 27: 143, 1919 (as Charlesworthiara) Cochlioda X Miltonia X Oncidium Ist hybr.: C. Alpha Parentage: Miltonioda Ajax X Oncidioda Cooksoniae Chondrobollea in Orch. Rev. 10: 347, 1902 Chondrorhyncha X Bollea Ist hybr.: ©. Froebeliana Parentage: Bollea coelestis X Chondrorhyncha Chestertonit Syn. : Bolleo-Chondrorhyncha in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 32: 243, 1902 Chondropetalum in Orch. Rev. 16: 56, 1908 Observation: See Zygorhyncha including the hybrid Chondropetalum Fletcheri. This name is preempted by Chondropetalum Rttb., 1773. Cirrhophyllum in Orch. Rev. 73: January, 1965 Cirrhopetalun X Bulbophyllum Ist hybr.: ©. Mariae Parentage: Cirrhopetalum picturatum X Bulbophyllum Dearei Observation: This hybrid is very similar if not identical with Cirrho- petalum lasiochilum. Cochleatorea in Orch. Rev. 73: May, 1965 Observation: See Pescoranthes including the hybrid Cochleatorea Sunnybank. Coeloglossgymnadenia in Rep. Bot. Exch. Cl. Brit. Isl. 8: 698, 1928 Observation: See Gymnaglossum. Coeloglosshabenaria in Rep. Bot. Exch. Cl. Brit. Isl. 8: 698, 1928 Observation: See Gymnaglossum. Coeloglossogymnadenia in Camus, Ic. Orch. Europ. 2: 377, 1929 Observation: See Gymnaglossum. Coeloglossorchis in Guétrot, Pl. Hybr. Fr. II: 57, 1926 Observation: See Orchicoeloglossum. Cogniauxara nom. hybr. gen. nov. Renanthera X Vanda X Euanthe X Arachnis Ist hybr.: C. Bintang Timor (as Holttumara Bintang Timor) Parentage: Amesara Palolo X Arachnis Hookeriana Colmanara in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 94: 33, 1936 Miltonia < Odontoglossum * Oncidium Ist hybr.: C. Sir Jeremiah (in Orch. Rev. 71: November, 1963) Parentage: Odontoglossum bictoniense X Miltonidium Lee Hirsch Syn.: Hatcherara in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 94: 338, 1936 Correvonia in Jardin 240, 1898 Observation: See Brassocattleya. Cycnodes in Orch. Rev. 69: 402, 1961 Cycnoches * Mormodes Ist hybr.: C. L. Sherman Adams Parentage: Cycnoches chlorochilon * Mormodes Wendlandi Cyperocymbidium in Orch. Rev. 72: 420, 1964 Cyperorchis X Cymbidium Ist hybr. : C. Gammieanum (as Cymbidium Gammieanum) Parentage: Cyperorchis elegans X Cymbidium longifolium Ill.: in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 5: t. 257, 1895 Cysepedium in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 187, 1895 Cypripedium X Selenipedium Ist hybr.: not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Cysepedium Corndeanei see Phragmi- paphium. Syn.: Selenocypripedium in Journ. Hort. Soc. Fr. ser. 4, 13: 706, 1912 Dactylitella in Watsonia 6: 132, 1965 Dactylorhiza X Nigritella [ 156 ] ist hybr.: D. Tourensis (as Nigrorchis Tourensis) Parentage: Nigritella nigra X Dactylorhiza maculata [ll.: in Journ. Bot. 63: t. 573, I, a, b, 1925 Dactylocamptis in Watsonia 6: 132, 1965 Dactylorhiza < Anacamptis Ist hybr. D. Weberi (as Anacamptorchis Weberi) Parentage: Anacamplis pyramidalis * Dactylorhiza maculata Dactylodenia nom. hybr. gen. nov. Dactylorhiza X Gymnadenia Ist hybr.: D. Heinzeliana (as Orchigymnadenia Heinzeliana) Parentage; Dactylorhiza maculata X Gymnadenia conopea [ll.: in Camus, Ic. Orch. Europ. t. 126, f. 1-3, 1928 Dactyloglossum in Watsonia 6: 132, 1965 Dactylorhiza X Coeloglossum ist hybr.: D. Erdingeri (as Platanthera Erdingeri) Parentage: Coeloglossum viride X Dactylorhiza sambucina Ill.: in Verh. Zool.-Bot. Gesellsch. Wien 15: t. 4, f. 4-9, 1865 Dekensara in Orch. Rev. 63: 107, 1955 Brassavola X Cattleya * Schomburgkia Ist hybr.: D. Flandria Parentage: Brassocattleya Helena < Schomburgkia undulata Dendrocattleya in Schultes & Pease, Gen. Name Orch. 329, 1963 Dendrobium Cattleya Ist hybr. : unnamed Parentage; Cattleya Bowringiana X Dendrobium Phalaenopsis {ll.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 29: 30, 1960 Diabroughtonia in Orch. Rev. 64: 209, 1956 Diacrium Broughtonia Ist hybr.: D. Alice Hart Parentage: Broughtonia sanguinea X Diacrium bicornutum Diacatlaelia in Orch. Rev. 18: 110, 1910 Observation: See Dialaeliocattleya. Diacattleya in The Garden 72: 95, 1908 Diacrium > Cattleya Ist hybr.: D. Colmaniae Parentage: Cattleya intermedia X Diacrium bicornutum Ill.: in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 43: 114, f. 45, 1908 Syn.: Diacrocattleya in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 43: 108, 1908 [ 157 ] Diacrocattleya in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 43: 108, 1908 Observation: See Diacattleya. Dialaelia in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 37: 174, 1905 Diacrium X Laelia Ist hyb.: D. Veitch Parentage: Diacrium bicornutum * Laelia cinnabarina Ill.: in Orch. Rev. 20: 361, f. 50, 1912 Dialaeliocattleya in Orch. World 6: 61, 1915 Diacrium X Laelia X Cattleya Ist hybr.: D. Gatton Rose Parentage: Diacrium bicornutum X Laeliocattleya Cappei Syn.: Diacatlaelia in Orch. Rev. 18: 110, 1910 Diaschomburgkia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 84, 1957 Diacrium * Schomburgkia Ist hybr.: D. Ipo Parentage: Schomburgkia tibicinis X Diacrium bicornutum Syn.: Schombodiacrium in Orch. Rev. 66: 137, 1958 Domindendrum in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Observation: See Epigoa. Domindesmia in Orch. Rev. 72: November, 1964 Domingoa X Hexadesmia Ist hybr.: D. Little Gem Parentage: Domingoa hymenodes X Hexadesmia pulchella Domintonia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Domingoa X Broughtonia Ist hybr.: not yet reported Domliopsis in Orch. Rev. 73: August, 1965 Domingoa X Laeliopsis Ist hybr.: D. Lavender Mist Parentage: Domingoa hymenodes Laeliopsis domingensis Doritaenopsis in Arch. Mus. Nat. Paris ser. 6, 12, pt. 2: 613, 1935 Doritis < Phalaenopsis Ist hybr.: D. Asahi (as Phalaenopsis Asahi) Parentage: Phalaenopsis Lindeni X Doritis pulcherrima Syn.: Doritopsis in Rev. Cire. Paul. Orch. 7: 218, 1950 Doritopsis in Rev. Circ. Paul. Orch. 7: 218, 1950 Observation: See Doritaenopsis. [158 ] Dossinimaria in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 24: 170, 1887 Observation : See Dossisia including the hybrid Dossinimaria Dominyi. Haemaria is a synonym of Ludisia. Dossisia nom. hybr. gen. nov. Dossinia X Ludisia Ist hybr.: D. Dominyi (as Anoectochilus Dominyi, 1861) Parentage: Dossinia marmorata X Ludisia discolor Syn.: Dossinimaria in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 24: 170, 1887 Ellanthera in Orch. Rev. 71: 137, 1963 Renanthera * Renantherella Ist hybr. E. Histrimona (as Renanthera Histrimona) Parentage: Renantherella histrionica * Renanthera monachica Epibrassavola in Roanele Manor Coll. Orch, 38, 1926 Observation: See Brassoepidendrum. Epibroughtonia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Epidendrum Broughtonia Ist hybr.: E. Lilac (as Epitonia Lilac) Parentage: Epidendrum cochleatum < Broughtonia sanguinea Syn.: Epitonia in Orch. Rev. 68: 371, 1960 Epicattleya in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 5: 491, 1889 Epidendruim X Cattleya Ist hybr.: E. matutina Parentage: Cattleya Bowringiana X Epidendrum ibaguense Ill.: in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 21: 233, f. 77, 1897 Syn.: Epileya in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 203, 1895 Cattleyodendrum in Chron. Orch. 1: 115, 1898 Epidiacrium in Orch. Rev. 16: 82, 1908 Epidendrum X Diacrium Ist hybr.: FE. gattonense (in Rolfe, Stud-book 268, 1909) Parentage: Diacrium bicornutum X Epidendrum ibaguense Epidrobium in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 203, 1895 Epidendrum X Dendrobium Ist hybr.: not yet reported Epigoa in Orch. Rev. 65: 137, 1957 Epidendrum * Domingoa Ist hybr.: FE. Olivine Parentage: Domingoa hymenodes < Epidendrum Mariae [ll.: in Na Pua Okika 0 Hawaii Nei 7: 148, 1957 [ 159 ] Syn.: Domindendrum in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Epilaelia in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 16: 605, 1894 Epidendrum X Laelia Ist hybr.: #. Hardyana Parentage: Epidendrum ciliare X Laelia anceps Ill.: in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 16: 629, f. 80, 1894 Syn.: Laeliodendrum in Journ. Hort. Soc. Fr. ser. 3, 19: 602, 1897 Epileya in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 203, 1895 Observation: See Epicattleya. Epilaeliocattleya in Orch. Rev. 68: 193, 1960 Epidendrum X Laelia X Cattleya Ist hybr.: &. Mint Parentage: Laeliocattleya Kahili Kea * Epidendrum Mariae Epilaeliopsis in Orch. Rev. 67: 405, 1959 (as Epilaelopsis) Observation: See Epilopsis including the hybrid Epilaeliopsis Ariza- Julia. Epilopsis in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Epidendrum X Laeliopsis Ist hybr.: &. Ariza-Julia (as Epilaelia Ariza-Julia) Parentage: Laeliopsis domingensis X Epidendrum Eggersii Syn.: Epilaeliopsis in Orch. Rev. 67: 405, 1959 (as Epilaelopsis) Epiphaius in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. Suppl. II, 322, 1897 Epidendrum X Phaius Ist hybr. : not yet reported Epiphronitella in Hawkes, Orchids 244, 1961 Epidendrum X Sophronitella Ist hybr.: E. Orpeti (as Epiphronitis Orpeti) Parentage: Epidendrum O’ Brienianum X Sophronitella violacea Ill.: in Amer. Gard. 22: 331, f. 71 (III), 1901 Epiphronitis in Gard. Chron. ser. 8, 7: 799, 1890 Epidendrum X Sophronitis Ist hybr.: EK. Veitchit Parentage: Epidendrum ibaguense X Sophronitis grandiflora [ll.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 28: 601, f., 1959 Epitonia in Orch. Rev. 68: 371, 1960 Observation: See Epibroughtonia including the hybrid Epitonia Lilac. | 160 | Epivola in Orch. Rev. 16: 83, 1908 Observation: See Brassoepidendrum. Esmeranda in Vacherot, Les Orchidées 150, 1954 Esmeralda X Vanda Ist hybr.: #. Wirzburg Parentage: Esmeralda Clarkei X Vanda coerulea Eurachnis in Bok Choon, List Malay. Orch. Hybr. III, 1960 Euanthe X Arachnis Ist hybr.: E. Helen Gagan (as Aranda Helen Gagan, 1957) Parentage: drachnis Maggie Oei < Euanthe Sanderiana Fujiwarara in Orch. Rev. 71: April, 1963 Brassavola X Cattleya X Laeliopsis Ist hybr.: F. Frolic (as Tenranara Frolic) Parentage: Brassocattleya Kinipopo < Laeliopsis domingensis Syn.: Tenranara in Orch. Rev. 70: December, 1962 Gastrocalanthe in The Orch. Journ. 1: 245, 1952 Gastrorchi: * Calanthe ist hybr.: G. Berryana (as Phaiocalanthe Berryana) Parentage: Calanthe masuca X Gastrorchis Humblotii Gastrophaius in The Orch. Journ. 1: 245, 1952 Gastrorchis X Phaius Ist hybr.: G. Cooksoni (as Phaius Cooksoni) Parentage: Gastrorchis tuberculosa X Phaius Wallichii Ill.: in Gard. Chron. ser. 8, 7: 389, f. 57, 1890 Grammatocymbidium in Hawkes, Orchids 244, 1961 Grammatophyllum X Cymbidium Ist hybr.: not yet reported Gymnabicchia in Camus, Monogr. Orch. Europ. 315, 1908 Observation: See Gymnorchis. Gymnacan)ptis in Roy. Hort. Soe. Dict. 2: 938, 1951 Observation: See Gymnanacamptis. Gymnadeniorchis in Hawkes, Encycl. Cult. Orch. 340, 1965 Observation: See Orchigymnadenia. Gymnaglossum in Orch. Rev. 27: 171, 1919 Gymnadenia X Coeloglossum Ist hybr.: G. Jacksonii (as Gymnplatanthera Jacksonii, 1911 Parentage: Gymnadenia conopea X Coeloglossum viride [ 161 ] Ill. : in Fedde Rep. Sonderbeih. A. 5: t. 444, f. 1-2b, 1939 Syn.: Coeloglossgymnadenia in Rep. Bot. Exch. Cl. Brit. Isl. 8: 698, 1928 Coeloglosshabenaria in Rep. Bot. Exch. Cl. Brit. Isl. 8: 698, 1928 Coeloglossogymnadenia in Camus, Ie. Orch. Europ. 2: 377, 1929 Gymnanacamptis in Aschers. & Graebn., Syn. 3: 854, 1907 Gymnadenia * Anacamplis Ist hybr.: G. anacamptis (as Gymnadenia anacamplis, 1868) Parentage: Anacamplis pyramidalis X Gymnadenia conopea Ill.: in Fedde Rep. Sonderbeih. A. 3: t. 167, f. 7-9, 1939 Syn.: Gymnacamptis in Roy. Hort. Soc. Dict. 2: 938, 1951 Gymnaplatanthera in Roy. Hort. Soc. Dict. 2: 939, 1951 Observation: See Gymnplatanthera. Gymnigritella in Journ. Bot. Fr. 6: 484, 1892 Gymnadenia X Nigritella Ist hybr. : G. suaveolens (as Orchis suaveolens, 1787) Parentage: Nigritella nigra X Gymnadenia conopea Il.: in Camus, Ic. Orch. Europ. t. 89, f. 1-3, 1921 Gymnorchis in Dostal, Fl. Czechosl. (Kvetena CSR) ed. 2, 2101, 1950 Leucorchis * Gymnadenia Ist hybr.: G. Schweinfurthii (as Gymnadenia Schweinfurthii, 1865) Parentage: Gymnadenia conopea X Leucorchis albida Ill.: in Verh. Zool.-Bot. Gesellsch. Wien 15: t. 5, f. 15-16, 1865 Syn.: Gymnabicchia in Camus, Monogr. Orch. Europ. 315, 1908 Leucadenia in Fedde Rep. 16: 290, 1920, not Leucadenia Klotzsch, 1864 Gymnplatanthera in Camus, Monogr. Orch. Europ. 337, 1908 Gymnadenia * Platanthera Ist hybr.: G. Chodati (as Gymnadenia Chodati) Parentage: Gymnadenia conopea X Platanthera bjfolia Ill.: in Fedde Rep. Sonderbeih. A. 5: t. 434, f. 1, 1939 Syn.: Gymnaplatanthera in Roy. Hort. Soe. Dict. 2: 939, 1951 Habenari-orchis in Ann. Bot. 6: 325, 1892 Observation: See Orchicoeloglossum. Haemari-anoectochilus in Kerchov, Le Liv. Orch. 468, 1894 Observation: See Ludochilus. 162 ] Haemari-macodes in Kerchov, Le Liv. Orch. 468, 1894 Observation: See Macodisia. Hartara in Orch. Rev. 73: August, 1965 Sophronitis < Laelia < Broughtonia Ist hybr.: H. George Parentage: Sophrolaelia Valda X Broughtonia sanguinea Il].: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 34: 878, 1965 Hatcherara in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 94: 33, 1936 Observation: See Colmanara. Hawaiiara in Orch. Rev. 67: 405, 1959 Renanthera X Vandopsis * Vanda Ist hybr.: H. Sunglow Parentage: Renanopsis Lena Rowold X Vanda spathulata Observation: For the hybrid Hawaiiara Copper Coin see Lindleyara. Hermibicchia in Camus, Monogr. Orch. Europ. 312, 1908 Observation: See Leucerminium. Herminiorchis in Fourn., Quatre Fl. Fr. 201, 1935 Observation: See Leucerminium. Holttumara in Malay. Orch. Rev. 5: 75, 1958 Arachnis * Vanda X Renanthera Ist hybr.: H. Cochineal Parentage: Aranda Hilda Galistan X Renanthera coccinea Ill.: in Malay. Orch. Rev. 5: 75, f., 1958 Observation: For the hybrid Holttumara Bintang Timor see Cogniauxara. Syn.: Renanda in Orch. Rev. 69: 63, 1961 Hookerara in Orch. Rev. 71: October, 1963 Diacrium X Cattleya X Brassavola Ist hybr.: H. Fragrance Parentage: Diacattleya Chastity * Brassavola Digbyana Iwanagara in Orch. Rev. 68: 223, 1960 Observation: See Linneara including the hybrid Iwanagara Frontier. Kirchara in Orch. Rev. 67: 33, 1959 Epidendrum X Sophronitis < Laelia X Cattleya Ist hybr.: K. Topaz Parentage: Sophrolaeliocattleya Firefly * Epidendrum Mariae Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc, Bull. 29: 434, f., 1960 [ 163 ] Kraenzlinara nom. hybr. gen. nov. Trichoglottis < Vanda X Euanthe Ist hybr.: AK. Richard Emery (as Trichovanda Richard Emery ) Parentage: T'richoglottis brachiata < Vandanthe Rothschildiana Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 34: No. 8, Cover, 1965 Laelio-Brasso-Cattleya in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 39: 254, 1906 Observation: See Brassolaeliocattleya. Laeliocattkeria in Orch. Rev. 73: October, 1965 Laelia X Cattleya X Barkeria Ist hybr.: L. Serendipity Parentage: Laeliocattleya Ibbie * Barkeria Lindleyana Laeliocattleya in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 24: 168, 1887 Laelia X Cattleya Ist hybr.: L. elegans (as Cattleya elegans, 1848) Parentage: Cattleya Leopoldii X Laelia purpurata Ill.: in Bot. Mag. 79: t. 4700, 1853 Syn.: Catlaelia in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 85, 1895 Laeliodendrum in Journ. Hort. Soc. Fr. ser. 3, 19: 602, 1897 Observation: See Epilaelia. Laeliovola in Proc. 3rd World Orch. Conf. 325, 1960 Observation: See Brassolaelia. Laelonia in Orch. Rev. 65: 231, 1957 Laelia X Broughtonia Ist hybr.: L. Ruby Parentage: Broughtonia sanguinea * Laelia aulumnalis Observation: For the hybrid Laelonia Federation see Laeopsis. Laeopsis in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Laelia X Laeliopsis Ist hybr.: L. Federation (as Laelonia Federation) Parentage: Laelia rubescens < Laelopsis domingensis Syn.: Liaopsis in Orch. Rev. 67: 147, 1959 Opsilaelia in Hawkes, Orchids 244, 1961 Leptolaelia in Gard. Chron. 3, 31: 280, 1902 Leptotes X Laelia Ist hybr.: L. Veitchii Parentage: Leptotes bicolor * Laelta cinnabarina Ill.: in Gard. Chron. ser. 8, 33: 50, f. 23, 1903 [ 164 ] Leucadenia in Fedde Rep. 16: 290, 1920 Observation: Not Leucadenia Klotzsch, 1864. See Gymnorchis. Leucerminium in Gartenfl. 85: 253, 1936 Leucorchis X Herminium Ist hybr.: L. Aschersonianum (as Gymnadenia Aschersoniana, 1888) Parentage: Leucorchis albida Herminium monorchis Syn. Hermibicchia in Camus, Monogr. Orch. Europ. 312, 1908 Herminiorchis in Fourn., Quatre Fl. Fr. 201, 1935 Leucotella in Fedde Rep. 16: 272, 1920 Leucorchis * Nigritella Ist hybr. : L. micrantha (as Nigritella micrantha) Parentage: Nigritella nigra Leucorchis albida l.: in Verh. Zool.- Bot. Gesellsch. Wien 15: t. 6, f. 1, 1865 Syn.: Nigribicchia in Camus, Monogr. Orch. Europ. 360, 1908 Liaopsis in Orch. Rev. 67: 147, 1959 Observation : See Laeopsis including the hybrid Liaopsis Federation. Limara in Orch. Rev. 68: 403, 1960 Renanthera * Vandopsis * Arachnis Ist hybr.: L. Lim Lean Teng Parentage: Renanopsis Lena Rowold X Arachnis Maggie Oei Limatopreptanthe in Kerchoy, Le Liv. Orch. 471, 1894 Observation: See Calanthe. Lindleyara nom. hybr. gen. nov. Renanthera X Vandopsis * Vanda X Euanthe Ist hybr.: L. Copper Coin (as Hawaiiara Copper Coin) Parentage: Vandanthe Ellen Noa X Renanopsis Lena Rowold Linneara in Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg. 47: 402, 1911 Diacrium X Laelia X Brassavola X Cattleya Ist hybr.: L. Frontier (as Iwanagara Frontier) Parentage: Diacattleya Chastity < Brassolaeliocattleya Hodaco ll.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 32: 451, f., 1963 Syn.: Iwanagara in Orch. Rev. 68: 223, 1960 Lioponia in Orch. Rev. 67: 259, 1959 Observation: See Broughtopsis including the hybrid Lioponia King- ston, Loroglorchis in Journ. Bot. Fr. 6: 110, 1892 Loroglossum X Orchis Ist hybr.: ZL. Lacasei [ 165 ] Parentage: Orchis simia X Loroglossum hircinum Observation: This hybrid may be identical with Orchiaceras spuria. Syn.: Orchimantoglossum in Aschers. & Graebn., Syn. 3: 799, 1907 Lowara in Orch. Rev. 20: 360, 1912 (as Lowiara) Brassavola < Laelia X Sophronitis Ist hybr.: L. insignis Parentage: Sophronitis grandiflora X Brassolaelia Helen Ludochilus nom. hybr. gen. nov. Anoectochilus * Ludisia Ist hybr.: L. Dominyi (as Anoectochilus Dominyi) Parentage: Anoectochilus Roxburghii X Ludisia discolor Observation: Haemaria is a synonym of Ludisia. Syn.: Anoectomaria in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 24: 170, 1887 Haemari-anoectochilus in Kerchov, Le Liv. Orch. 468, 1894 Luisanda in Orch. Rev. 60: 180, 1952 Luisia X Vanda Ist hybr.: L. Uniwai Parentage: Luisia teretifolia X Vanda Hookeriana Ill.: in Na Pua Okika o Hawaii Nei 2: No. 3, Cover, 1953 Lycastenaria in Colman, Hybr. Orch. 80, 1933 Lycaste X Bifrenaria Ist hybr.: L. Darius (as Lyfrenaria Darius, 1954) Parentage: Bifrenaria Harrisoniae X Lycaste virginalis var. hellemense Ill.: in Gard. Chron. ser. 8, 136: 5, f. 3, 1954 Syn.: Lyfrenmaria in Gard. Chron. ser. 38, 135: 175, 1954 Lycasteria in Orch. Rev. 62: 92, 1954 Lycasteria in Orch. Rev. 62: 92, 1954 Observation: See Lycastenaria including the hybrid Lycasteria Darius. Lyfrenaria in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 185: 175, 1954 Observation: See Lycastenaria including the hybrid Lyfrenaria Darius. Lyonara in Orch. Rev. 56: 94, 1948 Observation: See Trichovanda. For the hybrid Lyonara Ulaula see Antheglottis. Lyonara in Orch. Rev. 67: 405, 1959 Observation: See Schombolaeliocattleya including the hybrid Lyonara Fiesta. [ 166 ] Macodisia nom. hybr. gen. nov. Macodes * Ludisia Ist hybr.: M. Veitchii (as Goodyera V eitchii) Parentage: Macodes Petola * Ludisia discolor Observation: Haemaria is a synonym of Ludisia. Syn.: Macomaria in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 24: 170, 1887 Haemari-macodes in Kerchov, Le Liv. Orch. 468, 1894 Macomaria in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 24: 170, 1887 Observation: See Macodisia including the hybrid Macomaria Veitchit. Macrangraecum in Cost., La Vie des Orch. 180, 1917 Macroplectum X Angraecum Ist hybr.: M. Veitchii (as Angraecum Veitchii) Parentage: Macroplectrum sesquipedale X Angraecum superbum Ill.: in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 25: 35, f. 10, 1899 Observaticn: Macroplectrum is a synonym of Angraecum. If the two genera are kept separate, Macrangraecum should be used. Milpasia in Orch. Rev, 67: 33, 1959 Observation: See Miltonpasia including the hybrid Milpasia Candissa. Milpilia in Orch. Rev. 69: 33, 1961 Observation: See Miltonpilia including the hybrid Milpilia Magic. Miltassia in Orch. Rev. 66: 255, 1958 Observation: See Bratonia including the hybrid Miltassia Premier. Miltoglossum in Tribune Hortic. 5: 241, 1910 Observation: See Odontonia. Miltoncidium in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 25: 186, 1956 Observation: See Miltonidium. Miltonguezia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Rodriguezic * Miltonia Ist hybr.: M. Freckles (as Rodritonia Freckles, 1959) Parentage: Miltonia Bluntit X Rodriguezia secunda Syn.: Rodritonia in Orch. Rev. 67: 33, 1959 Miltonidium in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 94: 33, 1936 Miltonia X Oncidium Ist hybr.: M. Aristocrat (in Orch. Rev. 48: 56, 1940) Parentage: Miltonia Schroederiana X Oncidium leucochilum Ill. : in Curtis, Orchids 218, t., 1950 Syn.: Miltoncidium in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 25: 186, 1956 [ 167 ] Miltonioda in Orch. Rev. 17: 57, 1909 Miltonia X Cochlioda Ist hybr.: M. Linden Parentage: Cochlioda vulcanica X Mailtonia Phalaenopsis Miltoniopsis in Orchidophile 9: 145, t., 1889 Observation: See Miltonia. Miltonpasia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soe. