SARGENTIA

A CONTINUATION OF THE
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM
OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY

V
FRAGMENTA PAPUANA

[OBSERVATIONS OF A NATURALIST IN NETHERLANDS NEW
GUINEA]

BY
H. J. LAM

WITH TWO MAPS AND THIRTY-TWO TEXT-FIGURES

Translated from the Dutch by
LILY M. PERRY

PUBLISHED BY
THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY
JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS., U. S. A.
1945

SARGENTIA

A CONTINUATION OF THE
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM
OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY

A publication issued at irregular intervals by the Arnold Arbore-
tum of Harvard University. Issues can be obtained from the Arnold
Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., U. S. A. All correspondence
pertaining to Sargentia should be addressed to the Librarian.

No. I. Fryran Prant Stupies, II. Botanitcat RESULTS OF THE
1940-41 Cruise or THE “CHENG Ho.” By A. C. Smith (and collabo-
rators). Pp. 1-148, with five text-figures. July 20, 1942. $2.50.

No. II. THe ARaALtaceaz or Coins. By Hui-Lin Li. Pp. 1-
134, with fourteen text-figures. Oct. 26, 1942. $2.25.

No. III. A Revision or THE Genus SaBrA CoLEBROOKE. By
Luetta Chen, With nine text-figures. Tue CHINESE AND INDO-
CHINESE SPECIES OF Ormosia. By E. D. Merrill and Luetta Chen.
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$2.50.

No. V. FracMenta Papuana [OBSERVATIONS OF A NATURALIST
IN NETHERLANDS New Guinea]. By H. J. Lam. Pp. 1-196, with
two maps and thirty-two text-figures. Translated from the Dutch by
Lily M. Perry. Feb. 6, 1945. $3.00.

SARGENTIA

A CONTINUATION OF THE
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM
OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY

V
FRAGMENTA PAPUANA

[OBSERVATIONS OF A NATURALIST IN NETHERLANDS NEW
GUINEA]

ine 4
H. J. LAM

WITH TWO MAPS AND THIRTY-TWO TEXT-FIGURES

Translated from the Dutch by
LILY M. PERRY

PUBLISHED BY
THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY
JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS., U. S. A.
1945

SARGENTIA

A CONTINUATION OF THE
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM
oF Harvarp UNIversity

No. V, pp. i-iv, 1-196, with two maps and thirty-two text-figures
Issued February 6, 1945

PRINTED BY THE LANCASTER Press, Inc,
LANCASTER, Pa,

FOREWORD

Up to the beginning of the present century New Guinea, from a botanical
standpoint, was largely a terra incognita. While some field work had been done,
little intensive exploration had been attempted. This is manifest in Schumann
& Lauterbach, Die Flora der Deutschen Schutzgebiete in der Siidsee, 1900,
covering the formerly German-controlled part (ISaiser Wilhelms-land), the
western half of the Solomons, the Marshalls, Carolines, Palau, Mascarene, and
Marianas Islands. They were able to record only 1560 species of vascular
cryptogams and flowering plants from the vast area indicated. In the early
part of the present century German botanists intensified their work on North-
eastern New Guinea, while Australian, British, and Netherlands botanists
increased their field activities in their territories. Finally, beginning in 1925,
the Arnold Arboretum sponsored various expeditions to Papua, the Solomon
Islands, and the New Hebrides. These collections have been greatly aug-
mented by the material brought together by Mr. L. J. Brass, botanist on the
three Archbold. Expeditions to New Guinea, 1933-34, 1936-37, and 1938-39.
On the last expedition Mr. Brass was assisted by Mr. C. Versteegh and Dr.
E. Meyer-Drees.

Shortly after the close of the Nederlandsch-Indische-Amerikaansche Expedi-
tion, 1938-39, in furtherance of our work of identifying New Guinean plants
here, Dr. Lily M. Perry began a translation from the original Dutch of Professor
H. J. Lam’s Fragmenta Papuana. The latter appeared as a series of articles
in the Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indié, 1927-29. Mean-
while, the present war spread rapidly and little-known New Guinea fell into
enemy hands. Asa concomitant of this war, the necessity for emergency foods
has created a great demand for information regarding the poorly known floras
of the Southwest Pacific region. Because Professor Lam’s account of his ex-
periences and observations on the vegetation of Netherlands New Guinea is
very instructive, Dr. Frans Verdoorn, also a staff-member of the Arnold Arbo-
retum, suggested that it might be helpful to have the translation published, and
he in turn took up the matter with the Board for the Netherlands Indies,
Surinam, and Curacao, in New York. This Board not only endorsed his idea
but also, through its office in Washington, made a liberal grant to the Arnold
Arboretum to assist in covering the cost of publication. For this generous sup-
port we are particularly indebted to Dr. P. J. Honig.

Normally, permission to publish the translation would have been sought
from the author. However, the representatives of the Government of the
Netherlands East Indies, through the Board for the Netherlands Indies,
Surinam, and Curacao, have not only acted as sponsor by giving us permission
to publish the translation, but, as mentioned above, have contributed materi-
ally to the actual cost. This authoritative group took the attitude that,
through the medium of an English translation, the important data included in
Dr. Lam’s account would be more widely available, and through such a publica-
tion a real contribution would be made of which the general public could take
advantage. Apart from the fact that Professor Lam’s articles present an excel-
lent picture of the terrain and its difficulties, as well as suggesting the possibility
of subsisting in the lowland, if such necessity should arise, it must not be over-
looked that at the same time a great deal of purely botanical information will be
available which is now to be found only ina few of our libraries. —E. D. MERRILL.

PREFACE

THE FRAGMENTA PAPUANA by Professor H. J. Lam is, without doubt, one
of the most important botanical publications on Netherlands New Guinea.
The series consists of seven articles published as follows: I. Chronological
survey of the Mamberamo Exploration in general and of the Expedition to
Central New Guinea 1920-1922 in particular, Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl.-Ind.
87: 110-130. 1927. II. Some meteorological data collected during the Cen-
tral New Guinea Expedition 1920-1921, op. cit. 87: 130-138. 1927. III. Im-
pressions of the Lower Mamberamo Territory, op. cit. 87: 139-180, 1927.
IV. The Meervlakte and the foothills, op. cit. 88: 187-227. 1928. V. The
north slope of the Central Mountain Range, op. cit. 88: 252-324. 1928.
VI. Above the forest limits: Doormantop and its vegetation, op. cit. 89: 67-130.
1929. VII. Land and people of the Dika and Toli Valleys, op. cit. 89: 291-380.
1929. Appendix, op. cit. 89: 381-385. 1929. The corrections following the
appendix have been inserted in the places indicated. The original is abun-
dantly illustrated with 93 figures. It was decided not to reproduce the half-
tones, but the majority of the drawings are included in this English version,
The tables appended to Fragment VI have not been reproduced, since all the
plants listed are discussed in the text.

Although the botanical information embodied in these articles was the pri-
mary objective of the author, and also ours, | cannot but express something of
the pleasure I have derived from. Professor Lam’s delightful pen-pictures of the
country. and its inhabitants. The botanical enumerations and descriptions
are interspersed with a vivid and living journal covering the year which he
spent in New Guinea. The summaries of his impressions, the faithful recording
of details, the intuitive appreciation of beauty so well expressed in scenes of
nature, and the variety of his observations: all these lend color and interest
to this work.

On account of the proximity of the regions explored by the van Overeem
Expedition, of which Professor Lam was the botanist, and by the Nederlandsch-
Indische-Amerikaansche Expedition (Richard Archbold Expedition, 1938-39),
it seemed to be desirable, in handling the botanical collections of the latter, to
obtain some idea of the content of the Fragmenta Papuana. Hitherto in our
work together, Dr. Merrill has given me the benefit of the gist of short Dutch
descriptions whenever the need arose; but he is much too busy to take the time
to impart to me the content of such comprehensive articles. For this reason,
obviously it was necessary for me to learn some of the fundamental principles
of the Dutch language. . In this it was my good fortune to receive careful and
painstaking instruction from Mrs. J. A. C. Fagginger Auer. She also most
graciously supervised about half of the translation. In the remaining parts
Dr. Frans Verdoorn has been exceedingly generous and repeatedly helpful in
unraveling complex sentences, as well as in explaining various Malayan words
and other difficulties. Dr. Merrill has very kindly read the manuscript, and |
am indebted to him for many useful criticisms and suggestions. The errors
and omissions, of which I hope there are not too many, are mine alone.
Lity M. Perry

FRAGMENTA PAPUANA!”

[OBSERVATIONS OF A NATURALIST IN
NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA]

H. J. Lam?

with two maps and thirty-two text-figures

Translated from the Dutch by

Lity M. PERRY

Introduction

THE ARTICLES which | propose to publish consecutively under the above
common title are taken from an extensive and hitherto unpublished manuscript.
As botanist, I participated in the first part of the Mamberamo Expedition in
New Guinea under the leadership of A. J. A. van Overeem, at that time Captain
of the General Staff. Shortly after my return in January 1921, I began to
work up my notes, and it was the end of 1924 before I completed the task.
Through various and sundry circumstances, however, this work remained un-
published. It was late in 1926 before I set eyes on the manuscript again.
Since it was written, much has been published on New Guinea and regarding
our Mamberamo Expedition. Nevertheless, I think that there is enough of
value in these notes to warrant their publication as Fragmenta Papuana. To
that end the copy has been revised as necessary, utilizing the published litera-
ture to complete it.

The first article of the series is of an introductory nature and relates to the
history of the Mamberamo Expedition in general and to that of the expedition
of 1920-1922 in particular. The second article contains merely meteorological
data which I assembled during the expedition. The remaining Fragments,
which I hope will follow, relate to the vegetation, and each will consist of studies
of the plant formations of the several regions visited, again with accessory small
detailed maps, landscape sketches and photographs. Only one article in its
principal content touches upon the field of ethnology; for that reason this will
be published elsewhere.

The first two articles which follow are accompanied by two sketch maps
which will be useful not only for Fragments I and II but also for the remaining

1 Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl.-Ind. 87: 110-130. 1927. Introduction and Fragment I.

2 (Footnote taken from the Addenda). Ina footnote at the beginning of Fragment V, it was
stated that the ‘“‘Indisch Comite voor Wetenschappelijke Onderzoekingen"’ rendered possible
the publication of the ‘“‘Fragmenta Papuana”’ in its original illustrated form. Through a
regrettable oversight in the introduction to the first part of the Fragmenta, the fact was not
mentioned that the Scientific Expedition to Central New Guinea 1920-1922 was organized and
equipped by that Committee, the chairman of which was Lieut.-Gen. H. N. A. Swart, at that
time Vice-President of the Council of the Netherlands Indies.

Other additions and corrections given at the end of Fragmenta VII are interpolated in their
proper places in this translation. ;

’ At the time of the publication of the translated articles, Prof. Lam’s title was Assistant in
the Herbarium of the ’s Lands Plantentuin, Buitenzorg, Java; at present he is Director of
the Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Netherlands.

2 SARGENTIA [5

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MAP A

Legend

. Tulband-bivak
. Edi-bivak

. Wand-bivak

. Batavia-bivak
. Kalong-bivak
. Veen-bivak

Donk Wh

N.B. The area limited by a border in the
Central Region is considerably enlarged
and given in greater detail in Map B.

Map A (river bivouacs 1-6) gives a general view of the entire region; a

part of it is enlarged in map B (land bivouacs 1-20).

I. Chronological survey of the Mamberamo Exploration in general ‘ and
of the Expedition to Central New Guinea 1920-1922 in particular

A. History previous to the Expedition 1920-1922.

1884. Voyage of the government steamship “‘Havik.”

The ship reached

Havik Island, just upstream from the present Pionier-bivak.
4 Cf. also: Verslag van de Militaire Exploratie van Nederlandsch-Nieuw-Guinee 1907—1915,

uitg. Dept. v. Oorlog, 1920,

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA g

1900. Voyage of the steamship “‘Camphuijs”’ of the Koninklijke Paketvaart-
Maatschappij to Havik Island.

1906. Voyage of the government steamer ‘‘Brak’’ to Havik Island.

1909. Voyage of the small government steamship ‘‘Pionier’’ (after which
Pionier-bivak is named) 20 km. beyond Havik Island, and an additional trip of
15 km.° further by proa.

1909-1910. Franssen Herderschee Expedition.6 This reached the Meer-
vlakte for the first time and proceeded up the van der Willigen River. On
account of the illness of many participants, this undertaking had to be dis-
continued at the beginning of the overland journey. The base was located first
at IXoetei-bivak on the van Gelder River, but later it was moved to the Old
Pionier-bivak on the left bank of the Okten River a few hundred meters from
its mouth. The altitude reached was 850 m. <A small part of the Idenburg
River was reconnoitered.

1910-1911. Moszkowski Expedition.’ Two noteworthy journeys of Dr.
Moszkowski, accompanied by a European preparator and a few natives. The
first journey included an investigation of the mouth of the Mamberamo. Base:
Franssen Herderschee’s Pionier-bivak. Moszkowski was shipwrecked in the
Edi Falls and lost all collections and equipment. On the second voyage he
reached the Meervlakte, sailed up the van Daalen River, and finally for some
days followed the overland route located by the Franssen Herderschee
Expedition. On the return journey he was again shipwrecked. Although
some entries in Dr. Moszkowski’'s publication indicate that he certainly visited
most of the points which he describes, other passages leave one in doubt as to
whether or not all statements are to be trusted. There seems to be some ques-
tion as to whether or not both shipwrecks actually occurred. On the last part
of his land journey he was accompanied by one Papuan. Moszkowski believed
that he was within 40-45 km. of Carstensztop.

1911. De Wal Expedition. The old Pionier-bivak used as a base. Recon-
naissance of the Idenburg River up to the great gap, including some tributaries.®

1913-1915. Oppermann Expedition. Reconnaissance of the van Rees
Mountains and the coastal islands. The expedition explored the Idenburg and
the Rouffaer Rivers and their source-streams.? The commander of the detach-
ment, now sub-Lieutenant L. A. C. M. Doorman, prosecuted a bold and swift
journey into the mountain-region, whereby he, starting from what we now call

the Doorman River, ‘. . . November 21, 1914 ... reached a mountain-
summit 3800 m. high . . . (the present Doormantop), which . . . afforded a
view of the drainage of the central chain.’”’ As a result of his observations he

indicated the probability that the southern valleys were inhabited. This
journey was the immediate forerunner !° of the

1920-1921 van Overeem Expedition, which was followed by the

1921-1922 Kremer Expedition:

® Rouffaer, Drie opvaarten van de Mamberamo, Tijdschr. Kon. Ned. Aardr. Gen. XXVI
(1909) p. 86—Rambonnet, De jongste opvaart der Mamberamo, ibid., p. 946.

® Dr. J. K. van Gelder, Verslag omtrent eene geologische verkenning van de Mamberamo-
rivier op Nieuw-Guinee.—Jaarb. Mijnwezen in Ned. Indié voor 1910, XX XIX (1912), 87.

7 Dr. Moszkowski, Expedition zur Erforschung des Mamberamo in Hollandisch Neu-Guinea
—Zeitschr. der Ges, f. Erdkunde, 1912, p. 271 and 365, 3 maps.

§ De Wal, Verkenning der Idenburgrivier, ibid. XXIX (1912), p. 293.

* J. W. Langeler and L. A. C. M. Doorman, Nieuw-Guinee en de exploratie der ‘‘Meervlakte,”’
1913-1915—De Aarde en haar Volken (1918), pp. 141-208.

“Another journey of Doorman, undertaken on the same expedition, was similarly the
precursor of the Ned.-Amerikaansche Expedition 1926; cf. footnote 9.

4 SARGENTIA (5

MAP B
Legend

1. Prauwen-bivak altitude 110 m.

a. Casuarisnest rt 233im.

b. A small summit east of it os 162 m.

2. Moeras-bivak (Woud-bivak) a 110 m.

3. Kremer-bivak u 120 m.

4. Aalscholver-bivak a 130 m.

5. Brug-bivak 3 240 m.

6. Steen-bivak (Bivak-Batoe) oN 425 m.

7. Cruciferen-bivak : 840 m.

8. Bivak G. Boetak - 1425 m.

9. First Parkieten-bivak . 1750 m.

10. Beek-bivak 2430 m.,
11. Uitzicht-bivak : 3120 m.
12. Radio-bivak ch 3330 m.
13. Mos-bivak ee +3000 m.
14. Bamboe-bivak a +2450 m.
15. Jachthut-bivak s +1900 m.
16. Second Parkieten-bivak . J +1750 m.
17. Dika-bivak * +1250 m,
18, First Toli-bivak E +1300 m.
19. Second Toli-bivak +1400 m
20. Panara-bivak . +1400 m.

N. B. The bivouac-names in bold type are those at which supply depots were established.
Regular communications were maintained between the camps. Bivouacs 3, 13, and 15
were visited only on the return trip.

* *

B. Van Overeem Expedition.

Personnel: A. J. A. VAN OvEREEM, Captain of the General Staff, Leader.
J. H. G. Kremer, ‘‘Captain-Lieutenant,” in charge of the astro-
nomical and meterological observations and the river-survey.
J. vAN ARKEL, Captain of the Infantry, commander of the support-
ing military detachment, responsible for reconnoitering the advance
terrain, assisted by
K. Drost, First Lieutenant of the Infantry.
J. Kooy, First Lieutenant of Military Administration.
H. J. T. By_mer, Medical Officer, charged with organizing the
medical service and with making anthropological observations.
A. TEN Haar, Medical Officer, after a few months of illness, re-
placed by
H. pE Rook, Medical Officer.
J. JonGeyans, Controller of Inland Administration, the latter lo-
cated at Boeloengan, responsible for the recruiting and the general
supervision of the Dyak oarsmen, and for the ethnographic work.
Dr. P. F. Husrecut, Geologist.
Jhr. W. C. vAN HeEuRN, Zoologist to the Institute of Plant Pathology
at Buitenzorg, Zoologist.
Dr. H. J. Lam, Assistant at the Herbarium and Museum for Sys-
tematic Botany of the ’s Lands Plantentuin at Buitenzorg, Botanist.
P. Drooe, First Lieutenant of the Royal Engineers, Director of the
Radio Division. ;
One mantri (Ajoeb) from the ’s Lands Plantentuin at Buitenzorg

1945] | LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 2

td ae Ident urgrivier

‘ é <o=

2S00

2ooe

1500
1Q00

: {1° KM.

and one assistant-mantri (Siman) from the Herbarium at Buitenzorg
as botanical helpers; two mantris (Eri and Djenung) from the Zoo-
logical Museum at Buitenzorg as helpers for the zoologist.

The last four joined the expedition later. In addition there were: one stu-
dent-reconnoiterer, one sergeant-major administrator, five European sergeants,
four native sergeants, five native corporals, 89 native privates, one European
military correspondent, one European sergeant hospital-attendant, one Euro-
pean corporal hospital-attendant, one European private hospital-attendant,
two Ambonese hospital-attendants, two native engineers (later placed under
supervision of PAKCHWER, a European engineer), 163 convicts (of whom 10
were foremen), and 116 Dyak oarsmen. The radio section had its own per-
sonnel, which arrived later. Among them were one Adjutant non-commis-

6 SARGENTIA |S

sioned officer of the Royal Engineers, and two European corporal-signallers of
the Royal Netherlands Marines.

Itinerary.
January 1920.

15. Departure from Soerabaja, at 4 o'clock in the afternoon, of the govern-
ment steamers “Deneb,” “‘Albatros,”’ and ‘‘Koetei,’’ the last commanded by
Capt. Kremer.

21. Arrival at Amboina.

24. Departure from Amboina.

26. Arrival at Manoekwari. Capt. Kremer here transfers to the ‘‘Deneb.”’
The ‘“‘Koetei” has returned to Java.

31. Departure of the ‘‘Deneb” with the small government steamer ‘‘Pionier’’
in tow.

February.

1. Departure of the ‘‘Albatros’’ from Manoekwari.

2. At half-past eight in the morning the ‘‘Albatros’’ steams into the mouth of
the Mamberamo; at half-past ten it is followed by the two others. At van Pee
Island a new break of the river-course is found. Here at one o'clock the ‘‘Alba-
tros’”’ runs aground and just 24 hours later floats again.

5. The ‘Deneb”’ arrives at Pionier-bivak.

6. The ‘‘Albatros” and the ‘‘Pionier"” arrive in front of the main bivouac.

7-8. Bivouac-building; observations near Scholten Island by Capt. Kremer.

12. First visit of Papuans.

13. Arrival of the “Edi,” on which are Controller Jongejans with Dr. ten
Haaf and the Dyaks. One of the last is seriously ill and dies the following
morning. The remainder of the month is utilized with bivouac-building and
proa-making. Many visits from the Papuans.

March.

8. Arrival of the ‘‘Albatros’’ with the remainder of the supplies for four
months, a new group of convicts, and 10 Balinese oxen.

12. First reconnaissance of the rapids at Havik Island by Capt. Kremer, the
Controller, and the Dyak chiefs Taman Lendah and Anji Nau. Water-level
very high. The Dyaks advise against attempting to pass the rapids at this
time. Moreover, an influenza-epidemic breaks out.

20. At 12 o'clock the first transport departs, consisting of two motor-boats
and 12 proas, manned by 113 Dyaks, one infantry brigade, 40 convicts, and five
engineers, under the leadership of Capt. van Overeem, Capt. Kremer, Contr.
Jongejans and Dr. ten Haaf.

21. Their arrival below Marine Rapids. A proa with officer’s baggage cap-
sizes, and a European non-commissioned officer is saved by the Dyaks.

22. Both motor-boats pass the rapids, in the course of which a native helms-
man falls overboard and is’saved with difficulty by the Dyaks. Edi Rapids
reached. During the high water-level the motor-boats cannot pass these.
Additional cases of influenza.

26. The Dyaks bring additional supplies to the base. More influenza cases.

April.
4, Capt. van Arkel arrives with six proas. It has taken him five days, be-
cause of high water, to cover a distance later requiring only two. On March

20 a Dyak died of pneumonia. An attempt is made to open a trail overland to
Edi-bivak, but this effort is abandoned after a few days.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA /

7. A second Dyak transport, 13 proas, departs downstream.

15. This transport returns with 10 proas; seven sick Dyaks are left behind.
Two convicts have died of influenza at Pionier-bivak.

21. The water has fallen so much that the motor-boats can be pulled over
the falls.

23. Departure from Edi-bivak with two motor-boats and 19 proas, in which
are the leader, Capt. Kremer, Capt. van Arkel, and in addition one European
sergeant, 9 convicts, one Ambonese private (hospital-attendant), and 105
Dyaks.

25. One of the motor-boats loses its propeller.

26. Repair of the motor-boat. Day of rest. The Dyaks secure 100 kg. of
fish from the river.

27. Passing of Batavia Rapids and arrival at the Meervlakte. Establishing
of the new Batavia-bivak on the right bank of the river.

28. A transport of 75 Dyaks returns to Edi-bivak; others search for trees
from which to make proas (length 17-18 m.; the ordinary proas are 10-12 m.
long and about 80 cm. broad; under favorable circumstances they carry, in
addition to five Dyak oarsmen and three passengers, a load of 200 to 250 kg.).

May.

1. The transport arrives from Edi-bivak.

5. The other occupants of the Edi-bivak arrive at Batavia-bivak. Among
them are Controller Jongejans and Dr. ten Haaf. Two proas are ready for
loading.

8. All but seven Dyaks return with 15 proas to Pionier-bivak.

9. Departure for the south; each motor-boat tows a loaded proa. The crew
consists of five staff-members, 12 native fusileers, 17 convicts, seven Dyaks, and
five engineers, together with provisions for a month. Both river-banks are
inundated. Some nights Kalong-bivak is under water.

11. Establishment of Prauwen-bivak on the high bank nearest to where the
Idenburg River leaves the mountainous area 1.5 km. upstream from the mouth
of the Doorman River. The following days are spent in bivouac-building and
in establishing friendly contacts with a small Papuan tribe from a distant region.

14. The leader and Capt. Kremer go with the motor-boats to Batavia-bivak.
It appears that the 105 km. can be covered in eight hours.

18. Arrival of the transport. The ‘Edi’ appeared May 9th, with a light
load, 62 days after the arrival of the previous boat. On the night of May
10-11 Pionier-bivak lay partly under water. A few dysentery cases; much
malaria.

28. The water has dropped very quickly in the past few days.

29. First reconnaissance into the interior. The party, consisting of Capt.
van Arkel and Capt. Kremer with four fusileers and six convicts, departed on
the 24th and returned today. They proceeded 10 km. from Prauwen-bivak
along the very broad (400 m. wide) freshet-bed of the Doorman River, the
stream not being navigable by regular transport. They did not locate Door-
man’s trail, since he commenced his overland journey from the left bank of
the river. r

30. A space is cleared for an outlook on the top of Casuarisnest.

June.

5. The transport, under the direction of Controller Jongejans, starts down
river, carrying Dr. ten Haaf, who is seriously indisposed. Both the leader and
Capt. Kremer suffer attacks of fever.

8 SARGENTIA [5

13. Arrival of the zoologist and botanist at Pionier-bivak with the ‘‘Albatros.”’

14. Second reconnaissance by Capt. van Arkel.

15. Third reconnaissance by Capt. van Arkel.

17. In the night of 17-18 a slight earthquake is felt.

19. Departure of the fourth reconnaissance party under Capt. van Arkel,
with four privates and four convicts. Purpose: to find a suitable place for
crossing the Doorman River.

23. Return of the patrol. No place in the river narrower than 80 m. is found.

July,

2. Fifth reconnaissance under Capt. van Arkel and the leader. Capt.
Kremer departs for downstream to bring up the third motor-boat. The patrol
finally has found a place 16 km. distant from Prauwen-bivak where the Door-
man River is 35-40 m. wide. Capt. van Arkel has remained behind to build
a rattan bridge and to examine the lay of the land.

22. Arrival of the geologist at Pionier-bivak with the ‘‘Albatros.”’

23. Capt. van Overeem arrives from upstream at Pionier-bivak.

28. Capt. Kremer, with Lieut. Kooij and Dr. Hubrecht, makes a two-day
reconnaissance of the Marine Rapids, with the objective of bringing up the
third motor-boat.

August.

1. Departure of Dr. Bijlmer and Contr. Jongejans for Prauwen-bivak.
Capt. Kremer, the zoologist, and the botanist suffer from various maladies.

8. Departure of the geologist and botanist for Prauwen-bivak. In Batavia-
bivak they meet Contr. Jongejans and Dr. Bijlmer, who have been waiting
there for the next transport, on account of Contr. Jongejans having had an
attack of malaria.

14. Arrival at Prauwen-bivak of the four previously mentioned members of
the expedition.

16. Communication from Capt. van Arkel that he has not yet located Door-
man’s old trail, and that he has established a supply-depot (just in front of
what is later Cruciferen-bivak) at about 20 km. from Prauwen-bivak and at
about 800 m. altitude, after a trip over very difficult mountain-terrain. Two
Chinese convicts of the last mountain-transport have been missing since
Aug. 15.

20. Return on a small raft of the missing convicts.

28. A sad day in the annals of the expedition. The leader, Capt. Kremer,
and the zoologist arrive at Prauwen-bivak with the report that the ‘‘Edi” is in
peril, having been grounded on an uncharted rock close to Scholten Island since
the 16th. It is feared that she will break up. The cargo and the ,rew have
been landed on the beach. With this ship the radio equipment, under Lieut.
Droog, has arrived, in addition two European corporal-signallers of the Royal
Netherlands Marines, an adjutant non-commissioned officer, and Pakchwer,
the European (Russian) supervisor of engineers. Further, on account of the
low water-level, the third motor-boat is stranded below the Batavia Rapids.
The saddest event of the day, however, is the death of a European sergeant,
commander of Brug-bivak, who has committed suicide. The following day .
the leader and Dr. Bijlmer assist in the burial.

September.

2. The setting up of the radio equipment at Pionier-bivak. The reception
appears to be successful; the dispatch offers many difficulties. Return of the

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 9

leader ‘and the doctor from Brug-bivak. They bring the news that Capt. van
Arkel has found Doorman’s trail (just in front of what is later Goenoeng
Boetak-bivak) and along that route they have reached a higher altitude.
Four escaped convicts are recaptured at Batavia-bivak.

5. The radio equipment is tested at Prauwen-bivak. A special radiogram is
received from a ship in Torres Strait near Australia, and Amboina, Bandung,
Hongkong, and Cavite (Manila) stations are heard.

6. The advance-guard arrives, whereupon the leader, Capt. Kremer, and the
geologist proceed with a transport of 90 convicts into the mountainous region.
In the afternoon we are visited by 21 bird-hunters, 2 Chinese and 19 Papuans,
from the coast. They have left Hollandia and reached the Idenburg River
overland, living by hunting and fishing. Then they have constructed proas,
and, in hope of our assistance, have come down the river.

10. Arrival of Lieut. Droog at Prauwen-bivak. He brings the report that
the ‘‘Edi,” with a damaged boiler, floated on August 31st and got away under
its own power. The radio equipment does not appear to be powerful enough to
receive dispatches from Amboina.

12. Contr. Jongejans proceeds downstream to recruit Dyaks as carriers for
the overland journey.

18. Departure of the botanist for Brug-bivak, also of Lieut. Drost, who in
the meantime has arrived at Prauwen-bivak. A week later the zoologist
follows. After Lieut. Drost returns, on the 28th, the zoologist and the
botanist proceed to Goenoeng Boetak.

October.

1. News is received from the vanguard that it arrived on Sept. 16 at Radio-
bivak, where it met Capt. van Arkel. In this part of his report the leader pro-
poses to introduce the names Doormantop, Doorman River, and Swart River.

9. A later communication mentions that the leader, before he descends into
the valley, will leave a supply of provisions at Radio-bivak. Capt. van Arkel
has done some scouting to get an idea of the best route to follow.

10. Arrival of the first Dyak transport at Goenoeng Boetak. It has a crew
of 54, with Contr. Jongejans, Dr. Bijlmer, and Lieut. Droog. The purpose:
to proceed inland and then to continue collecting at higher altitudes. The
botanist joins this transport; the zoologist remains at Goenoeng Boetak.

16. Arrival of the transport at Radio-bivak. The crew consists of the four
mentioned staff-members, two Dyak chiefs, 52 Dyak carriers, one European
sergeant, one European corporal-signaller of the Marines, and 10 convicts.

17. The botanist finds a handkerchief which belonged to Lieut. Doorman.

18. Departure of the vanguard for the valley. This consists of the leader,
Capt. Kremer, the geologist, Capt. van Arkel, Dr. Bijlmer, and Contr. Jonge-
jans, one European sergeant, one Ambonese student-reconnoiterer, one Mena-
dese private (hospital-orderly), 5 native fusileers, 26 Dyaks, and 20 convicts.
The botanist and the Radio-Lieutenant remain at Radio-bivak. The latter,
with little material, reconstructs the radio equipment, with the result that all
important news is quickly received.

22. Arrival of the vanguard in the Dika valley and first friendly contact
with the Timorinese people. A food-shortage develops at Radio-bivak.

26. Messages arrive from the valley; among other things is the first news-
item that is to be sent out, announcing the discovery of the Timorini.

27. In the evening at half-past ten there is a total eclipse of the moon.

10 SARGENTIA [5

29. In consequence of the dire food-shortage, all who are not strictly-neces-
sary for bringing up food or for leadership must leave the Radio-bivak. Among
them is the botanist, who proceeds to Goenoeng Boetak, where the food-supply
is sufficient for the time being. A speedy runner is sent to the valley to carry
word to the vanguard of the situation at Radio-bivak. Also unnecessary men
at Goenoeng Boetak are sent farther downstream; the rations of the active
carriers are restored to the old standard and those of the people in camp are
curtailed more than half.

November.

1. A transport of Dyaks, 16 strong, proceeds from Goenoeng Boetak; three
convicts, one private, and four native helpers (three of the zoologist’s and one
of the botanist’s) go downstream. Communications from the vanguard indi-
cate that a fairly serious incident has occurred in connection with the Dyaks’
stealing of a Timorinese pig. This event, however, turns out all right, at the
cost of several chopping knives.

3. Two Dyaks, speedy runners, arrive, coming in a day from Radio-bivak to
Goenoeng Boetak with telegrams to be sent regarding the continuation of the
expedition, since the goal, Wilhelminatop, has not been reached.

4, These communications are sent through to Prauwen-bivak by relays of
runners, so that in three days from Radio-bivak telegrams can be in Prauwen-
bivak.

5. Arrival of Capt. van Arkel and Lieut. Droog at Goenoeng Boetak. <A
strong extra transport (among whom are 14 Dyaks) departs downstream; the
zoologist, who, except for a few days at Beek-bivak, has collected continuously
at Goenoeng Boetak, joins it.

6. Arrival of Capt. Kremer at Goenoeng Boetak.

7. Departure of Capt. Kremer, Capt. van Arkel, and Lieut. Droog for
Prauwen-bivak. Through the measures taken, the botanist secures an op-
portunity to proceed further inland. Up to now the supply-line has stood as
follows:

Amboina

Pionier-bivak
2

Batavia-bivak

Prauwen-bivak
| 70 (later 85) convicts, 3 days up, 2 days down, 1 day

f Once a month, sometimes less, by government steamer.

50 Dyaks with 10 proas, 31 days up, 1% days down,
1 day rest.

3 motor boats towing 2 loaded proas, 3 days up,
1 day down.

4

Brug-bivak rest.

5 45 (later 60) convicts, 24% days up, 2% days down,

1 day rest.

23 Dyaks (among these 1 chief), 3144 days up, 2% day S

Radio-bivak down, 1 day rest.

11 Dyaks (among these 1 chief), 3 days down, 1 day
rest, 3 days up.

= Boetak

Dika-bivak

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 11

8. Departure of the botanist, with a mantri, a convict, and 3 Dyaks, to
Radio-bivak, with an interim of four days at Beek-bivak. Here he obtains
word that the last Dyak transport from Radio-bivak will depart the 17th for
the valley; he wishes to join this group.

14. Arrival of the botanist at Radio-bivak. On account of the breaking of a
tree supporting it, the rattan bridge of Brug-bivak falls into the stream. A
new one is made.

17. Departure of the botanist with the Dyak transport for Dika-bivak.

18. Arrival of the botanist at Dika-bivak.

21. Departure of the vanguard to make a 5-day journey through the main
valley.

24. The most southerly point (Panara) is reached.

27. Departure of the vanguard from Dika-bivak.

December.

5. The vanguard again at Prauwen-bivak. A convict, obviously insane
(with a persecution complex), after stabbing a Timorinese soldier in the back
as he is standing on guard, fled with a proa some days ago and has apparently
perished.

6. Departure of the leader, Contr. Jongejans, and the zoologist for Pionier-
bivak. There telegrams are exchanged with Java as to whether or not to
continue the expedition.

25. Departure of the botanist from Prauwen-bivak.

28. His arrival at Pionier-bivak.

January 1921.

7. The radio equipment is successful in reaching Amboina for the first time
with a dispatch. Packing of the collections.

10. Arrival of the ‘‘“Gemma,”’ escorted by the ‘‘Pionier,’’ but only the latter
comes up to Pionier-bivak; the ‘‘Gemma”’ remains below the dangerous rock
near Scholten Island. This boat has brought the ethnographer, Dr. P. Wirz,
and also the report that, in eventually continuing the expedition, Capt. Kremer
will be made the leader. The contract with the Dyaks has expired; they have
to be recruited anew.

The water-level, which has remained very low, now begins to rise quickly as a

result of the rains in the mountains. Arrival of the geologist, who has lost
some equipment in the Edi Valley.
* 12. Departure of the ‘‘Gemma,” with Capt. Kremer, who is going to Amboina
to consult with the Indian Committee by wire. The zoologist, the botanist,
and the Radio-Lieutenant also depart. The ‘‘Pionier’’ remains provisionally
on the river.

C. Kremer Expedition.

European Staff: J. H. G. KREMER, ‘‘Captain-Lieutenant,”’ leader.
J. vAN ARKEL, Captain of the Infantry, Commander of the
covering detachment.
Kk. Drost, First Lieutenant of the Infantry.
A. ZIJLMANS, First Lieutenant of Military Administration.
H. DE Rook, Medical Officer.
Dr. P. F. Husprecnt, Geologist.
Dr. P. Wirz, Anthropologist-Ethnologist.

12 SARGENTIA [5

Itinerary.»

January—September.

Preparation and transportation of supplies to the depots in the mountains,
particularly to that in Dika-bivak. Reconnaissance from there to the south.

October.

10. Earthquake, felt at Dika-bivak at 11:45 a.m., direction north-south,
lasting 30-45 seconds. In the neighborhood great landslips occur, from the
results of which the Dika is hidden for some hours.

12. Arrival of the leader and the geologist, Dr. Hubrecht, with 34 Dyaks.

16. Departure of the staff with 41 Dyaks and 32 Timorinese carriers toward
the south. As a medium of exchange tigaléhs (cowrie shells, Cypraea moneta)
are used; with these, goods and services are purchased.

17. Remain in Panara-bivak, where we have many visitors; a number of
carriers are recruited and a shooting match is organized.

18. Departure for Donda, the next lateral valley after the Panara. The
Timorinese carriers receive a day’s wage of one tigaléh. This camp is used on
September 14-15 by a reconnaissance patrol.

20. March to the Koeboe, a tributary on the left side of the Swart River.
No Timorinese carriers are used. In the Kampong Doendoe renewed friend-
ships are established, and we hear the first report about a dense population in
the Baliem valley. From here on the advanced division will work in entire
independence, this guaranteeing a large freedom of movement, but also, as a
consequence of the food-situation, only limited time is available. Much food,
however, can be had from the people. Lieut. Drost remains behind for the
time being.

24. Departure for Kampong Noega in the Koeboe Valley. The Timorini
carry-the loads without pay.

25. Departure for Kampong Tamak, altitude 1750 m.

November.

. The departure for Kampong Noreagobak, in the extreme south of the
Koeboe Valley.

4. Reconnaissance by the leader of Mount van Arkel (3100 m.), which was
visited by Capt. van Arkel on September 18. Also a few shorter trips are taken
in the neighborhood. The natives make many visits.

8. The watershed between the Swart River and the Baliem Valley is crossed:
Bivouac on the Djoe, a tributary of the Baliem. New friendships established.
Also here an attempt is made to retard the expedition by claiming that the
Baliem people will be hostile.

10. The Baliem reached. On its banks in a Kampong at 2400 m. altitude a
bivouac is made the 11th, close to the Tora, an isolated rock which rises about
400 m., almost perpendicularly above the river. Friendly relations are quickly
established.

14. The entire vanguard is now combined at this bivouac. Lieut. Drost
remains behind in Tora-bivak to guard the supplies.

17. The Baliem is crossed by a very strong suspension bridge, and on the
opposite side native carriers are recruited; they proceed to Tora-bivak to bring

1 Adopted from the synopsis in the “Indische Gids,’’ 1922, p. 550 et seq., and from verbal
information.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 13

supplies. Thus Lieut. Drost can follow the same day. Bivouac on a ridge
at 2800 m.

18. Pieremeh, a small tributary on the right of the Baliem, is reached. The
territory from here to Wilhelminatop is uninhabited, but a good path leads over
the Central Chain towards the south, where the Pesechems live. The distance
still to be covered is 30 km. Lieut. Drost again remains behind to guard the
supplies.

19. Departure of the leader, the geologist, and Capt. van Arkel to the south.
A marshy area at 3800 m. altitude is crossed. Wamgimeh, the faithful native
guide, and 10 clansmen accompany them as carriers. ‘

20. After crossing a ridge at 4100 m. altitude, the upper Baliem is reached,
on the left bank of which at 3200 m. a bivouac is made. In the afternoon 10
natives arrive with 3 pigs and many sweet potatoes and much sugar cane; they
were sent by Lieut. Drost.

21. The Baliem is followed upstream. Bivouac is made on the south margin
of the upper Baliem plain. This is the high plain which Franssen Herderschee
saw from Wilhelminatop in 1913.”

22. With the help of the native carriers the Wamena is reached. From
Wilhelminatop the stream flows towards the east and perhaps does not belong
to the Baliem system.

23. A large number of natives return, promising to bring foodstuffs. Rest
a day here.

24. Wamgimeh returns with a number of Dyaks. The vanguard leaves for
the south. Bivouac on one of the tributary sources of the Wamena.

25. A very good trail is followed. It appears later to be the path that tra-
verses the Central Range from north to south. Bivouac at a forest margin.

26. Reconnaissance of the north side of the Central Chain.

28. Arrival of Dyak carriers with supplies.

29. Departure for a pass which is observed to cross the ridge in an easterly
direction. Here are met a number of old friends, who were supplied with sweet
potatoes by a group whom they have unknowingly followed.

30. Scouting the terrain, in which everywhere one is surrounded by patches
of snow.

December.

2. Arrival of Lieut. Drost, who brings sweet potatoes and five pigs. Here
the altitude is 4150 m. (Last bivouac except one).

3. Asmall group, including the entire staff, advances and bivouacks at 4450
m. (Koude-bivak). Heavy snow some nights. Wilhelminatop lies to the east
of this bivouac.

4. Through a narrow crevice, and after a difficult ascent of 300 m., the last
easy climbing is reached. A large snow field is crossed. The small glacier
appears to be vanishing. Later an ice block of about 100 cu. m. is observed.
It perhaps was dislodged by the earthquake of October 10th. At 10:30 the
highest point (4750 m.) of Wilhelminatop is reached. Here is found the heap
of stones erected by the Franssen Herderschee Expedition on February 21,
1913. The record placed therein is partly legible. Here a statement of the

2 Cf, A, Pulle, Naar het Sneeuwgebergte van Nieuw-Guinea (Uitg. Mij. Goede en Goed-
koope Lect., A’dam, z. j.), p. 169, and P. F. Hubrecht, Maatsch. t. Bevorder, v. h. Nat. Onderz.
d. Ned. Kol. Bull. no. 68 (1913), p. 46.

14 SARGENTIA [5

personnel of this party is added: Capt. Kremer, Capt. van Arkel, Lieut. Drost,
Dr. Hubrecht, one native student-reconnoiterer, 22 Dyaks, and four convicts.
Bivouac today at 4300 m.

8. Lake Habbema, already observed from Wilhelminatop, is reached. It is
700 m. wide and 6 km. long (east to west) and lies at an altitude of 3000 m.
The depth is 2-3 m.; the lake apparently has no drainage. Many Papuans
come to visit us here. .

10. The Baliem is again reached.

17. The ridge of Mount van Arkel is passed (2700 m.) and the summit again
crossed. Everywhere the natives celebrate with feasts.

20. Hundreds of visitors come to Doendoe to take leave, during which visits
13 pigs are killed.

29. Arrival at Prauwen-bivak.

January 1922.
1. Arrival at Pionier-bivak.

II. Some meteorological data collected during the Central
New Guinea Expedition 1920-1921 *

A. Hygrometer observations.

The Royal Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory at Weltevreden lent
mea set of two thermometers, one of which was arranged for use with wet bulb.
In this the bulb was wrapped with a small piece of cotton, the free end hanging
down into a can of water. The readings were corrected according to the tables
appertaining to each instrument, and the relative humidity was determined by
consulting Neumayer’s table (Anleitung zu wissenschaftliche Beobachtungen
auf Reisen). The numbers of the observation-stations agree with those on
maps A and B. _ Pionier-bivak is not numbered; Prauwen-bivak appears only
on map B. In the tables, t means temperature of the dry bulb thermometer,
t! that of the wet bulb thermometer, all in degrees Centigrade. [Only a sum-
mary of the observations is given here; included under each caption are the
highest and lowest readings. ]

Table I

Observations at Pionier-bivak (position: in the shade in the cleared bivouac-
area): 22 observations; altitude 60 m.; date, August 2-6, 1920; time, various
hours from 6 A. M. to 9 Pp. M.; t 24-30.8°; t! 23.4—-26.2°; relative humidity 64-94;
weather, rain twice, other records blank.

Mean t 26.3°. Mean relative humidity 86.

Observations at Goenoeng Boetak-bivak, Map B, 8 (position: in the forest.
under a small shed, about 1.5 m. above the ground): 29 observations; altitude
1424 m.; date, October 1-11, 1920; time, various hours from 6 A. M. to 8 P. M.;
t 15.8-20.5°; t! 15.8-20.2°; relative humidity 89-100; weather variable, one
observation dry, one sunny, two bright, the others cloudy, misty (foggy), and
rainy.

Mean t 18.3°. Mean relative humidity 98.4.

Observations at Radio-bivak, Map B, 12 (position: open terrain above the
forest-limit; under small shed about 0.5 m. above the ground): 21 observations;
altitude 3332 m.; date, October 19-27, 1920; time, various hours from 7 A. M.
to 6 P.M.; t 8.4-20.8°; t! 7.4-15.1°; relative humidity 51-100; weather, six
observations clear or sunny, the others-foggy or rainy.

Mean t 12.2°. Mean relative humidity 86.5.

Maxima and minima.

Observed maximum: 34° (April 28, 1920) (33.5° on June 7 and 8).

Observed minimum: 20.5° (May 10 and 11, 1920).

Lowest day-maximum: 28° (February 26, 1920). :

Highest day-minimum: 24.5° (five times between February 20 and June
26, 1920).

B. Barometer observations.

The Meteorological Observatory at Weltevreden supplied me with an aneroid
barometer (no. 9582), chiefly for use in making altitude-observations. A few

1 Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl.-Ind. 87: 130-138. 1927. -

16 SARGENTIA [5

times | verified these observations with a hypsometer, of which a few records
are noted below. All values found have been corrected by standard methods.
In the calculations the barometer-readings are in mm., the thermometer-values
in 5’s. [For convenience in summarizing the tables which follow, Roman
numerals are used to designate the captions thus: I, observed at; II, date; III,
hour; IV, aneroid reading in mm.; V, temperature in degrees Centigrade; VI,
altitude in m.; VII, remarks. ]

Table II

I, Pionier-bivak, 23 records; I], August 2-6, 1920; II], various hours between
6 A.M. and 10 p. M.;1V, 754-757.8; V, 24.4-29.8°; VI, 46-94; VII, average, 71m.

The above data were obtained with the aneroid barometer which had been
checked by the Observatory. Later I readjusted the instrument with reference
to the hypsometer (see under Prauwen-bivak); the subjoined numbers are since
recorded at Pionier-bivak.

Table III

I, Pionier-bivak, 4 records; II, January 4 and 5, 1921; III, 10 a. M. to4 Pp. M.:
IV, 751.8-755; V, 25°; VI, 81-116; VII, average, 99 m.

For a control, the aneroid barometer was checked on the return journey at
Makassar harbor. The following record was made:

Table IV

I, Makassar harbor, 2 records; II, February 1 and 4, 1921; III, 9 A Mm. and
4p. M.; IV, 758.8 and 757.9; V, 25°; VI, 35 and 46; VII, average, 41 m.

The last two values give an average of 41 m. altitude, the data of the table
above (Table III) 99 m., the difference indicating an error in the instrument;
subtracting this error from the values found for Pionier-bivak (Table III),
we obtain 58 m. This number agrees fairly well with the average value ob-
tained in Table II, i.e. 71m. On the basis of these observations, I think that
the altitude of Pionier-bivak must be placed at about 60 m.

The observations in the van Rees Mountains, the Meervlakte, and the Cen-
tral Mountain Region follow:

Table V

I, Tulband-bivak, Map A, 1; II, August 8, 1920; III, 3 p.m.; IV, 755;
Van: Vi,GL.

I, Edi-bivak, about 8 m. above the river, Map A, 2, three records; I, August
9 and 10, 1920; III, 6 A.M.—6 p.M.; IV, 754.6-757; V, 25°; VI, 58-81: VII,
average, 71 m.

1, Wand-biyak, Map A, 3, two records; II, August 8, 1920; III, 4 p. Mm. and
9 p.M.; IV, 752.1-756.1; V, 25°; VI, 69-116; VII, cloudburst beginning,
cloudburst over.

I, Batavia-bivak, Map A, 4, four records; II], August 11, 1920; III, noon-
8 p.M.; IV, 752.2-754.2; V, 25°; VI, 92-116; VII, average, 101 m.

I, Kalong-bivak, Map A, 5, two records; II, August 12, 1920; III, 2 p. Mm. and
5 Pp. M.; IV, 752.2 and 752.9; V, 25°; VI, 104 and 116.

I, Veen-bivak, Map A, 6, one record; II, August 13, 1920; III, 4 p. M.;
E¥,. 790.9: V, 25°: VI, 127. -

1945} LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 17

I, Prauwen-bivak, Map B, 1, ten observations; II, August 15-17, 1920;
III, 7 A. M.—10 Pp. M.; IV, 751.5-754.0; V, 24.2-29.3°; VI, 92-118. After these
records were made the aneroid barometer was set at 754.0 (reading of the hyp-
someter), so that this instrument in the future was read without correction;
17 more records were made at this station, of which two check or control read-
ings on the hypsometer. II, August 17-25, 1920; III, 7:30 a. M10 Pp. M.; IV,
750.1-754; V, 26-30°; VI, 92-153; VI, average, 112 m.
|, Casuarisnest-top, Map B, 1a, one record; II, —; III, 10 a. M.; IV, 741.7;
V, 25° oN ieee.

I, Summit east of Casuarisnest, Map B, 1b, one record; II, —; III, 10:30
A. Me TV TAT Se: V, 25°; VI, 162.

I, Brug-bivak, Map B, 5, 23 records; I], September 20-26, 1920; III, 6 A. M.—
8 ep. M.; IV, 740-744; V, 23-27.5°; VI, 209-268; VII, heavy rains in the evening
of the 25th and the night and morning of the 26th; average, 239 m.

I, Batoe-bivak, Map B, 6, four records; 11, September 28, 1920; III, 10 a. u.—
7p. M.; IV, 724.8-727.2; V, 24.1-26.4°; VI, 412-436; VII, average, 424 m.

I, Cruciferen-bivak, Map B, 7, four records; II, September 29, 1920; III,
12:30-6 Pp. M.; IV, 691.4-693.8; V, 23.5-25.3°; VI, 818-856; VII, average, 840 m.

I, Goenoeng Boetak-bivak, Map B, 8, 22 records; II, September 30—October
11, 1920; III, 7 A.M.-8 Pp. M.; IV, 644-648.6; V, 20-23°; VI, 1382-1448; VII,
average, 1424 m.

I, First Parkieten-bivak, Map B, 9, three records; II, October 13, 1920; III,
11:30 A. M.-8 P. M.; IV, 620.8-622; V, 18.4—20.4°; VI, 1647-1747; VII, average,
1752 m.

I, Beek-bivak, Map B, 10, five records; II, October 14, 1920; III, noon-
9 p.m.; IV, 570.9-572.8; V, 15.4-18.4°; VI, 2412-2453; VII, temperature of
stream-water, 13°; average, 2432 m.

I, Uitzicht-bivak, Map B, 11, four records; II, October 15, 1920; III, 2-8 :30
p, M.; IV, 528.4-529.2; V, 12.8-19.6°; VI, 3087-3157; VII, average, 3118 m.

I, Radio-bivak, Map B, 12, 18 records; II, October 16-26, 1920; III, 6A. M.—
11 p.m.; IV, 512.3-516.4; V, 8-21°; VI, 3314-3406; VII, average, 3332 m.

I, Doormantop, three records, one hypsometer reading, the other two aneroid;
II, October 22, 1920; III, 9:30 and 9:45 A. M.; IV, 496.6-499.0; V, 15-16.5°; VI,
3581-3615.

I believe that the altitude of Doormantop must be accepted as about 3580 m.

III. Impressions of the Lower Mamberamo Territory !

IN THIS and the following articles of Fragmenta Papuana which are con-
cerned with the flora and the vegetation of the regions I visited in New Guinea,
I have made use of the published botanical literature in which parts of my
collection are elaborated (Nova Guinea vol. 14, Botany, book 1, 1924, and book
2,1926). A list of the articles now published concerning the van Overeem and
Kremer Expeditions will be added at the end of the Fragmenta series.

Where possible, therefore, plant names published in these articles are re-
corded. However, to obtain later a more complete picture of the vegetation,

the numbers of my collection with preliminary determinations as well as unde-

termined numbers in sequence, wherever feasible, are also given. By this
means, workers interested in this region will be enabled to add the scientific
names when these numbers appear in the literature.

* *
*

When Dumont d’Urville, exactly a hundred years ago (Aug. 1827), sailed
with his ship the ‘“‘Astrolabe’’ along the northern coast of New Guinea, he
surmised from the strong discoloration of the sea-water that he was then in the
neighborhood of the mouth of a large river. Later he wrote about it as follows?

“A huit heures [August 16] l’eau de la mer prenant sur notre route une
teinte verdatre, j’envoyai le petit canot pour sonder sur cet espace. II ne
trouva point de fond a cinquante brasses, et je dirigeai la corvette au milieu
de cette bande décolorée. A dix heures et demie un nouveau changement de
couleur bien plus marqué se montra partout devant nous a une demi-encablure
de distance. Cette fois l’eau était tout-a-fait jaundtre et bourbeuse ....... :
a onze heures nous donndmes tout au travers de ces eaux décolorées, et nous
traversdmes plusieurs lits de courans trés-rapides et trés-bruyans. Une quan-
tité de branches d’arbres, de fruits détachés et de débris de plantes .......
flottai(en)t a la surface des eaux. A onze heures et demie, dans I’endroit ot
leur teinte était la plus fangeuse, l'eau que nous puisdames n’etait plus que trés
légérement saumatre. Toutefois, en ce lieu méme, nous n’efimes pas fonds
Oar comauante brasses «464405 in cc ee ice aan wn

“Je regardai donc comme un fait positif que ces eaux provenaient de quelque
riviére considérable qui se décharge dans la mer sur cette partie de la céte.
Bougainville observait le méme fait au méme endroit, et en tira la méme
induction. Précisément dans cette partie, la terre de la Nouvelle Guinée
forme une pointe basse et fort avancée en mer (pointe d’Urville). Tout porte
a croire que cette pointe a été formée par les attérissemens d’un torrent
considérable.”’

In conclusion, just a little further, “ la bande des eaux fangeuses n’a pas
moins de dix ou douze milles de largeur, ce qui annonce une dimension con-
sidérable pour le fleuve qui les produit..........0.00.00 00.00.00 0c eee ee.

“A cing heures cinquante minutes du soir, nous traversAmes un fort remoux,
et rentrames enfin dans la Mer bleue.”’

' Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl.-Ind. 87: 139-180. 1927.
? Dumont d’Urville, Voyage de la Corvette l’Astrolabe, IV (1832, Paris).

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 19

Meanwhile, as we have seen in the first Fragment, it was 1884 before the
country was penetrated along this waterway for the first time, and February
1910 before the real interior, the Meervlakte, was reached. In June 1920 my
traveling companions and I had the privilege of appropriating the words of
Dumont d’Urville for our own, and of approaching the mouth of the Mam-
beramo. I shall insert here a little information about the mighty river, which,
in spite of its swiftness, is still the only good trade-route between the coast
and the interior of northern New Guinea.

With the Sepik (Kaiserin-Augusta River), the Mamberamo is one of the
largest streams of the territory. The data available concerning this river are
still very meager and do not amount to more than mere guesses, but, notwith-
standing, they give us some idea of its size. The Mamberamo provides the
drainage of a tropical high mountain-range almost 500 km. long and about
100 km. broad. . This territory, where the rainfall is very important and on the
average amounts to surely a few meters per year, is extended by the district to
the north of it, which also drains mostly by way of the river, giving a drainage-
area of 100,000 sq. km., roughly estimated. In looking over the short list
given below, wherein the Mamberamo is compared with the Amazon and the
Rhine, it is helpful to recall that the first-mentioned river possesses two about
equally worthy tributaries, the van der Willigen River and the Idenburg River.
The length is measured on the last named tributary.

Rhine Mamberamo * Amazon 4

Length in km. 1320 900 5500
Drainage-area in sq. km. 224,000 100,000 7,000,000
Solid materials carried toward the 2-5 thousand 15.1 thousand 1000-2300 thousand

sea in kg. per year
The same per year per sq. km. 15,000 150,000 200,000
Average reduction of land per

year in cm. 0.006 0.06 0.08
Capacity (water conveyance) in

cu. m. per second 240 10,000 120,000
The same in cu. km. per year 7.6 315 3780

From these figures the great difference is evident, on the one hand, between
the two tropical rivers themselves, and on the other, between these and a
temperate zone river. This shows the enormous quantity of solid materials
transported by tropical rivers. Here also is affirmation that, through vigorous
erosion resulting from heavy rainfall, this territory diminishes in height ten
times as rapidly as western Europe, namely 6-8 cm. in a century. Further-
more, we see that the Rhine, although longer than the Mamberamo and with
more than twice as large a drainage-area, conveys 1/40 as much water, and that
the Amazon, with 70 times as large a drainage-area, conveys only 12 times as
much. The large capacity of the Mamberamo is in concordance with its com-
paratively great depth. In the lower course of the river, the channel is 15-18
m. deep, and near the Edi Rapids depths of 40 m. have been sounded, but in
the relatively narrow passage in front of Prauwen-bivak 1920-1922 only 20 m.
was sounded. Passing from the upper into the middle course of the river,
one finds a long narrow gap, 9 km. long and 50-75 m. broad, through which
the water flows with great force, and above the cleft, freshets make a difference

3 The figures given in the table for the Mamberamo are adopted from van Gelder (I. c. 91).
4K, Braak, Waar blijft het Amazone-slib? Een geografisch probleem—De Natuur Jaarg.
43, No. 1, p. 21.

20 SARGENTIA [5

of 40 m. in the height of the water-level. Likewise the great velocity of the
stream causes difficulty in navigating the river. At the mouth the current is
still 3.5—5.5 km. per hour. As a result the tide can never enter within the es-
tuary, and this in turn has a great influence on the flora of the river-banks.5
At Pionier-bivak, situated 180 km. from the coast at an elevation of 60-70 m.,
the stream-velocity is 7.5—9 km. per hour. In contrast to this, in the lake-region
it is merely 1.8-3.7 km. per hour. The rapids naturally have a much greater
velocity. Also it is obvious that, below the rapids, rather large differences may
appear in the water-level, and that the regulating influence of the Meervlakte
on the water-level in the lower course is not so great as was once supposed.
On my arrival at Pionier-bivak, the lowest water-mark registered was 29 dm.
below that observed at the arrival of the advance party. On April 8-10, and
after that on May 20, 1920, the gauging apparatus showed the greatest height
observed, namely + 42. Therefore, according to our observations, the dif-
ference in water-level amounted to 7.1 m.

* *
*

At sunrise the coast lay as an indefinite narrow strip on the horizon. Already
we were in water of a dirty gray-green color, which presently changed to brown.
Gradually, as we approached the coast, the water became more discolored, the
counter-current stronger. Toward ten o'clock we approached the mouth of
the river, which slowly emerged from the low level strip of land. Toward the
east the coast ended in the nearby Cape d’Urville, toward the west it stretched
out endlessly: a broad beach beaten by heavy waves and bounded by a long row
of tjemaras (Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.), many of which had already been
felled by the force of the waves. The estuary is 500 or 600 m. broad and
drains its water into the sea without noticeably broadening. Possibly this
coast ’ is rising with respect to the sea-level.

With our entrance into the estuary, we are suddenly engulfed by the country,
and henceforth begins the endless succession of meanders which follow one
after another. There is no distant view over the land. The morning mist still
hangs upon the coast-line, one of the many daily recurrent phenomena, which
frequently characterize the lowland in the tropics. The great Kampong Teba,
located close to the shore on the right bank, is now abandoned.

In so far as is perceptible from the ship, the outer aspect of the shore-vegeta-
tion confirms the supposition that the tide never or very seldom forces itself
into the mouth of the river. The extended mangrove-forests, which on the
south coast intrude many kilometers into the country, are entirely lacking here.
I see on the shores here and there small light green trees which might possibly
be considered as mangrove plants, but immediately thereafter the old lowland-
forest appears. Moreover, one notices at once the sago-palm (not Nipa),

5 Moszkowski (I. c. 277) claims that during the east monsoon the north wind forces the
brackish water up to 24 km. from the mouth of the Aiberam. He should have found here a
strip of mangrove-forest 18 to 20 km. long. The influence of ebb and flow should be noticeable
to van Pee Island. The distance from Pionier-bivak to the sea, according to van Gelder (I. c.
92), is about 240 km., from Pionier-bivak to Batavia-bivak about 65 km. By his aneroid
readings, Koetei-bivak (Fragment I) is located at 26 m. altitude, Batavia-bivak at 51 m.
Concerning the regulating influence of the Meervlakte on the water-level of the river, see van
- Gelder, 1. c. 90.

§ Verslag. Milit. Explor. Ned. Nieuw-Guinee 1907-1915 (Weltevreden 1920), 122.
7 Concerning the probability of a rising north coast, see van Gelder, I. c. 93-94.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 21

a typical fresh water plant, growing here. With field-glasses one can observe
the spininess of the petioles and the leaf-sheaths. Close to the coast this region
is clearly still marshy; the forest is relatively low. Very soon the shores and
the forests alike become higher. At odd intervals on the bank a Pandanus
stands, elsewhere a small bamboo-clump, here and there also a small strip of
gelagah (Saccharum spontaneum L.). As for the rest, it is the usual aspect of
a tropical forest-margin, with many lianas and clinging Araceae, a robust trunk
being visible only now and again through openings. Sometimes a small hut
of sago leaves lies hidden on the bank, one of the hunters’ huts which the roving
Papuans build as shelter for a night or two. For hours at a time we travel
through this sparsely inhabited territory of almost perfect virginity, without
seeing a trace of settlement. Hour after hour the same scenery: the broad
river with ever new curves, the brown water with its eddies and driftwood, and
the high forest-walls whence the sultry fragrance of the tropical primeval forest
comes tous. And moreover, there are elements which characterize this country
so strongly for the traveler that they become perfectly inherent in the New
Guinean scenery for him: the flocks of screaming white parrots with their
characteristic profile which fly over repeatedly, and the hornbills, the ankangs,
the great plump black bird with its much too large beak and the creaking sound
of its wings. These two permeate the landscape as if they were the spirit of it,
but some other birds as well appear at first acquaintance to complete the
picture: the stately soaring light reddish brown heron, which again and again
flies across in front of the ship to settle a little farther away on a branch of a
tree; sometimes also the flocks of kalongs (fruit-bats), which, especially at the
sound of the steam-whistle, swarm out of a solitary tree standing in a gelagah
[Saccharum ] field, and circle around in great numbers, with their membrane-
like wings shining in the sunlight, until silence has returned.

Gradually the river becomes broader, the mouth being narrower than many
places higher up. Gelagah [Saccharum ] fields appear in greater numbers and
greater dimensions on the inside curves. We find so few points of comparison
for judging the dimensions in this strange land that we at first thought the
gelagah plants were four or five meters high. Later I measured a flowering
specimen that was 9 m. high. The background of the high forest-walls meas-
ures 40 to 50 m., but, compared with the width of the river, its height is difficult
to estimate, for it seemed much lower. Everywhere we see evidence of the
continual changes in the course of the river. These take the form of steep
eroded shore-banks, in lower spots frequently with areas of dead or dying trees,
often also with piles of dead tree-trunks. Sometimes glimpses of low hills are
to be seen, but the banks are still entirely flat. About 4 0’clock in the afternoon
we pass Kerkhoven Island, after having been almost stranded at one o’clock
by a new break in the river at van Pee Island. Almost immediately beyond
Kerkhoven Island we see the first trace of hilly land in the form of a 5 m. high
clay wall on the river-bank. Nearby is a kampong, but here also no trace of
the population is seen. Toward dark we anchor in 9 fathoms 4 feet (17.4 m.)
of water.

The following morning at sunrise, when we again get up steam, the light
morning mist is still hanging over the tree tops. Three-quarters of an hour after
our departure we pass the first hills on the bank. The forest is unmistakably
thicker than farther downstream. Here and there specimens of the breadfruit-
tree (Artocarpus sp.) are recognizable; once in a while we see a tree-fern, and

22 SARGENTIA (5

often the monotonous green forest-margin is colored by the orange-red inflor-
escences of a Mucuna. At last, not far from Pionier-bivak, we meet natives
for the first time: a small proa with three men, two dogs, and a small fire, a
combination which gives us a glimpse of the primitive life of these people of the
primeval forest. We pass the mouth of van Gelder River, the only tributary
of any importance in this region, where Franssen Herderschee camped in 1910.
A little later we sail along the right bank, passing Duiven Island. Already in
the distance the location of Pionier-bivak is visible. At quarter of ten we
anchor in front of the inside curve opposite the bivouac, which, in the midst of
a cleared place, looks small compared with the majestic surroundings of the
mighty primeval forest against a background of blue hills.
. Se:
; *

The knowledge of the flora of this region was based in 1920 on the following

collections:

a. A collection of about 500 numbers of herbarium and preserved material and
115 living plants, of W. K. H. Feuilletau de Bruyn, at that time First
Lieutenant of the Infantry.

b. Two hundred and seventy numbers brought together by the Medical Officer,
A. C. Thomsen; this collection, like the previous one, was assembled on the
banks of the Mamberamo and the Idenburg Rivers.

c. A collection of 625 numbers of herbarium and preserved material and 200
living plants gathered on the north coast of the mouth of the Mamberamo by
Medical Officer R. F. Janowsky.

At the very time when this Fragment was being written, the writer’s collec-
tion at Pionier-bivak and its vicinity, 388 numbers of herbarium and preserved
material, was added, as well as that of Dr. W. M. Docters van Leeuwen, who in
1926 collected about 1000 numbers of herbarium and preserved material in this
region.

I should here emphasize that the following sketch of the vegetation rests
exclusively on my own collection and therefore is very incomplete. In particu-
lar, as far as tree-species are concerned, very little can be said on the basis of
the collection. In reality, it is only a number of more or less coherent observa-
tions on the flora of this territory, which will perhaps serve as a groundwork
upon which later writers may build further and to which they may add their
own observations. However, before | give my own impressions, I shall give
a brief ecological sketch of the vegetation. Similarly, | intend to do the same
for each of the regions which will be discussed in these Fragments. At the
same time this sketch will serve as a pattern to which we shall repeatedly return
when describing other regions, and which therefore will serve as a basis of
comparison. We take Figure J as a starting point, a schematic representation
wherein I have tried to bring together * the principal morphological and eco-
logical characteristics of this plant-association, the tropical lowland primeval
forest.

8 Cf. also the strikingly precise description of a tropical rain-forest in: K. Sapper, Geo-
logischer Bau und Landschaftsbild, 2. Auflage, Bd. 61 van ‘Die Wissenschaft’’ (Vieweg,
Braunschweig 1922), p. 107 and following, and in: Id., Die Tropen—Natur und Mensch zwischen
den Wendekreisen (Stuttgart 1923), p. 60 et seq.; these articles | can warmly recommend for
reading.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 23

In its ideal form the tropical primeval forest is an organism, the lower limit
of which is the ground, the upper the forest-roof. The latter is supported by
what may be designated as the forest-skeleton: the trunks of giant trees, fre-
quently without branches, which rise several score meters, their crowns forming
the forest-roof. But there is still a third limit—the margins, such as we find
along the river-banks. Both the roof and the margins are closed to such an
extent that entirely different conditions prevail within the forest than outside,
where the sun, the wind, and the rain have free play. Within the forest the
light is dim, frequently suggesting twilight, the wind as well as the light is
broken, and the rain loses its force. This is why all outward conditions within
the forest remain within very strict limits. And whereas outside all sorts of
extremes of light and dark, of wind and calm, of extreme heat and sudden cool-
ing, of great humidity and dryness, are possible, yet within the forest these
conditions are extremely constant, as if the inner parts of the forest were a

BRoscHDAK warm en droog, veel wind ,temperatuurextre men,
Sire paca tee _--5) veet ticht

xerop y fsacne
ee. 3 ,
\ iy

bp

| VPI ‘

WwW

<~— oe - ~

Hy GROPH ; ae 2

wary en a acl HI a4 .

gel Ni k ma) tig “|2

aankes : iff S Za
ERY D4 1x y be
<
\ Ne Beobill ny. 2 ~
ser . Pe = ANN Reece ws ul g I
oly gonum teste SER omgevatlen boom gfaga =
Hibiscus tifvaced S Sie

Mm. G-e(f a°S

Fic. 1. Schematic representation of the rain-forest. Boschdak = forest-roof; boschrand
= forest-margin; broeikas = conservatory or hot-house; vochtig = damp; g[ellagah = Sac-
charum; gelijkmatige = even; moeras = marsh.

natural conservatory wherein the light alone changes with day and night. For
not only is the forest-roof thick, but also, even in still stronger measure, the
forest-margin is closed by the overwhelming mass of lianas which frequently
extend to the ground, and which can’ form so thick an undergrowth that—
unfairly, as we shall see—the forest itself has been called impenetrable. In
very broad outline these are the ecological principles of the tropical rain-forest,
a plant association of which we, with Schimper, accept as a fact that it orig-
inated through an equable rather high temperature and a rainfall of at least
two meters evenly distributed over the year.

In such a rain-forest, with its conditions optimum in many respects, the
struggle for existence among individuals and species is so sharp that, with an
equal degree of justification, one cam defend the proposition that these species
and individuals, which carry on a life and death struggle, are units, while the
primeval forest in its entirety may be looked upon as a mighty organism,
wherein, as in all organisms, the maintenance of equilibrium is constantly
sought. For if the balance becomes disturbed somewhere, for example by the

24 SARGENTIA [5

crash of an old forest giant, which in its fall has torn open a gap in the forest,
has broken the forest-roof, and therefore has greatly changed the conditions in
that spot, then we see immediately how the flora reacts at the infliction of the
wound. Thus in the human organism the thrombocytes and the leucocytes:
there develops at the site (of infection) an accelerated growth, a crowding of
life’s forces, and an increased energy, with the result that the wound becomes
temporarily closed and the skin is very quickly healed again. In the injured
forest there immediately arises in such a place a dense mass of tall herbs, shrubs,
and young trees which now for the first time have an opportunity to develop.
At the same time the loose flexible branches of lianas descend from the forest-
roof slowly to join with the lower flora and thus close anew the forest-roof.
So it is, seen from the standpoint of the primeval forest as a unit; but from that
of the individual or species it is a reaction to suddenly changed conditions.
The obligate hygrophytes disappear, now that the full sunlight, the rain, and a
little wind can reach the ground. But all sorts of other plants, which mostly
otherwise would not even commence to develop, now shoot up and begin striv-
ing with each other for light. Again in this struggle a few slowly triumph, in
the long run not more than one or two trees, and thereby the wound is healed.
Meanwhile fungi and bacteria have done their work, completely destroying the
fallen trunk.

The conservatory under the forest-roof is the dwelling-place of hygrophytes,
plants which can live only in an atmosphere of continuously very high humidity.
Here the humidity almost always ranges between 90 and 100%; ° in such a
tropical rain-forest there are plants with leaves not more than a single cell-
layer in thickness (Hymenophyllaceae).: Others possess arrangements by
which they may shed water as quickly as possible; for instance, the drip-tips
of the leaves of some species do that mechanically, aided by the sloping position
of the leaf. Many leaves possess water-glands or hydathodes by which water
is secreted during those hours when the maximum relative grade of humidity is
such that evaporation cannot take place. In this way, under the conditions
outlined, these plants maintain the necessary water-stream from the roots to
the leaves. In general, the dimensions, the thinness of the leaves, and the
possession of a great number of stomata work to the same end.

On the soil rich with humus, in this hot-house of the thick forest, usually
little grows, a result of the lack of light which seems to be a limiting factor.
Autotrophic plants which grow here frequently have a poor appearance; on the
other hand, plants which require no light, such as fungi, bacteria, and higher
saprophytes, ordinarily are common and thrive luxuriantly. In lighter places,
however, distinct herbs often appear, frequently in small communities, as for
example a few Araceae, ferns, and species of Elatostema and Selaginella.
Shrubs are thin and scattered and frequently possess not a single complete
leaf, all being much injured by insects and in addition covered with epiphyllous
mosses and algae. Their flowers are usually inconspicuous in size and color,
often greenish or white. Above these shrubs rise smaller trees, likewise thin
and slender, frequently with bolt upright trunks, while leafless stems of large
lianas twine themselves into all sorts of contortions through the forest. Then
follow some stories of ever larger trees which, however, all remain under the
forest-roof, their crowns forming a natural forest-cover according to some

9 Cf. Fragment II, table I, observations on cleared land; in the forest the relative condition
of humidity is considerably higher.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 25

authors, but I have seldom seen this cover to such an extent. Some re-
search workers, such as Wallace,!® Beccari,!! and Brown,” think they are able
to distinguish fairly.sharply separated stories. Between these trees, whose
trunks are hidden under many clinging plants (especially Araceae and ferns)
and hygrophytic epiphytes (ferns and mosses), there are the particularly bad
groups of Pandanus species and rattans which, with the fallen giants of the
woods, make the forest locally almost impassable. Moreover, | naturally
conclude that the character of the soil itself does not influence this.

Therefore, only the highest trees, with their vast crowns forming the forest-
roof, are exposed to conditions other than those of the previously discussed
group. Their crowns are exposed to the full influence of sun, wind, rain, and
changing temperatures, and consequently they cannot be considered particu-
larly as hygrophytes; nevertheless, the conditions are not so extreme that they
may be called xerophytes. Here also the external factors of the equatorial
climate are still confined within very narrow limits. Furthermore, the roots
of the very same trees live in the more favorable circumstances of the hygro-
phytic forest. So, one considers the woody giants in such a forest and also in
part the secondary trees as belonging to an ecological group between the ex-
tremes of hygrophytes and xerophytes, namely, the mesophytes.

But true xerophytes naturally are the epiphytes which live above in the
forest-roof. Exposed to the same outward circumstances as the crowns of the
forest-giants, they lack entirely the conditions of the last to take up water
conveniently, and they must manage to get along with the small amount of
water which they can absorb as vapor out of the atmosphere and the little
which they can obtain during periods of rainfall. It is obvious then that such
plants usually are small and possess more or less well-developed water-tissue
which allows them to use this water, once taken up, as economically as possible.
In brief I wish to remind my readers that, until recently, the earlier opinion of
Schimper ® was held, that xerophytism (the word xerophily is wrong, since
these plants are not drought-loving but drought-enduring) is expressed only in
morphological-anatomical characters. If one saw a plant with hard thick
leaves, with a thick hairy covering, with a waxy or thick cuticle, then that plant
would be without doubt a xerophyte. The latest researches, for example those
of Maximov " on plants of the steppe, and of Senn ! on alpine vegetation, have
proved that a xerophyte is characterized, in the first place, not by a morpho-
logical-anatomical adaptation, but by a physiological one. Earlier, it was
thought, on the basis of outward observations, that xerophytes possessed means
of preventing evaporation. Exactly the contrary is true; evaporation in xero-
phytes is very much greater than in mesophytes, and the outer or epidermal
covering is not important except when the stomata are closed (and that happens
in sudden drying). The adaptation of the xerophytes lies therefore, in a
greater resistance against and an easier endurance of prolonged drying up.

10 A. R. Wallace, Natural Selection and Tropical Nature (1895), p. 240, cited by Brown, I. c.
33;

QO, Beccari, Nelle Foreste di Borneo, 2nd edition (1921), p. 412.

2 W. H. Brown, Vegetation of Philippine Mountains (Manila 1919), p. 31.

18 A. F. W. Schimper, Die epiphytische Vegetation Amerikas, Bot. Mitt. aus den Tropen II
(1888); see also W. H. Brown, Veget. Philipp. Mountains, p. 296.

4 N. A. Maximov, Physiologisch-Gkologische Untersuchungen itiber die Diirreresistenz der
Xerophyten, Jhrb. f. Wiss. Bot. LXII (1923), I, 128.

1G, Senn, Untersuchungen iiber die Physiologie der Alpenpflanzen, Verh. d. Schweiz.
Nat. f. Ges. 1922, II, 154.

26 SARGENTIA [5

For this, in addition to the previously mentioned morphological-anatomical
characteristics, the following are also compensating factors: a high osmotic
pressure in the root-cells of terrestrial plants, a strong evaporation (hence, in
general, a powerful water-transportation), and the possession of much mechani-
cal tissue. Some morphological observations are not primary but merely a
consequence of the physiological quality, as, for example, the smallness of the
plants, which is a result of the delayed carbonic acid assimilation by the re-
peated closing of the stomata. As means of diminishing the evaporation sur-
face, the smallness of the leaves can well be a morphological adaptation, just as
is the possession of water-tissue or water-reservoirs in tubers, stems, or leaves.
Extreme xerophytism appears frequently to coincide with the presence of such
a water-tissue; one recalls, for instance, Cactaceae, Mesembryanthemum, Sedum,
Sempervivum, Agave, and many others. A large number of epiphytes (Orchi-
daceae, Hydnophytum, and Myrmecodia) have similar organs, thick leaves, tu-
bers, etc. Moreover, some epiphytes can catch or absorb the little available
water quickly, the orchids, for example, taking up capillary water through the
long gray aerial roots.

Finally there is the forest-margin, where nearly the same conditions prevail
as on the forest-roof, only in less extreme measure. In this habitat lianas and
rattans especially are quite numerous, but most of these develop fully particu-
larly in the forest-margin, which they often entirely cover with their long pen-
dent and thickly foliaged branches. They also are mesophytes and they too
can absorb water from the ground ad libitum. That they continue to do so in
large measure is noticeable by the structure of their stems, the wood of which is
perforated with very large vessels which often, and especially after rainy
weather and in the full sun, contain so much water that they are a welcome
source of drinking water—welcome also for the trustworthiness of this source.
In these forest-margins the most colorful flowers are to be seen. Many lianas
have large flowers with striking colors. Within the forest they rarely occur. |
need not here refute the fairy tale of the ‘luxuriant tropical forest with its
beautifully colored flowers and butterflies; ’’ it probably originated in the minds
of those who know tropical forests not through their own observations but
through fancy, since enthusiastic and superficial observers are charmed by the
colored pictures in the encyclopedias and by imagination. Furthermore, one
observes practically nothing of animal life except insects, and of these frequently
too many. Larger animals are rarely observed, but their tracks are often seen.
Many of these forest-dwellers are nocturnal; moreover they are shy and flee
quickly and quietly at strange noises. Frequently then during the day there
prevails in the sultry calm of the forest an almost perfect silence which, more-
over, is accentuated by the melancholy deep cooing of large doves and is broken
only by the screams of parrots or the rough bickering of hornbills, and some-
times far in the distance by the hoarse cry of a cassowary. The cicada chorus
naturally is heard at night, but chiefly in open places, as in the vicinity of
camps. In the forest itself this chorus is hardly sufficient to disturb the im-
pression of a deep smouldering stillness.

BS a
ae

The region about Pionier-bivak (Fig. 2), which, according to estimates,-has
an altitude of 60-70 m., is controlled especially by the river, inasmuch as the
hills do not approach the bank. The flat parts consist of a heavy clay rich

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 27

with humus and are intersected by a number of creeks with nearly impassable
beds of soft deep mud. In Figure 2 one of the creeks is designated as a, viewed
towards the southeast. Here and there are small marshes (), c) between the
elevations of land, and not far from the river sharp little ridges begin as foothills
of the mountains farther inland. | shall presently consider the names of a few
plants and plant-associations which we find here. It does not seem unsuitable
to me to begin with Pionier-bivak itself, because here we find a number of
weeds well worth brief consideration. In connection with this idea I should
like to arrange under this concept the species belonging to the native flora which
persist as well as the adventive ones which have come from outside, plants
which more or less tolerate or even prefer the presence of men who clear openings
in the forest. So far this place is more remarkable for weeds than most others

Duiven-eil.

Fic. 2. Small sketch-map of the vicinity of Pionier-bivak; explanation of the letters in the
text; the contours are at 5 m. intervals.

because the camp is surrounded on all sides by hundreds of kilometers of
primary forest, where the adventive plants do not occur. We have therefore
an area before us from which, for the larger part, the original flora has disap-
peared. Hence the conditions which prevail in the forest have become drasti-
cally changed. In the first place nearly all hygrophytes find it impossible to
live here. Most mesophytes have been and still are being violently removed.
Thus conditions are created which make it possible for other plants (“‘anthropo-
choren”’ or ‘‘anthropophilen’’—plants of dwelling places or plants following man)
to penetrate (if only they were present) and to live beside the native plants
which can persist under these conditions (apophytes). 1 found in the open
region of Pionier-bivak a number of truly adventive plants, which, therefore,
either indirectly or directly must have been introduced by man. Pionier-

28 SARGENTIA [5

bivak was established at this location in December 1913, but about a year later
it was abandoned. The growth became so dense that the advance-guard of our
expedition encountered here in February 1920 a luxuriant stand of shrubs and
young trees. I must, however, point out that in the neighborhood there were
present some small foci of infection, that is to say, the old Pionier-bivak (May
1911) on the left bank of the Okten River (Fig. 2, d) near our Pionier-bivak, and
furthermore, at a greater distance away was Koetei-bivak (January 1910) on
the van Gelder River; possibly also the settlements of the Papuans have exer-
cised some influence on this. For the sake of completeness I recall the ascents
of 1880, 1900, 1906, and 1909, but for the importation of adventive plants those
can scarcely have been of any importance.
The list of weeds (ruderal plants) '* which I found follows:

I. THROUGHOUT THE TROPICS OR OF WIDER DISTRIBUTION:

. Ageratum conyzotdes L., originally native in South America, now pantropic.

. Eleusine indica Gaertn., also in the subtropics.

. Euphorbia hirta L. (E. pilulifera L.)

. Euphorbia thymifolia L.

. Lindernia crustacea F. vy. Muell., originally native in the Old World, now pantropic.
. Mitreola petiolata Torr. & Gray (M. paniculata Wall.).

. Oldenlandia corymbosa L.

. Paspalum conjugatum Berg., originally native in South America, now ee

. Portulaca oleracea L.., in all warmer regions.

CONDUS WH —

II. Tropics oF THE OLD Wor.p:

10. Amaranthus caudatus L. (A. gracilis Desf.).
11. Lindernia pyxidaria All., also in the subtropics.
12. Oldenlandia diffusa Roxb.
III. SouTHEASTERN ASIA:

13. Lindernia mollis Wettst. (Vandellia mollis Benth.), Himalaya, China, Malaya, Sumatra.

14, Ilysanthes antipoda Merr. (Bonnaya veronicifolia Spreng.), British India, China, Malayan
Archipelago.

15. Stachytarpheta indica Vahl, British India, Malayan Archipelago [Native of tropical
America ].

16. Pouzolzia seylanica Benn. (2. indica Gaud.), tropics and subtropics of British India

South China, Malayan Archipelago, and Australia.

Moreover, here grew apparently as ruderal plants a couple of Cucurbitaceae
(nos. 629, 630). [These are Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng. (trop. As.-
Arch.) according to the Addenda. ]

The most striking fact in the above list is that almost all of these plants have
a very wide distribution. Not less than 9 of the 16 or 56% are tropical cos-
mopolitans, and 12 or 75% are widespread over the tropics of the Old World
(Australia sometimes excluded). Probably their slight fastidiousness in re-
spect to outward conditions and their easy mode of dispersal predetermine these
plants to cosmopolitanism. Regarding the manner of distribution of the plants
mentioned above, not less than 13 of the 16 possess very small, more or less
round, smooth or wrinkled seeds or fruits which, where great distances are con-
cerned, are spread chiefly through the influence of people; of the remaining
three, the method of dissemination is more uncertain. Ageratum conyzoides L.,
with fruits crowned by five tolerably stiff acute calyx-lobes, is perhaps spread

16 The determinations I owe to Mr. C. A. Backer, formerly of Buitenzorg, now of Pasoeroean.

Here, as in later instances, I have used Merrill’s Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants,
I-IV (1922-1926), for the nomenclature and distribution.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 29

by birds; both grasses, Paspalum conjugatum Berg. and Eleusine indica Gaertn.,
are perhaps spread by the wind, possibly by people.

As for the apophytes which have persisted at the bivouac, we can perhaps
include some Cyperaceae, such as Fimbristylis (no. 635) and Cyperus, and also
a species of Jussiaea (no. 506), all of which occurred in a small marsh (Fig. 2, d).

We now come to the discussion of a real forest-flora. We have already seen
above that, as a rule, it is not the forest which makes this land so particularly
hard to penetrate in many places. It is true that here and there appear some-
what hindering rattan or Pandanus complexes, but, generally speaking, the
forest itself is not especially thick apart from the forest-margin. Here chiefly it
is the nature of the soil which makes the terrain so arduous. Whoever does
not know a country such as New Guinea cannot easily imagine those difficulties,
which likewise cannot be made clear by means of pictures. One must himself
have roamed around over this soft, miry, and slippery terrain with its unex-
pected deep muddy creeks, frequently very difficult to pass, with their steep
banks. This condition prevails in the ‘‘dry” season. In the rainy season,
when the river fills and more than fills with its water all the muddy creeks far
back into the land—also in the neighborhood of Pionier-bivak—then this region
offers difficulties which even for experienced woodsmen have remained unsur-
mountable. It happened once, during our expedition, that provisions had to
be brought to Edi-bivak, where the advance-guard was imprisoned by a sudden
rise of water and the supply of food was exhausted. One of the non-commis-
sioned officers, an experienced jungle runner, was given an order to open a
path with a group of convicts in the direction of that camp which was 22 km.
distant in a straight line. The group worked five long days with might and
main, contending with the numerous muddy creeks which sometimes had to be
circumvented by detours 700 to 800 m. inland. After the fifth day it had not
advanced farther than Havik Island, 2 km. distant from Pionier-bivak.

As mentioned above, owing to a number of circumstances, | collected little
tree material in this territory. Therefore, from the hundreds of tree species,
there is little to be gained by naming the few which I caused to be felled and
from which I secured material. Later explorers, and first among them Docters
van Leeuwen, who examined this terrain more intensively, doubtless will be
able to contribute thereto more valuable data. It is sufficient to mention
Intsia amboinensis Thouars (no. 612) (Arch.),!7 a tree regularly sought for by
the Dyaks from which to make their proas. A woody giant I came across in
the middle of the forest was Pittosporum ramiflorum Zoll. (E. Arch.), which,
although 45 m. tall, did not protrude above the forest-roof. Also I have seen
enormous Ficus species on the other side of the river somewhat inland from the
site where in 1926 the Albatros-bivak was built. I once saw a giant specimen
some 60 m. in height, with a large number of aerial roots, which together surely,
covered an area 20 m. in diameter. It is hardly necessary to mention that
Ficus species are also abundant in this forest (nos. 653, 729, 731, 757, 758, and
765). Likewise Jambosa Thomseni Diels,* with pretty purple-red flowers, was
a rather tall tree (35 m.).

17 The distribution will be given shortly and comprehensively by: Arch. (entire Malayan
Archipelago), W. Arch. (western part of it), E. Arch. (eastern part of it). Phil. (Philippines),
Trop. As., Trop. S. E. As., N. Austr., Polyn. (Polynesia), Trop. O. W. (tropics of Old World),
pantrop. (tropics of whole world), and others. New species are indicated by an asterisk. ‘The
addition ‘‘end.”’ (endemic) stands in some places also for endemism in its wider sense, thus, for
example, including the Bismarck Archipelago.

30 SARGENTIA [5

On the north side of the camp is one of the many small marshes which lie
along the river (Figs. 1 and 2, c). Here the forest roof is more or less inter-
rupted and the sunlight falls on the crowns of the low Pandanaceae which form
the higher overgrowth. On the drier margins typical small trees such as Klein-
hovia hospita L. (no. 743, trop. As.) and Vitex Hollrungii Warb. (Arch.) occur,
while Hibiscus tiliaceus L. (pantrop.) var. abutiloides Hochr. and Cordyline termi-
nalis Kunth (trop. As.-Polyn.) frequently are close to the margin of or even
partly in the water. Towering over all plants in many spots breadfruit trees
(Artocarpus ?communis Forst.; Arch., Polyn.) raise their crowns. The shal-
lower parts of such little swamps frequently have a compact growth of Cyper-
aceae (nos. 533 and 535), Jussiaea (no. 506), and Polygonum dichotomum BI.
(trop. S.E.As.-N. Austr.). Combretum tetralophum Clarke (trop. As.-N. Guin.)
creeps along on marshy ground.

In the forest the smaller trees are naturally more easily reached. Among
them are some which are conspicuous because of their colorful flowers, such as
Ixora Kerstingit K. Schum. & Lauterb. (end.; nos. 557, 768) and Phaleria (no.
461), the last cauliflorous. A species of Tabernaemontana is especially obvious
because of the very light large orange-colored fruits, which one sees floating
everywhere on the river and which one may observe even at sea. Other
smaller trees, 10-15 m. high, belong to the Rubiaceae, such as Timonius stipu-
losus Boerl. (Celebes, N. Guin.; no. 478) and Tarenna Guelcheriana Val.
(E. Arch.), and to the genera Sterculia (no. 471), Dillenia (e. g. D. pedunculata
K. Schum., end., and D. castaneifolia Miq., end.), Pycnarrhena (P. grandis
Lauterb., end.), and Semecarpus (S. Lamii Slis* and S. fulvo-villosus Lauterb.,
end.), the last genus with the black resin, characteristic for so many of the
Anacardiaceae, which causes an itching inflammation of the skin. Also species
of Laportea, tropical stinging nettles, are not uncommon, as L. decumana Wedd.
(Arch.). In addition some small palms are widespread in all stories of the
primary forest (nos. 651, 672, 728). 1 name further Stemonurus ramuensis
Lauterb., the myrmecophilous monimiaceous Anthobembix dentata Val. (no.
769, end.), a Horsfieldia (no. 770), Conocephalus Gjellerupii Hub. Winkl. (end.),
Santiria acuminata KK. Schum. (end.), and a few noteworthy Leguminosae,
namely Maniltoa gemmipara Scheff. (no. 670, end.), which is cauliflorous (as is
Phaleria), and Hansemannia (no. 692, end.) with regular flowers in which the
thick clusters of white stamens make one think of a species of the Myrtaceae
or the Lecythidaceae. Also | found here Desmodium umbellatum DC. (trop.
As.).

Along the banks of the Okten River are Kleinhovia hospita L.., Premna integri-
folia L.., and a number of species of Ficus which all are abundant. Here and
there one finds Erythrospermum Wichmanni Val. (end.), the white-flowered
‘Lepidopetalum hebecladum Radlk. (N. Guin., Key and Aru Is.), and the beauti-
ful Schuurmansia (no. 481), a small and slender tree, frequently bent over the
water, its long narrow leaves very thickly crowded at the apices of the branches,
while from the middle of this foliar cluster protrudes the very large clear purple
inflorescence with a profusion of small flowers.

Amongst the shrubs there are almost none that have showy flowers and fruits.
1 found there representatives of the following genera: Ardisia (no. 432),
Saurauia (S. mamberamana Diels * with white or rose flowers), Solanum (nos.
636, 706), Diospyros (no. 698), Antidesma (nos. 660, 707), Breynia (no. 746),
Garcinia (no. 750), Cyrtandra (nos. 441, 759), Gomphandra (nos. 427, 657),

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA aie § |

Amaracarpus (A. mesophyllus Val.*), Pipturus (P. argenteus Wedd.; Arch.,
Polyn.), Semecarpus (S. magnificus K. Schum., end.), Chisocheton (nos. 502,
573), Orophea (O. Dielsiana Diels, end., nos. 433, 492), Pittosporum (P. gala
K. Schum., end., no. 723), Melodorum (M. micranthum Warb., end., no. 751),
Tylecarpus (T. papuanus Engl.), and Aphania cuspidata Radlk. (N. Guin.,
Waigeoe; nos. 416, 418). All the plants mentioned have inconspicuous small
flowers, often greenish white in color. Yet there are shrubs which are more
showy. For instance, I found here an Abroma (A. fastuosa R. Br., trop. As.,
Austr.; no. 465) with flowers which attract attention by their elegant and
unusual structure and the combination of darker modest colors, purple-brown
and yellow. A couple of Clerodendron species also give color to the under-
growth. Most species of the latter genus occur in somewhat more open situa-
tions and frequently are decorative with their colorful inflorescences. Those
met with here have their flowers whitish mingled with rose and lilac; they are
C. buruanum Mig. (E. Arch., Phil.) and C. porphyrocalyx Schum. & Lauterb.
(end.); the latter is beautiful after blossoming on account of its enlarged fiery
red calyx, against which the black fruit shows in sharp contrast. Some color
is given to the forest by a few Rubiaceae, not on account of their corollas, but
because of the enlarged calyx-lobes. Not only Morinda umbellata L. (S. E. As.)
var. papuana Val. and M. bracteata Roxb. (Arch.) var. celebica Migq., but also
Mussaenda cylindrocarpa Burck (end.), show this phenomenon, besides, in the
first-named species the tuber-like inflorescence and infructescence attract atten-
tion. Just as on many other islands in the Archipelago, the family here also
is richly developed in the undergrowth. In addition to its representatives
already indicated, I found a Pavetta (no. 498) and a few species of Psychotria
in damp places, P. obscura Val. (end.), P. subherbacea Val. (end.), P. leptothyrsa
Mig. (E. Java, Moluccas, N. Guin., Palau; nos. 494, 699), and no. 678. Also
represented here are Oldenlandia corymbosa L. (N. Guin., Carol.), O. diffusa
Roxb., O. pubescens Val. (end.), and the half-shrubs Ophiorrhiza sertata Val.*
and O. cuneata Val.*

As we have already seen, there are not many herbs on the forest-floor. In a
few places there are small areas of Selaginella (S. gracilis Moore, end.) typical
of the primary forest, and of Elatostema, here represented by E. Weinlandit
K. Schum. (end.), E. Pellionianum Gaudich. (FE. Arch.), and E. novoguineense
Warb. var. angustifolium, over which the first predominates. Scattered in not
too dry places are some Begonias (nos. 459, 467, 563, 752, 760), in more moist
spots Cyperaceae, such as Scleria (no. 479) and Cyperus (nos. 632, 715). In
darker parts of the forest robust Zingiberaceae (nos. 480, 484, 499, 501, 572,
638, 650, 656) are common; we also find here species of the genus Phrynium
(nos. 444, 449, 562, 648), some Commelinaceae (nos. 496, 716, 724), among them
the beautiful Forrestia mollissima Koord. (Arch.; nos. 450, 659) with its bright
purple flowers and fruits and orange seeds; Donax canniformis Rolfe (Arch.,
Polyn.) is fairly plentiful, and in addition a few Acanthaceae, as Peristrophe
tinctoria Nees (no. 421, trop. As.), Lepidagathis hyalina Nees (no. 528, trop.
As.), Hemigraphis reptans T. Anders. (no. 403, E. Arch.), and a species of
Hygrophila (no. 412). The rest of the low flora consists almost entirely of
ferns and Araceae, scattered and in small communities. In the Araceae I
found here Schismatoglottis pomatophila v.A.v.R.* and S. angustifolia Vv. Ae
both with white and greenish spadix and white spathe, also Homalomena
pygmaea Engl., H. lilacina v:A.v.R.*, and Holochlamys elliptica v.A.v.R.* In

32 SARGENTIA [5

a marshy creek-bed near Pionier-bivak (Fig. 2, c) was a community consisting
exclusively of Helminthostachys zeylanica Hook. f. (trop. As., Austr.), Pleopeltis
aquatica v.A.v.R., and Holochlamys guineensis Engl. A very large part of the
terrestrial ferns belong to the typical hygrophytes, the Hymenophyllaceae.
Here, for instance, Trichomanes infundibulare v.A.v.R.* occurs in large num-
bers; other extreme hygrophytes are the delicate Lindsaya tenuifolia BI. (Arch.,
Polyn.) and Asplenium cuneatum Lamk. (pantrop.). In the terrestrial group
also are the small Schizaea dichotoma Sm. (trop. O. W.), Campylogramma pteridi-
formis v.A.v.R.*, Pteris Warburgit Chr. (E. Arch.), and Dryopteris schizo-
phylla v.A.v.R.* Near the location of the later Albatros-bivak on a gravelly
bank skirting the inner bend of the river and overgrown with a young but
already tall forest, I observed a sparse development of Asplenium pseudovul-
canicum v.A.v.R.*, Dryopteris urophylla Chr. (trop. S. E. As.—Polyn.), and
Dictyopteris irregularis Pr. (Arch.), with Dipteris dissecta O. Ktze. behind the
natural bank in damper places as practically the only ground cover.

Here and there also are some small terrestrial Orchidaceae,!’ such as the
demure Microstylis Lamii J. J. Sm.*, which seems to prefer a habitat of stones
overgrown with moss. In addition are Goodyera confundens J. J. Sm. and above
all the beautiful Zewxine amboinensis J. J. Sm. var. argentea J. J. Sm., with a
rosette of fairy-like leaves prettily marked and reflecting a metallic lustre. On
more open places, for example on shaded river-banks, a handsome Spatho-
_ glottis (S. grandiflora Schlecht., no. 564), about 1.5 m. high and with lilac flowers,
is also frequent.

Both the terrestrial Orchidaceae and the higher saprophytes are widespread.
For instance, Cotylanthera tenuis Bl. (Arch.), one of the Gentianaceae, with pale
stems, scale-like leaves, and a small pale lilac, yellow, and white flower, is
common here. Locally such saprophytes may very well be common, a number
sometimes being found together. This is especially the case with the fine
species of Sciaphila, which are rather inconspicuous, first because they fre-
quently are hidden almost entirely under fallen leaves, and second, because
they do not stand out against the forest background on account of their dark
red color and slender habit. I found here S. longipes Schlecht. (end.) and
S. andajensis Becc. (end.) growing together, the first being taller, about 25 cm.
as opposed to the second, which is 10 cm. high. The same color, perhaps more
purple, is seen also in the vegetative parts of Epirrhizanthes papuana J. J. Sm.
(end.), the inflorescence of which is dirty white.

The fungi, richly represented here, are by far the most important sapro-
phytes. They and the bacteria form a large group which, with the assistance
of high temperature and great humidity, effect disintegration in nature, thus
playing an important part in the cycle of matter. A number of the fungi
decompose dead wood; others prefer decayed organic material in the form of
humus. The beautiful shining black (like sealing wax) fungi ® of the genus
Ganoderma (G. Cochlear Murr.) belong to the first group. Amongst others
growing on wood | came across Lentinus maculatus Berk., Polyporus arcularius
Fr., Trametes Persoonii Fr., and two species of salmon-colored Pilocratera, an
ascomycete in the form of a short-stalked little cup (P. Hindsii Henn. and
P. tricholoma Henn.). Polyporus rugosus Nees is one of the most peculiar of the

‘8 The determinations of the Orchidaceae by Dr. J. J. Smith are available only in manuscript,
so that in most cases no mention of distribution or of new species can be made.
‘° T owe the determinations of the fungi to the late Dr. C. van Overeem.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 33

polypores growing on humus. The lower side of the pileus is almost entirely
black; the immature round thick cap, gray-white beneath, rises on a stalk 1-40
cm. high. This species is solid and hard, like many fungi living on dead wood.
Most fungi growing on humus are fleshy and soft, as, for example, the profusely
branched Clavaria species (no. 549). A pretty sight in the forest is the beauti-
ful Dictyophora (probably D. phalloidea Desv., pantrop.; nos. 443, 2089) which
I found at various times, always growing singly. I fortunately had an oppor-
tunity to follow its development, being located nearby. On the first day of
observation, I found the ‘‘devil’s egg”’ at 6 P. M. between the plank-buttresses
of a woody giant. The top of the white-gray oval object, the upper half of
which protruded from the ground, then showed a small tear through which a
yellow jelly-like mass was visible. Just 24 hours later the split had opened only
a little farther, but on the third day at 8 A. M. a small yet unveiled head pro-
truded on a short stalk about 7 cm. above the ground. In this phase, develop-
ment is very rapid: not an hour later the plant was full-grown, and it shone
with a stalk about 15 cm. high and a small conical gray head thickly beset with
tiny carrion-flies and little butterflies. From the constriction beneath it, the
beautiful net-like pure white veil flared widely below. Toward midday the
veil began to lose its turgor and at one o'clock it hung down withered. At Six
in the evening the head nodded low and the following morning the entire fruit-
ing body lay already half-decayed on the earth.

The most remarkable discovery in this territory was Echinophallus Lauter-
bachit Henn., known from the Moluccas and New Guinea. The full-grown
fruiting body of this fungus, allied to Dictyophora, appears still to be unknown.
I found only the ‘‘egg” phase. The generic name is derived from the fact that
the ‘‘egg’’ is not smooth but so thickly studded with numerous prickles that one
might compare it with a colorless rambutan fruit (Nephelium). Later (middle
of 1926) I found the plant, again immature, on Morotai, northeast of Halma-
hera.

Other fungi of this territory in my collection are under the following numbers:
411, 415, 426, 434, 488, 504, 512-524, 541, 546, 550-552, 559, 561, 569, 574,
576-579, 587, 588, 620, 665, 673, 713, and 774.

Now that we have seen what there is to be found in the forest-terrain, |
shall devote a little further attention to the plants growing in the forest-frame-
work and the forest-roof, the climbers, the clinging plants, and lastly the
epiphytes. Among the clinging plants here, the ferns and the Araceae again
take the leading place. Pressed against the tree-trunks, they work themselves
upward toward the light that most of them never reach. In the Araceae one
finds plants varying in size from the small species of Pothos to the giant
Rhaphidophora. A large number of these seemingly form a transition between
the climbing plant and the epiphyte; for, although they can live on without
difficulty, when for some reason their connection is broken with the ground,
they never appear to attain this situation of their own accord. In addition to
the frequently numerous anchoring roots which grasp the host-trunk hori-
zontally, these plants also possess other roots, which must surely be interpreted
as absorbing roots. These grow down perpendicularly along the trunk, becom-
ing continually thinner toward the lower part of the plant, so that in full-.
grown specimens only very thin rootlets reach the ground. It is clear that
these rootlets are altogether insufficient to meet the daily water need of these
large, leafy, and doubtless strongly transpiring plants. It has also been ob-

34 SARGENTIA [5

served that the plants, without experiencing loss, keep on living and growing
when the rootlets are removed. Hence, just as in epiphytes, the necessary
water-supply must be furnished in other ways, for instance with the help of
clinging or aerial roots. Thus a mutilated plant has in reality become an
epiphyte. We are inclined to look upon such cases as a transition between an
epiphyte and a clinging plant, that is to say a form which perhaps is working
its way up from a clinging plant to an epiphyte, in a certain sense therefore a
semi-epiphyte. This term was introduced for another group of plants, which
normally begin their life as epiphytes (many species of Ficus, for example) and
later, by sending out aerial roots, obtain contact with the ground, a contact
which thereafter they cannot afford to lose. Thus in a way, our form of semi-
epiphyte is a more advanced stage. We should be able to distinguish them as
deutero-hemt-epiphytes in contrast with the protero-hemi-epiphytes, among which,
for example, we would understand the afore-mentioned Ficus species. Karsten
asserted somewhere *° that ‘‘die Araceenpflanze des weiteren auf epiphytisches
Leben angewiesen (ist),’’ but here in the Indies I have never observed a case of
spontaneous breaking of the connection with the ground.

Many of the Araceae may become very tall and drape the central parts and
sometimes even the higher branches of the trees with their large frequently
lobed dark green leaves. The genus Rhaphidophora is well-represented among
them. I found here R. obliquata v.A.v.R.* (with fiery red fruits), R. novo-
guineensis Engl. (end.), and R. latifolia v.A.v.R.*; Pothos Albertisii Engl.
(end.) and Epipremnopsis magnifica v.A.v.R.* also have red fruits. Pothos
Versteegit Engl. (end.) is common.

Amongst the ferns the number of different species is overwhelming. In the
vicinity of Pionier-bivak a Stenochiaena sp. (S. ?aculeata Ktze., no. 424) is espe-
cially common. Young plants are frequently found on the small trunks of
young trees; the pinnate fronds bear pinnae only in one plane, closely appressed
to the slender trunks and almost covering them. At the apex of older speci-
mens, fronds of entirely different form develop; they are much larger and are
no longer appressed against the host-trunk, but hang free. Above these the
fertile fronds develop.

In addition to species of rattan, here are a great many specimens of Flagel-
laria indica L. (trop. O. W.), an often robust liana, which climbs upward with
the aid of tendriliferous leaf-tips. The white-flowered Faradaya splendida
F. v. Muell. (E. Arch.) is common too, but almost exclusively along river-banks.
A very sturdy species of Piper (no. 685), related to the Australian P. Mestonii
Bailey, occurs generally both in the forest and on the river-banks. Owing to
its fiery red stout infructescence, it presents a striking appearance in the forest.
Other climbers include Dioscorea oppositifolia L. (no. 761; S. E. As.), Medinilla
Lorentziana Mansf.* var. suffruticosa Mansf.* (no. 495), M. quintuplinervis
Cogn. (end.; no. 662), and other Melastomataceae (nos. 639, 663), a Crypto-
carya (no. 744), further species of Conocephalus (nos. 404, 467), Ichnocar pus
volubtlas Merr. (trop. S. E. As.—Austr.), f. sogerensis Markgr., a very prickly
Caesalpinia (no. 474), a Salacia (no. 652), besides the menispermaceous
Stephania Zippeliana Miq. (E. Arch.) and Macrococculus pomiferus Becc. (end.).
We found here the climbing pandanaceous Freycinetia (no. 766), its sharply
3-angled stems pressed closely against the tree, while, just as in Stenochlaena,
the branches of older specimens hang free.

°° Q. Karsten, Handbuch d. Natuurwissenschaften, III (1913), 685, art. Epiphyten.

1945) LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 30

A plant which, with Faradaya and the red-fruited Pzper, often stands out,
because of its colorful flowers, is a magnificent Mucuna with large orange-red
inflorescences. More rare is Tecomanthe ?dendrophila K. Schum., with clusters
of large pale lilac and red bell-shaped flowers. Other lianas here are the
apocynaceous Parsonsia curvisepala K. Schum. (end.) and Lamechites* Schlech-
teri Markgr.*

Climbers may also occur among the herbaceous plants. In addition to a
couple of cucurbitaceous plants, no. 468 and Luffa cylindrica Roem. (trop.
O. W.; no. 472), encountered in the reeds along the river-banks and perhaps
introduced, I found the convolvulaceous Lepistemon urceolatus F. v. Muell.
(Austr.; no. 565) with still another representative of this family (no. 413).

The semi-parasites are represented by Loranthus plicatulus Krause*, a
species with red-violet flowers.

I have already stated above that, in the epiphytic flora, the Orchidaceae
especially and the ferns are very strongly represented. Elsewhere earlier, as
an example of these riches, I have mentioned an instance in which | collected
not less than 28 different species of flowering orchids in a half hour’s time on a
single branch of a river-bank tree. A number of non-flowering orchids oc-
curred there too. That the two groups mentioned particularly occupy such an
important place amongst the epiphytes is, according to Schimper,”’ owing to
the smallness and lightness of their spores and seeds.” Thus they may easily
be spread by the wind or just as easily fasten themselves in moss-cushions or in
crevices in the bark of the host, where they happen upon enough water to
enable them to germinate. Other families—provided that the plant is organ-
ized for an epiphytic way of life or at least can tolerate it—are selected on ac-
count of juicy fleshy fruits, which are eaten by birds and animals. The fruits
of Myrmecodia, Hydnophytum, and the Loranthaceae are brought to the
branches by being rubbed from the beak. Those of Medinilla, Zingiberaceae,
Ericaceae, and many others are dropped in the excreta. A number of hemi-
epiphytes also may be placed in this category (Ficus, Araliaceae, Piperaceae).
Thus firstly, the nature of fruits and seeds—organs often of very constant
nature in a family, a fact explaining why some families furnish many epiphytes,
others practically none—determines which groups of plants make the origin of
epiphytes possible. Schimper theorizes that the plants of the forest-floor,
which, no matter how, possessed an aptitude to continue in life as epiphytes,
formed the first representatives of this group, and that adaptations did not
originate until later.”

One of the most noteworthy plants of this group, although neither an orchid
nor a fern, is Trichosporum (aff. T. radicans Nees, no. 419), with its clusters of
fiery red flowers. Other members of the group are the peculiar myrmeco-
philous plants, such as Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum commune Val.* (no. 446),
which harbor ants in the cavities of their thick tuberous stems, and their allies
which occur in great numbers in the mountains. Randia Gynopachys Boerl.
(Java, Celebes, N. Guin.) is another epiphyte here. The genus Hoya is also
well-represented (nos. 592, 593, 653, 738).

As for the Orchidaceae, of all the families which occur here, it is surely the
richest in epiphytes. Included here are a species of Grammatophyllum and

21 A, F, W. Schimper, Die epiphytische Vegetation Amerikas—Bot. Mitt. aus den Tropen
II (1888), 157.

2 Schimper I. c. p. 21.

23 Schimper, |. c. p. 29.

36 SARGENTIA |S

the stately Dendrobium violaceoflavens J. J. Sm., of which I observed a few
specimens on the highest branches of an almost leafless tree. This remarkable
orchid, with coarse attenuate leaves and fleshy lilac-speckled flowers in thinly
arranged axillary inflorescences, stands upright on a branch of the host. One
specimen measured 2.5 m. in length, but a much larger specimen, lost in felling
the tree, must have been 4 m. long. By far the greater part of the epiphytic
Orchidaceae, however, are small or even very small plants. Amongst these,
particularly the genera Dendrobium and Bulbophyllum are strongly represented,
as, for example, by Dendrobium ostrinum J. J. Sm. var. ochroleucum J. J. Sm.,
D. angraecifolium J. J. Sm., D. rugulosum J. J. Sm., D. Baeuerleni Krzl.,
D. transversilobum J. J. Sm., D. Macfarlanii F. v. Muell., D. prestocaule
Schlecht., D. anosmum Lindl., D. comatum Lindl. var. papuanum J. J. Sm., and
by Bulbophyllum tectipetalum J. J. Sm. var. longisepalum J. J. Sm. and B. ensi-
culiferum J. J. Sm. Of other genera I mention Eria Lorentziana J. J. Sm. &
Krzl., Robiquetia Mooreana J. J. Sm.,; Sarcochilus Moorei Schlecht., Podochilus
scalpelliformis Bl., Sarcanthus bicornis J. J. Sm., and Schoenorchis plebeja
J.J.Sm. One of the very small epiphytic orchids is a curious leafless species of
Taentophyllum in which the roots, having taken over the function of leaves, lie
pressed flat against the host-branches and radiate in all directions, whereas the
small flower-stalk rises from the.junction of the roots. Taeniophyllum tamia-
num J. J. Sm. and T. tripulvinatum J. J. Sm. were found here also.

The number of epiphytic ferns, as noted above, is very large. Again the
small forms are in the majority. Many of them have a wide distribution, the
result perhaps of the lightness of the spores, which are easily spread by the
wind. ‘They possess this phenomenon in common with many higher fungi, but
it is not easy to understand how toadstools living on the floor of the primeval
forest can be spread through the medium of the wind. The seeds of the Orchi-
daceae also are unusually light. That widespread plants within this group are
much less numerous is perhaps a consequence of the circumstance that these
seeds on germination must meet particular conditions not found everywhere
(mycorrhiza).

Examples of such a widespread distribution are: Humata Gaimardiana Sm.
(trop. S. E. As.—Polyn.), Pleopeltis phymatodes Moore (trop. and subtrop.
O. W.), Polypodium verrucosum Wall. (Arch.—Austr.), Asplenium tenerum
Forst. (trop. As.), Loxogramma involuta Fr. (Arch.—Polyn.), Merinthosorus
drynartoides Copel. (Arch.—Polyn.), and Hymenolepis spicata Pr. (Madag.,
Mascar., trop. As.—Polyn.).

No matter how common, an always attractive plant is the elegant Ophio-
glossum pendulum L. (trop. As., Austr., Polyn.), which occurs as a pendent
epiphyte along river-banks and above damp places. The single leaf hangs
down slack and long like a broad dark green ribbon, while out of the middle
the thick knobby cylindric sporophyll appears. A superficial likeness with
this species of Ophioglossum is shown by certain members of the genus Vittaria.
The numerous leaves (as expressed in the generic name) are ribbon-shaped, but
the sporangia are found in the longitudinal split of the leaf-margin. I here
found V. ensiformis Sw. (Java, Sumatra, Mascaren.), with a peculiar inter-
rupted distribution reminding us of our incomplete knowledge regarding this
area.

Another group of epiphytes, the beautiful Lycopodiaceae, are frequent on
lower parts of tree-trunks. Some species native in the coastal lands and lower

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA Si

mountain-regions hang down as a dense light green mass, such as L. subfalct-
forme v.A.v.R., which is indigenous here. In the higher mountain-regions we
shall come across a larger number of terrestrial representatives of the genus.

In places where the banks are steep, mostly through erosion on account of the
stream and therefore on the outside curves, the high trees at the water’s edge
form the margin of the forest assailed by the river. On the more level inner
curves narrow strips of reeds occur here and there. In the vicinity of Pionier-
bivak, where one can notice already the influence of the foothills of the van
Rees Mountains, the strips are narrow. But nearer the coast, and similarly in
the Meervlakte, as we shall see, the reed-fields cover large areas. In so far as |
could determine, these communities consist mainly of two species. The one
chiefly dominant is the large gelagah (Saccharum spontaneum L.), a robust
plant often 9-10 m. high. Among these plants I found frequently the smaller
Phragmites Karka Trin. (no. 773), not taller than 3-5 m. Both species possess
beautiful fine panicles. Sterile specimens of the two species can be distin-
guished from each other by their stems, those of Saccharum are constantly solid
and have bamboo-like thickened nodes, whereas those of Phragmites are hollow.
Furthermore, the leaf-margins of the second are much less roughly hairy than
those of the first.

Before we step into the proa and permit ourselves to be brought over the
rapids to the Meervlakte by our never sufficiently praised wilderness com-
panions, the Dyaks, and before going from there into the unknown mountains,
a few words on the impression of primeval forest life must be inserted. For some
impressions are worthy of remembrance and, in spite of some disagreeable ones,
make us always desirous of returning again to this immense and grand country.
Magnificent with respect to its dimensions of forest and river, even when one
looks upon them at close range, grand in its virginity and its proud silence at
the intrusion of people who will at some time conquer the country, it will persist
until man also shall have vanished and his influence shall have been lost forever.

Many memories bind us to each small place that we have visited: this is
stronger still in the mountains, where so many more influences codperate to
that end. The Mamberamo navigators will ever see before them the broad
muddy river with its numerous curves, the still, high forest-walls, the translu-
cent morning mists which hang without motion in the treetops until 8 or 9 A. M.
They will feel the heat vibrate above the river-banks at midday and again sniff
the heavy damp odor of the forest, evidence of the incessant progressive decay
of organic material. Again the melancholy cooing of doves will be heard at
regular intervals high up in the tree-tops, frequently also the noisy cry of the
hornbills, which are hardly seen amongst the mass of leaves and branches until,
with the harsh flapping of their wings, they fly away. Then we see again their
dark silhouettes before us as they depart, frequently in pairs, over the river,
and the screaming cockatoos with their blunt heads and swift wing-beat, which
in the evening at the fall of twilight come in large flocks to sleep in the trees.
Some will bear in memory the distant hoarse cry of the cassowary. Sometimes
too it is the distant howl of a Papuan dog that comes hovering over the water
by the river.

*4 Unfortunately I neglected to collect material of this species, so that the identity is not
scientifically certain. This mistake has been made by many collectors before me. The grass
is usually considered too common to justify the difficulty in collecting it, and hence the exact
distribution of S. spontaneum L. is not definitely known, although this may be a strange
remark to make about such a widely distributed and common species.

38 SARGENTIA [5

The bivouac life itself has also left behind many memories; the numerous
interests of the expedition, the water-level, the daily results of the work, the
members, the happenings in camp, the life and work of the convicts, the soldiers,
and the Dyaks, the making of proas, the regular departure of transports toward
the interior and then, frequently too late, the boat, which one morning entirely
unexpected came steaming around the distant bend of the river and brought

all camp-dwellers to attention.
* *

*

The ascent with the proas has been described too often for me to weary the
reader with a new detailed description. | shall therefore limit myself to a few
comments and the insertion of a few maps which | made of this part of the
Mamberamo (cf. Map A, Fragm. I).

The ascent via proa by our expedition lasted three and a half days, but in
normal circumstances it should be possible to make it in three days. On August
8, 1920, I started with the geologist from Pionier-bivak. We traveled along the
right bank. Sometimes there is paddling, but mostly the Dyaks make use of
all kinds of projections on the bank or even trees overhanging the bank to tow
the proa forward with their hooks. At Havik Island the inner bend of the
river is taken; after that we come again into the main river, which temporarily
maintains the same aspect. Sometimes we stop and rest for a little while on
a small boulder-strewn bank, and sometimes a few Dyaks go into the forest to
get rattan or to try to shoot some animal or bird for a meal. A little later we *
choose to do some cooking and bathing, but at 2 o’clock we still are at Tulband-
bivak, named thus after a conglomerate formation that, as a forerunner of the
Marine Falls, lies in a little narrower stretch of the river and somewhat re-
sembles the form of a turban. On the left bank is a spit of land, formed by a
small tributary which empties here into the main river. Somewhat farther
upstream lie naked marl rocks washed bare by the water, so that there is room
and a good place for a camp. Apparently this is one of the places where the
andesite formation,” of the younger sedimentary rocks, broke through, and on
account of their hardness these rocks have offered more resistance to erosion
by the river. They are the cause of the rapids. At this point the river is
much constricted and small rapids rush to the other side. Here already the
hills come much closer to the river; there are no flat areas of importance and in
many places this bare sedimentary rock-formation reaches the river.

The forest has kept the same appearance along the way. I recognized re-
peatedly the same trees and lianas, on the bank, which | have already mentioned
above. The large number of landslides of all ages which one sees in the vicinity
of Tulband-bivak is striking. Some come as far as the bank, and the younger
still show the chaos of loosened blocks of stone, while in all directions tree-
trunks stand obliquely and between them the light green color of tall herbs
and young trees shows.

On the sandy point by the bivouac I found a very dense growth of a fern,
Nephrolepis hirsutula Pr., mixed with sparse stands of Phragmites and shorter
grasses. Scattered here and there were specimens of Euphorbia serrulata Rw.
(trop. S. E. As., Austr., Polyn.) and Spigelia anthelmia L. (introd. from trop.
Amer.).

* According to van Gelder, I. c. 92-93, pl. XI, XII, the rock-formation at the entrance to the

rapids at Tulband-bivak is andesite; at the Marine Rapids sandy marl; at the Edi Rapids
andesite; and at the Batavia Rapids sandstone.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 39

The following day we pass the rapids. Shortly after we have left the bivouac
we see the Marine Falls lying before us at the bend of the river (Fig. 3). The
river is here narrowed by a large number of rock-masses, the largest of which are
overgrown with small trees; above is a wide basin of calm water and in the
distance the characteristic small sharp point appears. This rises steeply close
to the bank and forms the forerunner of the formidable Edi Falls and itself
causes a narrowing of the river-bed. Close in front of the rapids we cross the
river, so as to make our way up along a large loose mass of boulders—-the first
of significance—situated near the left bank. With the swift current to the
right of us everything goes smoothly and a half hour later we slip in below the
great calm where all the driftwood and other vegetable-refuse gyrates slowly
inalarge circle. After that it is calm along the boulder-bench, where a number

», ( “A s “\ ot >

f . a : ~

bh eee > Se aoa
Cy ny a ~ > \ Be

AX v 2s . Ma
ays 4OeV7 ise a . a ~ Pn _
<3 Bey E, —_ aoe \ Ne xt angie 5 ~™ ~ ‘
ny Se a

Fic. 3. Marine Rapids; view looking upstream.

of beautiful specimens of purple-flowering Desmodium heterocarpum DC. (trop.
As., Austr.) stand. After we have passed the small sharp point, a straight
stretch of river lies before us, but the banks are full of indentations, each of
which forms a pool of counter-current, and these stony spits each cause a small
rapid which must be overcome. Steep hills with bare rock walls rise high here
and there on the left bank. They are the andesite hills, which, according to van
Gelder, have brought about the origin of the Edi Falls (Fig. 4). Along the
right bank the sedimentary rock-formations still border on the water, but now
they sometimes lie flat, although a little farther on they appear to incline and
project in a zig-zag manner (Fig. 5). The Edi Rapids are violent but short.
Here there is only a narrow gateway between steep walls, on the right bank
partly obstructed by a large number of rounded boulders. Just below the
falls the passengers and the cargo are taken from the proas, whereupon the
Dyaks, some with their proas on one bank, some on the other, pull up the empty

40 SARGENTIA [5

boats. At 2 o’clock we reach the small bivouac lying on the upstream border
high against the steep slope. Since noon the earlier fine weather has become
rainy and windy, and shortly after a tributary, which empties into a wide basin
above the rapids a short distance from the bivouac, begins to swell and empty
its muddy water with much driftwood into the Mamberamo. ‘This camp is
pleasantly located with the view of the river (Fig. 6), but the pleasure is some-
what spoiled for us by a stormy night. The wind coming through the narrow
entrance of our shelter made us afraid of two old dead trunks which stood close
behind the camp.

The third day we followed a long and calm part of the river. After some
hours of rowing we rested, and after we had again departed we met a proa with
Papuans, the second on this trip. Without any striking events, the last camp
was reached at quarter-past three. This was named Wand-bivak because of a

Fic. 4. Mamberamo between the Marine and Edi Falls, view looking upstream; on the
left bank are andesite hills, on the right sedimentary formation.

high horizontally deposited rock-wall, which rose perpendicularly behind the
little bivouac. Not an hour later one of the heaviest cloudbursts which I have
ever seen in the tropics broke. A thick curtain of pouring rain surrounded us
and came through the thatched roof, permitting nothing to remain dry. So
we sat hours on end, altogether motionless. The darkness fell early. On the
other side is a terrace about 10 m. high, formed by a horizontal layer of stone,
and from that thundered downward some wild waterfalls. From near at hand
we heard the landslips rattle, and at times in the neighboring forest an enormous
tree crashed to the earth with a dull roar and an ominous cracking of the wood,
which sounded above the noise of the rain and the waterfalls. With great
difficulty we light a candle-lantern and by the flickering light see outside the
naked shining bodies of the Dyaks busy pulling the boats higher and bringing
the cargo to safety, fearful lest everything would drift away with the sudden
rise of water. But toward 8 o’clock the rain lessens a little, and we try to make
a fire. The thick smoke has no effect on the swarms of mosquitoes, which

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 41

appear as a forerunner of the large swarms of gnats in the Meervlakte. It
becomes necessary to stretch our wet mosquito netting, which we had not
needed in other camps. Thus the really small discomforts of wilderness life
alternate with many moments of happiness derived therefrom, and when the
following morning in a decreasingly drizzling rain we sat in the boat and
watched the sun slowly come out, all the distress of the previous night was
forgotten. Sometimes we follow along the high terrace on the left bank,
from which even now small waterfalls tumble down. Along the other bank
extends a similar terrace. The vicinity of Wand-bivak is obviously charac-
terized by an almost horizontal position of the strata. Along the bank here
one frequently sees a curious stone-formation. It seems as if the rocks consist
of a number of joined boulders, each surrounded by one or two thin layers

\\
\ \ N\
\\ ANY \

Fic. 5. Exposed layers of sedimentary formation along the bank of the Mamberamo.

which cover them like a rind. Sometimes the upper surface is bulged so that
one obtains the impression of a weathered convex shell. In other places we
see the same formation worn smooth and therefore cut through, the upper
surface then rather suggesting fossilized ‘‘suncracks.’’ In many places a piece
of rock-wall stands perpendicular to the water, and sometimes we pass a stream
that has cut through the rock-formation and formed a narrow, winding, and
dark canyon with exactly perpendicular walls.

As we near the Batavia Rapids, the incline becomes greater everywhere and
the stream swifter. .\t nine o’clock we rest a short time on a large boulder-
strewn bank at the inside of the bend which still cuts off Batavia Falls from our
view. The Batavia Rapids consist of a long series of ledges (sandstone ac-
cording to van Gelder) which spread out over a long and broad bend of the
river. At quarter past five we cross one uplifted reef after another at the
inside curve, while on the other side the swift main stream flows rapidly with

42 SARGENTIA [5

large waves. Already the hills on the banks are lower. They continue to
withdraw, and finally the river is calm and broad again. Another bend, and
the wide Meervlakte lies before us, the marshy area 300 km. long and 60 km
broad. In recent geological time, it must once have been a large lake, which
drained gradually as the Mamberamo cut itself deeper into the threshold of the
van Rees Mountains. Even yet one finds there large pools, and the river flows

Fic. 6. View from Edi-bivak, looking upstream.

slowly in wide curves over the thick clay-formation. When this terrain began
to drain, vast reed-fields appeared on the gently sloping banks as pioneers of
vegetation. On the driest places these gradually are replaced by a thin and
low forest, and the Meervlakte itself is covered with a characteristic marsh-
vegetation which diverges considerably from that of dry land. An ensuing
Fragment must be devoted to the impressions which I obtained of this.remark-
able terrain.

IV. The Meervlakte and the foothills !

THE PREVIOUS Fragment? has brought us through the falls of the Mam-
beramo to Batavia-bivak, situated on the north side of the Meervlakte * against
the southern spurs of the van Rees Mountains. In passing, as is mentioned
at the close of the last Fragment, the Meervlakte—the largest of a few similar
low-lying basins which lie north of the Central Range—was probably a lake in
geologically very recent time, the level of which fell gradually, as its drainage
system, the Mamberamo, cut deeper into the outlying extensions of the van
Rees Mountains. This process is at present undoubtedly still in full swing.
Now we find here a vast marsh, neither land nor water, in which the river flows
slowly with slight fall, wide meanders, and continually changing bed. As the
water-level lowered, the reed-border must have gradually encroached towards
the center of the lake. Little by little the river then began to form a gully or
rather gullies in the alluvial land. As the water fell still more, the stream,
beginning at the highest point, built up its own levees and has continued that
process up to the present. The banks thus formed became the first habitat
of the higher flora. Still, however, a large part of the Meervlakte is deep
marsh and even in the dry season there are large bodies of open water. But in
the rainy season, while the barriers in the river-bed hold back the water for a
little time, undoubtedly vast portions of this plain are inundated, and one may
suppose that the height of the natural levees agrees with the average highest
water-level. | had opportunity again and again to observe proof of this. The
development of similar natural levees occurs in all rivers whose level is subject
to periodic change, and which flow through territory suitable for their forma-
tion. The stagnation during the period of high water causes a deposit of
alluvium at that time. We might then also expect to find such levees along
periodically flooding rivers, and in such streams as the Mamberamo, whose
course is interrupted by natural basins in which the highest water-level is main-
tained longer than would otherwise be the case. Naturally the first-mentioned
is the most common. We find this true of all rivers in flat alluvial land.

Some fleeting impressions gathered while traversing the flat land by boat—
three days of travel with the little motor-boat from Batavia-bivak to Prauwen-
bivak—may here follow. After that we shall dwell more fully on the vegetation
in the vicinity of the latter bivouac. In the first place we shall discuss the
peculiar marsh-growth of that part of the Meervlakte, in order that, thereafter,
as a means of transition to a following Fragment, we may still mention some-
thing concerning the flora of the foothills.

At 7 o’clock on the morning of August 12, 1920, we left in the motor-boat
from Batavia-bivak. The stream here flows slowly, not more than two miles
an hour. The river is several hundred meters wide and in most places bordered
by a narrow gelagah [Saccharum] strip. On our left the foothills of the van

1 Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl.-Ind. 88: 187-227. 1928.

2 This Tijdschrift LXX XVII (1927), 139.

3 J. K. van Gelder, Verslag omtrent eene geologische verkenning van de Mamberamo-rivier
op Nieuw-Guinea—Jaarboek van het Mijnwezen in Ned. Oost-Indié, XX XIX (1910, published
1912), 99 et seq.

M. Moszkowski, Expedition zur Erforschung des Mamberamo in Hollandisch Neu-Guinea—
Zeitschr. d. Ges. f. Erdkunde, 1912, 366 et seq.

44 SARGENTIA [5

Rees Mountains still rise, but when we have rounded a bend, the Meervlakte in
all its majesty lies before us. We leave behind the dark quiet of the van Rees
Mountains under the now rising mists; more to the east we see the higher peaks
of the Gauttier Mountains (F7g. 7), but before us on the southern horizon high
cloud-banks point the direction in which we have to look for the mighty Central
Mountain Range. The stream here becomes wider and wider and on the lowest
part of the plain is a kilometer wide. The forest of the bank is low and ragged
and over large areas is pressed back by wide gelagah [Saccharum | fields.
Wherever the forest comes to the bank we notice that woody giants are very
rare; many spots on the outside curves have been laid waste by a recent freshet;
already the stream is actively changing its bed, eroding its banks, and depositing
mud in other places. We pass a woody giant of which half the root-system
already protrudes outside the denuded bank. With another flood the tree will
fall into the river, and its trunk will speedily form a part of the high wood-piles

—"

Fic.7. Van Rees Mountains (left) and Gauttier Mountains (right), seen from the Mamberamo.

which one sees here and there along the bank. The muddy banks lie stretched
out on the inside bends, so gently sloping that one scarcely can see the boundary
between the gray slime and the dirty brown river. Gray as the mud, several
large crocodiles lie parallel with the water-line in the sun. Some remain in
place, others glide noiselessly into the water as we pass. Once we saw a couple
of very young ones above the water on a branch jutting out over the river.
On the outside curves, the low forest, frequently without a gelagah [Saccharum ]
strip, comes to the water’s edge. With the deeper water, the steep muddy wall
rises about a meter above the river. On straighter stretches the forest fre-
quently alternates with sago-thickets, a marshy transition to the gelagah
[Saccharum | covered banks only on the inner bends, behind which the forest
begins.

Little by little the day became brighter, and toward 11 o'clock the high
peaks of the Central Range lay cloudless before us (Fig. 8); only the base was
still surrounded by a thick fleecy low mist. Almost directly south we saw the
mighty summit which Doorman climbed in Nov.-Dec. 1914, and which height

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 45

at that time he placed at 3810 m. (a later measure gave an average of 3580 m.).
To the left of Doormantop, which is recognized by a small indentation at the
highest point, lies the 4050” summit, correctly about 3820 m. altitude. The
low saddle between the two, with the flanks of both mountains toward each
other, forms the source of the Doorman river. East and west of these two
towering peaks the mighty mountain range stretches out as far as we can see.
At quarter-past one we reach the junction at Kalong Island, where the Iden-
burg River out of the south and east and the van der Willigen River out of the
west unite and, under the name Mamberamo, flow to the sea. Both branches
are of about the same width, but the westerly one makes a stronger impression.
For another half-hour we go on, then land on the left bank at Kalong-bivak.
This noon [ had the opportunity of glancing at the surroundings of this little
bivouac. The land here is entirely flat, first sloping inland very gradually,
then somewhat more abruptly, finally changing into a marsh. ‘The forest, in

“See!
0 BP ae, wire "AI
eA

a
a

Panic tN nuns ttn spnsrie stein.

y Tae i, sy tm, ne
ee Mae
+ ME natal he Slay sin ee op ag etl tia, petit i Sih 4 ity te i BARE pte Lat Py Eee! pi
Base Sth 2 onthe Be Gia eta hee IN dtr enon muchaen se sagan SR Bi La iit ee ors 14
Un Ae OF
ae

‘ay

= wis

H

—SSS

bi

Fic. 8. Doormantop (middle) and 3820 m. peak (left), seen from the Mamberamo.

comparison with that of Pionier-bivak, is strikingly rich in bird’s nest ferns
(Asplenium nidus \.), which are on almost every tree. In this terrain also we
make our first acquaintance with a locally very common but poisonous snake
(Acanthophis antarcticus), a short broad reptile with a much thinner tail and
broad head. According to Ouwens,' the poison is very dangerous but the
reptile does not seem to be aggressive. It is said that this snake tempts small
animals within range by lying coiled up and making its slender tail quiver.
In the forest we are tormented by swarms of mosquitoes and a great number of
buzzing flies which, however, disappear toward evening. Quietly the river
flows along past us, many small white terns (probably Sterna minuta) dart
quickly over the smooth water or allow themselves to be carried along sitting
in a row on a drifting tree-trunk. Toward dark it is evident that the name of
this bivouac is well chosen: enormous numbers of kalongs (fruit bats) fly over
from the northeast to the southwest.

4P, A. Ouwens, De voornaamste giftslangen van Nederlandsch Oost-Indié (Leiden, 1916)
pelo, pial.

46 SARGENTIA [5

The second day of the journey, we are again on the way at half-past six. On
higher places along the bank we see many breadfruit trees (Artocarpus sp.) and
a palm (Kentia? sp.), called niboeng in the eastern part of the Archipelago, and
in lower lying places much sago and Pandanus. The levee along the banks now
and again is lower, and there the marsh comes almost to the river. At some
places it is even interrupted and we pass along vast reed-fields. Probably
these are the spots where old cut-off stream-loops have become filled with sand
and thick mud. Later we saw from the mountain that all the land in the
vicinity of the river was traversed by a number of similar lagoons, frequently
many kilometers long, cut off from the main stream. Of these, both previous
connections with the river were silted up. On the younger of these filled-in
spots, a gelagah [| Saccharum | community has already developed. The older
ones are overgrown with forest and therefore are never visible from the river.
Flocks of kalongs repeatedly fly out of a few isolated trees in such gelagah fields.

We come across few signs of inhabitants. At 9 o'clock we pass an abandoned
hut, and, after traveling through a long stream-meander which almost doubled
back on itself (one of those which in the near future will be cut off), at ten-thirty
we come to a kampong of ten houses. There also stand two small huts belong-
ing to bird-hunters, and many queer-shaped proas, these, like the inhabitants,
gray as the mud of this territory.

Shortly after leaving this kampong we meet one of the peculiar proas such as
we saw only in the Meervlakte. They are hewn out of a heavy trunk, the
bottoms broad, the body rather deep, the sides sloping inward and supplied
with narrow openings, the upper part narrow. The bow and stern are cut off
transversely, therefore, seen from the front, they appear to be blunt; seen from
above, however, they seem to be narrow. Perhaps this form was developed
because of the unfriendly attitude of different tribes along the river. The crew
can conceal itself entirely behind the sides and keep an eye on the opponents
through the holes. As we saw them, there was always one of the rowers sitting
on the prow, one leg hanging over the water, the other bent up under him, the
boat being propelled by a long oar with a small round blade. Most of the boats
showed signs of long use. Frequently there was almost nothing left of the
thin sides. A few times we happened upon such boats lying idle or proceeding
very slowly with a crew of two or three Papuans. Sometimes they caught fish
and roasted them over a little fire in the middle of the boat; sometimes we saw a
thin column of smoke hanging above the water of the reed-field. Some had a
few scrawny yellowish dogs, with which they had been hunting. At 11:30
A.M. we pass a small hut with three Papuans. At one o'clock we see a small
abandoned house; beyond all is loneliness and wilderness. At three o’clock
Veen-bivak is reached; it derives its name from a small side creek with clear
brown fen water. Later Lieut. Droog, who had a free proa at his disposal, dis-
covered a large fen lake, 2-3 km. in diameter, a few hundred meters from the
river. Reeds bordered the lake and many water-birds inhabited it. Among
others he saw cormorants, which we also saw later on the Doorman River.
The lake was very shallow at the margin, but in the middle the bottom could
not be seen. Several creeks empty into this lake.

The forest in the vicinity of the bivouac shows a similarity with that of
Kalong-bivak. A large number of breadfruit trees occur here. Near the edge
of the marsh we see many tracks of pigs. A pure stand of Cordyline terminalis
Kunth grows about 4 m. high. It has branched ribbed stems, from which

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 47

here and there conical aerial roots a few decimeters in length hang down.
Beyond this zone the marsh becomes flat. It supports a community of Scleria
elata Thw., with sharply 3-angled stems and 3-winged leaf-sheaths, about as
tall as a man.

Just as on the first two days, so on the third day we start early. The daily
morning mists rise speedily and allow the sun considerable play over the almost
Dutch landscape. At seven-thirty we pass some tiny abandoned huts and a
half-hour later a proa with three Papuans and a dog. At half past eight four
small huts and a small banana-plantation, over which an old man keeps watch,
are observed. Sometimes we pass by the mouths of large side-creeks or rivers,
all on the left bank, and therefore on the side toward the mountains. Along
the broad muddy banks walk beautiful black and white herons, and also smaller
white birds on high stilt-like legs. We see many places which lead us to pre-
sume that they were earlier entrances to old loops of the stream. At 12:30 we

eK FER eer ee aes

Fic. 9. Sketch map of the vicinity of Prauwen-bivak; the long uniform river-section
southeast of the bivouac is twice broken on the map, for simplification; the stippled line
indicates about the average highest water-level; the other lines are at 10 m. intervals; horizontal
hatching = bivouac; vertical hatching = Saccharum fields; altitude in meters; explanation of
letters and figures in the text;. . . = trail; meertje = small lake.

go by the mouth of a small tributary with clear fen water, and an hour later,
also on the right bank, we approach a large inhabited kampong of not less than
12 houses. On the bank we count 13 proas.

The foot of the mountain, visible under the clouds, comes steadily nearer;
several details in the outline grow more distinct. The clouds are lifting some-
what and the beautiful 1050 m. summit south of Prauwen-bivak is visible.
Along the left bank on the upstream point of a small island, we see a high
pile of accumulated driftwood bleached in the sun, and shortly after that the
mouth of the Doorman River. The clearer and cooler water of the latter im-
mediately disappears under the dirty and warmer water of the main stream.
Prauwen-bivak lies directly ahead, near a steep hill. At two o'clock in the
afternoon of the third day we have reached the far side of the Meervlakte.

With the aid of a sketch map (Fig. 9) we shall therefore subject to a closer
consideration the different terrain- and vegetation-forms in the vicinity of the
bivouac.

48 SARGENTIA (5

In the first place, on the other side of the bivouac | can study much of the
vegetation of this part of the Meervlakte, and elsewhere certainly again other
forms of vegetation will occur. Similarly there is a forest-margin (cf. Fig. 10)
in the neighborhood of the small temporary bivouacs, and lying behind it a
more or less open marsh. The ground of the forest-margin is highest imme-
diately bordering the river and is extremely regular and flat. For the tropics,
the forest has a very unusual aspect. The undergrowth is almost entirely
lacking there. Occasionally the thick winding stems of a few lianas swing in
great loops between the trunks, but the trees are widely spaced and one is not
hindered by the great mass of young trees, shrubs, rattans, and screw-pines
which one meets on higher terrain. This all gives one the impression of an
almost European vegetation and it is even more so if the ground be covered
with a community of grasses and small herbs.

The boundary of the higher forest coincides with the average highest water-
level; consequently the high forest is lacking wherever the terrain is lower near
the bank. Thus the appearance of the vegetation is clearly influenced by this
limiting factor, the water. The soil consists of a compact clay which, neverthe-
less, does not extend high enough to dry out sufficiently and thus allow the
requisite amount of oxygen for plant-growth. In the dry season—though in
the equatorial region not strongly pronounced—the forest-margin only is dry.
Beyond that lie, at least in this region, vast pools and marshes with clear brown
fen water. But as the rains occur in the mountains, the river-water rises
higher and higher, the clear fen waters apparently are expelled by the muddy
water of the river, and at the highest water-level the forest-margin also is under
water. Then over the entire terrain a new muddy layer is deposited, and
repeatedly I saw the traces of it upon tree-trunks and branches at a height
above the ground which astonished me again and again.

This continual saturation of the ground results first of all in retarding the
respiration of plant-roots. Some species cannot withstand such obstacles and
are restricted to drier stretches. Consequently a strong limitation in the
number of species is an important result. The plants which can endure the
abundance of water show, although of course in lesser degree, adaptations such
as are known to us in the case of the mangrove. Many possess a spreading
superficial root system, a factor which likewise is the cause of the thinness of
the forest. Another adaptation is the possession of true respiratory roots,
such as are met with in other fresh water marshes (e.g. in Central Sumatra).
The most noticeable example of this I found in a rattan species (apparently a
Calamus). The small forked gray-brown respiratory rootlets of this plant
project in thick and broad radial rows on the naked and muddy base of the
trunk at a distance of about 7.5 m. above the ground. So far as I know, re-
spiratory roots have never before been observed in any species of rattan.
True, they are already known in a number of other palms and in many dicoty-
ledons of fresh water marshes. For further particulars concerning these rattan
pneumatophores | refer to my article published > elsewhere. There are also
in this terrain a few other plants which in a similar manner provide for the
deficit of oxygen, from which their root-systems suffer. Many woody plants in
such a terrain possess very large lenticels on the exposed parts of roots and on
the lower parts of the trunk. Sometimes these are grouped particularly on

5H. J. Lam, Ademwortels bij Palmen—Handelingen Derde Ned. Ind. Natuurwetensch.
Congres (Buitenzorg 1924), p. 318 and 477.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 49

stilt roots (another resemblance to mangrove plants) or on aerial roots (analo-
gous to the mangrove plant Avicennia). For instance, | observed the first here
in a few Barringtonia species. The previously mentioned Cordyline terminalis
Kunth, with its conical aerial roots, and the waroe (Hibiscus tiliaceus L.) espe-
cially present beautiful examples of the second. [Tibiscus tiliaceus L. is unusu-
ally common in this locality. In dry habitats there is no trace of aerial roots
to be seen, but on marshy ground thick bundles of these slender roots protrude
from the obliquely standing trunks or overhanging branches. One can there-
by observe that these aerial roots, all at the same height above the ground, are
abruptly and strongly branched; without doubt this is the direct influence of the
water and also a new indication of the height to which the river-water can rise
and at which level it apparently remains for some time. One could occasionally
observe a new level of weaker branching at the lowest water-level in this par-
ticular place. It is noticeable by the recently formed roots ‘that any cork-
formation fails to appear under water, whereas the root-parts between the two
levels of branching show a weak development of cork.

a

a
x dt ae ——

Fic. 10. Schematic cross-section through the forest-margin of the Meervlakte from the
river (a) to the marsh (t); explanation of the other letters in the text.

Here the terrain slopes gradually inland, sometimes with small terraces.
The trees become lower and in this strip we meet with the above-described
adaptations. Reeds and grasses mingle little by little with the undergrowth.

The inner forest-margin is unusually rich in forms, a fact especially notice-
able in comparison with the poor outer margin, where only trees and lianas form
the over-growth. In the sunny marginal zone between forest and marsh the
ground is covered with a thick stand of Phegopterts prolifera Kuhn. The
margin is very irregular: here the reed-formation juts into the forest, there a
dry spit of forest land projects into the marsh, and everywhere small runways,
apparently made by pigs or crocodiles, extend through the more or less broad
stretches of reeds.

Let us look at the flora of this area a little closer (cf. Fig. 10), proceeding up
the muddy shore of the river until we have reached the marsh, Beyond the
strip of smaller level-changes of the bank, we find here again and again mud-
pyramids (Fig. 10, b) of beautiful form on flat parts of the muddy beach. They

50 SARGENTIA ; (5

arise because the perpendicular downpour of tropical rain washes away the
mud around one object or another, frequently a fallen leaf, sometimes branches,
small fruits or stones. Then small weak conical columns form, of which a
transverse section is very similar to the covering and of which it presents each
irregularity of the margin. Older ones may be 10-15 cm. high, but even they
are dependent on the water for their existence since, after an extended drought,
they may be washed away by rains which destroy them. Above the stretch of
these peculiar forms along parts of the bank not subject to direct eroding-action
by the stream, we find the previously described reed-community of Saccharum
spontaneum L. and Phragmites Karka Trin. On the steep bank of outer bends,
the ground is frequently hidden under a cover of liverworts (nos. 847, 1091),
among others, Anthoceros. As soon as we have overcome this last obstacle, we
find ourselves in the margin of the woods. A number of small trees stand near
the bank and lean more or less over the water. A single forest-giant (Fig. 10, d),
with pillar-shaped trunk and enormous broad crown, stands far above the other
trees. Among the smaller trees are a few species of Ficus (nos. 844, 1101) and
Vitex glabrata R. Br. (S. E. As.—Austr.). Two species of the taller trees in
the forest are particularly abundant: Dillenia calothyrsa Diels* with cinnamon-
colored trunk, large leaves, and large yellow flowers, and the previously men-
tioned breadfruit tree (Artocarpus sp.). Diullenia prefers the drier parts of the
forest margin, whereas Artocarpus seems to be more common on damp ground.
This tree also occupies the marsh in the drier parts.

Here and there stems of rattan-palms occur between the trunks of these
trees, also other lianas, such as Flagellaria and Entada scandens Benth. (no.
1154, pantrop.), the latter having pods more than a meter long hanging high in
the trees. Occasionally there are some tall specimens of Pandanus (Fig. 10, g).
The forest-floor beneath the taller plants is very poorly covered. On most
spots other than the many dry leaves of Dillenia and Artocarpus one can see
nothing except the dark gray compact clay. On similar terrain a small ter-
restrial orchid is common: Vrydagzynea elongata Bl. (end.), a low-growing plant
with white inflorescences. More toward the sunny side of the marsh there are
small communities of Leptaspis (no. 788), Panicum (no. 899; Fig. 10, 1), and
other grasses (nos. 835, 1133). Helminthostachys zeylanica Hook. f. is plentiful
but always occurs on damp terrain. In the drier parts of the forest-margin,
shrubs and other representatives of the low flora are almost entirely absent.
In addition to the small orchid already mentioned, here also occur the araceous
_Schizocasia acuta Engl. and scattered specimens of the pretty amaryllidaceous
Crinum asiaticum L. (no. 1002; trop. As.—W. Polyn.) (Fig. 10, e), the latter
reminding one of the beach, if it be a sandy beach, on which the plant ordinarily
occurs. It is a coarse but stately herb with a thick rosette of leaves pointing
obliquely upward and crowning the bulky black caudex; from the center of this
the robust inflorescence with its umbel of narrowly lobed white flowers projects.
The only shrub which | found here was Morinda bracteata Roxb. var. celebica
Mig. (Fig. 10, 7).

As the terrain slopes to the marsh, we find much lower trees 10-15 m. high, a
few with prop-roots (Fig. 10, h). These trees obscure the inner margin of the’
real forest, but farther inland we note the richer flora of the marsh-border.
Among these smaller trees a couple of species of Barringtonta are fairly abun-
dant, B. acutangula Gaertn., with fragrant rose flowers, and another species
related to the common B. racemosa BI. of the sandy shores and B. acuminata

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 51

Bl. of Borneo; this species too has rose flowers in a somewhat pendent slender
raceme. Another small tree, Syzygium megalanthelium Diels*, likewise with
rose flowers and striking on account of its light-colored trunk, is generally dis-
tributed here.

Fungi, as is to be expected, flourish in rich variety (nos. 845, 903-5, 1089,
1093-4, 1142-3, 1152). I found Polyporus grammocephalus Berk. among others
on dead wood. A couple of species of moss were also collected (nos. 848, 1092).

Without doubt, however, the most interesting part of this terrain is the strip
forming the transition from the forest-margin to the marsh. Particularly in
places where the transition is gradual on account of a slow and regular decline
of the ground, the different zones are well-developed and sharply separated,
and I noticed the same sequence at the transient small camps between Batavia-
bivak and Prauwen-bivak. Still in the shade of the last low trees, Cordyline
terminalis Kunth begins to appear. The thin stem stands more or less obliquely,
and the narrow leaves are crowded and directed upwards at the apices of the
branchlets, the large thin inflorescences and infructescences being pendulous.
It has globose dark purple fruits. Somewhat farther in but still in the shade,
there follows an even more sharply defined area dominated by a plant with
equally striking habit, the zingiberaceous Tapeinochilus (aff. pungens Migq., no.
926; Fig. 10, m). The stem is smooth, articulate, and upright. Its aspect
suggests that of a bamboo stem but it is herbaceous, massive, and fleshy. It
rises unbranched to 2.5 or even 3m. At the apex it bears an enormous ovate
inflorescence, about 3 dm. long and 1.5 dm. in diameter, consisting of a thick
axis beset with hard shining prickly bracts, which are dark green at flowering
time and dark brown in fruit. These bracts entirely enclose the strongly
flattened flowers, except for a small portion of the corolla. The calyx is green-
ish white, changing to red at the apex, the corolla is a pretty golden brown; the
whole inflorescence gives somewhat the impression of a large pineapple. Under
these inflorescences, lateral branches about 2 m. long radiate at a wide angle
from the vertical which, like the main stalk, are bare, but at their apices they
are again branched in the same way. The twigs bear relatively few small
leaves at their tips and likewise show the spiral common to species of Costus.