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Miltonia Aspasia Ist hybr.: M. Candissa (as Milpasia Candissa) Parentage: Aspasia principissa < Mailtonia candida Syn.: Milpasia in Orch. Rev. 67: 33, 1959 Miltonpilia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14; 85, 1957 Miltonia X Trichopilia Ist hybr.: M. Magic (as Milpilia Magic) Parentage: Multonia spectabilis < Trichopilia suavis Il].: in Oreh, Rev. 69: 261, f. 76, 1961 Syn.: Milpilia in Orch. Rev. 69: 33, 1961 Moirara in Orch. Rev. 71: June, 1963 Vanda X Renanthera * Phalaenopsis Ist hybr.: M. Sunbeam (in Orch. Rev. 71: August, 1963) Parentage: Renantanda Gold Nugget * Phalaenopsis Doris Observation: For the hybrid Moirara Sunshine see Paravandanthera. Nakamotoara in Orch. Rev. 72: August, 1964 Neofinetia < Ascocentrum X Vanda Ist hybr.: N. Blane (in Orch. Rev. 78: March, 1965) Parentage: Ascocenda Charm X Neefinetia falcata Observation: For the hybrid Nakamotoara Wendy see Smithara. Neostylis in Orch. Rev. 73: August, 1965 Neefinetia * Rhynchostylis Ist hybr.: N. Dainty Parentage: Neofinetia falcata * Rhynchostylis retusa Nigribicchia in Camus, Monogr. Orch. Europ. 360, 1908 Observation: See Leucotella. Nigrorchis in Journ. Bot. 63: 313, 1925 Nigritella * Orchis Ist hybr.: not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Nigrorchis Tourensis see Dactylitella. | 168 | Odontioda in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 35: 360, 1904 Odontoglossum % Cochlioda Ist hybr.: O. Vuylstekeae Parentage: Cochlioda Noezliana X Odontoglossum Pescatorei Ill.: in Orch. Rev. 12: 209, f. 34, 1904 Odontiodonia in Orch. World 1: 84, 1911 Observation: See Vuylstekeara. Odontobrassia in Gartenfl. 84: 121, 1935 Odontoglossum X Brassia Ist hybr.: O. Alice Parentage: Brassia brachiata X Odontoglossum Tagus Il.: Die Orchidee 5: 43, t., 1954 Odontocidium in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 50: 343, 1911 Odontoglossum * Oncidium Ist hybr.: O. Fowlerianum Parentage: Odontoglossum cirrhosum X Oncidium Forbesii Odontonia in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 37: 398, 1905 Odontoglossum X Miltonia Ist hybr.: O. Lairesseae Parentage: Miltonia Warscewiczii X Odontoglossum crispum Ill.: in Orch. Rev. 13: 217, f. 47, 1905 Syn.: Miltoglossum in Tribune Hortic. 5: 241, 1910 Odopetalum in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 227, 1895 Odontoglossum X Zygopetalum Ist hybr.: O. heathii (in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. Suppl. II, 329, 1897) Parentage: Zygopelalum Mackayi X Odontoglossum sp. Observation: This is a very doubtful hybrid. Oncidarettia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 (as Oncidaretia. ) Oncidium &. Comparettia Ist hybr.: O. Valentine (as Oncidettia Valentine) Parentage: Oncidium altissimum * Comparettia falcata Syn.: Oncidettia in Orch. Rev. 71: June, 1963 Oncidasia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Aspasia X Oncidium Ist hybr.: O. Regal (as Aspasium Regal) Parentage: Aspasia epidendroides *X Oncidium Wydleri Syn.: Aspasium in Orch. Rev. 66: 161, 1958 [ 169 ] Oncidesa in Orch. Rev. 72: December, 1964 Oncidium X Gomesa Ist hybr.: O. America Parentage: Oncidium triquetrum * Gomesa recurva Oncidettia in Orch. Rev. 71: June, 1963 Observation: See Oncidarettia including the hybrid Oncidettia Valentine. Oncidguezia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Observation: See Rodricidium. Oncidioda in Orch. Rev. 18: 266, 1910 Oncidium * Cochlioda Ist hybr.: O. Charlesworthii Parentage: Cochlioda Noesliana * Oncidium incurvum Ill.: in Orch. World 1: 8, 1910 Opsilaelia in Hawkes, Orchids 244, 1961 Observation: See Laeopsis. Opsisanda in Orch. Rev. 57: 24, 1949 Vanda X Vandopsis Ist hybr.: O. Colombo Parentage: Vanda Dearei * Vandopsis lissochiloides Ill.: in Bot. Gaz. 125: 135, f. 12 & 17, 1964 Observation: For the hybrid Opsisanda Helen Miyamoto see Opsisanthe. For the hybrid Opsisanda Kimo Cardus see Reichenbachara. Syn.: Tanakarain Orch. Rev. 55: 120, 1947 (not Tanakara, 1952) Vandopsisvanda in Rev. Cire. Paul Orch. 7: 219, 1950 Opsisanthe in Schultes & Pease, Gen. Names Orch. 330, 1963 Vandopsis X Euanthe Ist hybr.: O. Helen Miyamoto (as Opsisanda Helen Miyamoto) Parentage: Vandopsis lissochiloides X Euanthe Sanderiana Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soe. Bull. 29: 927, 1960 Orchiaceras in Journ. Bot. Fr. 6: 107, 1892 Orchis X Aceras Ist hybr.: O. Bergoni Parentage: Orchis simia X Aceras anthropophora Ill.: in Camus, Ic. Orch. Europ. t. 17, f. 13-16, 1921 Orchicoeloglossum in Aschers. & Graebn., Syn. 3: 849, 1907 Orchis X Coeloglossum Ist hybr.: not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Orchicoeloglossum Erdingeri see Dactyloglossum. Syn.: Habenari-orchis in Ann. Bot. Fr. 6: 325, 1892 Coeloglossorchis in Guétrot, Pl. Hybr. Fr. II, 57, 1926 Orchidactyla in Watsonia 6: 133, 1965 Dactylorhiza X Orchis Ist hybr.: O. Schulzei (as Orchis Schulzei, 1882) Parentage: Orchis coriophora X Dactylorhiza latifolia Ill. : in Camus, Ic. Orch. Europ. t. 56, f. 5-9, 1921 Orchidanacamptis in Guétrot, Pl. Hybr. Fr. II, 51, 1926 Observation: See Anacamptorchis. Orchigymnadenia in Journ. Bot. Fr. 6: 477, 1892 Orchis X Gymnadenia Ist hybr.: O. Evequei (as Orchis Evequei, 1905) Parentage: Gymnadenia odoratissima * Orchis laxiflora {ll.: in Camus, Ic. Orch. Europ. t. 86, f. 1-2, 1921 Syn. : Gymnadeniorchis in Hawkes, Encyel. Cult. Orch. 340, 1965 Orchimantoglossum in Aschers. & Graebn., Syn. 3: 799, 1907 Observation: See Loroglorchis. Orchiplatanthera in Journ. Bot. Fr. 6: 474, 1892 Orchis * Platanthera Ist hybr. : not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Orchiplatanthera Chevallieriana see Rhizanthera. Orchiserapias in Journ. Bot. Fr. 6: 31, 1892 Orchis * Serapias ist hybr.: O. triloba (as Serapias triloba) Parentage: Orchis ensjfolia X Serapias cordigera [ll.: in Reichenb., Fl. Germ. et Helv. 13-14: t. 86, 1851 Papilionanda in Schultes & Pease, Gen. Names Orch. 330, 1963 Papilionanthe X Vanda Ist hybr.: P. Miss Joaquim (as Vanda Miss Joaquim) Parentage: Vanda Hookeriana X Papilionanthe teres [ll.: in Henders. & Addis., Malay. Orch. Hybr. 107, 1956 Observation: Papilionanthe is asynonym of Vanda, If the two genera are kept separate, Papilionanda should be used. Parandachnis nom. hybr. gen. nov. Arachnis X Paraphalaenopsis < Vanda [171 ] Ist hybr.: P. Hong Trevor (as Trevorara Hong Trevor) Parentage: Pararachnis Eric Holttum X Vanda Dearei Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 35: 33, f., 1966 Parandanthe nom. hybr. gen. nov. Euanthe X Vanda X Paraphalaenopsis Ist hybr.: P. Pang Nyuk Yin (as Vandaenopsis Pang Nyuk Yin) Parentage: Vandanthe Ellen Noa X Paraphalaenopsis Denevei Ill. : in Malay. Orch. Rev. 7: 10, f., 1964 Paranthe nom. hybr. gen. nov. Euanthe X Paraphalaenopsis Ist hybr.: P. Jawaii (as Vandaenopsis Jawaii) Parentage: Euanthe Sanderiana X Paraphalaenopsis Denevei Ill.: in De Orchidee 9: 21, 1940 Paranthera nom. hybr. gen. nov. Arachnis X Paraphalaenopsis * Renanthera Ist hybr.: P. Ahmad Zahab (as Sappanara Ahmad Zahab) Parentage: Pararachnis Eric Holttum X Renanthera Storiet Pararachnis in Orquidea 25: 215, 1968 Arachnis X Paraphalaenopsis Ist hybr.: P. Eric Holttum (as Arachnopsis Eric Holttum) Parentage: Arachnis Maggie Oei * Paraphalaenopsis Denevei Ill.: in Malay. Orch. Rev. 4: 41, f. 1, 1950 Pararenanthera in Orquidea 25: 215, 1963 Renanthera X Paraphalaenopsis Ist hybr.: P. Firefly (as Renanthopsis Firefly ) Parentage: Paraphalaenopsis Denevei X Renanthera Storiei Ill.: in Malay. Orch. Rev. 4: 44, f. 2, 1950 Paravanda in Orquidea 25: 215, 1963 Vanda X Paraphalaenopsis Ist hybr.: P. Bogoriana (as Vandaenopsis Bogoriana, 1989) Parentage: Paraphalaenopsis Denevei X Vanda coerulea Ill.: in De Orchidee 8: 171, f., 1939 Paravandanthera nom. hybr. gen. nov. Vanda X Renanthera X Paraphalaenopsis Ist hybr.: P. Sunshine (as Moirara Sunshine, 1963) Parentage: Renantanda Gold Nugget * Paraphalaenopsis Denevei Ill.: in Orch. Rev. 71: 339, f. 170, 1963 [ 172 ] Pectabenaria in Hawkes, Orchids 244, 1961 Pecteilis X Habenaria Ist hybr.: P. Original (as Habenaria Original) Parentage: Habenaria militaris X Pecteilis Susannae Pescarhyncha in Orch. Rev. 69: 33, 1961 Pescatoria % Chondrorhyncha Ist hybr.: not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Pescarhyncha Painted Lady see Pescorarithes. Pescatobollea in Orch. Rev. 10: 347, 1902 Pescatoria X Bollea Ist hybr.: P. bella (as Pescatoria bella) Parentage: Pescatoria Klabochorum X Bollea coelestis Ill.: in Orch. Rev. 13: 829, f. 68, 1905 Pescoranthes in Orch. Rev. 69: 403, 1961 Pescatoria % Cochleanthes Ist hybr.: P. Painted Lady (as Pescarhyncha Painted Lady) Parentage: Pescatoria cerina X Cochleanthes discolor Syn.: Cochleatorea in Orch. Rev. 73: May, 1965 Phabletia in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. Suppl. II, 330, 1897 Phaius X Bletia Ist hybr.: not yet reported Phaiocalanthe in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 24: 168, 1887 Phaius X Calanthe Ist hybr.: P. irrorata (as Phaius irroratus) Parentage: Phaius grandjfolius X Calanthe vestita Ill.: in Flor. Mag. t. 426, 1869 Syn.: Phaiopreptanthe in Kerchov, Le Liv. Orch. 485, 1894 Phaiolimatopreptanthe in Kerchov, Le Liv. Orch. 485, 1894 Phalanthe in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 233, 1895 Calanthophaius in Plauszew., Orch. Pl. Serr. t. 11, 1899 Phaiocymbidium in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 31: 219, 1902 Phaius X Cymbidium Ist hybr.: P. Chardwarense Parentage: Cymbidium giganteum X Phaius Wallichi Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 32: 215, 1963 Observation: This is a very doubtful hybrid. Phaiolimatopreptanthe in Kerchoyv, Le Liv. Orch. 485, 1894 Observation: See Phaiocalanthe. [ 173 | Phaiopreptanthe in Kerchov, Le Liv. Orch. 485, 1894 Observation: See Phaiocalanthe. Phalaerianda in Orch. Rev. 59: 124, 1951 Aerides X Vanda X Phalaenopsis Ist hybr.: P. Honolulu Parentage: Aeridovanda Ruth X Phalaenopsis Schilleriana Ill. : in The Orch. Journ. 1: 66, f. 55, 1952 Syn.: Tanakara in Orch, Rev. 60: 13, 1952 (as Tanakaria) Phalandopsis in Orch. Rev. 68: 224, 1960 Phalaenopsis * Vandopsis Ist hybr.: P. Star of Hawaii Parentage: Vandopsis Warocqueana X Phalaenopsis Grace Palm Ill.: in Na Pua Okika o Hawaii Nei 10: No. 2, Cover, 1960 Phalaenetia in Orch. Rev. 72: July, 1964 (as Phalanetia) Phalaenopsis * Neofinetia Ist hybr.: P. Pacjfica Parentage: Neofinetia falcata X Phalaenopsis Chieftain Phalanthe in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 233, 1895 Observation: See Phaiocalanthe. Phragmipaphiopedilum in Hawkes, Orchids 244, 1961 Observation: See Phragmipaphium. Phragmipaphium in Gartenfl. 85: 253, 1936 Phragmipedium X Paphiopedilum Ist hybr. : P. Corndeanii (as Cysepedium Corndeanii in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 189, 1895) Parentage: Phragmipedium Sedeni * Paphiopedilum gigas Syn.: Phragmipaphiopedilum in Hawkes, Orchids 244, 1961 Potinara in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 71: 98, 1922 Brassavola X Cattleya X Laelia * Sophronitis Ist hybr.: P. Juliettae Parentage: Brassocattleya Ena < Sophrolaeliocattleya Marathon Syn.: Brassosophrolaeliocattleya in Bol. Cire. Paul. Orch. 1: 191, 1944 Recchara in Rev. Cire. Paul. Orch. 7: 165, 1950 (as Recchiara) Brassavola * Laelia X Cattleya * Schomburgkia Ist hybr.: R. Amelia Parentage: Brassolaelia Brasil X Schombocattleya crispo-Loddigesii Syn.: Beaumontara in Orch. Rev. 69: 198, 1961 [174 | Reichenbachara nom. hybr. gen. nov. Vanda X Euanthe X Vandopsis Ist hybr.: R. Kimo Cardus (as Opsisanda Kimo Cardus) Parentage: Vandanthe Burgeffii X Vandopsis lissochiloides Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 21: 445, f., 1952 Renades in Orch. Rev. 63: 108, 1955 Renanthera X Aerides Ist hybr.: R. Kaiulani Parentage: Renanthera monachica X Aerides Fieldingit Renaglottis in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Renanthera ‘< Trichoglottis Ist hybr.: not yet reported Renancentrum in Orch. Rev. 70: September, 1962 Renanthera X Ascocentrum Ist hybr. : not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Renancentrum Curvionica see Ascorella. Renanda in Orch. Rev. 69: 63, 1961 Observation: See Holttumara including the hybrid Renanda Ruby Star. Renanetia in Orch. Rev. 70: September, 1962 Renanthera ‘< Neofinetia Ist hybr.: FR. Bali Parentage: Renanthera Brookie Chandler < Neofinetia falcata Renanopsis in Orch. Rev. 57: 24, 1949 Renanthera < Vandopsis Ist hybr.: JR. Lena Rowold (as Athertonara Lena Rowold) Parentage: Renanthera Storiei * Vandopsis lissochiloides Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 25: 256, f., 1956 Syn.: Athertonara in Orch. Rev. 56: 26, 1948 Renopsis in Malay. Orch. Rev. 4: 36, 1949 Renanstylis in Orch. Rev. 68: 224, 1960 Renanthera * Rhynchostylis Ist hybr.: FR. Jo Ann Parentage: Renanthera Brookie Chandler X Rhynchostylis retusa Syn. : Rhynchanthera in Hawkes, Encycl. Cult. Orch. 529, 1965 Renantanda. in Bull. Soc. Hort. Fr. ser. 6, 2: 92, 1935 Renanthera * Vanda Ist hybr.: JR. Sanderi [ 175 ] Parentage: Renanthera Imshooliana * Vanda suavis Ill. : in Curtis, Orchids 224, t., 1950 Observation: For the hybrid Renantanda Titan see Antheranthe. Syn.: Renantheranda in Malay. Orch. Rev. 2: 139, 1938 Vandathera in De Orchidee 8: 159, 1939 Renantheranda in Malay. Orch. Rev. 2: 139, 1938 Observation: See Renantanda. Renanthoglossum in Orch. Rev. 71: September, 1963 Renanthera X Ascoglossum Ist hybr.: RA. Red Delight Parentage: Renanthera Storiet < Ascoglossum calopterum Renanthopsis in Bull. Soc. Hort. Fr. ser. 5, 4: 342, 1935 Renanthera * Phalaenopsis Ist hybr.: A. Premier Parentage: Renanthera Imschootiana X Phalaenopsis Sanderiana Observation: For the hybrid Renanthopsis Firefly see Pararenan- thera. Renaradorum nom. hybr. gen. nov. Renanthera Arachnis * Armodorum Ist hybr.: R. Star Orange (as Aranthera Star Orange) Parentage: Armodachnis Catherine X Renanthera coccinea Ill.: in Malay. Orch. Rev. 5: 10, f., 1957 Renopsis in Malay. Orch. Rev. 4: 36, 1949 Observation: See Renanopsis. Rhizanthera in Watsonia 6: 1338, 1965 Dactylorhiza Platanthera Ist hybr.: R. Chevallieriana (as Orchis Chevallieriana, 1891) Parentage: Dactylorhiza maculata var. elodes X Platanthera byfolia Ill. : in Camus, Ic. Orch. Europ. t. 86, f. 3-5, 1921 Rhynchanthera in Hawkes, Encycl. Cult. Orch. 529, 1965 Observation: See Renanstylis. Rhynchocentrum in Orch. Rev. 71: April, 1963 Rhynchostylis * Ascocentrum Ist hybr.: FR. Sagarik Parentage: Rhynchostylis coelestis * Ascocentrum curvifolium Rhynchonopsis in Orch. Rev. 73: November, 1965 Rhynchostylis X Phalaenopsis Ist hybr.: A. Winona Jordan Parentage: Rhynchostylis gigantea * Phalaenopsis Doris Rhynchorides in Orch. Rev. 70: October, 1962 (as Rhynchorades) Observation: See Aeridostylis including the hybrid Rhynchorides Springtime. Rhynchovanda in Orch. Rev. 66: 231, 1958 Observation: See Vandachostylis including the hybrid Rhyncho- vanda Fantasy. For the hybrid Rhynchovanda Blue Angel see Rhynchovandanthe. Rhynchovandanthe nom. hybr. gen. nov. Rhynchostylis X Vanda * Euanthe Ist hybr.: R. Blue Angel (as Rhynchovanda Blue Angel) Parentage: Vandanthe Rothschildiana * Rhynchostylis coelestis Ill.: in. Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 32: 843, f., 1963 Rhynchovola in Proc. 3rd World Orch. Conf. 326, 1960 Rhyncholaelia X Brassavola Ist hybr.: R. David Sander (as Brassavola David Sander) Parentage: Brassavola cucullata * Rhyncholaelia Digbyana Observation: The genera Rhyncholaelia and Brassavola are not sepa- rable. Ridleyara in Malay. Orch. Rev. 5: 2, 1957 Arachnis X Vanda X Trichoglottis Ist hybr.: R. Fascad Parentage: Aranda Eileen Addison X Trichoglottis fasciata Ill.: in Malay. Orch. Rev. 5: 2, f., 1957 Rodrassia -n Orch. Rev. 68: 404, 1960 Observation: See Bradriguezia including the hybrid Rodrassia Angellites. Rodrettia in Orch. Rev. 66: 231, 1958 Rodriguezia * Comparettia Ist hybr.: R. Hawaii Parentage: Comparettia falcata X Rodriguezia secunda Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 28: 883, f., 1959 Rodricidiurn in Orch. Rev. 65: 89, 1957 Rodriguezia X Oncidium Ist hybr.: R. Twyla Parentage: Oncidium tetrapetalum * Rodriguezia secunda Syn.: Oncidguezia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 [ 177 ] Rodridenia in Orch. Rev. 70: April, 1962 Rodriguezia X Macradenia Ist hybr.: R. Red Gem Parentage: Rodriguesia secunda X Macradenta brassavolae Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 31: 357, 1962 Rodritonia in Orch. Rev. 67: 33, 1959 Observation: See Miltonguezia including the hybrid Rodritonia Freckles. Rolfeara in Orch. Rev. 27: 3, 1919 Brassavola X Cattleya X Sophronitis Ist hybr.: FR. rubescens Parentage: Sophrocattleya Blackii X Brassocattleya Mrs.J.Leemann Saccanthera in Orch. Rev. 69: 269, 1961 Renanthera X Saccolabium Ist hybr. : not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Saccanthera Queen Emma see Renan- stylis. Saccovanda in Orch. Rev. 67: 330, 1959 Observation: See Sanda. For the hybrid Saccovanda Dawn see Vandachostylis. Sanda in Sander, List. Oreh. Hybr. Add. III, x, 1955 Saccolabium X Vanda Ist hybr. : not yet reported Syn.: Saccovanda in Orch. Rev. 67: 330, 1959 Sanderara in Orch. Rev. 45: 257, 1937 Brassia X Cochlioda * Odontoglossum Ist hybr.: S. Alpha Parentage: Brassia Lawrenceana X Odontioda Grenadier Ill.: in Orch. Rev. 59: 27, f., 1951 Sappanara in Orch. Rev. 73: June, 1965 Arachnis X Phalaenopsis * Renanthera Ist hybr.: not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Sappanara Ahmad Zahab see Paran- thera. Sarcothera in Orch. Rev. 62: 92, 1954 Sarcochilus X Renanthera Ist hybr.: S. Kona Parentage: Sarcochilus pallidus Renanthera monachica [ 178 } Schlechterara nom. hybr. gen. nov. Vanda X Fuanthe X Ascocentrum Ist hybr.: S. Meda Arnold (as Ascocenda Meda Arnold) Parentage: Ascocentrum curvifollum X Vandanthe Rothschildiana Schombavola in Orch. Rev. 72: January, 1964 Observation: See Schombobrassavola including the hybrid Schom- bavola Furple Star. Schombletia in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 234, 1895 Schomburghia X Bletia Ist hybr.: not yet reported Schombobrassavola in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Schomburgkia Brassavola Ist hybr.: S. Purple Star (as Schombavola Purple Star) Parentage: Schomburgkia Kalihi X Brassavola glauca Syn.: Schombavola in Orch. Rev. 72: January, 1964 Schombocuttleya in Orch. Rev. 13: 245, 1905 Schomburgkia X Cattleya Ist hybr.: S. spiralis Parentage: Cattleyae Mossiae * Schomburgkia tibicinis Ill.: in Oreh. Rev. 13: 245, f. 61, 1905 Syn.: Schomburgkio-Cattleya in Journ. Hort. Soc. Fr. ser. 4, 4: 534, 1903 Schomcattleya in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 38: 53, 1905 Schombodiacrium in Orch. Rev. 66: 137, 1958 Observation: See Diaschomburgkia including the hybrid Schombo- diacrium Ipo. Schomboepidendrum in Orch. Rev. 65: 90, 1957 Schomburgkia * Epidendrum Ist hybr.: S. Crispa-Glow Parentage: Schomburgkia crispa * Epidendrum Orange Glow Schombolaelia in Orch, Rev. 21: 254, 1913 Schomburgkia X Laelia Ist hybr.: S. Tibibrosa Parentage: Laelia tenebrosa * Schomburgkia tibicinis Schombolaeliocattleya in Roy. Hort. Soc. Dict. Gard. 4: 1905, 1951 Schomburgkia X Laelia X Cattleya Ist hybr.: S. Fiesta (as Lyonara Fiesta) Parentage: Laeliocattleya Issy X Schomburgkia Thomsoniana Syn.: Lyvonara in Orch. Rev. 67: 405, 1959 [179 | Schombonia in Orch. Rev. 70: January, 1962 Observation: See Schombotonia including the hybrid Schombonia Firefly. Schombotonia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Schomburgkia X Broughtonia ist hybr.: S. Firefly (as Schombonia Firefly ) Parentage: Schomburgkia Thomsoniana X Broughtonia sanguinea Syn. : Schombonia in Orch. Rev. 70: January, 1962 Schomburgkio-Cattleya in Journ. Hort. Soc. Fr. ser. 4, 4: 534, 1903 Observation: See Schombocattleya. Schomcattleya in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 88: 58, 1905 Observation: See Schombocattleya. Selenocypripedium in Journ. Hort. Soc. Fr. ser. 4, 13: 706, 1912 Observation: See Cysepedium. For the hybrids Selenocypripedium Malhouitri and Selenocypripedium Confusion see Phragmipaphium. Serapicamptis in Journ. Bot. 59: 57, 1921 Serapias X Anacamptis Ist hybr.: S. Forbesi Parentage: Serapias lingua * Anacamptis pyramidalis lll; + in Journ. Bet. 507 57, t:5.1921 Shipmanara in Orch. Rev. 71: April, 19638 Schomburgkia X Diacrium X Broughtonia Ist hybr.: S, Pink Angel Parentage: Diaschomburgkia [po X Diabroughtonia Alice Hart Smithara nom. hybr. gen. nov. Ascocentrum X Euanthe X Neofinetia X Vanda ist hybr.: S. Wendy (as Nakamotoara Wendy ) Parentage: Neofinetia falcata X Schlechterara Meda Arnold Sobraleya in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 242, 1895 Sobralia * Cattleya Ist hybr.: not yet reported Sophrobroughtonia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Sophronitis * Broughtonia Ist hybr.: not yet reported Sophrocatlaelia in Orch. Rev. 8: 354, 1900 Observation: See Soprolaeliocattleya. Sophrocattleya in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 24: 169, 1887 Sophronitis X Cattleya [ 180 ] Ist hybr.: S. Batemaniana (as Laelia Batemaniana) Parentage: Sophronitis grandiflora X Cattleya intermedia Ill.: in Veitch, Man. Orch, Pl. pt. 2: 93, f., 1887 Syn.: Sophroleya in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 242, 1895 Sophrolaelia in Orch. Rev. 2: 333, 1894 Sophronitis X Laelia Ist hybr.: S. laeta Parentage: Laelia pumila var. Dayana X Sophronitis grandiflora Ill. : in Gard, Chron. ser. 3, 16: 477, f. 63, 1894 Sophrolaeliocattleya in Journ. Roy. Hort. Soe. 21: 468, 1897 Sophronitis X Laelia Cattleya Ist hybr.: S. Veitehii Parentage: Sophronitis grandiflora X Laeliocattleya elegans (Schilleriana) Ill.: in Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc. 21: 461, f. 107, 1897 Syn.: Catlaenitis in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 100, 1895 Sophrocatlaelia in Orch, Rev. 8: 354, 1900 Sophroleya in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 242, 1895 Observation: See Sophrocattleya. Sophrovola in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 243, 1895 Brassavola X Sophronitis Ist hybr.: S. Edna (as Brassonotis Edna, 1962) Parentage: Sophronitis coccinea X Brassavola nodosa Syn.: Brassophronitis in Die Orchidee 5: 41, 1954 Brassonotis in Orch. Rev. 70: December, 1962 Spathophaius in Hawkes, Orchids 245, 1961 Spathoglottis * Phaius Ist hybr.: not yet reported Staurachnis in Orch. Rev. 58: 65, 1950 Observation: See Trichachnis including the hybrid Staurachnis N. Sorapure Stauranda in The Orch. Journ. 