Having passed through this peculiar part of the forest, where only the naked
stems of Tapeinochilus form the, undergrowth and their broad projecting
branches and heavy inflorescences rise above our heads, we arrive beyond the
shade of the forest-margin. In front of us lies the marsh with small groups of
trees on the somewhat drier places, but for the largest part covered with tall-
growing plants. The forest-margin there is principally composed of low trees
inclining toward the marsh (Fig. 10, 2), such as Premna integrifolia L., Klein-
hovia hospita L., and a couple of species of Ficus (nos. 916, 951). The waroe
(Hibiscus tiliaceus L. var. abutiloides Hochr.; Fig. 10, p) is found here in large
numbers, and the same is true for Artocarpus, as far as the drier places in the
marsh are concerned.

The transition from the bare forest-bottom to the marsh-flora is introduced
by grasses and terrestrial ferns, such as [7 elminthostachys zeylanica Hook. f. (F zg.
10, 1). Usually there follows a strip of the previously mentioned entangled
fern-species, Phegopteris prolifera Kuhn (trop. O. W.; Fig. 10, q). It forms a
mass a meter high, which appears more or less to follow the water-line in dry
periods. This plant possesses very long wiry stems but a very compact habit.
It is propagated almost exclusively by gemmae; everywhere one may find a

52 SARGENTIA [5

number of young plantlets on the fronds, but only after a long search did I find
a specimen with spores.

The chief border-plant of the adjacent marsh is Scleria elata Thw. (Fig. 10, r;
no. 836; trop. As.), growing about 2.5 m. high and recognized by the sharply
3-angled stem and similarly shaped leaf-sheaths. However, the deeper places
are overgrown with higher reeds. Unfortunately, in the absence of specimens,
their identity is uncertain, but it is perhaps not too daring to suggest that we
have here a mixture of Phragmites and Saccharum (Fig. 10, s). Where the
water is still deeper, all higher growth is lacking. .

The climbers and epiphytes here occur chiefly in the thinner forest-margin
and in this terrain mostly on the side toward the marsh. Epiphytes having
particularly, at least as far as we know, only very distant connection with the
earth, occur in undiminished numbers. Similarly I have already noted above
that the bird’s nest fern, Asplenium nidus L. (trop. O. W.), is unusually com-
mon in the forest itself, but toward the margin of the marsh we found also
Antrophyum parvulum Bl. (Java, Penang, Phil.), A. semicostatum BI. (S. E. As.
—Polyn.), Nephrolepis radicans Kuhn (trop. As.), a pretty fern with limp
drooping pinnately incised fronds, and a number of species of Pleopeltis, such as
P. nigrescens Carr. (S. E. As.—Polyn.) and the more or less nest-like P. punctu-
lata Bedd. (trop. O. W.). Here also the myrmecophilous P. sinuosa Bedd.
(Arch.) climbs upward along the trunk and branches of the host with the aid of
anchoring roots. The thick rhizomes are hollow and thickly beset with bright
brown scales. The wall is thin, the interior being hollow even to the conical
outgrowths which bear the fronds. A species of small brown ant lives in these
passages. Again we meet Ophioglossum pendulum L., particularly over the
damp places, and in drier places Vittaria species, as V. zosterifolia Willd.
(Madag.—Polyn.) and V. squamosipes v.A.v.R.* Hymenolepis spicata Pr.
(Madag.—Polyn.) is very common. I found only one species of Lycopodium,
L. falciforme v.A.v.R. (N. Guin., N. Pomm.).

Species of Hoya also are very common on the branches of trees on the sunny
margin of the marsh, and in the higher branches one may see Myrmecodia (no.
1095) and Hydnophytum (HH. radicans Becc., end., and H. commune Val.).
It is hardly necessary to mention that orchids are likewise richly represented.
Among others, I found here Liparis confusa J. J. Sm. var. papuana J: J. Sm
Thrixspermum validum J. J. Sm., Bulbophyllum tollenoniferum J.-J. Saal
A ppendicula reflexa Bl. var. neo-pommeranica Schlecht., Pomatocalyx incurvum
J.J. Sm., Acriopsis javanica Rw., Robiquetia gracilistipes J. J. Sm., Dendrobium
toadjanum J. J. Sm., and D. subfalcatum J. J. Sm. Here Elatostema peduncu-
latum Forst. (Madag.—Polyn.) is also epiphytic.

Just as the epiphytes are found in the margin of the marsh, climbers also
occur in this habitat. In the gnarled branches of a waroe (Hibiscus), Faradaya
splendida F. v. Muell. climbs high; elsewhere we find Abrus pulchellus Wall.
(no. 832; E. Afr—N. Guin.) and Jchnocarpus volubilis Merr. (trop. As.—
Austr.). The number of Araceae is not nearly so large as on drier terrain,
Pothos Albertisti Engl. (end.) being almost the only representative here. The
red-fruited Piper (nos. 834, 1098) too prefers the darker part of the forest.
Another liana fairly common here is Combretum trifoliatum Vent. Finally,
one of the very common plants covering trunks is a species of Dischidia, ap-
parently D. imbricata Schuni. (D. Collyris Wall.) (nos. 969, 1080; Arch.) of
which the orbicular small leaves on both sides of the stem lie pressed flat against

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA oo

the host-trunk. The young parts of this plant, also those which are protected
against direct light, are rose-colored. The leaves are somewhat convex and
cover, as in other species of the genus, a number of fine rootlets which grow from
the nodes and extend their branches out into the humus collected beneath the
leaf.

On the bivouac side of the river, marshy stretches lie between the stream and
the foothills, the vegetation of which is very similar to that of the Meervlakte
(cf. Fig. 9). Itis best developed in the shore-area lying southeast of the camp.
Nevertheless, the flora here is already unmistakably under the influence of the
hills and, particularly on the margin, typical hill-plants extend into this area.
Also on the side of the river a natural levee is formed, mostly but a few meters
broad. Between this levee and the hills, the terrain is almost impassable and
in many places occupied by a deep marsh. The undergrowth consists of a
large number of Pandanus plants of all sizes, large grassy reed-complexes
mingled with Cyperaceae, Zingiberaceae, and robust terrestrial ferns. About
halfway between the camp and the river-bend to the southeast of it, a small
tributary empties (Fg. 9, 2), so that I could continue my observations both
on the land side and on the Idenburg River side. South of this terrain lies
the pretty saddle mountain (1050 m.) of which we had a view from the bivouac.
We saw this mountain later from Doormantop as a small hill in the distance.

On the bank of a small creek (Fig. 9, /) at the mouth of a brook I found a
beautiful and richly flowering specimen of Dullenia calothyrsa Diels*, the
branches loaded with large yellow flowers. Also here, in the shade of a white-
flowering Syzygium megalanthelium Diels*, a number of specimens of Jussiaea
(no. 885) stood on the muddy shore, with a small community of Fimbristylis
(aff. F. Merrillit Pulle, no. 891). Everywhere inland the ground-cover consists
of species of Mapania (nos. 1015, 1016, 1042, 1199), the shrubs Desmodium
umbellatum DC. (no. 1020) and Kibara (aff. moluccana Perk.) (no. 1230), and
an undergrowth of small herbs, particularly the acanthaceous Rungia (no. 782)
and Hygrophila (no. 1021), and also the commelinaceous Floscopa scandens
Lindl. (no. 1038; trop. As.—Austr.). Here I found also a couple of staminate
plants of Baccaurea dasystachya F. v. Muell. (no. 1007), of which elsewhere
(Fig. 9, 6) | observed a number of pistillate trees. I also saw here the large
pods of Entada scandens Benth. (no. 1154) hanging from the highest branches
of the trees. In a small marsh in the neighborhood were many Pandanus
plants, and along the drier edges a number of tree-ferns (Alsophila scaberulipes
v.A.v.R.*). The marsh itself was covered with a growth of Zingiberaceac
(nos. 1062, 1106), mixed with the beautiful yellow-flowered Curculigo scapigera
Hall. f. (end., no. 1047).

From the land side I examined this stretch of the bank at two places on the
river. Once with a proa I went up the small tributary which forms the drain-
age of a large fen between the river and the hills (Fig. 9, 2). The mouth is 15
to 20 m. broad, and the banks consist of stiff and slippery clay; it seemed to me
that here also natural levees are formed, only proportionately smaller than near
the large river. Also the vegetation is more or less the same but less sharply
divided into zones. After having gone around some curves, one comes unex-
pectedly to a low reed-field on the right bank. After that, first in clusters,
later as a unit, the primary forest rises high, while the background is closed by
the saddle-mountain. An obstruction of dead trees (Fig. 9,:a-a), which have
made some of the smaller rivers of New Guinea so notorious, prevented me

54 - SARGENTIA 5

from going further with the proa, and the terrain appeared to be almost im-
possible for walking. On the left is a low waroe (7ibiscus) forest full of aerial
roots and low overhanging branches and trunks above the muddy ground, the
latter covered only with fallen leaves. The small levee here is not broader
than one or two meters and indeed in many spots is entirely lacking. On the
bank is a small community of Fimbristylis (no. 891) and near by one of Pouzol-
zia hirta Hassk. (S, E. As.—Austr.). The tree-flora of the levee is poor and
consists almost exclusively of Hibiscus tiliaceus L. var. abutiloides Hochr.,
Kleinhovia hospita L., Vitex glabrata R. Br., and Barringtonia (no. 1006).
As far as undergrowth occurs, this is composed of species of Cyperus (nos. 805,
808), Helminthostachys zeylanica Hook. f., Diplazium esculentum Sw., and, just
as in the Meervlakte, also on the margin of the marsh, Phegopterits prolifera
Kuhn, with which is the usual growth of Scleria elata Thw. in wetter places.

The other place where I examined this terrain from the river lay by the first
bend southeast of Prauwen-bivak (Fig. 9, 3). Here, on the first gravel-bank
along the shore, I saw a rugged specimen of waroe (Zibiscus), but, in this much
drier location, without aerial roots and with more upright trunk and branches.
Beyond, the terrain is drier and the forest contains more woody giants. Enor-
mous specimens of Flagellaria climb to the highest crowns, rattans hinder
progress everywhere, and a rather thick undergrowth of shrubs proves that this
terrain is no longer subject to periodic flooding. Among the shrubs I found
Anomopanax (no. 1012), Garcinia (no. 964), and especially a number of
Rubiaceae, which constantly dominate the undergrowth. There are, for
instance, species of Jxora (no. 787), Lasianthus chlorocarpus Ik. Schum. and
Lasianthus no. 797, Tarenna Guelcheriana (IX. Schum.) Val. and another species
of this genus (nos. 968, 1052, 1053), Psychotria leptothyrsa Miq. (Ceram),
Mycetia javanica Korth. (S. E. As.), and a Plectronia (no. 970). A single tall
Pandanus occurs here among the trees; | saw one with aerial roots originating at
about 10 m. above the base. In addition to the above-mentioned shrubs, the
undergrowth contains Crinum asiaticum L., an intruder from the Meervlakte.
Also Donax (no. 900) is common here, just as at Pionier-bivak. Clinging
Araceae are relatively rare; Rhaphidophora drepanophylla v.A.v.R*. was col-
lected here.

On the edge of this terrain a small brook flows into the marsh (Fig. 9, 4).
Under the light shade is a small community of three species: Polygonum celebi-
cum Dans. (Borneo, Phil., Celebes, Moluccas), a Panicum (no. 899), and
Alternanthera sessilis R. Br. (pantrop.; no. 901).

Another locality I examined was the land near the mouth of the Doorman
River. On the right bank lies a large gelagah | Saccharum | field. Behind this
the forest appears to be about the same as the Meervlakte type or rather one
of the many aspects which the plain offers. Here a close growth of screw-pines
{ Pandanus | screens a marsh which is furnished with small compact groups of
trees festooned with lianas. Among the screw-pines the low flora consists
almost entirely of grasses and Cyperaceae. Donax and Leea sambucina Willd.
(trop. O. W.) grow on the drier parts of the levee, also a few tall ferns, Tapeino-
chilus, rattans with pneumatophores, etc. Phaseolus truxtllensis H. B. Kk. (S. E.
As.; no. 988) is a beautiful purple-flowered liana on the river-bank.

The vegetation on the left bank offers a similar picture. | found here too a
yellow-flowered Pisonia (nos. 980, 982) as a shrubby tree in the undergrowth.
Here again Artocarpus is very plentiful. | commented in my diary regarding

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 55

this: one of every five trees is an Artocarpus. Perhaps this is a little bit over-
drawn, but in any case it illustrates the frequency of this tree. I also collected
here a myrmecophilous Conocephalus (no. 983). The number of myrmeco-
philous plants in New Guinea is strikingly large, and they belong to the most
diverse families. Beccari, on his journey through the Archipelago, observed
these interesting plants and devoted to them a beautiful work § wherein he
described and illustrated a large number of them. Most belong to the Rubia-
ceae and particularly to the genera Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum (here nos.
924, 986, 1107), each of which has a large number of species. But the Ver-
benaceae, the palms (some rattans), the Euphorbiaceae, the Myristicaceae, the
Asclepiadaceae, the Monimiaceae, and even the ferns contain myrmecophilous
representatives. We add to this list the above-mentioned Conocephalus
(Moraceae), the gesneriaceous Cyrtandra (nos. 804, 810), Semecarpus myrmeco-
philus described by Lauterbach,’ and lastly a Canarium species native in the
Moluccas and New Guinea (C. acutifolium Merr.*’). A very high liana here
was Phylacium bracteosum Benn. (no. 993; Malacca to Phil. and New Guinea).

Close to Prauwen-bivak on the northwest side, the hilly land slopes gently
toward the river. Toward the marsh the vegetation does not differ essentially
from that on the other side of the river, but these terrains offer so much varia-
tion that one repeatedly encounters new combinations and plant societies. So
| encountered a river bank vegetation at 5 (Fig. 9) which was divided into some
very sharp zones and which will be described briefly.

Beyond the muddy shore, here also covered with many mud-pyramids, is
again the usual reed-area, in this instance about 4 m. broad. The land rises
a few decimeters and immediately, mingled with the gelagah [Saccharum ], are
some breadfruit and waroe trees festooned with herbaceous climbing plants
such as Luffa cylindrica Roem. (trop. O. W., cultiv. pantrop.). Farther in,
a flat strip about 10 m. broad supports a few trees under the light shade of
which is a very thin undergrowth of Cordyline terminalis Kunth, Tapeinochilus,
and a few tall ferns such as Diplazium esculentum Sw. (trop. As.—Polyn.).
The young fronds of the last are used as a very well-flavored green vegetable.
With these ferns are a number of Cyperaceae (nos. 802, 830, 902, 919, 959, 1017,
1023, 1104, 1174), like the Diplazium 2-3 m. high. Apart from this the land
is bare and, even in the dry period, still very wet; at high water-level this ter-
rain is surely flooded. Still farther in Cordyline and Tapeinochilus are no
longer found; both apparently need a combination of much dampness and
considerable sunshine. In the Meervlakte also they appear to be limited to
these conditions. Wherever the ground is drier and therefore the shade of the
trees thicker, Cyperaceae dominate the undergrowth. Intermingled with them
are a few small herbs, for instance species of Hygrophila (no. 1021) and Rungia
(no. 922). In this last zone, about 5 m. broad, is the real hill forest covering
the now slowly rising land. In its margin, however, various species typical
of the transitional region grow. One of these is the earlier referred to Bac-
caurea dasystachya F. v. Muell., of which I found at 6 (Fig. 9) a number of
pistillate specimens (no. 875) growing together. It is a small tree with very

60. Beccari, Piante Ospitatrici, Malesia II (1884-6), pp. 7-284, t. 1-65.

7C. Lauterbach, Engl. Bot. Jahrb: LVI (1921), p. 366, and W. Slis, Nova Guinea XIV
(1924), I, p. 99.

8 Mentioned in my monograph of the Burseraceae of the Netherlands Indies, which will
shortly appear in the ‘‘Bulletin du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg.”’

56 SARGENTIA [5

fragrant flowers hanging down from the trunk in rather long racemes. It is
noteworthy that Schumann & Lauterbach in their “Flora der Deutschen
Schutzgebiete in der Siidsee’’ mentioned (p. 392) a similar habitat for this
species: ‘“‘auf dem zeitweise tiberschwemmten Vorlande am Fusse der Berge.”
This plant in the Buitenzorg Herbarium is represented only from Sumatra,
Billiton, and New Guinea. Schumann & Lauterbach credit it also to Java.
In September 1920 I found it in flower; the blossoms are tolerably large and
light yellow. At the time of my return from the mountains in December it
bore greenish purple spherical fruits.

In addition to the tree indicated above, the Euphorbiaceae are represented
by another species of Baccaurea (no. 1039) and by the curious Endospermum
formicarum Becc. (no. 1028; New Guinea, Morotai), which, as the specific name
reveals, is myrmecophilous. It is a moderately tall tree with fragrant flowers.
All branches have thin walls and are hollow. These cavities originated
through the intervention of a species of large black ant, which, as Beccari has
already observed, bored through the wall. I found this to be the case when,
in the middle of 1926, I discovered (Fig. 11) the tree along river-banks in Moro-
tai Island (northeast of Halmahera). The nodes of the branches are slightly
constricted and are entirely or almost entirely solid. The internodes contain
a very compact and light pith. The ants ® themselves enter the branches by
eating through the wall. Often they seem to select for that purpose scars of
fallen leaves, since these perhaps offer somewhat less resistance, but openings
may be found anywhere. Once an opening is made, the pith quickly disap-

. pears and living room ?!° is available. Frequently scale-insects !! are kept
therein.

Other Euphorbiaceae in this region are a species of Mallotus with light yellow
flowers (nos. 954, 1030) and the large-leaved Macaranga riparia Engl. (Key Is.,
N. Guin.—Polyn.; no. 1037), of which both the bast and the periphery of the
pith contain a thick-flowing, dark red, sour gum. Phaleria papuana Warb.
(end.; no. 909), with wine-red cauliflorous fruits, belongs in the category of
smaller trees. A small palm, Licuala (no. 876) also is common here. The
general picture of this forest is very attractive. As a transitional region be-
tween two very different types of vegetation the flora is interesting; and the
forest is easily passable on account of the relatively sparse undergrowth. This
was the place that I, after having seen fresh cassowary tracks many consecutive
days, saw one of these large birds flee in front of me. Apparently they came
here to drink from a small brook where naked muddy spots alternated with
small patches of Helminthostachys zeylanica Hook. f. and Pleopeltis aquatica
v.A.v.R.

Lianas, clinging plants, and epiphytes are well-represented here. Flagellaria
and Gnetum are fairly plentiful. Sometimes Ichnocarpus volubilis Merr. occurs.
In still other spots we find Conocephalus (nos. 950, 1029), Dioscorea (no. 1035),
and Cissus discolor Bl. (S. E. As.; no. 1034). A Trichosporum (nos. 858, 884,
1051), with its beautiful fiery red flowers, gives color to the trunks to which
it is attached. Pothos quinquevenosus v.A.v.R.* adds its yellow spadix or its
fiery red fruits.

*On Morotai, according to the determination of Dr. W. M. Wheeler (Cambridge, U.S. A.):
Camponotus (Colobopsis) quadriceps F. Smith.

10 Beccari, Malesia II, p. 44, t. II.

1 According to Dr. Wheeler, belonging to a genus related to Coccus.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA

wn
~I

Fic. 11. Branches of Endospermum formicarum Becc., with ants (Camponotus [Colobopsis]}
quadriceps F. Smith) and scale-insects (Coccus? sp.).

58 SARGENTIA [5

Few herbs grow here. There is a single small area with Elatostema, or ferns
such as Diplazium cordifolium Bl.; on higher terrain the most important herbs
are Donax (no. 990) and scattered specimens of Pentaphragma macrophyllum
Oliv. (end.; nos. 784, 785, 908, 971), especially characteristic of the lower foot-
hill regions. The latter, through its robust somewhat coarse growth and its
large yellow flowers, is a striking herb (Campanulaceae). Elatostema novo-
guineense Warb. frequently occurs as a component of a small community with
ferns and Selaginella. Elatostema pedunculatum Forst. is epiphytic here, but
always on the lower branches or parts of the trunk; /. frutescens Hassk.
(Java, Sumatra, N. Guin.), likewise an epiphyte, also grows here.

With the description of this terrain we now have come to that of the lower
hills. The foothills to the west of Prauwen-bivak are separated from the
river by the gently sloping region described and offer a great variety of aspects.
Deeply carved creek-ravines and steep boulder-beds of short torrents alter-
nate with hills strewn with large pieces of deeply fissured rock. To the north-
west of the bivouaca spur of the saddle-mountain rises rather steeply. Through
a singular error of the officer of the supporting military detachment, the highest
summit of the spur received the name ‘‘Casuarisnest.’’ It is thus a worthy
counterpart of the ‘‘Dromedarisberg’’ on the south side of the mountain, of
which Pulle ® relates that he was obliged to rename it ‘‘INameelberg,” since it
has not one, but two summits. With the first advance of the vanguard into
the interior, the officer took a pile of leaves on the top of the hill for a casso-
wary’s nest, in which the bird known as the mound-builder lays its eggs. At
the summit, about 230 m. altitude, towards the southwest (/7g. 9, b) an out-
look was later opened, giving a view of the Central Mountain Range which was
sketched from there (see Fragment V) and surveyed. A blanket was placed
here in a vertical position, which later was observed from Doorman-top and
rendered Kremer good service in checking his position. At a distance of 30
km. it was distinctly visible to the naked eye, especially when the sun was low
in the west.

In describing the flora of this hilly country we shall again start from the
bivouac. It is not surprising that here no ruderal flora has developed. When |
arrived, the bivouac was only three months old, the first landing having been
May 11, 1920. Possibly a few Scrophulariaceae (nos. 864, 889) might be con-
sidered to be adventive plants. This is not necessarily true of the Jussiaea
which was growing on the bank. For that matter conditions here are not nearly
so favorable for the establishing of aliens as at Pionier-bivak. The supplies
brought were less in quantity and many of these were repacked. But in
addition the bivouac, with its small area and its steep slope subject to erosion,
is much less favorably situated for the persistence of adventive plants. The
dead wood in the bivouac was apparently an excellent habitat for fungi (nos.
817—9, 870, 879, 928-32, 998-9, 1066-8, 1087-8, 1090, 1160, 1193-5, 1219, 1234,
2091-2). I found not only Ganoderma Cochlear Murr. and Polyporus rugosus
Nees, previously reported from Pionier-bivak, but also Polystictus Lami Lloyd,
P. affinis Nees & BI., Phaeoclavulina Zip pelii van Overeem, Auricularia auricula
Judae Schroeter, Fomes lamaoensis Murr., and a bird’s nest fungus (no. 2088).
I also observed here Dictyophora phalloidea Desv. (no. 2089) in a sterile condi-
tion, and collected, on the body of a butterfly, the insect-fungus Cordiceps
Moelleri Henn. (no. 2111) earlier described from New Guinea. For the sake

2A, Pulle, Naar het Sneeuwgebergte van Nieuw-Guinea, p. 125.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 59

of completeness I note the collection of a few green algae (nos. 1082, 1235)
from a neighboring brook, and some mosses (nos. 1070, 1204, 2095-6) from
fallen tree-trunks.

The factors which control the forest in this region are naturally identical with
those which prevail on the hills near Pionier-bivak. The only difference to
which we shall here call attention is that of soil. At Pionier-bivak the hills
consist of sedimentary rocks and their erosion products, but here the soil is
derived from eruptive rocks. It is generally accepted that the mountains of
New Guinea originated geologically in relatively recent time. For the Cen-
tral Chain this is the Tertiary (Miocene), for the mountains lying to the north,
some think an even later age must be accepted.!! All the mountains are still
entirely covered with sediments which are found up to Wilhelmina-top (4750
m.). The northern chain of the Central Mountain Range appears to form an
exception to this. In three places far removed from each other, the chain
seems to consist of eruptive rock-formations, namely, at the source of the
Rouffaer River (van Gelder), in the region of Doorman-top (van Overeem
Expedition), and again on a point east from there (de Wal Expedition).
Because of the little knowledge which we possess regarding the flora of this
gigantic island, it would be useless now to attempt to correlate the differences
in the flora with differences in soil. Consequently, at present, we need not
dwell longer on the ecology of this forest, which still remains a typical rain-
forest many hundred meters higher up. | am, however, not claiming that
local differences cannot be found. A strongly broken terrain, such as the
young mountains with their deep ravines and steep inclines, naturally provides
all kinds of different conditions. Slopes composed of blocks of rock, relatively
flat parts with many steep walls practically without humus, damp ravines,
small summits, and narrow ridges indicate some minor divisions of such a re-
gion, each of which exerts a series of distinct influences on the flora. Through
these, the forest offers sufficient variation.

The previously mentioned Vitex [ollrungit Warb. is plentiful on the slopes of
Casuarisnest. A stately palm (Kentia, no. 1065), rare here but very common
higher up on the mountain, will be discussed in the next Fragment. Of the
other moderately tall trees I indicate the white-flowered Galearia (no. 1190)
and a few species of Baccaurea (nos. 1039, 1192, 1229), all cauliflorous. Some-
what smaller are Ardisia lanceolata Roxb. (no. 814; Malacca, Sumatra, Java,
Borneo, Celebes, Phil.), with lilac flowers and dark purple fruits, Dracaena an-
gustifolia Roxb. (trop. As.—N. Austr.), a couple of species of Ixora, I. bivak-
kensis Val.* and no. 938, with a thick red and creamy yellow inflorescence,
Goniothalamus caloneurus Miq. (no. 957; end.), a few representatives of the
genus Garcinia (nos. 1013, 1187, 1202), all with white or yellow flowers, Gnetum
Gnemon L. (no. 1228; trop. Afr.—N. Guin.), Tabernaemontana aurantiaca
Gaudich., and a species of Gonocaryum, the last two with rather large orange-
colored fruits.

In most places the undergrowth is rich in shrubs (chiefly endemic): Aglata
(nos. 809, 958, 1083), Chisocheton Lamii Diels*, Saurauia Lamii Diels*, Styrax

13 Miss Gibbs (Journ. Ecol. VIII, 1920, 105, note) records, on the authority of Smith Wood-
ward, that typical marine fossils from the Miocene have been found at 4200 m.; she suspects
that the uplifting took place during the Pleiocene.

4 Moszkowski (I. c. 283) mentions fossils from the van Rees Mountains as of the late Ter-
tiary period.

16 Jaarboek Mijnwezen XXXIX (1910), 101.

60 SARGENTIA (5

(no. 811), Macaranga (no, 1189), Symplocos Lamii Brand*, Tylecarpus papua-
nus Engl. (end.), Amaracarpus lanceolatus Val.*, Cyrtandra (nos. 804, 810,
myrmecophilous), Morinda bracteata Roxb., Lasianthus chlorocarpus K.Schum.
(no. 1217), L. chrysotrichoides Val.* (no. 975), Lasianthus no. 936, Clerodendron
buruanum Miq., Orophea Dielsiana (Lauterb.) Diels, Semecarpus laxiflorus K.
Schum., Urophyllum glomeratum Val.* and U. calycinum Val.*, Parasponia (no.
953), Pipturus repandus Wedd. (Arch.), Kibara (no. 1230), Antiaropsis de-
ciptens IX. Schum. (nos. 799, 1081; end., from a systematic point of view a note-
worthy moraceous plant, which is conspicuous because its inflorescences have
fiery red bracts), and finally a few Leguminosae (nos. 852, 854-5, 920), also
Melastomataceae such as Otanthera Lamii Mansf.,* with white flowers and
raspberry-like fruit, and Ochthocharis megalophylla Mansf.*, with rose flowers.
A number of other species, in motley variety, occur in the undergrowth.
Separately | shall mention Drimys oligocarpa Schlecht. (end.), since it may be
considered as a forerunner of the true mountain-flora in which we shall en-
counter other species of that remarkable genus of the Magnoliaceae.

Toward the river, where the earth is more level and therefore damper, there
are occasional patches of Cotylanthera tenuis Bl. (Java, Borneo, Phil., Soemba),
a pale-colored saprophytic plant of the Gentianaceae, which one frequently
notes on similar terrain. On the slope the enormous number of juvenile rattan
plants is striking, also those of a conifer which I cannot determine with cer-
tainty, but which is apparently A gathis alba Foxw. Young plants of this are
scarcely distinguishable from those of Podocarpus Blumei Engl., which likewise
occurs in New Guinea. Bird-hunters informed us, however, that extensive
stands of dammar trees (which furnish the copal of commerce) are found along
the banks of a tributary of the van der Willigen River, and so | think that my
supposition is justified. In addition to the shrubby undergrowth many herbs
occur. Amongst the most beautiful of these are Pentaphragma macrophyllum
Oliv. and Forrestia mollissima Ioord. (no. 952). Also striking is the small
Geophila reniformis D. Don (pantrop.), which formed almost the only ground-
cover on a small area at the foot of a hill; the plant attracted as much attention
by its snow-white flowers as by its cherry-red fruits. A number of Zingi-
beraceae (nos. 806-7, 925, 1001, 1210) belong naturally to the robust herbs.
On the summit of Casuarisnest two species (nos. 823, 1079) grew promiscuously.
In damp places a couple of handsome species of Dianella, D. coerulea Sims
(Phil., N. Guin., N. Austr., New Caled., Fiji) and D. carinata Hall. f. (end.) are
common, as is also Ophiorrhiza crispa Lauterb. (end.). Dianella carinata Hall.
f. is very plentiful up to near the forest-border. Oldenlandia pubescens Val.
(end.) prefers a drier terrain. In similar places the ground is frequently cov-
ered by more or less extensive patches of Elatostema, Begonia (nos. 851, 890),
Selaginella gracilis Moore, and S. puberulipes v.A.v.R.* In the last species,
which does not grow very large, I several times observed that almost all the
sporophylls were connate, so that leaves and sporangia alternate with each
other. Terrestrial ferns in this forest are likewise unusually abundant. In
damper places toward the river are small communities of Blechnum orientale
L. (trop. As.—Polyn.). Apart from that one finds in the undergrowth Tapeini-
dium pinnatum Chr. (Arch.—Polyn.), Diplazium cordifolium BI. (Afr.—Polyn.)
and D. opacifolium v.A.v.R.*, Lindsaya trichophylla Copel. (end.), Syngramma
pinnata J. Sm. (E. Arch., Austr., Polyn.) and S. lanceolata Diels (N. Guin.,
Fiji), Blechnum Finlaysonianum Wall. (Arch.), Aspidium teratocarpum

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 61

v.Aw.R.*, Asplenium cuneatum Lamk. (pantrop.), Dryopteris repandula
v.Awv.R.*, and D. cyclosora v.A.v.R.* Among the ferns one of the most
common ground-covers is the dark green Trichomanes cupressoides Desv. On
blocks of rock on the slopes I found a couple of species of the last genus inter-
mingled, 7. millefolium Pr. (Sumatra, Java, Phil., N. Guin.) and 7. suffrutex
v.A.v.R.* Similar blocks, which are scattered on the north slope of Casuaris-
nest, are frequently entirely covered with mosses and ferns and a number of
small Orchidaceae growing with them. Examples of the ferns are Campylo-
gramma pteridiformis v.A.v.R. (end.) and Lindsaya trichophylla Copel.; the
orchids belong particularly to the genus Microstylis, which occurs in similar
habitats on many islands of the Archipelago; the species here is MW. Floscularta
J. J.Sm. Often others are noted, such as Eurycentrum atroviride J. J. Sm.., with
the leaves dark green above, and Hetaeria oblongifolia Bl. var. papuana J. J. Sm.
In the humus among these blocks of stone are a few terrestrial Araceae, such as
Homalomena Peekelii Engl. (end.) and H. Versteegiit Engl. (end.), and in some-
what damper places Holochlamys elliptica v.A.v.R.* and Schismatoglottis poma-
tophila v.A.v.R.* Among the herbaceous flowering plants, the acanthaceous
Rungia (no. 1022) and Hemigraphis angustifolia Hall. f. (no. 888; Arch.)
appear. In addition to the already mentioned Hetaeria, another terrestrial
orchid here is Plocoglottis tropidiifolia J. J. Sm. Occasionally the saprophytic
burmanniaceous Gymnostiphon affine J. J. Sm. is noticed.

Among the clinging Araceae, which occur here in very large numbers, Rhaphi-
dophora drepanophylla v.A.v.R.* and Pothos papuanus Becc. (end.) are plenti-
ful. Representatives of the last genus and Dischidia imbricata Schum. are the
most common plants covering the tree-trunks, and, particularly in specimens
of small size, the leaves are frequently less than 1 cm. in diameter. Possibly
these are young forms, since I observed neither flowers nor fruits on such plants.
On the other hand, Scindapsus altissimus v.A.v.R.* is a very large plant which
| found on the summit of Casuarisnest. It has a large cigar-shaped bright
yellow spathe almost 50 cm. long and 6.5 cm. thick (still closed) growing aloft
in the crown of a tall tree. The leaves of this plant are somewhat the shape of
those of the banana, the older ones being frayed transversely in the same way.

Large lianas are always rare in the center of the forest. Of the smaller ones
which do not reach the forest-roof, I collected the purple-flowered Dissochaeta
Schumannii Cogn. (end.) and Uvaria littoralis Bl. (no. 1182; trop. As.), the
latter with beautiful chocolate-colored flowers widely scattered along the almost
leafless, thin, and flexible stem.

The epiphytic flora of the lower parts of the trunks offers little new. I again
found Nephrolepis radicans Kuhn. Another epiphytic or somewhat clinging
fern is Trichomanes aphlebioides Chr. (Moluccas, N. Guin.), a species with
dimorphic fronds; the fertile ones are smaller and are placed close together on
the rhizome, the larger sterile ones extending upward separately. Also I found
here Polypodium sclerophyllum v.A.v.R.*

Among the epiphytes in the crowns of trees, the Orchidaceae again occupy
the most important place. There are Pomatocalyx incurvum J. J. 5m., A ppen-
dicula reflexa Bl. var. neo-pommeranica Schl. and A. (aff.) furfuracea J. J. Sm.
(no. 1178), Dendrobium squamiferum J. J. Sm. and D. poneroides Schl., Eria
oligotricha Schl., Ceratostylis mamberamensis J. J. Sm., Podochilus scalpelliformis
BI., P. mamberamensis J. J. Sm., and P. imitans Schl., Dendrobium Phalangu-
lum J. J. Sm., Malleola palustris J. J. Sm. & Schl., Glomera uniflora J. 1. 3may

62 - SARGENTIA [5

Bulbophyllum mamberamense J. J. Sm., and finally Taeniophyllum (no. 1085).
The melastomataceous Pogonanthera reflexa BI. (S. E. As., W. Arch., Phil.),
with yellow flowers, is also an epiphyte. Another very plentiful epiphyte in
this region is Dimorphanthera tridens J. J. Sm.* (no. 976), a richly flowering
plant with large, broad, bell-shaped flowers of a warm red color. Like the
Glomera and Dianella previously mentioned, this ericaceous species, in a certain
sense, may be considered as a forerunner of the mountain-flora, since, in the
main, related species are mountain-plants.

Prauwen-bivak was one of the most pleasant camps, in spite of the clouds of
day and night mosquitoes. Our never sufficiently praised mosquito-room re-
duced the pest to a bearable minimum. Lying close to the river and a few
meters above it, this bivouac provided a spacious and sunny view. Toward the
southeast spread the broad river and the foothills of the Central Mountain
Range (Fig. 12). Immediately before us lies the forest-margin of the Meer-

Ne i id i id i

One

en Bi 4

Oats Ne
hr . vy

Me, nseB et
fav { Sere as,

AM eA, ua? -
weeny Aad ad eee,

Fic. 12. Outlook from Prauwen-bivak to the southeast.

vlakte. ‘Toward the north we again see the wide stream, with its slowly circling
eddy full of driftwood and other vegetable-debris, and the mouth of the Door-
man River in the background. Here we enjoyed our morning coffee at sunrise;
here we sat together in the late afternoon to gaze at a beautiful sunset. Then
silence and repose descended on the sultry plain before us, and with the fading
of the daylight the strange bird Cracticus quoyi also ceased its calling. This
call so strikingly resembles that of a far distant Papuan dog that at first we
were repeatedly mistaken regarding it. At that hour also, the parakeet flocks
(Chalcopsittacus duivenbodit) flew over toward the mountains, where later we
could see them fly home after a long day on the plain. But this scene was
not always peaceful. Sometimes a rain-storm from the southeast, rushing
across our mosquito-proof shelter, drove us all out with our books and notes.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 63

On such evenings, however, we could enjoy the lightning-discharges over the
wide plain, which illuminated the whole neighborhood.

The commissary department also was attractive in this bivouac. Sometimes
on the table appeared a large bowl filled with fish fresh from the river; then
again we had real turtle soup, the thigh of a cassowary, or a fat crown-pigeon.
Once while there we tried koeskoes (Phalanger maculatus), and one day the
doctor and | even ventured to eat crocodile, which is not as distasteful as tradi-
tion says, and strikes a happy medium between fish and veal.

It appeared indeed as if the animal kingdom in this vicinity likewise found
greater expression than elsewhere. Apart from the usual nuisances of the
forest, such as mosquitoes, leeches, wasps, and ants, which one finds every-
where, we observed much more wild life than at Pionier-bivak. I have already
mentioned that once I saw a full grown cassowary flee with great strides and
much noise. Tracks which I measured were up to 26 cm. long and 20 cm.
broad. I have mentioned too the crown-pigeons. Of the animals here, after
the pigs, the koeskoes (Phalanger maculatus) are the most common. ‘These are
sluggish animals which sleep through the day and go out marauding at night.
Occasionally we shot one out of a tall tree, and for a long time we kept a young
one in the camp. It was practically motionless during the day and, moreover,
was very vicious. Another marsupial, once caught by the zoologist in a snare,
was Parameles, a small creature which lives on the ground and somewhat sug-
gests a small piglet.

Of the reptiles, I have previously called attention to turtles and crocodiles,
and also to the poisonous snake Acanthophts antarcticus. Occasionally larger
snakes were brought in or observed; | myself saw one about 2.5 m. long.
Frogs, numerous in this country on account of the relatively few snakes, are
seen everywhere, and are particularly audible. Sometimes at night we heard a
loud almost roaring or bellowing call in the forest which we attributed to one
of these amphibians. The doctor once noticed a good specimen swimming in
the river, which, spread out, was more than 50 cm. across. Giant forms were
also found amongst the earthworms. In all characteristics they reminded one
of the common earthworm, but they were up to 1 m. long and 2-3 cm. thick.

I will close these few remarks on the fauna with a brief discussion of one of
the most curious phenomena in nature that I ever witnessed: the swarms of
day-flies. As is well known, day-flies are the adults of neuropterous insects
belonging to the family Ephemeridae. The larvae live in various stages as
predators in the water, but the imago, which eats no food during its ephemeral
existence, is concerned exclusively with the propagation of the race. This
fact itself is sufficiently remarkable, but still more so is the simultaneous emer-
gence of all imagoes at a definite place.

Ephemera swarm in the lower stretches of the large rivers, and repeatedly we
witnessed this phenomenon occurring in little or great profusion once every two
or three weeks. The Meervlakte appears to be a peculiarly favorable region
for these insects: nowhere did we see such enormous swarms of them as here;
and this natural phenomenon makes the greatest impression on one who sees
such a swarm originate in his immediate vicinity, and the next moment is
encircled by myriads of these insects. One day when I was returning from the
mouth of the Doorman River in the direction of the camp, I was engaged with
the coolies in gently paddling the proa. Somewhat sleepy from the fatiguing
work of the forenoon in the sultry marsh, my eyes were half-closed against the

64 SARGENTIA [5

intense light reflected from the surface of the calm and smoothly gliding stream.
Suddenly my attention was drawn to a day-fly fluttering up and down near the
proa, a white and light yellow delicate little insect which hastily and with
sudden turnings dragged its slender appendages over the water. Still without
suspecting what was about to happen, I gazed languidly out over the broad
calm river until all at once my interest was awakened: an ephemerid appeared
close beside me, struggling to free itself from the water. Although now I tried
to observe with greatest interest and every effort, I failed to follow in full detail
what occurred there. At close quarters I tried to see how the insects emerged
from the water, but yet at the same time my eyes were drawn to many other
points, thousands of them, where the same thing was happening. A few
minutes later, I looked out over the river, so quiet a moment ago; its surface
was already swarming with thousands of day-flies. After a considerable time
spent in close scrutiny, I succeeded in observing a day-fly twist out, free itself
from the larval covering, and dart quickly away. The empty skin, as an almost
invisible membrane, slowly drifted away with the stream. Within a very short
time—not more than five minutes—the whole river was covered with millions
of day-flies. Some flitted to and fro over the water, others rose a few meters
above the surface and repeatedly fell into the proa. The males have the ex-
tremities transformed into claspers, with which they embrace the females. |
observed but few pairs. Occasionally I saw two contact for a short period, but
I could not determine whether this was really the act of copulation. Just as in
the European species, among the thousands of males present, here only a few
females appear. Both sexes have two thread-like appendages on the abdomen
—in the male much longer than in the female—with which they draw two fine
traces across the water. Under the last abdominal segment the female has two
pear-shaped egg-sacs which are easily lost by contact. Not long, a few hours
at the most, the swarm remains in full strength. At first repeatedly hundreds
of individuals join it, but gradually birds come from the forest and reed-fields,
as well as fish from the muddy bottom, to reap the harvest. Small bee-eaters
and spitsvoegels fly to and fro. I observe those already wearied by the hunt
and satisfied, resting on branches protruding out over the water, but neverthe-
less, they could not resist the temptation of throwing themselves once more
into this abundance of food. A thin darker cloud of birds whirled through the
thick white cloud of day-flies, and the pink jaws of the Siluridae snapped above
the water repeatedly. At twelve o’clock I saw the first day-fly appear; at
three they had all vanished. What has become of the remaining individuals
which have not fallen victims to the birds and fishes, or which the wind has not
thrown down unhospitably in the forested river-banks?

Later | went downstream again with the small motor-boat, likewise about
noon. I chanced upon another even larger swarm. From afar, the river
appeared as if it were buried under a snowfall of day-flies. We traveled for
more than an hour through the uninterrupted thick swarm, which thus was at
least 15 km. long. A moderate estimate (10 individuals per cu. m.) gives 120
million day-flies.

In Europe a similar phenomenon is known. Brehm gives us a striking
description of this, prepared by Réaumur, who observed it on the Marne during
an evening in 1738. In all details the description agrees with my observations.

" Brehm, Tierleben, Insekten, 3rd edition (1892), p. 548, and 4th ed. (1915), p. 55.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 65

| have already said a few-words concerning the Papuans who dwell in the
Meervlakte, and I shall not venture further into the anthropological and ethno-
graphical domain. However, I shall not close this Fragment without a com-
ment on a striking journey made by bird-hunters coming overland from Hol-
landia on Humboldt Bay. They knew how to reach Prauwen-bivak and
apparently had learned of our presence in the Meervlakte and counted on our
support. Otherwise they probably would not have risked this undertaking.
The band was led by two Chinese, the rest being sturdy Papuans from the
north coast. In all there were 21. Perhaps I should not have mentioned this
incident were it not for the fact that the band, according to their leaders, had
lived entirely on the produce of the land. Ina ten weeks’ march overland they
reached the upper course of the Idenburg River. At first they had been able
to obtain some provisions from the kampongs through which they passed, but
very soon they had to live entirely on the country itself. While each day an
organized group searched for food, the others hunted birds of paradise and
crown-pigeons. Thus they travelled for more than 70 days, living on food
obtained by hunting and fishing. On a point downstream from the great gap
of the Idenburg River they made four proas, and with these dropped down-
stream, reaching Prauwen-bivak after seven days. There, under our protec-
tion, they remained some time to hunt.

It is frequently said that the tropical primeval forest, and particularly that
of New Guinea, furnishes little food—too small an amount to supply the
needs of travellers. This band provided the clearest evidence that this is not
the case, at least for the lowland. It will not be easy for pampered Europeans
to follow their example, although Moszkowski '’ says that he lived exclusively
on the country for nearly two months in the Meervlakte. In low regions there
are always plenty of pigs, pigeons, and cassowaries. The river contains an
abundance of excellent fish; the Dyaks frequently secured 10-20 kg. in an hour.
And the Meervlakte and other areas with fresh-water marshes supply as much
sago as one could wish for. Furthermore, as side-dishes for meals, there are to
be considered turtle and monitor-lizard eggs, young palm-buds and young
fern-leaves (Diplazium esculentum). The growing tips of Pandanus and rattans
can likewise be eaten, breadfruit provides a vegetable, while roasted Gnetum
seeds, fruits of species of Syzygium, and some species of rattan may serve as
tidbits. Incase of need, other sources of food are: all kinds of marsupials, such
as tree-kangaroos and phalangers, the duck-bill, smaller birds and larger ones
such as the jungle fowl, the kalongs (fruit-bats), crocodiles, and snakes, not to
mention other reptiles and amphibians. Thus at low altitudes one need not
fear starvation. But in the mountains conditions change quickly. The most
important sago, forming the chief article of food, disappears. The breadfruit
tree soon follows. Once high in the mountains, one finds scarcely more than
pigs and cassowaries, Pandanus, palms, some small birds, and marsupials.
Even the natives never go into the mountains without taking food with them,
since it is realized that existence on what the country supplies would be pre-
carious. Wollaston relates a touching illustration of this. It concerns a case
in which about ten Papuans, mostly women and children, perished from hunger
during a journey into the mountains, because they had not carried a sufficient
supply of food with them.

17 Cf, footnote 3 in this Fragment.
18 Geogr. Journ. XLIII (1914), p. 264.

V. The north slope of the Central Mountain Range ':”

DuRING the month (August 15-September 18, 1920) that I spent at Prauwen-
bivak, the Casuarisnest was developed as a location-point for the future inland
expedition, as the Central Mountain Range was our objective both from the
standpoint of biological freld work and in accordance with our commission.
It has already been mentioned in Fragment IV that an outlook on this hill was
opened toward the southwest. Here a greater part of the route to be followed
is to be seen and sketched (Fig. 13).

It was September 18, 1920, that Lieut. Drost and I set out upon our inland
journey with the weekly transport. As mentioned earlier, | was accompanied
by two native helpers, Ajoeb, mantri of the ’s Lands Plantentuin at Buitenzorg,
and Siman, assistant mantri in the Herbarium.

4 Brug bivak
“Mis Neo2* 208+ DooRManror 212° 231° = 3000 ssi00 235°
ite \ | | | |
U, 6

Fic. 13. Sketch of the Central Mountain Range, seen from Casuarisnest. — — — —
= visible part of the route followed; ..... = part of the route not visible; 1 = Woud-bivak;
2 = Bivak Goenoeng Boetak; 3 = First Parkieten-bivak; 4 = Beek-bivak; 5 = Uitzicht-
bivak; 6 = Radio-bivak; 7 = Mos-bivak.

At the time of our departure, the patrol of Capt. van Arkel was still operating
in the advance-terrain. He had reached Doormantop just two days before.
On September 6th, the leader, Capt. Kremer, and the geologist followed their
trail with a strong transport; the ethnographer, the doctor, and the zoologist
remained at Prauwen-bivak.

After having passed the open clearing we descend again to the plain (cf.
Fragment I, Map B). The trail, which originally ran across the marshes, was
later diverted more toward the foot of the hill, because it appeared that the
ground-condition did not permit a regular transport to travel by the old route.

' Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl.-Ind. 88: 252-324. 1928.

* The Indian Committee for Scientific Research, which organized and equipped the Scien-
tific Expedition to Central New Guinea 1920-1922, made the publication of this series of richly
illustrated articles possible by a grant from the Royal Natural Philosophical Society. The
editors and the writer express their appreciation for this support, to the Committee named.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 67

After one transport had passed over, the superficial layer of roots was so de-
stroyed that, even in the dry period, one sank so far in the marsh that it was
impossible to make any progress. But even our new trail nearer the foothills
leads us over long stretches which are transformed into deep muddy pools.
Soon the trail turns away from the foot of the hill and lies over entirely level
terrain. At first the path is easy. The brooks coming from the hills have cut
into the terrain, thus forming terraces; the banks are perpendicular, and be-
tween the broad loops lie entirely flat areas where the growth is thin and the
vegetation reminds one strongly of the forest-margin of the Meervlakte. There
are only a few woody giants; the remaining timber is slender and small, only
few trees having a diameter of three to four decimeters. In the undergrowth
practically all shrubs are lacking, but locally there are solid stands of Elato-
stema or Selaginella, and indeed of many different kinds of ferns. In other
places where the forest-floor is almost bare, Vrydagzynea elongata BI. occurs.
In short, we find here so many points of agreement with the vegetation of the
forest-margin of the Meervlakte that we may well suppose that this terrain is
inundated in the rainy season, at least occasionally.

At nine-thirty, after having forded a couple of smaller brooks, we reach a
larger stream that meanders so much that we have to cross it six or seven times
at short intervals. It isa beautiful broad brook, with a bed of hard sand and
gravel. The water is clear and occupies about 10 m. of the 25 m. wide flood-
bed, the deepest channel being almost a meter deep,.so that we wade through
up to the hips. Through the narrow opening made by the brook in the forest,
we see a small part of the heavily wooded hills to the southeast. Slowly and
noiselessly the dark water flows by us, while here and there a heavy tree-trunk
lies half under the water; | note in the branches of such a tree the half-destroyed
carcass of an old hornbill which has died a natural death.

After a short rest at this place we proceed. Now for a part of the way we
follow the bank, high and steep on the outer curves, flat and broad on the
inner curves and here sometimes with small gelagah [Saccharum ] fields. In
such patches we almost always note the Job's tears grass (Coix Lacryma Jobt
L.), the hard fruits of which are used by the Papuans as beads. Sometimes we
proceed a few hundred meters across the bed of the brook, here divided into
streamlets, and continue our journey again over another terrace-bank. A
characteristic plant of such stream-beds is a small Ficus (no. 1285), a widely
branched shrub with a flat top, the narrow-lanceolate leaves all spreading
horizontally 0.5-2 m. above the water. Perhaps the top of these shrubs is
about equivalent to the highest water-level. Some specimens grow on the
bank and the branches of these develop chiefly on the side toward the stream,
spreading far over the water; most, however, are erect on gravel-banks or in
the shallow water. The branches stretch out at a tolerably sharp angle in all
directions, but particularly downstream; thus the plant may reach a diameter
of three to four meters. In 1926, in the lowlands of Morotai, | found again a
similar growth in river-beds; possibly it was even the same species, for entire
gravel-banks were covered with a thick shrubby pure stand of Ficus. ‘The
habit is particularly characteristic of plants which live in similar habitats.
Beccari # first called attention to this peculiarity and designated the pheno-
menon as stenophylly (a condition characterized by narrow leaves). He men-

30. Beccari, Nelle Foreste di Borneo, 2nd edition (1921) p. 324, 424, t. LVII.

68 SARGENTIA [5

tioned its occurrence in Fagraea, Garcinia, Psychotria, Eugenia,’ Syzygium,
Erycibe, Saurauia, Tetranthera (l.c.t. LVII), Milletia, and Pinanga. He
thinks that the particular form of the leaves and the development of slender
flexible branchlets is an adaptation to constant air-currents over the river-beds
and in ravines subject to periodic flooding. He mentions Salix babylonica L. as
an example of this in Europe. Beccari named air-currents as the cause of the
adaptation in the first place; but I think Ridley ° is closer to the truth in placing
more emphasis on the fact that such plants have to offer resistance to the drag-
ging force of the torrents. Rightly he compared the leaf-form and the flexi-
bility of the twigs with plants living in flowing water (e.g. species of Potamo-
geton), with floating leaves arranged in large measure to resist the effect of the
current. In addition to this species of Ficus, we add to Beccari’s list Homonoia
riparia Lour. (S. E. As., W. Arch.) which sends ® out vertical twigs from its
somewhat horizontally radiating branches.

Apart from the Ficus, the bank was practically bare except for the fairly
common LTemigraphis reptans T. Anders. (1243-4), a small acanthaceous plant
with relatively large whitish flowers.

Intsia amboinensis Thouars is very plentiful on the forested terraces. Gono-
caryum, Gnetum Gnemon L., and Tabernaemontana aurantiaca Gaudich. are
undergrowth shrubs. Also abundant is a small palm with a short trunk (nos.
965, 1181), previously encountered in the hilly terrain at Prauwen-bivak.
It was immediately noticeable because of the few broadly lanceolate leaves
being gray-white beneath, the distal half being longitudinally slit into two
lobes.

After we pass this region, the trail becomes considerably worse. Although
the ground looks rather dry and passable, the carriers have destroyed the path
entirely and made it a broad track of slimy brownish mud which constantly
becomes broader, since everywhere the drier outer margin will hold. Never-
theless, there is no way of avoiding a stretch of 10 meters where we sink almost
to our knees in the soft mass, and thus we slog along two hours through an unin-
terrupted series of sloughs until about 11:30 A. M., when we reach Moeras-bivak
(Woud-bivak), a dreary collection of frame huts on swampy muddy ground.
After a bath of problematical value and moderate satisfaction, it is midday,
the first of 80 such midday stops, which are utilized in general with talking,
writing, and smoking; tea is served, and after the twilight has fallen the noon
meal is repeated. Curiously enough we can sleep here without mosquito nets,
this being also true of the intermediate bivouacs in the van Rees Mountains.
We have no explanation of this phenomenon of the total absence of mosquitoes
at night. Lack of standing water surely is not the cause.

The following day the trail as a whole is better. Slowly we approach drier
ground intersected by many clear brooks: we again draw near the foot of the
hills. Here are extensive patches covered with a very low-growing Begonia,
B. bipinnatifida J. J. Sm. (end., no. 1257), a plant hardly 1 dm. tall, with very
dark green, repeatedly and finely incised leaves and pink-white flowers. Else-

* Endert (Midden-Oost-Borneo Expeditie 1925, Ind. Comité v. Wetensch. Onderzoekingen
1927, p. 254, fig. 100) mentions a stenophyllous species of this genus on boulder-banks. He also
names a Ficus, F. glomerata Roxb. (p. 253, fig. 99), to which species, however, my New Guinean
collection does not appear to belong.

5H. Ridley, Trans. Linn. Soc. II. Bot. III (1888-1894), p. 270 (1893).

® Phil. Jour. Sci. I (1906), p. 682, pl. XLII; cf. also J. G. B. Beumeé, Een tropische wilg, De
Tropische Natuur XIII (1924), 43, pl. 2.

1945} LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 69

where another species of this genus grows (no. 1256) and the dull color of the
forest is broken occasionally by the flower-clusters of Clerodendron buruanum
Miq. After two hours of marching we reach the foot of the low hill which we
had observed from Casuarisnest, lying as a low projection in the vast sea of level
primary forest (cf. Fig. 13). Before we ascend we hear the roar of the Doorman
River on the far side. There the incline is steep, for the river has eroded the
hill. Immediately after passing the slope we have to ford a muddy brook,
after which follows a small stretch of level forest, next a steep point of land
with scanty vegetation, and finally a deep clear tributary, the water of which is
breast-high. We arrive at a great bare boulder-strewn bank covered only in
the higher parts with gelagah [Saccharum] and Coix Lacryma Jobi L. Itisa
beautiful point. The river-bed is some hundred meters broad here; the water
runs swiftly in the channel between the broad boulder-strewn banks. The
larger islets in the channel are covered with high trees and shrubs and are
fringed with reeds. Enormous tree-trunks are stranded on the gravel-banks,
having been brought down by stream-freshets. Entirely stripped of bark, they
now lie bleaching in the sun and thus offer a favorite sleeping-place for large
monitor-lizards. Here I saw one about 7 dm. long, with serrated crests on the
back. All these trees lie with the root-system, or what is left of it, pointing
upstream.

In the background the mountain-slopes rise steeply; clouds envelop the
higher parts. On the left bank of the river lies the long low gently rolling hilly
ridge which Doorman crossed in 1914. His inland journey began on the bank
opposite us. After crossing the marshes, he continued straight on toward the
inland slopes, over the ridge, down again, and finally steeply upward. At
about 1300 m. altitude we should find his trail and continue along it to the
summit named for him. Our own route from here is obscure. We still have
no evident objective toward which to proceed. However, a great landslip is a
fixed point among the numerous ravines and ridges.

The Doorman River exhibits the same characters which distinguish so many
New Guinean rivers. Glancing at the map, one sees a number of rivers on the
south side of the mountains—as many in the plains as in the mountainous
country—each indicated by a narrow line. On the other hand, very broad ones
are shown at the foot of the hills, sometimes extending over rather great dis-
tances. The fact that the rivers form deep valleys in the soft mud of the
alluvial plain as well as in the mountain-country, but not in the gravel-forma-
tion at the foot of the slopes, seems to me to be due to the relatively recent age
of this range. In the older mountains the rivers have already broadened their
valleys. In the mountains also the fall of the river is not great, the more or
less broad terraces attesting to the deposition of finely divided materials, this
being true also in the valleys. Here, however, we find narrow, deep, and very
sheer ravines, characteristic of young mountain-ranges. On account of the
gradient, the stream flows very rapidly, and in this phase large quantities of
coarse material are immediately deposited at the end of a declivity, where the
fall suddenly lessens. The speed of the current here is still too great for the
deposition of silt, but as soon as the end of the gravel bank is reached the muddy
plain begins and, in spite of its lessened current, the river once more carves its
bed deep into the soft earth. The Doorman River in its course likewise shows
these three phases. According to Doorman’s report, its stretch from here to
the mouth on the Idenburg River is similar even over a great distance.

70 SARGENTIA [5

The doctor, who came part-way up the river from Prauwen-bivak, verified
this. Later we could see from Doormantop that the river, from the place where
it leaves the hills and extends far to the north, repeatedly branches and develops
a number of channels. From Doorman’s report,’ it appears that he found deep
marshes on the left bank, alternating with terraces almost without undergrowth
and traversed by many small brooks. I cannot share the supposition of some
members of the expedition. On the strength of the difference in size between
the torrent-bed of the river, almost 400 m. broad at this place, and its narrow
mouth (about 40 m.) where it joins the Idenburg, they thought that water
must have been lost by flowing laterally into the marsh. Those who know
the terrain will presently understand that this is not probable, for on the basis
of a rough estimate of the flowage capacity, it will be seen that between the
point of departure from the hills and the mouth on the Idenburg River no water
can be lost. At low water-level the mouth is very deep. In spite of the great
clearness of the water, one cannot see the bottom. With a primitive plumb
made with the aid of fishing lines, I measured the depth; it appeared to be
between 5 and 6 m. I estimated the rapidity of the current at 10-15 cm. per
second. These figures give a volume of 0.15 X 40 X 5 cu. m. = 30 cu. m.
Later, at a similar water-level, | estimated the volume at Brug-bivak (240 m.
alt.), entirely uninfluenced by the previous calculation, at 0.75 X 35 X 1cu. m.
= 26cu.m._ Both values agree reasonably well, the difference coming within
the margin of error. One of the causes for the hypothesis of lateral drainage is
without doubt the fact that the cooler water of the Doorman River disappears
almost immediately under the warmer water of the Idenburg River. As a
result, the water of the tributary does not show clearly or can only be seen over
a narrow strip.

After we have crossed the broad boulder-strewn bank and waded across one
of the arms of the river, we enter a level area. The hills again recede and the
river forms a number of terraces separated from each other by steep banks
about 1m. high. On account of their flatness, their hard gravelly earth, and
their resulting scanty vegetation, they are easily passed. At this point Kremer-
bivak was established by the first reconnaissance party, and was used by the
downward transport as an intermediate camp, since it was two days’ journey
from Brug-bivak to Prauwen-bivak.

Under the light forest covering these terraces, whole fields of tall light green
Selaginella form a beautiful undergrowth. To the right of us rushes the
magnificent river, with its clear water undulating downward in a long frothing
sequence. Shortly before we reach the second transient camp, the trail leads
us under the crown of a solitary Ficus on the banks of a brook. The branches
of this tree are festooned with a richly flowering specimen of a beautiful
Mucuna (no. 1360) with large vermilion-orange flowers. A few hundred meters
farther lies Aalscholver-bivak (Cormorant camp) on the last terrace below the
point where the river leaves the steep hills. In the late afternoon, after having
dined, we sit looking out over the river (Fig. 14), where the birds, from which
the camp derives its name, are incessantly busy. They are entirely black and
make the very same impression as the corresponding Dutch species. Re-
peatedly we see them sit on the water, float down with the stream, the head
directed upstream and constantly looking around. Then suddenly they dis-
appear under the water and after a time come up to fly immediately, skimming

7J. W. Langeler & L. A. C. M. Doorman, De Aarde en haar Volken (1918), 186.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 1

close above the water, the head somewhat low. Then the same game begins
again. In the calm of twilight the large hornbills fly over in pairs with a
creaking noise, and here the cockatoos may be seen at play in the trees where
they sleep. At night a short but heavy rain falls; the next morning the river is
turbid and somewhat swollen. At six-thirty we are already on our way. It is
a short day’s march over the hills to Brug-bivak. Here presently a better
route is found. Originally the river-course was followed as closely as possible,
although great difficulties were experienced on account of the unusually steep
slopes. Later, the trail was projected over the practically level upper parts of
the hills. At our departure we still follow a transition to the latter stage, for

Fic. 14, Doorman River at Aalscholver-bivak, looking downstream.

the trail many times crosses small ravines of manifestly very short and steep
torrents, again evidence of the youthful age of this mountain-range. If one
had not everywhere found basic eruptive rock-formations, one would be inclined
to believe that these hills are an uplifted coral reef, so flat are their upper
surfaces. Later, from the mountain-top, we could observe this particularly
well.

The forest is dense here. An unusually large quantity of moss, growing on
the ground and on the lower parts of tree-trunks, attracts attention, the altitude
being about 350 m. With respect to this moss-flora, a singular phenomenon is
that, in the lower mountain-region at about 800 m., it is found exclusively on
broad level plateaus between ravines, whereas at higher altitudes the exposed
ridges. particularly show the heaviest growth. In the latter instance the moss-
vegetation has developed much more heavily than in the first. I fail to find a

12 SARGENTIA [5

satisfactory explanation for this phenomenon. In the forest on the south side
of the Central Mountain Range at 1000 m. altitude, Pulle * mentions two types
of vegetation: (1) tall trees with many ferns but few mosses and scanty under-
growth; (2) typical mossy forest with a very dense growth of moss covering the
ground and the trunks and branches of the trees, as well as the undergrowth of
many shrubs. The first type, according to Pulle, is on limestone, the second on
sandstone; he says nothing about the topography of the terrain. While this
explanation does not apply here because of the lack of sedimentary rock-forma-
tions, it seems to me that the topography is of decisive influence, both in the
lower and in the higher mountain-forest.

After a steep descent we reach the graceful suspension bridge, over which
we cross the river, where, on a small terrace, Brug-bivak is built some meters
above the water-level. Immediately behind the camp the hills rise steeply.
In the vicinity we see the high walls of a deeply cut ravine, where a beautiful
mountain-stream, 30 to 35 m. wide, either flows smoothly against the slippery
rocks, or hastens in waves along the banks strewn with large boulders, or finally,
swiftly and silently flows along the small narrow terraces. We are here 16 km.
distant in a straight line from Prauwen-bivak, and at an altitude of 240 m.
(cf. Map B, Fragment 1). I spent a full week in this locality on the banks of
the roaring mountain-stream, which previously perhaps no human being other
than the primitive Papuan had ever seen. It was the last opportunity, for a
long time, to take advantage of the warm sunny lowland, before we commenced
the cold and wretched period in the next camp, Goenoeng Boetak.

The slope of this ravine is heavily forested. From the camp one can see the
white trunks of Leguminosae, with the branches frequently densely beset with
Loranthaceae. Artocarpus is still found here. On the plateau of the left bank,
as in so many places in this territory, the undergrowth is unusually rich in
ferns: Diplazium cordifolium Bl., D. IHuttonit Chr. (Arch.), Dennstaedtia ery-
throrhachis Diels (Phil., Celebes, N. Guin.), Dictyopteris heterosora Bedd.
(Malacca), Tapeinidium pinnatum Chr. (Arch.—Polyn.), Syngramma quinata
Carr. (Arch.—Polyn.), Trichomanes millefolium Pr. (S. As.—Polyn.), and 7.
suffrutex v.A.v.R.*, the last two with very dark green foliage. Elatostema,
which elsewhere colors such large patches of ground light green, is here, as
regards the number of individuals, only slightly represented. In addition to
some terrestrial members, such as £. Weinlandit KK. Schum. (end.), E. Lamii
Hub. Winkl.*, and E. frutescens Hassk. (Java, Sumatra), I found a couple of
climbing species and also the epiphytic tuber-bearing FE. Pellionianum Gaudich.
(E. Arch.). On the bank of a brook again I found Microstylis Floscularia
J. J. Sm., growing by preference on mossy stones. Here too are a few species
of Ophiorrhiza: O. rivularis Val.*, O. doormanniensts Val.*, and O. torricellenstis
Laut. (end.). Here grow the first specimens of the genus Argostemma, which
is particularly well-represented in mountain-regions. These are small herbs
with relatively large snow-white flowers. The undergrowth of shrubs is not
exceptionally dense, but among the smaller forms the number of species is fairly
large. Cyrtandra (no. 1345) and Saurauia submodesta Diels (no: 1346) are very
plentiful. Among the smaller trees is the purple-flowered melastomataceous
Allomorpha parviflora Mansf.* Among the hygrophilous epiphytes in the
forest are the common Asplenium cuneatum Lamk. and Medinilla Teysmanni
Mig. (Celebes, Phil., N. Guin.), with pale cream-colored flowers.

8 Maatsch. ter Bevord. v. h. Natuurk. Onderz. d. Ned. Kol. Bull. no. 68 (1913), p. 34.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA_ ° (8

A long relatively broad stretch on the right bank of the river, a little upstream
from the camp, gave me a good picture of the flora of beach-terraces. The
stenophyllous Ficus is scattered everywhere, growing in the water amongst
naked boulders inundated at high-water. Somewhat rare, but nowhere en-
tirely absent, is a graceful tree-fern, Alsophila glauca J. Sm. (trop. As.), a robust
plant attaining a height of 10 m., with a full crown and a trunk 25 cm. in diam-
eter (measured with the old leaf-bases). Just as along the river-banks near
Pionier-bivak, the forest-margins here also in a few places are adorned with the
flaming red-purple inflorescences of Schuurmansia. For that matter, Leea
gracilis Lauterb.* and some species of Ficus (nos. 1264, 1338) are common
plants of the forest-margin. Here too the dark green frond of Ophioglossum
pendulum L. hangs down from the tree-trunks over the water.

On the terraees themselves—which are arranged one above the other with an
average difference in height of 1 m.—is the very large tree Pometia pinnata
Forst. (Phil., Molucc.—Polyn.), which, as is frequently the case in this species,
bears characteristic witches’ brooms, these falling on the ground with the ma-
ture leaves, making positive identification possible. This species is discussed
by Magnus ® as an example of ‘“‘unbegrenztem Wachstum in einer IKnospen-
variation.”” A large number of the trees here are beset with Loranthaceae, the
brittle stems of which, running along those of the host, everywhere send their
haustoria into the nourishing wood. One of these is Loranthus Lamii Krause*
with dark red flowers.

The undergrowth of the forest is rather dense but never troublesome. — In
addition to a species of Breynia (no. 1250), there is an abundance of common
robust terrestrial ferns, such as Diplazium polypodioides Bk. (1.5 m. tall; S. E.
As.—Austr.), Nephrolepis hirsutula Pr. (2 m. tall; pantrop.), and Odontosoria
decipiens Chr. (3 m. tall; end.), which form dense thickets under which the
ground is usually almost bare. Elsewhere are smaller species, such as 771-
chomanes aphlebioides Chr. (Molucc.—N. Guin.), which attracts attention on
account of the dimorphism of its sterile and fertile fronds. Where the under-
growth is thinner, one finds the usual covering of Elatostema and Selaginella,
the former represented here by E. Weinlandii IX. Schum., EF. novoguineense
Warb., E. minutiflorum Hub. Winkl.*, the latter by S. gracilis Moore and
S. subtrisulcata v.A.v.R. Begonia also is locally common; in one spot I found
B. bipinnatifida J. J. Sm. (no. 1362) again, at another locality were other species
(nos. 1369, 1390). In the forest on the banks I found, now partly suspended in
the crown of Phaleria papuana Warb. (no. 1359), the same Mucuna (no. 1360)
already observed at Aalscholver-bivak, forming, in the branches of the support-
ing tree, a small bower from the roof of which clusters of large bright brick-red-
orange flowers hung down. Also | found here the first Nepenthes, apparently
N. maxima Nees, as a forerunner of a genus which extends to the highest moun-
tain-summits. One sees representatives of the mountain-flora, e.g. Argo-
stemma and the epiphytic Vaccinium tiariforme J. J. Sm.*, more in evidence
here than in the hilly terrain at Prauwen-bivak. In addition to the plants just
named, one notes in the forest certain climbers, Tetrastigma Lauterbachianum
Gilg (end., sensu ampl.), Acalypha Hellwigit Warb. (nos. 1381—2; end.), and
the graceful Lygodium Versteegit Chr. (Phil., N. Guin.). Of the hygrophytic
epiphytes, Asplenium scandens J. Sm. (E. Arch.—Polyn.), Elatostema Pellionta-

*W. Magnus, Blatter mit unbegrenztem Wachstum in einer Knospenvariation von Pometia
pinnata Forst.—Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenz., Suppl. ITI, 2 (1910), p. 807.

74 SARGENTIA |S

num Gaudich. and Medinilla Teysmanni Mig. may be named, in addition to a
number of species of Pleopeltis. Among the fungi growing on decaying wood, |
mention Polystictus incisus Lloyd (Phil.), P. Blumei Lév., P. xanthopus Fr., and
Hexagonia tenuis Hook. Here | found a Cordiceps (no. 1375) on a spider.
Leaf-mosses (nos. 1268, 1270), liverworts (nos. 1300, 1304—5, 1400, 1404), and
algae (nos. 1297, 1306, 1348) were collected for the sake of completeness.

In this forest I observed a peculiar pile of leaves at the base of a tree, it being
about 1 meter square and 3 dm. high. On one side was an opening, the en-
' trance to a passage about 75 cm. long. It looked very fresh, and the natives
thought it was the work of wild pigs, prepared as a shelter for the night for
their young.

The finest spots in this splendid ravine are the sunny boulder-strewn banks
with their beautiful vegetation. In the vicinity of the bivouac, three of these
are easily reached, and, notwithstanding their similarities, each has its own
character. The most southerly one lies between the swift river and a steep hill.
In the background a beautiful small tree, Ficus (no. 1380) shades a number of
small pools. A patch of richly flowering Begonia (no. 1335) grows against the
steep slope, down which the water continually trickles. In a small more level
spot are a couple of species of /mpatiens (nos. 1239, 1287). Both are robust
plants more than 1 m. tall, with very large flowers about 6 cm. diameter, in one
species brick-red, in the other a beautiful warm orange color. The terraces
described above begin on the north side of this bank. The transition to forest
is formed by a strip of tall-growing gelagah [Saccharum } and entangling ferns.

A second boulder-strewn bank lies immediately north of the bivouac. Here
the river seethes against a smooth rock wall. The stenophyllous Ficus forms
a cover close to the water; two species (nos. 1285, 1380) grow promiscuously.
Nephrolepis hirsutula Pr. is plentiful higher up among the boulders. Wherever
the ground rises, the vegetation is richer in species and denser. Grasses (nos.
1275, 1282, 1372-4, 1377, 1379, 1398) grow high amongst the rocks. There
are a few Labiatae (nos. 1255, 1387), a couple of Acanthaceae, the usual Hemi-
graphis reptans T. Anders. (nos. 1243-4) and a Lepidagathis (no. 1262), and also
one of the Scrophulariaceae (no. 1290). Taller shrubs and small trees are
mingled with the vegetation, for example, Oldenlandia Auricularia F. v. Muell.
(trop. As.—Austr.), Breynia (no. 1367), and Leea gracilis Lauterb.* Here
occurs Glochidion philippicum Rob. (no. 1251; Arch.), striking on account of
the singular fruits, with bright orange seeds, scattered along the outstretched
branches. Semecarpus laxiflorus K. Schum., the more or less climbing rubia-
ceous Mussaenda cylindrocarpa Burck var. leptosepala Val.*, and Morinda um-
bellata L. (trop. As.—Austr.) var. papuana Val. occur closer to the slope.
Against the damp slope Begonia (no. 1245) and Impatiens (no. 1389) attract
attention because of their color. In the middle of the boulder-strewn bank,
among low shrubs and tall grasses, a beautiful Jxora (no. 1249) blooms with an
enormous profusion of flowers. This locality is unusually rich and colorful.
The branches of a vigorous Ficus are literally covered with epiphytic ferns and
Orchidaceae. Of the ferns I mention Nephrolepis radicans Kuhn, Pleopeltis
heraclea v.A.v.R. (Arch.), P. commutata v.A.v.R. (Arch.), P. accedens Moore
(Arch.—Polyn.), Hymenolepis spicata Pr. (Madag.—Polyn.), Trichomanes hu-
male Forst. (Arch.—Polyn.), Zumata vestita Moore (Arch.), Arthropteris dolicho-
poda v.A.v.R.*, Antrophyum parvulum BI. (Arch.); and among the Orchidaceae
(nos. 1260-1, 1265-6, 1298, 1307, 1315, 1347) Podochilus imitans Schlecht.,

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 75

Phreatia pisifera J. J. Sm., Oberonia diura Schlecht., Bulbophyllum concolor
J. J. Sm., B. nigrilabium Schlecht., B. aristilabre J. J.Sm., B. cochleotdes J. J. Sm.,
B. serratulifolium J. J. Sm., Appendicula oxysepala J. J. Sm., A. Chalmerstana
F. v. Muell., Dendrobium erectifolium J. J.Sm., and Coelogyne Beccarti Rchb. f.
In the grassland, among the trees giving only local shade, is the robust Blumea
sylvatica DC. (no. 1294; Java, Phil.) and a Rubus (no. 1293) scrambling over
the ferns. Two beautiful terrestrial orchids grow more in the shade: a white-
flowered Spathoglottis (nos. 1277, 1395) and Macodes Sanderiana Rolfe, the
latter having velvety leaves dark green above and dirty violet beneath, with
salmon-colored nerves. This Macodes, like a few other terrestrial orchids (nos.
1303, 1385) such as Cystorchis (no. 1314), grows nearly in the closed forest. A
strip of Cordyline terminalis Kunth forms the transition between the boulder-
strewn bank and the hill-forest. Between the slope and the river, one finds a
ground-cover community of terrestrial ferns and species of Elatostema. Among
the latter, E. Weinlandii K.Schum. isdominant. This species, with Selaginella
subtrisulcata v.A.v.R., forms an extensive vegetation on the shore-terrace along
the boulder-strewn banks.

The third boulder-strewn bank lies on the other side of the river. Here the
pattern is entirely different. Between the bank and the steep rocky slope lies
a series of rather deep hemmed-in pools which were formed by the action of
torrents. They are connected and show little decline in level, being fed by
water filtering through under the boulders; they end in a deep bay draining into
the river between huge boulders. The vegetation on the outside of the bank,
along which the river rushes in a lengthy acceleration, consists of a thin stand
of gelagah [ Saccharum ], in which are lodged scattering pieces of white-bleached
driftwood. Areas never or only exceptionally flooded are covered with an
assemblage of low grasses and herbs; higher up are the shrubs already men-
tioned above. In addition to the always present Ficus, there is a noteworthy
Boerlagiodendron (no. 1319), which | found later on the return journey along
brooks in the hills below Brug-bivak. It is a small shrub-like araliaceous plant
with deeply incised palmate leaves. The most remarkable part of the plant is
the inflorescence. Each of the rays of the umbel bears three secondary axes,
the middle and shortest one with sterile flowers, the longer lateral ones with
fertile flowers. The sterile flowers develop rapidly maturing false fruits.
These false fruits are fleshy and translucent and resemble the fertile fruits,
which later develop from the perfect flowers. Beccari!° reports that, in one
species of this genus, fertilization and distribution of the plant is fostered by
birds, which by the beating of their wings when eating the sterile fruits scatter
the pollen of the higher-placed fertile flowers and thereby accomplish their
fertilization. | have not been able to verify these observations. However, |
noted other phases and jotted down the following:

First phase: young inflorescence entirely green and surrounded by green
bracts.

Second phase: the lateral inflorescences with perfect flowers still surrounded
by bracts extend above the sterile cluster, the flower-buds being bright rose-
orange in color.

Third phase: the buds of the fertile flowers are evident. They are every-

10 Q, Beccari, Malesia I (1877), p. 194.—See also J. G. Boerlage, Ann. du Jard. Bot. Buitenz.
VI (1887), p. 101, 112, pl. XITI-XV, and H. Harms in Engler & Prantl, Nat. Pfl. Fam. III
(1898), p38, 31, 32:

76 SARGENTIA [5

where darker rose-orange than the sterile ones and also show darker longi-
tudinal stripes; the sterile flowers begin to form the globose, smooth, and dark
red ‘‘fruits.”’

Fourth phase: the ‘‘sterile fruits’’ approach maturity in pairs with the de-
velopment of wrinkles and minute warts on the surface; they are now dark
purple-red; the fertile flowers are open.

Fifth phase: all pseudo-fruits are wrinkled and ripe, outside very dark purple,
the flesh yellow; the fertilization of the perfect flowers has taken place in this
phase, and already the small dark red fruits are beginning to form.

Sixth phase: the pseudo-fruits have fallen or have been eaten; the fruits of
the perfect flowers are ripe; they remain, however, smooth and unwrinkled;
their color is red, sometimes somewhat greenish.

Material was collected of all these phases.

A small community of Equisetum debile Roxb. (trop. As——Polyn.) mixed
with Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. (pantrop.; no. 1406) occurs close to the small
pools back of the boulder-bank. The steep slope rising behind the pools is
flecked with white because of the enlarged calyx-lobes of Mussaenda, the white
undersurface of leaves of Maoutia ambigua Wedd. (Celebes, Molucc., N. Guin.),
the white and purple flowers of Clerodendron buruanum Miq. var. Versteegii
Bakh., and the white inflorescence of Conocephalus amboinensis Warb. (Molucc.,
N. Guin.). The undergrowth consists of an entangled community of the
beautiful Gleichenia Warburgii Chr. (E. Arch.), which separates the forest and
the pools by a broad association; meanwhile the shore on the side of the boulder-
strewn bank is beset with the ubiquitous stenophyllous Ficus, which stretches
its long horizontal branches some meters out over the water.

The memories which | treasure of this camp are the most agreeable of the
entire expedition. Here, in these virgin surroundings with the fresh clear
mountain-stream, was a veritable breathing space, as much from the point of
view of bathing as from that of drinking, in contrast with our experiences in
the lowland camps. Sometimes I felt myself as one who, after a lapse of
many thousands of years, once again glimpses the world and its inhabitants
after the deluge. Then to his amazement he becomes conscious that he is
apparently recalling his own primitive condition and can sympathize with
roving prehistoric man. ‘The sleeper awakes’’; the modern man finds himself
again in the primary forest, but notwithstanding his present-day conveniences
and the influences of his culture, he finds it again as he left it: as something that
has remained lovely and almost indispensable to him.

The mornings are spent rambling in the vicinity. At noon I label the collec-
tion. ‘The only inconvenience which I experience is caused by a large stinging
fly, which easily bores through my puttees. A bath, frequently the second of
the day, follows the work. Afterwards, toward twilight, I sit with the camp-
commander, a European sergeant, on the bench of rough timber on the shore,
the sergeant telling me numerous Atjeh stories, sounding a bit like good old
Amsterdam tales, as we witness the fall of evening, the swift rise of darker
shadows over the high walls of the ravine. After darkness is complete we re-
turn to reality. During the evening entries are made in the diary, records are
filled in, and sometimes negatives are developed. On such evenings it is late
before I seek my mattress next to the mantri’s sleeping place.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA Ai

With the first transport arriving after | have come, the zoologist appears, in
a downpour of rain, and covered with leeches which have to be removed even
from the eyes and mouth with tweezers. After a day of rest, our journey to-
gether begins on September 28. The first day is easy. After we leave the
ravine, we are again on one of the plains or gently sloping plateaus. A couple’
of times the ravines of smaller streams have to be crossed; after that we follow a
broad generally rising ridge, from which we can occasionally see something of
the Meervlakte through the trees. In this section is an area where the ground
is covered with many large boulders; perhaps this is the foot of the great land-
slide which we saw from the Doorman River. For the time being the character
of the forest remains the same. There is little undergrowth; large areas are
almost without shrubs, the undergrowth consisting of scattered or more or less
associated communities of Hlatostema, Selaginella, and Begonia. ‘The forest is
high and, to judge from the flowers lying on the ground, it consists of practically
the same species as are found in the hilly terrain near Prauwen-bivak. Dimor-
phanthera tridens J. J. Sm. (no. 976),!! with dark red flowers, found in the
neighborhood of Prauwen-bivak, appears to be very plentiful here. On a
brook-bank I note Tecomanthe dendrophila Ix. Schum. (end.), already collected
at Pionier-bivak; it is a bignoniaceous plant with large clusters of lilac and red
bell-shaped flowers. At about 500 m. I find acorns (the only time | have found
them) lying on the ground. Next isa rather deep and very wet ravine; finally
we reach the brook on which Steen-bivak (425 m.) or Bivak Batoe is located
somewhat lower down. Its name is derived from a couple of gigantic conglo-
merate blocks of several hundred cu. m. each, which apparently crashed down
from above. There is a narrow and deep passage between them, which ends
in a very small cave inhabited by swallows and bats. Plant-growth occurs
only on the less steep upper and farther sides; the side towards the brook is
perpendicular or even overhanging, thus forming a good protection and making
bivouac-building for the convicts superfluous. Like practically all mountain-
brooks at thissaltitude, this one is exceptionally pretty; the clear water flows
over broad smoothly worn rocks from pool to pool. Here is a small waterfall,
there the boulder-bed is broad and divided into various channels now separat-
ing, then again uniting, and meanwhile forming beautiful islets covered with
vegetation. Here again is the stenophyllous Ficus. Ona branch overhanging
the water is the beautiful Rhododendron Vonroemeri Koord. (apparently identi-
cal with R. Macgregoriae F. v. Muell.), with large pale orange flowers. On the
surface of a small plateau above the camp, the moss-growth is very heavy.
The mossy ground is strewn with the small \/edintlla auriculata Lauterb. (end.),
with lilac flowers, and another species of the genus with white flowers (no. 1409).
Both grow as epiphytes in the moss on the lower parts of tree-trunks. Here
for the first time we become acquainted with a phenomenon that is very com-
mon in higher mountain-regions, in that terrestrial plants climb high in the
moss along the trees: a beginning of the intermingling of ecological groups in
the mountain-forest (Fig. 15). Lindsaya trichophylla Copel. (end.) is plentiful
on this plateau.

The journey on the following day soon brings us out of the ravine, and via a
narrow little ridge to one of the plateaus. Here it is almost level; the ground is
soggy and densely covered with moss, the cover otherwise consisting of different
plants usually found in damp places. Among these is a very common Cyperus

11 Cf, Fragment IV.

78 SARGENTIA [5

(related to C. alternifolius L.), taller than a man. In addition, there are
various terrestrial ferns and some terrestrial orchids. The tall white-flowered
Calanthe leucoseptrum Schlecht. var. bisubulifera J. J. Sm. is a very common
orchid here. A species of Nepenthes is exceptionally abundant; a very large
‘number of young plants lie with their small spherical pitchers flat on the
ground; the older ones climb.

On the other side of this plateau lies a steep ravine with deep canyons, of
which there are so many in this part of the world. From an altitude of about
550 m. we have to descend 150 m. From afar we hear the roar of the river and,
by repeated reverberation against the walls of the ravine, the sound produces
the illusion of a much mightier stream than really is found. Partly by way
of a precipitous brook we reach the bottom of the valley and find there a beauti-
ful broad and deep mountain-stream, too deep and too swift for fording.
Across the stream, above a waterfall about a meter high, lies a giant tree-trunk
lodged between two projecting rocks, high above the present water-level.
Although this slippery bridge is not particularly easy, nevertheless it offers a
welcome means for crossing and we make use of it, some erect, most, however,
sitting astride the log; the latter method is more practical than dignified. On
the other side, located on a small level terrace, is the camp which Captain van
Arkel used for some time as a supply-depot, but which is now forsaken. The
chasm is again scaled on the other side; once up, the slope is less steep, and
gradually we go higher. Here the forest has regained its customary appear-
ance: tall tree-trunks, scanty undergrowth, a few lianas and climbers. The
moss covering is heavier and there is a rich low flora on the more level plateaus
which is not found on the slopes. At about 700 m., among other trees, | see a
giant Pandanus, the crown alone 10 m. high, the aerial roots developed from
the trunk at 25 to 30 m. above the ground.

Once in a while there is an indistinct view, now to the north, then again
toward the south, as we ascend a ridge running about east and west, which will
bring us toward the ridge properly named Doormantop (cf. Fig. 13, left of 2).
Following the gradual slope part of the way, we continue along steep slopes
over all kinds of dead wood and fallen trees. Here are various specimens of
Angtopterts crinita Chr. var. intramarginalis v.A.v.R.*, with the frond-segments
dull white beneath. Shortly after, we cross a clear brook, on the banks of
which are specimens of the large-flowered Impatiens common at Brug-bivak.
The same species also occurs on the banks of a larger stream which we crossed
earlier. We are here at about 800 m. altitude. After passing this brook we
work our way along a muddy and deep trail, suddenly finding ourselves again
amongst thick moss-cushions as we contitue upward toward a narrow ridge.
Clearly, here we are beyond the critical altitude which forms the boundary
between the region of mossy plateaus and exposed mossy ridges. Here we
find a superabundance of thick moss-cushions on the trunks and branches.
Quickly passing along this ridge, we come to Cruciferen-bivak (840 m.). It is
located on a broader part, where the forest immediately resumes its usual
appearance. While waiting for the carriers, there is an opportunity to examine
the surroundings. In the immediate neighborhood of the huts is a group of
Balanophora (no. 1425), apparently B. Oosterseeana Val., described from the
Arfak Mountains, and nearly related to the Javanese B. elongata Bl. The fre-
quently branched brown rhizomes, attached at random to the smaller roots of
trees, are covered with star-shaped minute excrescences. The inflorescence

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 79

develops on these rootstocks as small spherical outgrowths which, in continued
growth, burst open. The inflorescence, surrounded by light yellow bracts,
projects through the gradually enlarging slit; when full-grown, the flowering
heads are supported on thick yellow stalks surrounded at the base by the
weakening bracts. The two sexes occur here in about equal number. It is
useful to mention this, since in some known species staminate individuals are
either strongly in the minority or even at times entirely lacking. Just as
in many other obligate parasites (and saprophytes also), the vegetative parts
are strongly reduced. The bracts, rootstock, and stem are here limited to
rudiments.

In addition to Elatostema and many species of Trichomanes, specimens of
Argostemma are collected; the last is apparently the same species, A. nanum
Val. (no. 1415), as was found at Brug-bivak. Higher up this species is re-
placed by another. Cardamine africana L. (1417, trop. Afr., As—Japan) is
the plant from which the bivouac derives its name. This species reminds one
of the true mountain-flora, and during the expedition I found it as a representa-
tive of the original flora. This small white-flowered plant stands on the bank
of a small watercourse under the broad arching fronds of Angtopteris crinita
Chr. and the large stems of Zingiberaceae (nos. 1418, 1420). The brook-water
has a temperature of 20°C. Representing the flora of the lower regions, the
orange-flowered Mucuna grows here, and also the epiphytic Rhododendron
Vonroemeri Koord. of Steen-bivak. A less agreeable reminder of these stretches
are the stinging flies, which flit buzzing about, but which, like the numerous
small mosquitoes, disappear at twilight. With a number of beautiful diurnal
butterflies, these form the most striking part of the animal-life at this place.
At night a dull roar, which apparently must be attributed to frogs, sounds
through the forest.

The following morning it rains steadily, making our departure more dis-
agreeable than it otherwise would have been. An hour after leaving, however,
it begins to clear. During this time the aspect of the forest has not changed.
On the inland journey we find it bleak and shivery; but even now I clearly recall
what a warm and tropically luxuriant impression this forest made on us when,
two months after our sojourn in the mountains, we swiftly descended from the
misty woods into this typical forest of the lower hilly areas. On this day I wrote
in my diary: ‘The path is steep. After we leave the lateral ridge, suddenly
the mossy forest ends and immediately we find ourselves in an area where the
vegetation, the odors, the bird-songs, and the temperature are strongly sug-
gestive of those of the lowland. The route looks as though it were unusually
easy; I had entirely forgotten such possibilities, having become so accustomed
to the acrobatic turns of the trail and to the rock-formations. What appeared
to us as difficult of ascent was now even more difficult, but the end was like a
path through a park.’"’ Presently the trail changes again for the worse. Sud-
denly, perhaps at an elevation of 1000 to 1100 m., we note a short steep incline.
Yet, before we have scaled it, we are surprised to observe unusually strong
light in the forest, giving us the impression of approaching an established clear-
ing or camp, or the site of a recent landslip. We have, however, ascended a
narrow and steep ridge (cf. Fig. 13, near 2); on the other side it is still more
precipitous, and suddenly again we are ina typical mossy forest. The crooked

2 In “Nova Guinea’’ XIV, 2 (1927), 249, the altitude of this specimen is not given; 3810 m.
is the earlier assumed altitude of Doormantop.

80 SARGENTIA [5

gnarled trees are only 15 to 20 m. in height; dense mossy cushions cover the
ground, trunks, and branches. A representative of the genus Kentia rises
everywhere above the forest, the beautiful crowns of this palm being borne on
slender trunks. The path follows the narrow ridge and is deeply covered with
the soft moss. After a short time we pass a landslip extending down the south
slope and permitting a tolerable outlook on the high ridges running from Door-
mantop towards the northeast. The summit itself is not visible from here,
but the slopes of the 3820 m. peak and the vast heavily forested ravines between
lie before us in all their details. The highest point is obscured by haze. Far
below us we hear the sound of an invisible stream, one of the sources of the
Doorman River (cf. Map B, Fragment 1). Everywhere is the undulating forest
which extends to the highest ridges as far as we can see.

On this ridge I find the first conifer (Fig. 19) other than Agathis and Podo-
carpus, which occur at lower altitudes. It is a Dacrydium (no. 2159), which
seems to be rather common. Immediately a large number of species appear for
the first time; a true mountain-flora in which there is place for only a few repre-
sentatives of the lowland vegetation. One of these is Dictyophora phalloidea
Desv., which I have not observed higher than this altitude (1350 m.). Every-
where the forest is lower and not so dense, on the ridge the trees being only
8 to 10 m. tall. On the north side we hear the murmur of the river far below.
We pass the point where the old Doorman trail rises steeply from the ravine
as a faint but unmistakable path, and also a couple of small peaks on the ridge.
Again we descend. At the margin of the large long ridge sloping from Door-
mantop 10 km. toward the plain, we reach the bivouac located on a broader
plateau. In the terminology of the expedition, the camp is known as Bivak
Goenoeng Boetak, although the name (bare mountain) properly applies to
Doormantop. The summit regained its rightful name, I think, from the second
expedition (Kremer Expedition), and also from the natives. At this place, on
the very sheer northern slope, a beautiful outlook over the Meervlakte had been
opened without much difficulty. I spent about three weeks at this locality in
two intervals (September 30-October 10; October 30-November 7, 1920).

a *
*

It would be difficult to imagine a more melancholy and wretched locality
than that of Goenoeng Boetak-bivak. Nowhere on the rough northern slope of
the Central Mountain Range is the climate so unfavorable as at this elevation.
In spite of the prevailing dry season, a day here without rain is an exception;
in addition it is always misty in the morning, and sometimes at noon and at
night. One can see, from the meteorological data in Fragment II, that the
relative humidity in the forest is almost uninterruptedly 100%, and that the
air-temperature ranges between 16° and 20°C. These two factors in particular
—and frequently a strong wind on the forest roof—dominate the vegetation-
picture on this part of the slope. Suddenly the picture changes entirely to
that which we discussed above for the lowland rain-forest. The damp atmos-
phere still hampers evaporation; but this factor is of varying strength and
influence in different parts of the forest. The principal element, however, is
the temperature, which here is 8° lower than in the plain, and clearly acts asa
limiting factor. In nature, one recognizes a number of such limiting factors.
One is the acid reaction of the water in high fens, another is the small quantity

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 81

of water in sandy soil, or a surplus of water in the fens (Meervlakte), or the salt
content of the terrain. It may be said that all, not present in optimum pro-
portions, and, to a certain degree, depending on their absence, act as limiting
factors. Moreover, when one speaks of optimum relations, one must bear in
mind that each species with respect to each factor may have a specific optimum.
These ecological problems, of course, are far from simple, and we cannot do
more than indicate roughly some lines embodying our ideas about the living
conditions of this mountain-flora. In general, therefore, we can accept the
fact that the lower temperature, as compared with that of the lowland, here
acts as such a limiting factor for a large number of species. The species that
can no longer compete with forms better adapted to this factor are no longer
found. In this connection I wish to recall Shibata’s investigations,” where he
demonstrated for a definite species that a low temperature can hinder the
development of fruit. Besides, there are a number of accompanying factors
which influence the vegetation and the flora, such as:

(a) The exposure of the vegetation to the frequently strong wind, such ex-
posure depending on the contour, the steepness of the slopes, and the width and
direction of the ridges. This factor is associated in a vicious circle with that
of temperature. The last favors a less dense and lower forest, and in this the
vegetation is at the same time more exposed to the desiccating action of the
wind, which intensifies the influence of the temperature.

(b) The steepness of the slopes and the nature of the soil as factors which
determine the speed of water-drainage.

(c) The diminished air-pressure, through which both day and night stronger
radiation results. The temperature extremes therefore are wider. This factor
is still of little significance here, and then only for strongly exposed positions.

That these factors strongly dominate the appearance of the vegetation seems
to be clear in the vicinity of this bivouac (Fig. 16, A), which is located on a
broad less exposed swampy plateau, whereas the narrow ridge, with its pre-
cipitous slopes, is very much exposed. Where inclines ascend gradually, the
transition from rain-forest to mossy forest corresponds. There is, however, a
relatively low critical height, above which a strong change in the topography
can bring about a sudden difference in the form of the vegetation. Just as it is
improbable that the typical lowland-forest can ascend beyond a certain altitude
even though the terrain be favorable, so also it is unlikely that the mountain-
forest can extend to lower altitudes under these same conditions. We shall
note below that the same is true in regard to the forest-limits generally, and
that this proposition applies to all vegetative zones between the coast and the
mountain-summits. Nevertheless, independent of the contour of the country,
above an altitude of 1200 or 1300 m. one finds another unmistakable different
vegetative and floral picture. Furthermore, the principal cause of this change
in the appearance and the composition of the forest is the temperature. At this
altitude one no longer encounters the majesty characteristic of the lowland
individual trees. Other favoring factors are good soil and abundant water-
supply. Yet, low temperature can be a real limiting factor impeding, in part
or entirely, the favorable influence of other factors and making the ground
physiologically both dry and sterile, because the low temperature prevents the
plant from carrying out its vital functions as vigorously as in the lowland.

13 K, Shibata, Biol. Centr. Bl. XXII (1902), 705.

82 SARGENTIA [5

And on the other hand, it appears that nature has supplied mountain-plants
with a power of resistance in like circumstances; nevertheless, the first actual
result is the disappearance of a large number of species; the second, the ap-
pearance of a number of typical mountain-plants adapted to the factors above
mentioned. Something of the general appearance of the lowland-vegetation
persists only in xerophytes (epiphytes) now becoming a characteristic part of
the entire flora—at first scarcely noticeable, later, constantly more clear and
more evident.

Before we pass on to a closer discussion of the vegetation and flora of the
region of Goenoeng Boetak, to conclude these observations and for the sake of
curiosity | recall the opinion of the founder of modern plant-geography, Alex-
ander von Humboldt. In one of his excellent works “ this traveller has com-
pared an ideal conical mountain in the tropics, not only as to vegetation but
also as regards the flora,!® with a hemisphere of the earth. He imagined that
on such a mountain one finds substantially the same plant-zones—and he
portrayed it with a sharpness which could only be derived from the vegetation-
zones in high European mountains—as when one journeys from the equator
towards the poles. He carried this comparison so far that he even wrote: 1
‘500 hexapoda”’ (i. e., almost 1000 m. altitude) ‘‘respondent 9° 30’ latitudinis
vel 50 hexapoda fere 1° latitudinis.’’ According to this concept the poles, in
the field of plant-geography, should correspond to a mountain peak about 8800
m. high at the equator, a mountain therefore about as high as Mount Everest.
Von Humboldt’s opinion possessed the charm of simplicity and is easily grasped.
As an original idea, it loses nothing in value, although we now know that plant-
geography is much more complicated than he assumed to be the case. Besides,
there is a basis of truth in the thought. In both cases we find the tropical rain-
forest at the base, and also in the tropics somewhat higher up a forest poor in
species, still higher the conifer forest and the “‘kriippel’’ vegetation, and finally
the subalpine and the alpine (resp. arctic) flora, often with genera represented
in the tropics which have their chief development in temperate regions.
Finally both are crowned by a cap of perpetual snow and glaciers. However,
von Humboldt saw a most important difference between the hemisphere and
the tropical mountain because of the influence of seasons in the first. Because
of the seasons, at greater altitudes constantly greater differences arise in the
extremes of both the length and the temperature of day and night. One
important point that von Humboldt did not consider is genetic plant-geography,
which can better be discussed when more is known about the geological history
of the earth. It needs no further demonstration that, when reviewed in detail,
comparisons of a mountain-flora in the tropics and the flora of the temperate
regions scarcely hold in some points. Even of the areas above the limits of the
tropical forest, which are frequently spoken of as heaths, this comparison does
not hold.

I have inserted these considerations here, since, in the vicinity of Goenoeng
Boetak-bivak, for the first time we encounter a vegetation and flora entirely
different from that which we have described for the tropical lowland. From

“A. von Humboldt, De Distributione geographica Plantarum secundum Coeli Temperiem
et Altitudinem Montium, Prolegomena (Lutetiae Parisiorum, 1817), 86 et seq., 142 et seq.

6 “Tn universum easdem tribus abundare reperies in summis montibus zonae aequinoctialis
quas polum versus in zona frigida”’ (1. c. 143).

1G, 87.

1945} LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 83

now on we shall see the differences in a constantly increasing degree, and I have
tried roughly to indicate some of these changes in a schematic representation
(Fig. 15). 1 have tried to show how the xerophytic epiphytes and hygrophytes,
at first separate in the mesophytic forest, gradually approach each other; fur-
ther, how the hygrophytes at higher altitudes withdraw into the moss and at the
same time ascend into the trees, the forest continually becoming more open,
while the xerophytic epiphytes descend therein, until both groups slowly mingle,
and then the hygrophytes occur in crowns of the trees and the xerophytes on
the ground; finally how the last, in the absence of trees, adopt the ground as a

55380403

om
S*
Boschgrens
a aooo A
1000 TT Alt RY
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aS ae A | J |||’

: WG

-o4 ‘ vy Peal \

> KY ok) Pap

NS ato o> Pe 1000

Q KN 8 or age

yo” Ae

a a

a 3

a

Sah os

Fic. 15. Schematic representation of the vegetation at various altitudes on slowly and
gradually rising terrain; on open ridges the vegetation extends lower, and in sheltered ravines
higher than is indicated; the hatching is the moss-covering. Boschgrens = forest-limit;
boomgrens = tree-limit; onder boschdak = under forest-roof.

habitat and mingle with typical terrestrial plants. To conclude, the associated
plants tend to form separate ‘Gslands” in places where external conditions
change; still higher the ‘‘islands’’ consist of only a few plants or even of one
individual, until snow and ice make existence impossible.

We now return to the flora of this midmountain slope. One of the most
striking phenomena is, as already noted, the enormous moss-covering (/zg. 16,
A,aand d, B). Not only is the ground, particularly on the narrow ridges,
covered with a thick layer, but also the lower parts of tree-trunks are concealed,
while the branches bear isolated cushions frequently of large size. The thick-
ness of the moss-layer is dependent on various factors, the principal ones being
the quantity of light and the possibility of rapid water-drainage. On steep
slopes where relatively much light penetrates and the rainfall is not retarded
from sinking into the earth, the moss on the ground is several decimeters thick.
On tree-trunks an important factor, next to the diameter of the trunk, is the
adhesion of the moss-layer to it and the mutual cohesion of the moss-plants.
Only the outermost layer of such coverings is living moss (Fig. 16, B, 1); the
remainder (id., 2) consisting of a more or less decayed mass which serves
exclusively to absorb water. During sustained drought—often a full 24 hours
—the outer layer dries out a little so that the perpetual drip stops temporarily,

84 SARGENTIA [5

but the total capacity scarcely lessens thereby. As soon as the mists again
appear, the water uptake increases and the drip begins again. On dry days
after travelling through the forest one is wet to the skin, since each time one
grasps a slender tree trunk for support, one is showered by the drip. Further-
more, on ridges without running water, when one is forced to bivouac this water
can be utilized and in a number of instances such water was gratefully used.

This growth of mosses (nos. 1452-3, 1455-7, 1462-6, 1468, 1491, 1553-4,
1579, 1897) brings out some points worth mentioning. In the first place plants,
essentially terrestrial, ascend along the trunks, so that they may be compared
with pseudo-epiphytes such as are found in the humus-covered crowns of the
Dutch pollard-willows. Moreover, such a moss-layer is a world in itself. In
addition to the living moss-layer and the plants subsisting here on a convenient
substratum (Fig. 16, B, a, b), a number of lower forms of animal life are also
found, such as protozoans and crustaceans, the presence of the latter surely
being related to the large quantity of Utricularia (Fig. 16, B, c) growing in the
outer layer. As regards living conditions in such a habitat, as expected, the
temperature appeared wholly to agree with that of the atmosphere. While
the temperature of the air in the shade on a sunny morning was 20.5° SBS
found that of the moss on the ground at 5 cm. deep 18.7°, at 20 cm. 18.4°, and
at 30 cm. also 18.4°. The moss-layer on the trees showed a like temperature.
One may well accept the idea that the temperature of the inside layer of this
great water reservoir is very constant and about the same as the average local
annual temperature. The minimum temperature, on the basis of our observa-
tions (see Fragment II, Table I), was 15.8° (6 a. M.), the maximum 20.5°
(twice observed, at 11 A. M. and 11:30 A. M.), the temperature of the brook was
17.4°, and the average of 29 recordings taken between 6 A. M. and 6 P. M. was
18.3°, which agrees very well with the values found for the innermost moss-
layers.

We have seen that the terrestrial flora extends partly up the tree-trunks,
whereas the epiphytes increase their downward distribution. Both circum-
stances result from the fact that the forest is more open, and the factors of the
plant-climate on the ground and in the tree-tops are much less divergent than
is the case in the rain-forest. The forest-roof is not continuous, at least on
steep slopes and exposed ridges, so that hygrophytes find no protection except
within the moss-covering. All (Hymenophyllaceae, Fig. 16, B, a: Utricularia,
Fig. 16, B, c) grow entirely within the limits of the moss-layer; only the spore-
bearing fronds or the flowers protrude.

Now that we have given a general idea of the ecological relationships of this
region, we shall observe the composition of the flora (Fig. 16, A) more closely.
Under the higher trees is the myrtaceous Mearnsia ramiflora Diels (end.),
which immediately attracts attention with its dark red inflorescences. Sym plo-
cos atrata Brand* belongs in this same category (Fig. 16, A, b), as does Castanea
(or a related genus), and lastly the palm above mentioned as a Kentia (no.
1065; Fig. 16, A, c), which everywhere projects above the forest, dominating
entire slopes with its profile. It is a beautiful slender tree—I measured one
trunk as 22 m. tall without the crown—which strongly suggests the royal palm
(Oreodoxa regia H. B. K.) but is less vigorous. It is doubtless a representative
of the Arecineae, but I was unable with the makeshifts at my disposal to deter-
mine even the genus of this palm. Without hesitation the natives with the
expedition called it niboeng. In the western part of the Archipelago this is the

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 85

common name for Oncosperma filamentosa Bl., a thorny stooling species of palm
which occurs particularly back of the mangroves. In the Moluccas, however,
this name is applied, usually with some modification, to a number of palms
belonging to different but related genera, yet none to forms representing the
same genus as this species; one can find these names (niboeng, merah, n. ketzjl,
and such) in Heyne.!? Recently, however, Beccari, in one of Lauterbach’s
‘“Beitrage zur Flora Papuasiens,”’ described a new Kentia, K. Ledermanniana
Becc.,!8 of which the collector, Ledermann, says that this ‘‘Nipunpalme’”’ is a
“Charakterpalme des Bergwaldes.”’ The description of the habitat (Hunstein-
spitze, 1300 m.) agrees so well with that of my plant that | unhesitatingly sup-

Fic. 16. A. Schematic section through the region at Goenoeng Boetak-bivak, 1420 m.;
explanation of the letters in the text. B. Schematic longitudinal section through a trunk
covered with moss; 1 = living moss-layer; 2 = dead moss-layer; 3 = tree-trunk;a = Hymeno-
phyllaceae; b = Psilotum complanatum Sw.;¢ = Utricularia (nos. 1489, 1557); d = root of the
host-trunk in the moss.

pose that my palm will be found to belong to the genus Kentia. | observed
this species from 100 m. (Prauwen-bivak, hilly terrain) to about 1800 m. alti-
tude, with the most pronounced frequency, however, between 1100 and 1500 m.

~ Under the smaller trees (Fig. 16, A, /), particularly in the undergrowth of the
forest on the broader plateau, everywhere low species of Pandanus (Fig. 16, A,
e, f) occupy considerable place. They are very common in marshy places and
there most of them are stemless, and on account of their numbers they often
form disagreeable hindrances in the woods. Other plants here are Elaeocar pus
Lami O. C. Schm.*, Symplocos atrata Brand,* Xanthomyrtus bryophila Diels,*
Phaleria Wichmanni Val. (nos. 1507, 1889; end.), Schizomeria Pulleana O. C.
Schm.*, Linociera rupicola v. Lingelsh.*, Timonius glaberrimus Val.*, T. avents
Val. (end.), and representatives of the genera Ardisia (no. 1563), Actinodaphne
(no. 1504), Macaranga (no. 1502), Weinmannia (no. 1574), and further a
couple of Rosaceae (no. 1506) and Theaceae (no. 1512), all trees or tree-like
shrubs 4-15 m. high. On the marshy plateau back of the bivouac are Pan-
danus, a couple of species of rattan (Fig. 16, A, 7), and, particularly characteris-
tic, a very fine half-climbing bamboo (no. 2150) (Fig. 16, A, k). The last two

17K, Heyne, De Nuttige Planten v. Ned.-Indié, 2nd ed. (1927), 391, 396.
18 Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. 58 (1923), 442.

86 SARGENTIA [5

have stems only a few millimeters thick. The delicate green stems and leaves
of the bamboo fill all the interstices in the undergrowth. Locally a couple of
Zingiberaceae (nos. 1444, 1548) are common. Naturally all kinds of ferns are
numerous and are present in all sizes: small dark green species of Trichomanes
and Hymenophyllum, such as T. pseudo-arbuscula v.A.v.R.*, T. metfolium Bory
(Masc.—Polyn.), H. subfirmum v.A.v.R.*, H. ellipticosorum v.A.v.R.*, H.
nutantifolium v.A.v.R.*, all except 7. metfolium being mostly concealed in the
moss-cushions; furthermore, small forms such as Pleopeltis obolophylla v.A.v.R.*
and many other species of this richly variable genus are found. Other ter-
restrial ferns are Taenitis blechnoides Sw. (trop. As.—Polyn.), Tapeinidium
stenocarpum v.A.v.R.*, Dryopterts rigidtfolia v.A.v.R.*, and Cyathea per pel-
vigera v.A.v.R.*, the last a small dense and compact tree-fern with a trunk
about 0.5 m. high. A tree-fern of unusually large size is Alsophila melanocaulos
v.A.v.R.*. Among the shrubs are many striking Rubiaceae, and of these
Psychotria is especially well represented: P. longirostra Val.*, P. multicostata
Val.*, and P. multinervia Val. (end.).. Other Rubiaceae are Amaracarpus bi-
formis Val.*, Oldenlandia Schlechtert Val. var. acuminata Val. (end.), and
Ophtorrhiza doormanniensis Val.* Here also occur Maoutia gracilis Hub.
Winkl.*, Rapanea affinis Mez (no. 1525; Arch., Phil.), the rutaceous Lamio-
frutex papuanus Lauterb.*, Ilex (no. 1522), and Libocedrus (no. 2162); this
place is about the lowest limit for this coniferous genus.

Among the clinging plants the Araceae, which are so strongly dominant as
coverings of tree-trunks below, are practically wanting here. They are super-
seded by species of the genus Freycinetia (no. 1847), which occur in large
numbers. To these may be added a few small species of Elatostema, such as
E. Doormannianum Hub. Winkl.*, which ascend slender mossless trunks; also
the climbing rubiaceous Lucinaea acutifolia Val.* In this forest there are a
large number of hemi-parasites belonging to the Loranthaceae. I found three
new species, Elytranthe leucophloea Krause*, Loranthus gigantifolius Krause*,
and L. cercidioides Krause*. The last is the most striking of these, with large
more or less fleshy orbicular sessile leaves, and with the small bluish waxy flow-
ers arranged in short 3-flowered heads. Herbs, as well as climbers, are few,
a result of the dense moss-covering on the ground and trunks. Here and there
the white star-flowers of Argostemma Lamti Val.* are conspicuous; occasion-
ally amongst the yellow-green and golden-brown moss the pink flowers of
Begonia (nos. 1500, 1842) are on display. On the banks of small streams and

‘watercourses the blue Dianella carinata Hall. f. (end.) is common.

The epiphytes in the more closed forest, at least on the lower parts of trunks,
likewise are few. Here and there Psilotum complanatum Sw. (pantrop. and
subtrop.) grows in the moss (Fig. 16, B, b). The Utricularia (nos. 1489, 1557),
living in enormous numbers in the outer moss-layer, is nearly related to U.
orbiculata Wall. (S. E. As.—N. Guin.). It is an extremely small plant, which
in spite of its frequency escaped my attention for a long time. It has white
sparsely branching stems, fine as cobwebs, creeping through the outer layer of
moss; the orbicular small green leaves, averaging hardly 0.5 mm. in diameter,
are perceptible to the naked eye, as are also the very small transparent bladders
scattered along the stems. Of the millions of little plants which grow here
together, I found only a few in flower. The slender inflorescence-stalk pro-
trudes a few centimeters out of the moss and bears one or two relatively large
white or pale purple flowers. The micro-fauna and -flora enticed into the

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 87

tiny bladders would be a most worthy study, and perhaps whoever investigates
this material, which is preserved in alcohol, with the help of specialists, may
communicate further details. In addition to protozoans and spermatozoids of
mosses and ferns, probably a few Crustaceae,! living in the moss, may serve
as food for the Utricularia.

Among the fungi which occur in this forest, the first to be mentioned is a
horse-hair mold (no. 1490; Marasmius, perhaps M. equicrinus F. v. Muell.).?°
As on many other islands of the Archipelago, here also this fungus grows in
great quantity in the undergrowth. It consists of long firm flexible threads,
which are shining black and very similar to horsehairs. “They extend over large
interstices from branch to branch or from leaf to leaf, to which they are fastened
with small flat suction-disks. Now they are entangled and branched, and again
one notes long unbranched sections. It is only seldom that one observes small
fruiting bodies on the threads. They are saprophytes living on dead material.
Naturally there are other fungi here (nos. 1459, 1490, 1886-7, 1894-6), and also
a few lichens (nos. 1580, 1898).

The open ridges, with their extensive sunny areas, show again an entirely
different picture. Indeed the ligneous flora—I found among the trees the
rutaceous Terminthodia orbiculata Markgr.*—here is about like that of the
plateau. Already the forest is lower and less dense, but the terrestrial: flora
and the epiphytes are much more strongly developed in the more intense light.
On the ground a singular small melastomataceous plant (nos. 1533, 1907;
Fig. 16, A, n) is exceptionally common. | found only a single flowering speci-
men with few flowers, from which the family was easily recognizable. The
small leaves of this plant are not more than a few millimeters long, narrowly
spatulate, with an abrupt acuminate apex. In this terrain the Ericaceae first
appear—small shrubs—among others species of Vaccinium (V. tgneum J. J.
Sm.*, V. brevipedunculatum J. J. Sm.*, V. convallariiflorum J. J. Sm.*, and
no. 1899), Rhododendron Pulleanum lXoord. (no. 1445), and R. subulosum
J. J. Sm.* (no. 1906), the latter, like the rosaceous Pygeum (no. 1446), growing
both in the moss on the ground and in that on the trunks and branches, and
frequently showy because of the bright red flowers. Here are many kinds of
shrubs such as Elaeocarpus Lami O. C. Schm.*, Drimys hatamensis Becc. (end.),
Symplocos atrata Brand*, and S. trifurceps Brand*; likewise species of Levierta
(no. 1535) and Psychotria (P. brevirostra Val., end.), and the first young speci-
mens of Libocedrus (no. 2162), which higher up becomes very common. The
most striking thing about this vegetation, however, is the thick tangled masses
of Gleichenia, of Lycopodium cernuum L.. (trop. except Afr.), and of the semi-
scandent bamboo. Nepenthes is abundant here, represented by two species,
the common N. maxima Nees (Borneo—N. Guin.) and the new N. paniculata
Dans.* Not only mature climbing plants are everywhere but also the rosettes
of young plants, with their large pitchers resting on the moss. Here and there
an asclepiadaceous plant climbs; and in the shade, on a mossless spot, a small
cluster of Balanophora plants (probably B. Oosterzeeana Val., no. 1537) stand
together. In many places we find climbing Melastomataceae (nos. 1443, 1558)
and a Rubus (no. 1585). Medinilla monantha Merr. (Phil.) var. papuana
Mansf.* is fairly common. One representative of the Araceae, the clinging

19 Cf, R. Menzel, Over mos bewonende Cyclopiden en Harpacticiden, enz.—Handel. Derde
Ned. Ind. Natuurwetensch. Congres (Buitenzorg 1924), p, 298.
20 Cf. Petch, Horse Hair Blights, Ann. Royal Bot. Gard. Peradenya, VI, 1 (1915), p. 43, pls.

88 SARGENTIA \5

Pothos cuspidatus v.A.v.R.*, with light green spadix and dark purple-brown
spathe, occurs here. There are beautiful colors on the trunks due to the fiery
red inflorescences of Trichosporum Horsfieldu O. Ktze. (no. 1540) and the softer
red flowers of a species of Riedelia amongst the moss-cushions. Here are a
large number of ferns, particularly among the epiphytes. However, terrestrial
ferns are not lacking. The practically exclusive Gleichenia occupies the sunny
spots, but under the trees are Marattia rigida v.A.v.R.*, with fronds 2 m. long
and having four pairs of pinnae, and the common Dtpteris conjugata Reinw.
(trop. As.—Polyn.), the latter particularly characteristic of somewhat sunny
margins. In many places Trichomanes Roemerianum Rst. (end.) occurs, and
also the easily recognizable Oleandra cuspidata Bak. (end.), which immediately
attracts attention, the narrow fronds festooning the stiff upright stalks which
spring from the rootstock advancing under the moss on the ground and tree-
trunks. The number of epiphytic ferns and Orchidaceae is almost countless,
and not all the species occurring here can be mentioned. There are numerous
species of Polypodium and Pleopeltis, among which are small forms such as
Polypodium pyxidiforme v.A.v.R., P. mesocarpum v.A.v.R.*, P. inconstans
v.A.v.R.*, P. reductum v.A.v.R.*, and Pleopeltis remigera Ridl. Moreover,
Scleroglossum pusitllum (Bl.) v.A.v.R. (trop. As.—Austr.) and Lomaria acu-
tiuscula v.A.v.R.* grow here. Among the Orchidaceae there are a number of
species with delicate flowers; the genus Dendrobium, so rich in forms, is im-
portant here, and in the higher mountain regions it continues to be prominent.
I find here D. monogrammoides J. J. Sm., D. remotisepalum J. J. Sm., D. con-
vextpes J. J. Sm., D. sacculiferum J. J. Sm. with beautiful dark red flowers,
D. centrale J. J.Sm., D. polyschistum Schlecht., and D. furcillatum J.J.Sm. Of
the other orchidaceous genera, I mention Agrostophyllum fibrosum J. J. Sm.,
A. lamellatum J. J. Sm., and A[glossorhyncha ] galanthiflora J. J. Sm., the last
showing a strong resemblance to the snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis L.); Bulbo-
phyllum navigioliferum J. J. Sm., B. flavicolor J. J. Sm., B. quadrifalciculatum
J. J. Sm., B. muricatum J. J. Sm. var. sublaeve J. J. Sm., B. lonchophyllum
Schlecht., and B. calceolabium J. J. Sm.; Glomera rhombea J. J. Sm., Ceratostylis
muscicola J. J. Sm., Microtatorchis podochiloides J. J. Sm. and M. triloba J. J.
Sm. with orange-colored flowers; and lastly Taeniophyllum stipulaceum J. J.Sm.
Usually a growth of liverworts (nos. 1460-1, 1883) covers bare spots on damp
rock-walls.

Lastly among the epiphytes are a few noteworthy myrmecophilous plants
belonging to the genera Myrmecodia (nos. 1517, 1536; Fig. 16 A, m) and Hydno-
phytum (nos. 1475, H. vaccinitfolium Val.*, and 1516). 1 have amply discussed
and illustrated these four species elsewhere,”! so that | shall only indicate them
here with a reference to the article in question. The two species of Myrmecodia
are particularly abundant here. Probably they occur everywhere in the region
between 300 and 1600 m., but nowhere have I seen them in such large quantities
as in the neighborhood of Goenoeng Boetak-bivak. One of the most striking
peculiarities of all four species is the fact that they hang from the branches of
trees. Only the very young plants are sessile. As soon as the wood begins
to develop in the thickened stem, the main root elongates, and one sees the
mature plant hanging sometimes 0.5 m. or more from the branches. In the
literature I found a similar habit mentioned only once: this in the report of the

*1H. J. Lam, Vegetationsbilder aus dem Innern von Neu-Guinea, Myrmekophyten und
Insektivoren—H. Schenck und G. Karsten, Vegetationsbilder, Reihe XV, Heft 7 (Jena 1924).

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 89

First Lorentz Expedition, where a similar species of Myrmecodia is mentioned
as occurring on the south side of the mountains at an elevation of 2320 m.”
Whereas Myrmecodia appears to prefer the more exposed habitats and therefore
is most striking along steep slopes, both species of Hydnophytum (particularly
no. 1475) remain within the closed forest, where they grow on the lower
branches.

] shall omit discussion of the somber climate. It is an evident fact that this
region is extremely poor in animal life. Also, the natives never seem to visit
it; we saw no trace of a Papuan path at any point, and later we concluded that
probably this slope never had been used as a connecting route between the
interior populated mountain-valley and the Meervlakte. Possibly the native
trail may be along a river, perhaps the Swart River. As to animal life, the
larger birds of warm regions do not come here. For many which feed on in-
sects, the scarcity of the latter may be one of the reasons for the absence of
these birds. In any case, the typical New Guinean bird-sounds of the plain are
lacking here: the scream of the cockatoos, the creaking wing-beat and the
hoarse cry of the hornbills, the clear call of birds of paradise, and the dull
somber cooing of the large pigeons. The crown-pigeons do not occur here.
Weare unable to establish with certainty whether the cassowary is still present.
Their tracks are never seen and the call is never heard. One of the zoologist’s
assistants thought he had seen indication of its presence in the neighborhood of
the Goenoeng Boetak-bivak, and later, as the natives of the Swart Valley had
rather large quantities of cassowary feathers, one might assume that this bird
still lives here. It is also possible that it, like a number of other animals and
plants, does not ascend so high on this inclement slope but it may occur in the
sheltered valleys in the interior, where we heard birds of paradise up to 1300 m.
In the literature two instances were mentioned giving 1000 m. as the highest
elevation for the occurrence of the cassowary. Ogilvie Grant * says that
Casuaris claudii is still found at this altitude in southern New Guinea, and
Stresemann * reports that the genus reaches the same height inSeran. Smaller
birds are still numerous here; among these are king-fishers and species of
Dicaeum, which eat the fruits of species of Myrmecodia and Loranthus, thus
spreading the seeds. Among the largest birds regularly seen here are a few
cinnamon-colored pigeons and a much-variegated parakeet, Hos fuscata. Ac-
cording to van Heurn’s statement,” this species lives in the region between 1000
and 2000 m. altitude. Another parakeet, Chalcopsittacus duivenbodu, assem-
bles in huge flocks in the Meervlakte, and in the afternoon they fly over with
loud screeching. I have mentioned in a previous fragment (Fragment IV) that
we observed them also at Prauwen-bivak. Lastly, the large Mucroglossus
aterrimus is worthy of notice; it isa robust black parrot with heavy-framed head
and beak, bare flesh-colored cheeks, and a beautiful crest.

Small marsupials are fairly plentiful. Repeatedly we could recognize the
pungent odor of the opossum, Phascogale, and once we caught a Dasyurus in a
snare. The mammals are represented by rats, which are very numerous.
Here there are almost no mosquitoes and leeches, but frogs, like the abundant

22 Maatsch. t. Bevorder, v. h. Natuurk. Onderz. d. Ned. Kol. Bull. no. 56 (1907) p. 11.

2 The Ibis, Suppl. 1915, p. 326; also in Report Wollaston Exped. Dutch New Guinea, 1916,
253)

24 Novitates Zool. XXI_ (1914), 35.

2 W.C. van Heurn, De Expeditie 1920—21 naar Nieuw-Guinee—Feestnummer v. d. “Club
van Nederlandsche Vogelkundigen”’ (Sept. 1921).

06

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N290° aps" au 420° 335° aed 346° 351° 5 see 15° 37° 0
v. DAALENRIV. aga | vd WILLIGENRIY, | van REC SGEB) BATAVIABIV | GAUTTIER CEB. |IDENBURCRiv PRAUWENBIV.
olan T T : ' | } : ‘
|

|

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PIENYDAVS

Fic. 17. Panoramic sketch of the view from Goenoeng Boetak-bivak toward the north (Meervlakte):
on the slopes in the foreground relatively too few Kentia palms are illustrated.

|

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 91

New Guinean ferns and orchids, are numerous, at least if one judges by the
noisy concerts they favored us with each evening. It appears that most of
these are tree-frogs, the sound that they produce being a quivering whistle.

How wretched and gloomy the perpetual fogs and rains are! Sometimes in
the early morning and the late afternoon we had a compensating outlook (/7zg.
17) over the wide Meervlakte. At such moments | hurried to the edge of the
plateau to complete bit by bit the panorama here sketched. This was pre-
pared at the cost of much time. During a great many mornings a low and vast
cloud always covered the plain. Shortly after sunrise this cover rose and,
joining the clouds, contracted, and immediately the plain was clear, the moun-
tains still being wrapped in fog. Then we caught a glimpse of the silvery
sparkling rivers, but a moment later the mists surrounded us, and the view
vanished for the day.

The bivouac itself was one of the worst of the expedition, low, with a muddy
floor, poorly constructed, and incompletely closed. Here we suffered more
from the cold and wet than was good for us. On October 10 the Dyak trans-
port, which was planned to continue directly to the Swart Valley, arrived
unexpectedly. It was the first time that Dyaks had served as carriers on the
overland journey. [t wasa comfort to see these continually cheerful men again
after many weeks of association with convicts and soldiers. The latter were
always strangers to the environment, not to mention other less agreeable
characteristics. The Dyaks, however, are at home in the forest; their bearing
is that of true dwellers in the wilderness, and they fit as harmoniously with the
New Guinean landscape as with the New Guinean rivers. Contr. Jongejans,
Dr. Bijlmer, and First Lieut. Droog came with the transport from the detach-
ment at Radio-bivak. In the day of rest following their arrival, the Dyaks
erected sacrificial offerings, eagerly sought for food in the forest, and also as-
sisted in improving the huts, but the soldiers, who had nothing to do, remained
idle. Then an egg brought from Borneo was placed on a four-pronged stick,
and the mountain-spirit was appeased by the pronouncing of a long formula,
in order that the entire journey should be successful. October 12 we departed;
only the zoologist remained here. In Fragment I, I have already mentioned
that I twice made the journey from Goenoeng Boetak-bivak to Doormantop
because circumstances permitted. For the sake of continuity I shall combine
the observations of both trips in the following.

* *

sa

After the departure from Goenoeng Boctak-bivak, the trail lies over marshy
ground covered with low Pandanus part-way across the broad plateau men-
tioned above, then upward along the bed of a small stream that plunges down
at the side of the bivouac. Gradually the slope becomes steeper, finally ending
in an almost perpendicular cliff a few meters high, the muddy and mossy trail
bringing us to another plateau. Here the trail is level again and is deeply
covered with a thick layer of moss; it has become a passage through the more
than man-high vegetation of Gleichenia and Dipteris conjugata Reinw. Here,
too, the terrain is marshy, but the aspect of the vegetation is not less attractive,
with the globose plump moss-cushions, the many entangled ferns, the profuse
semi-scandent bamboo with its slender green foliage, and everywhere a scatter-
ing of colorful melastomataceous flowers. The climbing Medinilla has white

92 SARGENTIA |S

flowers and orange-colored fruits, while on the ground are small Melastomata-
ceae (nos. 1533, 1907). This vicinity is permeated with the sharp odor of
Phascogale, and even beyond the plateau I once saw a track which I could
attribute with some certainty to that of a tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus).

With the attaining of this plateau we have arrived at the extensive ridge
which rises from the plain to Doormantop. On the west side we now look down
into the luxuriant ravine which extends from the summit (Fig. 18), of which
we here have a view through the trees. We slowly ascend, partly following
the margin through somewhat denser forest, with Pandanus everywhere
abundant, until we stand before a rather large counter slope (Fig. 13 at 2). At
this point we find the remains of one of Doorman’s overnight camps, a dismal
collection overgrown with moss, consisting of partly rotted and collapsed poles
so far destroyed that it gives us little knowledge of how Doorman and his men

Fic. 18. Doormantop seen from a point on the ridge at 1550 m.; the irregular shaded line
is the forest-limit; the white part is above the forest-limit; R = Radio-plateau.

spent the night here September 7, 1914. In the relatively low undergrowth of
this denser forest lay the rusty oil-tins. The often-repeated story of the difficul-
ties or impossibilities of finding a predecessor's camp after the lapse of a short
period, because of quick tropical growth, is mostly a myth and applies only to
tropical lowland and then only to open secondary growth on the terrain.” In
the dense rain-forest, bivouac sites, even in the lowland, are evident after some
years, provided that the forest-roof is left undamaged. But if this is not the
case, the practised eye can define the limits of the old camp by the locally more
robust undergrowth of unmistakable type, and in the mountain-forest, where
growth is certainly slower, the same holds true for even longer time. As far as
the margin of the forest we see the trail blazed by Doorman, the thin trunks
ending abruptly. Constantly, under the moss-covering, we find the smoothly
chopped-off surface of branch-ends.

A rather steep and very muddy downward slope follows for a few hundred
meters and then the terrain rises again. The ridge is now broad and the forest
again high. It is the forest-type which has gradually developed from the rain-
forest to a misty forest. The transition from the thinly covered narrow ridges
is so striking that we, having forgotten somewhat the true rain-forest type, have
difficulty at first in recognizing this as a true misty forest. However, more
precise observation indicates very quickly that this 30-35 m. high forest, with

1945|

LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA

3000

2000

>
i}
>

\

\\\
\\
\\

|
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\
‘ f

D [Pol Ph.D.

\ 2
=\
\ \

a

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ee,
a
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ee)
Z
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\
ne

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: A

Po.

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%

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ANS

93

Fic. 19. Schematic representation of the percentage composition of the forest according
to the number of individuals; Ag = Agathis alba Foxw.; Ar = Araucaria; D = Dacrydium;

L = Libocedrus;

Ph = Phyllocladus;

= forest-limit; gemengd = miscellaneous.

Po = Podocarpus;

boomloos = treeless;

boschgrens

94 SARGENTIA [5

its very slender straight trunks thickly covered with Freycinetia, ferns, and
mosses, is indeed a true misty forest. With the gradual slope before us and
with the width of the ridge, we shall not find again the subalpine forest-type
characteristic of the narrow ridges at Goenoeng Boetak-bivak below an altitude
of 2600 to 2700 m. The flora here indicates more clearly than the general type
of the vegetation that we are in the misty forest. With almost each hundred
meters’ elevation one can observe distinct modifications, and already the vege-
tation at 1400 m. on narrow ridges and at 2700 m. on broader ridges is practi-
cally alike in general aspect, but the composition of the flora is entirely different.
At every turn we see persisting species; every moment new forms appear. Thus
the genus Kentia rapidly disappears, whereas the Coniferae increase (cf. Fig.
19). Everywhere one finds young plants of beautiful Libocedrus in the under-
growth and older specimens can frequently be recognized. At about 1700 m.
| saw a Podocarpus, perhaps P. costalis Prsl. (no. 2163; Phil.). Somewhat
lower, I still found fruits of Castanea or a related genus. Almost at the same
altitude is the boundary between two species of Argostemma, which perhaps
are vicarious. Argostemma nanum Val. is found in the lower hill-forest, 400-
1000 m., and A. Lami Val.* in the lower part of the misty forest, 1000-1700
m.; these suddenly disappear at the last elevation and are superseded by
A. montis Doormanni Val.*, which ascends to £2500 m. The latter—a com-
mon fact with increasing altitude—has larger or relatively larger flowers than
either of the other species, and immediately appears in abundance. The
species of this genus are attractive plants with large white flowers and fresh
green foliage. The buds and newly opened flowers are pendent. During the
development of the fruit they slowly begin to straighten, so that the fully ripe
fleshy but firm fruits are erect.

At 1750 m. altitude the terrain is somewhat more level. Again there is an
abundance of Pandanus. This genus seems to be exceptionally well-represented
in New Guinea. In some regions one might even speak of Pandanus forests,
because they predominate in the undergrowth. Pulle repeatedly emphasizes
this in describing the southern slope of the mountains.

In this vicinity, on a flat section close to the ridge, the First Parkieten-bivak
is established. This day’s march is very short, since running water is available
within a quarter of an hour’s walk. For a regular party consisting of a fairly
large number of men, the presence of water is a conditio sine qua non; water
from moss is sufficient only for small patrols. The next brook is at 2430 m.
elevation, and the distance to that place for heavily loaded ascending carriers is
too long for a single day’s march. Moreover, the space available naturally
plays a part when it is a question of accommodating a large number of men.

Noons it rained; this saved us trips to the running water, but kept us under
cover and in the mist. Evenings we heard the calls of the common whistling
frog and a deeper sound sometimes dropping a half-tone, which we likewise
attributed to a frog. Also in the twilight we heard the same cicada with which
we had become acquainted at a previous camp. As it grew darker, we repeat-
edly heard the flocks of screaming parakeets fly over on their homeward journey
from the Meervlakte. They do not come much higher than this. This camp
received its name from them. The Second Parkieten-bivak lies on the south
slope from Doormantop, in the Dika Valley, where we observed the same
phenomenon.

*® Maatsch., t. Bevorder. v. h. Natuurk. Onderz. d. Ned. Kol. Bull. no. 68 (1913), 34.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 95

On a moonless night, in the complete darkness, | saw luminous spots every-
where in the forest. It is a singular sensation to see great phosphorescent
places which seem so level and so tangible, whereas the following morning the
forest-floor is observed to be so irregular and uneven as well as covered with
great quantities of debris. It is difficult to describe this beautiful and fantastic
light. Probably it was produced by the mycelia of fungi.

In the course of the night the rain stopped. The second day’s march in this
section carried us back toward the ridge. Steeper parts alternated with more
level places and the forest-type remained almost the same. Some places were
very mossy, others much less so; the causes of these differences were not clear
tome. Gradually, however, the vegetation took on the facies of the mountain-
forest. Long untidy strands of moss were everywhere pendulous from trunks
and branches. Incessantly the water dripped from the wet moss and, although
the sun appeared, nevertheless the continuous drip in such a forest made a
disconsolate impression.

At about 1900 m. altitude I saw the first specimen of the giant Myrmecodia
(no. 1804) which occurred in such enormous numbers above the forest-limits.
Here its huge tubers stood upright on an almost horizontal branch of a tall
tree. Also in this vicinity I saw a couple of beautiful epiphytic species of
Dendrobium, one with orange and yellow (no. 1820), the other with pretty
purple flowers (no. 1834); the latter strongly recalled the Javanese D. Hasseltu
Lindl. Another orchid found here is A glossorhyncha biflora J. J. Sm.

About an hour after our departure we stood at the base of a very sheer slope.
Here for the first time we actually became acquainted with what the geologist,
who also knew the terrain on the southern slope of the mountains, called a
most wretched trail even for New Guinea. One had to take high steps leading
from one trunk or root concealed under the moss to another. Brushing against
and sliding along moss-cushions filled with water-like wet sponges soon resulted
in our being soaked to the skin. The terrain was full of unexpected dangers:
rotten small trunks thickly covered with moss and apparently sound, but
snapping off at the slightest touch; deep crevices and holes among sharp rocks
under a blanketing layer of moss. At few places on the entire slope did I see
as much moss as here. It was a golden carpet covering everything as snow
covers the Alps. Halfway up, at about 2100 m. elevation, we had an outlook
on the Meervlakte; through the branches we saw the silvery sparkle of the
river, and for the first time we saw the hill behind which was Prauwen-bivak :
the 1050 m. peak sloping toward the west into a series of lower peaks, among
them the Casuarisnest.

Above, on the incline, the trail was somewhat better. Slippery slanting tree-
trunks without lateral branches lying over deep holes with a chaos of plant-
debris, the bottoms invisible, were the most disagreeable spots. After march-
ing three and one-half hours we reached Beek-bivak (cf. Map B, Fragment |)
at an altitude of 2430 m. On my second journey I stayed four days at this
camp collecting in the vicinity.

I never have seen such an extraordinary wealth of ferns, both species and
individuals, crowded together as here. Schlechter *” rightly testified of New
Guinea: ‘‘Es gibt wohl wenig Gebiete auf der Erde in welchen die Farne eine
derartige Entwicklung erfahren haben, wie in Neu-Guinea und wohl nirgends
treffen wir eine solche Fiille von Arten an, als dort.” Schumann & Lauter-

27 Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. XLIX (1913), 1.

96 SARGENTIA (5

bach ** in 1901 enumerated about 250 species; in 1921, according to Brause,??
the number had increased to 509 (of which not less than 351 were endemic),
and one can accept the fact that the species at present known are far more than
600. The total number of fern-species in New Guinea is difficult to estimate,
but might certainly be placed at more than 1000. In 1917, Copeland re-
corded *° 697 species of ferns for Borneo, which was, he thought about 60%
of the number actually growing there. Borneo is much better known than
New Guinea.

Immediately there is a great diversity to be found on the ground. In addi-
tion to the always present species of Trichomanes, such as T. pallidum BI. (S. E.
As.—Polyn.), with fronds silvery gray on the lower surface, and 7. meifolium
Bory (Mascarenes, Arch.—Polyn.), one finds Tapeinidium obtusatum v.A.v.R.*
and the small tree-fern Cyathea per pelvigera v.A.v.R.*, here with a trunk 2.5 m.
long. The most noteworthy of the terrestrial ferns at ‘this altitude, however,
is Gleichenia ornamentalis Rst. (end.) var. lanuginosa v.A.v.R.* The root-
stocks of this plant creep forward at a depth of some decimeters under the thick
network of roots of trees and shrubs, and I obtained a few small pieces only with
much difficulty. From these rootstocks the brittle shining dark brown or
almost black rhachises grow at regular intervals; they are erect, less than a
centimeter thick, and up to 3.5 m. long, bearing at their apices the graceful
multi-dichotomously branched fronds. ,

There are also a number of climbing and semi-scandent species of ferns.
Close behind the hut, the protruding root-system of a fallen forest-giant was
covered with light green fern-vegetation consisting of two species, which, with
long flexible stems, had grown together; both have very fine pale green foliage:
Gleichenia pseudoscandens v.A.v.R.* and Paesia Lamiana v.A.v.R.* Trunks
of trees, their thin foliage permitting the transmission of an abundance of light
in sunny weather, are thickly covered with clinging ferns. Oleandra Whitmeei
Bak. (Celebes, Phil., N. Guin., Samoa) is unusually common; everywhere the
long narrow fronds of this species protrude beyond the tangle of other ferns
and mosses (nos. 1931, 1954-8, 1980, 1982, 1993-4), and at first glance whole
trunks seem to be covered with only this species. A typical plant of the same
habitat is Dryopteris pseudoparasitica v.A.v.R.*, the rootstock of which grows
forward along the host-trunk, dying away behind as quickly as it grows forward.
This phenomenon is very common in ferns but seldom so strongly pronounced
as here. Among the epiphytes again are species of Polypodium, namely P.
gracillimum Copel. (Arch., Phil.), P. Yoderi Copel. (Phil., N. Guin.), P. verru-
cosum v.A.v.R. (end.), and P. pyxidiforme v.A.v.R. (end.). The smallest
forms are found in the genus Pleopeltis, such as P. remigera Ridl. (end.) and
P. linearis Moore (trop. As., Afr., Polyn.). Epiphytic also are representatives
of the genera Lindsaya, Hymenophyllum, and Asplenium.

I began the description of the flora of this territory with the ferns, since they
dominate the vegetative picture in such an important measure, but the flora
of the higher plants is not less interesting. Of the lower trees in the under-
growth, one might mention a Gynotroches (no. 1970), belonging to the Rhizo-
phoraceae, with greenish flowers and black-purple fruits. One of the Saxi-

** Flora der Deutschen Schutzgebiete in der Siidsee.

** Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. LVI (1921); 24.

*’See Merrill, Bibliographic Enumeration of Bornean Plants—Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc ,
Straits Branch, Extra Nr. (Sept. 1921), 7.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 97

fragaceae reaches greater dimensions—Quintinia aff. altigena Schlecht. (end.)
is 20 m. tall. Further, the rutaceous Aéronychia emarginata Lauterb. (end.)
and the myrtaceous Syzygium adelphicum Diels* belong to this category.
Among the taller trees, the Coniferae (cf. Fig. 19), such as Libocedrus, Dacry-
dium (no. 2152-3), and Phyllocladus (no. 1984), are preponderant, these also
appearing in juvenile forms in the undergrowth.

One of the shrubs of this forest is a representative of the peculiar magnolia-
ceous genus Drimys, known from South America, Australia, and Polynesia.
It is recognized by the absence of true vessels in the wood, and it resembles the
Coniferae in the possession of pitted tracheids which serve exclusively for water-
transport. Here is D. Lamii Diels*, a widely branched shrub with white
flowers; above the forest limit we shall mect still another species of this genus.
Antholoma papuana O. C..Schm.* was a pleasant discovery. It is a vigorous
shrub up to 4 m. tall, with very large flowers (4 cm.) for this family (Elaeo-
carpaceae); the flowers are axillary, solitary or in pairs, pendulous, and tinted
in clear blending colors of red, yellow, and green. This species belongs to one
of the genera which, as research progresses on the flora of New Guinea, appear
to be common to this country and New Caledonia in constantly increasing
numbers. In several families in recent years a relationship between the floras
of the two islands has been established. Up to this time, only one New
Guinean species of Antholoma, A. Tieghemi F. v. Muell., was incompletely
known. Naturally some Rubiaceae are found here, for example the semi-
scandent Psychotria Lorentzii Val. (end.), Timonius no. 1989 and T. avents Val.
(end.). In other families there are also Symplocos doormanensts Brand* (also
found at 2200 m.), Evodia aneura Lauterb.*, Eurya (no. 1975), and the semi-
scandent Ilex spicata BI. (no. 1978; Arch.). Utricularia is very abundant in the
moss but is rarely seen in flower.

Here are no large lianas. The only ones are single species of rattan, repre-
senting the highest ascending palm species, and also the lowest descending
specimens of Alyxia Lamii Markgr.* and a single Rubus (no. 2037). The
clinging Freycinetia is very plentiful and is showy because of its salmon-colored
inflorescences amongst the green foliage of the ferns and the golden moss-
cushions. Pilea Lamii Hub. Winkl.* climbs along the lower tree-trunks.

In the closed forest of the broader ridges, apart from a few Urticaceae, herbs
are not numerous. Argostemma montis Doormanni Val.* occurs here, but this
seems to be almost its altitudinal limit. Dianella carinata Hall. f. grows every-
where along small brooks and in damp places.

On the sunny narrow ridges, flowers of typical mountain-orchids (nos. 1950-1,
1953) impart color to the moss on the ground and on the lower tree-trunks.
Among these are species of Mediocalcar, such as M. crenulatum J. J. Sm. (also
another species, no. 1662), common and striking because of the almost entirely
connate inflated and fleshy floral parts with frequently different-colored apices.
In such places we find Glomera palustris J. J. Sm. var. subintegra J. J. Sis,
Dendrobium Lamii J. J. Sm., D. mitriferum J. J. Sm., and Bulbophyllum acuti-
brachium J. J. Sm. A common epiphyte in the moss on tree-trunks here is the
zingiberaceous Riedelia sessilanthera Val. (no. 1845; end.), with orange-red
flowers, likewise Rhododendron Vonroemert Koord. (end.), with light yellow
and rose flowers, and Vaccinium igneum J. J. Sm.* and V. brevipedunculatum
J. J. Sm.*, also found at Goenoeng Boetak. In addition, I saw a single pendent
Hydnophytum. On the open crests a couple of peculiar parasites belonging to

98 SARGENTIA [5

the Santalaceae appear: Henslowia Ledermannii Pilger*, closely related to
another species of the same genus very common above the forest-limits (7,
acutata Pilger*), and the much larger Exocarpus Pullei Pilger*. The last seems
to have its greatest frequency at about this altitude. The first indication I
found of its presence was in the form of fallen branchlets at about 2300 m.
altitude, but Pilger records *! the species as occurring from 1440 m. upwards.
This parasite disappears with the forest, apart from some very small specimens
which | found growing on roots near the highest point of Doormantop. It is
here a rather large, about globose, shrub 2-3 m. in diameter, growing on a
branch of one of the tallest trees, to which it is attached only in one place.
The plant has long protracted phylloclades. The flowers and fruits are located
in small receding angles on the sharp sides of the phylloclades, which never are
pure green, but which vary between yellow-green and red-brown. The last
color is particularly characteristic of the young parts of the plant.

In Beek-bivak, on darker nights I repeatedly saw the phosphorescent pheno-
menon caused by the mycelium of fungi (no. 1991). Here | had a better
opportunity to collect some of it, and I enjoyed the fantastic glimmer uninter-
ruptedly diffused during the night from a part of a thick branch, recalling by its
glow the light of Geissler tubes. It was a curious thing to note that, although
the fungus did not give the impression of being very heavy, yet it had a weight
of some kilograms. Other fungi were also collected here (nos. 1948-9, 1959-60,
1981, 1995).

We did not notice much animal life. A few mosquitoes were seen during the
day, but apart from that, as on the whole overland journey, it was not necessary
to use the mosquito-net at night. Leeches also were very rare. However,
without making any special efforts, we saw almost nothing of larger animals.
Everywhere we observed the pungent odor of Phascogale, but we never saw
the animal. Koeskoes (Phalanger) and a few other marsupials still occurred
here. For that matter it is known that the Papuans use caved-in places in
which to trap marsupials above the forest limit, and our expedition also found
koeskoes above the forest-border. The zoologist, who remained some days
longer, caught a number of rats, which appeared to be common everywhere.

* ok
ok

The trail ascending from the camp first leads over a gently undulating plateau
toward the crest. It is a particularly beautiful stretch of forest, with tall trees
and a great wealth of ferns in the undergrowth; among these are a few scattered
small clusters of pretty tree-ferns (Cyathea perpelvigera v.A.v.R.*); the thin
crowns of the trees permit a good deal of sunlight to reach the ground. On still
mornings there is no sound in this forest other than the gentle patter of the
drip from the moss-cushions, no movement except, under the fall of the drip,
the up and down swing of leaves of terrestrial plants and of fern-fronds on the
tree-trunks. Here suddenly an exceptionally robust species of sterile moss
appears in great quantity on the ground. It is a dark green plant with a
Polytrichum-like habit, about 2 dm. tall and with long divergent leaves; possi-
bly it belongs to the Australian genus Dawsonia, and perhaps it may represent
D. gigantea C. Muell.

On the narrow crest the vegetation is at once entirely different. There are
no upright tree-trunks; all are crooked and gnarled, and the moss-covering is

31 Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. LIX (1924), 120.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 99

still heavier than on the ridge in front of Goenoeng Boetak-bivak. ‘The pro-
cesses which I have previously recorded in the discussion of a similar flora de-
velop quickly here. Rapidly the layer of epiphytes, at first confined to the
forest-roof, mingles with the flora of trunks and ground (cf. Fig. 15). The
undisturbed moss-cushions, at the side of the deep rambling trail, cover every
unevenness like snow. There one is not safe from sinking unexpectedly be-
tween blocks of stone or between the roots of trees. Now the trail is like a
flight of steep rocky stairs; again it follows along roots and a tangle of fallen
trunks; in other places it is a muddy trampled slope so much used that it no
longer affords any purchase for hands or feet. To the right, far below, a
mountain-stream rushes unseen in the endless forest-wilderness of the ravine.

Gradually various known plants disappear; new forms appear, the forerun-
ners of the colorful flora of the treeless territory above the forest-limit. The.
trees are mostly Coniferae (cf. Fig. 19), young specimens being abundant.
Everywhere Nepenthes with red-green pitchers and Freycinetia (no. 1846) with
beautiful salmon-colored inflorescences climb through the shrubs. Amongst
these, in addition to the young coniferous plants, Symplocos doormanensis
Brand*, the earlier-mentioned Quintinia, Antholoma papuana O. C. Schm.*,
and Drimys Lami Diels* are very common. Both the last-named species and
Mearnsia ramiflora Diels extend to the forest-limit. At Goenoeng Boetak the
latter was a robust tree; here it is only a shrub about 2.5 m. high, attractive
because of its dark red flowers. Here at first Pandanus is still very abundant
(nos. 1884-5), but at about 2600 m. altitude it suddenly disappears. Now
many specimens are seen along the slopes, but a few score meters higher not a
single one appears. This altitudinal limit seems to hold everywhere for the
genus. Independently of the fact that Pulle * named exactly the same height-
limits for the southern side of the range, | found the limit to be 2600 m. eleva-
tion not only here but also on the southern slope of Doormantop. Somewhat
higher still | saw Utricularia in great quantity, but at 2700 m. it, too, vanished.
At this altitude | saw a specimen of Podocar pus imbricata Bl. (no. 2160) for the
first time, but apparently this plant, which can be a very tall tree, occurs more
abundantly at lesser heights, and about here it reaches its upper limits. AI-
ready the vicinity is gay, colorful, and fresh. This forest has no longer the
somber oppressive atmosphere of that of the lowlands; the cool mountain air
meets us; all day we are in a state of excitement because of the various influ-
ences and particularly at the prospect of arriving eventually above the depres-
sing forest. The large Myrmecodia (no. 1804) which I first saw at 1900 m., and
which has its optimum frequency above the forest-border, becomes increasingly
abundant but still remains epiphytic. A number of bright-colored Orchidaceae
(nos. 1835, 1997-8) grow amongst the golden-yellow moss, such as Calanthe
mants J. J. Sm., Dendrobium mitriferum J. J. Sm., D. Lami J. J. Sm., Glomera
subeciliata J. J. Sm., and Medtocalcar compressicalcar J. J. Sm. Every moment
new species appear. There are here a few other Orchidaceae, the distribution
of which seems to be limited to a narrow zone. I saw a couple of species with
no greater difference in elevation than perhaps 100 m., which were seen neither
above nor below these limits.