1: 300, 1952 Observation: See Trichovanda. For the hybrid Stauranda Ulaula see Antheglottis. Symphodontioda in Hawkes, Encycel. Cult. Orch. 457, 1965 Symphyglossum X Odontoglossum X Cochlioda Ist hybr.: 8. Hermione (as Odontioda Hermione, 1910) Parentage: Symphodontoglossum /healonensis * Cochlioda vulcanica Symphodontoglossum in Hawkes, Encycl. Cult. Orch, 457, 1965 Symphyglossum X Odontoglossum [ 181 | Ist hybr.: S. heatonensis (as Odontioda heatonensis, 1906) Parentage: Symphyglossum sanguineum X Odontoglossum cirrhosum Ill.: in Bot. Mag. 133: t. 8133, 1907 Symphodontonia nom. hybr. gen. nov. Symphyglossum X Odontoglossum X Miltonia Ist hybr.: S. Felicia (as Vuylstekeara Felicia, 1921) Parentage: Miltonia Warscewiczii X Symphodontoglossum (Odontio- da) Felicia Observation: Symphodontonia Felicia is the only hybrid known. Symphyglossonia in Hawkes, Encycl. Cult. Orch. 457, 1965 Symphyglossum X Mailtonia Ist hybr.: S. Pink Pearl (as Miltonioda Pink Pearl) Parentage: Miltonia St. Andre X Symphyglossum sanguineum Tanakara in Orch. Rev. 55: 120, 1947 Observation: See Opsisanda including the hybrid Tanakara Colombo. Tanakara in Orch. Rev. 60: 13, 1952 (as Tanakaria) Observation: See Phalaerianda including the hybrid Tanakara Honolulu. Tenranara in Orch. Rev. 70: December, 1962 Observation: See Fujiwarara including the hybrid Tenranara Frolic. Tetralaelia in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 31: 280, 1902 (as Tetralaenia) Tetramicra X Laelia Ist hybr.: not yet reported Tetraliopsis in Orch. Rev. 73: July, 1965 Tetramicra X Laeliopsis Ist hybr.: 7’. Candystripe Parentage: JTetramicra canaliculata X Laeliopsis domingensis Tetratonia in Orch. Rev. 73: August, 1965 Tetramicra X Broughtonia Ist hybr.: 7’. Dark Prince Parentage: Tetramicra canaliculata X Broughtonia sanguinea Trevorara in Orch. Rev. 71: March, 1963 Arachnis X Phalaenopsis X Vanda Ist hybr.: 7. Inggraini (in Orch. Rev. 72: June, 1964) Parentage: Vanda tricolor X Arachnopsis Rosea Observation: For the hybrid Trevorara Hong Trevor see Parandach- nis. For the hybrid Trevorara Manoa see Benthamara. [ 182 ] Trichachnis in Na Pua Okika o Hawaii Nei 7: 154, 1957 Trichoglottis X Arachnis Ist hybr.: 7’. N. Sorapure (as Staurachnis N. Sorapure) Parentage: Arachnis flos-aeris X Trichoglottis fasciata Syn.: Staurachnis in Orch. Rev. 58: 65, 1950 Arachnoglottis in Orch. Rev. 66: 86, 1958 Trichocidium in Orch. Rev. 63: 155, 1955 Trichocentrum X Oncidium Ist hybr.: 7’. Elvena Parentage: Oncidium Lanceanum Trichocentrum albopurpureum Ill.: in Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 33: 596, f., 1964 Trichopasia in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Trichopilia * Aspasia Ist hybr. : not yet reported Trichovanda in Orch. Rev. 57: 24, 1949 Trichoglottis X Vanda Ist hybr.: 7. Bonfire Parentage: Vanda Herziana X Trichoglottis brachiata Observation: For the hybrid Trichovanda Ulaula see Antheglottis. For the hybrid Trichovanda Richard Emery see Kraenzlinara. Syn.: Lyonara in Orch. Rev. 56: 94, 1948 Stauranda in The Orchid Journ. 1: 300, 1952 Vancampe in Bull. Pac. Orch. Soc. Hawaii 14: 85, 1957 Vanda X «campe Ist hybr.: V. Beans Parentage: Vanda Frank Scudder X Acampe longifolia Vandachnanthe in Anggrek Boelan 1: 67, 1939 Observation: See Aranda. Vandachnis in Orch. Rev. 57: 66, 1949 Vandopsis ‘X Arachnis Ist hybr.: V’. Premier Parentage: Arachnis flos-aeris X Vandopsis lissochiloides Ill.: in Henders. & Addis., Malay. Orch. Hybr. 124, 1956 Vandachostylis in Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris ser. 6, 12 pt. 2: 608, 1935 (as Vandacostylis) Vanda X Rhynchostylis Ist hybr.: V. Bernardi Parentage: Vanda teres X Rhynchostylis retusa [183 ] Ill.: in Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris ser. 6, 12 pt. 2: 608, t., 1935 Syn. : Rhynchovanda in Orch. Rev. 66: 231, 1958 Vandaecum in Orch. Rev. 68: 224, 1960 Vanda X Angraecum Ist hybr. : not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Vandaecum Premier see Vandofinetia. Vandaenopsis in Arch. Mus. Nat. Paris ser. 6, 12 pt. 2: 607, 1935 Vanda X Phalaenopsis Ist hybr.: V’. ferrierensis (as X Vandopsis ferrierensis) Parentage: Vanda suavis < Phalaenopsis Rimestadiana Observation: For the hybrid Vandaenopsis Pang Nyuk Yin see Parandanthe. For the hybrid Vandaenopsis Jawaii see Paranthe. For the hybrid Vandaenopsis Bogoriana see Paravanda. Syn.: Vandaeopsis in Gartenfl. 86: 252, 1937 Vandanopsis in De Orchidee 8: 186, 1939 Vandaeopsis in Gartenfl. 86: 252, 1937 Observation: See Vandaenopsis. Vandanopsis in De Orchidee 8: 186, 1939 Observation: See Vandaenopsis. Vandanthe in Orchis 13: 52, 1919 Vanda X Euanthe Ist hybr.: V. Tatzeri Parentage: Vanda tricolor X Euanthe Sanderiana Ill.: in Orehis 13: 52, f. 7, 1919 Vandathera in De Orchidee 8: 159, 1939 Observation: See Renantanda. Vandantherides nom. hybr. gen. nov. Vanda X Euanthe X Aerides Ist hybr.: V’. Elizabeth Young (as Aeridovanda Elizabeth Young) Parentage: Aeridovanda Dickie Yawata X Euanthe Sanderiana Vandarachnis in Orchideen 6: 107, 1939 Observation: See Aranda. Vandofinetia in Orch. Rev. 68: 404, 1960 Neofinetia * Vanda Ist hybr.: V’. Premier (as Vandaecum Premier) Parentage: Neofinetia falcata X Vanda lamellata Vandopsides in Orch. Rev. 66: 231, 1958 Vandopsis X Aerides [ 184 ] Ist hybr.: ’. Apple Blossom Parentage: Aerides Lawrenciae * Vandopsis lissochiloides Vandopsisvanda in Rey. Circ. Paul. Orch. 7: 219, 1950 Observation: See Opsisanda. Vandoritis in Orch. Rev. 73: August, 1965 Vanda X Doritis Ist hybr.: )”. Malaysia Parentage: Vanda Lanikea X Doritis pulcherrima Vascostylis in Orch. Rev. 72: January, 1964 Vanda X Ascocentrum X Rhynchostylis Ist hybr : not yet reported Observation: For the hybrid Vascostylis Blue Fairy see Carrara. Vaughnara in Orch. Rev. 73: March, 1965 Brassavola X Cattleya X Epidendrum Ist hybr.: /”. Sparklet Parentage: Brassocattleya Cliftonii X Epidendrum vitellinum Vuylstekeara in Orch. Rev. 19: 60, 1911 Cochlioda X Miltonia * Odontoglossum Ist hybr.: J”. insignis Parentage: Miltonia vexillaria X Odontioda Vuylstekeae Ill.: in Rev. Hort. Belg. 36: 150, f., 1910 Syn.: Odontiodonia in Orch. World 1: 84, 1911 Warneara in Orch. Rev. 72: July, 1964 Oncidium X Rodriguezia * Comparettia Ist hybr.: JV. Robert Parentage: Oncidium Agnes Ann X Rodrettia Hawaii Wilsonara in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 59: 315, 1916 Cochlioda X Odontoglossum * Oncidium Ist hybr.: JV. insignis Parentage: Odontoglossum illustrissimum X Oncidioda Charlesworthi Ill.: in Orea. World 6: 203, f., 1916 Yamadara in Orch. Rev. 68: 404, 1960 Observation: See Adamara including the hybrid Yamadara Fuchsia. Zygobatemania in Semain Hortic. 3: 76, 1899 Zygopetalum X Batemannia Ist hybr.: 2. Mastersii Parentage: Zygopetalum crinitum X Batemannia Colleyi Ill.: in Lindenia 14: t. 657, 1899 [ 185 | Zygocaste in Orch. Rev. 54: 41, 1946 Zygopetalum X Lycaste Ist hybr.: Z. Van Belle Parentage: Lycaste virginalis X Zygopetalum Mackayi Zygocella nom. hybr. gen. nov. Zygopetalum X Mendoncella ist hybr.: Z. Maz-Jorisii (as Zygopetalum Max-Jorisii) Parentage: Zygopetalum maxillare * Mendoncella Jorisiana Zygocidium in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 244, 1895 Zygopetalum X Oncidium Ist hybr. : not yet reported Zygocolax in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 1: 756, 1887 Zygopetalum X Colax Ist hybr.: Z. leopardinus (as Zygopetalum leopardinum) Parentage: Colax jugosus X Zygopetalum maczillare Ill.: in Gard. Mag. 43: 121, f., 1900 Syn.: Zygolax in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 244, 1895 Zygodendrum in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 244, 1895 Zygopetalum X Epidendrum Ist hybr.: not yet reported Zygolax in Hansen, Orch. Hybr. 244, 1895 Observation: See Zygocolax. Zygomena in Die Natuerl. PHanzenfam. Erg.-heft II, 92, 1908 Zygopetalum X Menadenium Ist hybr.: Z. Roeblingiana (as Zygopetalum Roeblingianum) Parentage: Zygopetalum maxillare X Menadenium labiosum Ill.: in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 34: 227, f. 93, 1903 Zygonisia in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 31: 443, 1902 Zygopetalum X Aganisia Ist hybr. : not yet reported Observation: For the hybrids Zygonisia Rolfeana and Zygonisia Sanderi see Zygostylis. Zygorhyncha in Gartenfl. 85: 254, 1936 Zygopetalum X Chondrorhyncha Ist hybr.: Z. Fletcheri (as Chondropetalum F/letcheri) Parentage: Zygopetalum Mackayi X Chondrorhyncha Chestertonii Ill. : in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 45: 9, f. 12, 1909 Observation: This is a very doubtful hybrid. [ 186 ] Syn.: Chondropetalum in Orch. Rev. 16: 56, 1908, not Rttb. lhis Zygostylis nom. hybr. gen. nov. Zygopetalum X Otostylis Ist hybr.: “. Rolfeana (as Zygonisia Rolfeana) Parentage: Zygopetalum maxillare X Otostylis alba Ill.: in Gard. Chron. ser. 3, 32: 30, f. 11, 1902 Parr II Parentage index to hybrid generic names Parent Genera Acampe X Vanda Aceras X Barlia Aceras X Herminium Aceras X Orchis Ada X Cochlioda Ada X Odontoglossum Aerides X Arachnis Aerides X Ascoglossum Aerides X Euanthe Aerides X HFuanthe X Vanda Aerides X Neofinetia Aerides X Phalaenopsis Aerides X Fhalaenopsis X Vanda Aerides X Renanthera Aerides X Rhynchostylis Aerides X Siaccolabium Aerides X Vanda Aerides X Vanda X Euanthe Aerides X Vanda X Phalaenopsis Aerides X Vandopsis Aganisia X Zygopetalum Anacamptis X Dactylorhiza Anacamptis X Gymnadenia Anacamptis X Orchis Anacamptis X Platanthera Anacamptis X Serapias [ 187 ] I Aybrid Genus Vancampe Barlaceras Aceraherminium Orchiaceras Adioda Adaglossum Aeridachnis Aeridoglossum Aeridanthe Vandantherides Aeridofinetia Aeridopsis Phalaerianda Renades Aeridostylis Aeridolabium Aeridovanda Vandantherides Phalaerianda Vandopsides Zy gonisia Dactylocamptis Gymnanacamptis Anacamptorchis Anacamptiplatanthera Serapicamptis Angraecum X Macroplectrum Angraecum X Vanda Anguloa X Lycaste Anoectochilus X Goodyera Anoectochilus X Ludisia Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis Arachnis x Aerides x Armodorum X Armodorum X Renanthera Xx Euanthe Xx Euanthe X Paraphalaenopsis X Euanthe X Renanthera * Vanda xX Euanthe X Vanda X Euanthe X Vanda X Renanthera X Paraphalaenopsis X Paraphalaenopsis X Euanthe X Paraphalaenopsis X Renanthera Paraphalaenopsis X Vanda Phalaenopsis Phalaenopsis X Renanthera Phalaenopsis X Vanda Renanthera xX Armodorum x Euanthe X Vanda X Paraphalaenopsis Renanthera Renanthera Renanthera Xx Phalaenopsis Renanthera X Vanda Renanthera X Vanda X Euanthe Renanthera X Vandopsis Renanthera Trichoglottis Trichoglottis * Vanda Vanda Vanda Vanda Vanda Vanda x Euanthe X Euanthe X Renanthera Xx Paraphalaenopsis X Phalaenopsis Vanda X Renanthera Vanda X Renanthera X Euanthe Vanda X Trichoglottis Vandopsis x KKKKK KKK K KKK KKK KKK KK KK XK Vandopsis X Renanthera [ 188 |] Macrangraecum Vandaecum Angulocaste Anoectogoodyera Ludochilus Aeridachnis Armodachnis Renaradorum Eurachnis Benthamara Cogniauxara Arandanthe Cogniauxara > Pararachnis Benthamara Paranthera Parandachnis Arachnopsis Sappanara Trevorara Aranthera Renaradorum Cogniauxara Paranthera Sapanara Holttumara Cogniauxara Limara Trichachnis Ridleyara Aranda Arandanthe Cogniauxara Parandachnis Trevorara Holttumara Cogniauxara Ridleyara Vandachnis Limara Armodorum X Arachnis = Armodachnis Armodorum X Arachnis X Renanthera = Renaradorum Armodorum X Renanthera X Arachnis = Renaradorum Ascocentrum X Euanthe X Neofinetia =Smithara Ascocentruim X Euanthe X Rhynchostylis X Vanda = Carrara Ascocentrum X Euanthe X Vanda =Schlechterara Ascocentrum X Euanthe X Vanda X Rhynchostylis = Carrara Ascocentrum X Neofinetia = Ascofinetia Ascocentrum X Neofinetia X Euanthe = Smithara Ascocentrum X Neofinetia X Vanda = Nakamotoara Ascocentrum X Renanthera = Renancentrum Ascocentrurn X Renantherella = Ascorella Ascocentrum X Rhynchostylis = Rhynchocentrum Ascocentrum X Rhynchostylis X Euanthe X Vanda = Carrara Ascocentrum X Rhynchostylis X Vanda = Vascostylis Ascocentrurn X Rhynchostylis X Vanda X Euanthe = Carrara Ascocentrum X Vanda = Ascocenda Ascocentrum X Vanda X Euanthe =Schlechterara Ascocentruin X Vanda X Euanthe X Rhynchostylis = Carrara Ascocentrum X Vanda X Neofinetia = Nakamotoara Ascocentrum X Vanda X Rhynchostylis = Vascostylis Ascocentrum X Vanda X Rhynchosty lis X Euanthe = Carrara Ascoglossum X Aerides = Aeridoglossum Ascoglossum X Renanthera = Renanthoglossum Aspasia X Brassia = Brapasia Aspasia X Miltonia = Miltonpasia Aspasia X Odontoglossum = Aspoglossum Aspasia X Oncidium = Oncidasia Aspasia X Trichopilia = Trichopasia Barkeria X Epidendrum = Bardendrum Barkeria X Laelia X Cattleya = Laeliocattkeria Barlia X Aceras = Barlaceras Batemannia < Zy gopetalum = Zygobatemania Bifrenaria X Lycaste = Lycastenaria Bletia X Phaius = Phabletia Bletia XSchomburgkia =Schombletia [ 189 ] Bollea X Chondrorhyncha Bollea X Pescatoria Brassavola < Broughtonia Brassavola X Cattleya Brassavola X Cattleya < Diacrium Brassavola X Cattleya X Diacrium X Laelia Brassavola X Cattleya X Epidendrum Brassavola X Cattleya X Epidendrum X Laelia Brassavola Cattleya < Laelia Brassavola X Cattleya X Laelia X Diacrium Brassavola < Cattleya X Laelia X Epidendrum Brassavola X Cattleya X Laelia X Schomburgkia Brassavola X Cattleya X Laelia X Sophronitis Brassavola X Cattleya X Laeliopsis Brassavola X Cattleya X Schomburgkia Brassavola X Cattleya XSchomburgkia X Laelia Brassavola X Cattleya X Sophronitis Brassavola X Cattleya X Sophronitis X Laelia Brassavola X Diacrium Brassavola X Diacrium X Cattleya Brassavola X Diacrium X Cattleya X Laelia Brassavola X Diacrium X Laelia X Cattleya Brassavola X Epidendrum Brassavola X Epidendrum Cattleya Brassavola X Epidendrum X Cattleya X Laelia Brassavola X Epidendrum X Laelia X Cattleya Brassavola X Laelia Brassavola X Laelia X Cattleya Brassavola X Laelia X Cattleya < Diacrium Brassavola X Laelia X Cattleya X Epidendrum Brassavola X Laelia X Cattleya X Schomburgkia Brassavola X Laelia X Cattleya X Sophronitis Brassavola X Laelia X Diacrium X Cattleya Brassavola X Laelia X Epidendrum X Cattleya Brassavola X Laelia X Schomburgkia X Cattleya Brassavola X Laelia X Sophronitis Brassavola X Laelia X Sophronitis X Cattleya Brassavola X Laeliopsis X Cattleya Brassavola < Rhyncholaelia [ 190 | = Chondrobollea = Pescatobollea = Brassotonia = Brassocattleya = Hookerara = Linneara = Vaughnara = Adamara = Brassolaelio- cattleya = Linneara = Adamara = Recchara = Potinara = Fujiwarara = Dekensara = Recchara = Rolfeara = Potinara = Brassodiacrium = Hookerara = Linneara = Linneara = Brassoepidendrum =Vaughnara = Adamara = Adamara = Brassolaelia = Brassolaelio- cattleya = Linneara = Adamara = Recchara = Potinara = Linneara = Adamara = Recchara = Lowara = Potinara = Fujiwarara = Rhynchovola Brassavola XSchomburgkia Brassavola < Schomburgkia X Cattleya X Laelia Brassavola X Schomburgkia X Laelia X Cattleya Brassavola < Sophronitis X Cattleya Brassavola X Sophronitis X Cattleya X Laelia Brassavola ‘x Sophronitis X Laelia Brassavola < Cycnoches = Cyenodes Neofinetia X Aerides = Aeridofinetia Neofinetia X Ascocentrum = Ascofinetia Neofinetia X Ascocentrum X Euanthe = Smithara Neofinetia < Ascocentrum X Vanda = Nakamotoara Neofinetia X Euanthe X Ascocentrum = Smithara Neofinetia X Phalaenopsis = Phalaenetia Neofinetia >< Renanthera = Renanetia Neofinetia X Rhynchostylis = Neostylis Neofinetia X Vanda = Vandofinetia Neofinetia X Vanda X Ascocentrum = Nakamotoara Nigritella X Dactylorhiza = Dactylitella Nigritella X Gymnadenia = Gymnigritella Nigritella X Leucorchis = Leucotella Nigritella X Orchis = Nigrorchis Odontoglossum X Ada = Adaglossum Odontoglossum X Aspasia = Aspoglossum Odontoglossum X Brassia = Odontobrassia Odontoglossum X Brassia X Cochlioda = Sanderara Odontoglossum X Cochlioda = Odontioda Odontoglossum X Cochlioda X Brassia = Sanderara Odontoglossum X Cochlioda X Miltonia = Vuylstekeara Odontoglossum X Cochlioda X Miltonia X Oncidium = Burrageara Odontoglossum X Cochlioda X Oncidium = Wilsonara Odontoglossum X Cochlioda X Oncidium X Miltonia = Burrageara Odontoglossum X Cochlioda X Symphy glossum = Symphodontioda Odontoglossum X Miltonia = Odontonia Odontoglossum X Miltonia X Cochlioda = Vuylstekeara Odontoglossum X Miltonia X Cochlioda X Oncidium = Burrageara Odontoglossum X Miltonia X Oncidium = Colmanara Odontoglossum X Miltonia X Oncidium X Cochlioda = Burrageara [ 201 | Odontoglossum X Miltonia X Symphyglossum = Symphodontonia Odontoglossum * Oncidium = Odontocidium Odontoglossum * Oncidium XCochlioda = Wilsonara Odontoglossum X Oncidium X Cochlioda X Miltonia = Burrageara Odontoglossum * Oncidium X Miltonia =Colmanara Odontoglossum X Oncidium X Miltonia X Cochlioda = Burrageara Odontoglossum X Symphyglossum = Symphodonto- glossum Odontoglossum X Symphy glossum X Cochlioda = Symphodontioda Odontoglossum XSymphyglossum X Miltonia =Symphodontonia Odontoglossum X Zy gopetalum = Odopetalum Oncidium X Aspasia = Oncidasia Oncidium X Brassia = Brassidium Oncidium X Brassia X Miltonia = Aliceara Oncidium X Cochlioda = Oncidioda Oncidium X Cochlioda X Miltonia = Charlesworthara Oncidium X Cochlioda X Miltonia X Odontoglossum = Burrageara Oncidium X Cochlioda X Odontoglossum = Wilsonara Oncidium X Cochlioda X Odontoglossum X Miltonia = Burrageara Oncidium X Comparettia = Oncidarettia Oncidium * Comparettia X Rodriguezia = Warneara Oncidium X Gomesa = Oncidesa Oncidium X Miltonia = Miltonidium Oncidium X Miltonia X Brassia = Aliceara Oncidium X Miltonia Cochlioda = Charlesworthara Oncidium X Miltonia X Cochlioda X Odontoglossum = Burrageara Oncidium X Miltonia * Odontoglossum = Colmanara Oncidium X Miltonia X Odontoglossum X Cochlioda = Burrageara Oncidium X Odontoglossum = Odontocidium Oncidium X Odontoglossum X Cochlioda = Wilsonara Oncidium X Odontoglossum < Bollea Pescatoria X Chondrorhyncha Pescatoria X Cochleanthes Phaius X Bletia Phaius X Calanthe Phaius X Calanthe X Limatodes Phaius X Cymbidium Phaius X Epidendrum Phaius X Gastrorchis [ 203 ] = Orchicoeloglos- sum = Orchidactyla = Orchigymna- denia = Loroglorchis = Nigrorchis = Orchiplatan- thera = Orchiserapias =Zy gostylis = Phragmipaphium = Papilionanda = Pararachnis = Benthamara = Paranthera = Parandachnis = Paranthe = Benthamara = Parandanthe = Pararenanthera = Paranthera = Paravandan- thera = Paravanda = Parandachnis = Parandanthe = Paravandan- thera = Pectabenaria = Pescatobollea = Pescarhyncha = Pescoranthes = Phabletia = Phaiocalanthe = Phaiocalanthe = Phaiocymbidium = Epiphaius = Gastrophaius Phaius X Limatodes X Calanthe Phaius X Spathoglottis Phalaenopsis X Aerides Phalaenopsis X Aerides X Vanda Phalaenopsis X Arachnis Phalaenopsis X Arachnis X Renanthera Phalaenopsis X Arachnis X Vanda Phalaenopsis X Doritis Phalaenopsis X Neofinetia Phalaenopsis X Renanthera Phalaenopsis X Renanthera X Arachnis Phalaenopsis X Renanthera X Vanda Phalaenopsis X Rhynchostylis Phalaenopsis X Vanda Phalaenopsis X Vanda X Aerides Phalaenopsis X Vanda X Arachnis Phalaenopsis X Vanda X Renanthera Phalaenopsis X Vandopsis Phragmipedium X Paphiopedilum Platanthera X Anacamptis Platanthera X Dactylorhiza Platanthera X Gymnadenia Platanthera X Orchis Preptanthe X Calanthidium Preptanthe X Limatodes Renanthera X Aerides Renanthera X Arachnis Renanthera X Arachnis X Armodorum Renanthera X Arachnis X Euanthe X Vanda Renanthera X Arachnis X Paraphalaenopsis Renanthera X Arachnis X Phalaenopsis Renanthera X Arachnis X Vanda Renanthera X Arachnis X Vanda X Euanthe Renanthera X Arachnis X Vandopsis Renanthera X Armodorum X Arachnis Renanthera X Ascocentrum Renanthera X Ascoglossum Renanthera X Euanthe [ 204 ] = Phaiocalanthe = Spathophaius = Aeridopsis = Phalaerianda = Arachnopsis = Sappanara = Trevorara = Doritaenopsis = Phalaenetia = Renanthopsis = Sappanara = Moirara = Rhynchonopsis = Vandaenopsis = Phalaerianda = Trevorara = Moirara = Phalandopsis = Phragmipaphium = Anacamptipla- tanthera = Rhizanthera = Gymplatanthera = Orchiplatanthera = Calanthe = Calanthe = Renades = Aranthera = Renaradorum = Cogniauxara = Paranthera = Sappanara = Holttumara = Cogniauxara = Limara = Renaradorum = Renancentrum = Renanthoglossum = Antheranthe Renanthera X Euanthe X Arachnis X Vanda Renanthera X Euanthe X Vanda Renanthera X Euanthe X Vanda X Arachnis Renanthera X Euanthe X Vanda X Vandopsis Renanthera X Kuanthe * Vandopsis X Vanda Renanthera X Neofinetia Renanthera X Paraphalaenopsis Renanthera X Paraphalaenopsis X Arachnis Renanthera X Paraphalaenopsis X Vanda Renanthera X Phalaenopsis Renanthera X Phalaenopsis X Arachnis Renanthera X Phalaenopsis X Vanda Renanthera X Renantherella Renanthera X Rhynchostylis Renanthera X Saccolabium Renanthera X Sarcochilus Renanthera X Trichoglottis Renanthera X Vanda Renanthera X Vanda X Arachnis Renanthera X Vanda X Arachnis X Euanthe Renanthera X Vanda X Euanthe Renanthera X Vanda X Euanthe X Arachnis Renanthera X Vanda X Euanthe X Vandopsis Renanthera X Vanda X Paraphalaenopsis Renanthera X Vanda X Phalaenopsis Renanthera X Vanda X Vandopsis Renanthera X Vanda X Vandopsis X Euanthe Renanthera X Vandopsis Renanthera X Vandopsis X Arachnis Renanthera X Vandopsis X Euanthe X Vanda Renanthera X Vandopsis X Vanda Renanthera X Vandopsis X Vanda X Euanthe Renantherella X Ascocentrum Renantherella * Renanthera Rhyncholaelia < Brassavola Rhynchostylis X Aerides Rhynchostylis X Ascocentrum = Cogniauxara = Amesara = Cogniauxara = Lindleyara = Lindleyara = Renanetia = Pararenanthera = Paranthera = Paravandanthera = Renanthopsis = Sappanara = Moirara = Ellanthera = Renanstylis = Saccanthera =Sarcothera = Renaglottis = Renantanda = Holttumara = Cogniauxara = Amesara = Cogniauxara = Lindleyara = Paravandanthera = Moirara = Hawaiiara = Lindleyara = Renanopsis = Limara = Lindleyara = Hawaiiara = Lindleyara = Ascorella = Elanthera = Rhynchovola = Aeridostylis = Rhynchocentrum Rhynchostylis X Ascocentrum X Euanthe X Vanda = Carrara Rhynchostylis * Ascocentrum X Vanda [ 205 ] = Vascostylis Rhynchostylis X Ascocentrum X Vanda X Euanthe Rhynchostylis X KEuanthe X Ascocentrum X Vanda Rhynchostylis X Euanthe X Vanda Rhynchostylis X Euanthe X Vanda X Ascocentrum Rhynchostylis X Neofinetia Rhynchostylis X Phalaenopsis Rhynchostylis X Renanthera Rhynchostylis X Vanda Rhynchostylis X Vanda X Ascocentrum Rhynchostylis X Vanda X Ascocentrum X Euanthe Rhynchostylis X Vanda X Euanthe Rhynchostylis X Vanda X Euanthe X Ascocentrum Rodriguezia X Brassia Rodriguezia X Comparettia Rodriguezia X Comparettia X Oncidium Rodriguezia < Macradenia Rodriguezia X Miltonia Rodriguezia X Oncidium Rodriguezia * Oncidium X Comparettia Saccolabium X Aerides Saccolabium X Renanthera Saccolabium X Vanda Sarcochilus X Renanthera Schomburgkia X Bletia Schomburgkia X Brassavola Schomburgkia X Brassavola X Cattleya Schomburgkia X Brassavola X Cattleya X Laelia Schomburgkia X Brassavola X Laelia X Cattleya Schomburgkia X Broughtonia Schomburgkia X Broughtonia X Diacrium Schomburgkia X Cattleya Schomburgkia X Cattleya X Brassavola Schomburgkia X Cattleya X Brassavola X Laelia Schomburgkia X Cattleya X Laelia Schomburgkia X Cattleya X Laelia X Brassavola Schomburgkia X Diacrium [ 206 ] = Carrara = Carrara = Rhynchovan- danthe = Carrara = Neostylis = Rhynchonopsis = Renanstylis = Vandachostylis = Vascostylis = Carrara = Rhynchovan- danthe = Carrara = Bradriguezia = Rodrettia = Warneara = Rodridenia = Miltonguezia = Rodricidium = Warneara = Aeridolabium = Saccanthera = Sanda = Sarcothera =Schombletia = Schombobrassa- vola = Dekensara = Recchara = Recchara = Schombotonia = Shipmanara =Schombocattleya = Dekensara = Recchara = Schombolaelio- cattleya = Recchara = Diaschomburgkia Schomburgkia X Diacrium X Broughtonia Schomburgkia X Epidendrum Schomburgkia X Laelia Schomburgkia X Laelia X Brassavola X Cattleya Schomburgkia X Laelia X Cattleya Schomburgkia X Laelia X Cattleya X Brassavola Selenipedium X Cypripedium Serapias X Anacamptis Serapias X Orchis Sobralia X Cattleya Sophronitella X Epidendrum Sophronitis X Brassavola Sophronitis X Brassavola X Cattleya Sophronitis X Brassavola X Cattleya X Laelia Sophronitis X Brassavola X Laelia Sophronitis X Brassavola X Laelia X Cattleya Sophronitis X Broughtonia Sophronitis X Broughtonia X Laelia Sophronitis X Cattleya Sophronitis X Cattleya X Brassavola Sophronitis X Cattleya X Brassavola X Laelia Sophronitis X Cattleya X Epidendrum X Laelia Sophronitis X Cattleya X Laelia Sophronitis X Cattleya X Laelia X Brassavola Sophronitis X Cattleya X Laelia X Epidendrum Sophronitis X Epidendrum Sophronitis X Epidendrum X Cattleya X Laelia Sophronitis X Epidendrum X Laelia X Cattleya Sophronitis X Laelia Sophronitis X Laelia X Brassavola Sophronitis X Laelia X Brassavola X Cattleya Sophronitis X Laelia X Broughtonia Sophronitis X Laelia X Cattleya Sophronitis X Laelia X Cattleya X Brassavola Sophronitis X Laelia X Cattleya X Epidendrum [ 207 ] =Shipmanara = Schomboepiden- drum = Schombolaelia = Recchara = Schombolaelio- cattleya = Recchara =Cysepedium = Serapicamptis = Orchiserapias =Sobraleya = Epiphronitella = Sophrovola = Rolfeara = Potinara = Lowara = Potinara = Sophro- broughtonia = Hartara = Sophrocattleya = Rolfeara = Potinara = Kirchara = Sophrolaelio- cattleya = Potinara = Kirchara = Epiphronitis = Kirchara = Kirchara = Sophrolaelia = Lowara = Potinara = Hartara = Sophrolaelio- cattleya = Potinara = Kirchara Sophronitis X Laelia X Epidendrum X Cattleya = Kirchara Spathoglottis X Phaius = Spathophaius Symphyglossum X Cochlioda X Odontoglossum =Symphodontioda Symphyglossum X Miltonia =Symphyglossonia Symphyglossum X Miltonia X Odontoglossum = Symphodontonia Symphyglossum X Odontoglossum = Symphodonto- glossum Symphyglossum X Odontoglossum X Cochlioda = Symphodontioda Symphyglossum X Odontoglossum X Miltonia =Symphodontonia Tetramicra X Broughtonia = Tetratonia Tetramicra X Laelia = Tetralaelia Tetramicra X Laeliopsis = Tetraliopsis Trichocentrum X Oncidium = Trichocidium Trichoglottis X Arachnis = Trichachnis Trichoglottis X Arachnis X Vanda = Ridleyara Trichoglottis X Euanthe = Antheglottis Trichoglottis X Kuanthe X Vanda = Kraenzlinara Trichoglottis X Renanthera = Renaglottis Trichoglottis X Vanda = Trichovanda Trichoglottis X Vanda X Arachnis = Ridleyara Trichoglottis X Vanda X Euanthe = Kraenzlinara Trichopilia X Aspasia = Trichopasia Trichopilia X Miltonia = Miltonpilia Vanda X Acampe = Vancampe Vanda X Aerides = Aeridovanda Vanda X Aerides X Euanthe = Vandantherides Vanda X Aerides X Phalaenopsis = Phalaerianda Vanda X Angraecum = Vandaecum Vanda X Arachnis = Aranda Vanda X Arachnis X Euanthe = Arandanthe Vanda X Arachnis X Euanthe X Renanthera = Cogniauxara Vanda X Arachnis X Paraphalaenopsis = Parandachnis Vanda X Arachnis X Phalaenopsis = Trevorara Vanda X Arachnis X Renanthera = Holttumara Vanda X Arachnis X Renanthera X Euanthe = Cogniauxara Vanda X Arachnis X Trichoglottis = Ridleyara Vanda X Ascocentrum = Ascocenda Vanda X Ascocentrum X Euanthe = Schlechterara [ 208 | Vanda X Ascocentrum X Euanthe X Rhynchostylis =Carrara Vanda X Ascocentrum X Neofinetia = Nakamotoara Vanda X Ascocentrum X Rhynchostylis = Vascostylis Vanda X Ascocentrum X Rhynchostylis X Kuanthe =Carrara Vanda X Doritis = Vandoritis Vanda X Esmeralda = Esmeranda Vanda X Euanthe = Vandanthe Vanda X Euanthe X Aerides = Vandantherides Vanda X Euanthe X Arachnis = Arandanthe Vanda X Euanthe X Arachnis X Renanthera = Cogniauxara Vanda X Euanthe X Ascocentrum =Schlechterara Vanda X Euanthe X Ascocentrum X Rhynchostylis =Carrara Vanda X Euanthe X Paraphalaenopsis = Parandanthe Vanda X Euanthe X Renanthera = Amesara Vanda X Euanthe X Renanthera X Arachnis = Cogniauxara Vanda X Euanthe X Renanthera X Vandopsis = Lindleyara Vanda X Euanthe X Rhynchostylis = Rhynchovan- danthe Vanda X Euanthe X Rhynchostylis X Ascocentrum = Carrara Vanda X Euanthe X Trichoglottis = Kraenzlinara Vanda X Evanthe X Vandopsis = Reichenbachara Vanda X Euanthe X Vandopsis X Renanthera = Lindleyara Vanda X Luisia = Luisanda Vanda X Neofinetia = Vandofinetia Vanda X Neofinetia X Ascocentrum = Nakamotoara Vanda X Papilionanthe = Papilionanda Vanda X Paraphalaenopsis = Paravanda Vanda X Paraphalaenopsis X Arachnis = Parandachnis Vanda X Paraphalaenopsis X Euanthe = Parandanthe Vanda X Paraphalaenopsis X Renanthera = Paravandanthera Vanda X Phalaenopsis = Vandaenopsis Vanda X Phalaenopsis X Aerides = Phalaerianda Vanda X Phalaenopsis X Arachnis = Trevorara Vanda X Phalaenopsis X Renanthera = Moirara Vanda X Renanthera = Renantanda Vanda X Renanthera X Arachnis = Holttumara Vanda X Renanthera X Arachnis X Euanthe = Cogniauxara Vanda X Renanthera X Euanthe = Amesara Vanda X Renanthera X Euanthe X Arachnis = Cogniauxara Vanda X Renanthera X Euanthe X Vandopsis = Lindleyara Vanda X Renanthera X Paraphalaenopsis = Paravandanthera [ 209 ] Vanda X Renanthera X Phalaenopsis Vanda X Renanthera X Vandopsis Vanda X Renanthera X Vandopsis X Euanthe Vanda X Rhynchosty lis Vanda X Rhynchostylis X Ascocentrum Vanda X Rhynchostylis X Ascocentrum X Euanthe Vanda X Rhynchostylis X Euanthe Vanda X Rhynchostylis X Kuanthe X Ascocentrum Vanda X Saccolabium Vanda X Trichoglottis Vanda X Trichoglottis X Arachnis Vanda X Trichoglottis X Kuanthe Vanda X Vandopsis Vanda X Vandopsis X Euanthe Vanda X Vandopsis X Euanthe X Renanthera Vanda X Vandopsis X Renanthera Vanda X Vandopsis X Renanthera X Euanthe Vandopsis X Aerides Vandopsis X Arachnis Vandopsis X Arachnis X Renanthera Vandopsis X Kuanthe X Renanthera X Vanda Vandopsis X Euanthe X Vanda Vandopsis X Euanthe X Vanda X Renanthera Vandopsis X Phalaenopsis Vandopsis X Renanthera Vandopsis X Renanthera X Arachnis Vandopsis X Renanthera X Euanthe X Vanda Vandopsis X Renanthera X Vanda Vandopsis X Renanthera X Vanda X Euanthe Vandopsis X Vanda Vandopsis X Vanda X Euanthe Vandopsis X Vanda X Euanthe X Renanthera Vandopsis X Vanda X Renanthera Vandopsis X Vanda X Renanthera X Euanthe Zy gopetalum X Aganisia Zy gopetalum X Batemannia Zy gopetalum XChondrorhyncha Zy gopetalum X Colax Zy gopetalum X Epidendrum { 210 | = Moirara = Hawaiiara = Lindleyara = Vandachostylis = Vascostylis = Carrara = Rhynchovan- danthe = Carrara =Sanda = Trichovanda = Ridleyara = Kraenzlinara = Opsisanda = Reichenbachara = Lindleyara = Hawaiiara = Lindleyara = Vandopsides = Vandachnis = Limara = Lindleyara = Reichenbachara = Lindleyara = Vandaenopsis = Renanopsis = Limara = Lindleyara = Hawaiiara = Lindleyara = Opsisanda = Reichenbachara = Lindleyara = Hawaiiara = Lindleyara = Zy gonisia =Zy gobatemania = Zygorhyncha = Zy gocolax = 7Zy godendrum Zy gopetalum X Lycaste Zy gopetalum X Menadenium Zy gopetalum X Mendoncella Zy gopetalum X Odontoglossum Zy gopetalum X Oncidium Zy gopetalum X Otostylis 2it = Zy gocaste =Zygomena =Zygocella = Odopetalum = Zy gocidium = Zygostylis SELECTED LITERATURE Bohnhof, E., 1895. Dictionnaire des Orchidées Hybrides. Octave Doin, Paris. Cogniaux, A., 1911. Rapports préliminaires du Congrés International d’ Horticulture de Bruxelles, 1910. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg. 47: 363- 424, Colman, Sir Jeremiah, 1933. Hybridization of Orchids. Private edition. Fujio, R.T., 1955. Vanda Sanderiana and its hybrids. Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 24: 647-657. Hansen, G., 1895-1897. The Orchid Hybrids (with two Supple- ments). Dulau & Co., London. Hurst, C.C., 1897. Notes on some curiousities of orchid breeding. Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc. 21: 442-486. Mansfeld, R., 1936. Die Benennung der Orchideenhybriden. Gar- tenflora 85: 252-254. Rolfe, R.A. & C.C Hurst., 1909. The Orchid Stud-Book. Frank Leslie & Co., Kew. Sander, D., 1915. Orchid Hybrids (and all subsequent editions). Sander & Sons, St. Albans, England. _ BOTANICAL MUSEUM LEAFLETS NOMIC g a HARVARD UNIVERSITY Campriner, Massacuuserts, | Sepremner § 2, 1966. Vou. 21, No. a BOSTON POLLEN SURVEY — 1965 PRELIMINARY REPORT BY Arturo Corso' anp MaNnueEt Lopez’ Tuis isa preliminary report of the Pollen Survey carried out in the Greater Boston area during the pollen season of 1965. The survey was conducted by the authors, with the cooperation of the Allergy Unit at the Massachusetts General Hospital and the Botanical Museum of Harvard University. Support for this research was received from the Milton Fund of Harvard University and United States Public Health Service Grant No. A I-—026-8807. Methods Nine stations were established in locations forming a semi-circle around Boston. No. 1 in Arlington: Mrs. Marsh Williams; No. 2 in Melrose: Dr. Richard Evans Schultes; No. 3 in Newton: Dr. William Franklin; No. 4 in Boxford: Dr. J. W. Fowler; No. 5 in Brook- line: Dr. Arturo Corso; No. 6 in Westwood: Mrs. Edith Bloom; No. 7 in Brockton; Mrs. Donna Dick- son; No. 8 in Cambridge: Dr. Manuel Lopez; No. 9 1 Arturo Corso, M.D. and ? Manuel Lopez, M.D. (Guggenheim Fellow 1964-1966), Botanical Museum of Harvard University; De- partment of Medicine, Harvard Medical School; and Allergy Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital. [ 213 ] in Lincoln: Dr. F. C. Lowell. This was first located on Blue Hill (Milton), but because of technical problems, it was moved to Lincoln on May 5. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of those who manned the various stations and Mr. Morgan’s willingness to allow us to place a gravitational and an automatic rotoslide sampler on the premises of Drumlin Farm in Lincoln. We are also indebted to Dr. John Noxon and the staff of the Blue Hill Observatory for their helpful assistance. Conventional gravitational samplers approved by the Pollen Committee of the American Academy of Allergy were used in all the stations. These consist of two paral- lel planes 9 inches in diameter, 3 inches apart and held with three struts. One inch above the center of the lower plane there is a slide holder into which the slide fits firmly. he supporting rod of the apparatus, 80 inches long, rises from a tripod base (1). We used wood instead of steel in the construction of the samplers. Regular microscope slides impregnated with silicon grease were employed. With occasional exceptions, slides were changed daily between 7 and 9 a.m. In two stations, Cambridge and Lincoln, we used the Intermittent Rotoslide sampler’ developed by Dr. Kugene Ogden. ‘“This sampler is designed to take pol- len sampler representative of the average pollen concen- tration over a 24-hour period by automatically operating periodically for short periods of time. Pollen is collected on the edges of two microscope slides inserted in metal holders which are rotated by a small electric motor. The leading edge of each slide protrudes from its holder and is oriented so its face is always at right angles to the direction of motion. The timing mechanism is designed to take a one minute sample in every twelve minutes, giving a total sampling time of two hours in every 24. *'Two samplers were kindly supplied by Dr. Ogden. [ 214 ] Puate XIX Boxford 40 Melrose Lincoln ; 2 9¢@ Arlington |@ Cambridge BOSTON Newton esis 3@ Brookline) @5 Westwood Ne 6 9 Brockton 7 ® --- ---------- 1 RR * | a 4 L | ) \ (e) 10 20 scale of miles Map showing location of the nine stations in the Boston area. [ 215 ] A cylindrical shield prevents impaction of pollen on the sample surface while the slides are not rotating. When the slides are in motion the shield is pulled down so they are exposed to normal air flow. When rotation ceases, the shield is pulled up to shelter them from the wind’’(2). The slides from the gravitational samplers were stained and mounted with methy! green in jelly. Such slides can be stored for a long time without deterioration. The roto- sampler slides were placed in special holders and stained with methyl green. There is no satisfactory method for preserving the rotosampler slides after reading, a dis- advantage when there are difficulties in identification. Identification was carried out in the Paleobotanical Laboratory of the Botanical Museum, Harvard Univer- sity, directed by Professor Elso S. Barghoorn. We had previously obtained experience in pollen identification from two year’s study of the flora of the Sabana de Bogota in Colombia, South America. During a four-month period before initiating the survey, we became familiar with the flora of Boston by studying the pollen collections of the laboratory and our own collection prepared from herbar- ium specimens. During the season, we had the coopera- tion of Mr. Richard Eaton, Phanerogamic Curator of the New England Botanical Club Herbarium, who gave us helpful information as well as specimens of the dif- ferent native plants in flower. Zeitz microscopes were used with the 10X objective. On occasion, it was necessary to use 40% or oil immer- sion. Each of us took four stations, and the remaining one was rotated every two months. One square cm. of each slide was studied, and the pollen grains were iden- tified and counted. When a particular grain was difficult to identify, the place was marked with a microlocater for further study. About 95% of the pollen grains were identified. [ 216 ] Results In this report, we present the principal pollen seasons as revealed by the gravitational sampler for the nine sta- tions. The results of the rotoslide and comparison of the two methods will be the subject of another report. Identification of pollen derived from different species within a genus was not attempted. In the case of Betula- type, pollen grains so identified may have included other members of the Betulaceae and the closely similar pollen from Myrica. Likewise, discrimination of pollen from the different genera of the Gramineae was not attempted. The seasonal patterns accorded with expectations. At the beginning of the tree season in April, Ulmus is the more important with an average of 118 grains per square em. during the peak of the season. Other early trees are Juniperus and Populus, with Acer following later in April. May is dominated by Betu/a-type, with an aver- age of 180 grains per square cm. during the peak, and Quercus inthe second part of May, with an average peak of 209 grains. Carya and Pinus appear laterin May. The Gramineae season starts at the end of May and continues to the end of July. Asis shown in the table and figures, the trees produced greater concentrations of pollen than do the grasses and Ambrosia, which pollinates from the middle of August to the end of September. It was interesting to observe the wide variations in the daily pollen counts from station to station. There are many local factors (such as location of the sampler, local flora and wind direction) which presumably account for these variations. For this reason, reports of daily pollen counts based on one station equipped with a gravitational sampler only are of little value from a quantitative stand- point. As indicated below, however, the average of several stations scattered over a wide area can give a [ 217 | useful indication of the intensity of the different pollen seasons. The results of the pollen counts during the 4 mbrosia season by both methods, gravitation and rotoslide, were compared for station No. 9. There was aclear difference in the daily counts. he rotoslide appeared to be more efficient, especially when the pollen concentration was low. When the results of the rotoslide were compared with the average of all nine stations, the daily variations were similar, and there was little difference in the counts obtained by the two methods. Further studies with the other pollen seasons are necessary; but, in any case, these results seem to confirm the general impression that a single station equipped with the gravitational method cannot give reliable quantitative information. TABLE I POLLEN SEASONS * Onset Main part of the Peak(@rains/em.2) End season ACER April 21 April 24-29 April 25; (33) ** May 6 ALNUS April 27 April 29-May 1 April 30; (6) May 5 BETULA May 1 May 8-11 May 9; (180) May 25 CARYA May 22 May 25-30 May 26; (15) June 10 GRAMINEAE May 24 June 4-July 10 June 9; (24) July 30 JUNIPERUS April 12 April 21-30 April 22; (54) May 4 PINUS May 20 June 5-13 June 8; (133) July 3 POPULUS April 14 April 28—May 4 April 30; (17) May 6 QUERCUS April 30 May 11-30 May 15; (209) May 30 AMBROSIA August 15 August 25-Sept. 4 August 28; (16) Sept. 25 SALIX May 2 May 2-8 May 8; (22) May 20 ULMUS April 14 April 15-25 April 22; (118) May 6 *Average for all nine stations. **Numbers in parenthesis indicate pollen count at peak of season. Legend: Onset of season defined as the earliest date on which the average pollen count attained was 2 grains/cm2. End of season defined as the last date on which the average pollen count was 2 grains/cm2. [ 218 ] REFERENCES Durham: Volumetric Incidence of Atmospheric Allergens. Jour- nal of Allergy, pp. 80-81, March 1946. Ogden et al: Construction and Use of the Intermittent Rotoslide Pollen Sampler. Separate distributed by the Pollen and Mold Commitee, American Academy of Allergy, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. [ 219 ] PLate XX T@ (700) ® ULMUS 4004 3004 e cy e 200, °® Q ) r) ry 100 4 | e 50-4 \ / @ | | ° ° \ @® 10-4 r e* e 54 e | a @ fo e e e e ® @ ee e 0 +ee——-@———_00——_0se0098— =e r as SI = ea a 15 20 25 30 5 APRIL MAY 1965 Note that scale is expanded in the lower range. The line indicates the average pollen count for all stations on each day. The points lying above the line indicate the highest observed count on that day and those below the line, the lowest. PuatreE XXI @ JUNIPERUS 2007 telex e 504 e © 6 ‘ ® io 4 @®@ @ e ® e e e| @ ® 5 -_ © @ ® ® 9 6 ® @ O \ T 1-7 rT ple ee eee ed 15 20 25 30 4 APRIL 1965 See legend, Plate XX [ 222 ] PLATE XXII 4005 t BETULA 3004 200 4 ® r ‘ \ e 004 1\ \ | | | @o | ‘ ae ; | ; | ad | A @® @ i | e / | & \e e e 104 a | NY ® ae ae | | | | ee | 8 |] © @ | | i | me ' ; | | \ } \ | \ \ ee @ ee © +ee——_#e—_—____—_®_0060—_9-6— catpesisisicpinloieigsipniiccenAlirptes re et pate ! 5 10 15 20 25 MAY 1965 See legend, Plate XX [ 228 J PuateE XXIII 500 eo QUERCUS e 400+ - 3004 e 2004 100 + PLatE XXIV 2007 Pad PINUS 100 - 50 7 10 4 | e | ee ; | 57 * ee \@ 0 4 @—_—_-—_#@—_©@- 1965 See legend, Plate XX XXV x 4 PLATE S96! o£ a eS ae eee ee ee ee ee ee eee G2 02 S S of sz a Soe eo a oe or oe anne oz S| aa oo oe oe XX °38[q ‘pusse] 996 AV ol S o¢€ G2 ees eee ee ee et roo os oe real ae SV ANIWVYS r OO! Looz PiatrE XXXVI 100 j AMBROSIA cat e = 0: See legend, Plate XX BOTANICAL MUSEUM LEAFLETS HARVARD UNIVERSITY CamsripGe, Massacnuserrs, Decemper 30, 1966 VoL. 21, No. 8 NOTES ON THE SPECIES OF TREE DATURAS BY Menvin L. Brisro.* THE great variability of the arborescent Daturas, Da- tura sect. Brugmansia Pers., has led to the proposal of about two dozen specific names. In 1895, Lagerheim (9) ably monographed seven Ecuadorean Brugmansias, four of which he proposed as new. Safford’s synopsis of the genus in 1921 (11) treated 14 arborescent species, includ- ing three new concepts and two new names for older ones. Danert’s recent discussion (5) of sectional charac- ters in Datura and the possible conspecificity of several arborescent species includes a key to six cultivated tree Daturas, DeWolf (6) has followed Safford in reviewing five species among the North American cultivated tree Daturas, The newest concept, established in 1959, is D. vulcanicola A. S. Barclay (2). It is the aim of the present notes to suggest that ex- cessive attention has been devoted to characters of infra- specific variability in the recognition of the 15 species cur- rently accepted in Datura sect. Brugmansia. A key to the principal species is given, together with the more im- portant synonyms of each. For a complete list of specific * Research Fellow, Botanical Museum of Harvard University, 1965. Present address: H.L. Lyon Arboretum and Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii. [229 ] names published before 1921, but not treated by Safford at that time, see Sachet (10) and Fosberg (7). Collections of several species are very limited or absent in a number of our larger herbaria (A, COL, GH, NY, US). Of the numerous collections of conspicuous and highly attractive tree Daturas in these herbaria, nearly all are referable to three taxa: D. candida (Pers.) Saff., D. suaveolens H. & B. ex Willd. and D. sanguinea R. & P. DeWolf (6) and the herbarium determinations of A. S. Barclay in 1959 are in agreement here. Each of the re- maining collections most frequently displays a unique combination of characters, and several such collections have been selected for the typification of new species. In 1955, Schultes (12) described as Methysticodendron A mesianum what I believe to be a greatly modified tree Datura from the Valley of Sibundoy in southern Colom- bia. It is interesting to note that, in 1891, Wettstein’s summary (15) of the Solanaceae for Engler and Prantl’s Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien cited only three arbo- rescent Daturas, although several more had been de- scribed by that time. He cited D. sanguinea, D. suaveo- lens and D. arborea, the last very probably referring to plants identified here as D. candida, and thus he antici- pated by more than half a century the growing realization (3, 5, 6) that the principal species of tree Daturas are few in number. The very extensive work of Blakeslee and his associates (1) with the herbaceous Daturas demonstrated a great range of variability and the spontaneous appearance of many unusual characteristics. Of the 541 gene mutations encountered, 72 appeared following heating, wounding and ageing, or spontaneously in nature. Recessive genes controlling leaf shape, flower size, shape and color, and fruit form are among those uncovered. It is entirely [ 280 ] possible that many of these single recessive genes affect- ing taxonomically significant characters are present also in the tree Daturas. In Colombia, I have observed un- usual tree Daturas which resemble the striking effects produced in herbaceous species by the single recessive genes ‘‘equisetum’’, ‘‘tricarpel’’ and ‘‘quercina’’ (Bris- tol 1112, 1162, 566; GH). Many writers have noticed the frequency with which the tree Daturas are associated with human habitations, but the extent of this association and its implications have not been fully understood. I have seen no indica- tion in herbaria nor during 18 months of field work in southern Colombia and northern Ecuador that any tree Datura was not associated with human activity; and Schultes (pers. comm.), in his many years of familiarity with northwestern South America, has never seen a tree Datura that he could say was truly wild. The northern Andes, however, is the centre of variability and probable area of origin of this group. In the same region, there is a conspicuous absence of seedling tree Daturas, although Schultes once observed abundant seedlings of D. vul- canicola. 'The reason for the usual failure of seeds to re- generate colonies is obscure, but it may relate to the normal indehiscence of fruits; if given normal care in a greenhouse, seeds of D. candida and D. sanguinea pro- duce healthy seedlings. Throughout the northern Andes, it is customary for man to propagate tree Daturas by large cuttings. As no other mode of reproduction appears to be operative, and since they are nowhere encountered as an element of natural vegetation, it appears that the tree Daturas have achieved their present, highly orna- mental form under domestication and thus should be considered as cultigens. If we reflect upon this occurrence of highly attractive, medicinally and narcotically useful plants possessing [ 281 ] great variability in a practically exclusive association with man, it seems entirely likely that much of the ob- servable variation in the group has resulted from man’s preferential maintenance of conspicuously different forms. The size of the flowers, among the largest of all flowering plants, facilitates, both for the native and for the botanist, the detection of differences that often go unnoticed in flowers of smaller size. Because of the paucity of seedlings, implying ineffective sexual repro- duction, we cannot yet confidently infer whether the numerous cultivars have arisen primarily through hy- bridization and gene recombination or through the ap- pearance of mutations as bud sports or chimeras. In any case, most of our attempts to delimit species amidst these circumstances have been unwarranted. The characters used by Safford (11) to distinguish species are not always unique to the entities that he at- tempts to separate. For example, in studying a large population of D. candida in the Valley of Sibundoy in Andean southern Colombia, I noted the presence of both spathe-like and several-pointed calyces (as in D. sawveo- lens), of rounded, as well as emarginate, corolla margins (asin D. arborea and D. cornigera) and of corollas vary- ing from under 20 to over 82 cms. in length. Seeds of four of the five species illustrated by Lagerheim (9), though apparently distinctive, can be seen in a single fruit of D. candida. It is hoped that controlled hybridization experiments and more intensive observation of natural populations will eventually contribute to a better understanding of the great variability in the tree Daturas. A AA. Key to principal species of Datura sect. Brugmansia Pers. (cf. Plate XX VII). . Leaves angular to repand, apex acute to obtuse; flowers mostly red (rarely yellow), 17-25 cm., their corolla teeth not exceed- ing 2cm.; anthers 1.2-1.8 em.; fruit ovoid to oblong-elliptic ; seeds rounded, verruculose. . .... .. . . WD. sanguinea Leaves entire (rarely coarsely dentate), apex acute to acuminate ; flowers white (rarely yellow or slightly reddish), 17-45 em., their corolla teeth much exceeding 2 cm.; anthers 2.5-4 cm.; fruit elongate; seeds angular or irregularly ridged. B. Calyx 1.5-3 cm. broad, usually 1-3-toothed; flowers rarely exceeding 30 cm., the slender basal part of the corolla tube not visible or reaching only the calyx tip; corolla teeth 4-9 em.; anthers distinct; fruit oblong-cylindrie to fusiform; seeds with a greatly thickened suberose testa. . . D. candida BB. Calyx 2-4 cm. broad, usually 3—5-toothed; flowers often ex- ceeding 30 cm., the slender basal part of the corolla tube con- spicuously exceeding the calyx, corolla teeth 2—5 cm. ; anthers connivent; fruit fusiform (rare); seeds lacking a thick sub- erose testa. . .......... . . . . D. suaveolens 1. Datura sanguinea Puiz & Pavon FI. Peruv. 2: 15. 1799. Brugmansia bicolor Persoon Syn. Pl. 1: 216. 1805; Lindley Bot. Reg. 20: pl. 1789. 1834. B. sanguinea D. Don in Sweet Brit. Fl. Gard. II. 3: pl. 272. 18385; Lagerheim Bot. Jahrb. Engl. 20: 662. 1895. Small trees, 2-5 meters in height; leaves soft-pubes- cent, the lower repand to angular, the upper usually entire; flowers 17-25 cm. long, the corolla with a short- toothed, recurved to strongly reflexed (rarely erect) limb, the tube typically green within the calyx, yellow at the middle, and red or orange-red (rarely yellow-orange or bronze) toward the limb, the ribs yellow; anthers 1.2-1.8 em., beneath an obtuse stigma; fruit ovoid (rarely [ 238 J oblong-elliptic), calyx persistent or caducous, the base rounded to acute (rarely acuminate) and mucronate, in cross-section usually bilaterally flattened, or 4—5-sided to nearly round with 2 or 4 longitudinal sulci; seeds verru- culose and lacking a greatly thickened testa. n=12 (Bristol 1114; GH). These are acommon sight about towns and habitations in many areas of highland Colombia and Ecuador, but they are not seen at middle and lower elevations. SPECIMENS EXAMINED: Unitep Srares: Walther 542. Cotrompia: Bristol 419, 653, 710, 1114, 1345, 1354, 1419, 1420, 1446; Chindoy 198; Cuatrecasas 13644; Fosberg 20562; Foster & Foster 1945; Garcia-B. 7847; Holton 548; Idrobo 2223, 2289; Overton O-56-106; Schultes 6591A, TO78, 7108; Schultes § Villarreal 7522g, 7588, 7556, T7689, 7T893A, 8031, 8040, S041; Soejarto 204. Ecuavor: Bristol 1874, 1375, 1877, 1878, 1379, 1380, 1383; Hitchcock 20939; Rimbach 1,7, 63; Rose § Rose 22344. Peru: Hartweg 815; Kanehira 224; Metcalf 30493; West 38692. Bo- Livia: Bang 1942; Brooke 6177. There are several color-forms (9), of which one has already received formal recognition. A. Exposed part of corolla entirely yellow... . . . . ‘Flava’ AA. Exposed part of corolla entirely red, or green at the middle and red toward the limb . ....... =... ... . ‘Sangre’ la. cv. Flava. Datura sanguinea 8 flava Dunal in DC. Prod. 13: 545. 1852. D. Rosei Safford Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 11: 188. 1921. D. sanguinea ‘Flava’, with brilliant yellow flowers, is cultivated in the highlands of central Ecuador and south- ern Colombia. Safford’s species differs from D.sanguinea only in its angular, densely tomentose upper leaves and in its orange or saffron-yellow corolla, the color placing o D. candida 0 5 10 c I 3 Ci, D. suaveolens Darura sancuinea: Bristol 1373 (GH), Ecuador, Carchi, alt. 2900 m. D.canpipa: Bristol 1255 (GH) flower and leaf, Bristol 1098 (GH) fruit; Colombia, Putumayo, alt. 2200 m. D. suaveotens: Heller 4486 (GH) flower and leaf, Puerto Rico, near sea level ; fruit fide Safford (11), Brazil, Minas Gerais. X aALVIg i‘ ITA it with ev. Flava. The calyx of D. Rose: does not ter- minate in a single horn-like point as once emphasized (6). SPECIMENS EXAMINED: CotomsiaA: Bristol 1800. Ecuapor: Rose, Pachano & Rose 22965 (Type D. Rosei; US). lb. ev. Sangre, n. cv. D. sanguinea ‘Sangre’, with a deep red corolla entirely devoid of yellow, is cultivated at several places in the highlands of southern Colombia and northern Ecuador. SPECIMENS EXAMINED: Cotomsia: Bristol 652, 1307, 1209. Ecuavor: Bristol 1372, 1378, 1381, 1382, 17965. 2. Datura candida (Pers.) Safford Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 11: 182. 1921. Brugmansia candida Persoon Syn. Pl. 1: 216. 1805. Datura arborea Ruiz & Pavoén FI. Peruv. 2: 15. pl. 128. 1799; non D. arborea 1. D. aurea Lagerheim Gartenfl. 42: 33. 1893; Safford ibid. 186. 1921. B. aurea Lagerheim Bot. Jahrb. Engl. 20: 664. 1895. B. arborea Lagerheim ibid. 663. 1895. D. affinis Safford zbid. 186. 1921. D. Pittieri Safford ibid. 187. 1921. ‘This variable species is the most common of the white flowered tree Daturas in Andean South America. A small tree, 8-5 meters in height; leaves glabrous or minutely pubescent, ovate or oblong-elliptic, entire or coarsely dentate; calyx 1.5-8 em. broad, 1—4-toothed ; the slender basal part of the white corolla wholly en- closed by the calyx, the limb flaring broadly with long (4-9 cm.) recurved teeth; anthers distinct; fruit oblong- cylindric to fusiform and lacking a persistent calyx ; seeds [ 236 ] NVITI xX PLATE SALTS YY Ag ydousojoygd ‘eiquioyjod ‘eanbediz 1e3aN ‘( ‘Ysloat a] VdAND ‘d) “pe S he) ( ‘SII ) Dpipuvoa DANIDCT angular, with a greatly thickened, suberose testa. n=12 (Bristol 1193, 1255; GH). Both the calyx and corolla are variable in length, but the corolla rarely measures less than 20 cm. or more than 30 cm. long. Fruiting is very infrequent, and this sup- ports the contentions of Joshi (8) and Barclay (3) that the tree Daturas, the populations of which often consist of asingle clone, are self incompatible. Despite the illus- tration by Ruiz and Pavoén (reproduced by DeWolf, 6) upon which Persoon based his description, a persistent calyx is rarely seen either in the field or in the herbarium. D. candida has been spread through much of Latin America and elsewhere from the northern Andes, where it thrives in the warm days and cool nights between 1500 and 2500 meters elevation, D. affinis Saff. is based on the description of Brug- mansia arborea (1..) Lagerh. of which D. arborea L. is the basionym. Lagerheim noted its good agreement with Pavon’s specimens labelled **D. arborea Fl. Per.”’ (Ruiz and Pavén’s D. arborea L.), e.g... D. candida (Pers. ) Saff. In proposing 2. affinis, Safford relied upon the glabrous peduncle and the 2—5-toothed calyx to separate the concept from 2. candida. The white corolla is short, as in J. aurea, and Safford observed that D. affinis is ‘very closely allied”’ to this species. DD. aurea Lagerh. differs from 2. candida only in its longer calyx and shorter corolla which remains yellow after emerging. As with D. affinis, the fruit and seeds are those of D. candida. D. Pittier’ Saff. is easily referable to D. candida in spite of the short corolla and anthers which chiefly dis- tinguish it. SPECIMENS EXAMINED: Mexico: Bottert 1090; Greenman 131; Muller 265; Pringle 6321, 13126; Rose 3243; Seaton 94; Seler 56; Schultes & Reko 455, Guarr- [ 238 ] 7 — ss Wise — ty 52% ¥ % se at : Teks 4, 2 habit, approximately «3. 8, fruit, approximately 4. 4, lateral view of flower, 2. 5, longitudinal section of bulbous basal portion of perianth, showing genitalia, “3. 6, seeds, 14. Drawn by Ermer W. Situ 1.5 cm. longo, minutissime pulverulente), nervis laterali- bus quattuor vel quinque supra glaberrima, vivo mitida et atroviridia, siccitate stramineo-viridia, nervis non con- spicue elevatis, subtus pallide viridia, nervis omnibus prominenter elevatis, statu Juvenile minutissime fusco- tomentulosa, sine petiolo usque ad 12 cm. longa, 4.5 cm. lata. Flores in racemis laxis, multifloribus et axillaribus, plus minusve 4 cm. longis, pedunculo minutissime pul- verulente, gracile. Perianthii pars basalis ovoidea- dilatata, plus minusve 10 mm. longa, 6 mm. in diametro, intus glabra, extus pilis longis appressis subdense obtecta: tubus asymmetricus obconicus, usque ad 10 mm. longus, basi 4 mm. sed apice plus minusve 12 mm. diametriens, intus glabrus, extus subdense pilosus, in faucis ore con- spicue inciso; limbus oblongo-lanceolatus vel ovalis, apice truncatus sed mucronatus vel prominenter apicu- latus, 20 mm. longus, usque ad 12 mm. latus, intus glabrus, extus pilosus. Columna genitalis plus minusve 3mm. longa, breviter stipitata, per 0.5 mm. sex divisa, lobis pseudostylinis triangularibus, acutis. Stamina sex columnae adnata, antheris linearibus, quattuor 0.8 mm. longis, cetera 1.2 mm. longis, longitudinaliter dehiscen- tibus. Capsula ellipsoido-ovoidea, costis conspicuis, basi longe attenuata, apice breviter mucronata, plusminusve 9 em. longa, 4 em. in diametro; semina obovoideo- orbicularia, apice truncata, parte centrale valde cordi- forme, 0.8 mm. longa, 1.8 mm. lata. Cotompia: Comisaria del Vaupés, Rio Kuduyari (tributary of Rio Vaupés). Alt. about 700-800 ft. ‘‘Vine. Fruit pendent, green. Flowers brownish purple, striped with yellow-green.”’ October 16, 1952, Richard Evans Schultes & Isidoro Cabrera 17856 (Vyrr in Herb. Gray ). Aristolochia medicinalis, which falls into Hoehne’s sec- tion MMestipulatae, seems to correspond vegetatively rather closely with .f. me/astoma Manso., but the inflores- [ 268 ] cence of the former has many more flowers than that of the latter. It is florally perhaps closer to Aristolochia acutifolia Duchtr. Aristolochia medicinalis would appear to be somewhat intermediate between these two species. The former species is distributed in southern Brazil; the latter comes from the eastern Amazon south to Ceara. The flowers of Aristolochia medicinalis have externally a longer, appressed indumentum differing from the short, erect hairs of A. acutifolia; the apicule of the perianth in the former is larger and more obtuse than that of the latter. There is a significant difference also in the struc- ture of the seeds of the two species; the central part of the seed of Aristolochia medicinalis is much smaller and much less deeply cordate than the corresponding heart- shaped area in the seed of A. acutifolia, and the whole seed is wider in relation to its height. An interesting floral character of Aristolochia medicinalis is the difference in size of the stamens: four shorter and two longer. The plant is an extensive vine not uncommon on the overhanging vegetation, where the river bank is not sub- ject to deep annual flooding. This new species is pointed out by the Kubeo Indians of the Rio Kuduyari, who know the plant as da-koo-to- me, as both toxic and medicinal. The astringent root is dried and pulverized to prepare a very bitter and pungent infusion given to natives who suffer periodic attacks that would seem to be epileptic in nature. Care must be taken not to employ this infusion too frequently nor in doses too large since, according to native medicine men, it may cause permanent insanity and, sometimes, muscular paralysis. LEGUMINOSAE Ormosia Jackson One of the most interesting groups of toxic legumes is the genus Ormosia, a tropical genus of Middle and [ 269 ] South America and southeastern Asia, comprising about 100 species of shrubs and trees. It is usually the seed that is reputed to be toxic, al- though the bark is not without suspicion in some species. ‘The seeds of most, if not all, species are probably poi- sonous to some degree. Normally brightly colored, red and black, the beans are often used in making ornamen- tal necklaces by peoples in primitive societies. The tech- nical name of the genus has, in fact, been derived from a Greek word for necklace. Alkaloids have reputedly been isolated from the seeds of at least nine species (Willaman, J.J. and B.G. Schu- bert ‘‘Alkaloid-bearing plants and their contained alka- loids’? U.S.D.A. Techn. Bull. No. 1284 (1961) 120- 121). These have been named ormosine, ormosanine, ormosinine and panamine; and N-methylcytisine has been reported from one species. Ormosinine is stated to be morphine-like in physiological action (Henry, T. A. “Phe plant alkaloids’? ed. 4 (1949) 776), while pana- mine has been found to possess hypotensive properties when applied to dogs. In her outstanding monograph of the American species of this genus, Rudd (Rudd, V. E. ‘The American species of Ormosia (eguminosae)”’ Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 82 (1965) 279-884) reviews the sparse chemical and pharmacological literature on Ormosia and points out that ‘‘the plant names used [in this literature] are not necessarily true taxonomic syno- nyms, and it is not always possible to know what ma- terial the chemist had at hand’’. The seeds of some of the species have been employed therapeutically in folk-medicine. The collection Steyer- mark 61330 reports that, in eastern Venezuela, seeds of Ormosia monosperma, known locally as ‘‘pionia mon- tanera’’ are cooked and made into a drink ‘‘for pains of the heart’? and that the ‘‘cooked seed placed in water [ 270 ] [is] given to children to put around the neck for sore throat”’. I have found several species of Ormosia avoided or employed as poisons or medicines in the northwest Ama- zon, while several other species were not regarded as toxic or of economic value. The collections of interest are enumerated below. Those for which no information relative to biological activity could be elicited from na- tive informants are: Ormosia discolor Spr. ex Benth. (Rio Apaporis, Colombia: Schultes et Cabrera 12952) and O. Williams Rudd (Rio Negro, Colombia: Schu/tes et Lopez 9888). All of the collections cited have been annotated by Rudd and are included in her monograph, with the single exception of the new variety described below. Ormosia amazonica Ducke var. venenifera R. 1. Schultes var. nov. Arbor rivularis, 60-70 ped. alta, trunco columnare usque ad 2 ped. in diametro, fulvo-nigro cum cortice crasso. Rami sparse adpresso-tomentosi, ramulis densis- sime chryso- vel fulvo-tomentosis. Stipulae parvae, strictae, triangulares, usque ad 38 mm. longae. Folia 7- ad 11-foliolata, axibus petiolisque usque ad 40-50 cm. longis, albido-sericeis, petiolulis similibus, plus minusve 5 mm. longis, foliolis plerumque 6-11 cm. distantibus, coriaceis, usualiter obovatis, acuminatis vel saepe obtusis, basi rotundatis vel late subcuneatis, 9-25 cm. longis, 5-10 cm. latis, laeviter marginatis, supra glabris sub- nitidisque, infra densissime minuteque albido-velutinis, venis prominenter elevatis secundariis quindecim ad viginti, 9-14 mm. distantibus. Inflorescentiae maxime densissimeque floribunda, usque ad 80-40 cm. in diame- tro, axibus dense chryso- vel albido-velutinis, bracteis elongatis, ligulatis, usque ad 7 mm. longis, basi 1-2 mm. eye latis, bracteolis parvis, linearibus. Flores formosi fra- grantesque,ad 28 mm. longi; calyx dense fulvo-velutinus, 10 mm. longus, tubo 4-5 mm. diametro, laciniis 5 mm. longis; petala purpurea, glabra, vexillo stipitato-orbicu- lare, 17 mm. longo, 13-14 mm. lato, lateralibus vel alis 18 mm. longis, 5-6 mm. latis; carina minore; staminibus alternate subaequalibus, 12 mm. longis; ovario elongato- ovoideo, pubescente, 9 mm. longo, 2-8 mm. lato. Fruc- tus dehiscentes, extus rugosi, sublignosi, nigro-fulvi, 8-5 em. longi, 2-8 em. lati, valvis ad 2 mm. crassis. Semina 1 vel 2, bicolora, coccinea sed } pro parte nigro-maculata, 12-13 mm. longa, 10 mm. lata, 6-7 mm. crassa, hilo 3 mm. longo. Cotompia: Comisaria del Amazonas, mouth of Rio Loretoyacu, Tra- pecio Amazénico. Alt. 100 m. *‘Common name: chocho. Height 55 feet. Calyx brown. Petals white and lavender. Stamens white. Flow- ers with odour of citronella, strong. Bark smooth, grey-brown. Seeds highly alkaloidal; leaves, twigs only slightly so.’’ September 13-15. Richard Evans Schultes, Robert F. Raffauf § Doel Soejarto 24107. (Type in Herb. Gray; Durticarr types in Econ. Herb.; Herb. Nac. Col. ; U.S. Nat. Herb.). Same locality. “‘N.v. cairuro. Arbol de 12m. Semillas rojo y negro. Alealoides —muy positivo en las semillas; corteza negativa para alca- loides.’’ October 10, 1961. J. M. Idrobo 4732. Same locality. ‘‘Arbol de unos 20 m. de alto. Inflorescencias de color café. Prueba de alealoides++-+-’’. August 21, 1964. 