In the neighborhood of 2700 m. altitude, | find the first specimen of Didtscus,
a beautiful plant of the Umbelliferae, one of the commonest herbs above the
forest-limits. Dianella carinata Hall. f. grows here amongst the moss, but

32 Maatsch. t. Bevorder v. h. Natuurk. Onderz. d. Ned. Kol. Bull. no. 68 (1913), 35.

100 SARGENTIA (5

nevertheless it has reached the upper limit of its distributional area at about this
altitude. Among the epiphytes the colorful Riedelia is more abundant.

At about 2750 m. elevation, we suddenly come to the lower boundary for the
mountain Casuarina, which immediately appears in large numbers and which,
from here upward, with the Coniferae, is practically the only genus of trees
represented (cf. Fig. 19). In the undergrowth locally is an abundance of fine
semi-scandent bamboo. The Timonius of Beek-bivak, T. avenis Val.*, a
robust shrub with yellow-white flowers, grows here, too. Among the remaining
herbs new forms continually attract attention, but of the woody plants prac-
tically all the species present occur also above the forest-border. However,
all are here much more vigorously developed and more slender in habit. At
2800 m. altitude are a couple of specimens of the peculiar orchidaceous genus
Corysanthes (no. 1815), in which the solitary flower is subtended by a single
leaf, the odd purple perianth-segment arching over the others.

The contour of the terrain, particularly here near the critical height of the
forest-boundary, has a strong influence on the picture of the vegetation. But
where the ridge is somewhat broader and therefore less exposed, or where.a
depression occurs, everything immediately becomes taller. The strong winds
retard the development of plants on exposed places. Somewhat after the
appearance of the Casuarina we found the first specimens of Oldenlandia asper-
rima Val.*, with large white or pale lilac flowers, a plant very plentiful above
the forest-limits. At this altitude also the zoologist finally discovered the long
sought-for Pertpatus in a specimen of Hydnophytum pauper Val.* The latter
plant grows as well on the lower branches of Casuarina and of the Coniferae as
in the moss on the ground. Above the forest-limits it is very common and is
there naturally only terrestrial. The tuber is gray-white, bare, and irregularly
ovate. In terrestrial specimens the tubers lie with the long side in the moss,
often almost entirely buried therein; meanwhile the basal end is attached to the
substratum by roots; from the apical end a number of short erect stems develop.
The small white flowers are in the axils of the rigid thick leaves. The openings
of the tuber are very numerous and often, particularly in old specimens, very
large, so large sometimes that whole parts of the outermost passages lie exposed.
| have recorded * elsewhere that this myrmecophilous plant, in the first place,
does not harbor ants (perhaps‘the younger specimens do) but a number of other
much larger forms of animal-life. According to the observations of the zoolo-
gist, among these are small lizards, beetles, earthworms, a small frog which
apparently cares for its brood here, and lastly, often a number of specimens of
the noteworthy Peripatus, belonging to Paraperipatus vanheurni Horst.** This
genus has gained as much fame as a transition-form between the Annelida and
the Arthropoda as through its peculiar distribution (New Zealand, the Cape,
N.Guin.). Up to now two species were known from New Guinea: P. papuensis
Sedgw. from the Arfak Mountains and P. Lorentzii Horst from the Wichmann
Mountains.

In the neighborhood of 2800 m. the gentle slope changes into a small plateau
full of pits and holes. We are still hemmed in by Casuarina trees up to 10 m.

3H. J. Lam, Iets over de botanische resultaten van de Noord-Nieuw-Guinea-Expeditie
1920—Teysmannia XXXII (1921), 318 and Rectificatie, ibidem XXXIII (1922), 52. Also,
Vegetationsbilder aus dem Innern von Neu-Guinea, Myrmekophyten und Insectivoren—
H. Schenck & G. Karsten, Vegetationsbilder, Reihe XV, Heft 7, text with Plate 42a.

* Zodl. Meded. Rijksmus. Nat. Hist. Leiden VII (1922-3), 113.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 101

high and by thick coniferous shrubs. After the plateau, the trail again steeply
ascends and we reach the first forest-free small summit at about 2850 m. alti-
tude. From here we can enjoy a spacious view for the first time. For a long
time we all sit together, gratified at the overwhelming panorama on this excep-
tionally clear day. Before us to the north lies the Meervlakte, and the long
undulating ridge by which we reached this point. To the right and left, we
look below into the heavily forested almost bottomless ravines, the view east
of which is obscured by a magnificent 4000 m. notched summit. Along its
enormous slope, ten white meandering small streams, noiseless and motionless
at this distance, descend, unreal, as if drawn with a shaky pen. To the south
behind us, but already close, rises the mighty double dome of Doormantop,
bare and rocky, rose-brown in the intense sunlight and, even now towards
midday, lightly wreathed by the first small clouds. After months of almost
endless rains, this seems to be the first of two or three nearly cloudless days.
At the elevation of this small summit only the most exposed points are with-
out trees. Doorman *® informs us that this is also the case at still lower alti-
tudes; south of the source-streams of the Rouffaer River he found a small peak
at 2650 m. free of forest. This same peak was reached by the Nederlandsch-
Amerikaansche Expedition of 1926. More than other vegetation boundaries,
the forest-limits seem to be due to the contours of the terrain. Still clearer
than, let us say, the lower border of the misty forest, that of the closed moun-
tain-forest is sharply defined by sudden changes in the nature of the terrain.
Nevertheless, the forest-limit is rather sharp compared to other vegetation-
boundaries. Asa strongly undulating line (Fig. 18), it extends along the 3000
m. elevation, descending on the narrow ridges, rising higher in protected ra-
vines; and, just as more or less forest-free peaks may occur 300 to 400 m. lower
than the average, similarly we see that the closed forest may extend as much
higher, and indeed does so in the most sheltered and commonly sheer-walled
ravines of this terrain. We shall describe this in Fragment VI. According to
the scanty and perhaps not entirely trustworthy information which I received
from members of the second expedition (Kremer Expedition), the closed forest
of the Coniferae and Casuarina, under favorable circumstances, probably as-
cends to 3500 m. Sapper *® names 3200 m. as the limit of the deciduous forest
in tropical South America; he places that of the coniferous forest at 3800 m.
The actual limits of trees are naturally much higher. From photographs of
the region north of Wilhelminatop, | think that, apart from open marshy grassy
terrain (+3700 m.), | can recognize tree-ferns (specimens with a compact habit
and short thick trunk), also Phyllocladus, the conifer which extends highest on
Doormantop. In regard to tree-ferns, van Nouhuys *” found a Cyathea, with
a trunk 3.5 m. long, in a valley on the north side of Wilhelminatop, at about
3650 m. elevation. Probably in the middle of this broad mountainous country
—and in general on higher ranges—the vegetation-limits lie on the whole
higher than on the much more exposed outer slopes. In Siberia the forest
extends much farther north in the sheltered river-valleys than on the ridges
between them; possibly, however, other factors are involved, especially drought.

3 De Aarde en haar Volken, 1918, p. 179, 180.

36 Geologischer Bau und Landschaftsbild, 167.

37 Von Rosenstock, Nova Guinea VIII (1910), 716; Wollaston (The Geogr. Journ. XLIII,
1914, 256) says the last tree seen on the very steep southern slope of Carstensztop was at an
elevation of 3200 m.

102 SARGENTIA [5

The connection between the temperature of the air and the boundary is treated
in a short article of Eckardt,*® who records the opinions of A. Wegener, F. Rat-
zel,and H. Mayr.®* Thus Wegener shows that the tree has the same tempera-
ture as the surrounding atmosphere, whereas the lower vegetation can profit
by the shelter and by radiation from the ground and therefore can reach a
greater altitude. Ratzel states as his opinion that the boundaries separating
the biotic regions are not lines but zones, as we have already seen in the above
discussion. Above the forest limits individuals can maintain themselves alone
or in small groups through locally more favorable circumstances, but a continu-
ous closed forest is no longer possible, since the climate of the most exposed
areas hinders the growth of trees. Mayr introduces the concept of ‘Vegeta-
tionstherme’”’; by that he implies the mean temperature which is necessary for a
known plant to thrive during a vegetation period (at least 1.5 months). Each
species has its own vegetation-therm and it is thus clear that the forest-margin
must lie in the annual isotherm for the warmest month which agrees with the
vegetation-therm of the tree (or trees) which forms (or form) the most northerly
(or the highest) forest. According to Mayr, in northern Europe this is the
“Alpenlarche”’ (probably here is meant Larix decidua Mill.), which appears to
have a vegetation-therm of 14°C. The forest-boundary must therefore coin-
cide with the July isotherm of 14°, and that indeed appears to be the case.
Also, the mean temperature for Larix decidua actually appeared to be 14° both
during a vegetation-period of 1.5 months in the alpine region, and during a
period of 4 months in the Bavarian highland, also one of 6 months in the Rhine
plain and one of 8.5 months in southern France. Naturally the forest-boundary
lies a little higher, about at 10°-isotherm for the warmest month.

After having descended the small foresummit, we come again into low forest
consisting almost exclusively of Coniferae and Casuarina. The vegetation of
the small peak consists chiefly of shrubs (no. 1866) such as Elaeocarpus Pul-
leanus O. C. Schm.*, with yellow-white flowers pendent in spiciform racemes,
Drimys Lamu Diels*, Mearnsia ramiflora Diels var. humilis Diels, Symplocos
doormanensis Brand*, and S. topica Brand*; within the forest the flora is about
like that of somewhat lower regions. The small white- and _ lilac-flowered
Oldenlandia asperrima Val.*, already recorded earlier, appears in increasing
numbers in the undergrowth. Here is a species of Cladium, a very compact
plant with stiff leaves spreading like a fan, which becomes very common in
marshy places above the forest limits (nos. 1595, 1667). Gradually the trail
ascends through the sunny forest wherein the yellow-green and golden-brown
tints of the moss, sometimes even interrupted by dark red species, strongly
dominate. On the left we can see far over the broad ridge through this shaggy
desolate forest; at the right the terrain drops sheer and very deep to the ravine
which is limited by the 2000 to 2500 m. high slope of Doormantop. Round
about us is the untouched age-old vegetation of crooked thick trunks of
Casuarina (nos. 1705, 1746), the foliage of this being erect, of thick Dacrydium
shrubs (no. 2155), of queer compact and hard-leaved shrubs, of moss-cushions,
amongst which are conspicuous the bright colors of Orchidaceae (nos. 1818,
1830, 1833), such as Meditocalcar retusum J. J. Sm., Glomera palustris J. J. Sm.
var. subintegra J. J. Sm., and G. Pullei J. J. Sm., also of Riedelia (nos. 1843-4),

*®W. R. Eckardt, Lufttemperatur und Baumgrenze, Peterm. Mitteil. LXX (1924), 126;
cf. also W. Képpen, ibid. 1919, 201.
*° Literature cited by Eckardt.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 103

Freycinetia (nos. 1592, 1846), and single representatives of the Ericaceae (no.
1996) and the Myrtaceae (no. 1999).

A short and steep ascent over bare rocks brings us once more to a point,
whence we cannot refrain from loitering to enjoy the beautiful view. After
that we descend a little. Roughly estimated, we are at about 2950 m. altitude.
A few new ferns appear, such as Plagiogyria novoguineensis v.A.v.R.*, a large
terrestrial fern with dimorphic fronds, and Gleichenia vulcanica Bl., which oc-
curs on all high mountain-peaks in the Archipelago and forms communities on
Doormantop. Here also are the parasites already seen at lower altitude,
Henslowia and Exocar pus, the latter constantly less in number and smaller in
size, even as its host-trees become smaller and scarcer. Henslowia, however, is
parasitic on all kinds of shrubs and is abundant here. As soon as the terrain
becomes somewhat steeper we finally emerge from the forest. A small peak
covered with a low shrub-growth lies before us, and behind it an extensive steep
slope falls off toa vast depth. The end of the large ridge is reached. At this
point, where a ridge running in a westerly direction leads to Doormantop, lies
Uitzicht-bivak at 3120 m. altitude, the first night’s stay above the forest-limit.
It was.a very special day for us, now that at last we felt the sun and dryness
once more. The part of the trail still to be covered is almost wholly in sight;
above we see the small white flag that distinguished the locality of Radio-bivak.
The camp-location at Uitzicht-bivak was a small flat place covered with grass,
somewhat marshy in the center, where a few depressions furnished us with some
muddy water. The huts were built on the higher margins, and for the first
time sleeping accommodations were arranged directly on the ground and con-
sisted of a thick layer of resilient branches. Round about lay walls covered
with low shrubs, and in many places the bare brown weathered rock-formation
projected, with lichens here and there (nos. 1836, 2002). In marshy places |
found the first specimens of the iridaceous Patersonia novo-guineensis Gibbs
(end.) var. auriculata F. W. Went*; the genus is represented by a rather large
number of species in Australia and a couple on Mount Kinabalu in Borneo.
It is a small herb, with ensiform conduplicate leaves with sharp edges and a
solitary beautiful purple Crocus-like flower. Some algae were also collected
here. Near the bivouac are a couple of old trees of the mountain Casuarina,
the wood of which imparted a delicious fragrance to the fire. On the branches
of such a tree I found the handsome and. large-flowered Dendrobium simplex
J. J. Sm. (end.), which I had already noted at an altitude of 2000 m. The
tuber-like leaf-bases are very hard, shining dark coffee-brown in color, and
practically globose; the flower (its parts some centimeters long) is purple and
yellow with a background of greenish white. Although the flora here is rather
similar to that of the vicinity of Radio-bivak and for that matter can be dis-
cussed better in a Fragment devoted to the latter, I must mention a shrub
which I saw nowhere else. It is a species of Scaevola (no. 1837), a shrub not
more than 0.5 m. high, with small hard leaves and relatively rather large yellow-
white sessile flowers concealed amongst the foliage.

This day we were all busy with our usual duties, roaming about in the de-
lightful region, and resting at noon. But the approaching twilight brought us
together at the margin of the plateau, to gaze over the broad landscape and
watch the sun go down behind the western ridges of this rugged mountain land.
Only rarely is the opportunity granted to modern man to look down upon a
country covered beyond the reach of the human eye with a continuous and

104 SARGENTIA [5

unbroken forest centuries old. The Idenburg River, its bright course gleaming
in the dull green of the Meervlakte, flows with huge meanders, with abandoned
sections of the old stream-bed in many places, these forming numerous lagoons
on either side. Far away in the distance, near the van Rees Mountains, the
confluence with the van der Willigen River is to be seen, the latter, although
invisible, betraying itself in the landscape by a lighter streak in the forest.
The whole mosquito-infested plain lies open before us, and no detail of lagoons,
pale green reed-fields, river channels, and various shades of green escapes us
now. We recognize and locate the hills over which we left the plain. It seems
like a dream, while we now sit here actually suffering from the lashing wind
and the cold, with dry clothes and broken shoes, that the land below now
literally gasps in the moist heat of the day, that its forests are filled with the
screams of cockatoos and the harsh calls of the hornbills; so far away in time and
space are these experiences. Once again we search for and find the location of
Prauwen-bivak. Now we discover also the blanket stretched at the summit of
Casuarisnest, clearly lighted by the setting sun. With the fall of night it
quickly becomes colder. The temperature at midday in the shade was 17° to
18° C. and at 8 o’clock in the evening the thermometer stood at not more than
8°. After supper we wrap ourselves in all available covers and lie down on the
dry branches to sleep, breathing the fragrance of burning firewood and remem-
bering winter nights full of sparkling stars after a day of skating.

The following morning is as clear and radiant as the previous one, but icy
cold. Here and there clouds lie in the deep still dark valley, but the ridges and
the highest crenate crests of the range, 80 km. distant, stand out sharply
against the clear light. Wilhelminatop, which yesterday was concealed from
us, is now entirely clear and is covered with a cloak of freshly fallen powdery
snow. In the same excited frame of mind as yesterday we follow the narrow
ridge to Radio-bivak. To the right of us is the wide view over the Meervlakte
in the north; on our left the view over a series of parallel mountain-chains, back
of which the great Baliem Plateau lies hidden, ending in the Central Chain,
the Peninggaléh of the mountain-dwellers, wherein the Iniaga, our Wilhelmina-
top, uncontestedly dominates the scene. The trail is very easy and lies now
across a marshy plain, then again over bare rocks, with here and there small
clusters of low shrubs. On the other side the slope drops into heavily forested
ravines, in which parts of white shimmering small streams are visible amongst
the trees. Gradually the ridge becomes narrower and we pass a high landslip
on the southern slope, a chaotic mass of huge blocks of rock. Sometimes,
however, there is a broader area, and, in such places where depressions occur, a
luxuriant small forest of Coniferae develops immediately, with Plectronia
ovalifolia Val.*, Ilex spicata Bl. (no. 1874), Casuarina, climbing Nepenthes,
Alyxia, and Rubus, and many colorful flowers on the thick moss-covering.
Beyond this protected small forest (in which also no. 1869 occurs), immediately
follows the last steep climb to Radio-bivak, a barren slope 150 m. in extent.
The highest part is irregular; in the sheltered places small trees and shrubs grow.
And so on October 16, 1920, we reach the beautiful gently undulating plateau
of Radio-bivak (3330 m.), to which I owe one of the most glorious memories of
my life. Another Fragment must be dedicated to this and a picture given of
the vegetation and the flora of the highest part of this mountain.

VI. Above the forest limits: Doormantop and its vegetation '

Tuls Is not the first time that botanical collections have been made at about
this altitude in the mountains of Netherlands New Guinea. It is, of course, not
surprising that, in connection with the different research-expeditions, a strong
tendency has developed to attempt to reach, in particular, the region above the
timber-line. This tendency is explained not only by modern man’s instinctive
dislike of a long stay in the sultry forest, but also, since botanists are concerned,
by his wish to examine the subalpine flora. The latter frequently promises
many surprises and is particularly easy to survey. Rather important collec-
tions from above the forest-limits are thus brought together. One of the most
important of these is certainly that of Miss L. S. Gibbs,’ the daring English
traveler, who, after expeditions to Kinabalu in North Borneo, Tasmania, New
Zealand, and Fiji, visited the Arfak Mountains. Supplementing the large col-
lection of material which she assembled, she prepared an outstanding phyto-
geographical work on that region. Collections have been made also on the
southern side of the Central Chain in the higher mountain-districts. Von
Roemer ? and Pulle,‘ as botanists of their expeditions to the crest of the Hellwig
Mountains (2650 m.), collected there. Pulle brought from these mountains
and from Wichmanntop (3100 m.) in all some 200 numbers. — In addition, van
Nouhuys collected single specimens on his expedition with Lorentz toward
Wilhelminatop, while Boden Kloss on the Wollaston expedition ° collected on
the slope of Carstensztop. He reached 4150 m., but from that height he brought
only a few specimens. Then we have a small collection of preserved material,
about 40 numbers, collected by Doorman; these were mostly orchids not defi-
nitely labeled, but likely a large part of them came from Doormantop. Finally,
the collection of the Australian forester, C. E. Lane-Poole,® on some high peaks
in the Australian part of the island, the highest of these being Mt. Sarawaket.
His description of the vegetation of this peak as well as that of other high moun-
tains is of little value for our purpose, since the treeless areas of this explorer
are topographical rather than botanical. His descriptions of the forest at dif-
ferent altitudes, however, are very interesting. Summarizing, we have very
complete and well labeled material to about 3100 m. (Gibbs, von Roemer, and
Pulle), some specimens from greater heights (Doorman, van Nouhuys, Boden
Kloss), and a phytogeographical description of high mountains up to about
3000 m. (Gibbs). My collection and the following floristic sketch can be
arranged according to these data. The first consists of 304 numbers,’ of which
about 280 were collected above 3300 m. I believe that the collection of the

1 Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl.-Ind. 89: 67-130." 1929.

2L.S. Gibbs, A Contribution to the Phytogeography and Flora of the Arfak Mountains, etc.
(London, Taylor & Francis, July 1917).

3 Maatsch. ter Bevorder. v. h. Natuurk. Onderzoek. der Nederl. Kolonién, Bull. no. 63
(1910), 22.

4 Maatsch. etc. Bull. no. 68 (1913), 33.

6H. N. Ridley, Report on the Botany of the Wollaston Expedition to Dutch New Guinea,
1912-13—Transact. Linn. Soc. Lond., 2nd Ser., Bot. IX, 1 (1916)—see also: The Geograph.
Journ. XLIII (1914), 265.

6C. E. Lane-Poole, The Forest Resources of the territories of Papua and New Guinea
(Commonwealth of Australia, 1925).

7 All named in the text below.

106 SARGENTIA (5

flora from this mountain-top might well be considered complete, apart from the
possibility that perhaps I have not observed some plants flowering at other
seasons of the year.

The starting point for the discussion of the flora above the timber-line, in
this case from about 3000 m. to 3580 m. (the highest part of Doormantop),
is the plateau on which Radio-bivak (Fig. 20, a) was established. Between
Radio-bivak and Uitzicht-bivak very little has been collected. Some plants of
that region were already named at the end of the previous Fragment. The
others, especially of the slope northeast of the camp, will be treated again below.

Y

reat

Fic. 20. Sketch map of Doormantop; contours at 10 m. intervals, those at 100 m. intervals
indicated by a heavier line; a = Radio-bivak; explanation of the other letters in the text;
Does eae = transport route; the stippled parts are more or less closed low forest.

This plateau has an altitude of about 3330 m. It is an undulating high plateau
with an altitudinal variation of several hundred meters, situated east of the
true summit. The eastern slope is especially sheer and deep, frequently 1500-
2000 m. without interruption, except at the point where the ridge which formed
our path joins the plateau and where the steep part is not more than about 150
m. high. Along the entire western side of the plateau the steep part rises, a
great crumbling wall of the summit-plateau about 100 m. high; the real summit
is rather broad and indented, as was already observed from the Meervlakte.
The highest point lies directly west and is separated from the broad eastern
summit by a deep ravine (Fig. 20, k) descending in the direction of the northern
slope and near the south ending blindly in a high saddle (Fig. 20, m) which
binds the two summits together. The eastern summit shows again this charac-
ter of an undulating stone-plateau, the western falls away steeply on all sides
except towards the south-southeast slope, being by far the most precipitous

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 107

towards the southwestern side which cannot be scaled without aids, and where
the slope of 60° and more continues for several hundred meters. On the north
side of the bivouac-plateau some small ravines (Fig. 20, f, g) with a luxuriant
flora lead from the margin. On the south side one finds a broader and deeper
sheltered ravine, its very steep sides (/7g. 20, h) covered to the margin by an
upward extension of the forest.

~The bivouac-plateau is characterized by three outstanding types of vegeta-
tion, naturally showing many transitions.

A. The rocky terrains.

B. The fern- and shrub-scrubs.

C. The marshes.

In the discussion | shall consider cach in turn,

The largest area is that of the rocky terrains.’ Here are convex folds and
gently sloping areas where the surface is covered with boulders of all sizes.
These are all formed from the basic eruptive rock-formation that Gisolf * has
further described and they show a typical Karst topography [1. e., marked by
sink-holes, interspersed with abrupt ridges and irregular protuberant rocks,
and by caverns and underground streams |. The newly broken surface is
green-gray in color, but when weathered is of a smooth light gray-brown tint
in which brown is dominant. At disintegration frequently rows of furrows are
formed, separated by narrow and often very sharp edges. This makes travel-
ing in bare feet over this area very difficult. Furthermore, the rock-formation,
according to Gisolf, consisting of magnesium-olivin and a colorless mineral
(antigorite and antigorite-serpentine), is permeated everywhere with magnetite
(polar magnetic iron ore, FeO and Fe.03) which lies enclosed in parallel bands
in this rock-formation; meanwhile on the surface the magnetite stands out some
centimeters on account of its greater hardness. This magnetic iron had already
played a trick on Doorman. He found, when making a survey of Wilhelmina-
top with regard to the spot earlier placed at the south side, an error of not less
than 14°, which he could not explain. Capt. Kremer, who repeated the survey,
with Doorman’s results in mind, first obtained a deviation of —8°, thereafter
at another place one of +25°. Still later, the compass needle, even on two
places close together, appeared to differ 180°. Now it became clear that the
earth itself must play a role in these phenomena; indeed then very quickly the
magnetic ore was found, and the geologist and I took along samples of it. The
rock-formation, from which the iron-mass was removed as much as possible,
contains still, according to the analysis, 7.69% FeO; 40.46% SiO2; 40.2% MgO;
4.12% AlsOo, and 7.74% HO. Although the rock-formation in itself is toler-
ably heavy (S. G. 2.5-3.5), the iron ore with its specific gravity of about 5-6.5
increases the weight very considerably; hence the transfer of the samples did
not particularly please the carriers.

In the humus collected in crevices between these boulders, a very dwarf flora
of small crowded or creeping shrubs and a few herbs has taken root, while the
stones here and there are covered with lichens (nos. 1836, 2002, 2015-7).
Amongst the shrubs here species of Styphelia in particular, such as S. Van-

8 See the illustration of Doormantop in Schenck & Karsten, Vegetationsbilder, Reihe XV,
Heft 5/6, Tafel 34.

°W. F. Gisolf, Over het gesteente van den Doormantop in Centraal Nieuw-Guinee—Verslag
Gew. Vergaderingen Wis- en Natuurk. Afd. Akad. v. Wetensch. Amsterdam, XXXII (1923),
160.

108 SARGENTIA [5

nouhuysit J. J. Sm. (end.) and S. Dekockii J. J. Sm. (end.), are strongly repre-
sented; these are small compact bushes 1-2 dm. high, easily recognizable by
their somewhat stiff and frequently pointed small leaves with curving veins,
crowded and appressed along the stem. Styphelia Dekockiit J. J. Sm. is a
larger shrub up to 1.5 m. high. In the smaller species the stem often creeps
forward some meters along the ground. Also here is S. abscondita J. J. Sm.,*
with white flowers. The Epacridaceae, to which these plants belong are, just
as the nearly related Ericaceae, true mountain-plants in the tropics, although a
few species occur in the lower regions. Whereas the Ericaceae have a very wide
distribution, the Epacridaceae belong ‘especially to the Austro-Papuan area,
with off-shoots to British India on the one hand, and to Oceania and South
America on the other. Another very common shrub here is Xanthomyrtus
Klossit Diels (end.) var. brevipedunculata Diels*, with more or less dark yellow
flowers. This shrub, like the common Decaspermum prostratum Diels*, with
pale cream-colored flowers often tinged with purple, remains very low, the long
branches creeping some meters over the bare earth. Both species possess very
small and coriaceous leaves. Another plant characteristic of this region is the
low-growing (about 0.5 m. high) Drimys fistulosa Diels*. The few branchlets
bear, on the distal portions only, a number of densely crowded leaves, which
near the tip are closely appressed against the stems and are revolute for almost
their entire length (hence the specific name); the small white flowers occur
near the tips of the branches, hidden among the leaves. Both Drimys and
Oldenlandia asperrima Val.*, mentioned in the previous Fragment, grow by
preference in sheltered places among taller shrubs, although they still seem to
choose the stony ground rather than the fern- and bush-scrubs. The Rubiaceae
are represented here by many other species, such as Oldenlandia nutans Val.*
(end.), O. coprosmoidea Val.*, Coprosma ulicoides Val.*, and Plectronia ovali-
folia Val.* In some places a few larger shrubs 1-1.5 m. high appear together.
A number of these belong to the Ericaceae, especially to Vaccinium, V. ciliati-
petalum J. J. Sm.*, V. cyclopense J. J. Sm., and nos. 1596, 1676-7, and 1679.
Rather common among them is a singular species of Eurya (no. 1720), the
whole plant being laterally compressed with oblique branches lying in a single
plane and hence suggesting the form of a fishbone. Moreover, the plant is
shaggy in all parts and compact in habit, with small green-white flowers.
There are still a few larger shrubs 2—2.5 m. high always growing in somewhat
protected areas. Some of these are Vaccinium molle J. J. Sm., Quintinia
Schlechteriana O. C. Schm.*, and Acronychia murina Ridl. (end.). Somewhat
smaller are Syzygium Chamaebuxus Diels*, with yellow flowers (of the known
species of Syzygium, this one reaches the highest altitude), and Drimys pitto-
sporoides Diels*.

Whereas most bushes, except Xanthomyrtus and a few Rubiaceae and Eri-
caceae, have comparatively small and dull-colored flowers, among the herbs
several immediately attract attention because of vivid colors and the relatively
large size of the flowers. In this connection a beautiful orchid deserves particu-
lar mention. It is Dendrobium Vannouhuysti J. J. Sm. (end.), a small plant
which, with its comparatively large deep-orange flowers and its thick purple-
orange fruits, is found everywhere among the rocks on the ground. Also
striking because of their color are the few dark cobalt-blue gentians. One of
these (no. 1623) is identical with or closely related to Gentiana singgalangensis
Backer, described from Central Sumatra; another specimen (no. 1624) is a near

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 109

relative of the endemic G. Lorentzit Koord. Number 1778 is perhaps a third
species, growing in somewhat moist places. The size of the first-mentioned
species of Gentiana is strongly influenced by its habitat. The height of the
plant varies from 2 cm. in the most exposed places to 25 cm. in the shade of
taller plants. The second (no. 1624) is always more slender than the first and
has thinner and more acute small leaves.

Another conspicuous and exceedingly common plant of these bare rocky
fields is a mountain-form of Nepenthes Vieillardi Hook. f., previously known
only from New Caledonia. One finds climbing plants of this species every-
where up to the forest-margin, but as soon as the trees disappear only very
short terrestrial individuals are seen. These are observed as far as the summit.
Unfortunately no specimens of the climbing forms were collected, and so it
cannot be said with certainty that the two forms represent the same species;
hence further investigation is necessary to discover the lower limits of this
species. The terrestrial form never grows taller than a few decimeters; even in
shrubberies | did not find any longer specimens. The thick rosette of stiff boat-
shaped somewhat twisted leaves scarcely rises above the ground, and the
pitchers lie all around the plant on the bare earth or in the moss. Older plants
have a stiff crowded terminal inflorescence. The young leaves are green but
quickly become red to red-brown. The pitchers likewise are green or brown,
the margin and the lid being flecked with red. The new unopened pitchers
contain much water, in older ones remnants of insects can always be found.
In both sexes the floral envelope is dull brown outside, dark violet within; the
young filaments are green, becoming violet-red, with light yellow anthers; the
style and the stigma are green-red. The entire flower very quickly becomes
brown; the perianth is marcescent, the fruits dull brown.

In addition to Nepenthes, we note a few very small Compositae (nos. 1589,
1629, 1700, 1754); one of these (no. 1700) grows by preference in small rain-
pools on hard ground otherwise without vegetation. This plant is related to
Crepis and has bright yellow inflorescences (small flower-heads), which contrast
prettily with the dark brown-green of the stem and the basal rosette. Num-
ber 1629 also prefers moist habitats. In this plant-association numerous
orchids occupy an important place. ‘Two of them are wholly green, Habenaria
Lami J. J. Sm. and Pertstylus ciliolatus J. J. Sm. and its var. apiculatus J. J.
Sm. Both have a small basal rosette and a very tall sparsely leafy scape.
These plants are scattered in clefts of rocks or in open spaces between them.
Calanthe Versteegii |. J}. Sm. is more showy with its larger greenish white flowers,
and more abundant. In moss-cushions or amongst ferns are Glomera Dekockii
J. J. Sm. var. Lami J. J. Sm.* and G. grandiflora J. J. Sm. var. minor J. J. Sm.;
whereas G. Pullet J. J. Sm. and G. fruticula J. J. Sm. prefer more open land.
Other Orchidaceae of the habitats discussed are Bulbophyllum cavibulbum J. J.
Sm., Chitonanthera suborbicularis J. J. Sm., C. trigona J. J. Sm., C. Lorentzti
J. J. Sm., C. calcetformts J. J. Sm., Octarrhena tenuis J. J. Sm., Phreatia nutans
J. J. Sm. with nodding flowers, Pedilochilus terrestris J. J. Sm. and P. obovatus J.
J. Sm., both on somewhat damper areas hidden among ferns, and lastly Den-
drobium erythrocarpum J. J. Sm., which is usually epiphytic on shrubs.

A pretty Euphrasia, related to EF. borneensts Stapf of Kinabalu (N. Borneo),
is likewise common in dark humus among bare rocks. It is a small erect
herb (no. 1587) with nearly orbicular leaves and fairly large white flowers
crowded together or a few at the apex of the stem. In the same habitat the

110 SARGENTIA [5

yellow-orange-flowered Dendrobium Vannouhuysii J. J. Sm. grows abundantly,
with a species of Cladium (no. 1595). The leaves of the latter are ensiform, as
are those of Patersonia novo-guineensis Gibbs, and conduplicate, spreading in
one plane, the plants hence being somewhat fan-shaped. In the sterile condi-
tion one could easily confuse the two plants ' were it not for the fact that, in
addition to being much more rare, Patersonia is recognizable by the rough
brown-hairy margin of the folded leaf. Moreover, Patersonia always prefers
damper situations, but the species impressed me as being somewhat more rare
here than at 3100 m. altitude. Another common plant is Gahnia (no. 1748,
perhaps G. psittacorum Labill., known from N. Guin., Austr., N. Zeal.), con-
spicuous on account of its growth in thick clumps and its waving inflorescences
of shining brown color extending above the lower plants; the glistening fruits
are yellow-gold and hang on thin brown stalklets outside the floral envelopes.
In open areas a species of Schoenus (no. 1810) and a number of grasses (nos.
1638, 1682, 1745, 1774, 1816) form similar isolated clumps which frequently
protrude somewhat through the washing away of the soil. Often a few plants
of Lycopodium creep forward between these small clumps. I collected seven
species of that genus on the highest part of Doormantop. Lycopodium scario-
sum Forst. (Mindanao, Austr., N. Zeal.) grows among the rocks, and L. caro-
linianum L, (trop. and subtrop.) var. pedunculatum v.A.v.R. on moister earth.
The latter is very short since the older parts die quickly as the tip grows
forward.

I mention last one of the most striking plants, almost dominant in some
stretches, the large Myrmecodia (no. 1804) which I observed first as an epiphyte
at an altitude of 1900 m. (Fragment V). It is epiphytic in all forest-margins,
but at the highest point of the naked summit it is a very common terrestrial
plant. On account of its frequency as well as its size, this species forms a
characteristic element of the vegetation. In the plant-association now under
discussion, the flora of the barren terrains, it is outstandingly terrestrial, in the
shrubberies more often epiphytic. In the first instance the giant tuber-like
base is often 1 m. high, upright, with numerous long stems stretching out in all
directions. As an epiphyte the plant may be attached in a variety of ways to
the trunk or branches, on the trunks frequently being lateral and then with a
somewhat elongated curved tuber-like base and upright stems; on horizontal
branches it is often upright. The roots then usually extend over long distances
along the branches and the trunk of the host, and sometimes thus even reach
the ground. One might ascribe " to such roots not only the function of cling-
ing, but also the function of water- and mineral-transport. Pulle noticed the
species on the south side of the Central Mountain Range,” the Second Lorentz
Expedition found it as a terrestrial * at an elevation of 2550 m., if one may
assume that, in all these cases, we are concerned with the same as yet unde-
scribed species. | have elsewhere dealt with the species in greater detail with
the aid of a number of illustrations, so that here I merely give a reference to

10 This apparently was done by F. W. Went (Nova Guinea XIV, 1, 1924, 114), who deter-
mined a sterile specimen with glabrous leaf-margins as Patersonia sp. Doubtless he had this
Cladium before him.

1 Q, Beccari, Malesia II, p. 177.

2? A, Pulle, Naar het Sneeuwgebergte van Nieuw-Guinea, p. 158, fig. 25b.

8 Maatsch. t. Bevorder. v. h. Natuurk. Onderz. d. Ned. Kol. Bull. no. 62 (1909), 41.

“H. J. Lam, Vegetationsbilder aus dem Innern von Neu-Guinea —_ Vegetationsbilder, Reihe
XV (1924), Heft 7, Tafel 37c, 38-41.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 111

the detailed consideration. I shall only point out that these plants are spread
by birds (or ants?),!° as often an enormous number of young plants and seedlings
may be found on the tuber-like stems and in the immediate vicinity of these
plants. The dwellers in this species are always ants; the entrances to the
cavities are small and few in number and are located on the lower side of the
tuber-like stems.

Another myrmecophyte in this region, already mentioned in a previous
Fragment, is Hydnophytum pauper Val.* (no. 1641; Fragment V). This plant,
also discussed elsewhere,!'® is very abundant in the dense margins of fern- and
shrub-scrubs, so that by mentioning it, a suitable transition is formed to the
discussion of that plant-association. I have already noted that this species
often harbors, in addition to ants, a number of larger forms of animal life
(among others, Peripatus). At this altitude, in particular, it probably is a
small frog which lives and rears its brood here. At night one hears its shrill
whistling cry, but one never catches sight of it during the day.

The fern- and shrub-scrubs are level but not marshy, frequently being gently
sloping portions of the terrain, which, without being noticeably sheltered in
comparison with the surroundings, are covered with very densely crowded
herbs and shrubs. They well illustrate the extraordinary sensitiveness of the
vegetation-habit to extremely small differences in local climate. We must
suppose that these plants develop on those parts of the drier stony terrains
which, either through their situation or the nature of the slope or its form, have
provided more favorable living conditions than have the surrounding areas.
The borders, either on stony land or on the edges of small marshes, are formed
of thick moss-cushions and fern-associations. In the center is a more or less
high growth of shrubs, giving one an impression that this difference in plant-
covering is due to slight elevations of the land. The measurements and the
height of the shrubby forest differ much in connection with the stands, the
contour of the ground, the altitude above the forest-limits, and the exposure.
Various transitions from the small shrub group to the closed rain-forest are
found, so that these places may be compared with small islands, adjacent to
a continental coast, formed by surf-erosion. In such a plant association one
may expect to encounter a number of species which also occur in the rain-forest
of higher altitudes, and that is indeed the case. The margins, either narrow
or broad and meadow-like depending upon the steepness of the slope, are over-
grown with two fern-species rooting in the dense moss-covering. Both Glez-
chenia vulcanica Bl. var. plumosa v.A.v.R.* (type collected near forest edge:
Fig. 21, left) and G. subulata v.A.v.R.* (Fig. 21, right) form closed associations.
The first extends nearer to the margin of the plant-association beyond the
protection of the taller-growing plants, its numerous and pretty dichotomous
fronds (brown-woolly beneath) standing somewhat oblique. Entire zones of
the second species occur especially along the margin of the shrub-vegetation,
frequently partly shaded, the shining fronds being elegantly arched on their
dark stipes. In the shelter of this thick fern-vegetation, rooting in the thick
mossy layer, one finds a number of herbs more luxuriant than in the open
terrain. The mossy layer contains Macrohymenium laeve, Macromitrium re-
curvum, M. perobtusum, M. armatum, Brotherobryum latifolium, Schlotheimta

16 W., Docters van Leeuwen, Mierenepiphyten, De Tropische Natuur, XVIII (1929), No. 4,
p. 57.
16H. J. Lam, Vegetationsbilder, Reihe XV, Heft 7, Tafel 42A.

112 SARGENTIA [5

A thi ¢

RAAAANS

mAver ee

oat n U x

Fic. 21. (left) Gleichenia vulcanica BI. var. plumosa v.A.v.R. (Darmosoediro del.); (right)
Gleichenia subulata v.A.v.R. (Sandiwiro del.).

Lamu, Thysanomitrium MacGregorii, Braunfelsia scariosa,!” and nos. 1680-
1681. At the margin the plants are still small and there we also find the low-
growing species which toward the center cannot compete with the higher-
growing plants, for example, two species of Gentiana (much larger here), a
Euphrasia with white flowers, and the orange Dendrobium Vannouhuysii
J.J.Sm. Mediocalcar crenulatum J. J. Sm., with variegated flowers, is abun-
dant. The flowers of this species are deep red in both forms, the tips of the
short lobe in one (no. 1599) being bright green, in the other (no. 1642) white or
yellow-green. A few species of Lycopodium grow on the very outer margin of
this plant association, such as L. complanatum L. (north of the equator and

'7T am indebted to Professor Max Fleischer for his kindness in determining the mosses.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 113

alpine tropical regions) var. angustiramosum v.A.V.R. (end.), with creeping
stems and upright branchlets, and L. hydrophilum v.A.v.R. (end.) var. ecilio-
latum v.A.v.R.*, also growing in small marshes. Bulbophyllum muricatum
J. J. Sm., with yellow and purple flowers, occurs here, and also rather scattered
plants of the liliaceous Astelia alpina R. Br. (high mountains of N. Guin.,
Queensl., and Tasm.); the latter is a small plant with silver-white, hairy, thick,
perpendicular stems entirely hidden in the moss, above which the narrow white
hairy leaves hardly protrude; the inflorescence of greenish and somewhat
membranous flowers reminds one of the Juncaceae rather than of the Liliaceae.
The peculiarity of this plant, however, is the root-system, which is much larger
than the rest of the plant, a number of thick pale brown soft lateral roots pene-
trating the moss-layer almost perpendicularly for a few decimeters. Still
further from the margin in these fern-scrubs one observes Lycopodium laxum
Pr. (S. E. As.—Polyn., Austr.), with dark green foliage creeping among other
plants, also L. tomentosum v.A.v.R. (end.) and Schizaea fistulosa Lab. (Madag.,
Austr., Tasm., N. Zeal., N. Caled., Chile).

All these plants prefer a certain zone within these shrubberies, in almost all
of them the beautiful Didiscus (nos. 1586, 1674; aff. saniculifolius Stapf)
occurring in the margins and among the taller-growing ferns. The lower limit
of its range seems to be 2700 m. The genus is known from Australia, New
Caledonia, and North Borneo (Kinabalu; type of the species collected on this
mountain). Not only the previously mentioned Gentiana and Euphrasia, but
also this Didiscus, are subject to the growth-inhibiting influence of light. In
open places strong evaporation is also an influencing factor. In fully exposed
places I observed plants scarcely 6 cm. tall, whereas those growing in the
Gleichenia association were up to 40 cm. tall. In open exposed places the
plant consists of a small basal rosette of leaves and a short peduncle; in the
thickets the ascending stem develops long internodes from the basal rosette
with long peduncles. The basal leaves are thinly and shaggily long-hairy,
long-petiolate, and spatulate with a gradually narrowed base and a rounded
dentate apex. In full light the leaves lie, as if asleep, pressed against the
ground,'® among other plants pointing obliquely upwards. The peduncle is
brown-yellow, the umbel surrounded at the base by protecting bracts frequently
showing in all parts a more or less strong purple coloring. The corolla is pale
pink, but the fruit and pedicels, wherever exposed to direct sunlight, are dark
purple. Sometimes I observed and collected inflorescences illustrating con-
tinued growth, in which one or more flowers were replaced by a secondary
peduncle.

In this plant-association, the only representative of the Zingiberaceae which
I observed in this region was Riedelia montana Val. (no. 1678; end.) as a scat-
tered terrestrial among the ferns and once as an epiphyte on a small tree.
The corolla is pink, the calyx and pistil dark purple, the violet bracts being
covered with a waxy bloom.

The shrub-zone of these scrubs is surrounded by a girdle of Gleichenia subu-
lata v.A.v.R.* In between are numerous more or less stiff Orchidaceae, such
as species of Glomera and Chitonanthera with small salmon-colored or pale

18 Senn is of the opinion (Untersuchungen iiber der Physiologie der Alpenpflanzen—Verh.
Schweiz. Naturf. Ges., 1922, II, sep. p. 13) that, for some alpine plants the leaves of which lie
close against the rocks warmed by the sun, one must accept positive thermotropism, but I do
not believe that would apply to Didiscus as it grows here.

114 SARGENTIA |S

orange flowers, tough long leafless stems, and small thick leaves at the apices
of the branches. Glomera manicata J. J. Sm., with white flowers except for
the blood-red lip-tip (in other species the tip is frequently black or brown), is
common here.. A few lianas wind themselves through this vegetation and
around the branches of shrubs; among these are two species of Alyxia, A.
Lami Markgr.* and A. cacuminum Markgr.*, and a species of Rubus (no. 1585)
with leaves densely rust-brown-hairy underneath and pale cream-colored
flowers.

Among the shrubs of this terrain, in addition to the ubiquitous Coniferae,
which in the more protected places become trees, and Casuarina, we observe
many of the same Ericaceae mentioned above for stony ground, but frequently
here with a more robust habit. The often dominant species of Vaccinium and
Rhododendron have mostly reddish flowers. Usually represented are Styphelia
obtustfolia J. J. Sm. with yellow and Symplocos mamberamo Brand with white
flowers, and particularly Drimys pachyphylla Diels with revolute firm leaves
and fairly large white flowers. A few previously mentioned species of Rubia-
ceae, such as Plectronia ovalifolia Val.*, occur. In more open places among the
shrubs, but always on sheltered ground, is an occasional dwarf tree-fern,
Cyathea imbricata v.A.v.R.* A fungus (no. 2013) grows on dead wood.

In the middle of the small forests are the tall shrubs and small trees, the
branches covered with isolated moss-cushions (among others a liverwort, no.
1698), a few epiphytic ferns (no. 1699), and orchids (no. 1767). The woody
genera here are almost exclusively coniferous, such as Dacrydium (no. 1773),
with dark, thick and hard foliage, Phyllocladus (no. 1742), with thinner branches
and phylloclades often touched up with red-brown color, Libocedrus (no. 1788),
frequently showing a clear story-structure, the lower surface of the phyllo-
clades usually covered with a waxy bloom, and lastly, the more rare Podocarpus,
which mostly prefers still more protected places in these small shrubby forests.
Also in the middle are a few plants of the previously mentioned Casuarina
(nos. 1705, 1746). This tree, however, apparently does not assume a shrub-
form, and in addition prefers a manifestly more open habitat. Nevertheless,
it is not at all particular as far as its location is concerned; it grows as well in
the midst of a mossy cover as among bare rocks, and just as well on level as on
steeply sloping ground. This tree and Phyllocladus grow closest to the summit.
Up to about 3500 m. altitude, I observed specimens 1.5-2 m. high. Earlier I
mentioned that the lower limit of this Casuarina lies at about 2750 m.; the
upper limit is not far from 4000 m. altitude. In free growth it is a robust but
usually crooked gnarled tree giving a peculiar impression with its broad yet
very thin crown of upright slender shoots. The latter, especially in the flower-
ing staminate specimens, bear an unusually strong resemblance to Equisetum.
In both Javanese forms, C. egutsetifolia Forst. (for which the specific name is
less apt than it would be for the species here discussed) and C. Junghuhniana
Miq. (the mountain-plant which perhaps is not more than a montane form of
C. equisetifolia), and in other species of the Archipelago, the longer shoots are
more or less pendent. Probably we have here a representative of an Australian
species of Casuarina. Bentham and von Mueller !* recorded 19 species; later,
Moore *° described a few more, among them one with upright shoots. The

1° Flora Australiensis VI (1873), 192.
201. Moore, Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. XLV, no. 302 (1920), 193.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 115

genus is chiefly Australian, but a few endemic species occur in New Caledonia.”
Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. is the only one of wide distribution (E. Afr.—
Polyn.), and this is because the fruits may be dispersed by sea-currents. It is
found chiefly on very sandy coasts.

The Doormantop Casuarina grows about 8 m. high. The staminate in-
florescences are beautiful dark red; this tree frequently furnished us with fire-
wood which emitted an agreeable odor suggesting that of resinous pine. The
large branches are often covered with the large Myrmecodia and its numerous
seedlings. The tree forms a very picturesque entity, with its broad base sur-
rounded by shrubs and yellow-green moss-cushions, and its branches covered
with brown-red or even dark red moss.

Finally we come to the discussion of the third plant-association, that of the
small marshes. They are shallow boggy sunken places which may or may not
have water-drainage; the vegetation is very scanty; the margin is formed by
the more moist vegetation of fern- and shrub-scrubs or by miry spots between
bare rocks. The real marshes are covered with widespread clumps which
stand out as little islands above the water. These consist chiefly of a species
of Cladium (no. 1595), more rarely Schoenus (no. 1810), and an occasional spe-
cies of grass. In addition, one finds Compositae (nos. 1629, 1700) in these
clumps, and generally Euphrasia (no. 1587), which is dominant after Cladium;
its small white flowers protrude everywhere above the stiff clumps of the cypera-
ceous plants.

The water of some of these swamps is rusty brown. Whether this is to be
attributed to bacteria rather than to iron-content, or perhaps to both, I am
unable to say. Everywhere are many green, and probably also blue-green
algae (nos. 1731-3, 1756, 1761-3, 1775, 1787, 2004-5), especially in places
where the water flows in broad shallow streamlets over gently sloping rocks,
amongst a vegetation of Lycopodium carolinianum L., or in crooked little
channels among higher-growing grasses and sedges. They show all shades of
light green to brown- and purple-green. On the border of these small marshes
and the stony bare ground, we usually find characteristic creeping Myrtaceae,
such as Xanthomyrtus Klossii Diels var. brevipedunculata Diels* and Descasper-
mum prostratum Diels*, with its branches, often several meters long, lying flat
on the ground and taking root; during a rain they frequently stand under
water.

1 observed another type of marsh-vegetation in the upper parts of some
ravines which descend on the sides of the Radio-plateau. Here the flora is
richer; this is particularly true of the largest of these marshes (Fig. 20, n-p),
lying at the entrance to the large ravine on the southeast side of the plateau
(Fig. 20, h). When one descends through a shrub-forest with tall grasses and
light green Lycopodium laxum Pr., one comes upon a gently sloping miry valley-
bottom 2 lying somewhat sheltered between the high slope of the second pla-
teau on one side and a small foresummit on the other margin. The water flows
slowly between tall grass-clumps which are dominant here; and the many
small waterways at the lower end form a brooklet which falls somewhat further
along into the bottomless mossy ravine. Among the grasses are many plants
of an attractive robust Potentilla (nos. 1702, 1764), strongly resembling and
without doubt closely related to the silver-weed (Potentilla Anserina L.) and

"1 Id., lc. no. 303 (1921), 414.
2 Vegetationsbilder XV, Heft 6, Pl. 26b.

116 SARGENTIA [5

perhaps identical with P. leuconota D. Don of the Himalayas and high peaks of
intermediate regions. The very large flowers are bright yellow with frequently
reddish calyx-lobes. Another reminder of the northern flora is a Cynoglossum
(no. 1765), which resembles a Myosotis, a very small shrub or undershrub with
white flowers and very firm thick small leaves. A third is a much rarer Viola
(no. 1673), growing at its lower limit; in the highest saddle at almost 3500 m.
altitude it is much more plentiful. Among the grass-clumps is Lycopodium
scartosum Forst., and on the drier margins other species of the same genus.

I searched in vain for a species of Ranunculus occurring not only on the
mountain peaks of Java, but, according to Pulle * and Ridley, also on the
south side of the Central Mountain Range.

The large ravine (Fig. 20, h) * mentioned above has a much richer flora than
the valley-bottom at the entrance. Without doubt this is due to the fact that
the walls suddenly slope steeply, so that the deep-lying valley is entirely shel-
tered on three sides. A picture of the vegetation, therefore, makes one think
of that of much lower regions, a true pontic ” flora, with unexpectedly tall forest
for this altitude (3320 m.), in which everywhere pairs of white butterflies flit to
and fro and a number of other insects are swarming about. The characteristic
plant of this ravine is a tall coniferous Libocedrus (no. 1788), a large tree attain-
ing a height of 15-20 m., with a thick straight trunk and a beautiful umbrella-
shaped crown. The sharply ascending branches of this stately and decorative
tree are covered with yellow and red moss-cushions; often it also supports a
number of plants of the large Myrmecodia. This ravine is most beautiful in
the mist. The silence is unreal and is still more striking when the fog limits the
sphere of vision and the orbit of interest to the immediate surroundings—a
silence broken only by the uncanny creaking of trunks and branches grating
against each other in the plaintive howling of the wind, and the patter of the
drip falling incessantly from the moss-cushions on the leaves of the low flora.
Even on us such customary sounds as these have a strange effect at times, as
if they represented another world. Still, these surroundings impressed me as
a much more harmonious whole in the mist than in the sunshine, perhaps be-
cause, in the presence of the mist, the isolation was felt unconsciously rather
than consciously and seemed to be the strongest feature of the landscape. The
fantastic cypresses appear as capricious silhouettes against the fog; those close
by are dark and clear, those more remote are lighter, and those farthest away
can scarcely be distinguished from the streaks of light which flow into each
other and the gliding shadows of the clouds; the bleakness of the wind forcing
the clouds through the ravine is in perfect harmony with the ghost-like tree-
forms and the inexplicable sounds. Suddenly the nearby familiar guttural

*8 A. Pulle, Naar het Sneeuwgebergte van Nieuw-Guinea, p. 158, and Maatsch. t. Bevord.
v. h. Natuurk. Onderz. d. Ned. Kol. Bull. no. 68 (1913), p. 36.

*H. N. Ridley, Report on the Botany of the Wollaston Expedition to Dutch New Guinea
1912-13—Trans. Linn. Soc. London, 2nd ser. Bot. IX, 1 (1916), 8, 10.

25 Vegetationsbilder, Il. c. Pl. 27, 28a, 39.

*6 This expression is used for plants really belonging in warmer or more southern regions
rather than those corresponding with the geographic latitude or altitude of the habitat. The
word is derived from ‘‘Pontus’’ (a mountain region in N. E. Asia Minor), because there, in
favorable habitats, one encounters some plants characteristic of the more southern and warmer
regions. In Europe such pontic plants are mostly considered as relics of a widely spread
steppe-flora in the diluvium, which withdrew by reason of a climatic change owing to the glacial
period or some other cause and survived only in favorable places. They form a counterpart
for the glacial relics, i. e., plants immediately following the ice-covering instead of fleeing from it.

1945} LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 117

sound of a lizard recalls one to reality, or the loud chirp of a swallow skimming
by is like a bit of reality which unexpectedly appears, passes through, and
vanishes from the small mysterious world of the mist.

It soon appeared that the real valley-bottom of this ravine is impassable.
Wherever one descends along the steep slopes, one reaches the margin of harm-
less-looking moss-coverings which, however, conceal treacherously deep crevices
and masses of decayed wood. It is almost impossible to penetrate more than
a few meters into the moss-covered area, except with the sacrifice of much time
and the possibly good chance for an unexpected fall. Deeply hidden under the
moss an unseen brook murmurs and gurgles. Most of the plants which are
common in the barren mountain-meadows occur here, but with a more robust
habit and larger size. In addition are two species of Dacrydium (nos. 2151,
2154) and a Podocarpus (no. 1789), a thick robust tree-shrub with small firm
leaves; the last genus does not occur here above the forest-limits. A fact
immediately attracting attention is the large number of hygromorphic plants,
the leaves of which are large and thin compared with those previously men-
tioned. This is most apparent in a species of omalanthus (no. 1801), a large
tree-shrub with the usual aspect of this genus, which looks strange in these sur-
roundings. It is also peculiar to find here an abundance of tall tree-ferns, three
or four species in the undergrowth. | obtained only one specimen representing
a moderately tall Alsophila aenetfolia v.\.v.R.* var. subglauca v.A.v.R.*, with
a trunk 4 m. tall and 13 cm. in diameter. In an earlier Fragment I mentioned
that van Nouhuys, in a ravine on the south side of the mountain at an altitude
of 3650 m., found a Cyathea with a trunk 3.5 m. high,?? while the Kremer Expe-
dition in 1921 brought photographs from the Upper Baliem Plateau (3300 m.)
and from the approaches to Wilhelminatop (base 4100 m.), in which are seen a
number of robust stunted plants which | take to be tree-ferns.

Among the shrubs and tree-shrubs in this ravine I also found a Symplocos
(no. 1803), a widely branching shrub 3 m. tall, with white flowers, Drimys
pachyphylla Diels*, likewise more robust than the specimens previously men-
tioned, Styphelia nutans J. J. Sm. var. axillaris J. J. Sm.*, aboug 1.5 m. tall,
with pale yellow-green flowers, Sericolea Lami O. C. Schm.* with white, and
Dimorphanthera parsifolia J. J. Sm.* with dark red flowers, Xanthomyrtus
longicuspis Diels (end.), with very noticeable golden-yellow flowers, and finally
Timonius avenis Val.* (end.) and one of the Araliaceae (no. 1735). The only
liana in this forest is one of the Araliaceae, perhaps a Schefflera (no. 1792), with
dingy light purple flowers, the corolla dropping off unopened; the petioles and
fruits showing the typical purple discoloration of mountain-plants. More or
less scandent, sometimes epiphytic, is Diplycosia Lami J. J. Sm.*; some other
representatives of this family are epiphytes, such as Rhododendron nummatum
J. Jae

The mossy covering forms a colorful layer under the trees, colorful particu-
larly on account of the flowers protruding from it. Here isa pretty Corysanthes
(no. 1779), a small plant with white stalk, white roots, and a bright purple
flower above the single leaf. In addition there are species of Glomera, such as
G. acutipetala J. J.Sm.and G. Pullet J. J.Sm.,and many plants of the previously
mentioned species of Mediocalcar, with its conspicuous red and violet-green
color. Other Orchidaceae (nos. 1776-7, 1780) found at lower altitudes were
also collected here. In addition to Astelia alpina R. Br., here growing in the

27 v7, Rosenstock, Nova Guinea VIII, 4 (1910), 716.

118 . SARGENTIA [5

moss are many ferns and species of Lycopodium, as L. clavatum L. (all temperate
zones and tropical subalpine territories) var. ftamariscispica v.A.v.R., a light
green plant creeping through and over the moss. Of the terrestrial ferns, |
mention Polypodium allocotum v.A.v.R.*, Dryopteris stereophylla v.A.v.R.*,
Hymenophyllum Reinwardtii v.d.B. (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, N. Guin.), and
Elaphoglossum sclerophyllum v.A.v.R.*, in which the lower surface of the
coriaceous fronds is entirely covered with a thick mass of brown sporangia.
Only as epiphytes | observe Polypodium subulatipinnum v.A.v.R.*, P. verni-
cosum v.A.v.R*, of which the upper surface of the fronds appears as if var-
nished, another species of Polypodium (no. 1786), and Pleopeltis gracilipes
v.A.v.R. Ona boulder protruding from the moss Pleopeltis cretifera v.A.v.R.*
grows. Finally | mention another epiphyte, Hydnophytum crassicaule Val.*,
with a black tuberous stem.

The smaller ravines on the north side of the plateau are shallower and the
vegetation on the floor is much less protected.** The forest does not grow to
any considerable height. When one moves westward from Radio-bivak
through the low shrubby forest in which the Dyaks had offered an egg-sacrifice,
one descends somewhat to the half marshy bare muddy areas limited on the
north by a beautiful small Casuarina forest and on the south by a low shrubby
slope; in front is a small elevation with a border of Casuarina plants at the
base, the slope being covered with Coniferae and Drimys. On the other side a
slope, covered with scattered shrubs (among others undetermined, no. 1749),
tall ferns (species of Gleichenia and Lycopodium tomentosum v.A.v.R.), and
grasses, descends to a small ravine. On this slope I observed a young Libo-
cedrus with a load of five heavy specimens of Myrmecodia, and the shrub
Polyosma longebracteolata O. C. Schm.* The nearer one approaches the bottom
of the ravine, the thicker the moss-layer becomes among the tall ferns, the more
hygrophilous ones being hidden in the mossy covering. | found here Tricho-
manes lasiophyllum v.A.v.R.* and T. compactum v.A.v.R.* var. pauperculum
v.A.v.R.*,?* with fronds curving downwards, just as in /Tymenophyllum nutantt-
folium v.A.v.R.* from Goenoeng Boetak (1420 m. alt.). Also concealed in the
moss are a number of Orchidaceae, such as Glomera fruticula J. J. Sm., Chitonan-
thera trigona J. J]. Sm., C. obovata J. J. Sm., and Peristylus ciliolatus J. J. Sm.,
all fragile plants frequently with very long stems, which seldom or never extend
above the moss (also no. 1712). The species of Glomera have beautiful dark
salmon-colored flowers; the finer ones of Chitonanthera show all variegations
of orange. All these plants seem to be entirely adapted to the life within the
moss-covering.

Below on this bushy slope is a place where the gray bare rock comes to the
surface. On the side the perpendicular wall is green with mosses (such as
Campylopodium euphorocladium, Braunfelsia subulata, Bryum por phyreoneuron
var. giganteum, Schlotheimia Lamu, and no. 1715, the last two fiery red in
color). The foot of the decline is surrounded by a growth of Gletchenia subulata
v.A.v.R.*; in front of it lies a small gently sloping gravelly field.*° This area
is covered with a few dense clumps of a grass (no. 1682) having rolled spear-like
blades and a few young plants of a very small Dipteris (D: novo-guineensis O.,

28 Vegetationsbilder XV, Pl. 29-31.
2° This type occurred as an epiphyte at Goenoeng Boetak (1420 m.).
39 Vegetationsbilder XV, PI. 29A.

1945} LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 119

Posth.*); *! it is further strewn with small pale rose fruiting bodies of a fungus
(no. 1714) and of a lichen, Baeomyces novoguinensis Zahlbr.*, as well as with
& plants of a species of moss, Dawsonta crispata; the 2 plants of this species
grow close to the surface of the slope and have very large capsules. Another
fungus (no. 1739) occurs on dead wood. The narrow ravine-floor shows little
new in the vegetation. Above on the margin, which descends steeply at this
point, is the shrub-like Alyxia Lamii Markgr.* On the ground itself ** various
robust ferns grow, such as Alsophila aenetfolia v.A.v.R.* This plant is the
type of the variety which was collected in the pontic ravine. In this much
more open, small ravine the plant, less than 1 m. tall, grows on a tree-trunk 4
dm. in length. Another tree-fern is Cyathea imbricata v.A.v.R.*, which is
3m. high (trunk 2 m.).. Much smaller but nevertheless still robust is Lomaria
revoluta v.A.v.R.,* attaining about the same size as the previously mentioned
Alsophila. Here Polypodium subpinnatifidum v.A.v.R.* grows as an epiphyte.
In some places the shrubs suddenly become dense; among them Coprosma
ulicoides Val.* is particularly conspicuous, with long thin branches leafy for
long distances and protruding high above the rest of the vegetation. Here also
is Quintinia Schlechteriana O. C. Schm.*, with pale green-yellow flowers, a
Litsea (no. 1747), with yellow-green flowers, and Sericolea Lami O. C. Schm.*,
with white ones. A Rubus (no. 1585), with long flexible sharp prickly branches,
twines through the shrubby growth, here and there adorned with its large
white flowers.

We shall presently leave the Radio-plateau and follow the changes taking
place in this flora at a still higher altitude. The trail used for the ascent to the
summit carries us over bare stone ridges and through a few marshes to the foot
of the enormous steep crumbling declivity (/7g. 20, c) cutting off the plateau on
the west side. Along the foot are still a number of robust Casuarina plants,
the branches covered with J/yrmecodia.*' The slope consists of a chaos of huge
boulders with deep crevices between them exceeding the height of a man, thus
forming a very irregular surface. The trail of trampled plants, of earth on
bare rocks, of scratches of hobnailed shoes on the stones is difficult to follow
but for the small flags—pieces of bandage-gauze tied to long stakes—which
were placed at regular intervals. In the beginning the distinctive marks were
very useful. Once lost among the boulders, one must frequently search a long
time for the lost trail, as the crevices between the boulders were so deep that
one had no view over the land. Eventually we knew each stone, each turn,
each jump, and it became a sport to cover this mighty rugged slope in record
time.

The flora here is very rich, a’ fact surely to be ascribed to the presence of the
crevices, not only because these offer shelter against the worst extremes of the
climate, but also because humus and plant-seeds collect therein as the rain-
water runs off the rocks. For this reason the crevices have a more or less thick
growth of shrubs. Strongly dominant here are Vaccinium (no. 1631), species

31 Tn British New Guinea is another high montane form about 2 dm. high which, according
to Seward, resembles the fossil species of Hausmannia, especially H. crenata Richter (of the
Rhaetic period) more than the living species of Dipteris. Perhaps there is reason to relate this
species, which is also found on Daymantop (Papua), to Dipteris (cf. Rec. Trav. Bot. Neer.
XXVa (1928), 244.

2 Vegetationsbilder.

33 Vegetationsbilder XV, Pl. 30-31.

34 Vegetationsbilder XV, Pl. 41.

120 SARGENTIA [5

of Rhododendron such as R. toxoides J. J. Sm.*, R. simulans J. J. Sm.*, and
R. Lamii J. J. Sm.*, and Diplycosia Lami J. J. Sm.*; these also are most con-
spicuous because of the usually red flowers. In addition one observes Styphelia
Vannouhuystt J. J..Sm., the Eurya (no. 1666) before-mentioned, with its stiff
branches all obliquely directed upward in one plane, Myrtaceae such as De-
caspermum Lamii Diels*, with yellow-white flowers and dark red fruits, closely
related to D. Lorentzit Lauterb. from the south side of the mountain, and
D. prostratum Diels* with pale cream-colored flowers; the last naturally occurs
only in open places between the rocks, not in the crevices. Here too are a few
species of Evodia, among others no. 1679 and EF. Doormani montis Lauterb.*,
a robust shrub with flowers wine-red outside and almost white within, and also
the small Haloragis fruticosa F. W. Went*, with dark gray bark and dark red
flowers. Other shrubs here are Ternstroemia papuana Lauterb.* (no. 1613),
or a species very closely related to it, with pale yellow flowers and red fruits,
Polyosma longebracteolata O. C. Schm.*, with curled leaf-margins, the flowers
green within and brown-hairy outside (I found here a double flower among
them), Drimys (no. 1630), and finally an undetermined shrub (no. 1627). Of
the conifers | observed only Phyllocladus (no. 1628), and a poor specimen of
Casuarina is practically the only plant which stands out above the profile of
the slope. Among the woody plants I mention finally the parasitic HWenslowia
acutata Pilger*. The vegetative parts of this plant, like those of Exocarpus,
show all colors from green-yellow to red, and its long thin stems grow as thick
and tangled over the host as, for example, Cassytha on the shore, or Cuscuta on
the Dutch heath. In contrast to the Loranthaceae, the two previously men-
tioned parasites, the santalaceous Henslowia and Exocarpus, fasten themselves
on the host at only one spot. The small flowers and fruits are a beautiful
warm dark red.

The herbs here are relatively few. In small flat places or in shallow crevices
are clumps of the beautiful Gahnia (no. 1748). Among the mosses on the mar-
gins of the small shrub-forests grow Chitonanthera obovata J. J. Sm. and Glomera
Pullei J. J}. Sm. Here and in more open places are a few other Orchidaceae,
such as Calanthe Versteegit J. J. Sm. (end.), with green-white flowers, and
particularly the beautiful Dendrobium vexillarius J. J. Sm. var. purpureo-viride
J. J. Sm. Higher up, the last becomes more common and is immediately
noticed because of its flowers. Each plant has a pair of erect flowers turned
toward each other, with the perianth-segments more or less spread in one level;
they are very large and of a peculiar color: very dark green with all shades to
lighter green and green-white.

Above us the slope suddenly becomes much more easily passable; the second
plateau is reached. Large flat rocks, small level patches of white sand, or
earth, dark-colored because of the presence of humus, offer an easy path over
this narrow saddle which, between two small elevations, leads to an indentation
of the plateau. Before us lies this widely undulating and forsaken world of
rocks; the brown color of the rock-formation dominates in the distance; but at
close range the eye is captivated by the lilac Patersonia, the yellow Myrtaceae,
the rose and cream-colored Styphelia, and the fiery red Ericaceae; Nepenthes
Vieillardii Hook. f., with its green and red pitchers and its brown flower-
clusters, contributes to the picturesqueness of the small alpine gardens. The
trail leads through an indentation (Fig. 20, t) wherein immediately again the
shrubs extend to the height of aman. Then it ascends again as a muddy track

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 121

clearly recognizable upon the rocks lying along the naked slope. When we
have climbed this trail the real summit (Fig. 20, e) lies open before us, on the
opposite side of a steep ravine sloping towards the north (Fig. 20, k).

Here the path carries us through a richly flowering forest of low trees with
small evergreen leaves, and some distance further through a small group of tall
and slender Casuarinae. Nepenthes is exceedingly common here on the bare
spots among flat stones. And, although we do not find a number of plants
which occur on Radio-plateau, it is not only impoverishment which changes
the floral picture. Thus here is the thin elegant Rhododendron extrorsum J. J.
Sm.*, with light gray branches, very few small leaves, and large wide-open light
citron-yellow flowers. The large Myrmecodia is exclusively terrestrial. Ap-
parently we are now above the range of the greatest frequency of this species,
the number of plants being smaller as well as the measurements of each
individual.

A high grassy saddle (Fig. 20, m) forms the link between the two parts of the
summit; here is the indentation which is seen from the plain. Among the tall
clumps of grass (no. 2027) and Cyperaceae such as Schoenus (no. 1691) on rain-
washed earth, a small Viola (no. 1673) grows; I had found a few scattered
specimens of it at lower altitudes; the plant is not more than 4-5 cm. tall,
with purple-striped white flowers and firm thick leaves. In the small stream-
lets which in some places flow over fine white sand, in others over stones
covered with thick layers of waving algae, I found a peculiar grass (no. 2029)
which forms small hard shaggy convex clumps not more than 4-5 cm. in diam-
eter and 2-2.5 cm. high, growing in the water or on the margin of it; the short
stiff leaves are sharp and the inflorescences of but one or two flowers scarcely
protrude above them, A small liverwort-like plant also grows here at the side
of the water.

In the small alpine gardens, Henslowia acutata Pilg.* is still very common;
also I observed here one very small specimen of Exocarpus Pullei Pilg.*, a single
stem a few decimeters tall, parasitic on the roots of a shrub. The few phyllo-
clades were thickly beset with galls.

The tallest tree-like plants are Casuarina and Phyllocladus (no. 1647), in a
small group at about 3500 m. altitude (where the path cuts the slope, cf. Fvg.
20); these trees are 2 to 3 m. tall. In that small forest are also Drimys fistulosa
Diels* and a few Ericaceae, all about 1.5 m. high. The ground is covered with
a thick moss-layer, and on the branches of the trees hang thick bunches par-
ticularly of red mosses, such as Schlotheimia pilicalyx, S. MacGregorit, Thysano-
mitrium MacGregorii, and no. 2034. In more open alpine gardens on the slope
and particularly in small hollows, where a thick moss-layer covers everything,
a number of smaller shrubs grow, such as Styphelia ‘trilocularis J. J. Sm. var.
guinguelocularis J. J. Sm., Evodia Doormani montis Lauterb.*, and a few Eri-
caceae such as Rhododendron simulans J. J. Sm.* and Vaccinium molle J. J. Sm.
Herbs are not at all scarce on this terrain. Euphrasia and three species of
Didiscus, D. aff. saniculifolius Stapf (no. 1659) and two others (nos. 1645, 1692,
1694), occur here. One (no. 1645) is a somewhat xeromorphic small plant
about 1 dm. tall, with the basal rosette of thick small leaves dark green above
and purple beneath; the petioles and peduncles are often purplish, the umbels
with flowers purplish outside, white within. One readily observes that young
parts protected from the light do not become purple; from this, it might be
deduced that the ability to develop this color is present definitely in the imma-

122 SARGENTIA [5

ture flowers. In the moss-covering I collected a fern (no. 2028), and on a rock
Polypodium trichocarpum v.A.v.R.*, a species observed at 2540 m. altitude.
The number of Orchidaceae here is still large. Mediocalcar crenulatum J. J.
Sm., with its deep red and green color, the light green Calanthe Versteegit
J. J. Sm., and the large-flowered dark and light green Dendrobium vexillarius
J. J. Sm. var. purpureo-viride J. J. Sm. grow here in undiminished numbers
and undiminished splendor. The last-named species in the floral parts is like-
wise strongly inclined to purple coloring under the influence of light. Should
this fact have been considered sufficient reason to establish a variety, it will
have to be reduced. The large Wyrmecodia occurs here but is continually less
in number and smaller in size. However, on mossy places the gray [Hydno-
phytum and Nepenthes are still common.

The ravine (Fig. 20, k) on the east side of the highest peak slopes very steeply
toward the north and is more continuously filled with shrub-groups. The
saddle, however, is devoid of all shrubs. Unexpected and surprising is the
scene which unfolds before him who climbs a few scores of meters higher to the
margin of the long narrow ridge sloping from Doormantop toward the south-
east. Before he arrives at the top, already a cutting wind blows in his face, and
a little later he stands on the margin of an enormous precipice which continues
from the southwest side of the summit some distance toward the west. As
the relatively regular and broad terrain rises on the north side to the outline
of the dominating Doormantop in the distance, so abruptly it falls on the south
side many hundreds of meters, bare, crumbling, and loose, with a slope of 60°
to 70° continuing unbroken 600 to 700 m., to where the tall forest with its
rounded tree-crowns covers the ridges. There below lie the rolling mountain
slopes of the Swart Valley in the luxuriant beauty of green forests and succulent
meadows under a mild sun. And thereafter crest after crest rises to the very
horizon, where the Central Chain cuts off the field of vision at a distance of
80 km., and where, small but clear, the perpetual snow-field of Wilhelminatop
glistens in the sunlight.

Before closing this Fragment, we shall once more cast a glance over this
impressive world of unspoiled beauty from the point at which one may enjoy
an uninterrupted view, Doormantop itself. And I shall finish this floristic
survey with a short sketch of the flora of that point, one of the highest in the
extensive surroundings. The fact that this open greatly exposed summit still
has a very large number of taller plants reminds us that we have not yet, at
this altitude, nearly reached the vegetation-limit in a region so close to the
equator as this. On the small plateau of the summit itself a low shrub-flora
grows, which, however, does not rise above the edges of the protecting clefts.
Among them we find three red-flowered Ericaceae, Rhododendron toxoides
J. J. Sm.*, R. gaultheriifolium J. J. Sm.*, and Vaccinium ctliatipetalum J. J.
Sm.*; in addition the thymelaeaceous Drapetes ericotdes Hook. f., with very
light cream-colored flowers, Styphelia Dekockii J. J. Sm., with rose flowers, the
large-flowered Oldenlandia coprosmoidea Val.*, with lilac campanulate flowers,
a firm-leaved compact Cynoglossum (no. 1658), Decaspermum Lamii Diels,
and the creeping Xanthomyrtus Klossii Diels var. brevipedunculata Diels*.
Nepenthes Vieillardit Hook. f. is still common here, likewise Euphrasia (no.
1644), Gentiana singgalangensis Back. (no. 1660), Cladium (no. 1667), and two
Orchidaceae, Microtatorchis terrestris J. J}. Sm. and M. Lamii J. J. Sm., with at
first light green flowers which later become yellow or yellow-orange. Finally

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 123

here is a species of grass (no. 1664), showing a strong purple color in all parts
exposed to light. This highest plateau has therefore 15 or 16 species of higher
plants, of which eight are shrubs; 16 species of the perhaps 8000 to 10,000 native
to New Guinea are suited to this habitat and thrive on the mountain-top. On
all sides below lie zones continually richer in species, and as soon as one de-
scends somewhat from the highest point, this richness of species increases at
once, because the stands are partly sheltered. Immediately one observes
shrubs 1-1.5 m. high. I find the light yellow Rhododendron extrorsum J. J.Sm.,
Evodia Doormani montis Lauterb.*, Styphelia Dekocku J. J. Sm., Drimys
fistulosa Diels*, Henslowia acutata Pilg.*, Phyllocladus (no. 1647), and so many
other species of shrubs and herbs which | have already mentioned above.
* *

A few ecologically important observations must be associated with this
floristic survey.

In the third Fragment | have mentioned in passing why Schimper’s xerophy-
tic theory cannot be accepted. However, at present we cannot offer any sub-
stitute explanation in its place which is as satisfactory as that proposed by
Schimper and, from the following brief observations, one may conclude from
the choc des opinions that the truth has not yet been discovered.

Senn,®> whom [ have already quoted a few times, comes to the following
conclusion in his article on the physiology of alpine and other plants: ‘So
diirfen wir die Mehrzahl der Alpenpflanzen jedenfalls nicht zu den Trocken-
pflanzen oder Xerophyten zahlen. Ihre bisher als xerophil aufgefassten mor-
phologisch-anatomischen Charaktere sind keine Gkologischen Anpassungen,
sondern notwendige Folgen der ni¢deren Temperatur und der hohen Lichtinten-
sitit; diese Faktoren sind es, und nicht die Trockenheit, welche ihre Wach-
stums- und Gestaltungsvorginge bedingen.”’ And rightly Blagowestschensky *
says at the end of his paper: ‘‘Zu einer richtigen Losung des Problems so-
genannter Schutzvorrichtungen, des Xeromorphismus und der Pflanzentypen
gegebener Standorte bedarf es einer weiteren Ansammlung von Tatsachen aus
dem Gebiet der vergleichenden Pfilanzenphysiologie, da die Ansiedlung der
Géwachse hauptsachlich durch innere Faktoren bestimmt wird.”” Indeed, we
must not look for an explanation of the adaptation of mountain-plants in the
field of morphology or of anatomy, but rather in that of physiology. Not in
the first place, as Schimper believed; but | still think we must be on guard and
not go to the other extreme of denying all influences of outward conditions on
form and structure. | believe that it is possible to indicate a number of mor-
phological peculiarities, even be they of secondary nature, which can be ex-
plained satisfactorily in no other way, but their importance is surely not pri-
mary. Therefore, one should not go further than to say that a certain xero-
morphy can be determined in some mountain-plants, but one can conclude
that plants in exposed situations are for the most part not hygrophytes in any
case. Fora number of plants the visible quantity of water is small; in addition
the low temperature works strongly as a limiting factor even though sufficient
water be present, as, for example, in the case of plants which root in moss-
cushions and which are exposed in part to temporarily strong dehydration

3G. Senn, Verh. d. Schweiz. Naturf. Ges. (1922), II, 154.
3% W. Blagowestschensky, Der osmotische Wert bei den Gebirgspflanzen Mittel-Asiens
Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot. LXV (1926), 279.

124 SARGENTIA [5
(radiation and wind). Also, resistance against great temperature-changes
must be present, and, although the plant resists these influences principally
through physiological adaptation, the outward form and the inner structure
have not remained uninfluenced.

In another place in the above-quoted article Senn says: ‘‘Da jedoch das
IXKlima in bedeutenden Hoéhen iiber dem Meeresspiegel in allen Erdteilen die
charakteristischen Merkmale unseres Alpenklimas aufweist, werden sich ver-
mutlich auch die Pflanzen anderer Hochlander durch ahnliche physiologische
Eigentiimlichkeiten auszeichnen wie diejenige der Alpen, wenigstens da, wo wie
bei uns, die Niederschlage reichlich bemessen sind.’’ It must be admitted that
this assertion contains much truth, but I still believe that one must use fore-
sight in establishing analogies between plants of temperate and of tropical
mountains. Previously, errors have been made in the field of plant-geography
through the application of the laws known to apply to temperate floras, without
further research on their application to that of the tropical mountains; such
remarks as the one mentioned above show that one could take the same road
in the ecological-physiological field. Apart from the fact that an altitude of
3000-3500 m. in an equatorial region is not comparable with that in the Alps,
where Senn experimented (namely, 2450 m., i. e. 300 m. above tree-limit, which
lies at about 3800-4000 m. in the tropics), seasonal changes in temperate regions
clearly provide a point of difference which is very important. The winter there
has a strongly limiting influence on the summer-flora. In addition, the range
between high and low temperatures in the tropics is quite different (cf. Frag-
ment II, Table I).

A short discussion of what more recent researches have indicated in this
field must here find a place. Senn found that alpine individuals of a species
not only can withdraw more water from the earth than those of the lowland,
but also that they can transpire more strongly independent of light-intensity,
at least in a temperature lower than 6° C.57 On the other hand, experiments
have proved that alpine plants in drought remain turgid longer than lowland
plants under—mutatis mutandis—similar circumstances. This can be the re-
sult of the ability thereby either to inhibit strong evaporation or to transfer
water more quickly, and also by less water-content of the soil, or possibly of
both. I shall herewith point out that this is truly an adaptation in a xerophytic
direction, and when it can be demonstrated that the stopping of evaporation—
be it only in part—is made possible through the peculiarity of form or structure
(and therefore not only through the closing of the stomata), then one would be
able to speak certainly of more or less xeromorphy in such a case. In this
connection I shall therefore recall that, with reference to this question, the gist
of the xerophytic theory also is touched. One thinks only of so many xero-
phytic epiphytes and desert plants, in which the water-accommodation is the
entire governing factor, and it becomes important to examine in such plants,
or in truth in such matters, the ‘‘bisher als xerophil aufgefassten morphologisch-
anatomischen Charaktere’’; indeed correlations by younger authors show the
indicated physiological adaptation. Besides Senn, Maximov ** has demon-
strated, for steppe-plants, that those plants in drier places have a stronger
water-transportation, a stronger transpiration, and a higher root-pressure.

*7 Again a temperature at the indicated altitude which in the tropics is encountered only very
temporarily and locally.

88N. A. Maximov, Physiologisch-dkologische Untersuchungen tiber die Diirreresistenz der
Xerophyten. Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot. LXIT (1923), 128.

1945} LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA Zo

Turesson *® has therefore rightly pointed out the difficulty: that all these ex-
periments were done not with hereditary units, but with populations. He
therefore experimented with pure lines of alpine and arctic plants and found
that there exist hereditary differences between ecotypes of the same species.
He demonstrated that alpine plants have a much lower plasmolysis-limit and
therefore lower osmotic pressure in the roots than lowland forms, so that the
stronger osmotic suction-force unquestionably shown in alpine plants can be
induced only as a modification, for example by temperature and light, and
therefore is not hereditary. In themselves, therefore, alpine plants can be
considered to be much less able to utilize the available water than lowland
plants, and a hereditary strong suction-force of the roots is an adaptation of the
utmost importance for mountain-plants. Turesson also refuted the opinion
of Blagowestschensky that each systematic species would have its own osmotic
pressure, although the critic admits that the osmotic pressure in some species
is extraordinarily constant, whereas in others it can vary within certain limits.
He notes too that xeromorphy and high osmotic pressure need not occur to-
gether. I believe, however, that Turesson’s opinion that the higher suction-
force of alpine plants would be induced by light and temperature requires
further confirmation. According to my idea, the question is whether one must
not think rather of a direct, or, if need be, an indirect influence of evaporation ;
such apparently is the case in steppe-plants. Even if Senn demonstrated, by
comparative evidence from alpine and lowland plants, that the first sometimes
possess a more intensive water-transport, | shall still maintain that the progress
of many other life-processes has no other significance than that the optimum
for alpine plants is much lower than for plants of the lowland, similarly, as
we shall see, with relation to the discoloration of flowers. This related in
particular to carbon dioxide assimilation and transpiration.
2 “k

*

I have inserted these theoretical considerations first, to call attention to the
doubt and uncertainty which exists at present in this field of plant-geography,
and second, to mention some of the modern ideas regarding the solution of the
problems by quoting some of the recent authors. We shall now return to
Doormantop and consecutively subject the various ecological factors of this
high mountain-territory to a brief consideration.

From table I of Fragment II one sees that the observed minimum tempera-
ture on Radio-plateau (under the shade of a pent-house 0.5 m. above the
ground) amounted to 8.4° C. Lower temperatures, however, doubtless occur
near the earth, as witnessed by the hoarfrost which was seen a few times at
sunrise after a clear night.

The observed minimum relative condition of humidity amounted to 51%,
mostly, however, values between 80 and 100% were obtained. On high sum-
mits in Java much lower minima (6%) have been observed.*®

That the light here is very intense is evident, among other reasons, from the
shorter exposure-time necessary in photography. A short time ago Denis
Mulder, in an interesting article,’ has shown that the ultraviolet rays increase

39 Géte Turesson, Untersuchungen tiber Grenzplasmolyse- und Saugkraftwerte in verschie-
denen 6kotypen derselben Art.—Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot. LXVI (1927), 723.

40 See F. C. von Faber, Die Kraterpflanzen Javas in physiologisch-oecologischer Beziehung
——Arbeiten aus dem Treub-Laboratorium I (1927), 29, fig. 4.

41 Handelingen 4de Ned. Indisch Natuurwetenschappelijk Congres, Weltevreden, 1926, p.
Sie

126 SARGENTIA [5

both quantitatively and qualitatively with increasing altitude, whereas the
ultrared heat-rays decrease in the same measure. The ultraviolet rays are
most important, not only for the photographic plate, but also for living things,
and one may accept that they particularly form the active agent in the retard-
ing influence of light on the growth in length. Among the plants recorded |
have mentioned beautiful examples of this. Species of Gentiana, Didiscus,
Glomera, and Chitonanthera grow as tall as their surrounding or shading flora
as well as in the shade of shrubs, and therefore reach an unusual length, whereas
on open land they remain unusually small. Proportional differences of more
than twelve to one were noted in this connection. This influence of light pre-
vails in much stronger measure for the vegetative than for the floral parts.
In a specimen of Gentiana (no. 1623) growing in a shaded habitat, | found the
relative length of the plant to be 12.5 times the diameter of the flower, while in
a specimen growing on open ground the relation was 3.3.. The length of the
plant in the latter instance was 2/15 of that of the former. The diameter of the
flower was reduced one-half. Doubtless herein we may find the explanation for
the previously mentioned fact that the relative size of the flower increases with
the altitude. Asa nice example I earlier listed the different species of the genus
Argostemma (A. nanum Kk. Schum.—A. Lamii Val.—A. montis Doormanni
Val.) which succeed each other in the different altitudinal zones of the slope;
each has relatively (and perhaps absolutely) larger flowers than the preceding
one. It would be worth while to consider whether, when mountain-species are
transferred to lower levels, their flowers also would become relatively smaller.

Another phenomenon, which must be attributed to the influence of light, is
the formation of purple (red) coloring matter (anthocyanin), mentioned above
as occurring in exposed plant-parts. I have noticed similar discolorations in
some grasses (no. 1664), Dendrobium vexillarius J. J. Sm., Gentiana, Didiscus,
Decaspermum prostratum Diels, Euphrasia (only the vegetative parts), and
some species of Drimys. With respect to this matter I have observed, par-
ticularly in Gentiana, that the parts which have been covered by others—as
parts of the corolla by the calyx-lobes—remain practically white not only in
naturally white flowers, but also in the cobalt-blue ones of the gentian. The
critical period in the formation of anthocyanin is very early in the development
of the part; the color appears only in the young exposed parts, while in parts
at first almost covered, but later exposed to light, this is not the case. Not
only the flowers but also the vegetative parts are sensitive to the formation of
anthocyanin, though in a lesser degree, and this can develop so far that the
whole plant becomes more or less purple. 1 could also note that individuals of
some species near the highest point of the summit (3500 m.) clearly possessed
more purple color than those of Radio-plateau (3330 m.), and that near
Uitzicht-bivak (3120 m.) in a number of species the coloring matter was en-
tirely lacking, whereas higher up these species were definitely colored. Accord-
ing to Bouget,” the discoloration in flowers at greater altitudes is the rule,
always tending to violet. The optimum for different species, however, may
vary greatly; for some it is found at low altitudes, these frequently becoming
white-flowered at higher altitudes, while others exhibit their strongest color-
form at high altitudes. The classic work on this subject is that of Bonnier.* It

” J. Bouget, Observations sur optimum d’altitude pour la coloration des flears—Compt.
Rend. Acad. Sciences Paris CLX XIV (1922), 1723.
“8G, Bonnier, Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. XX (1895), 217.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 127

is also discussed in an article of Weisse,*! which gives a summary of the literature
which has been published on color-variation of flowers under the influence of
external conditions. Some see in the presence of this coloring matter—also in
young leaves—a protection against high temperatures through radiation, at
least as, far as it concerns the vegetative parts, since the red color does not
absorb the red heat rays. Others ® deny this, and think the development of
anthocyanin is a direct result of the allied processes of carbonic acid assimila-
tion. Perhaps therefore the explanation of alpine coloring must be explained
otherwise, since we have seen that the heat-rays are much weaker than the
ultraviolet ones.. Possibly the occurrence of strongly shining leaves in some
shrubs and even ferns (Pleopeltis vernicosum v.A.v.R.) is a defense-medium
against too strong light-rays.

An adaptation against the drying-out effects of the wind is the presence of
very thick fleshy scales on young buds, and in addition these buds are usually
surrounded by the erect youngest leaves. The most general phenomena point-
ing in the same direction are: leaves closely pressed against the stem pointing
upward (Drimys, Eurya, Styphelia, Rhododendron) and often rolled up (Drimys
fistulosa Diels, grasses, Gleichenia vulcanica BL.) or folded together (Cladium,
Patersonia); the plants on exposed places do not grow outside of the crevices;
others form cushions (grasses, Schoenus, a few Rubiaceae, also Gahnia toa lesser
extent); some possess hairy leaves or fronds (Rubus, Gleichenia vulcanica Bl.
var. plumosa v.A.v.R., Potentilla, Lycopodium tomentosum v.A.v.R.); while a
number of herbs have water-storing tissue (EHuphrasia, Gentiana, Viola, Didis-
cus, Myrmecodia, Hydnophytum, many Orchidaceae). This. last-named cate-
gory is still the most xeromorphic, but it is at once clear that most of these are
not xerophytes; moreover, a number of plants which sometimes may be found
xeromorphic can thrive as mesophytes (perhaps even be hygrophytic) and in
another place also can live as true xerophytes. A mountain-peak, such as this,
is not a habitat where we must expect real xerophytes, for in the first place
xerophytic life is adapted to dryness, and there is no question of that here.
True, there may be a few hours each day when a very strong wind may produce
ereat atmospheric dryness; but almost everywhere there is enough water in the
soil so that only a slight adaptation is sufficient to help the plant through these
hours. And the temperature is not low enough so that one can speak Of.a
strong ‘‘physiological drought.”’

The fact that the leaves of almost all shrubs here are firm (though often
brittle)—which earlier was considered as a xerophytic adaptation—seems to me
more a response to the strong wind (strengthened mechanical tissue).

| have already mentioned that a large number of true hygrophytes occur here.
First there are the plants living entirely within the moss-cushions, such as
Trichomanes compactum v.A.v.R., T. lasiophyllum v.A.v.R., and a few species
of Glomera and Chitonanthera. The moss itself, which absorbs the capillary
water, naturally belongs to this group. In protected places we find even tall-
growing hygrophytes, such as a species of Homalanthus and tree-ferns, which |
encountered in the pontic ravine.

Finally I should like to point out a fact which I have been unable to explain:
the frequency of either light gray or black as the color of the bark of most
shrubs (not to be confused with the same colors caused by lichens).

In recapitulation | supply here the accompanying ecological table:

44.A\, Weisse, Verh. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenb. LXV (1923), 31.
4 Cf, G. L. Funke, Ann. du Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, XL (1929), 52.

Favorable factors

Unfavorable factors

Much water and high
relative humidity

Strong radiation

Low temperature
(strong radiation)

Strong wind !

Physical results

Slight evaporation

Local and short
periods of high
temperature

Strong evaporation

Low average tempera-
ture in ground and moss-
cushions (= 10° C.)

Strong evaporation,
locally low
temperature

Physiological results
in view of:
a. Water-transport

Little transpiration of
absorbed water or none

Easy absorption of water from the soil

Difficult absorption of
water from the soil 2.

Transpiration of much
absorbed water

b. COs Assimilation

Strong transpiration
(stomata open)

Strong

Retarded (delayed) 2

Retarded

c. Growth

Retarded

Retarded 2

Retarded, plants re-
stricted to crevices

d. Tendril-movement

Nyctitropism (and positive thermotropy?)

e. Transpiration

Strong (stomata open)

Optimum prevention
at low temperature

Slight (stomata closed)

Adaptations

Thin tissues, little
mechanical tissue;
many leaves

Shining leaves

Purple coloring of flowers and vegetative parts

Small thick leaves with
much mechanical tissue
and/or water-tissue; few
leaves; leaves compact,
rolled, folded together,
or hairy; fleshy bud-
scales; cushion-shape

Few small hard thick leaves; small-sized plants; strong root-pressure;
strong resistance to withering; strong transpiration

1 Gentle trade-winds; the local winds of short duration, preceding a rain, are here dominant.
* Here it is observed that a number of plants perhaps take the optimum for these processes, just as is apparent for transpiration, at relatively low

temperatures.

8c

VIINADY VS

s]

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 129

This survey is far from complete; for instance, here are lacking the physio-
logical factors of seasonal influence, temperature changes, slope, atmospheric
pressure, etc., the action of all of which is still less completely known than is
the case with the factors discussed above. It is therefore another indication
of our insufficient knowledge of this interesting field of plant-geography, and
possibly will be a stimulation for others to study these problems further.

* *
*

The classification of my collection at the moment does not permit dealing
amply with the problems of genetical plant-geography, to which the flora of a
high mountain-summit such as Doormantop should give the opportunity. In
expectation of a later study, I must therefore limit myself to a few general
observations.

Above the forest-limit I collected 304 numbers. Of these 18 are algae, six
lichens, 31 mosses, three fungi, 26 ferns, and nine lycopods—altogether 93
cryptogams. In the remaining 211, four numbers are still undetermined as to
the family. The whole can be divided as follows:

INCE Cenininat ace aes ee ere arcs, fe ene oases Rene afe seat crane cuosanenr ers eeoecein sr omnes 4
Cryptogamisr:: 324 eee ig 1k ae a RL eros eee a eae hee eR Os aa 93
Gymmnosperms: Coniferae. ... 0.0.6... ccc cence tener te eee e ene ene 9
Angiosperms
Monocotyledons:
CH IAAGE AC erties hate sega de iad 4 cae aas aga oe aan Cereus atl . 54
Gri C AC I are tense tee ee Gas gee ynpeenctins Maemo maton ented 8
Pe Opetarene. 6. one 2 oe is en eens Raat ene teed Se Sees 5
Pepe re ee a ain rest egal Gnghohd Beceahn Mabel ote ts & 2
Aric ace CT tn Pea aod De Oa hint ety oo Ste po ning a ba cea e's G 5G 1
PACA ACEA CHR Peta eRe M Rass she Say hina ie fies ae rity A mbes te 1
Plechl
Dicotyledons:
ERIGACEAC MENTE eI ee, acca ithe Ott ah cetera eee wien OAR cee metee 29
Ri biacese eee cer es eT BR See SO Ee perks te hes 15
RUE AMCR ys he ths Bede Te AOE SOX Ra ens PU SY 9
Hie. arg (tr: arin, oe ant eee ee ere erent kar ac) 8
Erie) eo i ee a oe eer ee eee ee er ee ree 7
L Elba ale cldEL i= e2 1 tye teeta Seenee RSeee gee Aaa ee Mote eae mek eet ear 6
POOR V AA EAC oe 8s OU a Oe Re Pay Clee Hk SOAR EM PR ees 4
PCOS eh cr ae ee as ete ER's wtb crane We SURO G ane SS 4
Gentian naCede seer ee ree to are Ne ih tag ote pecismee ee aay Riv dec eSpace 8 4
RTL EACEA 6 ean I oes 6 ce ete MO A Aa Na Ss cases See nN 8 4
TA Fei 1 oe ar ea ta Ae ads a ee To enc OR or Brig 4
Sepel ie tc (oo: | ee ne ae aire re Cee Oo reicr a oy Te sere ker 4
BlACOCATPACEIe: (eaclsas See canes ts Eee genes gee pepe ent ae es 3
PRO SACEAC eich atic Fete tee te creat cha een Wcnisbad armawegtc ts 3
Syiiplocaceae.2.cu.tes)s)s eho, Cea ees Vas OR aes eae 3
TernStrOCINIACCAG sete Pe ctu cshinctactn Spay BI ic Meee a) SE OE eden aye cecil eeu ake Riss 3
ATAliACCAC ee re ee REE theese eS A ooh yaad ears 2
Borne igteae a ee ae oe Te ee Men a erage hes 2
(SAS IA TINACCAG Tee ee ci ies ene dee, Seems Le ai ede Nets eS 2
Nepenthaceae 255 shkence eee 1 a ho eae OOO ew AMO Ste aS Oe ea 2
Sermohilatiaceaé: . .o...452: 2s pon os sp eee ee ew eee he oe Rs Foe ncaa 2
Pact rea at ee ec an see he oe te ene Ws eee OO RN 1
Puohorviaceae. 60a. cee ope es Hee gk eietenae Aiea thw Yad pale Tate es 1
GOODEN IACCAC ee re tea aot RT ear et S lend SANE? ate eT 1
Halorasateae. oi yeaa oti es pane eh arene aes ete pte Shee 1
USES WY gover: Vc Poise et rae OTTERS Te oa rng er ar see 1
Whimiciacaceae 9.1. poe oe eee ak ae eae ns Ae RRA: 1
ie ee eR i tee eT ee eh RIAA OO nee Sy I
1 Sees

130 SARGENTIA [5

While we may suppose that the number of species is divided about propor-
tionally in the major groups, then the Coniferae would be 4.4% of the Phanero-
gams (the real numbers show a much larger representation), the Monocotyle-
dons 34.3%, and the Dicotyledons 61.3%.

For a long time, apparently under Wallace’s influence, the idea was accepted
that New Guinea was a land that was populated on the one hand from the
Asiatic continent and on the other from Australia. The idea was so fascinating
that one scarcely thought of the possibility of a native fauna and flora, at least
in part. The result was that one spoke almost exclusively of the Asiatic and
Australian forms when specimens of the New Guinean fauna and flora were
received for examination.

Even if New Guinea in its modern form is still young in geological terms, in
such a gigantic country one may expect without doubt a certain and probably
an important amount of independence. I think that Schlechter “ was the
first to suggest (in connection with the Orchidaceae) that New Guinea itself
has been and still is a center of development and distribution. Moreover,
many genera, which earlier passed for Australian, can with more right be
counted as belonging to the native flora of New Guinea. In a lesser degree,
this is also the case with a number of Asiatic (Malaysian) and Polynesian forms.
As an example of this Schlechter mentioned the genus Corysanthes, of which
at present New Guinea has the largest number of species.

Ridley,*? under whose guidance the botanical collections of the Wollaston
Expedition were organized, and Miss Gibbs,’ who has investigated the plant-
geography of a high mountain of New Guinea in detail, both agree with this
opinion. On good grounds the latter vindicates the position that the island is
the center of distribution for many other plant-groups besides the Orchidaceae.
Her most forcible arguments are (1) the richness in species, (2) the great dif-
ferentiation of forms, and in particular (3) the wide distribution of endemic high
mountain-plants. As examples of the first two she names Libocedrus, Drimys,
and Myrtus, whereas Pandanus, Freycinetia, Rhododendron, Vaccinium, and
Styphelia show a richness of forms exceeded in few other regions. Instances of
the wide distribution of mountain-plants, on the basis of my collection at
present, cannot be given, although | shall indicate here species of Gahnia,
Riedelia, Didiscus, Gentiana, Dacrydium, Styphelia, Rhododendron, and Vac-
cintum, and a number of Orchidaceae such as Dendrobium Vannouhuysii, etc.
Meanwhile, we may consider that the flora of Doormantop will furnish new
arguments in favor of Miss Gibbs’ position. Rightly she points out that
Didiscus positively is an example of the original and relatively ancient period
of the New Guinean flora; the oldest type occurs here and toward the west,
the younger to the east and south.

Therefore, coming to the conclusions to be drawn from my collections, |
shall once more point out that, lacking determinations at this time, it is possible
to make only a few definite statements. Sometime | hope to have the oppor-
tunity to write more accurately on this subject. Provisionally I should like to
treat the flora of Doormantop as composed of the following elements: (1)
endemic species and genera with New Guinea as a probable center of develop-

46 R. Schlechter, Die Orchidaceen von Deutsch Neu-Guinea (1911-1914), I, 14, XX.

‘7H. N. Ridley, Report on the Botany of the Wollaston Expedition to Dutch New Guinea—
Trans. Linn. Soc. London, II, Bot. IX, 1 (1916), 9.

#6 L.S. Gibbs, A Contribution to the Phytogeography and Flora of the Arfak Mountains, &c.
(London, Taylor & Francis, July 1917), 39-49.

1945} LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA Lol

ment and distribution; (2) species of Asiatic origin or relationships; (3) species
of Polynesian origin or relationships; (4) species of Australian origin or rela-
tionships; (5) species known only on high mountain-peaks, frequently far
remote from each other.

I intend to include the following plants *° in these different groups:

I. Endemic genera or genera with New Guinea as the probable center of
distribution, or at least with a strong differentiation there.
1. Libocedrus—circum-Pacific, particularly New Guinea.
2. Chitonanthera—endemic.
3. Corysanthes—particularly New Guinea, also Australia, some species in the western
part of the Archipelago.

4. Glomera—tropical Asia, Polynesia, America, strongly developed in New Guinea.

5. Mediocalcar—New Guinea, also Amboina.

6. Microtatorchis—New Guinea, New Caledonia, and Fiji.

7. Octarrhena—endemic.

8. Pedilochilus—endemic.

9, Phreatia—particularly New Guinea, westward to Asia, eastward to Polynesia.

10. Riedelia—particularly New Guinea, also some species westward.

11, Didiscus—particularly New Guinea, some species also in the west, in Australia and in

Polynesia.

. Dimorphanthera—about 30 species in New Guinea, one in Amboina, and two in the
Philippines.

13. Sericolea—endemic.

14. Xanthomyrtus—endemic. [Philippine Islands, Borneo]

—
)

t

II. Species and genera with western (northern) relationships (see also V for
* species and genera).
*1. Gleichenia vulcanica Bl.—Archipelago.
*2. Lycopodium complanatum L.—Northern hemisphere and tropical alpine regions.
3. Libocedrus—circum-Pacitic.
4. Podocarpus—Eastern Asia, Africa.
5. Peristylus— Madagascar, Abyssinia to New Guinea.
6. Acronychia—Asia—Polynesia.
7. Alyxia—Archipelago.
8. Cynoglossum—Northern hemisphere.
9. Decaspermum—Archipelago.
*10. Drapetes ericoides Hook. f.—New Guinea, North Borneo.
11. Elaeocarpus—Archipelago.
12. Eurya—East Asia.
13. Evodia—Asia (the New Guinean species, however, perhaps related to eastern species?).
*14. Gentiana—Northern hemisphere.
15. Henslowia—Archipelago.
16. Homalanthus—Archipelago.
17. Hydnophytum—Asia—Polynesia.
18. IJex—Northern hemisphere.
19, Litsea—Archipelago.
20. Myrmecodia—Asia—Polynesia.

49 For this the following literature is used:
Engler & Gilg, Syllabus d. Pflanzenfamilien, 7th ed. (1912).
L. S. Gibbs, |. c. (Phytogeography of the Arfak Mountains).
, Notes on the Phytogeography and Flora of the Mountain Summit Plateaux of
Tasmania—Journ. of Ecology VIII (1920), 1, 90.
E. D. Merrill, A bibliographic Enumeration of Bornean Plants—Journ. Roy. As. Soc. Str.
Branch, Spec. Number, Sept. 1921.
————, Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants, I-IV (1923-26), particularly part IV,
pp. 77-105 (Floristic relationships of the Philippines).
H. N. Ridley, Report on the Botany of the Wollaston Expedition, etc.—Trans. Linn. Soc.
London, II, Bot. LX, 1 (1916).
Nova Guinea, Botanique.

132

ITT.

Done wre

IV.

SARGENTIA [5

. Polyosma—Archipelago.

. Potentilla—Northern hemisphere.

. Rhododendron—Northern hemisphere and tropical alpine region.
. Rubus—Northern hemisphere.

. Syzygium—Asia,

. Ternstroemia—Eastern Asia.

. Timonius—Asia—Polynesia.

. Vaccinium—Northern hemisphere and tropical alpine regions.

. Viola—Northern hemisphere.

Species and genera with eastern relationships.

. Glomera—Asia, New Guinea, Polynesia, America.

. Microtatorchis—New Guinea, New Caledonia, Fiji.

. Casuarina—Archipelago, New Guinea, Australia, New Caledonia.

. Mearnsia—One Philippine species, one in New Guinea, and one in New Caledonia.

. Nepenthes Vieillardii Hook. f.—New Guinea, New Caledonia.
Quintinia—Philippines (one species), Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia.

Species and genera with southern relationships (see also V for * species
and genera).

. Lycopodium scariosum Forst.—Mindanao, Australia, New Zealand.
. Dacrydium—Tasmania and New Zealand, also a few in the western part of the
Archipelago.
. Libocedrus—circum-Pacific.
. Phyllocladus—Tasmania, New Zealand, one species in North Borneo and Luzon.

. Astelia alpina R. Br. —Australia.

. Cladium—Particularly Australia, eight species westward to the Philippines.

. Corysanthes—Australia, some species extending to the western Archipelago.

. Gahnia—Southern hemisphere, some species in the Archipelago (G. psittacorum Lab.:
Australia, Tasmania).

. Patersonia—Australia, some species extending to North Borneo.

. Schoenus—Particularly Australia, four species westward to the Philippines.

. Casuarina—Archipelago, Australia, New Caledonia.

. Coprosma—Australia, New Guinea, North Borneo.

. Didiscus—New Guinea, Australia, one species in Mindoro and North Borneo.

. Drapetes—Australia, west to Kinabalu (Borneo) (D. ericoides Hook. f.).

. Drimys—Australia, South America, one North Borneo-Luzon species.

. Euphrasia—(related to E. borneensis Stapf of North Borneo and Luzon and to species
from New Zealand).

. Exocarpus—14 species in Australia and Polynesia, some extending into the Western
Archipelago and the Philippines.

. Haloragis—60 species in Australia, some west to southeast Asia and Japan.

. Quintinia—15 species: New Guinea—Australia—New Zealand—New Caledonia,
one Philippine species.

. Scaevola—Australia.

. Styphelia—240 species in Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, six species in the
Archipelago.

V. Species and genera of high mountain peaks.
The following plants already named in II and IV and indicated by an
asterisk are known especially from high mountain-summits, which fre-
quently are far apart.

. Gleichenia vulcanica BI. 10. Drapetes ericoides Hook. f.
. Lycopodium complanatum L. 11. Drimys
. Lycopodium scariosum Forst. 12. Euphrasia
. Astelia alpina R. Br. 13. Gentiana
Gahnia 14. Potentilla
. Patersonia 15. Rhododendron
Coprosma 16. Vaccinium
. Cynoglossum 17. Viola

. Didiscus (saniculifolius Stapf)

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA i Be

It has been long known that the ‘‘islands”’ of alpine flora in the Archipelago
have species nearly related to or even identical with species of northern regions,
for example, from the Himalaya Mountains, and scientists have tried to find
an explanation for this. A very early theory, apparently originating after the
analogy of glacial relics, was that the glacial periods could have given such
plants opportunity to transfer themselves via the lower lying regions from one
mountain-peak to the other. Wegener *® and others have, however, made
apparent that the drift in this part of the tropics has been only of lesser sig-
nificance. Later the influence of the trade-winds over high mountain-summits
was considered. Miss Gibbs * has pointed out the relationship between the
flora of high Mount Kinabalu in North Borneo and that of mountain-plateaus
of Tasmania with the flora of high mountains in New Guinea; and Merrill ©
has noted that a number of species on Kinabalu also occur on high summits in
the Philippines. In her publication on the Arfak Mountains (l.c. p. 46), Miss
Gibbs has focused attention on the possibility of wind-transport of objects,
much heavier than most seeds, over great distances, while in her article on
Tasmania (I. c. p. 104) she mentions a report by Griffith Taylor ® on meteoro-
logical conditions in the Archipelago investigated in the interests of an air-
service between Asia and Australia. In two illustrative diagrams, ‘T’aylor very
clearly presents the dominant upper and lower winds in January and July and
indicates that, above 3000 m. altitude, a strong polar wind blows over New
Guinea the whole year; it also blows above Melbourne at 1200 m. altitude and
apparently extends over the South Pole to South America. Miss Gibbs thinks
that the connection between these and the occurrence of some plants (Drimys,
Libocedrus, Glomera, Styphelia) in both Australia and South America is not
necessarily problematical; whereas, it is very possible that plants (Khododen- -
dron, Vaccinium, Gentiana, Potentilla, Rubus, Euphrasia) may be transported
from the Himalaya Mountains via isolated peaks in the Archipelago toward
New Guinea and Australia by the northwest monsoon, and then by the con-
tinuous wind mentioned above. Nevertheless, the wind must blow likewise
in a westerly and northerly direction—and then apparently lower—as witness
the occurrence in New Guinea of the Australian Astelia alpina R. Br., of the
New Caledonian Nepenthes Vieillardii Hook. f., and particularly note the New
Guinean species which also occur on Kinabalu and in the Philippines (Drapetes,
Drimys, Didiscus), and still farther to the west are species of Haloragis, Exo-
carpus, Styphelia, Corysanthes, Quintinia, Dacrydium, Phyllocladus, Patersonta,
and Scaevola. This does not mean that all plants are spread by the wind.
For a number of species genetic phytogeographical factors must be considered,

60 A. Wegener, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, 3rd ed. (1922), 86—See also
Irmscher, Pflanzenverbreitung und Entwicklung der Kontinente—Mitt. a. d. Inst. fiir Allgem,
Botanik in Hamburg, V. (1922), 29.

61 |. S. Gibbs, A Contribution to the Flora and Plant Formations of Mount Kinabalu and the
Highlands of British North Borneo—Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. XLII, no. 285 (1914), 1—See
alsoId. Phytogeogr. Tasmania, |. c., and O. Stapf, On the Flora of Mount Kinabalu in North
Borneo—Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot. II, IV (1893), 69.

8 E, D. Merrill, Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants, IV (1926).

83 Air Routes to Australia—Geogr. Review VII (1919), 259, figs. 1-3.

54 According to C. Braak (Het Klimaat van Nederlandsch-Indié, I, 1923-25, p. 75), easterly
winds blow above Batavia from May to October at all levels from 1000 to 7000 m. altitude.
In November these still blow above 2000 m., whereas below that height westerly winds prevail.
From December to April westerly winds blow up to an altitude of 4000 to 6000 m., and above
that easterly ones prevail.

134 ; SARGENTIA [5

as, for example, Nepenthes Vieillardii Hook. f. Danser © is of the opinion that
this species originated apparently before New Caledonia was separated from
New Guinea. The most primitive forms of the genus occur in India (proper)
and a general direction of distribution must be accepted from west to east.

In these considerations | make some provisional assertions on which it may
be possible to build later. I should like to draw attention for a moment to the
possibility of distribution by powerful cyclones which sometimes arise between
North Australia and the southeast part of the Archipelago, and also between
the Philippines and the continent of Asia.** If this communication proves to be
an inducement to initiate the study of plant-geography in the Archipelago, |
shall think its aim is largely accomplished. Up to now this important branch
of science has been the subject of research by few. It is understandable that,
although the zodgeography of the Archipelago has been studied more than 75
years, the much less surveyable field of plant-geography began to be developed
only a very short time ago; nevertheless, I believe that the time has come and
that there is at present a sufficient amount of material to test the results of
geology and zoégeography by possible conclusions drawn from the dispersal
and the mutual relationships of plants.

I shall close this discussion with a quotation from Miss Gibbs’ article on
Tasmania: *7

“The mountains of New Guinea, therefore, on the strength of both geological
and meteorological data, may be considered as the focus of development and
distribution of the so-called ‘antarctic’ plants, justifying the term Papuan
austral-montane for this group, of which, even on the limited basis of our pres-
ent knowledge, nearly one-half of its most characteristic genera are now known
from New Guinea. This number will increase in proportion as further work
on the vast and barely known ranges of that country add to the little knowledge
We possess of their plant covering between the tree and the perpetual snow

levels.”
* ok

*

The days spent at Radio-bivak (October 16-29, November 14-17, 29, 1920)
belong without doubt to the happiest of my life. October 18, the day the
vanguard started towards Swart Valley, | remained behind in company with
the radio Lieutenant, a European corporal-signaller of the Marines, our boys,
my native helpers, and a Javanese sergeant with some fusileers and convicts.

In the early morning our first walk was to the south margin of the plateau,
from which we could observe the Central Mountain Range, and each morning
that view was different. Sometimes the majestic landscape lay before us
almost cloudless, the sharply toothed ridge 80 km. distant traced on the far
horizon against a cold clear sky, in the midst of which is the small white gleam-
ing perpetual snow-field of Wilhelmina-top; then again parts of the parallel
mountain-ridges lay concealed below an extensive shining white cloud-cover,
through which Wilhelmina-top made its appearance covered with freshly
fallen powdery snow extending far down the slopes from the highest point.
Sometimes a soft blue clear winter sky, with a yellow mist on the horizon,

%® D. H. Danser, The Nepenthaceae of the Netherlands Indies—Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenz.,
III, LX (1928), 425.

56 C, Braak, |. c., 118, 127. E. D. Merrill, Enumeration, etc., 1 c. IV, 15.

7T.©., 106.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA oo

appeared out of the darkness of the night; then again a massive clear stratus
stood out high above all mountains; the ridges lay shadowless and gray one
behind the other, the finest serrations of the Central Chain being outlined
clearer than otherwise against the smooth gray of the clouds.

The 3820 m. summit so near us displayed various moods. In the morning,
after enjoying a cup of hot coffee as we started off shivering and shuddering to
see Wilhelmina-top, it stood against the still pale light of the rising sun as a
powerful black screen with fantastic margins on the eastern heaven, threatening
as a phantom because of its still unknown details. At noon, it towered fre-
quently hundreds, yes even thousands of meters above the vast.mass of clouds,
which from the plain pushed their long woolly tongues into the mountain-
ravines. It seemed lower and friendlier to us when showing itself in its finest
details; in the light of the low western sun it lay before us in all its glory of
color, sometimes sharply outlined against the threatening darker background
of a rainfall far in the distance.

The Meervlakte, too, our third great attractive view, came before our eyes
in an endless variety of color and light effects. In the morning, when the cen-
tral highlands were mostly clear, the wide plain lay covered with low clouds,
but in the afternoon after a rain, before sunset it was frequently visible, just
when the view to the south was mostly obstructed. The outlook over this
enormous valley made an even more majestic and powerful impression than the
view over the mountain-ridges to the south. Sometimes we stood a long time
speechless, on a projecting boulder, staring at the wonderful play of lights over
the plain, over the mountain-ridges which shut off the horizon toward the
north, and particularly at the magnificent cloud-scene above. Then the plain
was entirely clear except for a few small bright white cloud-streaks, after which
it quickly disappeared. Rivers and lakes before us were all definitely outlined
and reflected glaring white the summits of the enormous alto-cumulus and
cumulo-stratus [clouds ] lighted by the sun. Many towered above the Gauttier
and the van Rees Mountains, one next to the other, from east to west over a
distance of hundreds of kilometers. The enormous cloud-piles in all colors of
sharp white to yellow, orange, and red, changing to the gray shadow of rain
beneath it, produced an effective scene not only because of the colors but also
because of the incessant flashes of forked lightning extending through the
clouds.

But the days were not always so pleasant. Sometimes a biting wind and
falling rain forced us to return to our low hut surrounded by a meter-thick layer
of branches, covered with a three fold layer of canvas, where we lay on a thick
floor of elastic branches under the covers. After the shivering morning walk
a scanty breakfast followed. Scanty, since the upward transport began to
falter; once, out of 32 tins of rice assigned to the carriers at Prauwen-bivak,
only three were delivered; they had eaten the rest in transit as rations due them.
Very soon the result was a shortage of food for the vanguard, and an untimely
break in the exploration of the valley could be prevented only by the timely
sending below of all men not strictly necessary. How | was a victim of this
circumstance is briefly recorded in Fragment I.

However, the usual clear sunny morning hours were spent in collecting and
making notes. During this time the Lieutenant organized the affairs of the
bivouac and made himself very useful by installing, with very primitive tools, a

136 SARGENTIA [5

simple radio-apparatus which, although too weak to send out reports, enabled
us to receive a very important communication and to pass it on to the valley.

But when the mist began to settle and shortly thereafter the rain began to fall,
I emerged now from a ravine, then again from the summit, lured by warm coffee
or chocolate which I knew was prepared. These, with the morning coffee, were
really the only happy moments as far as the culinary situation was concerned.
After dinner, differing somewhat from breakfast and supper only in quantity, |
dove into the mantri’s quarters to take care of my collections of the morning,
while the rain tapped on the canvas and the wind whistled around the hut.
The tea-hour sometimes brought good weather and a short walk, and the eve-
ning after supper was spent in developing, in a kneeling position, a few dozen
photographic plates in ice-cold water, or lying down and writing diaries and
notes. But then, while the candle-lantern cast flickeringly fantastic shadows
in the dusky corners of our cold cave, we pulled our blankets over our ears—
we usually slept fully clothed and sometimes with a cap on—and fell asleep
surrounded by an endless silence, accentuated by a few monotonous sounds.
Everywhere the little frogs, which spent the day in the gray plants of Hydno-
phytum pauper Val., croaked shrilly, making one think of the warbling of a
swallow which we heard during the day. This swallow, an ousel-like bird,®*
and a single mountain-duck, the only larger bird occurring here, probably with
koeskoes (Phalanger), and possibly still an opossum, are about the only repre-
sentatives of animal-life here. And when it neither rained nor blew, the thick
drip trickled from the moss-cushions on the branches of the old Casuarina tree
onto the canvas over our heads.

Naturally the view from Doormantop was in general similar to that from
Radio-plateau, at least towards the:north, east, and south. Towards the west
and southwest, however, one has, in addition, an outlook over the course of the
Swart River; furthermore, the impression of the view from there is still more
powerful because of the unhampered range of vision, comprising 360°, and
because of the high position in a barren world of naked rocks, sloping on all
sides and in every direction into massive fixed rock-bays down to the darker
forest. Already Radio-bivak lies far in the distance, somewhat lower and very
insignificant: a small spot of canvas shining in the sun, and a very small smoke-
plume.

The broad Swart Valley lies directly west, separated from the plain only by a
mountain-chain, and near Doormantop bending towards the south. A descent
into the Dika Valley, the ravine of a mountain-stream joining the main stream
at the bend, appears almost impossible. It seems hardly practicable at all to
attain the level of this small undulating cloudy forested ridge below, the softly
arching lines of which extend downward toward the inhabited valleys, separated
from the ridge of our summit by an exceptionally steep and high wall. There

58 This bird was particularly tame. In the lower mountain stretches also, I repeatedly had
the opportunity to observe the tameness of small mountain-birds, which agrees well with what
Buytendijk (Psychologie der Dieren, Uitg. Volksuniversiteitsbibl. no. 3, 1920, p. 105) writes:
“At first birds in uninhabited islands and in newly discovered lands show no fear of man.”
Notwithstanding the noise that a climbing European makes on a difficult slope, small birds
frequently remained sitting without any fear, even if one came so close that they could be
grasped with the hand. Once I surprised a forest-fowl family of cock, hen, and half-grown
chickens, which were quite undisturbed in their busy search for food, even when I tried to get
into the midst of the little flock to observe more closely what they were doing.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 17

lie the sunny unforested slopes below us. On these slopes opposite us—by air-
line only 8 km. distant—are the enclosed fields of the Timorini, distinguishable
to the naked eye only as small sections; but field-glasses reveal in addition the
presence of small round dwellings, while everywhere fires in fields being cleared
are visible. On the other side of the Swart River a mighty unforested slope
extends gradually upward to about 3600 m. This view is almost like a vision
of Paradise.

The next and last Fragment will contain some data on the landscape, flora,
and people of these valleys.

VII. Land and people of the Dika and Toli Valleys !

ON NoveMBER 17, 1920, I set off on a three-day trip to the sunny valleys
inhabited by the very recently discovered Timorini.2. In doing so I made
use of the last Dyak transport about to proceed to the vanguard in the Swart
Valley, before the return of the van Overeem Expedition should begin. In
another Fragment, | noted that the shortage of food a few weeks before had
forced me and my assistants to leave Radio-bivak and to return to Goenoeng
Boetak. Subsequently, through measures taken in the meantime, conditions
had grown less alarming, and I, with one of my assistants—the other having
been sent back to Prauwen-bivak—my boy, and three Dyaks, had been able to
work some days longer in the vicinity of Beek-bivak. In the nick of time |
heard, from a downward transport, of the plans to return. Since I did not
wish to deprive myself of the opportunity to get acquainted with the recently
discovered natives and their culture, | hastened once more to Radio-bivak.
Unfortunately, on account of the insufficiency of food, I had to send my second
mantri back. It was impossible to transport the heavy zinc tins, and for
collecting purposes I had to content myself with 30 glass tubes and a notebook.

MEERVLAKTE
DIKA —

—

—< St Ne nt y,
. ean ca
‘ »

Sg oe Sey helt \; y

\

\
Fic, 22. Outlook from Doormantop toward the west and southwest; — — — = visible,
BAL ete at = not visible part of the route followed; 1 = Mos-bivak; 2 = Dika-bivak.

As indicated earlier, the trail from Radio-bivak to the Swart Valley lies over
Doormantop. ‘The western slope is steep and difficult. Beyond this we come
to a long ridge running toward the west and joining a western peak. Toward
the north the slope is at first gradual, and then it quickly becomes steeper; to
the south it drops precipitously; for hundreds of meters the bare debris con-
tinues (Fig. 22). This steep incline is entirely inaccessible without climbing
aids. We follow the margin for a long time, thereby enjoying a wider outlook
in both directions.

At 3100 m. the forest gradually begins. The bare rocky slope, broken below
by a few small marshes, changes little by little into a terrain with here and there
groups of shrubs. Somewhat farther away these scattered groups increase in
size until they finally merge and form a thin forest, consisting almost wholly of
Casuarina and a few Coniferae, particularly Dacrydium.

! Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl.-Ind. 89: 291-380. 1929,
2In some older articles on the expedition the name ‘“‘Oeringgoep”’ is used. Later on it
became evident that ‘“Timorini’’ is a better name for this part of the mountain-folk.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 139

Meanwhile the mists had closed in around us. While | was traversing this
thin forest, the mist becoming thicker, I suddenly heard a weak but clear
whistling behind me. I looked around just in time to see a rather large bird,
apparently a mountain-duck, fly by, each stroke of its wings producing the
whistling noise.

At half-past ten, through increasingly thicker vegetation, we reach a point
where the slope to the south is less precipitous than formerly, and a descent is
possible. This is the place where the vanguard spent the first night, Mos-
bivak (Fragment I, Map B, no. 13). Now the entire vicinity was concealed
in the mist. Later from this point we had a clear outlook over the valley so
well known to us then.

A decline of 600 m. along a mossy slope dripping with water and covered with
a thin forest lies before us. The track is very steep but neither difficult nor
perilous. It is a fortunate circumstance that the trail is still undisturbed and
therefore many small trunks and roots are unbroken. Shortly after the begin-
ning of the descent we cross a narrow but high and still very recent deposit of
debris. Next we slide from tree to tree part way along the slope, at every step
passing wet tree-roots and moss-cushions soaked with water, to the next marshy
place. Thus we proceed for several hours, a seemingly endless trip. Toward
noon we pause for a short rest on a level place, where it is evident that the
Dyaks have rested previously. At this point I see the first Pandanus plants,
which begin here as suddenly as they disappear on the north side. Judging
from the length of elapsed time in the descent, we can, with reasonable cer-
tainty, estimate the altitude of this place at 2600 m. Here also Gentiana sing-
galangensis Backer grows at the lower limit of its range. The vegetation-type
of the forest below this location is very noteworthy. The forests, ever higher
and thicker, are light green from the overwhelming mass of fine bamboo which,
with many Pandanus plants, completely dominates the undergrowth. It im-
pressed me as representing the same species which I encountered so many times
on the north side of the mountain at 2700 m. Apart from that, the other floral-
types are comparable to those on the ridge toward Doormantop. The differ-
ence is still more striking in the neighborhood of Bamboe-bivak (2450 m., Frag-
ment I, Map B, no. 14), where the steep slope ends abruptly. After crossing
a beautiful mountain-brook, we arrive there at half-past twelve. Rain threat-
ens, but before it falls | examine the region to obtain an impression regarding
the above-mentioned differences. The overwhelming quantity of ferns, which
there make up almost the entire undergrowth, is lacking here. The under-
growth of this forest is chiefly of higher plants, among which the Urticaceae
occupy a much more important place than on the north side, where the family is
very rarely represented at this altitude; on the other hand, here particularly few
Ericaceae are seen. With the statement of these facts, | cannot refrain from
recalling again what Pulle * writes with relation to the flora of the south slope
of the Central Mountain Range. In the mountain-stretches there appear to be
two types of primary forest, one with Urticaceae as ground-covering on lime-
stone, and one with Ericaceae especially in the mossy forest on sandstone.
The difference is so striking that one would almost doubt the justice of the
geological assertion that this entire ridge still consists of basic eruptive rock
and that sedimentary rock begins only to the north side of the Dika layer.

3 Maatsch. t. Bevorder. v. h. Natuurk. Onderz. d. Ned. Kol. Bull. no. 68 (1913), 35.

140 SARGENTITA {5

Also I was beginning to have some doubts concerning the explanation of the
mossy covering, of which | have already spoken.!

In a few minutes | collected nine species unknown to me; among these were
three Urticaceae (nos. 2040-2), that is to say, an epiphyte, an herb, and a shrub,
also a scandent Piper (no. 2038), of which genus a number of species occur here.
Along the stream I found Scutellaria luzonica Rolfe (no. 2039; Phil.) or a closely
related species, in addition a Rubus (no. 2037), and a beautiful and terrestrial
club-moss with reddish brown stems, Lycopodium rubricaule v.A.v.R., also
found by Pulle at the same altitude on the south side of the mountain. The
forest in this vicinity is still somewhat open but now the trees are robust and
tall; the bamboo grows in great quantity only on the steep slopes; apparently
it needs considerable light. On the more moderate slopes near the camp are
many conifers. I thought | recognized Araucaria (on the north side I was
never able to determine this genus with certainty), Dacrydium, and Podocarpus
among the tallest trees; Phyllocladus is a common shrub in the undergrowth.
In addition the undergrowth is very rich in Pandanus plants of all sizes, and
for that reason the forest is difficult to traverse.

While I orient myself, one carrier comes in after another, several hours
elapsing between the arrival of the first and the last on account of the difficult
traveling. Meanwhile at 2 o'clock the rain commences to fall, thus hindering
bivouac-making considerably. The Dyaks, however, show an unusual almost
unsuspected cordiality and are very attentive; a friendly act, the purpose of
which I first realized the following day. The entire afternoon they are merry
and clamorous; they take turns begging for empty tins, clothing, and shoes or
trying to induce me to promise these at the end of the expedition. It rains
heavily all afternoon while a violent thunderstorm rages about us. The pre-
viously quiet and clear brook has become a wild dirty brown torrent which,
with thundering force and alarming power, rushes down behind the camp.
But toward dark the rain begins to lessen, and everywhere around us we hear
the sound of the drip from the moss-cushions mingling with the well-known
noise of the whistling frog, possibly the same species that lives above in the
Hydnophytum. 1 do not see the plant here but perhaps it is epiphytic in the
crowns of trees,

The morning of the 18th is clear and still. It is remarkable how much milder
the climate here suddenly becomes in comparison with that of the exposed
northern slope; this place is sheltered by a great cliff on the north side and
subject to the influence of the deep open sunny valleys to the south. At
6:30 A.M. I proceed in advance of the Dyaks. The path, although little
traveled, is rather poor. Felled trunks have not all been rernoved; rattans are
not entirely cut. It is a beautiful forest, with constantly changing views and
also much that is new to the botanical world. Now the trail descends steeply
for 50 m, then again extends for some distance along the slope. The slender
bamboo is still present everywhere but dominant only in few places. The
undergrowth is rich in shrubs and small trees; the number of ferns is still
strikingly few. An hour after my departure I reach the first stopping-place
of the Dyaks, recognizable by the places where they sit. Here the Dyaks
catch up with me. They show an unusual desire to let me go ahead, and so at
nine o'clock, at the head of the procession, I arrive at the ample Jachthut-bivak
(Fragment I, Map B, no. 15). The forest here, at about 1900 m. altitude, is

‘See Fragment V, and Pulle 1. c. 33.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 141

tall and thin on gently undulating ground. In passing the camp, after we have
forded a mountain-creek flowing from the east, the vegetation-picture varies
considerably; the number of bamboos increases again, but this is now a species
with stems a few centimeters in diameter. In this vicinity I still found a
young Cupressus-like coniferous plant (no. 2164). Also increasingly more ferns
are found here in the undergrowth, including many which I had observed on the
north slope. This is also the case with a number of higher plants, such as
Argostemma and Balanophora. Moreover, the undergrowth here is much less
difficult to traverse, owing to the presence of fewer Pandanus plants, and the
level parts of the ridge are covered with a beautiful open forest. At 1850 m.
elevation, I see the first specimens of a peculiar melastomataceous plant (no.
1533) and a few orchids previously observed elsewhere. Twenty minutes after
leaving Jachthut-bivak, we reach the hunter’s hut from which it takes its name.
This stands on an open place, evidently an old landslip now covered with a
vegetation composed of grasses intermingled with Dianella plants with blue
and white flowers. The forest-margin is colored by a broad strip of tall
Melastoma (M. malabathricum L.?, no. 2046) plants in full flower, and a patch
of a robust red-flowered Impatiens, strongly suggesting the common J. platy-
petala Lindl., occurs in a marsh developed along the bank of a small stream. |
collected the clinging Nephrolepis humatoides v.A.v.R. on the trunks in the
forest-margin.

In the middle of this small open area stands the hunter’s hut, the first sign
of the large Papuan tribe in the interior. It appears to have been recently con-
structed. Possibly the Timorini sometimes come here to hunt pigs, casso-
waries, opossums, porcupine-anteaters, and various kinds of birds. The hut
consists of only a roof of palm-leaves and grasses. The floor is covered by small
poles. I stand here a long time examining and touching the rough notches in
the wood, which reveal the work of a stone axe. So strongly does this hut sug-
gest the proximity of natives that I almost expect to see a group of Papuans
appear from the forest-margin. How the vanguard may have felt on reaching
this point, with the immediate future uncertain, is not known! °

The Dyaks sit together on the grassy slope. At the sight of the shabby hut, |
their hilarity is completely silenced and they say with emphasis: ‘‘roemah
papoe, toean dokton,”’ a Papuan hut, Sir. Then they invite me by word and
above all by gestures not to wait for them but by all means to proceed. They
would not be so impolite as to go ahead of me (although earlier they were
always anxious to do this). I then leave the brave fellows quietly behind and
proceed alone, convinced that they will quickly follow. The path continues
through miry places and across brooks. The underlying rock is still of the
eruptive type. The bivouac where we will pass the night lies at about 1700 m.
altitude near one of the streams. We named this the Second Parkieten-bivak
(Fragment I, Map B, no. 17), because at night we heard the same harsh noise
of the parakeets (perhaps even the same species, Chalcopsittacus duivenbod1,
observed earlier) quickly flying over. For the same reason the First Parkieten-
bivak, situated at the same altitude on the other side of the mountain, was so
named. At 10:15 A.M. I make camp, and immediately after my arrival the
Dyaks appear with innocent-looking faces. The rest of the morning is spent
in bathing and in examining the surroundings. Unfortunately, however, not

5 See Bijlmer, Tijdschr. Kon. Ned. Aardrijksk. Gen. XX XIX (1922), 170, and De Aarde en
haar Volken LTX (1923), 170 (sep. 39).

142 SARGENTIA [S

much collecting can be done. Here, at the lower limits of its distribution, on
the highest branches of a tree, is a plant of the large Myrmecodia, which at the
summit grows on the ground. Also here is the tallest of the niboeng palms,
Kentia, which was so well-known to us on the north side, particularly because
of its delicious palm-cabbage. I further recognize various ferns, a couple of
climbing species of Elatostema, a Podocarpus, and in addition a scandent
melastomataceous plant with white flowers and orange-red fruits, which
reminds me of Goenoeng Boetak.

In the afternoon there is a short but heavy shower. “The Dyaks are still in a
noisy frame of mind. They talk very noticeably about the Papuans; and they
introduce into their conversation all the Malayan phrases that they know in
order that I too can understand what they say. Under cover of a joke, though
with an anxiety which they can hardly conceal, they prepare me to face the
fact that the Timorini are a dangerous people. With this conversation [ recall
the vague and distorted rumors concerning the pig-incident which happened in
the Dika-bivak. There the Dyaks had clandestinely stolen a pig from the
natives and had butchered it. This offence against custom was cleverly ex-
ploited by the Timorini who, after much clamor and exaggerated boasting,
were pacified by being presented with several chopping-knives. The following
morning the puzzle of the Dyaks’ friendliness was solved. At other times there
was always much movement and hubbub when the first rays of the sun began
to appear above the horizon, but now most of my comrades are very quiet at
dawn. All are busy cooking rice, taking their time, but of preparation for
departure not a word is said. A fairly sarcastic talk with Anji Nau, the leader
of the group, intrigues the others, and it now becomes clear to me that their
unusual behavior is caused by fear. | had least expected this. I had known
the Dyaks as spirited and intrepid oarsmen. They knew the Timorini from
previous experience; but I did not know then that the Dyak, in the face of
hostile people, is timorous and is accustomed to destroy his enemies by assassi-
nation. Therefore, when they anticipated this procedure from others, it was
conceivable that, on this day, they were actually afraid of these peaceable
mountain-natives.

It appears that they can be persuaded to proceed with no other argument
than my own departure. Nevertheless | grant myself the pleasure of firmly
ordering Anji Nau to lead; | shall follow. But as they begin again to exhaust
themselves by deep and repeated bows, | have enough of the theme and silently
proceed in front. Meanwhile, I do not feel entirely at ease. I did not know ©
of the timorous characteristic of the Dyaks; | knew of their courageous attitude
on swift rivers; they knew the Timorini and | did not, and also I did not know
how to evaluate the pig-incident fairly. With my revolver ready, I thus
precede the group which was armed with spears and with shields made from oil-
tins, because | cannot imagine that the fear of my companions and the precau-
tions taken are baseless. Later, when I became acquainted with our good-
natured friends in the Swart Valley, how | laughed over this incident!

The journey begins with an unexpectedly long ascent. The forest on the
ridge is again open and traversable; the undergrowth is thin, but as we once
more descend, we find ourselves suddenly surrounded by masses of bamboo and
increasingly more ferns. From 1400 m. downward | saw Dipteris conjugata
Reinw. and Oleandra cuspidata Bl. in profusion. At these same elevations there
are suddenly more Urticaceae, particularly Elatostema; perhaps the sedimen-

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 143

tary rock-formation begins here. ‘The undergrowth becomes continually more
luxuriant and more dense; in it are giant Zingiberaceae with their obliquely
standing stems surely 10 m. long, and a species of bamboo which does not form
clumps, the 2-3 cm. thick stems being scattered through the shrubs.

The Dyaks stop on a narrow ridge. They treat me now as a valuable and
indispensable being and think I must act as guide through this easy terrain.
During the rest, contrary to habit, they remain standing; they encourage each
other in boisterous ways and brandish their spears with warlike gestures, and
although I do not understand what they say, I frequently catch the word
‘“‘papoe”’ (Papuan).

As we continue, the warmth of the valleys greets us, a delightful sensation
after all the wet and cold which we have encountered. The sounds of the birds
from the warmer regions also affect us pleasantly. At 1400 m. we hear the
first parrot screech, and a hundred meters lower the calls of the first birds of
paradise. Here the flora is more luxuriant than any | saw on the north slope.
A mountain-stream which we cross at 1250 m. altitude is decorated on the banks
with broad margins of colorful Jmpatiens and Spathoglottis with tall stems. A
little later we pass a landslip and, through the opening that it made, we see
nearby on the other side of the valley a small settlement with natives going to
and fro. After that we enter the forest and a moment later locate a Papuan
path, which was already known to me from the report of the leader.

Entirely occupied with the many new things awaiting me, I was not conscious
that this path, this sign of native culture on the outermost margin of their
territory, would induce my Dyaks to lose the rest of their courage; and when,
a hundred meters farther on, I reached a sunny open clearing, | was . . . en-
tirely alone! The clearing was abandoned, the single house therein closed, a
silent witness of Papuan activity on the edge of a well-shaded banana-planta-
tion. When I had assembled my brave companions—they stood close together
by the last bend in the path, still deep in the forest, waiting, the foremost man
trying to save face by fashioning a piece of wood with a small knife—we con-
tinued, now through cleared secondary forest. For the first time we hear the
sound of the Dika on the left. Later we cross an open grass-field at the side
of which a low shed is built over a series of beehive-like objects constructed of
Selaginella fronds. According to Wirz (lI. c. 54, fig. 9, 10) these miniature
houses are erected for the benefit of the souls of the departed (Rkoegi). Next
is a descent over a very steep and narrow ridge, on both flanks covered with
thin and young forest and on both sides hemmed in by thundering mountain-
torrents. To the left the white foaming Dika roars in its channel; on the right
a stream with abundant water plunges down in a high waterfall. This is the
same stream which we crossed at 1250 m. altitude. Instantly I could very well
imagine the suspense felt by the vanguard, who, on October 23, 1920, de-
scended this same path without the certainty that this mountain-torrent could
be crossed and without any knowledge as to how they would be greeted in their
first contact with the natives. At the foot of the waterfall lies a level spit with
gravelly shores at the bottom of the chasm, luxuriantly covered with vegetation.
Growing together here are some plants of the beautiful coniferous Callitris
robusta R. Br. (no. 2166; Austr.), a small tree with very fine pendent foliage
which at once reminds one of a tjemara (Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.). Im-
mediately after this, the trail extends towards the left and we stand before a
bridge (Fig. 23). It is a beautiful place. The Dika, a wild raging river with

144 SARGENTIA [5

much water, is visible only for a relatively short distance, and the cliffs rise
so sheerly that the slopes above cannot be seen. Without doubt this is one of
the few places where the river is crossed; and indeed it was by a great good
chance that the vanguard chose this ridge and thus came to the bridge. On
the other side is a bridgehead constructed of poles. From that, the bridge
slants upward to the top of a cliff four or five meters above the water, where
it is fastened to a couple of trees, the roots of which provide the necessary sup-
port. The trail is reached on the other side by climbing the slope. At the
arrival of the vanguard, the Dyaks, who in such cases always know the way out
and in addition have a great disdain for all that is not Dyak, established a

SOA Ut AY le ) ui! ALND EHR EI aay aa
ri eee 7 ( fa tI ) ij iF a wee y 4 - i A a} i
Wi i ra iN, he My \ A rsh, ‘ ’ sf ‘ A\ -i F. , if Ing

Wie ae ,
¢ amt) WP” Re a
l) : if i ~< ;

u Ly > ro
Hey :

Heit BAA
if Nie Merit Hi ANA ‘s i

J
yy, (4 14
Vis Hl 4
Sy Ae Lyn! 4b
} i" el Nii: VAM VAY Nid A) 2) a
r

Fic. 23. Timorinese suspension bridge over the Dika River (somewhat schematic).

secondary bridge adjacent to the existing one by skillfully felling a notched
tree-trunk across the river. But this bridge was not adaptable to Europeans
wearing boots, and so we used the Timorinese bridge which, although it ap-
peared to be somewhat unsteady, was reinforced with rattan. This master-
piece of Timorinese technique was, singularly enough, made of slender trunks,
lianas, and roots. In its original construction no rattan was used; nevertheless,
rattan of excellent quality is present in the forest in almost unlimited quantities.
Possibly the working of this plant with the stone axe was too onerous; but with
the rather ample use of the split rattan, the structure was strengthened. Be
that as it may, the suspension-bridge belongs to the type which one finds men-
tioned for other regions,® and the cross-section of it shows a V-form. At the
north bridgehead the supporting lines pass through the forked end of the outer-
most erect and strongest stakes, and are fastened to trees on the bank. The
other stakes are cut off at 1.5 m. above the ground, and here is the beginning
of the V-form structure. The supporting lines, i. e. the rails, carry a series of
\V-forms, thus forming the sides. The floor consists of two long slender trunks
thrust into the rising bank and resting on the bridgehead, their more slender

6 Cf. Verslag v. d. Militaire Exploratie van Nederl. Nieuw-Guinee, 1907-1915, pl. 46 and 47,
and the sketch opposite p. 198.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 145

ends reaching part-way across the river. Near the center of the span they are
paralleled with and tied to the thin ends of two trunks extending from the other
bank. The structure is 15 to 20 m. long.

Even before we arrived at this place, we had already noticed that people must
have been there a short time before but apparently had hastily fled at our
approach. Here and there the earth was somewhat disturbed and pieces of
sugar-cane lay ready for planting, while other pieces were already planted.
The Dyaks, who, when they see water, forget even their fear, have cast off
their loads and their tjawats [native dress] and are bathing in the cool clear
mountain-water. Meanwhile, as I stand looking at this pleasant scene, all
at once I hear above the roar of the water, weakly but clearly, a strange long
drawn-out call, and looking up, I see a few dark figures above the rocks on the
other side of the bridge. As they see me looking they call again and make
reassuring gestures. But they are evidently nervous and appear to be trying
to find out what our attitude is. I shout back immediately and beckon to them.
These good-natured and inoffensive primitive men at once cross the bridge.
In front walks a small full-bearded man, a younger one follows after him, then
a woman with a long carrying net supported from the forehead, and finally a
blind old man who feels his way over the narrow wobbly bridge cautiously
groping with his stick but in the main confident. With slow, sure, almost
elegant steps, the first man arrives, although somewhat hesitating in his move-
ments and with a nervous twitching of his face, but still looking fixedly at me,
this new and unknown white man. So I havea quiet opportunity to take stock
of him and to recall another impression which the first sight of the Boromesso
and Takoetamesso, at Pionier-bivak, made on me. There a band of brutes,
wild, more bush-animal than man, bold, and in every respect uncivilized; here,
gentle friendly fellow-man, primitive as the first, but not without the inward
refinement of a quiet and established citizen. He is slender but well built
and very dark. His face, with its friendly although still somewhat fearful smile,
is completely encircled with a curly beard. On his head is a greasy hair-net
which hangs to the shoulders, such as adorns the mature men of the Timorini.
On his right shoulder rests a stone axe, on his left a carrying net with its daily
supply of food and other small possessions. With quiet dignified movement he
approaches, and his bearing unconsciously conveys the impression of a certain
national pride, a sense of being the proprietor of this land, in short, in contrast
to us the host. But when he is near he again becomes somewhat afraid and,
blinking his eyes, he walks straight to me across the bridge. During the whole
period occupied in crossing the river, he has continually called to me with
various reassuring-sounding words. The modulation of his voice somewhat
compensates me for its unintelligibility, and in the talk that follows—held in
a circle of already relieved, now again confident, crowding Dyaks—we under-
stand each other in a certain sense very well. If there were any further saluta-
tion necessary for understanding hosts to offer, in order to make guests feel
entirely welcome, then that salutation would surely be given. As I approach,
he speaks to me with outstretched hand. We exchange a firm handshake in
the European manner and | listen to his warm guttural sounds, which I answer
with eloquently modulated Dutch or Malay. Nevertheless, with all his self-
control, it is clear that he frankly would like to end the conversation, and,
somewhat relieved, with a friendly smile he points above to where his work
waits. He gives me a friendly pat on the arm and leaves, after I, in similar

146 SARGENTIA (5

fashion, have made clear to him that I shall proceed to the other side of the
bridge and towards the camp. Quietly he disappears without looking back,
his hands behind his back, followed by the youth, and then by the woman who,
bent under the load on her back—in which load in a separate net sits a very
young child—somewhat shy and tense, glances quickly at us as she passes.
Finally comes the tottering gray-haired old man, whom age has made indifferent
to new impressions, and, with the appearance of someone awaiting nothing more
from this world, he kindly receives my handshake. And Anji Nau thinks he
owes it to himself and to his status as Dyak head-man and number two of the
group, to take up his position next to me and, with a certain “‘savoir vivre’ and
condescending friendliness, likewise to shake hands with the two men.

Such was then my first meeting with the inhabitants of this distant interior of
New Guinea. I shall communicate some further details concerning them in
the following pages.

In the meantime the Dyaks, having bathed, are preparing to continue the
journey. Now all earlier courtesy has disappeared and each one tries to lead so
as to be the first on the bridge. Just as on the rattan bridge at Brug-bivak,
here also it was deemed advisable to permit only one person to cross at a time.
The cliff on the other side appears easy of ascent because of the many projec-
tions and tree-roots, and very soon we are actually in the Timorinese territory
and ascend along a steep but excellent path through the light and sunny forest.
Higher up over gentler slopes, we pass native clearings surrounded by strong
fences, and a quarter of an hour later we reach the Dika-bivak (Fragment I,
Map B, no. 17), situated at about 1250 m. altitude in an open place on one of
the horizontal paths leading toward the slope. Here I found the leader, the
geologist, the doctor-anthropologist, and the controller-ethnologist. Happily
my unexpected visit was well-timed, for it appeared even to tip the scale in
favor of carrying into effect a plan that had been under consideration to ter-
minate the expedition with a five days’ journey into the principal valley.

Thus I received a number of impressions which are outside the limits of
strictly scientific ethnology but perhaps have some claims to interest, which | _
present, with the observations on the country and the flora. Occasionally |
have tested the impressions by, and in some measure modified them in accord-
ance with, the scientific results of the work of Dr. Paul Wirz, the ethnographer
of the Kremer Expedition, but in general I have restricted myself to the
recording of personal impressions which, although without scientific pretence,
nevertheless may possibly amplify the observations of professional ethnologists
in some points. The fact, however, that I resided only a week in this remark-
able region will certainly influence some of my comments where feeling has
played a greater role than reason (cf. Wirz, p. 41).

I shall not discuss the difficult problem of the origin and composition of the
race, which was recently treated by Bijlmer 7and Wirz.’ Wirz thinks * that the

7H. J. T. Bijlmer, Anthropological results of the Dutch Scientific Central New-Guinea
Expedition A° 1920, followed by an essay on the anthropology of the Papuans. Acad. Proefschr.
Leiden 1922, also in Nova Guinea VII, 4 (1923), 355—See also: Idem, Tijdschr. Kon. Ned.
Aardrijksk. Gen. XX XIX (1922), 156, and De Aarde en Haar Volken (1923) 97, 121, 145, 169,
193, in 1924 published in book-form; J. Jongejans, Indié V, no. 35-37 (1921) and 41 (1922),

8’ Dr. P. Wirz, Anthropologische und Ethnologische Ergebnisse der Central Neu-Guinea-
Expedition 1921-1922—Nova Guinea XVI, 1 (1924)—See also: Idem, Im Herzen von Neu-
Guinea, Tagebuch einer Reise ins Innere von Hollandisch Neu-Guinea (Ziirich, Rascher & Cie.
A.-G., 1925, illustrated).

*l.c. p. 5-8.

1945] ‘LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 147

pigmy tribes in the Central Mountain Range are related particularly to tribes
from the south, and even to Australians; the Papuans from the northern coast
diverge rather strongly from the mountain-inhabitants and show more Mala-
yan-Polynesian features. According to Bijlmer, however, one should not speak
of two races; he thinks that a Papuan in the wider sense should be “‘for three
quarters—and as for the New-Guinea pigmoids . . . for four fifths, a negrito
and for the rest a Dravido-Australoid”’ (I. c. 79 and diss. 434, Nova Guinea).

Apparently the Timorini!® have been in these valleys a long time. Wirz
comes to the conclusion that the central race must be very old. We shall not
become engrossed in the question of how they came to be here, whether they
perhaps were forced inland from the plain by stronger tribes and finally aban-
doned nomadic life here to become settled farmers. The established fact that
the contact of the mountain-dwellers with the natives on the northern side of
the plain is relatively small is sufficient for us. We have incontrovertible
evidence ! that such contacts exist. Not only do the Timorini possess sea-
shells which they obtained either by barter or by combat, but also their gestures
left no doubt about their being acquainted with the presence of natives of larger
stature to the north of whom they were positively afraid. By gestures they
clearly indicated that a striking characteristic of these people was their nose-
ornaments. However, that the contact with the plainsmen is slight is evi-
denced from the very few sea-shells in their possession, and the constant
scarcity of these is best illustrated by the fact that the Timorini use the common
cosmopolitan cowrie-shells (Cypraea moneta) as money, and that with one or
two of these shells valuable articles or services may be purchased. In addition
to the cowrie, which the Timorini call tigaléh (according-to Wirz, tinaléh), they
also have fragmentary parts of a larger sea-shell, possibly Nautilus. These
pieces, called melli, form one of their most expensive ornaments; they are worn
on a string around the neck. Even for a chopping-knife we could not obtain
a single melli, but later it appeared that they could easily be secured in exchange
for tigaléhs.