4. Fernandes- Peres 6882. This variety may represent a western variant of Ormo- sia amazonica. The species itself is distributed in the central part of the Amazon. There are several minor differences in the size of flowers and floral parts, the shape of the base of the leaves, the general texture of the leaves and the density of leaf-indumentum and in habit of the plant, and these would seem to justify its recognition as a distinct subspecific concept. All three of the collections cited above were made from the same tree which has been under surveillance ( 272 | ee : of eerie. Uae a Bid F St a ie nae * (Left) Photograph of the tree from which the type of Ormosia amazonica Ducke var. venenifera R.E. Schultes was taken. Rio Loretoyacu, Amazonas, Colombia. (Right) Flowering branch from the same tree. Photographs by Ricuarp Evans ScHULTES ALVIg IX XX a PLaTE XXXII ORMOSIA amazonica Ducke vor veneniferda” R-.E. Schultes N Ormosia amazonica Ducke var. venenifera R. E. Schultes. 1, flowering branch, approximately <4. 2, buds, approximately x#. 3, detail of nether surface of leaf, approximately 25. 4, leaflet, showing variation in shape, approximately >. 5, fruiting branch of inflorescence, approximately xt. 6, open pod with seed, approximately <4. 7, seed, approximately x #. 8-13, flower and floral parts, approximately 14. Drawn by Josnua B. CLrark and study for a number of years, especially since it has shown such highly positive alkaloidal spot test reactions for the seeds. The seeds are recognized by the inhabi- tants of the area as being toxic. Ormosia coccinea (Aub/.) Jackson var. subsim- plex (Spr. ex Benth.) Rudd in Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 35 (1965) 328. This tree, with attractive, shiny, deep red pods, is rather abundant in Amazonian Colombia (Rudd, loc. cit.), usually in association with the flora of savannahs in the vicinity of the remnant quartzitic mountains of the Guiana- Venezuela land-mass. The seeds are considered by the Witotos of eastern Colombia to be highly poisonous when ingested, but these Indians do not seem to employ them for any spe- cific purpose. The tree is called ee-t6’-a in Witoto. Cotompia: Comisaria del Amazonas, Rio Karaparana, near FE] En- canto. Alt. about 150 m. “‘Tall tree up to 20 m. Basal diameter 10 m. Pods deep red. Bark smooth, mottled brown and grey. Wood soft, yellowish.’ May 22-28, 1942. R.E. Schultes 3833, Ormosia isthmensis Standley in Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser. 17 (1987) 264. Mexico: Oaxaca, District of Choapam, San Juan Lalana. Alt. 550 m. May 8, 1939, Schultes & Reko 822. The wood of this very tall and conspicuous tree is employed in Oaxaca for a number of purposes where strength and durability is required (Schultes in Bot. Mus. Leafl. Harvard Univ. 9 (1941) 176), but no use is known for the seeds which the Chinantee Indians, who call the tree mu-sa, consider to be strongly poisonous. Ormosia lignivalvis Rudd in Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 82 (1965) 381. Known from French Guiana, British Guiana, Vene- zuela, and the central part of the Brazilian Amazon, [ 276 ] PuateE X XXIII ORMOSIA coccinea (Aubl.) Jacks. var. subsimplex (Spr. ex Bth) Rudd Ormosia: coccinea (Aubl.) Jackson var. subsimplex (Spr. ex Benth.) Rudd. 1, fruiting branch with leaf, slightly larger than <4. 2, 3, 4, views of seed, approximately 1. 5, open pod, approximately x4. Drawn by Josnua B. Ciark [ 277 ] Ormosia lignivalvis is here first recorded for the Colom- bian flora. A very lofty tree with a beautiful cylindrical trunk two feet in diameter and a light reddish brown bark, it is known as ‘‘cocho’” by Colombian settlers of the Amazon who employ a strong infusion of the bark for washing sores with pus. The same informants con- sider the black and scarlet seeds to be poisonous. Cotompia: Comisaria del Caqueta, Rio Apaporis, Cerro Castillo. Quartzite base. Alt. 350-1000 feet above forest floor, 1250-1900 feet above sea level. ‘‘Huge tree, cylindrical, diam. 2 ft., 100 ft. tall. Bark light reddish brown, smooth, wood white, not hard. Seeds black and scarlet. Bark infusion for washing sores with pus, Cocho’’. July 27, 1943. RE. Schultes 5731. Ormosia macrophylla Bentham in Ann. Wien. Mus. 2 (1888) 88. A small but beautiful tree of the central and north- western Amazon, Ormosia macrophylla is valued by the Tawaino Indians of the Rio Kananari of Amazonian Colombia as one of the ingredients in a curare prepared reputedly from the bark of a Strychnos, the bark of Vo- chysia ferruginea Mart., the crushed stems and leaves of an aroid (possibly a Philodendron) and the bark of Or- mosia macrophylla. 1 did not witness the preparation of this curare, but several independent informants agreed on the ingredients of the preparation. The tree is known as ‘‘peonia’’ amongst the civilized settlers of the Rio Vaupés. In Tawaino, it is called ma-hi'-ke. Cotompia: Comisaria del Vaupés, Rio Kananari, Cerro Isibukuri. ‘*Small tree. Flowers brown.’’ October 29, 1951. R.E. Schultes & 1. Cabrera 14533.—Comisaria del Vaupés, Rio Vaupés, Raudal de Yuru- pari. Quartzite base. November, 1953. R.E. Schultes et I, Cabrera 19747. ERICACEAE Pernettya prostrata (Cav.) Slewmer Several varieties of Pernettya prostrata in Andean [ 278 | South America are known to possess poisonous proper- ties that effect both man and domesticated animals. The following notes, apparently unpublished, are documented by plant collections preserved in the Gray Herbarium of Harvare University. Pernettya prostrata (Cav.) Sleumer var. Pent- landii (DC.) Sleumer Notizbl. 12 (1935) 290. Botivia: Province of Chapare, Cochabamba. Alt. 3,000 m. ‘‘Frucht . soll, wenn reichlich genossen, Schwindel verursachen.’” March 5, 1929. J. Steinbach 9514. Province of Chapare, Cochabamba. Alt. 3,200 m. ‘‘Die Frucht hat eine einschlifernde Eigenschaft. Eine zahmer Affe, welcher die Beeren meiner zum einlegen bestimten [sic] Pflanzen genascht hatte, wurde total betrunken.’” March 10, 1929. J. Steinbach 9583. ‘These two references indicate that the ripened fruit of this low shrub of the Bolivian highlands is narcotic and toxic: in. the one case, dizziness was caused when ingested by human beings; in the other case, a donkey showed signs of intoxication after eating dried fruits. The ver- nacular name of this plant in Cochabamba is given as macha-macha. Pernettya prostrata (Cav. ) Slewmer var. purpurea (D.Don) Sleumer Notizbl. 12 (1985) 290. Cotomsia: Department of Narifio. Alt. 3,000 m. ... fruit... are poisonous; adults become violently ill, children dying from eat- ing the berries.’’ August 17, 1938. Y. Mexia 7642. ee The common name in southern Colombia of this shrub is moridera. Accidental poisoning, especially amongst children, is reported as not uncommon in Colombia from the fruit of Pernettya prostrata, including undoubtedly this variety which is abundantly represented in the para- mo vegetation. (Pérez-Arbeliez: Plantas itiles de Co- lombia (1947) 415). [ 279 | Vaccinium floribundum H BK. var. ramosissi- mum (D. Don.) Sleumer Notizbl. 13 (1986) 1381. Bottvia; Province of Sacaba, Cochabamba, Inachaca. Alt. 2,800 m. *‘Dicen que las frutas comiendo muchos embriagan.’’ October 14, 1921. J. Steinbach 5896. This abundant highland shrub, locally known in Cochabamba as macha-macha, has fruits which intoxicate apparently in the same way as those of the related genus Pernettya. [ 280 ] PLaTE XXXIV [Ls / HULL Li ORMOSIA isthmensis Standley JBI Ormosia isthmensis Standley. 1, pod, X1. 2, open pod with contained seed, <1. 8, views of seed, approximately 1. 4, detail of bark, <1. 5, fruiting branch with leaves, slightly larger than 4. Drawn by Josuua B. CLark [ 281 ] PLatE XXXV ' - | 7 ORMOSIA lignivalvis = Rudd Ormosia lignivalvis Rudd. 1, opened pod, approximately <4. 2, seeds, approximately 1. 38, fruiting branch with leaf, approximately x4. Drawn by Josuua B, CLark [ 282 | PuatE XXXVI Appa aen eh, : Prides et Say cen ah ie irk ok pn CG es oF ay SA ra a } Pa y ee ee Pin alg ="$ a ee re be 4x a ‘oe yy ~~ N\ Sg) AR ae I A om pana) = RD PE the ms is y / ZU E- = ORMOSIA macrophylla sth. Ormosia macrophylla Bentham. 1, detail of nether surface of leaflet, <4. 2, flowering branch with leaf, approximately x4. 8, detail of twig, ap- proximately <1. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, floral parts, approximately 2; flower, approximately 2. Drawn by Josuua B, Crark [ 283 ] PLatE XXXVII of ip PERNETTYA prostrata (Cav, Sleumer a Hen her Pernettya prostrata (Cav.) Sleumer. 1, habit, approximately <1. 2, branch, 2. 38, outline of leaf, <5. Drawn by Joun STANWELL-FLETCHER TRIPSACUM IN PERU BY ALEXANDER GROBMAN' Excepr for a single, verbal report’ that Asplund iden- tified ZTripsacum near Tingo Maria, Department of Huanuco, and considered it an escape from cultivation, no other literature references (including Weberbauer (1) and MacBride (2) ) give any indication that T’ripsacum might be native to Peru. The identification of races of tripsacoid maize on the eastern slopes of the Andes and in the Amazon basin of Peru had suggested the probable occurrence of T'ripsa- cum sympatric with maize and might explain the intro- gression of tripsacoid characters into maize in these areas (3). Cutler and Anderson (4) presented evidence of wide- spread distribution of 7?ipsacum in the Amazon basin. They considered all of the South American specimens that they studied as belonging to T'’ripsacum australe. I have found T7'ripsacum growing wild twice in the Hual- laga valley region of north-central Peru (July 4, 19638). The first collection was made at Puerto Rico, formerly called Juanjuicillo, on a river bank on the east side of the 1 Formerly Director of Research, Division of Experimentation, Ser- vicio de Investigacién y Promocién Agraria, Lima, Pera. ? Kindly supplied by Dr. Ramon Ferreyra, Director of Museo de Historia Natural, Javier Prado, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima. [ 285 ] Rio Huallaga. There were two separate clumps of plants, rooted about one and one half to two meters above the water level, at that time. The plants had green stalks; the leaves were of medium width; and the plants were in full bloom. ‘Travelling northwards by motor boat, I could not find any other clumps of T’ripsacum, even though I scanned both sides of the river at normal cruis- ing speed. Further explorations of Huallaga affluents were not carried out, except in the lower Rio Mayo sec- tion. On the Mayo, near its confluence with the Hual- laga, abundant masses of plants which resembled 7'7ipsa- cum were found on high river banks. Collections were made for transplanting. These plants had red stalks, hairy sheaths and narrow leaves. No herbarium speci- mens of this colony were preserved, and since the plants had not developed inflorescences, no positive identifica- tion was possible. A third and large mass of T’ripsacum with fully de- veloped inflorescences was found along the road between the Tarapoto and Granja Porvenir, a livestock farm operated by SIPA (a dependency of the Peruvian Min- istry of Agriculture). These plants had sun-red leaf sheaths, and they were rather hairy and had rather nar- row leaves. Live plants from all three sites were planted at the Granja Porvenir near Tarapoto, but unfortunately the plants that survived transplanting were destroyed during construction work. [t was possible for me to collect herbarium material in full bloom again in 1964 along the road from Granja Porvenir to Tarapoto. These were compared at the Bo- tanical Museum of Harvard University with herbarium specimens of J'ripsacum australe collected by Cutler. I carried out this comparison in the winter of 1965, and the assistance of Dr. Paul C. Mangelsdorf, Director of [ 286 | the Museum, in this study is gratefully acknowledged. From the comparison of several morphological charac- ters — including leaf blades, sheaths, and inflorescences —I eoncluded that the Tripsacum growing in the Porvenir-Tarapoto locality of the Huallaga valley fall well within the range of variation of T'ripsacum australe. LITERATURE REFERENCES . Weberbauer, A. 1945.°° El mundo vegetal de los andes peruanos. ”’ Ministerio de Agricultura. Lima. MacBride, J. Francis. 1936. ‘‘Flora of Peru.’’ Part 1. Field Museum of Natural History. Publication No. 351. Chicago. Grobman, A., W. Salhuana and R. Sevilla (in collaboration with P. C. Mangelsdorf) 1961. Races of Maize in Peru: Their origin, evolution and classification.’’ Nat. Acad. of Sci., Nat. Res. Council U.S. Publ. 915. . Cutler, H.C. and E. Anderson. 1941. ‘‘A preliminary survey of the genus Tripsacum .’’ Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 28: 249-269. GS ape JUL 1 8 1967 2-,BOTANICAL MUSEUM LEAFLETS HARVARD UNIVERSITY VoL. 21, No. 10 CaMBRIDGE, Massacuuserrs, JuLyY 19, 1967 MANGROVE POLLEN AT THE DEPOSITIONAL SITE OF OLIGO-MIOCENE AMBER FROM CHIAPAS, MEXICO’ BY JEAN H. LanGENHEIM, Betry L. HackNneErR anv ALEXANDRA BARTLETT’ AMBER from the New World tropics has been reported to occur in Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (Langenheim, 1964). Neither the amber itself nor the environment of its de- position in any of these localities, however, has pre- viously been studied in detail. ‘Grateful acknowledgment is expressed to Prof. J. Wyatt Durham and Prof. E.S. Barghoorn for continued interest and help with the project as well as criticism of the manuscript. The critical comments of Prof. A.O. Dahland Dr. Lucy Cranwell Smith are also appreciated. The investigation was supported in part by National Science Foun- dation grants GB 1312 and 2397, and the Radcliffe Institute for In- dependent Study. * The senior author was a Research Associate in the Botanical Mu- seum, now at the University of California at Santa Cruz. Miss Hack- ner, now at the University of Pennsylvania, investigated the mangrove and associated fossil pollen in the Chiapas amber-bearing sediments for a Senior Thesis at Radcliffe College under the supervision of Dr. Langenheim. Miss Hackner gratefully acknowledges support of this study by an National Science Foundation Undergraduate Research Participation grant. Dr. Bartlett, Harvard University, made a special study of modern Rhizophora and other tropical pollen in connection with this project and with her present studies of Late and Post-Glacial history of Gatun Basin, Panama. She wishes to express appreciation to the American Chemical Society, PRF Grant 94.7-A-2, for assistance in this study. [ 289 ] The classic concept of amber has been derived from the extensive deposits along the shores of the Baltic Sea which have been rather intensively studied for over a century. This Baltic amber is known to have been pro- duced in forests with a high proportion of subtropical to tropical floral and faunal elements (Czeczott, 1960: Schubert, 1958; 1961). Yet most comparative observa- tions of resin-producing trees and the manner in which they produced large quantities of resin that could be de- posited in the sedimentary record were restricted to cool temperate conditions around the Baltic Coast. Much emphasis was placed on the necessity for an extensive forest of trees producing resin excessively in response to diseased and physiological imbalance in order to accumu- late the incredible deposits that occur along the Baltic coast (Conwentz, 1890). Little attention was given to the fact that tropical trees can produce large quantities of resin under apparently natural forest conditions and that environments of deposition occur there that can favor large accumulations of resin. Unfortunately, it has been impossible to study the primary environment of deposition of the Baltic amber, because it is thought to be secondarily deposited (Czeczott, 1960). Amber from the Simojovel region, Chiapas, Mexico, is one of the occurrences in the New World tropics that provides sufficiently abundant material for detailed in- vestigation. Entomologists from the University of Cali- fornia at Berkeley became aware of the presence of numerous insects in this amber and initiated a collecting and study program in 1953 (Hurd and Smith, 1957). Although the occurrence of this amber has been recorded since at least 1891, the extent of the deposits and poten- tial biological significance of the material had not been known. The inaccessibility of this area in the southern- most state of Mexico and the possessive attitudes of the [ 290 | natives there toward the amber probably also contributed to lack of previous recognition. Invertebrate paleontolo- gists at Berkeley since 1956 and stratigraphers at the University of Lllinois since 1961 have been studying the geology of the amber-bearing beds in the Simojovel re- gion in order to establish the age of deposition of the amber as a context for evolutionary studies of the in- cluded fossils. Various phases of botanical investigations of the amber and of the beds containing it were begun in 1962 at Harvard University and extended to include chemical aspects in 1963. Thus, the study of the Chiapas amber has been approached from the standpoint of co- ordinating data from several disciplines that may shed light on mid-Tertiary ecosystems in southern Mexico. It has, furthermore, provided an opportunity to understand more fully the natural production of large quantities of resin and sites that favor its accumulation and subse- quent deposition in sediments under tropical conditions. Pollen analysis of the Chiapas amber-bearing beds is of particular interest in any attempt to determine some of the vegetational and general environmental conditions that could have existed at or near the site of deposition of the amber. Study of 12 samples from amber-bearing strata in various localities indicates that the primary de- positional environment of the amber was dominated by mangrove vegetation comprised of several species of Rhizophora. Although numerous other microspore types occur in these sediments, this report will be restricted essentially to a discussion of Rhizophora, with brief men- tion of associated pollen types which were strikingly abundant or otherwise significant to an understanding of the ecology of vegetation at or near the depositional sites of the Chiapas amber. The record of occurrence of Rhizophora pollen in these strata contributes also to our knowledge of the distribution and ecology of mangrove [ 291 ] vegetation during the mid-Tertiary in southern North America. BoTANICAL SOURCE OF THE AMBER In contrast to the classical view that amber is derived from pines or, at least, pines and other conifers, it has been demonstrated on the basis of several lines of col- lateral evidence that the source of most of the Chiapas amber is the leguminous genus Hymenaea (Langenheim and Beck, 1965; Langenheim, 1966). This genus has the center of its distribution today in the Amazon Basin. Of the 20 species commonly recognized (Record and Hess, 1948), only one species,’ Hymenaea Courbaril L., has a wide distribution. It occurs throughout northern South America (Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, the Guianas), along the Pacific slopes throughout Central America to central Mexico, and on most of the islands of the West Indies. Prof. Faustino Miranda (per. comm., 1964) identified a Hymenaea leaf- let in the amber which resembles both Hl. Courbaril and H. intermedia Ducke, the latter today restricted to the Amazon region. On the basis of diagnostic glandular morphology, the leaflet probably more closely resembles present-day populations of H. Courbaril than H. inter- media. Likewise, similarities in the infrared spectra of most of the Chiapas amber and of resin of modern pop- ulations of H. Courbaril make it appear that the amber was produced possibly by an ancestral population of 7. Courbaril. Although ecological data are scarce throughout its wide range of distribution, the senior author has ob- served Hymenaea Courbaril to be an important member * Some taxonomists also recognize Hymenaea candolleana HBK. as occurring in Central America. Most workers, in Mexico at least (F. Miranda, per. comm, 1964), think that H. candolleana is at best a variety of H. Courbaril and does not warrant specific designation. [ 292 | of humid evergreen or of seasonally dry semi-deciduous forest types on the Pacific slopes in Central America. It is common along coastal plains and rivers, and grows also on beaches and sandy ridges that interdigitate with lagoons. Hymenaea Courbaril varies in the amount of resin produced under natural forest conditions at various sites. lt appears to produce larger quantities where con- ditions favor a more rapid growth rate. Resin may ac- cumulate in the soil around the base of the tree in large amounts (Noriega, 1918: Record and Hess, 1943) and trom there can easily be transported into either marine or brackish-water sites in or near which mangroves fre- quently predominate. (,EOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF THE AMBER The Simojovel Area is located in central Chiapas in the Central Mesa region and parts of the Tabasco Coastal Plain. ‘The amber is collected primarily from rocks ex- posed in landslides (Plate NN NVIII), although some outcrops of beds containing amber occur along river banks and in road cuts. Although geological investigations of the amber- bearing beds were begun in 1956, little detailed strati- graphic information has yet been published. Licari (1960), in a preliminary study of the region, described the largely Oligocene Simojovel Group as consisting of approximately 6550 feet of well-bedded marine calcare- ous sandstones and mudstones with some intercalated lignitic seams. It is underlain by Eocene sandstones, shales and conglomerates and overlain by Miocene sand- stones and shales. The upper portion of the Simojovel Group, including a distinctive limestone member, is characterized by the presence of the marine gastropod genus Orthaulax, indicative of late Oligocene to earliest Miocene age. Amber has been found in the ‘‘Orthaulax [ 293 ] zone and in the lowermost part of the overlying sand- stones and shales. The geologic history inferred tor the