Apparently the contacts between the northern plainsmen and the people of
this part of the Central Mountain Range occur only at one or two places, where
the Swart or Iliem River and the Baliem flow from the mountains into the
Meervlakte (cf. Wirz 1. c. 123). The members of the Kremer Expedition
noticed that the mountain Papuans call not only the great tributary which
rises near Wilhelminatop, but also the Idenburg the Baliem; whereas, the name
Iliem is applied to the Swart River (below the Dika) as well as to the van der
Willigen River. When we reflect on how thinly the vast Meervlakte is popu-
lated,” and furthermore how poor in marine products these people are as com-
pared with the men of Pionier-bivak, then it is clear that apparently the lapse
of many centuries has been necessary for the Timorini to accumulate such a
relatively large number of these shells.

10 According to Wirz (I. c. p. 2, footnote 2) the names such as Timorini, Ocringgoep, Pesegem,
and so forth, do not have the significance of tribal names as we understand them, They are
more in the nature of geographic designations.

11 Cf. Wirz’ account of some Timorini accompanying the Kremer Expedition on the return
journey to Prauwen-bivak (I. c. p. 125).

2 According to the cited report, Verslag Mil. Explor. Ned. N. Guin. 1907-1915, the total
population of Netherlands New Guinea was estimated at about 180,000 people (p. 240); those
on the banks of the Rouffaer River at the junction, where apparently the Swart River empties
into it, number about 10,000; cf. also the population map opposite p. 296.

148 SARGENTIA (Ss

In addition to the shéll evidence, | suggest another means by which one may
reach the same conclusion, this being in.the domain of cultivated crops and
ruderal plants. From the phytogeographical point of view the last category is
the most important. The adventive plants have been spread indirectly through
the contacts of peoples and through their trade-routes. Cultivated plants are
directly distributed by the people themselves. We shall begin with these.

The plainsmen in New Guinea have grown ™ oebi * djawa [sweet potato ]
(Ipomoea Batatas Lamk.), cassava (Manihot utilissima Pohl), ketimoen (Cucu-
mis Melo L.), laboe (Lagenaria leucantha Rusby = vulgaris Ser.), tobacco
(Nicotiana ?Tabacum L."*), watti (Piper methysticum Forst.), lombok rawit
(Capsicum frutescens L.), banana (Musa sp.), pinang (Areca Catechu L.),
coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), katjang (bean) species, taro (Colocasia esculenta
Schott), papaya (Carica Papaya L.), soursop (Annona muricata L.), sugar-cane
(Saccharum officinarum L,), and maize (Zea Mays L.). In the Arfak Moun-
tains potatoes are also cultivated. Most of the species are to be considered as
secondary foods. The chief food in the plains is sago; that of the mountainous
region is sweet potato.

The Timorini cultivate the sweet potato (Tim.: bez), banana (lawi), pandan
(Pandanus sp.), sirth (Piper Betle L. or a related species), taro (k6m), sugar-cane
(én), pinang, katjang ketjipir (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus DC.), laboe [ Lage-
naria |, and tobacco (no. 2075; Nicotiana Tabacum L.). Wirz (Il. c. p. 86)
records the cucumber (gi/a, koemak). He mentions also (p. 87) a shrub with
“gelappten Blattern und gelben Bliiten,’’ which was grown and used as food by
many tribes in New Guinea. Possibly this was the pantropically cultivated
Abelmoschus esculentus Moench. When we now trace what is known of the
origin of these plants, we find the following. The sweet potato is native in
tropical America. The time of its introduction into Asia is not definitely
known. During the time of Rumphius (1650-1700) the plant was already in
cultivation everywhere in the Archipelago. Possibly the sweet potato, with
the tobacco," belongs to the very anciently cultivated plants which were spread

8 Verslag Mil. Explor. . . . p. 298 et seq.; L.S. Gibbs, Dutch N. W. New Guinea (1917), 17.

“Van Nouhuys (Nova Guinea VII, 1 [1913], 8) identified oebi as Dioscorea. The tubers
of both Dioscorea and Ipomoea have been called oebi; to distinguish the two, Ipomoea Batatas
Lamk. is usually called oebi djawa, or bataten.

*® Van Nouhuys reported to me in a personal letter that he encountered, among the Pesegem,
a species (according to his recollection) with greenish yellow flowers, which perhaps was Nico-
tiana rustica L. Whether this species occurs in New Guinea is uncertain, partly owing to the
indifference of members of the various expeditions to the collection of cultivated plants, and
partly because the opinion of a specialist is necessary to determine the collected material,
Chevalier (see footnote 16) names a large number of species of which surely various ones might
be expected to occur in New Guinea. So far as New Guinea is concerned, only two specimens
of N. Tabacum L. are in the Buitenzorg Herbarium, one from the Kaiserin-Augusta River
(Hoofd-bivak, Gjellerup 368) and one from Temena (Northern New Guinea, Wichmann 188).
Nicotiana rustica L. is not represented by any specimens from the Netherlands Indies.

16 Tt is remarkable that the Timorinese words for tobacco (tabo) and for pipe (taboaak) appear
to be derived from the Malayan (tabako) and thus indirectly from the [American] Indian word.
This may be an indication that the plant reached the Timorini through direct or indirect con-
tacts with the Malayans. The Pesegem have different words, mbali for tobacco and kanoem
for pipe. Van Nouhuys (I. c. 11) reports that tobacco is not known by the tribes along the lower
course of the Lorentz River, but only by the Pesegem. Otherwise the plant is widespread in
New Guinea, and the reason for its absence in the Lorentz River region is probably owing to the
fact that the tobacco plant does not thrive where there is too much soil moisture. According
to Heyne (De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch-Indié, ed. 2, 1927, p. 1354)—who lists only
N. Tabacum L.—tobacco flourishes best in dry soil, which condition apparently is not character-

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 149

from America to this region seemingly long before the arrival of the Europeans
(Spaniards, 1545) in the Archipelago. Thus it is not necessarily surprising
that this plant now appears even in the remote valleys of the Timorini. The
banana,!? pandan, and betel may be native. The use that is made of the betel-
leaf is possibly not autochthonous. Taro, /aboe, and Areca are indigenous in
southeastern Asia. From time immemorial sugar-cane has been cultivated in
Old World tropics; perhaps the primitive form (Saccharum spontaneum L.)
is indigenous in the Archipelago. Aatjang ketjipir [| Psophocarpus | is likewise
a plant of tropical Asia; it is an important fact that it was introduced into
Amboina during Rumphius’ time, because apparently the plant reached New
Guinea shortly thereafter. These cultivated plants may have been introduced
by bird-hunters and traders, but once introduced they gradually extended from
the coastal regions into the interior. Undoubtedly a long time was necessary
for this distribution. .

Now we come to the ruderal plants. In Fragment III, | have defined these.
I group them here as follows: 8

I. COSMOPOLITAN IN TEMPERATE TO TROPICAL REGIONS:
1. Oxalis corniculata L. (no. 2059)
2. Eleusine indica Gaertn.
II, TROPICAL COSMOPOLITAN:
3. Sida rhombifolia L. (no. 2064)
4. Drymaria cordata Willd.
5. Urena lobata L.
6. Ageratum conyzoides L.
7. Bidens pilosus L.
III. Tropics oF THE OLD WorLD:
8. Adenostemma Lavenia O. Ktze. (no. 2087)
9. Cyathula prostrata Bl. (no. 2069)
10. Polygonum nepalense Meisn. (nos. 2054, 2066)
11. Senecio sonchifolius Moench (no. 2052)
IV. Tropica ASIA AND AUSTRALIA:
12. Crepis japonica Benth. (no. 2053)

istic of the Lorentz River region. If itis a fact that tobacco is not grown there, it seems strange
that the natives of this region should not know and smoke tobacco, because tobacco is an im-
portant article of commerce in New Guinea. It is known that the Timorini pack tobacco for
barter with the Meervlakte dwellers for tigaléhs, etc., and it might be expected that the Pesegem
would do the same with the inhabitants of the adjacent lower regions.

Long after the above opinion on the time of introduction of tobacco and sweet potatoes into
New Guinea was recorded, I received a paper from a well-known French specialist in the field
of tropical cultivated crops, Dr. A. Chevalier (Les Origines du Tabac et les débuts de sa culture
dans le monde, Edit. d. 1. Revue internat. des tabacs, Paris, 1927). The author reaches the
conclusion (p. 13) that the peoples of the southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean and of south-
eastern Asia knew the tobacco and the sweet potato before the discovery of America by Colum-
bus. In view of the high degrees of civilizations which were developed centuries earlier in
Central America, and the seafaring proclivities of Polynesian peoples, this need not be surprising.
These and other cultivated plants, according to Chevalier, through the agency of man, perhaps
also by birds or even on driftwood, might have extended via the numerous islands of the Pacific
Ocean far to the west. I suppose that here in particular the influence of man must be con-
sidered. Tobacco was first introduced into Java by the Dutch in 1601, but one might assume
that it was known much earlier in the Moluccas and seemingly also in New Guinea. Van
Nouhuys informs me that, from old travel-records, it is apparent to him that tobacco occurred
in Ternate in 1599 and that slaves (Papuans?) especially used it.

17 Cf, Cammerloher, Zur Frage der Heimat der Banane—Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr. (1922), 262.

18 There was very little opportunity to collect, and hence not all the ruderals could be assem-
bled. Those actually collected are listed with their herbarium numbers. In other cases I have
taken the names from my notebook. The determinations were made by Mr. C. A. Backer.

150 SARGENTIA [5

V. Tropicay ASIA:
13. Nasturtium indicum P. DC. (no. 2086)
14. Oenanthe javanica DC. (no. 2076)
VI. JAVA:
15. Plectranthus (aff.) javanicus Benth. (no. 2057)
16. Lobelia succulenta Bl. (no. 2061)
VII. AUSTRALIA:
17. Mitrasacme elata R. Br. (no. 2077)
18. Oldenlandia tenelliflora K. Schum. var. papuana Val. (nos. 2065, 2085)

The difference in altitude partially explains the dissimilar ruderal floras of
Pionier-bivak and Swart Valley.'!? Only two of the plants named are common
to both areas, Ageratum conyzoides L. and Eleusine indica Gaertn., both of
which occur in Java and which extend into the mountainous region. Some,
however, have become established because a certain type of selection is asso-
ciated with adaptation for dissemination.

We shall now try to trace the means by which these plants may have reached
these isolated valleys. The first approach to this question is by an examination
of the peculiarities of fruits and seeds. Apparently the natural methods of
distribution in this case, as far as the region is concerned, are perhaps more
applicable than the possible codperation of man. But man’s work in the
preparation of the land becomes a premise to natural dispersal. In the follow-
ing survey we shall confine our remarks to 15 of the ruderals mentioned—nos.
17 and 18 are not true adventives—and Plectranthus javanicus Benth. is
omitted because of its somewhat uncertain determination. We find then:

A. Wind-dispersed:
1. Ageratum conyzoides L., fruits with pappus.
2. Senecio sonchifolius Moench, idem.?°
3. Crepis japonica Benth., idem.
4. Polygonum nepalense Meisn., with winged fruits. This species belong in category B
equally well; the seeds are very small and round.
B. Possibly distributed by men and animals:
(The fruits and seeds of this category of plants are very small and without particular
characteristics; often one thinks that such seeds lend themselves to distribution by man,
although wind-dispersal is not impossible)
5. Lobelia succulenta Bl.
6. Drymaria cordata Willd.
7. Eleusine indica Gaertn.*!
8. Oxalis corniculata L.; the seeds are ejected in much the same way as those of Impatiens,
by the bursting of the fruit.
9. Oenanthe javanica DC.; seeds somewhat larger than in the previous species.
10. Nasturtium indicum P. DC,
C. Can be spread by animals, particularly birds:
11. Bidens pilosus L., fruit with two barbed awns,
12. Adenostemma Lavenia O. Kuntze, seeds with four stiff projecting pappus-hairs, and
glutinous.
13. Cyathula prostrata B1., fruits with numerous tiny hooks.”
14. Urena lobata L., seeds with curving hook-like prickles.
15. Sida rhombifolia L., seeds with a stiff hard awl-shaped prickle.

19 Tn addition perhaps one should add to the ruderal flora a few unnamed representatives
of Jussiaea, Aneilema (no. 2073), Commelina (no. 2074), a few Scrophulariaceae (nos. 2063,
2078), Compositae (no. 2050), Gramineae (nos, 2055-6, 2068), and Rubiaceae. The number of
ruderal plants in the vicinity examined is apparently about 30.

20 Cf. Docters van Leeuwen, Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenz, XX XI (1920), 127.

21 Docters van Leeuwen records the distribution of this plant by birds (1. c. 130).

2 Doctors van Leeuwen, |. c. 126.

.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 151

We sum up the data obtained in a small survey of the ruderal flora of Pionter-
bivak and the Swart Valley:

Pionier-bivak Swart Valley *

Number % Number %

DISTRIBUTION “1724 — 15 (+15) -——

Tropical cosmopolitan 9 SS 7 47

Tropics of the Old World 12 71 11 73

Tropical S. E. Asia 17 100 14 93

Possible means of dispersal

Man ; 14 82 7-6 47-40
Wind 2 12 3-4 20-27

Birds 1 6 5 33

Naturally many and important conclusions cannot be drawn from so few
data. From the above survey, however, it is striking that the components of
the ruderal flora in both regions are practically the same, in spite of the vastness
of the area. This doubtless is an important factor, since it perhaps implies
that the ruderal flora in both regions has reached about the same state of
development. In the easily accessible Pionier-bivak, the ruderal flora was at
most seven years old. In the vast central mountainous region much more
difficult to reach, where the ruderal flora is in about the same condition, but
more abundant, it must have taken a long time to develop thus. Since we do
not know the comparative value of the accessibility-factor for both areas, it is
impossible to estimate the length of time. We know that hundreds of kilo-
meters of primeval forest separate the mountain-valleys from the nearest
cleared areas outside, and further we know that communications between the
two are sporadic. Opposed to these hindrances, the vastness and age of the
cleared land in the mountain-valleys * is a favorable factor. Hence we must
conclude that a very long time can be the balancing factor between the two.
In connection with this, the fact is clearly brought out in the survey that prob-
ably distribution by man is preponderant (82%) in Pionier-bivak; whereas the
same factor in the Swart Valley applies to less than half of the ruderal flora
observed there (445%).

Contacts of the valley people with the northern tribes have been much dis-
cussed, and this surely claims our attention. We noticed it on the northern
boundary of the inhabited territory. The Kremer Expedition, however, has
shown that a well-beaten path traverses the Central Chain via Wilhelmina
Pass (Fragment I, Map A) to the south. The trail extends some tens of kilo-
meters across uninhabited territory, connecting the region settled by the
mountain Papuans north of the Central Chain (Peninggaléh) with that occupied

% Nos. 15 (determination uncertain), 17, and 18 (apparently native) from the list as given
are not included.

2 The numbers given for Pionier-bivak are not the same as mentioned in Fragment III.
Here Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng. (nos. 629, 630) is included, a plant indigenous in S, E.
Asia and apparently imported here by man. The leaves are eaten as greens; the fruit is rather
large and studded with obtuse prickles; the seeds are surrounded by an aril and the juicy flesh
of the fruit; possibly these are eaten by birds and thus dispersed.

% A possible thoroughfare from Etna Bay and Geelvink Bay to the east through the longi-
tudinal valleys of this central mountain-land ought to be considered.

152 SARGENTIA . (5

by their congeners, the Péségém (pronounced with soft g). These Péségém,”
discovered in July 1907 by the First Lorentz Expedition, further studied in 1909
by the Second Lorentz Expedition and in 1913 by the Franssen Herderschee
Expedition, dwell in valleys having much more convenient communications
with the plain than has Swart Valley. Barter with the plainsmen is probably
very easy, and likewise there exists a rather heavy traffic with the Timorini;
that is, assuming that a number of the possessions of the latter have come to
them from the south. On the other hand, various writers, such as Pulle,?’
Snell,28 and van Nouhuys,”* mention the fact that the Pesegem informed them
that shells *° in their possession came from the north. Snell (I. c. 71) surmised
that the stone of their axes also—probably not chloromelanite but andesite,
perhaps of the northern mountain series—came from the north. The Kremer
Expedition learned, in agreement with the reports of the other writers on the
Timorini in the southern valleys, that they are on good terms with the dwellers
on the other side of the Peninggaléh. Thus on this degree of longitude, the
mountainous area of New Guinea over its entire breadth, excluding the unin-
habitable alpine parts, is populated by the same mountain-tribe. That this
tribe, however, extends still farther toward the west and the south we may
determine from the reports of de Kock *! and var den Broek ® on the Goliath
Papuans (the abominable combination Goliath-pygmy has frequently been used,
and thus by analogy one should likewise expect David-giants), Wollaston’s
report * on the Oetakwa Papuans and the Tapiro, and Detzner’s * on the tribes
inhabiting the mountains far east in the Australian part of the country.
Doubtless the tribes to the north of Carstensz Peaks investigated by Leroux
and Stirling of the Nederlandsch-Amerikaansche Expedition belong to this
same race.

To illustrate the conformity between the Timorini, the Pesegem, and the
Oetakwa Papuans, | briefly enumerate some points of likeness and difference
among these tribes. We begin the comparison with the Pesegem. First,
numerous words in the speech are identical or show some resemblance. The
stature and the height are strikingly similar in both this tribe and the Timorini.
Among the Pesegem the women have shorter hair than the men, and the chil-
dren frequently have reddish-colored hair. Again among the Pesegem one
observes finger-mutilation such as is practised chiefly by women of the Timo-
rini. The Pesegem wear a gourd penis-sheath, arm-bands, and necklaces like
those of the Timorini, as well as a hair-net and small carrying pouches. The
ropes are of the same type in both tribes and are smeared with oil (Snell speaks
of wax); the entire body also is greased. Pigs’ tusks, bandoliers made of pig-

26 Maatsch. t. Bevorder. v. h. Nat. Onderz. d. Ned. Kol. Bull. nos. 58, p. 18, and 62, p. 17, and
68—H. A. Lorentz, Zwarte Menschen, Witte Bergen (Leiden 1913)—Van Eerde, Tijdschr.
Kon, Ned. Aardrijksk. Gen. XXVIII (1911), 49—Pulle, |. c. (see footnote 27)—Van den Broek, .
Nova Guinea VII, 3 (1915), 233—-Van Nouhuys, I. c. (see footnote 29)—Fischer, Nova Guinea
Vi. 2 (1915), 145.

27 A, Pulle, Naar het Sneeuwgebergte van Nieuw-Guinea, p. 172.

28. A. Snell, Maatsch. t. Bevorder. v. h. Nat. Onderz. d. Ned. Kol. Bull. no. 68 (1913), 57.

29 J. W. van Nouhuys, Der Bergstamm Pesechem, Nova Guinea VII, 1 (1913), 91.

30 Perhaps the muddy southern coast does not provide shells!

3t Tijdschr. Kon. Ned. Aardrijksk. Gen. XXIX (1912), 154.

32 Ibidem XXVIII (1911), 821.

33 A, F. R. Wollaston, An Expedition to Dutch New Guinea—The Geographical Journal
XLIII (1914), 248—Idem, Pygmies and Papuans (London, 1912),

84H. Detzner, Vier Jahre unter Kannibalen (Berlin, 1920).

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 153

skin, seashells, and orchid stem-fibers are ornamental articles sought by both.
The stone axes of the Pesegem have the same form as those of the Timorini.
Their wives, who also do the field work, use the same kind of net-sacks, while,
on the top of these, they carry their babies in a small net. The larger children
sit astride a woman’s shoulders and grasp her hair. The Pesegem are de-
scribed as peaceable and gentle, the young men being noisy and the older calm
and composed. The Timorini can be characterized in the same way. The
fire-making methods in the two tribes are almost identical. When surprised
the Pesegem tap the penis-sheath. The arrows used by both tribes are almost
alike, three or four types being exactly the same. Both have pigs for live-stock
and shelter them in their houses. The dwellings differ greatly, but both tribes
have in common a preference for living on mountain-ridges, and in both the
sexes live separately. Both practise intensive cultivation and raise the same
crops on their steep enclosed fields; the chief food of the Timorini and the
Pesegem is the sweet potato. Both eat their food raw or after roasting it in
pits covered with stones. The tobacco pipes observed in the two tribes are
very similar. The ‘mouth organ" of bamboo or gelagah stem is used by bot
tribes; the Pesegem also chant monotonous choral songs with short repeated
refrains. The same ceremonial is used in establishing a blood-friendship as is
encountered amongst the Timorini.

Although the Timorini and the Pesegem resemble each other in very many
ways, there are, nevertheless, important differences to be enumerated. The
usual costume of the Pesegemese women consists of two small grass cushions,
that of the Timorinese women is a string skirt. The few times that we en-
countered the grass costume among the Timorini, it was inferred that the
wearer was of Pesegemese origin. ‘The Pesegem too have a peculiar raincape
made of Pandanus leaves, not found among the Timorini; possibly it rains
more on the south slope of the mountain-range than in the high valleys of the
interior. The women of the Pesegem wear the carrying net not from the
forehead, as do those of the Timorini, but from the crown of the head, this
practice at times producing a localized bald spot. The most important dif-
ference between the two tribes, however, except in the speech, lies in the fact
that the houses for women are four-sided and stand on piles, whereas, the house
for men, usually one per kampong, is circular (similar to all the houses of the
Timorini) and built on the ground. The Pesegemese men usually surround
their kampongs with a fence, this being seldom the case with the Timorini.
Lastly the Pesegemese men wear a number of rattan bands around their waists;
this is unknown to the Timorini. The latter also lack the strings which are
pendent from either side of the penis-sheath of the Pesegem.

The Oetakwa Papuans, who live so much farther from the Timorini, show
hardly any differences: They appear to be nearly related to the Pesegem.
Their houses are four-sided; they grow sweet potatoes as their principal food,
and in addition sugar-cane, taro, ginger, bananas, and tobacco, frequently in
terraced fields on steep slopes. The highest cultivated land there was at an
altitude of 2000 m., but deforested areas were seen up to 2400 m. The people
were very friendly and not at all frightened. ‘“They were quite fearless from
the first; they strolled into our tents or huts as if they had been accustomed to
do so all their lives,” says Wollaston in the above-cited publication. The build
and height of the Oetakwa are similar to those of the Pesegem and the Timorini.
The photographs illustrating Wollaston’s article are strongly Timorinese in

154 SARGENTIA [5

character. We see the same stature and features, the same necklaces of seeds
and Echidna spines, the same bags woven of string. We recognize the high
caps of cassowary feathers and the ornaments of koeskoes fur. Wollaston
mentions penis-sheaths for men, small grass cushions and large carrying nets
for women. Ornaments of Dendrobium fibers are as widely known as cowries
and other sea-shells; when questioned as to where the last came from, they
pointed always to the east (the Pesegem?), never in the direction of the coast.
The Oetakwa had a few iron axes of unknown origin and many stone axes
made of ‘metamorphosed slate” (slate rock? ?), according to Wollaston. Small
stone knives also were in their possession. Pigs’ tusks and tails were used as
trimmings, and fire-making was like that of the Timorini. The Oetakwa have
similar tobacco pipes. They salute an acquaintance in the same fashion as the
Timorinese people. Wollaston mentions the very characteristic manner of
pulling knuckles. He also records that when surprised they tap the thumb-nail
against the penis-sheath. Their temperament is cheerful and noisy and they
likewise have a “‘Jew’s harp,”’ undoubtedly the same as the ‘‘mouth organ”’ of
the Timorini and the Pesegem.

Involuntarily the question rises: Did the Timorini know of the existence of
white men before our arrival? | think the answer is definitely in the affirma-
tive. Centuries ago the coastal native knew the white man, and during the
course of years such an important fact in some form doubtless penetrated far
into the interior. Probably the facts that the dwellers of the Meervlakte first
in 1909, and the Pesegem in 1907 and 1909, really came into contact with the
white people have been no more than affirmations of something which, for
many, must have sounded like a kind of fairy tale. Nevertheless, really getting
acquainted with us must have been a big event in the lives of the Timorini. |
once tried to imagine what went on in the minds of these people, not only in
the individual life of each, but also in the lives of their associates, when we
appeared for the first time, engaged in a multitude of, to them, completely
incomprehensible matters. It will be sufficient to refer to the description of
the first contact given by Bijlmer and Jongejans. In the later days of our
sojourn particularly, we were often surprised that we Europeans proper were
always much more amazed and interested than our hosts. As we try to explain
this fact, we must consider that a people in this stage of evolution are as chil-
dren compared to us. The Timorinese individual is, even in our eyes, an
excellent man but primitive; that is, his mental processes are much more
unconscious than ours, much less complicated, and lack the power of coérdina-
tion. Wecan consider him as a kind of intermediate form between the “‘intelli-
gent’? mammals, such as dogs or horses, and ourselves. I do not discuss the
position of this intermediate form. In his inner being are the same seeds of
good and evil as in ours. Every day, every hour, every minute, we are again
touched by expressions which we encounter in our own race. His society is
like ours but on a strongly reduced scale. Can one say the same of the mon-
goloid races? (East is east... etc.) Why did we find the Mamberamo
Papuans such unredeemed brutes, and yet accept the Timorini, likewise
primitive, as our fellow-men? Surely not because they have climbed a few
steps higher on the ladder of refinement! Can it be that there are two kinds
of primitiveness, crude and cultured? And did our own race in its primeval
condition belong to the first type? I leave the answers of these questions
wholly to the ethnographer and philosopher. But it is strange to observe how

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 155

there exists among such primitive and isolated people the same proportion
between old age and youth as amongst us. The children are true children, the
boys real street boys, the girls are genuine girls, and the old men real old men.
Nevertheless, there remains a child-like standard. They are, as it were,
ghostly neoteinic forms undeveloped in depth and breadth of conscious outlook,
and this is an indication of the phylogenetic youth of such a people. Onto-
genetically, probably the Timorini can be developed as most Europeans.
Their present stage of development as a people apparently does not separate
them from us by an insurmountable gap; the phylogenetic development is not
_to be forced. Here agents are at work which need a very long time for each
change or else are inactive. So the ratio between age and youth during the
phylogenetic development remains constant. Whereas the nature of the child
of phylogenetically young and old nations hardly differs appreciably, we find
at the end of life a very great difference, since that is in proportion to the
phylogenetic age of the people. As is true of our own people, we find the
Timorini courageous and cowardly, honest and dishonest, reserved and demon-
strative, noisy and quiet, wags and thinkers, coquettish and modest, boasting
and unpretentious, naive and suspicious. We observe a people here who
developed undisturbed in peace and quiet, a people who have refined a large
measure of good nature and flexibility from the influence of the earth and its
surroundings. In such a people we find the best of the animal elevated to the
status of humanity. We feel much nearer to him than to the young Javanese.
The latter has already arrived through the elimination of isolation. Originally
his soul was pure in nature, but now it is troubled by a multitude of ideas which
properly belong to a society phylogenetically older; hence, these ideas promote
a dissonance with the sound of chords tuned to entirely different standards.

Why was it that these Timorini appeared to be so much less affected by our
arrival and its accompanying wonders than we had expected, than we ourselves
were? I believe it was because they, in phylogenetic youth, therefore like
children, are simple. That inconceivable something which we brought them,
they accepted as they accept so many other incomprehensibilities. — In their
largely unconscious spiritual life, they try not to estimate these; whereas we,
frequently at the cost of our tranquillity, cannot desist from so doing since we
have eaten of the fruits of the tree of knowledge.

The Timorinese individual is slender and slight but well-built. Bijlmer gives
as average height of the men 154.7 cm. (Wirz, 155.7), for women 143.2 cm.
(Wirz, 147.3). Thus the Timorini certainly are not pygmies. Of 40 Dyaks
who accompanied the expedition, the average height was 155.9 cm., but one
never hears this tribe spoken of as pygmies. The children almost all have the
characteristic ‘sweet potato’? stomachs, but this feature disappears in later
life. Whereas the men generally retain their beautiful supple figures, the
women, who do all the heavy work, age early and become plain.

In men frequently the entire body is covered with small tufts of frizzy hair;
most of them have.a full beard and mustache. The facial expression is usually
friendly and good-natured, sometimes alert and sometimes gentle. The deep-
set eyes appear open and intelligent under the projecting heavy eyebrows and
impart to the face something of candor. The men go naked, since the penis-
sheath is considered as an ornament rather than as clothing, although, on the
other hand, a sense of shame is not lacking in the Timorini. The small net of

156 SARGENTIA [5

knotted string,** often locally wrapped with yellow orchid-fiber and decorated
with colored leaves or with feathers, is worn by mature men on the head. It is
firmly attached to the curly black hair with pork-fat colored black by soot and
will remain in its place many years. An end hangs at the back and appears to
consist of several layers, for often I saw the outside layer raised in order to place
some object beneath it. Nevertheless, we observed mature men with uncov-
ered heads of curly hair.

Many men wear thin or thick rattan sticks or more or less sharpened pigs’
tusks through the nasal septum or through the ear-lobes, and sometimes two
such tusks are bound to a ring. Coarse twisted rattan bands are worn on the
neck, and strings of seeds, such as those of Job’s tears (Coix Lacryma Jobi L.),’
or internodes of ‘thick-stalked grass. Most of these strings are long and one
short end, consisting of the spines of porcupine ant-eaters (Echidna), hangs
down. An unusually valuable ornament is the previously mentioned melli, a
piece of large sea-shell (Nautilus?) ; relatively few men had it, and many young
men indicated a vehement desire for the white paper leaves from our notebooks
as a cheap substitute.

An ornament worn much by men is a bandolier of knotted string (Wirz, l. c.
pl. X, fig. 5) on which a number of objects are hung, particularly short sticks of
bamboo or rattan on which a piece of long-haired pigskin is fastened, also larger
pieces of pigs’ feet or those of cassowaries. Each man has a shoulder-bag in
which he carries some useful things and some luxuries: a small dagger fashioned
from a cassowary leg, a pipe (Fig. 29) made from an excavated fruit with a
hollow grass stem, a small case for lime, made from a laboe fruit, a couple of
betel leaves and an Areca nut, a few leaves of tobacco, and, if he is well-to-do,
a few tigaléhs [cowrie shells]. With that he carries some provisions or tidbits,
a couple of roasted sweet potatoes, a small piece of sugar-cane, and some beetle-
larvae.

The arms are often decorated with a few plain finely or coarsely twisted
rattan-bands (Wirz, I. c. pl. VI, fig. 2-5); they are either the customary short
cylindric form, or the horizontally projecting type [somewhat flange-like ]
wherein the outer and inner margins form two concentric circles (Wirz, |. c. pl.
XII, fig. 1-3). Perhaps the latter were originally arm-protectors against the
springing back of the bowstring, but the band is worn also on the upper arm.

Descending along the body we now come to the penis-sheath or keboaak.
The strangeness of this frequently very provoking article was that it very soon
was no longer striking. In youth the boy is girdled with a small-size child's
keboaak. It is made of the basal part of the laboe fruit (Lagenaria leucantha
Rusby = vulgaris Ser.) or gourd. Heyne * mentions that these old or mature
fruits with hard woody walls are used as containers for various liquids; in Java
these are artificially moulded by bands tied around them during the growing
period. In view of the many different models which occur amongst the
Timorini, one must suppose that this custom is also in vogue here, but neither
Wirz nor myself were able to ascertain it. The keboaak rests on the base of the
penis which is almost entirely concealed; it is attached in the middle to one or
usually more bands fastened around the waist and by a thin band under the
scrotum. There is a band around the waist to fasten the article in position.
As for the difference in models, perhaps that is a question of age or social status.

* For finery, etc., see the ample report of Wirz (I. c. 102 et seq.).
* K. Heyne, De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch-Indié, 2nd ed. (1927), 1423.

of

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 15

There is a type which might be called that of the common citizen, the predomi-
nant and less conspicuous model, the short straight sheath. Most are thin and
sometimes closed at the end (fruit-stalk), but there are also some of the model
of the old blunderbuss (Wirz, fig. 2, fig. 7, middle man), being wide, thin-walled,
or even thick sheaths, the outer end of which is closed with a wad of grass.
According to Wirz, similar models are used as depositories for small articles
such as tigaléhs. The exceptional models differ in length and form. We saw
some which were coiled and curved, a few even recurved. | also remember a
very old man whose keboaak projected upward to his hollow chest (cf. Wirz,
fig. 32).

Some writers consider the keboaak as ornamental rather than as an article of
clothing; one cannot deny the Timorinia sense of shame. I never saw a mature
man without a keboaak, and when such an article was to be bartered, always an
extra one was first brought from home and the “‘change of clothing” took place
behind a bush.

As is to be expected of an article so closely connected with sexual aspects,
the keboaak takes a particular place in the life of the Timorini. Without ex-
ception, the expression of astonishment, at the sight of our remarkable posses-
‘ sions for example, the guttural sounds are constantly accompanied by a
repeated tapping of the nail of the index-finger or thumb against the keboaak.
Perhaps this may be considered as an appeal to the saint of the sexual organs as
exorcism lest the stranger whom he beholds shall bring him calamity.

In addition to the daily equipment previously described, the Timorini have a
number of other occasional bags. They have a beautiful, woven, firm, strong,
and very flexible piece of armor (Wirz, |. c. pl. XII, fig. 5), a kind of coat-of-
mail made of fine rattan, the supple upper part of which covers the shoulders,
while the coarser part protects the torso against arrows. They have various
kinds of head-dress: caps of cassowary feathers pompous as a hussar’s busby
easily spoiled by rain, caps of koeskoes fur, head-bands for dances consisting of a
broad strip of Pandanus leaf bound in U-form and decorated with bits of koes-
koes fur and feathers of different birds (Wirz, |. c., pl. VIII, fig. 1). Finally
they brought a ring-shaped rattan object with singularly long cassowary feath-
ers attached to one end (Wirz, l. c. pl. VIII, fig. 3), and, holding it erect on the
head, danced to and fro before us.

We frequently wondered of what material the beautifully twisted and strong
string of the Timorini was made. I was unable to obtain definite information.
The Industrial Section of the Department of Agriculture, Industry, and Com-
merce at Buitenzorg answered my inquiry, stating that it does not come from
Pandanus aerial roots. Perhaps the origin must be sought in Gnetum Gnemon
L., the bark of which is used everywhere in the Archipelago for manufacturing
a fine type of string. Wirz (I. c. 110) proposed the same source. Snell (1. c. 68)
reported that the Pesegem use string made from the bark of a shrub resembling
cotton. The waroe (Hibiscus tiliaceus L.) does not occur here. Possibly
another species of Hibiscus (H. sabdariffa L.; roselle), is meant.

The weapons possessed by these strange mountain-people conform entirely
to their build. The bows are small and light, and the arrows look more like
children’s toys than arms. These bear no conspicuous ornamental motives,
only somewhat singular outline figures. Four types of arrows can be dif-
ferentiated. Two of these have a long and sharp point of bamboo or bone, the
one with barbed hooks, the other without. These two are intended for human

158 SARGENTIA [5

enemies. The third model is tipped with a very broad gently convexo-concave
bamboo point sharpened at the end; this is the hunting arrow which is used in
killing pigs for food. The fourth type has four short somewhat divergent
points; this is used in hunting birds. Perhaps the form was developed because
the arrow often remains in the body of the bird, and thus its possible loss is
guarded against in the dense forest. Children practice shooting when very
young, using small bows and short arrows with blunt points. The arrows are
of bamboo or rattan, the bow of palm wood (Kentia?).

In contrast with the Mamberamo Papuans, the Timorini as a whole are not
inseparable from their bows and arrows. They frequently called unarmed
and usually seated themselves quickly when visiting the camp. As peaceable
farmers, the Timorini are less attached to their weapons than to the stone axe.
Two models of these are known. The one most often seen is the man’s axe
(Fig. 24A), which one might call a field-axe, the instrument being used in

Fic. 24. Timorinese axes: A = man’s axe: B = woman’s axe.
’

breaking up new land. It is made of a strong flexible branch with a part of the
wood of the trunk still attached, the latter standing at an angle of about 60°.
The branch is the handle; a sharpened stone is attached to the short part and
reinforced by binding with a thick strong strand of split rattan. The stone is
hard and tough, not flaking off, and has the dark green color of andesite. It is
not clear where these stones were obtained. Possibly they were found in the
eruptive Doormantop series. In this connection I recall Snell’s remark on the
probable origin of the Pesegemese stone axes, which evidently came from the
north. Moreover, it is known that there is an active barter in this valuable
article in New Guinea; one might even speak of it as a local industry, as van
Eerde *7 reported. The asymmetrical sharpened half-protruding stone is easily
removed from its binding, and this occurs frequently in order to grind out the
nicks caused through its use. Often we saw a man occupied a long time with
the sharpening of the stone, moving it to and fro over a wet piece of slate with
great patience. This tool may cut the tree-trunks almost horizontally, or at
least at a wide angle. It is astonishing that the Timorini are able to fell a tree
of sizable girth, and in a relatively short time, with this, to our eyes, primitive
tool. The axe is carried over one shoulder, the stone at the back, the point of
the forked wood turned slightly outward. :

The other kind is the woman’s axe or house-axe (Fig. 24B), consisting of a
straight club-shaped piece of wood with a thin handle; in the thick end a

37 Van Eerde, Inleiding tot de Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indié—Volksuniversiteits-
bibliotheek no. 1 (1920), 57-58.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 159

symmetrical sharpened stone is set in an opening which narrows towards the
upper side. This axe is used for chopping wood.

In lighting a fire *8 the Timorini employ this method: a long stick split at one
end, the two parts slightly separated by a small stone, is used. Associated with
this stick is a piece of split rattan, the larger part of which is wound around the
wrist in a thick armband, the rest, 1-1.5 m., being free. Some dry leaves,
Selaginella and such, are piled in a small heap on the ground. On top is placed
a small handful of a fungus-like substance resembling the material gathered
from the leaf-axils of the sugar-palm in Java. Now the stick, already showing
some grooves burned black, is laid on the heap of dry material and the free end
of the rattan string is pulled through under the stick. Then the man presses
the stick down on the pile with his foot, takes the free end of the rattan in one
hand, the wound part in the other and draws the rattan quickly and forcefully
toand fro. After a few pulls, smoke appears, and a moment later a flame which
immediately attacks the fungus-like substance, then the leaves. Quickly the
burning heap is taken up and fanned, the whole work taking hardly more time
than we would need to light a small fire with the help of a match. Neverthe-
less, this method appears to the Timorini to be too time-consuming or is not
satisfactory in unfavorable circumstances, for frequently we saw men carrying
a piece of Pandanus trunk in the cavity of which a fire smouldered.

Although the women of the Timorini do all the house- and field-work, never-
theless they are not complete slaves. A woman is very clearly the minor part
of the household, but the privilege of expressing her own opinion is not denied
to her. Asa rule her outfit is simpler than that of the men. She wears no
permanent head-net on her short curly hair, and her few adornments consist
of armbands, necklaces, or a single pigs’ tusk. Her clothing is very seemly ;
we found three different types. By far the most common is the string-skirt
(Wirz, l. c., pl. V, fig. 3; also fig. 24), composed of numerous bits of string hang-
ing close together from a cord wound two or three times around the waist,
which adjusts itself to the form of the body. In addition to these string-skirts,
there is another piece of clothing consisting of two arched pendent draperies of
string-network (Wirz, I. c. fig. 23), one front, one back, tied together on the
hips. The third type, of which we saw only a few examples, is that commonly
in vogue among the Pesegemese women; the skirt consists of a set of small
grass-cushions (Wirz, l. c., pl. V, 4, and fig. 26), very thick and similarly cut in
front and back. Probably the women who wore this model were originally
from the Pesegemese region.

The women also wear net bags, but resting on the head is a bulky sack, which
is worn with a broad band on the forehead and hangs down the back frequently
to the bend of the knees. In this the daily harvest is carried from the field,
and toward the end of the day women of all ages may be seen, but particularly
older ones, trotting by the camp, bent under the load of field-produce.

The kampongs are generally small, at least in the part visited by our expedi-
tion. A few, two to five, houses stand together on a more or less flat piece of
ground, always on a ridge, never in a ravine, which is often the only forested
part of the slope. The ground around the huts is usually good, and is kept
clean and clear. Close to the houses only a few cultivated plants, such as

38 Cf. the descriptions and illustrations of the same method used by a mountain-tribe visited
by Wollaston (apparently likewise in vogue with the Timorini) in Lorentz, Zwarte menschen,
Witte bergen (Leiden, 1913), 137.

160 SARGENTIA [5

tobacco (Fig. 25), sugar-cane, gourd, or banana, are grown. A few times we
encountered larger groups of houses such as in the Toli Valley (Fig. 32 at 1)
where we counted some thirty houses scattered over a broad ridge.

As I have already noted, the sexes live in separate quarters; there is a hut for
men, and others for women, children, and pigs. The men’s houses (Fig. 25)
are fewer in number; they occupy the best sites, are of better construction, and
frequently have two exits. The walls are made of more or less flat planks
1.5-2 m. high, set upright adjacent to each other and bound or held together
by long flexible roots or branches. The diameter of the house is 3.5—4 m.

Fic. 25. Men’s house in the Dika Valley; a tobacco plant at the left.

The doorways can be closed with transverse planks, and often a large flat stone
serves as a threshold. The roof is made of grass-leaves (apparently alang-
alang) radially arranged and resting on a number of timbers also radially
sloping from the peak of the house (Wirz, |. c. pl. XIII). On the first floor is
the meeting room, the earth being tamped, and frequently in the middle a fire
is kept. Under the roof is a sleeping loft, which the dwellers can reach via a
notched beam leaning against the wall and leading to a manhole.

The women’s houses, as a rule, are much less carefully finished. The open-
ings between the planks of the wall are mostly closed with grass, and in place
of a loft occupying the entire upper part of the hut, one finds two rooms, one
above the other, the upper being the larger. Under the lower part is a closed-
off area in which the pigs are kept, usually all sows, which from time to time
are set free to mate in the forest.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 161

The Timorini are not unmusical, but their music is exceptionally primitive
(Wirz, I. c. p. 113, et seq.). The one instrument is the same as that described
and illustrated by Snell (I. c. 73) for the Pesegem; it is a small bamboo-strip
(Fig. 26) carried on a string around the neck; the free end is split into three
adjacent parts, the two outer being the longer. According to Wirz, this
primitive instrument, apparently widespread over all New Guinea, is very
ancient. It is used to blow against as they hum, but we obtained the impres-
sion it was used more as a child’s toy than as a musical instrument. Wirz, in
his chapter on music, places much more emphasis on the singing.

The Timorini practise ** intensive cultivation in agriculture, and this in such
an extravagant way that one wonders how long the valley-tribes can still exist
here without reaching the starvation-point. One might rightly consider that
the vast alang-alang [Imperata] fields are not suitable for further culture.
Cleared places are observed in all forms and stages of development; frequently
the steepest are terraced. It seems that the Kremer Expedition to the interior
encountered better-kept fields, properly weeded and drained by a system of
ditches at right angles to each other. The cleared places which I saw were ill-
kept and poorly weeded, so that the cultivated plants (sweet potatoes) were

Fic. 26. Timorinese mouth organ.

practically hidden under the weeds. Neither blocks of stone nor tree-trunks
were removed, but we must believe that we speak here of apparently newly
cleared land on the margin of the inhabited region.

Likewise it has been mentioned that the sweet potato is the chief food and is
almost exclusively the only plant cultivated in the fenced fields. Fencing is a
necessary protection against the depredations of pigs, for failure of the oebt crop
would have serious results. The fences (Figs. 27, 28) are real works of art.
How poor the farm-lands of this primitive people must be, where agriculture,
the oldest and most important business, has forced the inhabitants to develop
such a remarkable technique with such primitive tools! These fences consist
of a number of planks, not unlike those which are used for houses. They are
placed horizontally one above the other to a height of 1-1.2 m. above the
ground and are held in this position by perpendicular stakes on either side; the
pairs of stakes are bound together and project two to four decimeters above the
fence. In turn these stakes are supported by oblique ones braced against them,
so that the whole structure is very firm. Frequently the upper side is covered
with a broad layer of grass-leaves (Fig. 27), apparently for protection against
rains which would soon cause the wood to decay. In this covering an epiphytic
flora often develops, reminding one involuntarily of the attractive covering
of the Balinese small hereditary walls.

39H, J. Lam, lets over den akkerbouw bij een Papoeastam in Centraal Nieuw-Guinee,

benevens eenige opmerkingen over land en flora van dat eiland.—Handel. IIde N. I. Natuur-
wetensch. Congr., Bandoeng 1922, p. 156.

162 SARGENTIA [5

Vp ii {

Fic. 27. Stile over a ladang-fence, made of two inclined tree-trunks; a part of the fence

at the left covered with grass.

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\ [Ble i Pda)

ets |

Fic. 28. Ladang-fence with horizontal stile.

For us, the most noteworthy thing about these fences, however, is the fact
that, where the path crosses, they have just such small stiles as we use in our
Dutch meadow-fences. With his sense of travel, the Timorini keeps his paths
in good repair, and where numerous fields must be passed, quick passage is not
impeded. Sometimes the stile is made of thick tree-branches (Fig. 27) which,
provided with notches, rest obliquely against the fence; then again it is made
of horizontal small plank-steps (Fig. 28), in which case the fence is somewhat
lower to facilitate crossing.

Near the huts small plantings of less important crops were frequently found,
a small patch of sugar-cane, or in damp places a‘small kladi [Colocasia] field.
Tobacco is usually grown near the houses (Fig. 25). Wirz thinks that this
is done with an eye to protecting this valuable commercial material against

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 163

possible theft. Here and there are clusters of banana-plants with very small
fruits; in another spot are a few Pandanus trees, of which the very often large
infructescences approaching maturity are tied up with leaves like the nangka
[Artocarpus] of Java, as protection against birds and bats. Betel also is
cultivated near the house. Close to the large kampong in the principal valley |
found a small planting of katjang ketjipir [Psophocarpus | which was trained
over a kind of scaffold. In the neighborhood of this populous village I saw a
rather extensive regularly laid-out Pandanus plantation. Repeatedly the
places where these Pandanus fruits had been roasted were seen. ‘They were
small pits covered with flat stones, in which a fire had been built.

I shall now devote a few words to the Timorinese proper names, which Wirz
does not discuss. Among the numerous clan-names which he reports, | found
none which agreed with what we accept as proper names. We thought, more-
over, that two categories could be clearly distinguished, one of which we con-
sidered the real name, and the other the reputed surname. In the first category
we noted chiefly two endings, -génak *° and -égom (frequently -boerégom) for
men, and one, -kwé * (often -boerékwé) for women. Here are a few examples
of these, a number of which sound not unharmonious with the cadenced pro-
nunciation; the emphasis frequently falls (men, a and b; women, a) on the
antepenult:

Men: a. Ending in -génak—Maingénak, Aligaingénak, Moelijéngénak, Teéréngénak, Oendi-

géenak.

b. Ending in -boerégom—Woebiliemboerégom, Kalanboerégom, Wolimanboerégom,
Digienboerégom, Moelijénboerégom (child, compare the same name with the ending
-génak), Dahiendienboerégom (child).

c. Ending in -gom—Joekerénegom, Niengaragoenoegom (child).

d. Ending in -kéléh—Bongkokéleh, Anamboekéleh (child).

Women: a. Ending in -boeré¢kwé—Kwamboerékwé, Jemberaboerékwé, Meniengénboerékwe.
b. Ending in -kwé or -kwa—Daroealékwé, Kwamoekwa, Toemakwa (child).

We encountered names of another kind,” in part perhaps surnames; for men,
for example: Wawa, Oewe, Oewineg, Djimaweh, Enggabitme, Tebiengek, Adien-
gek, Wégawdg, Enddboh, Diddralée, Kwédloe, Djiwerdi, Aboelom, Ellembéroe,
Oenaroh. It becomes apparent that a few of these must be accepted as sur-
names. Snell mentions that in the Pesegemese ‘‘oewe’’ indicates father and
“wawa’”’ # an infant, which were aptly chosen as surnames and could very well
refer to the appearance of the bearers.

Although we were convinced of the peaceable intentions of these people, we
did not go about unarmed since the possibility of a misunderstanding could
not be excluded. Besides, it again appeared that the Timorini, although on
familiar terms with us in the camp, were not at ease if encountered alone.
Frequently I noticed that individuals, whom one saw arrive, hastily tried to
conceal themselves, or so they thought, in order to remain unseen. But in the
open terrains such as cleared lands or grass-fields, this could not happen without
being conspicuous. Now one must “faire bonne mine 4 mauvais jeu,” for, as
true primitive men, the Timorini have a strong sense of false shame. In such

40 Also among the Pesegem; cf. Lorentz, |. ¢., p. 258.

41 Among the Pesegem -kwe or -kwa(kwamie) means woman.

42 Wollaston also reports (I. c. p. 260) that ‘‘many of them appear to have two names.”’

48 In the Pesegemese this is also the name of a bird (Ailaroedus buccoides Temm.); cf. Lorentz,
l. c. 468.

164 SARGENTIA [5

encounters they were frequently shy, sometimes also nervous, and | have
noticed many times, particularly among individuals who did not know us, that
they began to tremble with fear. But even people well-known to us, if met
alone unexpectedly, often showed an ill-concealed terror by a clamorous
cordiality and an exaggerated inclination to shake hands and embrace, this all
being invariably accompanied by the tapping of the thumb- or index-finger-nail
against the keboaak.

On the second morning of my sojourn in the Dika-bivak, after crossing a
fence-stile in the margin of the secondary forest, | suddenly met a Timorinese
family, man, woman, girl, and two boys. Apparently they had watched me
cross the stile but had seen no chance to slip away. And now they stood as
far to the side of the path as the slope permitted, lined up rather anxiously: the
man in front, somewhat nervous but, nevertheless, controlling himself with the
idea of keeping up his prestige; behind him the woman stood, more curious than
frightened, the girl giggling half-hidden behind her, watching furtively to miss
nothing of this meeting and yet poised for flight if I should make any move in
their direction; the boys, bold and defiant, next to the father. The latter stood
awkwardly waiting, and when I approached he began to shout reassuringly.
Then followed an earnest handshake, then a fingerclap which I imitated. The
female contingent pressed modestly into the background during this ceremony,
but the two boys looked on undaunted, ready for severe criticism at seeing how
papa would comport himself. When this ponderous and noisy ceremony was
over, the usual gestures followed, each indicating his intention of proceeding on
his journey, with which the scene ended. Here | have spoken of the method of
salutation which was one of the factors in establishing our easy familiarity with
these people. The Timorini (cf. Wirz, l. c. 45) greet one with a certain stately
earnestness and firm handshake which meanwhile appears to be only a part of
the ceremony. Frequently the handshake is preceded by an action in which
the two individuals produce a clapping sound, the index finger and the middle
one of the right hand curve and grasp tightly those of the other, the hands then
being pulled with a jerk (the “pulling knuckles” of Wollaston). Often the
handshake following this is less seriously, even somewhat carelessly exchanged ;
also it is superseded by the clasping of each other’s forearm, apparently indicat-
ing greater cordiality. It appeared to us that they were more cordial when the
ceremony was completed by a protracted embracing (cf. also Snell, |. c. p. 74,
with the Pesegem), in which one laid his chin on the shoulder of the other and
gently patted him on the back.

In another field a couple of women worked and smoked their pipes. They
did not look up when I passed. The pipes (Fig. 29) which we saw are exactly
like those of the Pesegem “ illustrated by van Nouhuys, only the stem is not
wrapped. The bowl consists of a hollowed-out fruit and has only a small space
for tobacco. Van Nouhuys mentions that Elaeocarpus fruits are used for this,
but of that I am not certain. Tobacco also is rolled into a kind of cigar or
wrapped in a green leaf and smoked thus. One sees tobacco carefully wrapped
with Pandanus leaves and split rattan and tied up in packages. According to
Wirz (I. c. p. 125) this is the commercial form which is purchased with tigaléhs
by the Meervlakte people. Fermentation is not practiced, the flavor being
very sharp.

44Van Nouhuys, I. c. Pl. 1, fig. 3; cf. p. 11.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 165

As with many primitive people, so with the Timorini, the name is very im-
portant, really an integral part of the person. One hesitates to call himself by
name, as if he were yielding a part of his personality; on the other hand, one is
in an advantageous position if he knows the name of another, particularly in
confidential matters such as barter, since it is apparently understood that the
mention of a name is a kind of guarantee for trustworthiness and honor. How
weakened this is in our society! However, if one must give a name, it 1s pre-
ferable not to do it oneself but to enlist the help of another. Conversely, we
were never directly asked our name but inquiry was made through another person.
Nevertheless, these primitive men, who so easily affect a settlement with the
higher power, were careless enough in these matters, not taking everything
seriously; we saw this in regard to the surnames and we experienced it also in

P/ Zz
Y Lif
A S Oe,
AE te ‘
Se ie v it a4
ike

Fic. 29. Timorinese pipe, also a longitudinal section of the bowl.

the play which one—even in this remote region—knew how to make on my
family name, jestingly naming me ‘‘wam” (pig). This I may consider to have
been a great honor, for according to Wirz (I. c. p. 85) “‘verkorpert sich (in
Schwein) nach Ansicht des Papua alles Gute, Reine und Edle,” and “‘wam

war daher auch das erste und letzte Wort das ich . . . taglich und zu un-
zahligen Malen zu héren bekam.”’

When we thus, for example at mealtime, all sat in a row on our small mat-
tresses in the hut, and the lords of the land then passed in front of us and, as
‘‘frequenters of the fair’? who were now out for a day and wished to enjoy
everything, inspected us as if we were wild animals, handled and examined us,
then we felt ourselves to be more as a somewhat ridiculously interesting sight,
than as members of the ‘‘dominant race.’”’ Frequently it was really as if we sat
there on exhibit for the pleasure of our hosts, so self-assured they appeared, so
convinced of their good right to see everything, as if they had paid a tgaléh for
it. They came in groups of three or four, all talking, demanding of us, not
unfriendly nor whining, but with something commanding in their voices, to
open our tins, to empty our sacks of everything, and to hand over our watches
and rings. And they rested not until this demand was satisfied; then like
children they immediately turned their thoughts and attention to something
else. Once we hesitated to trust expensive things such as rings out of our hands,
but it was explicitly made clear to us that they only wished to see the article
and that it would be returned after a time. Nevertheless, they frequently

166 SARGENTIA [5

hoped that it might be offered as a present, but when this proved not to be the
case, they laughed good-humoredly at their misfortune. On the other hand,
they were easily pleased with small gifts which had less value for us, for example,
small sheets of paper from our notebooks much valued as a substitute for melli,
shoelaces to be used as necklaces, and milk-tins without top and bottom as
armbands. Matches, on the contrary, were not valued. Once on the following
day they uneasily returned a small box of matches untouched. Strange mate-
rial was before their eyes, so thin and yet so strong. When we removed the
cover of a baggage-tin, the hollow noise repeatedly frightened them, and I once
made a small group solicitous for my welfare by striking my head with such a
cover.

During a noon-hour, one of the few annoyingly intrusive men, named
Djimaweh, by his insistence discovered one of my glass tubes for preserving
material in alcohol. | thought that I would demonstrate that one can produce
a whistling sound by blowing such a tube, and that immediately awakened his
desire to possess it. Realizing very well that it was of no real value to him, he
did not wish to give anything in barter but rubbish; I did not enter into the
bargain and would not trust it out of my hands. Finally, somewhat annoyed,
he came and stood in front of me, his face set with an expression that meant ‘‘]
can do without your tube,”’ stuck his fingers in his mouth and tried to imitate
the noise; it miscarried so pitifully that he hastily retreated. '

I continually produced great surprise with my metal measuring tape, a steel
centimeter roll 2 m. long which, with the pressing of a small button, disappears
into the case through the action of a spring. Being very much in vogue with
‘the public,” | must repeat this ceremony some ten times a day: I draw the tape
out and let it hang down, then | invite one of the “lords of the public’ (an
uninitiated one) to grasp the end. Because of the laughter and tense expecta-
tion of his companions at the somewhat strange preparation, the victim comes
somewhat suspiciously nearer, and, with the very complaisant confidence of
“IT shall not run into it now,” slowly and cautiously stretches out his hand.
All become very tense, and one could hear a pin drop. Temptingly the tape
swings to and fro, but just as his hand makes a grab, |, unnoticed, press the
button with my thumb and the tape swiftly vanishes into the case in the
twinkling of an eye. A shout bursts from the onlookers, and the victim is’
noisily taunted but disappears in the crowd. He is the first to avenge the
scorn suffered by bringing a new victim.

These people are practical in trading, but they also have their pride. When
we did not concur quickly enough with their opinion or were not open-handed
enough with our return present for an offered small lot of sweet potatoes or
sugar cane, then they would either give it to us as a present and go proudly
away, or, without saying a word, would present the article to the Dyaks or
soldiers.

With these few and but little coherent anecdotes, I have tried to give a few
impressions obtained by a layman in the ethnological field. These perhaps to
outsiders, non-professionals such as myself, tell more than a scientific treatise,
particularly as they throw light on another side of the matter. I have not by
any means striven for completeness. There is no need to consider data which
have already been scientifically treated by Wirz. I think therefore that it must
suffice to indicate the illustration [omitted] of a grave of which Wirz also
pictured a few (1. c. fig. 15, 16), or particularly a fenced-in place where a crema-

1945} LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 167

tion had taken place. I also give a sketch of a sacrifice-table Lomitted ] (cf.
Wirz, |. c., fig. 13) on which, among leaves, the remnants of meals of pork are
offered to the ‘‘koegi,”’ the spirits of the ancestors. For further information on
the rdle which these ‘“‘koegi’’ play in the life of the Timorini, and in general on
the animistic ideas which appear to rule them, I refer to the author mentioned
(Il. c., p. 52 et seq.). Before I close this Fragment with a story of our trip into
the principal valley, I here insert a few remarks on the landscape and the orig-
inal flora.

From the Dika Valley, Doormantop hardly gives the impression of dominat-
ing the mountain-series. The entire chain rises as an enormous wall nearby,
steep above, heavily covered with vegetation, and deeply cut by numerous
ravines, of which the lowest parts of the walls frequently are perpendicular
(Figs. 30, 31). The high 3820 m. summit is not visible from here, or at least

Mospivan Booamanror . nasto ngs'o

Fic. 30. Doormantop Chain seen from the Dika Valley.

was not recognized. Relatively soon the Dika Valley shuts off the view to the
east, and the Swart Valley (Fig. 31) stretches far away to the west. Almost
endless is the series of wing-like ridges lying successively behind each other, the
comparatively gentle slopes of which suddenly drop off perpendicularly or
almost perpendicularly into the narrow gorge containing the sinuous and almost
always unseen mountain-river. This erosion-form, which is a distinguishing
feature of young mountain-ranges, is very characteristic of this landscape.
The Dika-bivak lay on an open part of the slope. Eastward from there is a
very large clearing, westward a smaller one with a few small houses, and in
front of us one of the well-kept paths, which have been developed through long
years of use and which make traveling in this region so agreeable compared to
that through the difficult forested terrain. ‘Toward the east one very soon
meets with the old forest. Here we are on the boundary of the inhabited
territory; the population is very thinly scattered there and a very small part
of the overlying slope is still forested. But to the west in the main valley all is
cleared from the margin of the steep gap to very high against the slope. In this
part of the mountains the highest limit of inhabited territory lies at about
1800-2000 m., but, more towards the Central Chain, the Kremer Expedition
came across kampongs at an altitude of 2800-2900 m., there practically all the
forest was cleared. Near the Dika one sees forest on the ridges. Narrow
forest-strips have also been left standing along the short streams which cut
through the slopes, but, in the little original forest remaining, species of Pan-

168 SARGENTIA [5

danus are very common, apparently having been saved on account of their
fruits.

The deforested land appears in three forms: as cleared fields, as alang-alang
| Imperata | meadows, and as secondary forest. The last originated either by
the extensive destruction of the old forest or by natural reforestation of aban-
doned fields. In many instances it is not easy to say with which of these two
forms one is dealing. But it appears to me that the first type is characterized
especially by the large number of tall Leguminosae (Parkia?) with white
trunks, frequently practically the only tall trees, and a slight undergrowth;
whereas the forest on old cleared land now has the character of a shrub wilder-
ness with some smaller trees, then again of a young forest with a thick under-

Kremerbelt Tofi [fem nase Dika

Adal vl WON a
as men TAG HY! AN Apri ovina ate

ee Ai) Be

Fic. 31. View through the Dika and Iliem Valleys toward the west; behind the first ridge
at the left lies the Toli Valley; below Kremerbult a clearing; right below a kampong; the
stippled part of the left ridge farthest back is primary forest; to the right of Kremerbult some
houses with large Araucaria trees.

growth and often very many ferns. Under the circumstances described, I was
scarcely able to collect in this terrain. In a shrub-wilderness I found a few
plants of Callicarpa longifolia Lamk. (trop. As.—Austr.), a species of Mela-
stoma (no. 2060; aff. M. polyanthum BI.), the Australian coniferous Callitris
robusta R. Br. (no. 2166), and lastly a beautiful Rhododendron, a robust shrub
with very large orange-red flowers about 10 cm. in diameter. In such places
were large masses of Polygonum chinense L. (trop. and subtrop. S. E. As.—
N. Guin.). In a newly cleared field, | found as epiphytes Pleopeltis recedens
Moore and Davallia dissectifolia J. Sm.

The alang-alang fields are treeless, open, and frequently very extensive. In
the more thickly inhabited region they certainly occupy the greatest percentage
of the land. Apparently they take over old cultivated terrains which, finally,
through the loss of humus and through drying out, have become valueless for
crops, and the alang-alang has hindered the growth of young forest. A few
herbs grow in the tall grass, such as Osbeckia chinensis L. (no. 2084; trop. As.—
Austr.), Wahlenbergia marginata DC. (no. 2083; eastern O. W.), Mitrasacme

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 169

elata R. Br. (N. Guin., Austr.), Oldenlandta tenelliflora IK. Schum. var. papuana
Val. (nos. 2065, 2085), and Burmannia disticha L. (no. 2079; trop. As.—Austr.).
In the margin of the secondary forest I observed Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb.
(no. 2067; trop. As.—Austr.), Coleus scutellarioides Benth. (no. 2058; Arch.—
Austr.), Rubus rosaefolius Sm. (no. 2062; trop. As.), Melastoma malabathricum
L. (S. E. As.—N. Guin.), Desmodium Scalpe DC. (trop. O. W.), and in addition
some species of Ophiorrhiza, Impatiens, and Cordyline. According to Gibbs,
Desmodium Scalpe DC. must be considered as an introduced plant growing
near dwellings. Possibly a few of the other plants named above may be
considered as adventive in the broader sense.

The first evening after I arrived in the valley, it was decided to make the
proposed five-day trip to the chief valley. With seven days’ supply, we still
would have a margin of two days to reach Doormantop in case the allocated
rations might have spoiled or disappeared. Leaving provisions behind is some-
what risky, since we cannot forsee what people may do with the supplies in our
absence, although they are mostly in thickly soldered tins. A newly con-
structed house nearby was chosen as a storehouse (Fig. 32, 2), whose owner,
Aligaingenak, was informed of our plans. He apparently was flattered by the
trust placed in him and explained, everything in gestures, that he would deliver
our property to us intact after four nights of sleep (gesture: the hands flat
against each other and against the right ear, the head bent to the right, the eyes
closed, further explained by deep breathing or snoring).

This all happens before our departure, yet the report of our unexpected
breaking up of camp is already on the way to the chief valley, and everywhere
the long extended signal-call re-echoes announcing our coming, before we are
even on the march. Immediately the Dika Valley is ina commotion and, from
a place where | proceeded to take some pictures, I can see the inhabitants come
hurrying out of the kampongs to witness our passage. From this point (7g.
32, 3) there is a beautiful view toward the west (Fig. 37). While | am busy
taking pictures, four or five young men come running toward me. | am alone.
They are not frightened. All are unarmed, and good-naturedly they make a
lengthy and loud speech during which they examine all my bags, pull at my
clothes, and direct my attention in turn to various objects far away, and then
pronounce a word, not content until | have repeated it with the exact pro-
nunciation. After the first inquisitiveness is satisfied, they seem to recall the
purpose of their coming and begin to explain to me, all talking at once, that
we must not.go forward, since the people ahead will be unfriendly to us (cf.
Wirz, |. c. 38). However, we are acquainted with this old story. When they
see that their efforts are fruitless they stay near and frolic merrily. Our group
consists of three fusileers in front, then the Europeans, followed by the con-
victs, the Dyaks, and finally by three more fusileers. The group proceeds like
a long sluggish centipede, only half-projecting above the tall grass along the
narrow path. In front and behind the Papuans call to each other over our
heads.

Having come to the next ridge, on all sides we see people hurrying along our
path. After crossing one of the forest-strips which descends into a small
ravine, we approach a grassy incline where three houses are grouped together
(Fig. 32, 4). The men and youths come out to meet us and offer some food,

4 L.S. Gibbs, Dutch North West New Guinea (1917) 48.—Miss Gibbs mentions only this
ruderal plant.

170 SARGENTIA [5

woo M
sph \
nTotitiven (ee \.
I/F EAN
iZ “1 Panarabivak
tS
es Panara

Fic. 32. Sketch map of the Dika and Toli Valleys; horizontally hatched = primary forest;
vertically hatched = secondary forest;1 = clearing; g = alang-alang field; °o = Timorinese
houses; — —- — — = route followed; explanation of the numbers in the text.

such as roasted banana, or sweet potato, and some small pieces of sugar-cane.
The women and girls stand in the rear near the huts. After we have acknow!l-
edged our favorable reception, we are considered accessible to the mbok story
(mbok = enemy), but as that appears to be without effect, the inhabitants
accompany us cheerfully to the next group of houses. This accompanying and
passing on of our party to the dwellers in the next kampongs is continually
repeated. The offer of refreshment was made only once. We now approach
the small forested summit known to us as Kremerbult (about 1500 m.), since
it had served Capt. Kremer as a fixed point in his survey of Doormantop. A
small kampong (Fig. 32, 5) is located at the corner between the two valleys
under a cover of stately Araucaria trees. The route ahead is discussed during

1945} LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA ee

a short rest at this place. After we have passed through a strip of forest, we
obtain a good view of the Toli Valley “ for the first time. We can survey some
tens of kilometers to where a high mountain chain, 20 to 30 km. distant, runs
east and west shutting off the horizon. In this chain the highest peak (3100 m.)
is later named van Arkeltop. Ridge after ridge appears before our eyes, and
in the valley-bottom is the narrow deep canyon wherein nothing but a small
section of river is visible.

We descend a short distance, pass a few houses, where a couple of girls with
arms around each other’s necks giggle at seeing us pass, and enter again a
somewhat cleared small forest-area with a solitary hut on the margin of a field
(Fig. 32, 6). Later we arrive at a larger kampong (Fig. 32, 7), where again
some beautiful Araucaria trees grow along the path. These trees, here called
lien, seem to have been planted near the kampongs. It is a pleasant rustic
scene. At our approach a pig, which is tied to a ladang-fence by a hind foot,
tries to escape over it and remains hanging on the other side, squealing wretch-
edly. A woman hastily comes out of the dirty untidy women’s house to free
the animal, and we vaguely see through the open door in the inner darkness the
figures of vacant-looking old women and the crowding of small children.

After the black mud of the forest-paths, the white or gray lime or clay soil in
this valley is pleasant. The paths are hard and smooth. Here and there a
milky brook overflows.

Toward eleven-thirty we reach an open place on which stands a large men’s
house (Fig. 32, 8). We find a large company assembled around the fire on the
ground. There the leader, with a view to making proper contacts with the
population, wishes to make a short day’s march. He is resolved to look for a
camping place with water here in the neighborhood. While he and the doctor
go out, the geologist, the controller, and I have the pleasure of getting ac-
guainted with a company of established citizens, well-mannered and of vener-
able appearance. They come out of the hut, one at a time without haste, to
see and talk with us. The controller has a sudden impulse to unbutton his
coat. The astonishment at seeing a white shirt under the coat is great, but
the climax is reached when he takes off both coat and shirt, showing a white
skin. Each personally must feel him to see whether this is now the final skin.
While they in their astonishment bite vehemently on the bent index-finger
and tap against the keboaak, they have enough scientific skepticism about his
integument to verify it by examining the geologist and myself. Among those
present were three bearded men, slender and of stalwart posture, conspicuous
among the others. We tried to find out about their family relations and they
immediately understood what we wished. Each of them struck himself on
the chest, then that of another, and finally, not without laughter, grasped the
keboaak of the oldest. The older man good-naturedly put up with this and
affirmed that the two others were his children by the words an apoet (my
children).

Near this house, in an open secondary forest close to a stream, a suitable
camping place is found, and the Dyaks and soldiers busy themselves in erecting
a few huts (First Toli-bivak, Fragment I, Map B, no. 18) (Fig. 32). Neverthe-
less it is four o'clock before we eat our meal. The entire midday is spent talking
with Papuans, who are always in the way; but the friendly atmosphere is un-
disturbed and many pleasant minor incidents occurred. There are many

46 Toli is the name of the part of the Swart River between the Dika and Panara (or Donda?),

172 SARGENTIA [5

children about. One of them, who begs continually but obtains nothing, tries
to work on our feelings by simulating a fit of crying behind his hands, peeking
between his fingers to see the results of his efforts. The doctor enjoys a great
deal of confidence, not only because of his friendliness and tactful approach
but also because of his success in healing some persistent wounds and inflam-
mation of the eyes. Thus, this noon, there came a young man with inflamed
eyes, led by another who suffered from this same disease. The latter had
already been treated a few times with silver nitrate by the doctor. Although
it was known that this treatment was painful, various men compelled the
youth to submit to it. When he had courageously endured it, a mutter of
approval went through the crowd. Repeatedly it was evident to the doctor
that his services were valued. Almost always his aid was accepted. Almost
always at the end they came with a few sweet potatoes, sugar-cane, or bananas,
which—preferably in an aside—were pressed into the doctor’s hands. Like
the Pesegem,"” the Timorini, when treated with medicine, blow on the thumb
side of the closed fist, apparently the usual conjuration to exorcise the illness.
The request for medical assistance is accompanied by this gesture, and it is
peculiar that they also blow on the fist when being photographed. Probably
the custom originated because they saw the doctor busy taking pictures. The
result was that they came to understand photography as a beneficial act, a
very favorable circumstance which facilitated the making of photographs in a
welcome way. We were very glad to please this crowd of people by clicking the
shutter every time they stood before the lens and wished to hear the shutter
click.

Somewhat later in the afternoon, when the bustle of building and eating has
passed, the older men come out of the large hut quietly to sit in front of the
camp; and the doctor makes use of the opportunity to take impressions of
hands and feet. None of the Papuans object to it. In giving an impression
of their extremities, apparently they saw something entirely different than in
the handing over of hair, as we were to see the next day. Moreover, the reward
obtained for permitting this was enticing enough. Each one furnishing a hand-
and foot-impression, made with printer’s ink on a piece of paper placed on a
metal plate, received a small quantity of the beautiful black thick-flowing
printing ink, in his eyes a much improved form of the usual and indispensable
cosmetic: pork-fat with soot. This liking is not so strange when we consider
that, as some white folks purposely make themselves as white as possible,
dark-colored folks might also wish to make themselves as black as possible.
Then, to them, the deep black ink is the peak of splendor, for the Timorinese
individual is only dark brown and wholly lacks the intense black color of the
negro.

The same afternoon | had a lengthy comedy in negotiation with a tall slender
full-bearded man, named Oendigénak, one of the brothers who had explained
so graphically that morning whochis father was. He was a man of quiet nature,
one of few words; for a long time he sat silently before us, his clear understand-
ing eyes taking in everything he could see. In some way or other the glass tube,
which Djimawéh was very eager to obtain in the Dika-bivak, attracted his
attention by the noise which could be produced with it. At first he was loath
to give it up, but when his efforts to secure it failed, he beckoned me to accom-
pany him back of the camp. In such transactions the Timorini would not

‘TA. Pulle, Naar het Sneeuwgebergte van Nieuw-Guinea, p. 194.

-

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA j Lis

think of spying on each other. Now, secure behind the camp, he wished to
examine the tube at ease, and he really exerted himself with words, gestures,
and intonations to obtain the gift. When I wished to see how great was his
tenacity and whether he would persist in his purpose, | refused; then that part
of the bargaining was ended. He took his place in front of the camp again
and sat perfectly still opposite me, but whenever I even glanced in his direction,
he secretly made a gesture as if blowing on the tube. Suddenly he vanished,
but after a time he came back and, as inconspicuously as possible, !aid a small
bunch of green bananas under a small shrub. Then he sat down a few meters
from the bananas and, apparently apprehensive of competition, he did not
venture to fix my thought on the proposed barter-article in any other way
than by throwing small stones and bits of wood near it, as | watched his side
of the group. And when it was dark, he silently vanished with his bananas.

A man with a conspicuously handsome face was among the visitors; in
Bijlmer’s dissertation (photograph 44) he is described as the “nobleman.”
This man, named Enggabitme, notwithstanding his dignified aspect, made it
very difficult for us with his intrusive familiarity. Without ceremony he
crept in between us into the sleeping-quarters of the hut, with perplexing bold-
ness, to rummage through all our possessions. Another, a quiet old man with
a silent good-natured smile, suddenly, without ceremony, took my pipe out of
my mouth and began to suck it. Such communistic ideas are very general.
Often | have seen one, without asking and without being opposed therein,
draw the pigs’ tusk out of the nose of a comrade and stick it in his own nose.
Nevertheless, the dish-washing in the creek by the camp roused an interest as
something abhorrent, and bathing held many more astonished spectators.