Simojovel Group suggests deposition of sediments, derived from the an- cestral Sierra Madre to the south, under warm, generally shallow-marine conditions. Occasional shoreline oscilla- tions led to deposition in terrestrial, estuarine and brack- ish environments. DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES FOR POLLEN ANALYSIS The samples analysed for pollen were collected by J. Wyatt Durham and Jean H. Langenheim from beds in which the amber occurred or from immediately adjacent beds (Plate NXNNVIII). In general, the amber from these deposits does not appear to be reworked: hence it may be possible to determine some of the vegetational conditions at or near the depositional site. Location of sites from which samples were studied are indicated in Plate NN XIX. Lithologic description of the 12 samples is presented in the Appendix. Most of the samples were either calcareous siltstones or silty shales, three of the latter being glauconitic. There was some variation in coarseness and in color. One sample was a calcareous sandstone. Several samples were associated with lignitic bands or at least had carbonaceous streaks. All of the samples are from the upper portion of the Simojovel Group and of latest Oligocene or earliest Mio- cene age (Durham 77 /it., 1964). Samples from Simojo- vel, Mazantic, Pabuchil, Huitiupan, Portugal and Las Cruces (I-VII) are believed to be of approximately the same age (Durham, pers. comm. 1965). Durham also indicated that stratigraphic control on Sample NIT from Jolpabuchil has not been established. R. C. Allison (77 fit. to Durham) considers the invertebrate fauna from Mina Palo Blanco and Mina de Naranjo to indicate an [ 294 | PuatTeE XXXVITI (Top) Las Cruces landslide showing alternation of marine siltstones and sandstones with some intercalated brackish water sediments. (Bottom) Amber deposited in lignitic bed among marine sandstones, Simojovel landslide. | 964 | RI Zink, 7 JOLPABUCHILA MINA paige Simo} ovel ® 0 5 mi, +11 _j & Amber and pollen localities 1965 M. Blos RC Allison Location of sites where pollen samples were collected in association with amber, Simojovel Area, Mexico. ALWIq XTX XX age similar to that of Simojovel, Portugal and Jolpabu- chil. Thus, available information suggests that the pres- ent samples represent a geologically short time interval. DETERMINATION OF RHIZOPHORA POLLEN Preparation Procedures The pollen samples were prepared by techniques modi- fied from various standard sources (Faegri and Iversen, 1964; USGS Prep. Proc., 1960; Brown, 1960) in a manner found suitable in the treatment of sediments of this type in other investigations at the Paleobotanical Laboratories of the Botanical Museum of Harvard Uni- versity. Samples were first disaggregated by soaking in distilled water and by gentle grinding in a mortar with a pestle. The major portion of calcareous material was removed with 10% HCl; then lignin was removed by bleaching in acidified 7% NaClOeg. Larger quartz grains and other heavy minerals were removed by heavy-liquid separation in a solution of ZnBr2 in 10% HCl at a speci- fic gravity of 2.2. Finer silicious material was dissolved by overnight soaking of the sample in concentrated HF, followed by washing in HCl] to minimize silica gel for- mation. The samples were acetolysed to remove remain- ing cellulose, and mounted in glycerin Jelly. The fossil pollen types were identified by comparison with modern pollen in the Harvard Pollen Collection. Additional modern samples prepared for this study were treated by standard methods used for this collection: i1.e., treatment in hot 10% KOH followed by acetolysis and mounting in glycerin jelly. Modern Rhizophora pollen The genus Rhizophora was monographed by Salvoza in 1936, and was reviewed by Hou in 1960. Salvoza recognized R. Mangle L. and R. samoensis (Hochr. ) [ 297 | Salvoza as separate species, mainly on the basis of their geographical separation into two groups living respective- ly on the east and west coasts of America, and because of a difference in length of style. Salvoza also recognized R. brevistyla Salvoza on the Pacific coast as a species distinct from R. Harrison Leechm. on the east coast of America, chiefly on the basis of a difference in flower and flower-bud size and difference in stylar length. Hou does not think that the difference between the two groups in each pair is sufficient to warrant specific designation. He recognizes only three American species: R. Mangle L., R. Harrison Leechm., and R. racemosa G. F. W. Meyer. Of these, only R. racemosa has not yet been found on the Pacific coast of the Americas, the other two occurring on both coasts. Pollen of the various New World species of Rhizophora had previously not been studied in detail. Van der Ham- men (1963; pers. comm., 1965) has expressed the opinion that pollen of the three species of Rhizophora occurring today in British Guiana can be distinguished morpholo- gically, but he does not separate them in his data. Muller (1959) observes that pollen of the Rhizophora-ty pe shows ‘‘rather strong variation in size and in the appearance of pores.’’ He attributes this variation, however, to differ- ence in preservation rather than to morphological dis- tinction of value in separation of the species. Observations of modern Rhizophora pollen by the authors have led them to concur with van der Hammen that the species of Rhizophora can be separated in some cases by morphological characters, and an attempt to do so will be made in this paper. The following description of pollen of several species of modern Phizophora is presented after study of the Rhzzo- phora pollen available from specimens in the Harvard University Herbaria and from the Harvard Pollen Collec- [ 298 ] tion. All size measurements are of the greatest dimension. Rhizophora L.* Grains from 11 to 80 yw in size, vary- ing in shape from subprolate to spheroidal to suboblate. Polar view circular to triangular in grains with gaping colpi. Tricolporate; ectexinous colpi crossed by colpi transversales or elongated into a colpus aequatorialis. Colpi transversales costate to varying degrees at edges. Exine less than 1 to ca. 2.5 w thick. Ectexine generally thinner than endexine except sometimes at poles. Ec- texine varies from smooth with very indistinct pattern to scabrate with distinct columellae. 1. R. Mangle L.: Grains 11-28 p, spheroidal to sub- prolate; circular to triangular in polar view. Shape gen- erally well-defined and very regular, ranging from circular to oval with a slight equatorial bulge in equatorial view. Costae transversales well developed. Small grains psi- late; exines of large grains scabrate with distinct colu- mellae forming regular patterning in surface view. Colpi transversales of medium width. Plate XL, fig. 3. 2. RB. samoensis Salv.: Grains 14-28 p, subprolate; nearly rhomboidal in equatorial view; grains mostly well formed, regular in shape. Costae colpi and costae trans- versales very narrow. Ectexinous colpi constricted at junction with colpus transversalis. Columellae not so distinct as in Rk. Mangle; ectexine psilate to very finely scabrate. Ectexine heavier at poles. 3. BR. racemosa G. F. W. Meyer: Grains 15-26 p in breadth, typically oblate-spheroidal to suboblate; colpi transversales very narrow, often ragged. Grains tend to crumple more than do those of ?. Mangle L. Kctexine psilate and appearing almost structureless in most grains. Surface pattern indistinct. Plate XL, figs. 1 and 7. 4. R. Harrisonu Leechm. : This description does not * Terminology from Erdtman (1952) and Faegriand Iversen (1964). [ 299 | include the 2. brevistyla-type, as none were recognized in this fossil assemblage. Pollen 12-24 mw. Grains are generally ill-formed, tending to crumple easily. Shape, size, and sculpturing very variable. Although pollen of all of these species of Rhizophora is quite similar and pollen of each species shows morpho- logical variation, the species can be separated to some extent. Pollen of R. Mangle is quite distinct from that of all the other species except some grains of R. samoen- sis. ‘Typical, well-formed pollen of &. samoensis is also distinct from that of the other species, with the excep- tion of some grains which, as stated above, may be con- fused with those of R. Mangle. Crumpled grains of RP. samoensis are similar to some grains of R. Harrisoni. Pollen of &. racemosa is distinctive in being oblate- spheroidal, and thus cannot be mistaken for pollen of any of the other types, except for that of some grains of ht. Harrisonu. Modern pollen of R. Harrison has not been abundantly available. In order to determine whether the pollen of AR. Harrisoniu is distinctive and clearly distinguishable from the other species, much more flowering material is needed. In addition, further taxo- nomic work is needed on the entire genus to determine if the presently disputed species boundaries can be more clearly defined. Until such work is completed, it will remain somewhat hazardous to make species determina- tions of fossil RAizophora grains on a statistical basis. Fossil Rhizophora Pollen On the basis of morphology as described above, the fossil Rhizophora pollen has been divided into two maior groups which reflect not only the pollen morphology but also the division of the species of Rhizophora into two groups occupying somewhat different habitats. The first is composed of typical RP. Mangle-type and P. samoensis- [ 300 | PiarTe 3L 7 8 Modern and fossil Rhizophora pollen types. 1, Rhizophora racemosa, modern; polar view, 2, Rhizophora racemosa-type: fossil, Simojovel; polar view. 3, Rhizophora Mangle, modern; equatorial view. 4, Rhizophora Mangle-ty pe; fos- sil, Simojovel: equatorial view. 5, Rhizophora sp.; fossil, Simojovel; polar view. 6, Rhizophora Mangle-type; fossil, Mina Palo Blanco; equatorial view. 7, Rhizophora racemosa, modern; equatorial view. 8, Rhizophora racemosa-ty pe: fossil, Simojovel; equatorial view. The scale on each figure is 10. type pollen, and will be designated as R. Mangle-type.’ The second consists of pollen of R. racemosa-type and R. Harrisoni-ty pe and will be designated as Rhizophora- spp. In this group are included fossil Rhizophora grains present in very small quantities in several of the fossil samples which resemble those of RP. Harrisoni but which are not completely distinct from somewhat crumpled grains of FR. samoensis. Since these grains occur con- sistently together with high percentages of R. racemosa- typeand R. Harrisonu-type, and decrease in percentage as PR. Mangle-type increases, their affinity is probably with the former group. The category ‘‘ Rhizophora aftini- ty uncertain’’ was established to include grains which, due to poor preservation or unfavorable orientation, could not be placed with certainty in one of the major ‘ategories. It is not proposed in this study to attempt a rigorous statistical treatment of the observed Rhizophora pollen nor to identify minor components of this pollen flora. An initial investigation of the slides indicated that a count of 200 grains per sample was sufficient to suggest the major outlines of the vegetation and the relative frequencies of the most abundant pollen types. For this purpose, slides were scanned at 300. Final determina- tions were made at higher magnifications. The first 200 identifiable pollen grains were recorded. Record was kept also of the relative percentages of pollen and fungal spores in each sample. Data concerning the relative abundances of different Rhizophora pollen types and of ” Nomenclature of the fossil pollen follows the principles outlined by Zagwijn (1960), As summarized by Muller (1964, p. 35), these may be stated as follows: “‘If a fossil pollen type has been assigned to a given natural taxon, this expresses the author’s confidence in a high degree of probability for the identification. If, however, the word **-type’’ is added this means that the pollen type is known to occur also in a related taxon of the same rank.’’ [ 303 | fungal spores compared with total pollen, are summarized in Table I. The significance of these percentages is dis- cussed in a following section. The Ecotocy or MopERN MANGROVE AND ASSOCIATED VEGETATION The term ‘‘mangrove™’ is applied both to the physi- ognomically similar but taxonomically diverse group of salt-tolerant semi-aquatic woody plants that grows along silted shorelines and in brackish water throughout the tropics and to any member of this vegetation. The New World mangrove association includes four major genera: Rhizophora, Avicennia, Laguneularia and Conocarpus. Of these, only Rhizophora and Avicennia have more than one species. An additional minor component of man- grove vegetation on the west coast of Central and South America is Pellictera rhizophorae Pl. & Tr. Some work- ers would also include as *tmangroves’” plants with a limited salt tolerance that occur in swamps behind the ‘true mangroves, e.g., Cassipourea (Cuatrecasas, 1958). The ecology of New World mangroves has been studied by Chapman (1989), Cuatrecasas (1958) and others. Lindeman (1953) has given a complete description of the vegetation types of coastal Surinam, including the mangrove, Which is extended by Muller (1959) and van der Hammen (1963) to the north coasts of Venezuela and British Guiana. Cuatrecasas (1958) has described the situation along the coasts of Colombia and Ecuador. Only brief descriptions of mangrove vegetation are available for Mexico and Central America. Studies of recent pollen sedimentation by Muller (1959, 1964), van der Hammen (1963) and Spackman, et al, (1964) indicate that, among the mangroves, only species of Rhizophora and Avicennia are likely to be rep- resented in the pollen record to any great extent. Thus, [ 304 | [ cos | Taste I, Relative abundance of Rhizophora pollen types and fungal spores. Explanation: np- not present; p- present in negligible amounts. Sample Number of Rhizophora % R. Mangle-type % Rhizophora SPP: Rhiz. aff. uncertain o% fungal spores and Locality total pollen total Rhizophora total Rhizophora total Rhizophora total pollen I Simojovel 90 p 85 15 10 II Mazantic 66 p 40 60 10 III Pabuchil 45 20 40 40 111 IV Huitiupan 45 15 50 35 62 V Portugal #1 30 np 95 p 100 VI Portugal #2 40 np 75 25 37 VII Las Cruces p np np p np VIII Palo Blanco #1 50 np 35 65 16 IX Palo Blanco #2 75 5 35 40 38 X Naranjo #1 6 np 20 80 14 XI Naranjo #2 16 np 20 80 54 XII Jolpabuchil p np np p np any palynological interpretation of mangrove vegetation rests likewise primarily upon reconstruction of conditions indicated by these two genera, and particularly by Rhizo- phora, the most abundant pollen source. More studies on present-day pollen sedimetation are needed before anything other than very general ecological conclusions may be reached. However, the various species of Rhizo- phora do provide significant, although considerably limited, ecological data. ‘The abundant incorporation of Rhizophora pollen into sediments is a result, in part, of the manner in which the pollen is released. Rhizophoras produce a large amount of small light pollen which is released into the bud before anthesis and much of which is retained by the hairy petals and is not blown away or carried by insects when the bud opens. Both the anthers and the petals fall from the trees into the water within two or three days after the bud opens, carrying the pol- len directly into the water (Guppy, 1906). Rhizophoras are well adapted to growth in regions of extreme tides, because of the ability of the viviparous seedlings to root rapidly and to withstand inundation. Under these tidal conditions, it forms broad bands along the western coast of South America. Where tides are of low amplitude, for example along the north coast of South America, Rhizophora may be scarce or absent along the coast. Rhizophora Mangle (red mangrove), the most wide- spread species, is a pioneer which establishes itself suc- cessfully on unconsolidated silt if its seedlings are left unflooded for as little as 48 hours. It appears to be the most salt-tolerant of the New World mangroves, occur- ring both on the open sea shore (if protected from ex- treme wave action) and in areas where salt concentrations in the soil are abnormally high due to periodic flooding and evaporation (Guppy, 1906; Savory, 1953; Jonker, [ 306 ] 1959). Its luxuriant growth in such areas as southern Florida, however, indicates that it does not always re- quire this high salinity. Here, the usual species found in more brackish water are absent. Rhizophora Harrisoniu, the second most widespread of the species, is characteristic of brackish estuaries and rivers in West Africa, on both the east and west sides of the South American continent and on the west coast of lower Central America. The tree forms great expanses of tall forest bordering the rivers in Surinam (Jonker, 1959). Rhizophora racemosa is more restricted, the species having never been found on the west coast of the Ameri- cas. &. racemosa is considered the least salt-tolerant of the Rhizophoras, and it is found far up tidal rivers, growing together with R. Harrison and beyond the range of that species into nearly fresh water. Both Savory (1953) and Jonker (1959) consider it the least salt-tolerant of the Rhizophora species. The species occurring on higher ground within or near the mangrove and in fresh-water swamps behind or up- stream from the mangroves vary from region to region. In the coastal regions of Surinam, Venezuela and British Guiana, where Avicennia is the dominant mangrove, the region behind the mangrove belt isa complex mosaic of vegetation types controlled by local soil and water con- ditions. Especially important is the mixed swamp forest (including Pachira (Bombax) aquatica and Pterocarpus officinalis) which may form extensive stands behind the mangroves. ‘There also are often palm swamps; herba- ceous swamps, often dominated over great expanses by ferns (e.g., Acrostichum aureum); as well as special vege- tation types on sandy beach ridges and high natural levees. This pattern is very different from that described by Cuatrecasas and others for the west coast of South [ 807 | America. Here, behind the Rhizophora zone, the back- swamp vegetation is usually a mixed swamp forest type which forms a gradual transition to rain forest. In Mexico and some other areas of Central America, where hills come down to the shore, such a transition belt is usually narrow or absent. As previously noted, Hymenaea Courbaril today fre- quently occurs in habitats closely associated with man- groves along the Pacific coast of Central America. This has been observed by the senior author along the Guer- rero coast in Mexico and along the Osa Peninsula in Costa Rica. Lindeman (1953) also has reported H. Courbaril as occurring in Surinam on low sand ridges near the mangroves. The most significant present-day situation observed by the senior author that might represent possible site conditions like one of those in which the Chiapas amber could have been deposited occurs around Puerto Marques Bay, Guerrero, Mexico. Here, H. Courbaril is one of the dominant trees in a Tall-Medium Subdeciduous forest-type (Miranda and Hernindez-X, 1963) on the hills sloping either to the ocean or to bays (Plate X LI). Hymenaea occurs along rivers that enter the lagoons and also on sandy ridges that interdigitate into the lagoon (Plate XLI). These lagoons are fringed primarily by R. Mangle and on higher ground by Laguncularia race- mosa (Plate XLI). Hymenaea also may be found on dune and beach ridge vegetation along the coast in Guer- rero and Oaxaca. Around Puerto Marquez Bay, it is easy to visualize how resin from Hf. Courbaril would be deposited into the lagoon with fringing mangroves. A single severe flooding could wash away resin collected in the soil, and the stilt roots of Rhizophora offer an excel- lent mechanism to ‘‘trap’’ the resin. Also, resin may easily be transported down rivers that enter the bays and [ 308 ] (Top, left) Puerto Mérquez Bay, Guerrero, Mexico. with J//ymenaea Courbaril as one of the dominant trees in hillside vegetation. Mangrove vegetation along lagoons is outlined. Hymenaea also occurs on sandy ridges extending into the lagoons. (Right) //ymenaea Courbaril L. on sandy ridges about 200 yards from lagoonal mangrove swamp shown in top, left. (Bottom, left) Typical Rhizophora Mangle stilt roots occur- ring in Puerto Marquez mangrove swamp with //ymenaea Courbaril on adjacent sand ridge. ILV Iq nN VIN lagoons, for it was frequently observed that soil around the bases of streamside Hymenaea, where resin often accumulates, has been washed away, exposing the roots. In general, it has been observed that present-day habi- tats of A. Courbaril offer a number of possibilities for resin to be deposited in a site dominated by mangrove vegetation. Interpretation of Rhizophora Pollen Data from A mber- bearing Sediments Muller (1959) studied the pollen of mangrove and asso- ciated vegetation in sediments of the Orinoco delta and the Gu-f of Paria near Trinidad. He was also able to define palynological provinces in these sediments on the basis of pollen composition and abundance. He has shown that the major factor influencing pollen deposition there is water transportation. He further points out that pollen studies may be of use in facies determination and recon- struction of ancient basins of sedimentation. Van der Hammen (1963) extends Muller’s observations and con- cludes the following in regard to deposition of mangrove pollen in British Guiana (pp. 140-141): 1) *‘{n a Mangrove forest the percentage of Rhizo- phora +- Avicennia may be between 45 and 95%. If the Mangrove forest forms only a narrow fringe, the sedi- ment tends to have lower percentage, as for instance 80." 