At eleven o’clock the next day we break camp. A few efforts are made to
stop us, but when these fail the Papuans cheerfully lead the way, first chopping
a path for a half-hour through light secondary forest, where red Impatiens and
Coleus scutellarioides Benth. occur in the undergrowth. Amongst the shrubs
and lianas are a large number of Araliaceae, and here and there are the white
trunks of tall Leguminosae. Next we come to an open grass-field with alang-
alang almost as tall as a man, where even the Dyaks rest, to the great amaze-
ment of the Timorini, who repeatedly wish to pass through and pretend to
find the Dyaks’ loads immovably heavy.

It isa perfect day. A deep blue heaven arches cloudless above the massive
bright green sides of the valleys. The fresh morning air is gentle and benefi-
cent and above all is the joy of living, which harmonizes perfectly with the
buoyant spirits of these mountain-dwellers. We get the feeling of being on a
triumphal march. The path continually offers changing views of the beautiful
valley. We have passed an abandoned clearing (Fig. 32, 9) and after that a
small ravine with a fantastic Pandanus forest (Fig. 32, 10). On the other side
of it we are again waylaid by a large group of men who stand together at the
side of the path. The old acquaintances among them come forward with
subdued pleasure, but at the same time with expectant dignity, and one by one
shake hands with the Europeans. Many still do not recognize me, the latest
arrival, and a formal introduction follows, stately and serious. After this
ceremony, responded to as solemnly by us, we come again to a meadow (Fig.
32, 11); there the giggling women are grouped together somewhat back of the
men. We now are approaching a place which we have already seen from a
distance; here some mighty transverse ridges with almost level summits and

174 SARGENTIA [5

steep slopes, separated by deep ravines, extend toward the river. In front of
us and on the crest of the first ridge we see the silhouette of a new group of
waiting men. Here therefore our forward movement is known. After a bare
ravine, we climb another grassy slope and halt on the level part. To our
astonishment the men whom we saw before have vanished. The bare crest
of the ridge is outlined above us against the blue sky. The controller makes
use of this rest to photograph the group against the background of the northern
chain from Doormantop, the bare crown of which projects above the forested
ridge.

Meanwhile the doctor and | are curious as to the cause of the sudden vanish-
ing of the Timorinese group on the ridge; once having climbed up and reached
the top, we see the same panorama again but with another foreground, a new
transverse ridge with stately tall forest to where it becomes level and crowned
with a series of tall trees. However, no trace of men was seen. We took some
photographs and looked down the path which leads to the forest-edge, and we
asked ourselves what the sudden disappearance of these men could signify.
Unwillingly, in such circumstances one thinks of an ambush, but, as quickly
as the thought enters our minds, we laughingly abandon it, for two forms emerge
out of the darker forest-margin. We beckon to them reassuringly and the two
men approach. It appears that one of them is a newcomer; he is so nervous
that his whole body trembles and cold perspiration stands in beads on his fore-
head. We restore his confidence by gestures and shaking hands and by show-
ing him the camera and the folding stand, and when the others arrive, he is
entirely over his fear. We proceed together and are soon within the high
forest, half clear primary forest and half old secondary forest. At eleven
o'clock, on a rounded ridge, bivouac is made (Second Toli-bivak; Fragment I,
Map B, no. 19) (Fig. 32) in the light shade of tall Leguminosae, under which
there is almost no undergrowth. While the hut is being built, the doctor and
| go somewhat higher up the slope to talk a little with a group of Timorini
who are stretched out there. Now that good feeling dominates, the anthro-
pologist makes use of his opportunity to try to collect samples of hair. He has
purposely postponed this to the last, since he feared that it might develop a
disagreeable attitude, which, particularly in the beginning, could have damaged
the whole undertaking. During five weeks these men had become accustomed
to us, and now the chance must be taken. The doctor snipped off a small lock
of hair from some men, overcoming the gentle protest by friendliness. An
expression of unrest went through the group and there was even blowing on the
hands, but small mirrors, small rings, ete., were accepted as reciprocal gifts,
and in addition, for each lock of hair the anthropologist very tactfully gave a
blond lock of his own in exchange. Nevertheless, it immediately appeared
that the doctor's technique was very important, for the blond hair-lock was
handled with the utmost care, whereas the earlier owners of the black curls
showed the greatest uneasiness during the day about their own hair. Under
the direction of the owner, this was carefully wrapped in a small leaf; that leaf
was then wound around many times with a string and they were attentive as
to where the doctor finally placed the packet. The blond lock was packed
with the same care and vanished into the shoulder bag. Thus far all went
well and the doctor soon had so much material together that he thought it
advisable now to divert their attention, for the feeling of unrest remained and
repeatedly they blew on their fists and tapped the keboaak. The diversion is

on

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 17

found by showing some small tricks such as balancing a stick on a finger-tip;
this causes much admiration and is eagerly tried but without success. Finally
the boys bring hot chocolate; we go to bathe in the clear brook back of the
camp, after which we eat.

There are many visitors during the entire afternoon. The largest kampong
of the region is on the next ridge, and we see ourselves watched till dark by
women and children who squat on a large flat stone on the other side of a small
ravine. After eating I proceed to reconnoiter the vicinity. Climbing the
ridge back of the camp, | find at the top a path leading to one of these small,
very steep, recently cleared fields, which one may encounter here and there
at the edge of the tilled lands (Fig. 32, 12). The slope is sheer, perhaps at an
angle of 40°, and terraced; a few sweet potatoes grow among many weeds on
the small terraces. Tree-trunks showing the marks of the stone axe lie scat-
tered about. At the left of the field a small stream rushes down, bordered
by tall Pandanus trees, and the cleared place is surrounded by a fence still
white in its newness. In this charming spot I sit down to try and realize fully
the significance of this event in my life now, and later when I shall have re-
turned again to my own society, this living in another world, a world which
offers so many new impressions that it is altogether like a wonder-world seen
inadream. Here | sit in this field lost in a limitless past, in which the “Annus
Domini” tells nothing more. Here I sit alone, before me the green slope in a
frame of fine Leguminosae growth, topped by white clouds. Round about me
is the work of man, the ‘‘diluvii testis’’; a few hundred meters distant, there is
the contact of this primitive man with the life of 1920, A.D.

On my return to the camp, the doctor was busy with the out-patients’ de-
partment. Alas, during the consulting hour the drama of the hair-lock began.
Seemingly the doctor had surprised them by his earlier procedure. Apparently
it had been only owing to his good name and the trust which they had placed in
him that the present protest was not more serious. Suddenly a man deter-
minedly stepped up to him and with a brusque gesture returned the blond
hair-lock. Pretending to misunderstand did not help. In vain the doctor still
tried to prevent the others noticing it, but manifestly it was premeditated, and
immediately others arrived who earnestly requested the return of their lock
of hair in exchange for that given to them by the doctor. Refusing the
last was no longer helpful. Finally the anthropologist was compelled to give
up the hair collected with such difficulty.’* With that the feeling of unrest
entirely disappeared.

This all took place during the usual treatment of patients. Occasionally
one comes, who has been home after the treatment, and now without saying a
word places a few sweet potatoes and pieces of sugar-cane at the doctor's feet.
Some women and girls are also in the crowd. A nursing mother quietly smokes
her pipe, while she squats somewhat timidly among the crowding men. To-
ward the end of the afternoon the older women return from the field, heavily
loaded with sacks of sweet potatoes and huge Pandanus fruits. They walk
quickly past without looking up or back. Besides, the men do not permit the
women to be too inquisitive, and as they pass by—this applies particularly to

8 In contrast with this de Kock (Tijdschr. Kon. Ned. Aardrijksk. Gen, XXIX, 1912, 158)
reports that the collection of hair-samples among the Goliath Papuans offered no difficulties,
since they desire neither beard nor mustache and pull out each small hair. De Kock also scored
a great success with a razor.

176 SARGENTIA [5

the younger women—they are pressed back by the men’s threatening glances
and loud abuse or are even hurried on their way. Towards dark all visitors
suddenly disappear, and the evening is again quiet and peaceful, just as it was
earlier in the primary forest.

I recall the exhilaration of awakening in this place in the fresh clear morning,
where the soft blue sky showed through the pale green filigree-like pattern of
the foliage of Leguminosae. At this time we were all in high spirits and none
of us will ever forget the five perfect days which we spent in the midst of these
mountain Papuans under the most favorable circumstances.

After eating our meal we first pass through the ravine, then come into the
large kampong (Fig. 32, 1). Already the men await us at the boundary and
the women and children stand among the houses. In the center of the kam-
pong where the path widens into a small square, an unstable structure stands,
in which a cremation must have taken place a short time ago. Refreshments
are offered us, roasted sweet potato, banana, and sugar-cane. Here also a few
thin yellowish dogs are running around. After a short stop, the march is con-
tinued, led by a large number of excited men. In addition to tobacco, I saw a
small planting of katjang ketjipir (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus DC.). After
that we come to a large and well-maintained clearing (Fig. 32, 13), and here
from a small rock protruding at the top of a steeper slope, we have the first and
only view of a small stretch of the Swart River.

Repeatedly forest-ravines alternate with unforested grassy ridges, which are
all occupied by a waiting crowd. At each ridge a stop is made and the same
scene takes place, introductions, talking, emptying our bags, etc. With all
the very human scenes around us, it is difficult for us to reflect that we are in
the midst of a “wild” tribe in the unknown interior of New Guinea. When the
Dyaks put down their loads, a picture is taken, and a lively barter is carried
on. The boldest girls, giggling and with their arms about each others’ necks,
come slowly nearer, ready to flee away screaming as soon as we look in their
direction. The young men, nervous at all the new things, sit around every-
where, wishing to have everything opened, questioning us with their harsh
voices, asking more than we can answer; after they have tried in vain to make
themselves understood by constantly shouting louder, they finally stick their
hands freely into our bags. The older men, with real or more likely feigned
indifference, with the air of patriarchs, in groups of three or four, look on with
a very dignified manner.

After we have hoped several times in vain that the next ridge will bring the
expected view over the south part of the Swart Valley, it finally comes to pass.
We cross a broad somewhat cleared ridge full of tree-trunks and then, on the
corner between the chief valley and the next lateral one, we see a small kam-
pong (Fig. 32, 15), the only one in this region “* surrounded by a fence, and
near it a tall Araucaria. A new panorama lies before us, the broad Panara
Valley extends to the east, unforested, barren, and with scattered houses.
Higher up the scene is closed in by the forest, much cleared at the edge; only a
large number of tall Kentia ®° palms with white trunks are left. On the other
side of the valley is a steep grassy slope which again shuts off the view to the
valleys of the more southern tributaries.

*’ Farther inland later we found a number of similar kampongs (above Donda Valley).
°° Van Nouhuys also calls this tree niboeng, but this name rightly belongs to Oncosperma
filamentosum; cf. my remarks on this name in Fragment V.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA Liz

In the middle of this region the last camp is pitched (Panara-bivak ; Fragment
1, Map B, no. 20), and soon visitors appear from all sides. Most are unarmed;
these are old acquaintances, but there are also many newcomers who are
formally introduced by others to us with exchange of names. Some look at us
confidently and unafraid, but most are fearful and nervous. The bravest
present themselves. I see them arriving from below, along the winding path,
the full-bearded men, dignified and stiff, but under this demeanor they examine
everything attentively with sharp glances from afar. Then they lay down
their bows and arrows and come undaunted to us, stretch out their hands, and
tell us their names. But most lose courage on approaching. I see them arriv-
ing still, a small family, man, woman, and a few half-grown children. The
man, in front, is clearly as fearful for his prestige as of us. He remains at a
distance standing a long time looking at the scene. The luggage and food
carried by the woman are laid down; the man adds his bow and arrows, and,
while he with nervously tense face stands looking on, the woman and children
squat back of him awaiting his orders. Then suddenly a friend comes who
fetches him over with the obvious gestures of “it is not so bad; they do nothing
to you.”’ Finally he coaxes him along, unwilling still, until he greets us. After
the salutation he is relieved and proceeds to look around. One of the foci of
interest is the kitchen, not only to observe how the boys cook our rice, but also
perhaps to obtain some food or salt for which they are very eager and which
they are sure of getting, and lastly, because Amat entices them there—they
call him Omat—the one convict who, with his continually merry laugh and his:
incessant jokes and tricks, stands high in the respect of the Timorini. His
reputation goes ahead of us and he is the only one other than we Europeans—
and sometimes also the Dyak chief—to exchange regular handshakes with the
natives.

During the busiest hours there were probably 150-200 men around the camp.
Therewith amusing scenes arose such as | have already mentioned. Even |
did not escape the barter rage. Téréngénak, a quiet young man with irregular
features, readily gave me an axe for a pruning knife. There was also a small
boy, who came and stood in front of me; he pulled off his only piece of clothing
(a small mouth organ hanging on a string around his neck) and offered it to me
in exchange for a small ring. The barter took place, and later in the afternoon
I met him again and jestingly asked for the ring. Without hesitation he gave
it to me, and without asking for his mouth organ in return. With another man
I traded a pipe for a pair of tweezers. He immediately saw that this article
might be used for pulling prickles out of his feet. As I did not stop at once and
light the pipe, he did not understand the purpose of my barter and, astonished,
he pointed out with emphasis how I must use it.

The following morning we are awakened at daylight by the Papuans. The
weather is less clear than on the previous day and rain is expected. Even now
new Papuans continually arrive from the south. They hastily look at every-
thing. It appears that they had anticipated that we would stay here some
time; for, as soon as it is clear that we are breaking camp, there develops a
feeling of unrest, and various men spread the latest word. Some older men
particularly, among whom Bongkokéleh, with a cap of cassowary feathers like
a hussar’s busby, and Ellembéroe, and the crafty Enggabitme shout as loud
as possible to each other, and something appears to be said. When we area
half-hour on our way and the last Panara houses are reached, it first becomes

178 SARGENTIA [5

clear to us what they wish. One stops us earnestly and points out that we
must not leave before a blood-offering is made. An excited frame of mind
exists. It is best to give in and we wait patiently for an hour until finally Engga-
bitme, panting and perspiring, comes running with a young pig over his
shoulders. In a rough count I found about 170 men around us.

Enggabitme lays the pig at our feet, with much show of weariness. The
animal has already been shot with an arrow but still lives; that apparently was
to make it easy to carry. Now the usual method of killing pigs—the animal
is held stretched between two men, while a third shoots it—is not necessary.
Enggabitme shoots an arrow with a broad bamboo point into the heart of the
animal lying on the ground. The point vanishes entirely into the body and as
Enggabitme draws out the arrow, the blood spurts from the wound. With an
indifferent countenance he dips two fingers into the wound and hastily gives
each of us a smear over the back of the hand. A number of Dyaks prefer to
withdraw from the ceremony, but Enggabitme makes it clear to the head-man
that he must reciprocate; with obvious aversion Anji Nau satisfies them by
smearing blood on the hands of a few Timorini with a hastily cut wood-shaving.
With that the rite is ended. According to Wirz (I. c. 86) this is more a con-
juration against malicious influences than a demonstration in our honor: it is
thus uncertain whether one may speak of ‘establishing blood-friendship.”’
Moreover, the whole act is not especially solemn, particularly not when, im-
mediately after the ceremony, around us the shout begins for “boeti.” Again
it is Enggabitme who is the first and boldest to ask for a chopping knife, and
it cost us a Dyak mandau and the last convict’s chopping knife before we are
able to proceed unhindered.

Meanwhile it is getting along toward nine o'clock. Practically all the men
accompany us part of the way, one of them carrying the pig by the forelegs, on
his shoulders. But before we reach the mountain-ridge small groups repeatedly
leave us. We proceed through and along a number of new and old clearings
and over some partly cleared terrain, until we reach the forested ridge on the
angle between the chief and the lateral valley. Here the first large group
leaves us. They stand at the side of the path, and as we go along they begin
to sing a loud song, the endless repetition of a four syllable refrain with strong
emphasis on the fourth tone: ja—wa—ee—ja, ja—wa—ee—ja, and so on (cf.
Wirz, 1. c. p. 114).

The path now ascends slowly upward through the forest-margin. Rarely
do we even have a view of the valley where the river flows 500 to 600 m. below
us. The Papuans take turns carrying the pig. After some hours we pass the
highest group of houses in the large kampong (Fig. 32, 16). Nearby is a vast
cleared place with a plantation of low Pandanus plants and in between these
is a crop of sweet potatoes (Fig. 32, 17). Along the path we saw several large
pits with the remains of roasted Pandanus fruits. In the forest near here |
found acorns and Castanea [Castanopsis | fruits lying on the ground.

After some time the Timorini became very weary of carrying the pig, and
they tried to get the Dyaks or the convicts to take the load. However, when
that was not successful, again we saw one of the men with the pig on his back
running along in front of us. The animal was laid at the feet of the foremost
fusileer, and it was made clear to us that the pig would not be carried farther.
It was then decided to skin the animal on the spot and to divide it. This was
done, and the Timorini were completely satisfied with the entrails as their part.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 179

After this intermezzo, interest on the part of the Timorini flagged noticeably.
Repeatedly small groups had separated from us after the singing of the first
song, but now that the pig is divided, only those who live in the more northern
kampongs continue further with us. Soon the path lies over a steep decline,
and after some time we again reach the old path through the large alang-alang
meadow. From here our escort consists of only five men, and with them we
reach the First Toli-bivak in about an hour. It begins to rain and we decide
to remain here. This afternoon there are few visitors. The doctor has only
two patients to treat. Enggabitme has profited by the absence of competition
and is more troublesome than ever. In strong contrast to his boisterous en-
trance and his unruly conduct, there sat before us an old man who silently
looked at us with a friendly smile. He asked for nothing, but we made him
childishly happy with a small box covered with red paper, after which he came
out of his shell and told a long story to the controller in a gentle confidential
tone. From it we only understood that he considered himself superior to the
Meervlakte dwellers who wear ornaments in their noses. In connection with
this he pointed to some tigaléhs which he carried in his small shoulder bag. It
seemed to us an indication that the tigaléhs were obtained by barter from the
north.

The next morning we are on the march again at seven o'clock, accompanied
by the few men who live in the neighborhood. In the kampongs the inhabi-
tants come out to see us, but there is no tumult such as there was at our de-
parture. At ten o'clock we are back in the Dika-bivak. Aligaingenak de-
livered the supplies which we had left in his care, undamaged and complete.
The rest of the day is spent in completing our ethnological collection. Every
opportunity exists for this, now that our coming departure has been noised
abroad. The market seems weak, and they come hurriedly bringing all kinds
of things which we have not seen previously, or for which the price was too
high. Dance-plumes of cassowary feathers, cuirass-like shirts ma de of woven
rattan, and various ornaments are brought and displayed before us at the most
tempting prices. Only tigaléhs and mellis have retained their old value.

It is noticeable that the demand for salt suddenly becomes greater. Perhaps
in the beginning it was not so manifest, but now that it is discovered in the
kitchen, our last bit must be defended against the eager people. Pulle men-
tions 5! that the Pesegem likewise are fond of salt. Van Nouhuys” reports
that he searched a long time for the origin of their salt. Finally ina Pesegemese
hut he saw a small bundle of leaves (of Asplenium amboinense). When he
asked about their use, the Papuans burned them before his eyes, then took
small quantities of the ash between the thumb and forefinger and placed it in
their mouths. The flavor was more like saltpeter than salt, but when van
Nouhuys spoke the word ‘‘majoe” (also the Timorinese word for salt), that
was ostentatiously assented to from all sides. At first the Timorini did not
recognize our salt, the usual briquette of Indian government-monopoly salt,
since the product which they know is black. The Kremer Expedition brought
from the interior a block of a black hygroscopic substance, which, judging by
the flavor, must have a high percentage of salt. By analysis the salt-content
appeared to be 74%. Wirz gives the following process as the possible origin
of this salt-block: a piece of porous wood (from the trunk of a tree-fern or

51 Pulle, Naar het Sneeuwgebergte van Nieuw-Guinea, 190-191.
8 YVan Nouhuys, Nova Guinea VII, 1 (1913), 10.

180 SARGENTIA [S

perhaps rather from a Pandanus) is placed in a salt-spring and then dried by
artificial heat. This is repeated for a number of times. Perhaps a combina-
tion of the opinions of van Nouhuys and Wirz gives the solution. In Wollas-
ton * we read that the members of the mountain-tribe whom he visited laid
bundles of fern-fronds in a hot salt-spring, and later took them out and sucked
them.

At noon a heavy rain falls,.the first since my arrival in the valley. As soon
as it is over, we have many visitors, and we try to make clear to the Timorini
that, after sleeping twice, we shall go back over the high mountain. They im-
mediately understand that we go away to bring back new knives; and they
explain unequivocally that they will accompany us, taking along food for sev-
eral days and bows and arrows for hunting. After this communication the
market falls still more, and they are greatly astonished that we no longer
appear to have a great buying capacity. The Dyaks organize popular games
into which they draw the Timorini, so as to win from them; but the interest of
the latter soon flags and they only wish to go into the kitchen to beg for salt.
Old Bongkokeléh, the same fellow who had the final say in Panara, arrives,
loaded from head to foot with various ornaments, weapons, and other articles,
visibly disappointed when that does not seem to have the slightest influence
on our wish to purchase. Towards dark Endaboh (Bijlmer, diss., fig. 49), a
friendly unassuming man with a curly beard who has selected me for his con-
fidant (such patronage fell to most Europeans in turn, from both Dyaks and
Timorini), still whispering and emphatically confidential, says that he will go
along on the journey back.

So the last day of our sojourn breaks, a rest-day for the carriers. The lug-
gage is looked over again for articles to barter in exchange for small souvenirs of
these, to us, very remarkable days. At every turn special friends come to say
that they will accompany us in the morning. As I return to camp after a bath
taken in the stream under the modest inspection of two Timorini, Endaboh
calls me aside with a mysterious look and brings me a small bag of sweet
potatoes which were hidden in the grass. Following the custom, I offer him
a knife as counter-gift, but to my great astonishment he will not accept it. |
take the gift therefore to the kitchen, but, notwithstanding his refusal, Endaboh
remains, turning away from me as a waiter does who expects a tip. I give him
a small bottle with a tightly fitted glass-stopper which he immediately puts
into his sack with a familiar nod of the head and a wink. Nevertheless, he
seems to be only half satisfied, but he brightens visibly when he sees another
native give his whole necklace for a glass-tube, apparently finding that he is
better off.

Some very old men come to visit, very gaunt, unusually slow, they stumble
forward leaning on long sticks, panting from exertion, the entire bodies
wrinkled, with grayish hair and huge keboaaks. One of them is about to sit on
a stone to rest, and some of the younger men coming to give him a hand sit
beside him.

This last morning the leader has decided to hold one more shooting exhibition.
At the beginning of the sojourn of the vanguard in the valley, in this way, the
people were given an impression of our power, and now again a flattened pe-
troleum tin is bound to a tree as target. The distance is about 50 m., and one
of the onlookers is invited to shoot a few arrows at it. After much hesitation

°° The Geographical Journal XLIIT (1914), 255,

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA 181

he does but misses his mark. We exploit this poor result as much as possible,
so as to prepare the bystanders for what is tocome. Then the leader kneels and
fires five shots in succession at the target. Endaboh stands next to me. At
the first shot, all Papuans cringe in terror and more than half run away as fast
as possible. Only one of the old men remains sitting, unmoved, he apparently
is stone-deaf. Those who remain in the neighborhood stand with their backs
to us, their hands closely pressed over their ears. At each succeeding shot new
terror strikes them; when all the cartridges are used up, we wink reassuringly
at the few men who have waited to examine the results. _Endaboh is so fright-
ened that he hesitates to come alone and, as | go to bring him, he takes my
hand in his like a child, and so is brought to the tree, which is perforated by
five bullets. The bystanders seem to understand very well what has occurred
and are greatly astonished. A new cartridge is compared with an empty shell;
then it is shown how such a bullet flies through the barrel of a rifle. They also
seem to understand that such a bullet can go through a man and can kill him.
This inspires new respect; nevertheless, they immediately see the practical
use of the weapon and one of the men offers a pig for it.

Notwithstanding their terror, apparently they have sufficient trust in our
goodwill, and, directly after the show, when quiet has returned to the camp,
the visitors come again. At noon it starts to rain and that drives the visitors
home. While it is growing darker, a black figure suddenly looms up before us;
he appears to be a newcomer; from his bold story we conclude that he came
from Panara; he has heard much of us and is very happy to meet us; he knows
exactly how to report what he will see, and finally, after gazing and admiring
a long time, he goes away content.

The next morning at daylight we break camp. Naturally we expect a large
gathering to depart with us, but singularly, only a few youths appear. During
the packing, the departure, and the trip down to the bridge, we do not see an-
other living soul. What the first emphatic agreement and the subsequent
absence of each signified has never been clear to us, and it in turn becomes still
more enigmatic, since we now know that on the return journey of the Kremer
Expedition, the old guide Wamgimi, with his entire family, joined in with the
march back to Prauwen-bivak. There he carried on trade with the dreaded
Meervlakte dwellers and stayed several days on the Idenburg River (cf.
Wire tc./125).

Our trip back is told in afew words. Wespent the first night in the Jachthut-
bivak at 1900 m., the second in the Mos-bivak at 3000 m. Here it was cold
and rainy, but the following morning we had a last look into the valleys,
gloomy and shadowless under a cloudy sky, and we stood long on a projecting
rock to gaze below at the Dika slope, of which we now recognized so many
details. We located the site of the bivouac and the cleared field and house of
Aligaingénak, who had stored our supplies.

The third day’s march brought us over Doormantop into the old familiar
Radio-bivak, not belonging to the other world but to that which we ourselves
have made. We left the next morning. For myself, who had spent such
delightful days here, this was not without sadness. One more day I roamed
over this beautiful plateau to enjoy the recognized flora.

At Radio-bivak we heard that the rattan bridge at Brug-bivak had been
carried away by a flood, but that three days later a new one had been con-
structed. This afternoon the mountain-region remained continually in rain

182 SARGENTIA (5

and clouds, and on the following morning we no longer saw the Wilhelminatop.
Then followed a series of leave-takings of formerly known places, the old camps
on the desolate uninhabited slope. At Goenoeng Boetak we found the weather
somewhat mild, and without hesitation we proceeded to bathe in the stream.
Our stay here was made agreeable by the receipt of mail from Java and even
by Christmas packages, so that a rest-day was observed ‘‘for the carriers.”

Thus we returned on Christmas day to Prauwen-bivak, and with that the
inland journey was brought to a close.

Appendix !
1. LITERATURE

(In the following list, the most important articles published on or with reference to the

Expedition are alphabetically arranged—in the original they are given in chronological order.)

ite

Z.

22,

23.

AnonyMous (Bandung correspondent of ‘De Locomotief’’). Naar den Wilhelminatop—
Indische Gids XLIV, no. 6, p. 550. 1922.

BiyL-mMer, H. J.T. Met de Centraal Nieuw-Guinee-expeditie A° 1920 naar een onbekenden
volksstam in het hooggebergte—Tijdschr. Kon. Ned. Aardrijksk. Gen. XX XIX, no. 2
(March 1922), 156—see also p. 242, 375, 395 (presented before the Kon. Ned. Aardrijksk.
Gen. on December 17, 1921).

———. Anthropological Results of the Dutch Scientific Central New-Guinea Expedition
A® 1920, followed by an Essay on the Anthropology of the Papuans—Acad. Proefschrift
Univ. Amsterdam (Leiden, 1922); also published in Nova Guinea VII, 4 (1923), 355.

. ———. Met de Centraal Nieuw-Guinee-expeditie A° 1920 naar een onbekenden volks-
p

stam in het hooggebergte—De Aarde en Haar Volken LIX, pp. 97, 121, 145, 169, 173.
1923; published as a separate volume, 1924.

Uit de Geneeskundige verslagen der Wetenschappelijke Centraal-Nieuw-Guinee-
expeditie 1920-1921. De malaria—Geneesk. Tijdschr. voor Ned. Indié LXIV, 600. 1924.
—. De vitamine-rantsoeneering—l. c. 657.

and H. pe Rook. Medisch verslag van den bergtocht en slotbeschouwingen—
l. c. 670.

. “D.”" De Wetenschappelijke Expeditie naar Nieuw-Guinee (Bandung, Visser). 1921.
. GisotF, W. F. Over het Gesteente van den Doormantop in Centraal Nieuw-Guinee—

Versl. Gew. Verg. Wis- en Natuurk. Afd. der Kon. Akad. van Wet. Amst. XX XII, 1. 1923.

. Heurn, W. C. van. De Expeditie 1920-1921 naar Nieuw-Guinea—Feestnummer van

“Club van Nederlandsche Vogelkundigen,’’ September 1921, p. 11.
—. Over de vogels van het Mamberamo-gebied—l. c. 29.

. ———. De strooperij in dienst der Ornithologie—l. c. 65.
. Horst, R. Paraperipatus vanheurni, n. sp.—Zool. Meded. Rijks Mus. Nat. Hist. Leiden

VII (1922-1923), 113. 1922.

. Husrecut, P. F. Het Hooggebergte van Nieuw-Guinea, presented before the IInd Ned.

Ind. Natuurwetensch. Congr., Bandung, May 13, 1922—Handelingen (Report of that
congress), p. 38. 1922.

. JONGEJANS, J. Eenige Mededeelingen omtrent den onbekenden stam der ‘‘Oeringgoep”’

in Centraal Nieuw-Guinea—Indié, Geill. Weekbl. voor Ned. en Kol. V, no. 35, p. 565
(November 1921), no. 36, p. 588 (December 1921), no. 37, p. 597 (Dec. 1921), no. 39, p. 634
(Dec. 1921), and no. 41, p. 664 (January 1922).

—. Langs de Mamberamo—Indié, Geill. Weekbl. voor Ned. en Kol. VI, no. 14, p.
221 (July 1922) and no. 19, p. 302 (August 1922).

. Kremer, J. H. G. [Short report] presented before the Kon. Ned. Aardrijksk. Gen.

November 25, 1922—Tijdschr. K. N. A. G. XL, no. 1 (January 1923), 93.

. Kopstern, P. F. Liste der Scorpione des Indo-Australischen Archipels im Museum zu

Buitenzorg—Treubia, III, 184. 1923.

. Lam, H. J. Iets over de botanische resultaten van de Noord-Nieuw-Guinee-Expeditie

1920—Teysmannia XXXII, October 1921, 289, with corrections in this same periodical
XXXIII (1922), 52.

. ———. Nieuw-Guineesche aspecten—De Tropische Natuur, XI, no. 3 (March 1922), 38.

Iets over den akkerbouw bij een Papoea-stam in Centraal Nieuw-Guinee, bene-
vens eenige opmerkingen over land en flora van dat eiland—Handelingen IInd Ned. Ind.
Natuurwetensch. Congr., Bandung, May 11-14, 1922, p. 156.

Vegetationsbilder aus dem Innern von Neu-Guinea. Die Vegetation des Hochge-
birges.—Vegetationsbilder, herausgegeben von Dr. G. Karsten und Dr. H. Schenck. XV.
Reihe, Heft 5-6. 1924.

—. Vegetationsbilder aus dem Innern Neu-Guinea. Myrmekophyten und Insekti-
voren—l.c., Heft 7. 1924.

1 Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl.-Ind. 89: 381-385. 1929,

184 SARGENTIA I)

24. ———. Ademwortels bij Palmen—Handelingen IIIrd Ned. Ind. Natuurwetensch. Congr.
Buitenzorg, September 24-28, p. 318, 477. 1925.

25. LAUTERBACH, C, Beitrage zur Flora von Papuasien XI—Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. LIX, 118
(Santalaceae). 1924.

Beitrage zur Flora von Papuasien XII—Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. LIX, 505, 547

(Vitaceae, Liliaceae). 1925.

—. Beitrage zur Flora von Papuasien XIII—Engler's Bot. Jahrb. LX, 1, 106, 144, 150
(Rubiaceae I, Melastomataceae, Gnetaceae, Cucurbitaceae). 1926.

28. ——-—. Beitrage zur Flora von Papuasien XIV—Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. LXI, 1, 32 (Olea-
ceae, Rubiaceae II). 1927.

29. ““MAMBERAMO.”’ De Expeditie naar Centraal Nieuw-Guinea—Het Indische Leven II,
no. 52. 1921.

30. Scumipt, E. Die Zikaden des Buitenzorger Museums—Treubia X, 1. 1928.

31. Varrous AutHors. Nova Guinea XIII, Zoologie, book 5. 1922.

26.

at.

S2. Nova Guinea XV, Zoologie, book 1. 1924.
33, ————. Nova Guinea XIV, Botanique, book 1. 1924.
34, ———. Nova Guinea XIV, Botanique, book 2. 1927.

35. Wirz, P. Anthropologische und Ethnographische Ergebnisse der Central Neu-Guinea-
Expedition 1921-1922—-Nova Guinea XVI, Ethnographie, book 1, 1924.

36..———. Im Herzen von Neu-Guinea, Tagebuch einer Reise ins Innere von Hollandisch
Neu-Guinea (Ziirich, Rascher & Cie. A-G.).

2. STATISTICS OF THE COLLECTION

The collection assembled by the botanist consists of: 1408 numbers of herbarium material in
alcohol in zinc tins (Schweinfurth method); 196 numbers of material in 70% alcohol; 84 num-
bers of fungi and lichens in 70% alcohol; 32 numbers of algae in 0.3% chromic acid and 0.3%
acetic acid; and 10 numbers of fungi in 3% formaldehyde: total 1730 numbers; also 90 numbers
of living plants from warmer regions and 31 numbers of fresh seeds or fruits; in addition flowers
of 276 herbarium-numbers in 70% alcohol; wood samples of 33 numbers, and galls 20 numbers;
finally 8 soil-samples from Pionier-bivak, the forest-margin of the Meervlakte, the foothills and
Dika Valley, and some stone-samples from Doormantop.

With respect to the 1730 numbers of botanical material, I shall adopt the provisional lists of
Versteeg * and von Roemer * for purposes of comparison of the sequence of the families:

VERSTEEG VON ROEMER
(number of species) (total numbers: 1345)

Orchidaceae 130 Pteridophytes 155
Rubiaceae 38 Orchidaceae 131
Zingiberaceae 31 Fungi 80
Urticaceae 16 Mosses 69
Araceae 15 Zingiberaceae 66
Asclepiadaceae 13 Urticaceae 49
Euphorbiaceae 13 Gramineae 34
Leguminosae 12 Rubiaceae 34
(Pteridophytes, Fungi, and mosses not ~ _Melastomataceae 33
collected) Begoniaceae 30
Ericaceae 29

Myrtaceae 29

Coniferae 22

Araceae 20

Leguminosae 20

My own collection has been placed in 109 plant families. With reference to the relation
of numbers and species, it can be mentioned that, of 19 families studied thus far, 467 numbers
appear to represent 285 species, of which 103 are new. In the Pteridophytes the 344 numbers
belong to 204 species, of which 66 are new.

2 Maatsch. t. Bevorder. v. h. Natuurk. Onderz. d. Ned. Kol. Bull. no. 57 (1907), p. 17.
3 [bidem, Bull. no. 63 (1910), p. 23.

1945] LAM, FRAGMENTA PAPUANA ° 185

Here follows the arrangement of the principal families with the number of collections:

Pteridophytes (Filices, Lycopodiaceae, Zingiberaceae 34
Selaginellaceae, Psilotaceae, Equi- Urticaceae 33
setaceae) 344 Algae 31

Orchidaceae 250 Araceae (all but one of lowland habitat) 29

Fungi and Lichens 140 Euphorbiaceae 25

Rubiaceae 103 Moraceae 25

Mosses (Musci and Hepaticae) (57 Melastomataceae 23
above 1300 m.) 79 Acanthaceae 20

Ericaceae (36 above 1300 m.) 39 Coniferae (18 above 1300 m.) 20

Cyperaceae 34 Leguminosae 19

Gramineae 34 Myrtaceae (13 above 1300 m.) 18

oe ade a re

.

INDEX

GENERAL

Fragmenta Papuana:
Introduction, 1, 2
I. Chronological survey of the Mamberamo
Exploration in general and of the Expedi-
tion to Central New Guinea 1920-1922 in
particular, 2-14
II. Some meteorological data collected dur-
ing the Central New Guinea Expedition
1920-1921, 15-17
III. Impressions of the Lower Mamberamo
Territory, 18-42
IV. The Meervlakte and the foothills, 43-65
V. The north slope of the Central Mountain
Range, 66-104
VI. Above the forest limits: Doormantop
and its vegetation, 105-137
VII. Land and people of the Dika and Voli
Valleys, 138-182
Appendix, 183-185
Brug-bivak, memories of, 76
Cloudburst, description of, 40
Doormantop, description of ravine on, 116
Itinerary, 6-11 (-14)
Personnel, 4
Phosphorescent phenomenon, 95, 98
Possibility of subsistence on the country, 65
Primeval forest life, impressions of, 37
Meervlakte, impressions of the, 43-47
proas in the, 46
Mud-pyramids, 49, 55
Radio-bivak, reminiscences of the days spent
at, 134-137
Terrain difficulties, 29, 54

ANIMALS, BrirpDs, INSECTS, etc.

Acanthophis antarcticus (poisonous snake), 45,
63

Ailaroedus buccoides, 163

Ants, 35, 52, 56, 100, 111

Bats, 77

Bee-eaters, 64

Beetles, 100

Birds of paradise, 65, 89, 143

Butterflies, 33, 116

Carrion-flies, 33

Cassowary, 26, 37, 56, 63, 65, 89, 141, 154,
156, 157

Casuaris claudi1, 89

Chalcopsittacus duivenbodii, 62, 89, 141

Cicada, 26

Cockatoos, 37, 71, 89, 104

Cormorants, 46, 70

Cracticus quoyi, 62

Crocodiles, 44, 63
Crustaceans, 84
Dasyurus, 89
Day-flies (Ephemeridae), swarming of, 63, 64
Dicaeum, 89
Doves, 26, 37
Earthworms, 63 (giant forms of), 100
Echidna, 154, 156
Eos fuscata, 89
Ephemeridae, 63, 64
Fish, 63
Frogs, 63, 79, 89, 91, 100, 111, 136, 140
Gnats, 41
Heron, 21, 47
Hornbills (ankangs), 21, 26, 37, 67, 71, 104
Kalongs (fruit-bats), 21, 45, 46, 65
Kingfishers, 89
Koeskoes (Phalanger maculatus), 63, 65, 98,
136, 154, 157
Leeches, 63, 77, 89, 98
Lizards, 100, 117
Microglossus aterrimus, 89
Monitor-lizard, 65, 69
Mosquitoes, 40, 45, 62, 63, 89, 98
Mound-builder, 58
Mountain-duck, 136, 139
Opossum (Phascogale), 89, 92, 98, 136, 141
Parakeets (Chalcopsittacus duivenbodit), 62,
89, 94, 141
Parameles, 63
Paraperipatus vanheurni, 100
Parrots, 89, 143
Peripatus, 100, 111
Lorentzit, 100
papuensis, 100
Phalangers, 63, 65
Pigeons, 63, 65, 89
Pigs, 46, 63, 65, 74, 141, 160, 161, 171, 178, 181
Porcupine-anteaters, 141, 156
Protozoans, 84, 87
Rats, 89, 98
Scale-insects, 56
Siluridae, 64
Spider, 74
Spitsvoegels, 64
Sterna minuta (terns), +5
Swallows, 77, 117, 136
Tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus), 92
Turtle, 63
Wasps, 63
ECOLOGICAL

Beek-bivak, flora in the region of, 95-98
Brug-bivak, flora (of ravines, beach-terraces,
and boulder-strewn banks) in the vicinity

of, 72-76

187

188

Deforested land, 168
Doormantop, flora of the summit, 122
region, ecological factors applied to, 125-

129

Ecological observations associated with the
floristic survey, 123-125

Factors influencing vegetation, 80, 81

Flora approaching the forest-limit, 99-101

of the lower hills, 58-62

Goenoeng Boetak, discussion of the locality,
vegetation, flora, and fauna, 80-91

Lowland forest flora, 29-37

New Guinea as a center of plant development
and distribution, 130-134

Prauwen-bivak, terrain- and vegetation-forms
in the vicinity of, 48-58

Radio-plateau (above the timber line), types
of vegetation and the flora: rocky ter-
rains, 107-111; ferns and shrub-scrubs,
111-115; marshes, 115-119 7

Ruderal plants, 28

Tropical primeval forest in its ideal form,
23-26

Uitzicht-bivak (above the timber line), flora
in the vicinity of, 103

Winds, 133

ETHNOGRAPHICAL

Boromesso, 145
Doctor’s work with the natives, 172
Drama of the hair-lock, 174, 175
Dyaks, 29, 37-40, 65, 91, 166, 169, 171, 173,
176, 178, 180
characteristics of, 140-146
Native crops, 148, 153, 159, 160-163
suspension bridge, 144
Natives (Papuans), 22, 40, 46, 47, 65, 147, 151
Ocringgoep, 138
Oetakwa Papuans, 152
Pesegem, 147, 148
compared with the Timorini, 152, 157, 161,
179
Shooting exhibition, 180
Takoetamesso, 145
Tapiro Papuans, 152
Timorini, 137, 138, 141, 142, 147, 148, 152-182
ancestral spirit (koegi) worship, 143, 167
barter with, 177, 179
blood-offering, 178
comparisons with the Pesegem and Oetakwa
Papuans, 152, 154
fences, 161
first meeting with, 145
general appearance, dress, weapons, etc.,
155-157
houses, 160
intrusiveness, 165, 166, 173
kampongs, 159, 176
method of fire-making, 159
of salutation, 164
music, 161

SARGENTIA (5

Timorini names, 163
phylogenetic age, 155
pipes, 164

(GEOGRAPHICAL

Aalscholver-bivak (Cormorant camp), 70, 73
Albatros-bivak, 29
Amazon, 19
Arfak Mountains, 78
Baliem Plateau, 104
River, 147
Bamboe-bivak, 139
Batavia Rapids, 41
Batavia-bivak, 16, 43, 51
Beek-bivak, 17, 95, 100, 138
Brug-bivak, 17, 70-72, 75, 78, 79, 146, 181
Carstensztop, 105
Casuarisnest, 17, 58, 59, 60, 61, 66, 69, 95, 104
Central Mountain Range, 43, 44, 58, 59, 62,
72, 80, 104, 105, 116, 122, 134, 135, 139,
147, 151, 167
Cruciferen-bivak, 17, 78
Dika River, 143, 167, 171
Valley, 94, 136, 167, 169
Dika-bivak, 142, 146, 167, 179
Doorman River, 54, 62, 63, 69, 77
Doormantop, 17, 53, 59, 66, 70, 78, 80, 91, 94,
98, 101-103, 105, 106, 110, 122, 125, 136,
138, 139, 167, 170, 181
Dromedarisberg, 58
Duiven Island, 22
Edi Rapids, 19, 39
Edi-bivak, 29
First Parkieten-bivak, 17, 94, 141
Toli-bivak, 171, 179
Gauttier Mountains, 44, 135
Goenoeng Boetak-bivak, 17, 72, 94, 99, 138,
182
Havik Island, 29, 38
Hellwig Mountains, 105
Hollandia, 65
Idenburg River, 19, 45, 53, 65, 69, 70, 104,
147, 181
Iliem River, 147
Iniaga (Wilhelminatop), 104
Jachthut-bivak, 140, 141, 181
Kalong Island, 45
Kalong-bivak, 16, 45
Kameelberg, 58
Kerkhoven Island, 21
Koetei-bivak, 28
I<Xremer-bivak, 70
Kremerbult, 170
Mamberamo River, 19, 37, 40, 42, 43, 45
Marine Falls, 38, 39
Meervlakte, 37, 42, 43, 47, 53-55, 62, 63, 65,
67, 77, 80, 89, 91, 94, 95, 101, 104, 106,
135, 147, 154
Moeras-bivak (Woud-bivak), 68
Mos-bivak, 139, 181
Mount Everest, 82

1945} INDEX 189

Mt. Sarawaket, 105 Tulband-bivak, 16, 38
Okten River, 28 Uitzicht-bivak, 17, 103, 106, 126
Panara (Donda), 171, 181 ; Upper Baliem Plateau, 117
Valley, 176 van Arkeltop, 171
Panara-bivak, 177 van der Willigen River, 19, 45, 104, 147

Peninggaléh (Central Chain), 104, 151, 152 van Gelder River, 22, 28
Pionier-bivak, 4, 15, 16, 20, 22, 26-29, 37, 38, | van Pee Island, 21

54, 58, 59, 63, 73, 77, 145, 147, 150, 151 van Rees Mountains, 37, 43, 68, 104, 135
Prauwen-bivak, 4, 17, 19, 43, 47, 51, 54, 55,58, | Veen-bivak, 16, 46

62, 65, 66, 68, 70, 72, 73, 77, 85, 89,95, Wand-bivak, 16, 40, 41

104, 138, 181, 182 Wichmanntop, 105
Radio-bivak, 17, 91, 103, 104, 134, 136, 138, | Wilhelmina Pass, 151

181 Wilhelminatop, 101, 104, 117, 122, 134, 147
Radio-plateau, 106, 115, 119, 121, 125, 126,

136 GEOLOGICAL
ne. Andesite formation, 38, 39, 152, 158
Rouffaer River, 59, 101 Clay soil, 48
Second Parkieten-bivak, 94, 141 Conglomerate formation, 38, 77 ,

Toli-bivak, 174 Eruptive rocks, 59, 71, 107, 139
Sepik, 19 Karst topography, 107
Steen-bivak (Bivak Batoe), 17, 77 Levees, 43, 46, 53, 54
Swart River, 89, 136, 137, 147, 171, 176 Magnetic iron ore, 107

Valley, 89, 91, 122. 134, 136, 138, 142; 150— Sandstone, 38, 41

152, 167, 176 Sedimentary rock-formation, 38, 59, 139
Toli Valley, 160, 171 Tertiary (Miocene), 59

INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC PLANT NAMES

Abelmoschus esculentus, 148 Aneilema, 150
Abroma fastuosa, 31 Angiopteris crinita, 79
Abrus pulchellus, 52 intramarginalis, 78
Acalypha Hellwigii, 73 Annona muricata, 148
Acriopsis javanica, 52 Anomopanax, 54
Acronychia, 131 Anthobembix dentata, 30
emarginata, 97 Anthoceros, 50
murina, 108 Antholoma papuana, 97, 99
Actinodaphne, 85 Tieghemi, 97
Adenostemma Lavenia, 149, 150 Antiaropsis decipiens, 60
Agathis, 80 Antidesma, 30
alba, 60 Antrophyum parvulum, 52, 74
Ageratum conyzoides, 28, 149, 150 semicostatum, 52
Aglaia, 59 Aphania cuspidata, 31
Aglossorhyncha biflora, 95 Appendicula Chalmersiana, 75
galanthiflora, 88 furfuracea, 61
Agrostophyllum fibrosum, 88 oxysepala, 75
lamellatum, 88 reflexa neo-pommeranica, 52, 61
Allomorpha parviflora, 72 Araucaria, 140, 170, 176
Alsophila aeneifolia, 119 Ardisia, 30, 85
subglauca, 117 lanceolata, 59
glauca, 73 Areca Catechu, 148
melanocaulos, 86 Argostemma, 72, 73, 141
scaberulipes, 53 Lamii, 86, 94, 126
Alternanthera sessilis, 54 montis Doormanni, 94, 97, 126
Alyxia, 104, 131 nanum, 79, 94, 126
cacuminum, 114 Arthropteris dolichopoda, 74
Lamii, 97, 114, 119 Artocarpus, 21, 46, 50, 51, 54, 55, 72
Amaracarpus biformis, 86 communis, 30
lanceolatus, 60 Aspidium teratocarpum, 60
mesophyllus, 31 Asplenium, 96
Amaranthus caudatus, 28 amboinense, 179

gracilis, 28 cuneatum, 32, 61, 72

190

Asplenium nidus, 45, 52
pseudovulcanicum, 32
scandens, 73
tenerum, 36

Astelia alpina, 113, 117, 132, 133

Auricularia auricula Judae, 58

Baccaurea, 56, 59
dasystachya, 53, 55

Baeomyces novoguinensis, 119

Balanophora, 141
elongata, 78
Oosterzeeana, 78, 87

Barringtonia, 49, 54
acuminata, 50
acutangula, 50
racemosa, 50

Begonia, 60, 74, 77, 86
bipinnatifida, 68, 73

Bidens pilosus, 149, 150

Blechnum Finlaysonianum, 60
orientale, 60

Blumea sylvatica, 75

Boerlagiodendron, 75

Bonnaya veronicifolia, 28

Braunfelsia scariosa, 112
subulata, 118

Breynia, 30, 73, 74

Brotherobryum latifolium, 111

Bryum porphyreoneuron giganteum, 118

Bulbophyllum acutibrachium, 97
aristilabre, 75
calceolabium, 88
cavibulbum, 109
cochleoides, 75
concolor, 75
ensiculiferum, 36
flavicolor, 88
lonchophyllum, 88
mamberamense, 62
muricatum, 113
sublaeve, 88
navigioliferum, 88
nigrilabium, 75
quadrifalciculatum, 88
serratulifolium, 75
tectipetalum longisepalum, 36
tollenoniferum, 52
Burmannia disticha, 169
Caesalpinia, 34
Calamus, 48
Calanthe leucoseptrum bisubulifera, 78
manis, 99
Versteegii, 109, 120, 122
Callicarpa longifolia, 168
Callitris, 143
robusta, 168
Campylogramma pteridiformis, 32, 61
Campylopodium euphorocladium, 118
Canarium acutifolium, 55
Capsicum frutescens, 148
Cardamine africana, 79
Carica Papaya, 148

SARGENTIA [5

Castanea, 84, 94 .
Castanopsis, 178
Casuarina, 100-104, 114, 115, 118-121, 132,
138
equisetifolia, 20, 114, 115, 143
Junghuhniana, 114
Ceratostylis mamberamensis, 61
muscicola, 88
Chisocheton, 31
Lamii, 59
Chitonanthera, 113, 126, 127, 131
calceiformis, 109
Lorentzii, 109
obovata, 118, 120
suborbicularis, 109
trigona, 109, 118
Cissus discolor, 56
Cladium, 102, 110, 115, 122, 127, 132
Clavaria, 33
Clerodendron buruanum, 31, 60, 69
Versteegii, 76
porphyrocalyx, 31
Cocos nucifera, 148
Coelogyne Beccarii, 75
Coix Lacryma Jobi, 67, 69, 156
Coleus scutellarioides, 169, 173
Colocasia, 162
esculenta, 148
Combretum tetralophum, 3
trifoliatum, 52
Commelina, 150
Conocephalus, 34, 55, 56
amboinensis, 76
Gjellerupii, 30
Coprosma, 132
ulicoides, 108, 119
Cordiceps, 74
Moelleri, 58
Cordyline, 169
terminalis, 30, 46, 49, 51, 55, 75
Corysanthes, 100, 117, 130-133
Cotylanthera tenuis, 32, 60
Crepis, 109
japonica, 149, 150
Crinum asiaticum, 50, 54
Cryptocarya, 34
Cucumis Melo, 148
Curculigo scapigera, 53
Cyathea, 101, 117
imbricata, 114, 119
perpelvigera, 86, 96, 98
Cyathula prostrata, 149, 150
Cynoglossum, 116, 122, 131, 132
Cyperus, 29, 31, 54, 77
alternifolius, 78
Cyrtandra, 30, 55, 60, 72
Cystorchis, 75
Dacrydium, 80, 97, 102, 114, 117, 130, 132,
133, 138, 140
Davallia dissectifolia, 168
Dawsonia crispata, 119
gigantea, 98

1945]

Decaspermum, 131
Lamii, 120, 122
Lorentzii, 120
prostratum, 108, 115, 120, 126
Dendrobium, 95, 154
angraecifolium, 36
anosmum, 36
Baeuerleni, 36
centrale, 88
comatum papuanum, 36
convexipes, 88
erectifolium, 75
erythrocarpum, 109
furcillatum, 88
Hasseltii, 95
Lamii, 97, 99
Macfarlanil, 36
mitriferum, 97, 99
monogrammoides, 88
ostrinum ochroleucum, 36
Phalangillum, 61
polyschistum, 88
poneroides, 61
prestocaule, 36
remotisepalum, 88
rugulosum, 36
sacculiferum, 88
simplex, 103
squamiferum, 61
subfalcatum, 52
toadjanum, 52
transversilobum, 36
Vannouhuysii, 108, 110, 112, 130
vexillarius, 126
purpureo-viride, 120, 122
violaceoflavens, 36
Dennstaedtia erythrorhachis, 72
Desmodium heterocarpum, 39
Scalpe, 169
umbellatum, 30, 53
Dianella, 141
carinata, 60, 86, 97, 99
coerulea, 60
Dictyophora phalloidea, 33, 58, 80
Dictyopteris heterosora, 72
irregularis, 32
Didiscus, 99, 126, 127, 130-133
saniculifolius, 113, 121, 132
Dillenia calothyrsa, 50, 53
castaneifolia, 30
pedunculata, 30
Dimorphanthera, 131
parsifolia, 117
tridens, 62, 77
Dioscorea, 56
oppositifolia, 34
Diospyros, 30
Diplazium cordifolium, 58, 60, 72
esculentum, 54, 55, 65
Huttonii, 72
opacifolium, 60
polypodioides, 73

INDEX 191

Diplycosia Lamii, 117, 120
Dipteris conjugata, 88, 91, 142
dissecta, 32
novo-guineensis, 118
Dischidia Collyris, 52
imbricata, 52, 61
Dissochaeta Schumannii, 61
Donax, 54, 58
canniformis, 31
Dracaena angustifolia, 59
Drapetes, 132, 133
ericoides, 122, 131, 132
Drimys, 97, 118, 120, 126, 127, 130, 132, 133
fistulosa, 108, 121, 123, 127
hatamensis, 87
Lamii, 97, 99, 102
oligocarpa, 60
pachyphylla, 114, 117
pittosporoides, 108
Drymaria cordata, 149, 150
Dryopteris cyclosora, 61
pseudoparasitica, 96
repandula, 61
rigidifolia, 86
schizophylla, 32
stereophylla, 118
urophylla, 32
Echinophallus Lauterbachii, 33
Elaeocarpus, 131, 164
Lamii, 85, 87
Pulleanus, 102
Elaphoglossum sclerophyllum, 118
Elatostema, 24, 58, 60, 67, 77, 79, 142
Doormannianum, 86
frutescens, 58, 72
Lamii, 72
minutiflorum, 73
novoguineense, 58, 73
angustifolium, 31
pedunculatum, 52, 58
Pellionianum, 31, 72, 73
Weinlandii, 31, 72, 73, 75
Eleusine indica, 28, 29, 149, 150
Elytranthe leucophloea, 86
Endospermum formicarum, 56
Entada scandens, 50, 53
Epipremnopsis magnifica, 34
Epirrhizanthes papuana, 32
Equisetum debile, 76
Eria Lorentziana, 36
oligotricha, 61
Erythrospermum Wichmanni, 30
Euphorbia hirta, 28
pilulifera, 28
serrulata, 38
thymifolia, 28
Euphrasia, 112, 113, 115, 121, 122, 126, 127:
1325133
borneensis, 109, 132
Eurya, 97, 108, 120, 127, 131
Eurycentrum atroviride, 61
Evodia, 131

192

Evodia aneura, 97
Doormani montis, 120, 121, 123
Exocarpus, 103, 120, 132, 133
Pullei, 98, 121
Faradaya splendida, 34, 52
Ficus, 29, 30, 34, 35, 50, 51, 67, 70, 73-77
glomerata, 68
Fimbristylis, 29, 54
Merrillii, 53
Flagellaria, 50, 54, 56
indica, 34
Floscopa scandens, 53
Fomes lamaoensis, 58
Forrestia mollissima, 31, 60
Freycinetia, 34, 86, 94, 97, 99, 103, 130
Gahnia, 120, 127, 130, 132
psittacorum, 110, 132
Galanthus nivalis, 88
Galearia, 59
Ganoderma Cochlear, 32, 58
Garcinia, 30, 54, 59
Gentiana, 112, 113, 126, 127, 130-133
Lorentzii, 109
singgalangensis, 108, 122, 139
Geophila reniformis, 60
Gleichenia, 87, 88, 91, 113, 118
ornamentalis lanuginosa, 96
pseudoscandens, 96
subulata, 111, 113, 118
vulcanica, 103, 127, 131, 132
plumosa, 111, 127
Warburgii, 76
Glochidion philippicum, 74
Glomera, 113, 126, 127, 131-133
acutipetala, 117
Dekockii Lamii, 109
fruticula, 109, 118
grandiflora minor, 109
manicata, 114
palustris subintegra, 97, 102
Pullei, 102, 109, 117, 120
rhombea, 88
subeciliata, 99
uniflora, 61
Gnetum, 56, 65
Gnemon, 59, 68, 157
Gomphandra, 30
Goniothalamus caloneurus, 59
Gonocaryum, 59, 68
Goodyera confundens, 32
Grammatophyllum, 35
Gymnosiphon affine, 61
Gynotroches, 96
Habenaria Lamii, 109
Haloragis, 132, 133
fruticosa, 120
Hansemannia, 30
Helminthostachys zeylanica, 32, 50,51, 54, 56
Hemigraphis angustifolia, 61
reptans, 31, 68, 74
Henslowia, 103, 131
acutata, 98, 120, 121, 123

SARGENTIA [5

Henslowia Ledermannii, 98
Hetaeria oblongifolia papuana, 61
Hexagonia tenuis, 74
Hibiscus, 52, 54
sabdariffa, 157
tiliaceus, 49, 157
abutiloides, 30, 51, 54
Holochlamys elliptica, 31, 61
guineensis, 32
Homalanthus, 117, 127, 131
Homalomena lilacina, 31
Peekelii, 61
pygmaea, 31
Versteegii, 61
Homonoia riparia, 68
Horsfieldia, 30
Hoya, 35, 52
Humata Gaimardiana, 36
vestita, 74
Hydnophytum, 35, 55, 88, 89, 97, 122, 127,
131, 140
commune, 35, 52
crassicaule, 118
pauper, 100, 111, 136
radicans, 52
vacciniifolium, 88
Hydrocotyle javanica, 169
Hygrophila, 31, 53, 55
Hymenolepis spicata, 36, 52, 74
Hymenophyllum, 96
ellipticosorum, 86
nutantifolium, 86, 118
Reinwardtii, 118
subfirmum, 86
Ichnocarpus volubilis, 52, 56
sogerensis, 34
Ilex, 131
spicata, 97, 104
Ilysanthes antipoda, 28
Impatiens, 74, 78, 143, 169, 173
platypetala, 141
Imperata, 161
Intsia amboinensis, 29, 68
Ipomoea Batatas, 148
Ixora, 54, 74
bivakkensis, 59
Kerstingii, 30
Jambosa Thomseni, 29
Jussiaea, 29, 30, 53, 58, 150
Kentia, 46, 59, 80, 84, 94, 142, 158, 176 -
Ledermanniana, 85
Kibara, 60
moluccana, 53
Kleinhovia hospita, 30, 51, 54
Kyllinga brevifolia, 76
Lagenaria, 148
leucantha, 148, 156
vulgaris, 148
Lamechites Schlechteri, 35
Lamiofrutex papuanus, 86
Laportea decumana, 30

1945]

Lasianthus, 54, 60
chlorocarpus, 54, 60
chrysotrichoides, 60

Leea gracilis, 73, 74
sambucina, 54

Lentinus maculatus, 32

Lepidagathis, 74
hyalina, 31

Lepidopetalum hebecladum, 30

Lepistemon urceolatus, 35

Leptaspis, 50

Leviera, 87

Libocedrus, 86, 87, 94, 97, 114, 116, 118, 130-

133

icuala,o0:

Lindernia crustacea, 28
mollis, 28
pyxidaria, 28

Lindsaya, 96
tenuifolia, 32
trichophylla, 60, 61, 77

Linociera rupicola, 85

Liparis confusa papuana, 52

Litsea, 119, 131

Lobelia succulenta, 150

Lomaria acutiuscula, 88
revoluta, 119

Loranthus, 89
cercidioides, 86
gigantifolius, 86
Lamii, 73
plicatulus, 35

Loxogramma involuta, 36

Lucinaea acutifolia, 86

Luffa cylindrica, 35, 55

Lycopodium, 110
carolinianum, 115

pedunculatum, 110
cernuum, 87
clavatum tamariscispica, 118
complanatum, 131, 132
angustiramosum, 112
falciforme, 52
hydrophilum eciliolatum, 113
laxum, 113, 115
rubricaule, 140
scariosum, 110, 116, 132
subfalciforme, 37
tomentosum, 113, 118, 127

Lygodium Versteegii, 73

Macaranga, 60, 85
riparia, 56

Macodes Sanderiana, 75

Macrococculus pomiferus, 34

Macrohymenium laeve, 111

Macromitrium armatum, 111
perobtusum, 111
recurvum, 111

Malleola palustris, 61

Mallotus, 56

Manihot utilissima, 148

Maniltoa gemmipara, 30

INDEX

193

Maoutia ambigua, 76
gracilis, 86
Mapania, 53
Marasmius equicrinus, 87
Marattia rigida, 88
Mearnsia, 132
ramiflora, 84, 99
humilis, 102
Medinilla, 35, 91
auriculata, 77
Lorentziana suffruticosa, 34
monantha papuana, 87
quintuplinervis, 34
Teysmanni, 72, 74
Mediocalcar, 117, 131
compressicalcar, 99
crenulatum, 97, 112, 122
retusum, 102
Melastoma malabathricum, 141, 169
polyanthum, 168
Melodorum micranthum, 31
Merinthosorus drynarioides, 36
Microstylis Floscularia, 61, 72
Lamii, 32
Microtatorchis, 131, 132
Lamii, 122
podochiloides, 88
terrestris, 122
triloba, 88
Mitrasacme elata, 150, 168
Mitreola paniculata, 28
petiolata, 28
Momordica cochinchinensis, 28
Morinda bracteata, 60
celebica, 31, 50°
umbellata papuana, 31, 74
Mucuna, 22, 35, 70, 73, 79
Musa, 148
Mussaenda, 76
cylindrocarpa, 31
leptosepala, 74
Mycetia javanica, 54
Myrmecodia, 35, 52, 55, 88, 89, 95, 99, 110,
115, 116, 118, 119, 121, 122, 127, 131, 142
Myrtus, 130
Nasturtium indicum, 150
Nepenthes, 78, 99, 104, 121, 122
maxima, 73, 87
paniculata, 87
Vieillardii, 109, 120, 122, 132-134
Nephrolepis hirsutula, 38, 73, 74
humatoides, 141
radicans, 52, 61, 74
Nicotiana rustica, 148
Tabacum, 148
Oberonia diura, 75
Ochthocharis megalophylla, 60
Octarrhena, 131
tenuis, 109
Odontosoria decipiens, 73
Oenanthe javanica, 150

194 SARGENTIA [5

Oldenlandia asperrima, 100, 102, 108
Auricularia, 74
coprosmoidea, 108, 122
corymbosa, 28, 31
diffusa, 28, 31
nutans, 108
pubescens, 31, 60
Schlechteri acuminata, 86
tenelliflora papuana, 150, 169
Oleandra cuspidata, 88, 142
Whitmeei, 96
Oncosperma filamentosa, 85, 176
Ophioglossum pendulum, 36, 52, 73
Ophiorrhiza, 169
crispa, 60
cuneata, 31
doormanniensis, 72, 86
rivularis, 72
seriata, 31
torricellensis, 72
Oreodoxa regia, 84
Orophea Dielsiana, 31, 60
Osbeckia chinensis, 168
Otanthera Lamii, 60
Oxalis corniculata, 149, 150
Paesia Lamiana, 96
Pandanus, 21, 25, 29, 46, 50, 53, 54, 65, 78,
85, 91, 92, 94, 99, 130, 139, 140, 141, 148,
153, 157, 163, 164, 167, 173, 175, 178
Panicum, 50, 54
Parasponia, 60
Parkia, 168
Parsonsia curvisepala, 35
Paspalum conjugatum, 28, 29
Patersonia, 120, 127, 132, 133
novo-guineensis, 110
auriculata, 103
Pavetta, 31
Pedilochilus, 131
obovatus, 109
terrestris, 109
Pentaphragma macrophyllum, 58, 60
Peristrophe tinctoria, 31
Peristylus, 131
ciliolatus, 109, 118
apiculatus, 109
Phaeoclavulina Zippelii, 58
Phaleria, 30
papuana, 56, 73
Wichmanni, 85
Phaseolus truxillensis, 54
Phegopteris prolifera, 49, 51, 54
Phragmites, 38, 52
Karka, 37, 50
Phreatia, 131
nutans, 109
pisifera, 75
Phrynium, 31
Phylacium bracteosum, 55
Phyllocladus, 97, 101, 114, 120, 121,123, 132.
133, 140
Pilea Lamii, 97

Pilocratera Hindsii, 32
tricholoma, 32
Piper, 34, 52, 140
Betle, 148
Mestonii, 34
methysticum, 148
Pipturus argenteus, 31
repandus, 60
Pisonia, 54
Pittosporum galai, 31
ramiflorum, 29
Plagiogyria novoguineensis, 103
Plectranthus javanicus, 150
Plectronia, 54
ovalifolia, 104, 108, 114
Pleopeltis, 74
accedens, 74
aquatica, 32, 56
commutata, 74
cretifera, 118
gracilipes, 118
heraclea, 74
linearis, 96
nigrescens, 52
obolophylla, 86
phymatodes, 36
punctulata, 52
recedens, 168
remigera, 88, 96
sinuosa, 52
vernicosum, 127
Plocoglottis tropidiifolia, 61
Podocarpus, 80, 114, 117, 131, 140, 142
Blumei, 60
costalis, 94
imbricata, 99
Podochilus imitans, 61, 74
mamberamensis, 61
scalpelliformis, 36, 61
Pogonanthera reflexa, 62
Polygonum celebicum, 54
chinense, 168
dichotomum, 30
nepalense, 149, 150
Polyosma, 132
longebracteolata, 118, 120
Polypodium allocotum, 118
gracillimum, 96
inconstans, 88
mesocarpum, 88
pyxidiforme, 88, 96
reductum, 88
sclerophyllum, 61
subpinnatifidum, 119
subulatipinnum, 118
trichocarpum, 122
vernicosum, 118
verrucosum, 36, 96
Yoderi, 96
Polyporus arcularius, 32
grammocephalus, 51
rugosus, 32, 58

+"

1945] INDEX 195

Polystictus affinis, 58
Blumei, 74
incisus, 74
Lamii, 58
xanthopus, 74

Pomatocalyx incurvum, 52, 61

Pometia pinnata, 73

Portulaca oleracea, 28

Potentilla, 127, 132, 133
Anserina, 115
leuconota, 116

Pothos, 33
Albertisii, 34, 52
cuspidatus, 88
papuanus, 61
quinquevenosus, 56
Versteegii, 34

Pouzolzia hirta, 54
indica, 28
zeylanica, 28

Premna integrifolia, 30, 51

Psilotum complanatum, 86

Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, 148, 176

Psychotria brevirostra, 87
leptothyrsa, 31, 54
longirostra, 86
Lorentzii, 97
multicostata, 86
multinervia, 86
obscura, 31
subherbacea, 31

Pteris Warburgii, 32

Pycnarrhena grandis, 30

Pygeum, 87

Quintinia, 99, 132, 133
altigena, 97
Schlechteriana, 108, 119

Randia Gynopachys, 35

Ranunculus, 116

Rapanea affinis, 86

Rhaphidophora, 33
drepanophylla, 54, 61
latifolia, 34
novoguineensis, 34
obliquata, 34

Rhododendron, 114, 127, 130, 132, 133, 168
extrorsum, 121, 123
gaultheriifolium, 122
Lamii, 120
Macgregoriae, 77
nummatum, 117
Pulleanum, 87
simulans, 120, 121
subulosum, 87
toxoides, 120, 122
Vonroemeri, 77, 79, 97

Riedelia, 88, 100, 102, 130, 131
montana, 113
sessilanthera, 97

Robiquetia gracilistipes, 52
Mooreana, 36

Rubus, 75, 87, 97, 104, 114, 119, 127, 132, 133,
140
rosaefolius, 169
Rungia, 53, 55, 61
Saccharum, 52
officinarum, 148
spontaneum, 21, 37, 50, 149
Salacia, 34
Salix babylonica, 68
Santiria acuminata, 30
Sarcanthus bicornis, 36
Sarcochilus Moorei, 36
Saurauia Lamii, 59
mamberamana, 30
submodesta, 72
Scaevola, 103, 132, 133
Schefflera, 117
Schismatoglottis angustifolia, 31
pomatophila, 31, 61
Schizaea dichotoma, 32
fistulosa, 113
Schizocasia acuta, 50
Schizomeria Pulleana, 85
Schlotheimia Lamii, 111, 118
MacGregorii, 121
pilicalyx, 121
Schoenorchis plebeja, 36
Schoenus, 110, 115, 121, 127, 132
Schuurmansia, 30, 73
Sciaphila andajensis, 32
longipes, 32
Scindapsus altissimus, 61
Scleria, 31
elata, 47, 52, 54
Scleroglossum pusillum, 88
Scutellaria luzonica, 140
Selaginella, 24, 58, 67, 70, 77, 143
gracilis, 31, 60, 73
puberulipes, 60
subtrisulcata, 73, 75
Semecarpus fulvo-villosus, 30
Lamii, 30
laxiflorus, 60, 74
magnificus, 31
myrmecophilus, 55
Senecio sonchifolius, 149, 150
Sericolea, 131
Lamii, 117, 119
Sida rhombifolia, 149, 150
Solanum, 30
Spathoglottis, 75, 143
grandiflora, 32
Spigelia anthelmia, 38
Stachytarpheta indica, 28
Stemonurus ramuensis, 30
Stenochlaena aculeata, 34
Stephania Zippeliana, 34
Sterculia, 30
Styphelia, 120, 127, 130, 132, 133
abscondita, 108
Dekockii, 108, 122, 123
nutans axillaris, 117

196

Styphelia obtusifolia, 114
trilocularis quinquelocularis, 121
Vannouhuysii, 107, 120

Styrax, 59

Symplocos, 117
atrata, 84, 85, 87
doormanensis, 97, 99, 102
Lamii, 60
mamberamo, 114
topica, 102
trifurceps, 87

Syngramma lanceolata, 60
pinnata, 60
quinata, 72

Syzygium, 65, 132
adelphicum, 97
Chamaebuxus, 108
megalanthelium, 51, 53

Tabernaemontana, 30
aurantiaca, 59, 68

Taeniophyllum, 36, 62
stipulaceum, 88
tamianum, 36
tripulvinatum, 36

Taenitis blechnoides, 86

Tapeinidium obtusatum, 96
pinnatum, 60, 72
stenocarpum, 86

Tapeinochilus, 54, 55
pungens, 51

Tarenna Guelcheriana, 30, 54

Tecomanthe dendrophila, 35, 77

Terminthodia orbiculata, 87

Ternstroemia, 132
papuana, 120

Tetrastigma Lauterbachianum, 73

Thrixspermum validum, 52

Thysanomitrium MacGregorii, 112, 121

Timonius, 97, 132
avenis, 85, 97, 100, 117
glaberrimus, 85
stipulosus, 30

Trametes Persoonii, 32

Trichomanes, 79
aphlebioides, 61, 73

SARGENTIA [5

.Trichomanes compactum, 127

pauperculum, 118
cupressoides, 61
humile, 74
infundibulare, 32
lasiophyllum, 118, 127
meifolium, 86, 96
millefolium, 61, 72
pallidum, 96
pseudo-arbuscula, 86
Roemerianum, 88
suffrutex, 61, 72
Trichosporum, 56
Horsfieldii, 88
radicans, 35
Tylecarpus papuanus, 31, 60
Urena lobata, 149, 150
Urophyllum calycinum, 60
glomeratum, 60
Utricularia, 84, 86, 97, 99
orbiculata, 86
Uvaria littoralis, 61
Vaccinium, 114, 119, 130, 132, 133
brevipedunculatum, 87, 97
ciliatipetalum, 108, 122
convallariiflorum, 87
cyclopense, 108
igneum, 87, 97
molle, 108, 121
tiariforme, 73
Vandellia mollis, 28
Viola, 116, 121, 127, 132
Vitex glabrata, 50, 54
Hollrungii, 30, 59
Vittaria ensiformis, 36
squamosipes, 52
zosterifolia, 52
Vrydagzynea elongata, 50, 67
Wahlenbergia marginata, 168
Weinmannia, 85
Xanthomyrtus, 108, 131
bryophila, 85
Klossii brevipedunculata, 108, 115, 122
longicuspis, 117
Zea Mays, 148
Zeuxine amboinensis argentea, 32

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1933. Price $2.75

No. 5. Flora of Barro Colorado Island, Panama. By Paut C. STANDLEY.
178 pp. 21 pl. and map. Oct. 1, 1933. Price $3.50

No. 6. Phytogeographic Studies in the Peace and Upper Liard River Regions,
Canada. With a Catalogue of the Vascular Plants. By Huca M. Ravp.
230 pp. 9pl.and map. Feb. 15, 1934. Price $2.50

No. 7. The Beech Bark Disease; a Nectria Disease of Fagus following Crypto-
coccus Fagi (Baer.). By JoHN Enriicn. 104 pp. 9 pl. Sept. 29, 1934.
Price $2.00

No. 8. An Enumeration of Plants Collected in Sumatra by W. N. and C. M.
Bangham. By E.D. MERRILL. 178 pp. 14pl. Aug. 25,1934. Price $2.50

No. 9. The Species of Tradescantia Indigenous to the United States. By
EpGAR ANDERSON and RoBert E. Woopson. 132 pp. 12 pl. Aug. 30, 1935.

Price $2.25
No. 10. The Cephalosporium Disease of Elms. By Don BAKER CREAGER.
91 pp. 16pl. July 1937, Price $2.00

No. 11. Taxonomy and Geographical Distribution of the Genus Uredinopsis.
By JoserH HorRAcE FAuLL. 120 pp. 6 pl. Sept. 30, 1938. Price $2.00

List of other publications issued by the Arnold Arboretum
will be sent on request.