2) ‘‘Mud deposited in front of the coast-line, may have percentages of Rhizophora + Avicennia pollen of 30-50%. Further offshore the percentage of Rhizophora pollen increases and may be up to 70% or more.” 3) ‘Swamp forests immediately behind the Mangrove forest may have 45-10% (or less) and Swamp forests farther inland may have 10-09% Rhizophora pollen in the sediment." { 811 ] 4) *‘Heavy pollen grains. . . rarely are found in sedi- ments in front of the coastline in any appreciable per- centage. Lighter pollen grains are carried seawards more easily and may be sedimented at considerable distance from the shore. ~ 5) ‘The Fungi spore content is in general highest in the swamp and forest area behind the coast-line and ranges between 10 and 100% of the pollen sum, although both higher and lower values may occur (0-500%). In the Mangrove belt the percentages are usually relatively low, ordinarily varying between 3 and 10%. Ina zone in front of the coast percentages are generally low (1-38 ), and spores of this type are not found farther offshore.” Although Muller's and van der Hammen’s conclusions ‘annot necessarily be assumed to represent conditions along the Central American coasts, they provide a ten- tative framework for interpretation of the Chiapas sedi- ments. Pertinent palynological data from these sediments are summarized in Table I. The relationship of Rhizo- phora pollen to total pollen content of the sediments is represented by “‘percent Rhizophora pollen.” *‘*'Total Rhizophora’ constitutes the sum of all Rhizophora types as well as those with uncertain affinities. In an attempt to gain more detailed ecological information from the total Rhizophora category, it was divided into three groups. The R. Mangle-type which, as established by ecological studies of modern mangroves, represents pol- len of the species occupying a more saline habitat ; R/izo- phora spp. (R. racemosa-type and R. Harrisoni-ty pe) which represents pollen of the species living in less saline (brackish and fresh) habitats; and RAtzophora with un- certain affinities. The percentage relationship of each of the first two groups to the total Rhizophora pollen, therefore, gives a possible indication of a more saline or [ 312: | more brackish environment. However, this conclusion must remain tentative, until statistical analyses are un- dertaken of Rhizophora pollen presently being deposited in various types of marine and brackish environments, to show whether the relative percentages of the two types of pollen actually reflect the two vegetational groups. The percentage of fungal spores to total pollen is con- sidered by van der Hammen to represent a possible index of ‘‘landinwards”’ conditions. Since the identification of individual grains as belonging to the Rhizophora Mangle- type or Rhizophora spp.-type may not always be certain, a few grains in each sample may have been misidentified. Therefore, percentages given in Table I are approximate. Sample I from Simojovel appears from several lines of evidence to represent deposition at the actual site of a mangrove swamp. The sample is lignitic in nature, and mangroves today are known to be active peat formers (Chapman, 1939; Spackman e¢ al., 1964). The total con- tent of Rhizophora pollen is very high (90%); associated pollen is large and heavy, and would not be expected to be carried far from its source plant. The fungal spore content is very low. The extremely high percentage of Rhizophora pollen also suggests that the source area was not anarrow fringing mangrove but an extensive forest. Rhizophora Mangle-type is present (Plate XL, fig. 4), but in negligible percentages, suggesting that the man- grove forest here was composed largely of individuals belonging to the Rhizophora spp. division (Plate XL, figs. 2 and 8) and grew perhaps under brackish conditions. The occurrence in this sample of pollen very closely resembling that of Pelliciera rhizophorae (Plate XLII, figs. 4-7), a highly specialized member of the Theaceae, is very interesting. Since the range of this monotypic genus today is restricted to mangrove swamps along the Pacific coast from Costa Rica south to western Colombia [ 313 ] (Johnston, 1949), its presence in this sample suggests a wider distribution in the past. Sample II, Mazantic, is very closely related to that from Simojovel (I) in lithology. Approximately 66% of the grains are recognizable as I/izophora. Although poor preservation of the sample made division of the grains into the two major Rhizophora categories difficult and somewhat uncertain, a large proportion of the grains could be assigned to the Rhizophora spp. group. BR. Mangle-ty pe was present only in very low percentages; the same is true for fungal spores. From the general similarity of the two sediments, it is suggested that the samples from Simojovel and Mazantic represent a simi- lar habitat. Samples III and IV, from Pabuchil and Huitiupan, although somewhat different lithologically, appear to be comparable palynologically. In both, nearly half of the pollen (45%) encountered is of the Rhizophora type. Of this, acomparatively large percentage (20%) is definitely R. Mangle-type. The category Rhizophora affinity un- certain here includes a number of grains referable proba- bly to R. Mangle-type, seen in polar view. Such grains were placed in this category, since it is often difficult to distinguish modern Rk. Mangle in this orientation from other species. In both samples, fungal spores are abun- dant with respect to the total pollen. Other microfossils include pollen very closely resembling that of Hngel- hardtia (Plate XLII, fig. 3), a very low percentage of pol- len of the Pelliciera-type, and a few Hystrichosphaerids in the Huitiupan sample. The two are similar in the per- centages of unidentified tricolporate and monocolpate pollen; marine shells occur in both samples. ‘These samples represent probably similar habitats. By van der Hammen’s criteria, the relatively high fungal spore con- tent suggests that the site was very near the coastline, [ B14 ] Miscellaneous fossil pollen types associated with Rhizophora. 1, Pachira-type: fossil, Portugal. 2, Pcdocarpus sp., fossil, Pabuchil. 3, Englehardtia sp., fossil, Pabuchil. 4, Pelliciera-type; fossil, Simojovel; equatorial view. 5, Pelliciera-ty pe; fossil, Simo- jovel; polar view. 6, Pelliciera rhizophorae; modern. 7, Pelliciera rhizophorae; modern. The seale on each figure is 10/. just behind, or perhaps just offshore; the presence of large, heavy grains also supports this. The relatively high percentage of mangrove pollen suggests that a mixed Rhizophora swamp was present in the vicinity. The higher percentage of R. Mangle-type pollen and the marine shells may indicate more coastal conditions than those suggested by samples I and II. The two samples from Portugal (V and V1) are simi- lar in lithology and in the presence of moderate per- centages of Rhizophora pollen which is referable to the Rhizophora spp. division. The majority of the pollen is made up of various unidentified tricolpate and monocol- pate pollen. Small quantities (8-7%) of Engelhardtia- type grain occur. Sample VI contains several interesting non-rhizophoroid grains, among them large planar tet- rads comparable to those of the Annonaceae and a grain of Pachira aquatica Aubl.,a member of the Bombacaceae today characteristic of fresh-water swamp regions behind the mangrove as well as of streamsides. On the basis of these non-rhizophoroid grains, these samples would ap- pear to represent a somewhat less brackish facies than any of the above and suggest deposition in a swamp forest adjacent to mangroves. However, the presence of marine fossils in the same samples casts some doubt on this interpretation. Pollen in Sample VII, a coarse-grained siltstone from the Las Cruces slide, was infrequent and poorly pre- served. Those grains encountered appeared to be Rhizo- phora, perhaps of the R/zzophora spp.-type. A relatively large piece of amber, however, from Las Cruces has oysters embedded in the surface, indicating that the resin was still soft when it entered the marine environment. This suggests either that the trees producing the resin were growing along the shore or that the resin was trans- ported only a short distance before the shells were caught. in it. [ 317 | The two samples from Palo Blanco (VIII and IX) are generally similar. Sample VIII is from the bed imme- diately underlying that of Sample IX and appears to contain no Rk. Mangle-type, and though there is much uncertainty about the affinity of many individual grains due to poor preservation, it is improbable that a signifi- cant number Rk. Mangle-type have been overlooked. Engelhardtia-ty pe makes up 22% of the total recogni- zable pollen. The genus Engelhardtia today is restricted to the highland areas of Mexico and Central America (Miranda and Sharp, 1950), and to southeast Asia, where it is common in the hills of coastal regions (S. Hu, pers. comm., 1965). The abundance of grains of this type in the Chiapas sediments (and in other early Tertiary sedi- ments, cf. Traverse, Hngelhardtia Spackmani) suggests either that the grain represents an extinct line with pol- len very similar to the modern Hngelhardtia, or that the genus has changed both its range and ecological prefer- ence in the New World since the Oligo-Miocene. Sample IX contains a small percentage of unmistakable Rhizo- phora Mangle-type pollen and a number of Rhizophora affinity uncertain grains which belong probably to R. Mangle and also 7% Engelhardtia. The matrix of both samples contained glauconite and marine fossils. ‘The high percentage of Rhizophora pollen and the presence of fungal spores suggest deposition in the vicinity of mangrove vegetation. There is some carbonized material which might result from re-deposition of older material, as is known to occur in levee deposits in the Orinoco delta (Muller, 1959). However, percentages of Rhizo- phora and other small, light pollen are known to increase also in sediments quite distant from shore. Most of the grains encountered in these sediments are in the 20-40 yu size range and indicate possibly an offshore depositional environment. [ 318 | The samples from Mina de Naranjo (X and XI) are presumed to be roughly the same age as in the Mina Palo Blanco sediments. Samples X and XI are similar in the relatively low percentages of Rhizophora pollen present and in their poor preservation. Only a few grains in each sediment could be confidently placed in one of the two major divisions. ‘he remainder were placed with those of uncertain affinity, but most grains belong probably to the Rhizophora spp. group. In Sample X, fungal spores were present in low percentages, and the majority of the pollen were unidentified tricolpate and monocolpate types. There were 7% fern spores. Pollen of Podocar- pus (Plate XLII, fig. 2) occurs infrequently in these sediments. Podocarpus is the only conifer present, other than a few poorly preserved grains probably of Pinus. Sample XI contained a somewhat larger percentage of Rhizophora pollen, including a number of Rhizophora spp.-type grains, and a considerably larger percentage of fungal spores. ‘The percentage of Mngelhardtia-ty pe decreased to 8%, and the number of fern spores remained high (7%). The depositional environment of these sam- ples is not suggested on the basis of their pollen content. The low percentages of Rhizophora might be interpreted as indicative of deltaic deposits such as those investigated by Muller (1959, Pica E), or of foreshore deposits. The generally moderate to high percentages of fungal spores in these sediments and the Palo Blanco samples above, according to the ideas of van der Hammen (1963), seem higher than those which would be expected in an off- shore environment; many more data from modern depo- sitional environments, however, are needed here. Amber from these deposits does have impressions of marine gas- tropods, which again suggests that the resin-producing trees were close to the shore so that the resin was de- posited in the water (or on the strand line with the shells) before it hardened. [ 319 ] Sample XII, from Jolpabuchil, contained relatively small amounts of poorly preserved pollen and great quan- tities of carbonized debris, which might perhaps have been re-deposited material. Recognizable tracheids of the sort described by Muller (1959) as re-deposited from Eocene sediments in Venezuela were frequently en- countered. Pollen grains included some Rhizophora of uncertain affinity. The presence of marine fossils indi- cates probably an offshore environment. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Pollen from 12 rock samples from Chiapas, Mexico, either from strata containing amber or immediately ad- jacent to them, were studied. These samples do not vary greatly in lithology, ranging from calcareous siltstone or silty shale to calcareous sandstone. They are all from strata considered to be latest Oligocene or earliest Mio- cene in age and represent apparently a relatively small interval of geological time. The palynological data indi- cate development of mangrove vegetation of considerable complexity at or close to the site of deposition of the amber. The most important elements of the vegetation from the standpoint of the pollen record were members of the genus Rhizophora, in all probability representing several species of different ecological preferences. A]- though only one other genus known to be a member of the New World mangrove association today (i.e., Pelli- ciera) was encountered, the possible presence of others is not precluded. As studies by Muller (1959), van der Hammen (1963) and Spackman et al. (1964) have indi- cated, other mangroves such as Laguneularia and Cono- carpus may be present, but only Rhizophora and Avicen- nia pollen commonly occur in abundance in recent sedi- ments. Until more careful studies of the delimitation of different mangrove species and their pollen are made, [ 320 ] and investigation of pollen sedimentation on the Central American coasts is carried out, all paleoecological con- clusions regarding the Chiapas mangrove association must be tentative. Despite the fact that it is not possible from presently available data to reconstruct the vegetation types at or close to the depositional site of the amber, certain en- vironmental conditions are strongly suggested. It ap- pears that, at certain sites, the beds from which the samples came were deposited under brackish conditions with a predominance of Rhizophora (Simojovel and Ma- zantic); in others, ina more coastal, saline mixed Rhizo- phora vegetation (Pabuchil and Huitiupan): in some- what less brackish conditions, suggesting deposition in or near a backswamp forest adjacent to Rhizophora (Portu- gal); or possibly in foreshore conditions in the vicinity of mangroves (Mina Palo Blanco and Mina de Naranjo). These data likewise support the geological evidence that deposition of the amber-bearing beds took place, in general, along a coastline of a shallow, tropical sea with occasional shoreline fluctuations. Evidence that the am- ber was produced by possible ancestral populations of Hymenaea Courbaril also receives corroboration, as this species today commonly occurs in habitats in which the resin produced could easily enter mangrove deposits. Likewise, the significant absence of Pinus in the amber- bearing beds, except for a rare, eroded specimen, seems to support a source tree other than pine. Since pine pro- duces such large quantities of pollen that get widely dis- tributed by wind, its scarcity tends to indicate that pines were probably not present within this vicinity. REFERENCES Brown, C.A. 1960. Palynological techniques. Baton Rouge, La, 188 pp. Chapman, V.J. 1939. Cambridge University Expedition to Jamaica, Jour. Linn, Soc, Bot. 52: 423-445. Cuatrecasas, José. 1958. Introduccién al estudio de los manglares. Bol. Soc. Bot. Mex. 23: 84-98. Czeczott, Hanna. 1960. The flora of the Baltic amber and its age. Prace Mus. Ziemi, Nr. 4: 119-145. Erdtman, G. 1952. Pollen morphology and plant taxonomy. Angio- sperms. Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, Mass. Faegri, K. and J. Iversen. 196+. Textbook of pollen analysis. Stech- ert Hafner, New York. Gregory, D.P. 1958. Rhizophoraceae. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard, 45: 136-142. Guppy, H.B. 1906. Observations of a naturalist in the Pacific. Lon- don: 443-449, Hammen, TI. van der. 1963. A palynological study on the Quarterna- ry of British Guiana. Leidse Geol. Meded. 29: 125-180. ~—— and T.A. Wymstra. 1964. A palynological study on the Terti- ary and Cretaceous of British Guiana. Leidse Geol. Meded. 30: 183-241. Helm, O. 1891. Mittheilungen iiber Bernstein XV, Uber den Suc- cinit und die ihm verwandten fossilen Harze. Schrift. d. Naturf. Ges. N.F. 7: 189-208. Hou, D. 1960. A review of the genus Rhizophora with special refer- ence to its occurrence in the Pacific. Blumea 10: 325-334. Hurd, P.D. and R.F. Smith. 1957. The meaning of Mexico’s amber. Pac. Dis. 10 (2) 1: 6-7. —, ——, and J.W. Durham. 1962. The fossiliferous amber of Chiapas, Mexico. Ciencia 21 (3): 107-118. Johnston, I.M. 1949. The botany of San Jose Island. Sargentia VIII: 306 pp. Jonker F.P. 1959. The genus Rhizophora in Surinam, Acta Bot. Needl. 8: 58-60. Langenheim, J.H. 1964, Present status of botanical studies of am- bers. Harvard Univ., Bot. Mus. Leaflets 20: 225-287. ———, 1966. Botanical source of amber from Chiapas, Mexico. Cien- cia. 24: 201-211, —— and C.W. Beck. 1965. Infrared spectra as a means of deter- mining botanical sources of amber. Science 149: 52-55. [ 822 ] Licari, R. 1960. Geology and amber deposits of the Simojovel area, Chiapas, Mexico. Unpubl. thesis, M.A., Dept. of Geol., Univ. of California, Berkeley. Lindeman, J.C. 1953. The vegetation of the coastal regions of Suri- nam. Utrecht. 1-135. In The Vegetation of Surinam, ed. I. A. de Hulster, V. Lanjou and F.W. Ostendorf 1 (1): 1-135. Van Edenfonds, Amsterdam. Miranda, F. 1963. Two plants from Chiapas amber. Jour. Paleontol. 37: 611-614. and A.J. Sharp. 1950. Characteristics of vegetation in certain temperate regions of eastern Mexico, Ecol. 31: 313-333. and E. Hernandez-X. 1963. Los tipos de vegetacion de México y su clasificacién. Bol. Mex. Bot. Soc. 28: 29-179. Muller, J. 1959. Palynology of recent Orinoco delta and shelf sedi- ments. Reports of the Orinoco Shelf Exped. Micropaleo. 5 (1): 1-32. . 1964. A palynological contribution to the history of mangrove vegetation in Borneo. Ancient Pacific Floras, Univ. of Hawaii Press: 33-42. Noriega, J.M. 1918. El gaupinole. Bol. Direc. Estud. Biél. II: 357- 363. Record, S.J. and R.D. Hess. 1943. Timbers of the New World. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven. Salvoza, F.M. 1936. Rhizophora, Nat. Appl. Sci. Bull., University of the Philippines, Manila. Savory, H.J. 1953. A note on the ecology of Rhizophora in Nigeria. Kew. Bull. 8: 127-128. Schubert, Kurt. 1958. Sobre el ambar baltico y los pinos de El Sal- vador, Comunicaceénes, Instituto Tropical de Investigaciénes Cien- tifieas, Universidad de El] Salvador VII: 51-55. . 1931. Neue Untersuchungen tiber Bau und Leben der Bern- steinkiefern (Pinus succinifera (Conw.) emend.). Beihefte Geol. Jahrbuch, H. 45. Niedersachsische Landesamt fiir Bodenforschung. Hannover. 143 pp. Spackman, W., D.W. Scholl, and W.H. Taft. 1964. Field guidebook to environments of coal formation in southern Florida. G.S.A. Preconven. Field Trip, Nov. 16-18. U.S. Geological Survey (Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch, Den- ver, Colo.) 1960. Preparation Procedures for fossil pollen and spores, Mimeo. 15 pp. Zagwijn, W.H. 1961. Vegetation, climate and radiocarbon datings in the Late Pleistocene of the Netherlands. Meded. Geologische Stichting 14: 15-45, [ 328 ] APPENDIX Following is a brief lithologic description of the samples studied. Locality numbers in parentheses with ‘‘B’’ and “*D’’ prefixes refer to materials on loan to the Botanical Museum of Harvard University from collections of the University of California Museum of Paleon- tology. Locality numbers with ‘*Pl’’ prefixes are in the Harvard University Paleobotanical collections. Sample I (D-621) was collected from the landslide on the east side of the village of Simojovel. It is a brownish to reddish, coarse-grained siltstone, including fine seams of lignitic material. Sample II (Pl-32) was collected upstream from Mazantic from a 5-10 foot lignitic bed containing amber. Sample III (P1-7) was collected from Pabuchil (Rancho Alegre) slide two miles northwest of Simojovel. It is a sandy, dark-grey cal- careous silt stone from an amber-bearing interval with marine fossils. Sample IV (PI-8) was collected at an outcrop along the road to Huitiupan. It is a leached calcareous sandstone with carbonaceous sandstone with carbonaceous streaks and contained fairly abundant amber. Sample V (B-4178) was collected at the Portugal (also known as Santa Catarina) slide on the north side of the Ri6é Ancora valley. It is a greyish-brown siltstone containing marine fossils from a bed im- mediately below the amber-bearing strata. Sample VI (B-4177) also was collected at Portugal slide from a blue silty clay 100 feet in the section above Sample V and 4-5 feet above a thin lignitic zone. Sample VII (P1-33) was collected at the Las Cruces slide about 15 miles southeast of Simojovel. It is a brownish, coarse-grained silt- stone with some lignitic material, from a 4-8 foot lignitic interval immediately above beds containing amber. Sample VIII (D-614) was collected from a marine glauconitic sandy shale at Mina Palo Blanco, Finca La Primavera on the San Pedro River northwest of Simojovel. Sample IX (D-615) was collected from a marine black silty-shale at Mina Palo Blanco from the bed immediately above the previous sample. Sample X (B-8106) is a marine glauconitic silty-shale collected at Mina de Naranjo, Finca La Primavera. Sample XI (B-8105) is a marine glauconitic silty-shale collected at Mina de Naranjo. Sample XII (B-4180) was collected at Jolpabuchil. It is a greyish- black carbonaceous siltstone with marine fossils. [ 824 ]